Title: The Circle of Knowledge - A Classified, Simplified, Visualized Book of Answers
Author: Various
Language: English
As this book started as an ASCII text book there are no pictures available.


*** Start of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "The Circle of Knowledge - A Classified, Simplified, Visualized Book of Answers" ***


  Transcriber’s Notes:

  Italics and bold face in the printed work have been transcribed as
  _italics_ and =bold face=, respectively. Fractions are given as, for
  example, 1/2 and 1-1/2. D^R represents a D followed by a superscript
  R.

  Depending on the hard- and software used to read this text and their
  settings, not all symbols and characters may display as intended or
  display at all, and some tables may not line up properly.

  More Transcriber’s Notes and a list of corrections and changes made
  may be found at the end of this text.



  THE
  CIRCLE OF KNOWLEDGE


  ESSENTIAL FACTS OF EVERYDAY INTEREST IN
  NATURE, GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY, TRAVEL, GOVERNMENT,
  SCIENCE, INVENTION, EDUCATION,
  LANGUAGE, LITERATURE, FINE ARTS, PHILOSOPHY,
  RELIGION, INDUSTRY, BIOGRAPHY,
  HUMAN CULTURE, AND UNIVERSAL PROGRESS


  _=Easy to Read; Easy to Understand; Easy to Retain=_


  EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
  HENRY W. RUOFF, M.A., LITT.D., D.C.L.
  EDITOR OF “THE CENTURY BOOK OF FACTS,” “THE CAPITALS OF THE WORLD,”
  “LEADERS OF MEN,” “THE STANDARD DICTIONARY OF FACTS,”
  “MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT,” “THE VOLUME LIBRARY,”
  “THE HUMAN INTEREST LIBRARY,” ETC.


  _NUMEROUS TEXT ILLUSTRATIONS, MAPS
  TABLES, DUOTONE AND COLOR PLATES_


  Exclusive Publishers for Canada and
  Newfoundland:

  THE JOHN A. HERTEL CO., Ltd.
  TORONTO, ONTARIO
  THE STANDARD PUBLICATION COMPANY
  BOSTON · WASHINGTON · CHICAGO

  1917



  Copyright, 1916, by
  THE STANDARD PUBLICATION COMPANY

  Copyright, 1917, by
  THE STANDARD PUBLICATION COMPANY

  All Rights Reserved



THE PUBLISHER’S PREFATORY


All books that are really worth while may be divided into four classes:
first, books of _information_; second, books of _inspiration_; third,
books of _entertainment_; fourth, books of _excitement_. By far the most
important and practical of these classes is the first. The next in
importance is the second; while rather trivial importance attaches to
the third and fourth.

THE CIRCLE OF KNOWLEDGE preëminently belongs to the first; but it is
also designed to be both inspiring and entertaining. In its methods of
presentation and in its editorship it typifies the modern, progressive
spirit. Behind it lies a quarter of a century of successful editorial
experience in selecting, adapting, and translating from highly technical
treatises into simple, clear, understandable language the essentials as
well as important sidelights of human knowledge. Its purpose is to
answer the why, who, what, when, where, how, of the vast majority of
inquiring minds, both young and mature, and to stimulate them to still
further questionings. For it is only through this self-questioning
process of the active mind that individual progress is possible.

It is a fact of singular interest that every human being born into the
world must independently go through practically the same educative
processes from childhood to maturity. No matter how great the storehouse
of the world’s past knowledge, or how marvelous the multitude and wonder
of new discoveries in every department of human endeavor, each
individual must acquire and learn for himself the selfsame facts of
nature, history, science, literature, human culture, and everyday needs.

In the present work special effort has been made to separate essentials
from non-essentials; to distinguish human interest subjects of universal
importance from those of minor concern; to present living facts instead
of dead verbiage; and to bring the whole within the understanding of the
average reader, without regard to age, in an acceptable and interesting
form. The use of graphic outlines and tables; maps, drawings, and
diagrams; the pictured works of great painters, sculptors, and
architects--all combine in vizualizing and vitalizing both the useful
and cultural knowledge of past and present. Indeed it is difficult to
conceive how the purely pictorial interest of the work could be
surpassed, with its veritable picture galleries illustrating the pageant
of man’s progress; while the entire field of knowledge, from the
measureless universe of space down to the simple fancy of a child, is
sketched in its practical and essential outlines.

Never has there been greater demand for books of knowledge of the
present type. The busy reader or consulter soon tires of the diffuse
book or set of books of interminable words. He wants conciseness,
directness, reasonable compass, reliability, with up-to-date treatment
of topics of permanent usefulness. Above all he wants something that
appeals to the eye, and, through the interest of its form and subject
matter, stimulates thought and the imagination. While simplicity and
clearness are undoubted virtues, great care has been exercised to
prevent them from degenerating into those childish forms, all too
frequent in certain books, that rob real knowledge of almost its entire
value.

The best sources in the world of books have been laid under tribute in
the preparation of this work, wisely supplemented by the wide experience
of many eminent, practical, and progressive men and women--masters in
their respective fields. It is earnestly hoped that this joint product
will create for it a large sphere of usefulness and numerous satisfied
readers.



EDITOR’S ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


  The Editor desires to acknowledge his indebtedness to the following
  distinguished educators, scientists, writers and publicists for
  helpful suggestions, counsel, contributions, or revisions connected
  with the various departments of THE CIRCLE OF KNOWLEDGE.

EDWIN A. ALDERMAN, LL.D., D.C.L.

  President University of Virginia; Editor-in-Chief _Library of
  Southern Literature_; author of _Obligations and Opportunities of
  Citizenship_, etc.

E. BENJAMIN ANDREWS, D.D., LL.D.

  Educator and Historian; author of _Institutes of General History_,
  _History of the United States_, etc.

JAMES B. ANGELL, LL.D.

  Late President University of Michigan; author of _The Higher
  Education_, _Progress in International Law_, etc.

LIBERTY H. BAILEY, D.SC., LL.D.

  Cornell University; author of _Plant Breeding_, _Manual of
  Gardening_, _Cyclopedia of American Horticulture_, etc.

GEORGE F. BARKER, SC.D., LL.D.

  University of Pennsylvania; author of _Text-book of Chemistry_,
  _Text-book of Physics_, etc.

JOHN HENRY BARROWS, LL.D.

  Late President Oberlin College; author of _Christian Evidences_,
  _Lectures_, etc.

CHARLES E. BESSEY, PH.D., LL.D.

  University of Nebraska; author of _Essentials of Botany_, _Botany
  for High Schools and Colleges_, _Elementary Botany_, etc.

FRANK W. BLACKMAR, PH.D.

  University of Kansas; author of _The Story of Human Progress_,
  _Outlines of Sociology_, etc.

DAVID J. BREWER, LL.D.

  Jurist, Publicist; Associate Justice U. S. Supreme Court; author of
  _American Citizenship_, _The Twentieth Century_, etc.

ELMER ELLSWORTH BROWN, PH.D., LL.D.

  President N. Y. University; former U. S. Commissioner of Education;
  author of _The Making of our Middle Schools_, _Origin of American
  State Universities_, etc.

JAMES M. BUCKLEY, LL.D.

  Late editor New York _Christian Advocate_; author of _Travels in
  Three Continents_, _The Land of the Czar_, etc.

JOHN W. BURGESS, PH.D., LL.D.

  Columbia University; author of _The Civil War and the Constitution_,
  _Political Science and Comparative Constitutional Law_, etc.

G. MONTAGUE BUTLER, M.E.

  Colorado School of Mines; Geologist for Colorado Geological Survey;
  author of _A Pocket Handbook of Minerals_, etc.

JAMES McKEAN CATTELL, PH.D.

  Editor _Popular Science Monthly_; author of _School and Society_,
  _American Men of Science_, etc.

JOHN W. CAVANAUGH, C.S.C., LL.D.

  President Notre Dame University; author of _Priests of Holy Cross_,
  etc.

EDWARD CHANNING, PH.D., LL.D.

  Harvard University; author of _History of United States_, _English
  History for American Readers_, etc.

SUSAN FRANCES CHASE, M.A., PH.D.

  Department of Psychology and Literature, Buffalo State Normal
  School; author of _Talks to Teachers_, _Outlines of Literature_,
  etc.

FOSTER D. COBURN, LL.D.

  Former Secretary Kansas Department of Agriculture; author of _Swine
  Husbandry_, _Alfalfa_, _The Farmer’s Encyclopedia_, etc.

MAURICE F. EGAN, LITT.D., LL.D.

  U. S. Minister to Denmark; author of _Lectures on English
  Literature_, _Modern Novelists_, etc.

CHARLES W. ELIOT, LL.D.

  President Emeritus Harvard University; author of _Educational
  Reform_, _The Durable Satisfactions of Life_, etc.

EPHRAIM EMERTON, PH.D.

  Harvard University; author of _Synopsis of the History of
  Continental Europe_, _Mediæval Europe_, etc.

WILLIAM H. EMMONS, PH.D.

  University of Minnesota; Geologist of Minnesota; author of numerous
  Reports and Technical Papers on Geology.

ALCEE FORTIER, LITT.D., LL.D.

  Tulane University; author of _History of French Literature_,
  _Louisiana Folk Tales_, _History of France_, etc.

ARTHUR L. FROTHINGHAM, PH.D.

  Author of _History of Sculpture_, _Mediaeval Art Inventions of the
  Vatican_, etc.; co-author Sturgis, _History of Architecture_, etc.

HORACE HOWARD FURNESS, LITT.D., LL.D.

  Shakespearean Scholar, Critic; author of _The Variorum Shakespeare_,
  etc.

MERRILL E. GATES, LL.D., L.H.D.

  Ex-President Amherst College; author of _Land and Law as Agents in
  Educating the Indian_, _International Arbitration_, etc.

JOHN F. GENUNG, D.D., PH.D., LITT.D.

  Amherst College; author of _Practical Elements of Rhetoric_,
  _Working Principles of Rhetoric_, _The Idylls of the Ages_, etc.

NICHOLAS PAINE GILMAN, L.H.D.

  Meadville Theological School; author of _Profit Sharing_, _A
  Dividend to Labor_, _Methods of Industrial Peace_, etc.

WILLIAM W. GOODWIN, D.C.L., LL.D.

  Harvard University; author of _Greek Grammar_, _Syntax of the Moods
  and Tenses of the Greek Verb_, etc.

EDWARD HOWARD GRIGGS, L.H.D.

  Lecturer, Educator; author of _Moral Education_, _Self-Culture
  through the Vocation_, etc.

FRANK W. GUNSAULUS, D.D., LL.D.

  President Armour Institute; author of _Paths to Power_, _Higher
  Ministries of Recent English Poetry_, etc.

G. STANLEY HALL, PH.D., LL.D.

  President Clark University; author of _Adolescence_, _Youth--Its
  Education_, _Regimen and Hygiene_, etc.; editor of the _American
  Journal of Psychology_, _The Pedagogical Seminary_, etc.

JOHN HAY, LL.D.

  Diplomat, Historian; co-author of _Life of Abraham Lincoln_,
  _Castilian Days_, etc.

EMIL G. HIRSCH, L.H.D., LL.D., D.C.L.

  University of Chicago; minister of Sinai Congregation, Chicago;
  associate editor _Jewish Encyclopedia_; author of many articles on
  religion, etc.

GEORGE HODGES, D.D., D.C.L.

  Dean Episcopal Theological School, Cambridge, Mass.; author of _The
  Episcopal Church_, _The Pursuit of Happiness_, etc.

ARTHUR HOEBER, A.N.A.

  Art Critic _New York Globe_; Art Editor _New Encyclopedia
  Britannica_; author of _Painting in the Nineteenth Century_, etc.

GEORGE S. HOLMESTED, K.C., ESQ.

  Registrar of the High Court of Justice of Ontario; editor of the
  _Ontario Mechanics Lien Act_, etc.

JAMES M. HOPPIN, D.D.

  Yale University; author of _Great Epochs in Art History_, _Old
  England: Its Art, Scenery and People_, etc.

WILLIAM WIRT HOWE, LL.D.

  Jurist, Lecturer; Justice Supreme Court of La.; author of _Studies
  in Civil Law_, etc.

GEORGE HOLMES HOWISON, LL.D.

  University of California; author of _Limits of Evolution_,
  _Philosophy: Its Fundamental Concepts and Methods_, etc.

THOMAS WELBURN HUGHES, LL.D.

  Dean Washburn College of Law; author of Hughes’ _Cases on Evidence_,
  _Outline of Criminal Law_, _Commercial Law_, etc.

JOHN F. HURST, D.D., LL.D.

  Late Chancellor American University; author of _History of the
  Christian Church_, etc.

WILLIAM DEWITT HYDE, D.D., LL.D.

  President Bowdoin College; author of _The Teacher’s Philosophy In
  and Out of School_, _The Quest of the Best_, etc.

MORRIS JASTROW, PH.D.

  University of Pennsylvania; author of _Civilization of Babylonia and
  Assyria_, _The Study of Religion_, etc.

JEREMIAH W. JENKS, PH.D., LL.D.

  New York University; author of _The Trust Problem_, _Citizenship and
  the Schools_, _Government Action for Social Welfare_, etc.

DAVID STARR JORDAN, PH.D., LL.D.

  Leland Stanford Jr. University; author of _Science Sketches_,
  _Footnotes to Evolution_, _Animal Life_, _Food and Game Fishes of
  North America_, etc.

ARTHUR B. LAMB, PH.D.

  Director Chemical Laboratory, Harvard University; translator of
  Haber’s _Thermodynamics of Technical Gas Reaction_; author of many
  papers on chemical subjects.

JOSEPHUS N. LARNED, LL.D.

  Librarian and Historian; author of _History for Ready Reference_,
  _Literature of American History_, etc.

HENRY C. LEA, LL.D.

  Historian; author of _Studies in Church History_, _Superstition and
  Force_, etc.

SIMON LITMAN, JUR.D., PH.D.

  University of Illinois; author of _Trade and Commerce_, and of many
  articles on commerce and industry.

THOMAS H. MACBRIDE, PH.D., LL.D.

  Ex-President Iowa State University; author of _Textbook of Botany_,
  etc.

OTIS T. MASON, PH.D., LL.D.

  Ethnologist, Scientist; author of _Origin of Inventions_, _Woman’s
  Share in Primitive Culture_, etc.

HUGO MÜNSTERBERG, M.D., PH.D., LL.D.,

  Harvard University; author of _Psychology and the Teacher_, _The
  Eternal Values_, _American Problems_, etc.

CHARLES W. NEEDHAM, LL.D.

  Educator, Lawyer; Ex-President George Washington University;
  associate counsel Interstate Commerce Commission; etc.

THOMAS NELSON PAGE, LITT.D., LL.D.

  Lawyer, Diplomat, Novelist; U. S. Ambassador to Italy; author of
  _Social Life in Old Virginia_, _Robert E. Lee: Man and Soldier_,
  etc.

JOHN K. PAINE, MUS.D.

  Harvard University; Musician, Composer; author of _Realm of Fancy_,
  _Song of Promise_, etc.

GEORGE H. PALMER, LITT.D., LL.D.

  Harvard University; author of _Self-Cultivation in English_, _The
  Teacher_, _Trades and Professions_, etc.

HORATIO W. PARKER, MUS.D.

  Yale University; Composer; author of the operas _Mona_, _Fairyland_,
  and much other music.

HARRY THURSTON PECK, PH.D., L.H.D.

  Co-editor _New International Encyclopedia_, editor of _Harper’s
  Classical Dictionary_, etc.

JOHN W. POWELL, PH.D., LL.D.

  Late Chief of Bureau of American Ethnology; author of _Studies in
  Sociology_, _The Cañons of the Colorado_, etc.

IRA REMSEN, PH.D., LL.D.

  Ex-President Johns Hopkins University; author of _The Elements of
  Chemistry_, _Classical Experiments_, etc.

HENRY A. ROWLAND, PH.D., LL.D.

  Late Professor Johns Hopkins University; author of _Mechanical
  Equivalents of Heat_, _The Solar Spectrum_, etc.

BOHUMIL SHIMEK, C.E., M.SC.

  Iowa State University; Botanist; author of numerous scientific
  papers.

AINSWORTH R. SPOFFORD, LL.D.

  Late Librarian of Congress, Critic; editor of _Library of Choice
  Literature_, _Book for All Readers_, etc.

ROBERT H. THURSTON, LL.D., D.ENG.

  Late Professor Cornell University; author of _History of the Steam
  Engine_, _Materials of Construction_, etc.

CRAWFORD H. TOY, M.A., LL.D.

  Harvard University; author of _The Religion of Israel_, _Judaism and
  Christianity_, _Quotations in the New Testament_, etc.

JOHN C. VAN DYKE, L.H.D.

  Rutgers College; author of _New Guides to Old Masters_, _Studies in
  Pictures_, etc.

LESTER F. WARD, PH.D., LL.D.

  Brown University; Scientist; author of _Sociology and Economics_,
  _Pure Sociology_, etc.

ROBERT M. WENLEY, PH.D., LITT.D., D.SC., LL.D.

  University of Michigan; co-editor of _The Dictionary of Philosophy_,
  _Dictionary of Theology_, _Religion and Ethics_; author of
  _Introduction to Kant_, _Contemporary Theology and Theism_, etc.

BENJAMIN I. WHEELER, PH.D., LL.D.

  President University of California; author of _Introduction to the
  History of Language_, _Life of Alexander the Great_, etc.

JOHN SHARP WILLIAMS, LL.D.

  Publicist, U. S. Senator; author of _Permanent Influence of Thomas
  Jefferson on American Institutions_, etc.

OWEN WISTER, LITT.D., LL.D.

  Lawyer, Novelist, Critic; author of _The Virginians_, _Biography of
  U. S. Grant_, etc.

ROBERT S. WOODWARD, D.SC., LL.D.

  Director Carnegie Institute; Scientist; author of _Higher
  Mathematics_, etc.

CARROLL D. WRIGHT, PH.D., LL.D.

  Educator, Economist, Statistician; author of _The Industrial
  Evolution of the United States_, etc.

G. FREDERICK WRIGHT, D.D., LL.D.

  Oberlin College; author of _Man and the Glacial Period_, _Science
  and Religion_, etc.



GENERAL OUTLINE OF CONTENTS


FIRST DIVISION: THE KINGDOMS OF NATURE


BOOK OF THE HEAVENS

THE UNIVERSE -- THE SOLAR SYSTEM -- SUN -- PLANETS -- MOON --
CONSTELLATIONS -- STARS -- COMETS -- METEORS -- NEBULÆ -- NEBULAR
HYPOTHESIS -- ECLIPSES -- MYTHOLOGY OF THE CONSTELLATIONS -- DICTIONARY
OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS USED IN ASTRONOMY -- STAR CHARTS AND MAPS.

  =⁂Books of Reference about the Heavens.=--Campbell: _Handbook of
  Practical Astronomy_. Young: _Elementary Astronomy_, _Manual of
  Astronomy_, and _General Astronomy_. Ball: _Story of the Heavens_.
  Turner: _Modern Astronomy_. Newcomb: _Popular Astronomy_. Todd: _A
  New Astronomy_. Gregory: _Vault of Heaven_.


BOOK OF THE EARTH

OUR EARTH: ITS STRUCTURE AND SURFACE -- GEOLOGICAL VIEW OF THE GROWTH OF
THE EARTH -- LAND FORMS OF THE WORLD -- DISTRIBUTION OF LAND AND WATER
-- THE CONTINENTS -- ISLANDS -- MOUNTAINS -- WATERS OF THE EARTH --
FORMS OF WATER -- RIVERS -- WATERFALLS AND RAPIDS -- LAKES -- OCEANS --
VOLCANOES -- GEYSERS -- ATMOSPHERE, CLIMATE, AND WEATHER -- WINDS --
CLOUDS -- ATMOSPHERIC VAPOR, (DEW, MIST, FOG, RAIN, HAIL, SNOW) --
GLACIERS -- ICEBERGS -- DESERTS -- NATURAL FORCES -- MINERAL PRODUCTS --
PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS -- MAPS AND CHARTS.

  =⁂Books of Reference about the Earth.=--Dawson: _Story of the
  Earth_. Lyell: _Principles of Geology_. Geikie: _Primer of Geology_.
  Shaler: _Sea and Land_. Scott: _Geology_. Geikie: _Text-Book of
  Geology_. Chamberlin and Salisbury: _Geology_. Le Conte: _Elements
  of Geology_. Dana: _Manual of Geology_. Miers: _Mineralogy_. Dana:
  _Text-Book of Mineralogy_ and _System of Mineralogy_ (most
  comprehensive work in English). Brush and Penfield: _Determinative
  Mineralogy_. Rosenbusch-Iddings: _Rock-Making Minerals_. Hatch:
  _Petrology_. Butler: _Pocket Handbook of Minerals_. Mill: _Realm of
  Nature_. W. M. Davis: _Physical Geography_. Tarr: _Physical
  Geography_.


BOOK OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM

REALMS OF LIFE UPON THE EARTH -- CHIEF DIVISIONS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM:
(1) CEREALS, GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS; (2) KITCHEN VEGETABLES; (3) THE
FRUIT TREES; (4) FRUIT-BEARING SHRUBS AND PLANTS; (5) FLOWERS AND OTHER
ORNAMENTAL PLANTS; (6) WILD FLOWERS AND FLOWERLESS PLANTS; (7) TREES OF
THE FOREST; (8) FIBER AND COMMERCIAL PLANTS; (9) POISONOUS PLANTS; (10)
SOME WONDERS OF PLANT LIFE -- BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS --
SCIENTIFIC TERMS USED IN BOTANY, CLASSIFIED AND ILLUSTRATED -- MAP OF
THE PLANT KINGDOM.

  =⁂Books of Reference about the Vegetable Kingdom.=--Gray: _New
  Manual of Botany_. Bessey: _Synopsis of Plant Phyla_. Small: _Flora
  of the Southeastern United States_. Coulter and Nelson: _New Manual
  of the Botany of the Central Rocky Mountains_. Gray: _Synoptical
  Flora of North America_. Britton: _Manual of the Flora of the
  Northern States and Canada_. Strasburger, Noll, Schenck and Karsten:
  _Textbook of Botany_. Pfeffer: _Physiology of Plants_. Ward:
  _Disease in Plants_. Schimper: _Plant Geography_. Campbell:
  _Evolution of Plants_. Green: _Landmarks of Botanical History_.
  Sach: _History of Botany, 1530-1860_. Green: _History of Botany,
  1860-1900_. Baker: _Elementary Lessons in Botanical Geography_.


BOOK OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM

SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS -- TABULAR VIEW OF REPRESENTATIVE
ANIMAL TYPES -- ANIMALS IN CLASSIFIED GROUPS:


I. Wild Animals:

(1) THE MAMMALS: (_a_) THE MONKEY TRIBE; (_b_) ANIMALS OF PREY; (_c_)
GNAWING ANIMALS; (_d_) HOOFED ANIMALS; (_e_) TOOTHLESS ANIMALS; (_f_)
THICK-SKINNED ANIMALS; (_g_) POUCHED ANIMALS; (_h_) FLYING ANIMALS;
(_i_) THE SEALS; (_j_) THE WHALES.

(2) THE BIRDS: (_a_) BIRDS OF PREY; (_b_) CLIMBING BIRDS; (_c_) SINGING
BIRDS; (_d_) WADING BIRDS; (_e_) SWIMMING BIRDS; (_f_) RUNNING BIRDS;
(_g_) GAME BIRDS.

(3) THE REPTILES: LIZARDS -- CHAMELEONS -- SNAKES -- CROCODILES --
TORTOISES -- TURTLES.

(4) AMPHIBIANS: FROGS -- TOADS -- SALAMANDERS.

(5) THE FISHES: (_a_) BONY FISHES; (_b_) CARTILAGINOUS FISHES; (_c_)
ARMORED FISHES; (_d_) LUNGFISHES.

(6) THE MOLLUSCS: SNAILS -- CUTTLEFISH -- SQUIDS -- OCTOPUS -- TUSK
SHELLS -- BIVALVES -- OYSTERS.

(7) JOINTED-LIMBED ANIMALS: CRABS -- LOBSTERS -- SCORPIONS -- SPIDERS --
INSECTS -- GRASSHOPPERS.

(8) BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS: STRAIGHT-WINGED INSECTS -- ANTS AND BEES --
FLIES.

(9) STARFISHES AND SEA-URCHINS.

(10) SIMPLEST FORMS OF LIFE.


II. Domesticated Animals:

(1) DOMESTICATED MAMMALS: ALPACA -- ASS -- CAMEL -- CAT -- CATTLE -- DOG
-- ELEPHANT -- GAYAL -- GOAT -- GUINEA PIG -- HORSE -- LLAMA -- RABBIT
-- REINDEER -- SHEEP -- SWINE -- YAK -- ZEBU.

(2) DOMESTICATED BIRDS: CANARY -- CHICKENS OR FOWLS -- GUINEA -- GOOSE
-- OSTRICH -- PARROT -- PEACOCK -- PIGEON -- SWAN -- TURKEY.

(3) DOMESTICATED INSECTS: BEE -- COCHINEAL -- SILKWORM MOTH.


III. Pronouncing Dictionary of Scientific Terms concerning Animals.

  =⁂Books of Reference about Animals.=--Rolleston: _Forms of Animal
  Life_. Huxley: _Anatomy of Invertebrated Animals_ and _Anatomy of
  Vertebrated Animals_. Lankester: _Treatise on Zoölogy_. Parker and
  Haswell: _Text-Book of Zoölogy_. Kingsley: _The Standard Natural
  History_ and _Elements of Comparative Zoölogy_. Newton: _A
  Dictionary of Birds_. Headley: _The Structure and Life of Birds_.
  Wilson: _American Ornithology_. Audubon: _Ornithological Biography_.
  Coues: _Key to North American Birds_. Chapman: _Handbook of Birds of
  East North America_. Bendire: _Life Histories of North American
  Birds_. Comstock: _Insect Life_. Packard: _Text-Book of Entomology_
  and _Guide to Study of Insects_. Howard: _The Insect Book_. Beddard:
  _Text-Book of Zoögeography_. A. Heilprin: _The Geographical and
  Geological Distribution of Animals_.


SECOND DIVISION: THE KINGDOMS OF MAN


BOOK OF RACES AND PEOPLES

I. MAN AND THE HUMAN FAMILY -- HOW MAN DIFFERS FROM OTHER ANIMALS --
QUESTIONS OF MAN’S ORIGIN -- HIS PRIMEVAL HOME -- OLDEST EXTANT REMAINS
OF THE HUMAN RACE -- MAN’S ADVANCEMENT IN THE PRE-HISTORIC AGES -- CHART
SHOWING DEVELOPMENT OF THE RACE THROUGH THE AGES: (1) DAWN; STONE AGE;
(2) OLD STONE AGE; (3) NEW STONE AGE; (4) BRONZE AGE; (5) EARLY IRON
AGE; (6) LATE IRON AGE; (7) AGE OF LETTERS.

II. HOW THE RACES ARE CLASSIFIED -- CHART OF PHYSICAL AND MENTAL RACE
CHARACTERISTICS -- GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES OF MANKIND --
DICTIONARY OF THE HISTORICAL RACE GROUPS -- COMPARATIVE CLASSIFICATION
OF RACES AND PEOPLES.

  =⁂Books of Reference about Man.=--Prichard: _Researches into the
  Physical History of Mankind_. Latham: _Natural History of the
  Varieties of Man_. Waitz: _Anthropology_. Darwin: _The Descent of
  Man_. Huxley: _Essays_ and _Man’s Place in Nature_. Quatrefages:
  _Classification des Races Humaines_. Peschel: _The Races of Man_.
  Tylor: _Anthropology_. Lubbock: _Prehistoric Times_. Ratzel:
  _History of Mankind_. Keane: _Ethnology and Man. Past and Present_.
  Deniker: _The Races of Man_. Hutchinson: _The Living Races of
  Mankind_.


BOOK OF NATIONS: Geographical, Historical, Descriptive


I. Extinct Nations of the Past.

CHIEF HISTORICAL PEOPLES: EGYPTIANS -- BABYLONIANS -- ASSYRIANS --
HEBREWS -- PHŒNICIANS -- MEDES AND PERSIANS -- HINDUS -- GREEKS --
ROMANS -- PROGRESS OF HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY AND DISCOVERY, B.C. 3800 TO
THE PRESENT, WITH 16 MAPS -- THE WORLD’S GREATEST EXPLORERS, B.C. 1400
TO 1917 A.D. -- COMPARATIVE OUTLINE HISTORY OF ANCIENT NATIONS, B.C.
5000 TO 843 A.D. -- DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT: THE
SPELL OF EGYPT: ANCIENT AND MODERN -- THE BABYLONIAN-ASSYRIAN EMPIRES --
THE HEBREWS AND THE HOLY LAND -- THE PHŒNICIANS: FIRST NATION OF
COLONIZERS -- THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE -- THE GREEKS: GLORY OF THE
ANCIENT WORLD -- ROME: MISTRESS OF THE WORLD -- THE SARACEN EMPIRE: ITS
FANATICISM, ART, AND LEARNING -- THE GERMANIC EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE.


II. Living Nations of To-day.

COMPARATIVE OUTLINE HISTORY OF MODERN NATIONS -- TRANSITION PERIOD FROM
THE ANCIENT TO THE MODERN -- GEOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF
THE GREAT POWERS: GREAT BRITAIN -- FRANCE -- GERMANY -- ITALY -- AUSTRIA
-- HUNGARY -- RUSSIA -- UNITED STATES -- JAPAN -- THE LESSER MODERN
NATIONS: IN EUROPE, Spain and Portugal -- Scandinavia (Norway, Sweden,
Denmark) -- The Netherlands -- Switzerland -- The Balkan States
(Bulgaria, Roumania, Turkey, Greece, Servia); IN ASIA, China -- Persia
-- Turkey; IN AMERICA, Brazil -- Argentina -- Chile -- Mexico -- Canada.


III. Tables and Charts.

INCLUDING GREAT WARS, GREAT BATTLES, DYNASTIES, RULERS, COMPARATIVE
GOVERNMENT, BIOGRAPHICAL FACTS RELATING TO THE PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED
STATES, IMPORTANT FACTS CONCERNING THE STATES, ETC.


IV. Historical Charts and Tables, Maps and Plans.

  =⁂Books of Reference about the Nations.=--HISTORY--Freeman: _General
  Sketch_. Haydn: _Dictionary Dates_. Rawlinson: _Manual of Ancient
  History_. Peck: _Harper’s Classical Dictionary_. Duncker: _History
  of Antiquity_. Brugsch-Bey: _Egypt under the Pharaohs_. Ewald:
  _History of Israel_. Allen: _Hebrew Men and Times_. Ranke:
  _Universal History_. Fisher: _Outlines of Universal History_.
  Mommsen: _History of Rome_. Gibbon: _History of the Decline and Fall
  of the Roman Empire_. Grote: _History of Greece_. Duruy: _History of
  Rome_. Merivale: _General History of Rome_. Lecky: _History of
  European Morals_. Hallam: _Middle Ages_. Guizot: _History of
  Civilization_. Sybel: _History of the Crusades_. Cox: _The
  Crusades_. Emerton: _Mediaeval Europe_; _Introduction to the Study
  of the Middle Ages_. Harding: _Essentials in Mediaeval and Modern
  History_. Gieseler: _Church History_. Alzog: _Manual of Universal
  Church History_. Clarke: _Events and Epochs of Religious History_.
  Fisher: _History of the Reformation_. Ranke: _History of the Popes_.
  Dyer: _History of Modern Europe_. Fyffe: _History of Europe_. Sybel:
  _History of the French Revolution_. Acton: _Cambridge Modern
  History_. Larned: _Topical Outlines of Universal History_.

  ATLASES.--Bartholomew: _Atlas_. Rand-McNally: _Atlas_; _Century
  Dictionary and Atlas_. Johnson: _Historical Atlas_. McClure:
  _Historical Church Atlas_.

  GAZETTEERS.--Blackie: _Imperial Gazetteer_. Longman: _Gazetteer of
  the World_. Lippincott: _Gazetteer_. Baedecker: _Guides_.

  GOVERNMENT AND LAW.--Aristotle: _Politics_. Bluntschli: _Theory of
  the State_. Burgess: _Political Science and Comparative
  Constitutional Law_. Freeman: _Comparative Politics_. Goodnow:
  _Comparative Administrative Law_. Lalor: _Cyclopedia of Political
  Science_. Locke: _Treatises of Government_. Maine: _Popular
  Government_. Montesquieu: _Spirit of Laws_. Morley: _Ideal
  Commonwealths_. Plato: _Republic_. Rousseau: _The Social Contract_.
  Sidgwick: _Elements of Politics_. Spencer: _Man vs. the State_.
  Wilson: _The State_. Bryce: _The American Commonwealth_. Hart:
  _Actual Government_. Robinson: _Elements of American Jurisprudence_.
  Thompson: _English and American Encyclopedia of Law_. Burdick: _The
  Essentials of Business Law_. Lowell: _Governments and Parties in
  Continental Europe_. Goodnow: _Comparative Administrative Law_.
  Dicey: _The Law of the Constitution_.


BOOK OF LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

I. CLASSIFICATION OF LANGUAGES -- WRITTEN AND SPOKEN ENGLISH -- THE
PROPER USE OF WORDS, SENTENCES AND PARAGRAPHS -- FIGURES OF SPEECH --
POETICS -- USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS -- PUNCTUATION -- FORMS OF PRACTICAL
ENGLISH COMPOSITION: LETTERS, ARGUMENT AND DEBATE, NEWS, SHORT STORY,
FICTION, ESSAY, EDITORIALS, REVIEWS, CRITICISM, ADDRESSES AND OTHER
FORMS OF PUBLIC SPEECH -- ABBREVIATIONS -- PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF
CLASSIC WORDS AND PHRASES -- PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF WORDS AND PHRASES
FROM THE MODERN LANGUAGES.

II. ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE -- OUTLINE CHARTS OF ENGLISH AND
AMERICAN AUTHORS -- DICTIONARY OF LITERARY ALLUSIONS: FAMOUS BOOKS,
POEMS, DRAMAS, LITERARY CHARACTERS, PLOTS, PEN NAMES, LITERARY SHRINES
AND GEOGRAPHY, AND OTHER MISCELLANY -- PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF
MYTHOLOGY: GODS, HEROES, AND MYTHICAL WONDER TALES -- CHART OF GREEK AND
ROMAN MYTHS, THEIR ORIGIN, RELATIONSHIP AND DESCENT.

  =⁂Books of Reference.=--LANGUAGE.--Sayce: _Introduction to the
  Science of Language_. Whitney: _Language and the Study of Language_.
  Paul: _Principles of the History of Language_. Muller: _Science of
  Language_. Skeat: _Philosophy_. Jesperson: _Progress in Language,
  with Special Reference to English_. Giles: _Manual of Comparative
  Philosophy for Classical Students_. Oertel: _Lectures on the Study
  of Language_. Sweet: _Primer of Spoken English_. Skeat:
  _Etymological Dictionary of the English Language_. Sweet: _Grammar,
  Logical and Historical_. Lewis: _Applied English Grammar_. Genung:
  _Practical Elements of Rhetoric_. Gummere: _Poetics_. Wendell:
  _English Composition_. Palmer: _Self-Cultivation in English_.
  Kittredge: _Words and their Ways in English Speech_. Trench: _Study
  of Words_. Fernald: _Synonymns and Antonymns_.

  LITERATURE.--Jevons: _History of Greek Literature_. Mahaffy: _Greek
  Literature_. Crutwell: _History of Roman Literature_. Fortier:
  _History of French Literature_. Robertson: _History of German
  Literature_. Garnett: _Short History of Italian Literature_.
  Symonds: _Italian Renaissance_. Horn: _History of Scandinavian
  Literature_ and _Jewish Encyclopedia_. Morley: _Library of English
  Literature_. Brooke: _History of English Literature_. Ward: _English
  Poets_. Gosse: _Short History of English Literature_. Tyler:
  _History of American Literature_. Matthews: _History of American
  Literature_. Stedman: _An American Anthology_. Johnson: _Elements of
  Literary Criticism_. Warner: _Library of Universal Literature_.

  DICTIONARIES.--Webster: _New International Dictionary_. Worcester:
  _Dictionary of the English Language_. Funk and Wagnalls: _Standard
  Dictionary_. Whitney: _The Century Dictionary_. Murray: _Oxford
  English Dictionary_. Wright: _Dialect Dictionary_.


BOOK OF THE SCIENCES AND INVENTION

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCIENCES IN PARALLEL OUTLINES -- PRACTICAL
MATHEMATICS -- ARITHEMATIC AND ITS MODERN APPLICATIONS -- THE ARITHMETIC
OF BUSINESS, COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRANSACTIONS -- CORPORATIONS,
STOCKS AND BONDS -- TABLE OF COMMERCIAL LAWS -- WEIGHTS AND MEASURES --
PHYSICS: LAWS AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER -- MECHANICS AND INVENTIONS --
SOUND -- HEAT -- LIGHT AND COLOR -- ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM --
CHEMISTRY: THEORY OF CHEMISTRY -- TABLE OF THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS -- THE
CHEMISTRY OF COMMON THINGS -- REMARKABLE INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES --
RECENT SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS, X-RAYS AND RADIUM, WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY,
WIRELESS TELEPHONE, AEROPLANES, SUBMARINES, AIRSHIPS, AND EXPLOSIVES.

  =⁂Books of Reference.=--BIOLOGY.--Brooks: _Foundations of Zoology_.
  Morgan: _Animal Behavior_. Pearson: _The Grammar of Science_.
  Spencer: _Principles of Biology_. Thomson: _The Science of Life_.
  Verworn: _General Physiology_. Weismann: _The Germ-Plasm_.

  PHYSICS.--Ames: _General Physics_. Ames and Bliss: _Manual of
  Experiments_. Hoadley: _Measurements in Magnetism and Electricity_.
  Preston: _Theory of Heat_ and _Theory of Light_. Poynting and
  Thomson: _Heat_. Tyndal: _Light_. Schuster: _Theory of Optics_.
  Barker: _Physics_. Merrill: _Theoretical Mechanics_. Helmholtz:
  _Sensations of Tone_. Kapp: _Electric Transmission of Energy_.
  Crocker: _Electric Lighting_. Sewell: _Elements of Electrical
  Engineering_. Jackson: _Elements of Electricity and Magnetism_ and
  _Alternating Currents and Alternating Current Machinery_.

  CHEMISTRY.--Remsen: _Introduction to the Study of Chemistry_ and
  _Inorganic Chemistry_. Roscoe: _Lessons in Elementary Chemistry_.
  Wurtz: _Elements of Modern Chemistry_. Ostwald: _Inorganic
  Chemistry_. Alexander Smith: _Laboratory Outline of General
  Chemistry_ and _General Inorganic Chemistry_. Wiley: _Chemistry of
  Foods_ and _Agricultural Chemistry_. Roscoe and Schorlemmer:
  _Treatise on Chemistry_. Watts: _Dictionary of Chemistry_. Thorp:
  _Industrial Chemistry_.

(Abridged in the Concise Edition.)


BOOK OF THE HUMAN BODY

ITS STRUCTURE -- ORGANIZATION INTO SYSTEMS -- FUNCTIONS -- SPECIAL
SENSES -- NERVOUS SYSTEM -- PERSONAL HYGIENE -- PREVENTION OF DISEASE --
INTERDEPENDENCE OF BODY AND MIND -- EUGENICS -- ILLUSTRATIONS AND
CHARTS.

  =⁂Books of Reference.=--Morris: _Treatise on Anatomy_. Gray:
  _Anatomy_. Davidson: _Human Body and Health_. Martin: _Human Body_.
  Huxley and Youmans: _Elements of Physiology and Hygiene_. Wilson:
  _The Cell in Development and in Inheritance_. Thomson: _Heredity_.
  Loeb: _Comparative Physiology of the Brain and Comparative
  Psychology_. Sternberg: _Manual of Bacteriology_.

(Abridged in the Concise Edition.)


BOOK OF BIOGRAPHY

BIOGRAPHICAL CHART SHOWING THE WORLD’S MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT BY
CENTURIES.

CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF BIOGRAPHY: (_a_) THE WORLD’S IMMORTALS,
specially treated; (_b_) PRESENT-DAY BIOGRAPHIES.

(The Biographical Chart only is included in the _Concise_ edition.)

  =⁂Books of Reference.=--Philips: _Dictionary of Biographical
  Reference_. Vincent: _Dictionary of Biography_. Thomas: _Dictionary
  of Biography_. Appleton: _Dictionary of American Biography_;
  _Dictionary of National Biography_; _Who’s Who in Great Britain_;
  _Who’s Who in America_. Ruoff: _Masters of Achievement_; _American
  Statesmen Series_; _American Men of Letters_; _English Statesmen
  Series_; _English Men of Letters_. Smith: _Dictionary of Christian
  Biography_.

(Omitted in the Concise Edition.)


BOOK OF THE CHILD WORLD

PLAYLAND -- STORYLAND -- NATURE-LAND -- SCHOOL-LAND: SIMPLE LESSONS
ABOUT WORDS, READING, WRITING, NUMBERS, ETC. -- MANNERS AND CONDUCT --
THE PARENT AND CHILD -- THE OUTLOOK UPON LIFE -- EDUCATION AND MORAL
GROWTH -- CARE OF THE BODY.

  =⁂Books of Reference.=--PRIMARY EDUCATION.--Arnold: _Rhythms_.
  Barnard: _Kindergarten and Child-Culture Papers_. Blow: _Educational
  Issues_; _Letters to a Mother_; _Symbolic Education_. Froebel’s
  translated _Mother-Play Songs_. Froebel: _Education of Man_;
  _Education by Development_; _Last Volumes of Pedagogics_;
  _Pedagogics of the Kindergarten_. Hailman: _Laws of Childhood_.
  Harrison: _A Study of Child-Nature_; _Kindergarten Building Gifts_;
  _Misunderstood Children_; _Two Children of the Foothills_. Hughes:
  _Educational Laws_. Peabody: _Kindergarten Lectures_. Snider:
  _Commentary on Froebel’s Mother-Play Songs_; _Life of Froebel_;
  _Psychology of the Play-Gifts_. Vanderwalker: _The Kindergarten in
  American Education_. Von Bulow: _The Child_; _Reminiscences of
  Froebel_.

(Abridged in the Concise Edition.)



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS


Color Plates

  MARVELS OF THE EARTH’S ROTATION AND FORCES
  PROUD COLOR BEAUTIES OF THE LAND OF FLOWERS
  THREE CELEBRATED PICTURES OF ANIMAL FAVORITES
  WASHINGTON, AMERICA’S CITY BEAUTIFUL
  ARCHITECTURAL GLORIES OF FAMOUS LANDS
  FAMOUS HISTORICAL PICTURES BY ORIENTAL ARTISTS
  TENNYSON’S BEAUTIFUL “LADY OF SHALOTT”
  “OPEN SESAME!” ALI BABA AT THE CAVE
  PICTURE DIAGRAMS OF EYE AND EAR
  THE FIERY FURNACE THAT PURIFIES BESSEMER STEEL
  “THE IDES OF MARCH”
  FAMOUS MASTERPIECES BY FAMOUS PAINTERS

(Only six Color Plates are included in the single volume edition)


Diagrams, Maps and Charts

  COLOR DIAGRAM SHOWING THE OCEAN BEDS
  DIAGRAM OF ORBITS OF THE PLANETS
  PICTURE DIAGRAM OF THE MOON’S PHASES
  STAR CHARTS OF THE CHIEF CONSTELLATIONS
  MAPS OF THE CHIEF CONSTELLATIONS
  CHART OF THE MILKY WAY
  DIAGRAMS SHOWING FORMATION OF ECLIPSES
  DIAGRAM SHOWING A BISECTION OF THE EARTH
  CHART SHOWING THE GEOLOGICAL GROWTH OF THE EARTH
  GEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE UNITED STATES
  MAPS SHOWING RELATIVE SIZE OF ISLANDS OF THE WORLD
  DIAGRAM OF THE WORLD’S FAMOUS RIVERS AND MOUNTAINS
  MAPS SHOWING RELATIVE SIZE OF LAKES
  DIAGRAMS EXPLAINING THE SEASONS, DAY AND NIGHT
  PICTORIAL CHART OF CLOUD FORMATIONS
  MAP SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF PLANT LIFE
  MAP SHOWING RANGE OF ANIMAL LIFE
  16 MAPS IN COLOR SHOWING THE PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY
  2 PICTURE MAPS PRESENTING A PANORAMIC VIEW OF PARIS
  5 PICTURE MAPS GIVING A PANORAMA OF THE RIVER RHINE
  PICTURE DIAGRAM SHOWING PARTS OF A LOCOMOTIVE
  PICTURE DIAGRAM OF SUBMARINE
  PICTURE DIAGRAM EXPLAINING WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY
  PICTURE DIAGRAM EXPLAINING AN ELECTRIC BATTERY
  PICTURE DIAGRAM SHOWING HOW ELECTRICITY IS GENERATED
  PICTURE DIAGRAM EXPLAINING RADIOACTIVITY
  MAP OF PANAMA CANAL AND CONNECTIONS


Other Full Page and Text Illustrations

  These include hundreds of beautiful and instructive reproductions
  illustrative of the heavens, earth, minerals, plants and plant
  products, animal life, races and peoples, famous examples of
  architecture, scenes in great cities, historic shrines and ruins,
  mythology, science, marvels of mechanism, great works of
  engineering, monuments, industries, etc., as well as numerous
  photographic and art pictures of famous persons and episodes in the
  history of progress.



BOOK OF THE HEAVENS

_Descriptive and Explanatory_


  THE UNIVERSE: ITS MAGNITUDE AND MEANING

  THE SOLAR SYSTEM: SUN, PLANETS, MOON, CONSTELLATIONS,
  STARS, COMETS, METEORS, NEBULÆ, AND OTHER WONDERS OF
  THE SKIES

  ORIGIN OF THE WORLDS: THE NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS

  ECLIPSES: CAUSES AND EXPLANATION

  MYTHOLOGY OF THE CONSTELLATIONS

  DICTIONARY OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS

  STAR CHARTS AND MAPS

  NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS AND TABLES

[Illustration: =DIAGRAM SHOWING RELATIVE ORBITS OF THE PLANETS AROUND
THE SUN=

      1. Crowded group of stars seen in the constellation Hercules.
      2. Beautiful circular group of stars in Aquarius. Very brilliant
         toward the center.
    3-4. Fan-shaped groups of stars, frequently to be observed.
      5. Round nebula of Ursa Major.
      6. A fine star in Gemini with a great, oval atmosphere.
      7. Star in Leo Major in the middle of nebula with very pointed
         ends.
    8-9. Nebulæ with luminous trains like the tail of a comet.
     10. Two stars in Canes Venatici joined by elliptical nebula.
     11. Elliptical nebula in Sagittarius with a star in each of the
         foci.
  12-13. Round nebula in Auriga with three stars in a triangle.
     14. Great nebula in Andromeda.
     15. Comet of 1819, of remarkable size.
  16-17. Great comet of 1811.
     18. Surface of the planet Mars, showing the supposed continents and
         seas.
     19. Disk of the great planet Jupiter with its dark streaks and
         masses.
     20. The wonderful planet Saturn with its remarkable rings.

=Explanation of Figures in Diagram=

=Rate at which the Planets Travel=]


BOOK OF THE HEAVENS

  THE UNIVERSE -- THE SOLAR SYSTEM -- PLANETS -- SUN -- MOON --
  CONSTELLATIONS -- STARS -- COMETS -- METEORS -- NEBULÆ -- NEBULAR
  HYPOTHESIS -- ECLIPSES -- MYTHOLOGY OF THE CONSTELLATIONS --
  DICTIONARY OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS USED IN ASTRONOMY.

[Illustration: =HOW THE PLANETS WOULD APPEAR IF GROUPED IN SPACE=

In the above picture we have represented the planets of the Solar System
as we should see them from the earth if the human eye could grasp a
space of such immensity. The spectator is supposed to be standing on the
earth, and the moon is in the foreground, 240,000 miles away. The
planets are in their order outward from the sun, and vary in distance
from 40,000,000 miles, in the case of Mars, to 2,700,000,000 miles in
the case of Neptune. From the bottom upward, the planets are Mercury,
Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn and its rings, Uranus and Neptune.]


THE WORLDS IN THE SKIES

The earth upon which we live is only one of many worlds that whirl
through space. If we are to understand our own world, we must first
learn something about the worlds in the skies. These bodies are arranged
in groups, or systems, sweeping through circuits that baffle
measurement; and such is the magnitude of the boundless space they
occupy that our entire solar system is only a point in comparison. To
this vast expanse of worlds, and systems and space we give the general
name _Universe_.


THE SOLAR SYSTEM AND ITS MEMBERS

First in importance to us in this immense space filled with stars is
what astronomers call the Solar System, so-called because the sun is its
center. It contains the planets, eight in number, of which our earth is
one. They have been named after the ancient deities; the two interior
ones, Mercury and Venus, and the exterior ones, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune; the first three being smaller than our earth, and
the remainder a great deal larger.

Mercury and Venus are known to be _interior_ planets, that is, planets
between us and the sun, because they appear to swing on either side of
the sun. Mercury very seldom leaves the sun sufficiently to rise so
early before the sun, or set so late after him, as to be visible. Venus,
however, gets so far away as to be seen long after sunset or before
sunrise, and is called the Evening or Morning star, accordingly.

Besides the planets there are other members of the system, namely,
_comets_ and _falling stars_, which will be mentioned again more fully
hereafter. All these bodies form a sort of family, having the sun for
their head. The illustrations and drawings on separate pages give a view
of the entire system.

COMPARATIVE SIZE. The size of the planets, in general, increases with
their distance from the sun. The four composing the first group are all
comparatively small, the earth being the largest. Those of the second
group are all of great size. Jupiter, the largest, is not less than
1,390 times as large as the earth; but as it is much less dense, the
amount of matter it contains is only a trifle more than 337 times that
of the earth. All the planets together equal but one seven-hundredth
part of the mass of the sun.

The SATELLITES, except our moon, and the two satellites of Mars, belong
wholly to the second group of planets. Jupiter has eight; Saturn eight
and several revolving rings; Uranus has four, and possibly more; while
Neptune, so far as known with certainty, has but one.


MOVEMENTS WITHIN THE SOLAR SYSTEM

ROTARY MOTION. The sun, all the primary planets, and their satellites,
as far as known, rotate from west to east. Each rotation constitutes a
day for the rotating body. The central line of rotary motion is called
the axis of rotation, and the extremities of the axis are called the
Poles.

REVOLUTION AROUND THE SUN. All the primary planets and asteroids revolve
around the sun in the direction of their rotation, that is from west to
east; and the planes of the orbits in which they revolve coincide very
nearly with the plane of the sun’s equator. One revolution around the
sun constitutes the year of a planet.

All the satellites, except those of Uranus and perhaps Neptune, also
revolve from west to east.

Most of the comets revolve around the sun in very irregular and
elongated orbits, only a few having their entire orbit within the
planetary system. Some so move that after having entered our system and
made their circuit around the sun, they seem to leave it, never to
return.

[Illustration: The Egyptian Planisphere containing the Zodiacal signs,
with the Southern constellations, according to Kircher.]

[Illustration: The Egyptian Planisphere containing the Zodiacal signs,
with the Northern constellations, according to Kircher.]

Since the orbits of the planets are in most cases not far removed from
the plane of the ecliptic, they are to be seen in a comparatively narrow
belt of the heavens called,

  THE ZODIAC. The belt of the sky which occupies 8° on each side of
  the ecliptic is called the Zodiac, and it is within this belt that
  the moon and the chief planets confine their movements, as none of
  their orbits is inclined to that of the earth by more than 8°. The
  Zodiac, which circles the celestial sphere, is divided into twelve
  signs each of which occupies 30°, and roughly coincides with a
  constellation. The following lists give the signs of the Zodiac,
  with the seasons in which the sun passes through each of them:

  Spring: Aries the Ram; Taurus the Bull; Gemini the Twins.

  Summer: Cancer the Crab; Leo the Lion; Virgo the Virgin.

  Autumn: Libra the Balance; Scorpio the Scorpion; Sagittarius the
  Archer.

  Winter: Capricornus the Goat; Aquarius the Water-bearer; Pisces the
  Fishes.

  Owing to the precession of the equinoxes, the signs of the Zodiac do
  not now correspond with the constellations of which they bear the
  names. Thus the sign Aries, in which the sun is seen on March 21st
  as it passes the vernal equinox, with which the solar year begins,
  is now in the constellation of Pisces, and in the course of the next
  23,000 years it will move steadily backward through the
  constellations until it returns to the Ram, where it stood when its
  name was first given to it.


KEPLER’S CELEBRATED LAWS OF PLANETARY MOVEMENTS

The laws under which the planets move were discovered through the genius
of John Kepler, and are known as Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion.
Kepler derived these laws from observation only, but Newton first
explained them by showing that they were the necessary consequences of
the laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation.

  KEPLER’S FIRST LAW states: “The earth and the other planets revolve
  in ellipses with the sun in one focus.”

  KEPLER’S SECOND LAW states: “The radius vector of each planet moves
  over equal areas in equal times.”

  KEPLER’S THIRD LAW states: “The squares of the periodic times of the
  planets are in proportion to the cubes of their mean distances from
  the sun.”

[Illustration: =DIAGRAMS ILLUSTRATING KEPLER’S FIRST TWO LAWS OF
PLANETARY MOTION=

The diagram on the top illustrates the ellipse, and explains the first
and second laws. The picture-diagram on the bottom illustrates the
second law, which is that, as the planet moves round the sun, its radius
vector describes equal areas in equal times. That is to say, a planet
moves from A to B in the same time as it takes to move from C to D.]

  These laws cannot be fully understood without some acquaintance with
  mathematics. They may, however, be briefly explained for the
  comprehension of the non-mathematical reader. The figure in the
  diagram is an ellipse--what is known in popular language as an
  oval--which is symmetrical about the line AB, known as its major
  axis. It has two foci, S and S₁. The fundamental law of the ellipse
  is that if we take any point P on it, and join this point by a
  straight line to the two foci, then the sum of these two lines SP
  and S₁P is always the same--SP + S₁P = C.

  The second law is rather less easy to understand. The _radius
  vector_ is the line joining the sun to the planet at any moment; if
  we suppose the sun to be at the focus S, and P to be the planet, the
  radius vector at various positions of the planet will be represented
  by the lines SP, SP₁, SP₂, and so on. If the positions P, P₁, P₂,
  and so on, represent those which the planet occupies after equal
  periods of time--say, once a month--then the sectors of the ellipse
  bounded by each pair of lines, SP and SP₁, SP₁ and SP₂, will be
  equal. If a planet were to move in a circle round the sun, it is
  obvious that this law would imply that it moved with a uniform
  speed; but since the curvature of the ellipse varies in every part
  of its course, so must the speed of the planet, in order that its
  radius vector may describe equal areas in equal times. The planet
  will, in fact, be moving faster when it is near the sun, as at P,
  than when it is far off from the sun, as at P₂.

  The third law shows that there is a definite numerical relation
  between the motions of all the planets, and that the time which each
  of them takes to complete its orbit depends upon its distance from
  the sun.

On his discovery of his third law Kepler had written: “The book is
written to be read either now or by posterity--I care not which; it may
well wait a century for a reader, as God has waited six thousand years
for an observer.” Twelve years after his death, on Christmas Day, 1642,
near Grantham, England, the predestined “reader” was born. The inner
meaning of Kepler’s three laws was brought to light by Isaac Newton.


THE GIGANTIC SUN AND HIS FUNCTION IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM

The great luminary which warms, lights, and rules the solar system is,
like the majority of its fellow stars, a gigantic bubble. In other
words, it is a globe of glowing gas, which is nowhere solid, though the
immense pressure which must exist in its interior probably causes this
gas to assume there a density greater than that of any solid which we
know.

[Illustration: =A PHOTOGRAPH OF THE SUN, SHOWING THE CLOUDS OF FIERY
VAPOR WHICH SURROUND IT=]

DIMENSIONS OF THE SUN. The sun appears to human vision as a brilliant
globe of a little more than half a degree in diameter. It is about the
same apparent size as the moon, since the size of the sun is to that of
the moon very nearly in the same proportion as their relative distances
from the earth. In reality, however, the sun is a gigantic orb, so huge
that if the earth were at its center the whole orbit of the moon would
lie well within its circumference. The diameter of the sun is about
866,500 miles.

The mass of the sun is about 332,000 times that of the earth, but its
specific gravity is only about a quarter that of the earth, 1.41, if
that of water be taken as unity. The mean distance of the sun from the
earth is about 92,800,000 miles; but, as the earth’s orbit is not
circular but elliptic, this distances varies by about 3,000,000 miles,
being smallest in January and greatest in July.

THE PHYSICAL CONDITION of the sun is very different from that of the
earth, though we know it is composed of very similar materials. The
white-hot surface that we see, called the _photosphere_, is believed to
be largely a shell of highly heated metallic vapors surrounding the
unseen mass beneath. Dark spaces seen in the photosphere are known as
_sun-spots_, and these are often surrounded by brighter patches, termed
_faculæ_. Above the photosphere a shallow envelope of gases, rising here
and there into huge prominences, and known as the _chromosphere_, is
seen in red tints when the sun is totally eclipsed. Beyond the
chromosphere, there is also seen, at the same time, a faint but far more
extensive envelope called the _corona_.

[Illustration: This diagram illustrates the theory that sun-spots are
formed by fragments struck from Saturn’s rings (which are in themselves
nothing more than a great meteoric swarm) by the swarm of meteors known
as the Leonids, which fragments fall into the solar furnace at a speed
of four hundred miles a second.]

The sun’s rays supply light and heat not only to the earth, but also to
the other planets which revolve round it. Its attraction confines these
planets in their orbits and controls their motions.


THE MOON--THE EARTH’S ONLY SATELLITE

THE MOON, the satellite of the earth, is the nearest to us of all the
heavenly bodies, being at a mean distance of 240,000 miles. Its diameter
is 2,153 miles and, its density being little more than half that of the
earth, the force of gravity at its surface is very much less than that
at the surface of the earth. A body which weighs a pound here would only
weigh about two and one-half ounces if taken to the moon.

[Illustration: =THE SYSTEM OF MARS AND ITS MOONS CONTRASTED WITH THAT OF
THE EARTH AND MOON=

In this diagram the markings on the earth and Mars are to scale, the
orbits of the planets are seen in perspective and the measurements are
according to Prof. Percival Lowell.]

THE MOON’S ORBIT. Her path is approximately an ellipse with the earth in
one focus. Its apparent motion in the sky is from west to east, but she
moves much faster than the sun, taking about twenty-seven days eight
hours to travel all round the earth. The time between two successive new
moons (synodic period or lunation) is twenty-nine and one-half days. The
reason of the difference is that the sun moves slowly in his annual
course through the stars in the same direction as the moon, which
therefore in its revolution round the earth has to overtake him when it
returns. The moon rotates on its axis in the same time as it performs a
revolution in its orbit; hence the same half is always turned toward us.

When the moon in her orbit lies between the sun and the earth, she is
said to be in _conjunction_ with the sun; when the earth is between the
moon and the sun, the moon is said to be in _opposition_ to the sun. At
either of the two points midway from conjunction and opposition, i. e.
90° from conjunction or opposition, the moon is said to be in
_quadrature_.

THE PHASES OF THE MOON. Except at opposition--i. e. when the earth is
between the moon and sun--the whole of the moon’s disc does not appear
bright to us, and the amount of the bright surface seen by us is found
to depend on the relative positions of moon and sun. Half of the moon is
always illuminated by the sun; but when it is in conjunction between the
earth and sun the whole of the bright surface is on the side away from
us; so that the moon is invisible. As it moves farther from the line
joining earth and sun, a small portion of the bright side comes into
view as a narrow crescent. This increases till half the disc is
illuminated, when the lines joining earth and moon and earth and sun are
at right angles. From this time the moon loses its crescent shape and
becomes convex on both sides, or gibbous (Lat. _gibbus_, a hump)--the
maximum brightness, or full moon, occurring when sun and moon are on
opposite sides of the earth. After this the moon becomes gibbous, then
crescent, and vanishes before the time of new moon.

It is worthy of note that the moon is higher in the heavens and longer
above the horizon in the winter than in summer. This is owing to the
plane of its orbit being at night high towards the south in winter and
low in summer, as is the ecliptic. The moon’s orbit, like that of other
planets, is elliptical, but irregular. When nearest to the earth, she is
said to be in _perigee_; when at the greatest distance, in _apogee_.

[Illustration: =DIAGRAM SHOWING HOW THE MOON’S PHASES ARE CAUSED=

In the above diagram, the earth is in the center, and the circle ACFH
the orbit of the moon. Since the inclination of the plane of the moon’s
orbit to the plane of the ecliptic is only a few degrees, we may neglect
it in this case, and suppose the two planes to coincide. Let the sun lie
in the direction ES. Since the distance of the sun from the earth is
about three hundred and eighty-seven times the distance of the moon from
the earth, the lines ES, HS, BS, etc., drawn to the sun from different
points of the moon’s orbit, may be considered to be sensibly parallel.
Let us first suppose the moon to be in conjunction with the sun at the
point A. Here only the dark portion of the moon is turned towards the
earth, and the moon is therefore invisible. This is called new moon. As
the moon moves on towards B, the enlightened part begins to be visible,
and when it reaches C, half the enlightened part is visible, and the
moon is at its first quarter. When the moon is at F, in opposition to
the sun, all the illuminated part is turned towards the earth, and the
moon is full. The moon wanes after leaving F, passes through its last
quarter at H, and finally becomes again invisible at A.]

SURFACE OF THE MOON. The moon is an opaque, cold globe, covered with
mountains, extinct volcanoes, and plains. She has neither water nor
atmosphere, and always presents the same surface to the earth in
consequence of rotating on her axis in the same time as she revolves
round the earth. Moonlight is only reflected sunlight, the illuminated
hemisphere being always turned towards the sun.

The face of the moon has been studied and mapped on a large scale. Its
chief features are three in number: (1) the numerous _volcanic
craters_, such as Tycho and Copernicus, which are mostly named after
distinguished men of science; (2) the wide, dark plains which are known
as _seas_, because they were formerly thought to consist of water; (3)
the curious systems of _bright streaks_, which radiate from many of
these craters, of which the most remarkable extend in all directions
from the great crater Tycho, near the moon’s south pole, and are
conspicuous even to the naked eye at the time of full moon.

THE MOON AND THE TIDES. The moon has long been known to have an effect
upon the tides, and may perhaps influence the winds. It is of enormous
importance to navigators for the determination of longitude, and hence
its movements have been investigated with the greatest care and
precision.

[Illustration: =HOW THE MOON FORMS “TIDES” IN THE CRUST OF THE EARTH=

By reason of its power of attraction, it is well recognized that the
Moon exercises a greater influence on the side of the earth which is
nearest to it. In consequence the earth is subject to a stress or pull
that tends to lengthen it out toward the moon, and then to recede as the
earth turns away on its axis.]

THE PLANET MARS. Nearest to the earth, with the single exception of
Venus, resembles the earth more closely than any other of the planets,
and is most favorably situated for our observation of all the heavenly
bodies, except the moon. It is a globe rather more than half the size of
the earth. When Mars comes nearest to the earth its distance from us is
about 35,000,000 miles. At these favorable moments its brightness is
about equal to Jupiter, and only surpassed by that of Venus. Mars has a
very pronounced red color, which is supposed to be due to the prevalence
of a rock like our red sandstone on its surface, or possibly to the
color of its vegetation.

Its density is much less--about three-quarters that of the earth; so a
pound weight placed on its surface would not weigh much more than six
ounces, and a ponderous elephant would, if there, be able to jump about
with the agility of a fawn.

The heat and light which Mars receives from the sun, therefore, vary
enormously, and so cause a difference in the lengths of winter and
summer in his north and south hemispheres, the seasons in the north
hemisphere being far more temperate than those in the south. Viewed with
the telescope, large dark green spots are seen, the rest of the surface
being of a ruddy tint, except at the two poles, where two white spots
are observed and considered to be due to large masses of snow and ice.
It has been supposed that the greenish spots are oceans, and the ruddy
parts land. The spectroscope has shown that watery vapor is present in
Mars’ atmosphere, and appearances like huge rain-clouds sometimes
obscure a part of the planet for a considerable period. Physical
processes seem to go on there much the same as on our planet; hence many
believe that Mars is inhabited and forms, in fact, a miniature picture
of the earth.

JUPITER. By far the largest of the planets is second in brilliancy to
Venus, unlike which, however, it is a “superior” planet, having its
orbit outside that of the earth. It is about five times as brilliant as
Sirius, the brightest of the fixed stars.

The planet is a beautiful object when viewed with a telescope; it is
probable that the markings are entirely due to its atmosphere, and that
the actual surface of the planet is rarely visible. Jupiter has hardly
yet cooled from the condition of incandescence, and it is only slightly
solidified. It possesses eight satellites, four of which were discovered
by Galileo when he applied the telescope first to the investigation of
the heavens. By means of these satellites the first observations of the
velocity of light were made. A fifth was discovered in 1892 at the Lick
Observatory.

SATURN was recognized as a planet by the ancients, and was the outside
member of the solar system as known by them. His diameters at the
equator and poles differ considerably, the protuberance at the equator
giving him there a diameter of 74,000 miles, while at the poles it is
only 68,000. In size Saturn is the largest of the planets except
Jupiter, being in fact seven hundred times larger than our earth, but
his density is so small that he would be able to float on water far more
easily than an iceberg. From this it follows that he cannot consist of
solid or liquid matter, and in fact we can only view a mass of clouds
intensely heated within, the whole being probably a planet in the early
stage of development--younger even than Jupiter.

The most remarkable characteristic of Saturn, which makes him an object
of such interest in the sky, is his possession of a luminous ring. The
ring is only luminous on account of its reflection of the sun’s light;
hence is invisible to us when, for instance, we are endeavoring to look
at the ring from below while the sun is shining above. It also sometimes
happens that the plane of the rings passes through the sun or through
the center of the earth, in which case only the thin edge of the rings
can be seen. The ring is divided into two parts, the inner being the
wider, while another faint division appears to divide the outer part
into two smaller rings. In 1850 another ring was discovered; this is
quite different from the outer rings, being dark, and generally known as
the dusky ring of Saturn. The outer ones, though far from solid, can
receive a shadow of Saturn, and themselves cast one on his disc. The
rings are not continuous masses of matter, but consist of countless
myriads of tiny satellites, so close together that to the observer they
appear as one body. The planet has eight satellites which seldom pass
behind or in front of the planet’s disc, and therefore are not objects
of great interest.

URANUS is the next planet beyond Saturn. His mass is about fifteen times
as much as that of the earth, an amount which makes him more than
outweigh Mercury, Venus, the Earth, and Mars combined. All astronomers
do not agree in their estimation of these numbers, Uranus being too far
away for measurements to be more than approximate. Gravity on his
surface is only three-quarters of what it is here. Uranus has four
satellites, and possibly faint rings like those which encircle Saturn.

NEPTUNE is farthest from the sun, the distance between the two bodies
being about 2,750,000,000 miles. At this immense distance it will,
according to Kepler’s laws, take a long time to travel once around its
orbit, and this time has been found to be one hundred and sixty-five of
our years. Although it is ninety-seven times as large as the earth, yet,
on account of its enormous distance from us it can only just be seen,
even with a powerful telescope. Neptune possesses one satellite, which
moves around the planet in rather less than six days.

MERCURY is the smallest planet, except the planetoids, in the solar
system, and the one nearest the sun. It is never seen for more than two
hours before sunrise or after sunset, and is not always visible then;
but when it does appear, it is extremely brilliant. Even when it is most
distant the sun appears four and a half times as big to it as it does to
us, and when the two are at their nearest, this small planet gets ten
times as much light and heat as we do. It is, however, so small and
difficult to observe, that comparatively little is known of it.

VENUS appears to us as the most brilliant of all the planets, sometimes
heralding the sun’s approach in the morning and sometimes following him
at night. Hence she has been called the “morning” and the “evening”
star; and the ancient Greeks, believing her to be two bodies, and not
one, called her Hesperus (Vesper) when she appeared at night, but
Phosphorus when she preceded the dawn, this last name having been
translated in the Latin, Lucifer. We know very little of the actual
surface of Venus, for her envelope of clouds remains constantly in front
of us to baffle curiosity, and never lifts to give us a glimpse of the
planet beneath. These clouds send on to us the light they borrow from
the sun, and shine to us with a brilliant silvery lustre interrupted
here and there with shadowy markings of short duration. But when Venus
shines to us in crescent-form, certain spots near the ends of the horns
can be seen more definitely, and the effects of light and shadow round
these points suggest that they are lofty peaks, reaching above the
clouds.

THE MINOR PLANETS OR ASTEROIDS. The space between Mars and Jupiter is
occupied by a strange and numerous swarm of _minor planets_ or
_asteroids_. The first of these singular bodies was discovered by an
Italian astronomer, Piazzi, on the first night of the nineteenth
century. Three others were discovered within the course of the next
seven years, and the number now known is upward of 600, most of which
have been recognized by the record of their motion on photographs of the
sky. The four asteroids first discovered, Ceres, Pallas, Juno, and
Vesta, are naturally the largest, ranging in diameter from four hundred
to one hundred and eighteen miles.

Vesta, though not the largest, is considerably the brightest of the
minor planets, and is occasionally visible to the naked eye. None of the
other asteroids has a diameter so great as one hundred miles, and
probably the majority of them are only ten or twenty miles in diameter.


COMETS, METEORS AND SKY DUST

In addition to the planets and their satellites, the sun is attended by
numerous other bodies, moving with far less regularity, and generally
much less conspicuous in the heavens. These are known as _comets_ and
_meteorites_ or _shooting stars_. One of the most interesting of recent
astronomical discoveries is that an intimate physical connection exists
between these two classes of bodies.

COMETS. Comets have been known from the earliest times, because every
now and then a very large and conspicuous one hastens up to the sun from
the remote regions of space, and perplexes monarchs with the fear of
change. They are called _comets_, from the Latin _coma_, meaning hair,
because when they are bright enough to be seen with the naked eye they
look like stars attended by a long stream of hazy light, which was
thought to resemble a woman’s hair flowing down her back. This train of
light is known as the comet’s _tail_. Such bright comets are sometimes
as brilliant as Venus; their tails have been known to stretch halfway
across the visible sky.

These comets are very beautiful and conspicuous objects, which usually
appear in the sky without any warning from astronomers, and invariably
create a great popular sensation. By far the greater number of comets,
however, are only visible through a telescope, and it is rare that a
year passes without at least half a dozen of these being reported. Up to
the present time nearly a thousand comets of all sizes have been
recorded. Not more than one in five of these visitors is visible to the
naked eye.

COMETARY ORBITS. In all cases in which a comet has been observed
sufficiently often for its orbit to be calculated, it is found that it
moves in one of the curves which are known to the geometer as conic
sections. Less than a hundred of the known comets move like the planets
in _elliptical_ orbits, and consequently their periodical return to
visibility can be predicted. As a rule the eccentricity of these
cometary orbits is very much greater than that of any planetary orbit,
which means that the comet approaches fairly close to the sun at one end
of its orbit, but at the other flies away far beyond the outermost
planet, and for a long period disappears from the view of our most
powerful telescopes.

The great majority of comets have only been seen once, and their orbits
appear to be either _parabolic_ or _hyperbolic_. Neither of these is a
closed curve, and what seems to happen in such cases is that a comet
travelling in such an orbit dashes up to the sun from the remote parts
of space, swings round it, often at very close quarters, and flies away
again forever. Only those comets which have elliptical orbits can be
said to belong to the solar system. The others are visitors from space,
which in the course of their motion come near the sun and are deflected
by it, but then fly away until after a lapse of ages they perhaps come
within the sphere of another star’s attraction. Of the comets which move
in elliptical orbits, about twenty have been observed at more than one
return to the sun. Some of these complete their orbits in quite a short
period, like Encke’s comet, which has the shortest period of all, less
than three and a half years; the longest periodical comet is known as
Halley’s, which returns to the sun after seventy-six years, and last
appeared in 1910; it is a bright and conspicuous object.

THE CONSTITUTION OF COMETS. The nature of comets was long in doubt, and
even today their physical characteristics are not fully understood. They
are certainly formed of gravitational matter, because they move in
orbits which are subject to the same laws as those of the planets. But
they also appear to be acted upon by powerful _repulsive forces_
emanating from the sun, to which is due the remarkable phenomenon of
cometary tails. Perhaps there is not much exaggeration in the statement
once made by a well-known astronomer that the whole material of a comet
stretching halfway across the visible heavens, if properly compressed,
could be placed in a hatbox. The old fear that the earth might suddenly
be annihilated by a comet striking it is thoroughly dispelled by modern
investigation, which leads us to believe that the worst results of such
an encounter would be an extremely beautiful display of shooting stars.

METEORS, or FIREBALLS, are bodies which do not belong to the earth, but
come from other parts of space into our atmosphere, and are seen as
bright balls of fire crossing the sky, with a train of light behind.
Suddenly they are seen to go out, and very often a fall of stones
occurs. Sometimes they are observed to break in two, and loud explosions
like thunder are heard. They move very fast--ten or twelve miles per
second, and are visible when between forty and eighty miles above the
earth.

Other meteors dart across the sky and disappear, all in a very short
time. These are known as shooting stars, and are sometimes big and
bright, like planets. It is estimated that about six or eight meteors
which drop stones come into our atmosphere every year; but some
20,000,000 of small bodies pass through the air every day--these would
all appear as shooting stars if they occurred at night.

At some periods of the year there are so many shooting stars that they
appear like a shower of fire. On November 14th this happens, the shower
being greatest every thirty-three years. A stream of meteors is
travelling round the sun, and every thirty-three years the earth just
comes through them. Meteoric showers also occur about August 9th to
11th, and smaller ones in April.

The luminosity of meteors is due to the intense heat caused by the
resistance of the air to their passage, and in support of this theory it
is found that meteoric stones are always covered, either wholly or in
part, with a crust of cement that has recently been melted.


THE FIXED STARS IN THE HEAVENS

We shall now study the so-called fixed stars, those stars, namely, which
preserve the same relative position and configuration from night to
night, only varying, and that with perfect regularity, in the times at
which they reach the meridian. For this reason they have been known from
the dawn of astronomy as fixed stars, in contrast with the planets or
wandering stars.

The observer who watches the nightly changes in the sky with close
attention will soon perceive that all these fixed stars appear to move
in circles or parts of circles. Some of them describe larger circles
than others, and the further south a star is when it passes the
meridian, the larger circle will it describe.

It cannot be too often repeated that this motion of the stars is only
apparent, being due to the real rotation of the earth, along with the
observer on its surface, in the contrary direction. It is estimated that
there are about three thousand stars visible to the naked eye in our
latitude, though not all these are visible at the same time, many of
them being below the horizon, while others are elevated in the sky at
different times and seasons.


THE MAGNITUDES AND GROUPING OF THE STARS

In beginning our study of the stars, let us put ourselves in the
position of the earliest observers. Let us first, like them, watch the
stars, and see how they appear from night to night.

We see, at the first glance, that the stars vary much in brightness. The
brightest ones--like Sirius, Capella, Arcturus, and Vega--are called
stars of the _first magnitude_. Those less brilliant, like the six
brightest of “the Dipper,” are said to be of the _second_ magnitude. All
the stars which can be seen with the unaided eye are thus divided into
six classes or _magnitudes_, according to their brightness.

CONSTELLATIONS. We also see that the stars are not uniformly distributed
over the sky. They seem to be arranged in groups, some of which take the
form of familiar objects. Every one knows the seven bright stars which
are called “the Dipper.” Another group resembles a _sickle_, another a
_cross_, and so on. All the stars in the heavens have been divided into
groups called constellations. Many of these were recognized and named at
a very early period.

We should become familiar with these constellations in order to study
the stars with any profit.

It is necessary, in the first place, to have some way of designating the
stars in each constellation. Many of the brighter stars have proper
names as Sirius, Arcturus, and Vega; but the great majority of them are
marked by the letters of the Greek alphabet. The brightest star in each
constellation is called α (alpha); the next brightest, β (beta); the
next, γ (gamma); and so on. The characters and names of the Greek
alphabet are as follows:

  α, Alpha.
  β, Beta.
  γ, Gamma.
  δ, Delta.
  ε, Epsilon.
  ζ, Zeta.
  η, Eta.
  θ, Theta.
  ι, Iota.
  κ, Kappa.
  λ, Lambda.
  μ, Mu.
  ν, Nu.
  ξ, Xi.
  ο, Omicron.
  π, Pi.
  ρ, Rho.
  σ, Sigma.
  τ, Tau.
  υ, Upsilon.
  φ, Phi.
  χ, Chi.
  ψ, Psi.
  ω, Omega.

These letters are followed by the Latin name of the constellation. Thus
Aldebaran is called α Tauri; Rigel, β Orionis; Sirius, α Canis Majoris.

If there are more stars in a constellation than can be named from the
Greek alphabet, the Roman alphabet is used in the same way; and when
both alphabets are exhausted, numbers are used.

CIRCUMPOLAR CONSTELLATIONS. One of the most important constellations,
and one easily recognized, is the Great Bear, or Ursa Major. It is
represented in Plate 1 on the Star Chart. It may be known by the seven
stars forming “the Dipper.” The Bear’s feet are marked by three pairs of
stars. These and the star in the nose can be readily found by means of
the lines drawn on the chart. It may be remarked here, that in all
cases the stars thus connected by lines are the leading stars of the
constellation. The stars α and β are called the Pointers. If a line be
drawn from β to α, and prolonged about five times the distance between
them, it will pass near an isolated star of the second magnitude known
as the Pole Star, or Polaris. This is the brightest star in the Little
Bear, or Ursa Minor (Plate 2). It is in the end of the handle of a
second “dipper,” smaller than the one in the Great Bear.

On the opposite side of the Pole Star from the Great Bear, and at about
the same distance, is another conspicuous constellation, called
Cassiopeia. Its five brightest stars form an irregular W, opening
towards the Pole Star (Plate 2).

About half-way between the two Dippers three stars of the third
magnitude will be seen, the only stars at all prominent in that
neighborhood. These belong to Draco, or the Dragon. The chart will show
that the other stars in the body of the monster form an irregular curve
around the Little Bear, while the head is marked by four stars arranged
in a trapezium. Two of these stars, β and γ, are quite bright. A little
less than half-way from Cassiopeia to the head of the Dragon is a
constellation known as Cepheus, five stars of which form an irregular K.

These five constellations never set in our latitude, and are called
circumpolar constellations.

CONSTELLATIONS VISIBLE IN SEPTEMBER. At this time the Great Bear will be
low down in the northwest, and the Dragon’s head nearly in the zenith.
If we draw a line from ζ to η of the Great Bear and prolong it, we shall
find that it will pass near a reddish star of the first magnitude. This
star is called Arcturus, or α Boötis, since it is the brightest star in
the constellation Boötes. Of its other conspicuous stars, four form a
cross. These and the remaining stars of the constellation can be readily
traced with the aid of Plate 3.

Near the Dragon’s head (Plate 4) may be seen a very bright star of the
first magnitude, shining with a pure white light. This star is Vega, or
α Lyræ.

If we draw a line from Arcturus to Vega (Plate 3), it will pass through
two constellations, the Crown, or Corona Borealis and Hercules. The
former is about one-third of the way from Arcturus to Vega, and consists
of a semicircle of six stars, the brightest of which is called Alphecca
or Gemma Coronæ,--“the gem of the crown.”

Hercules is about half-way between the Crown and Vega. This
constellation is marked by a trapezoid of stars of the third magnitude.
A star in one foot is near the Dragon’s head; there is also a star in
each shoulder, and one in the face.

Just across the Milky Way from Vega (Plate 5) is a star of the first
magnitude, called Altair, or α Aquilæ. This star marks the constellation
Aquila, or the Eagle, and may be recognized by a small star on each side
of it. These are the only important stars in this constellation.

In the Milky Way, between Altair and Cassiopeia (Plate 4), there is a
large constellation called Cygnus, or the Swan. Six of its stars form a
large cross, by which it will be readily known. α Cygni is often called
Deneb. It forms a large isosceles triangle with Altair and Vega.

Low down in the south, on the edge of the Milky Way (Plate 6), is a
constellation called Sagittarius, or the Archer. It may be known by
five stars forming an inverted dipper, often called “the Milk-dipper.”
The head is marked by a small triangle. The other stars, as seen by the
map, may be grouped so as to represent a bow and an arrow.

[Illustration: =I. STAR CHART OF THE PRINCIPAL CONSTELLATIONS=]

Low in the southwest is a bright red star called Antares, or α
Scorpionis.

The space between Sagittarius and Hercules and Scorpio is occupied by
the Serpent (Serpens) and the Serpent-bearer, or Ophiuchus (Plates 6 and
7). The head of the Serpent is near the Crown, and marked by a small
triangle. The head of Ophiuchus is close to the head of Hercules, and
may be known by a star of the second magnitude. Each shoulder is marked
by a pair of stars. His feet are near the Scorpion.

Nearly on a line with Arcturus and γ Ursæ Majoris (Plate 1), and rather
nearer the latter, is an isolated star of the third magnitude, called
Cor Caroli, or Charles’ Heart. This is the only prominent star in the
constellation of Canes Venatici, or the Hunting Dogs.

Cassiopeia is almost due east of the Pole Star. A line drawn from the
latter through β Cassiopeiæ and prolonged, passes through two stars of
the second and third magnitude. These, with two others farther to the
south, form a large square, called the Square of Pegasus. Three of
these, as seen by the chart (Plate 5), belong to the constellation
Pegasus, or the Winged Horse. α Pegasi is called Markab, and β is called
Algenib. The bright stars in the neck and nose can be found by the
chart.

[Illustration: =II. STAR CHART OF THE PRINCIPAL CONSTELLATIONS=]

The fourth star in the Square of Pegasus belongs (Plate 8) to the
constellation Andromeda. Nearly in a line with α Pegasi and this star
are two other bright stars belonging to Andromeda. The stars in her belt
may be found by the chart.

Following the direction of the line of stars in Andromeda just
mentioned, and bending a little towards the east, we come to Algol, or β
Persei, a remarkable variable star. This star may be readily recognized
from the fact, together with β and γ Andromeda and the four stars in the
Square of Pegasus, it forms a figure similar in outline to the Dipper in
Ursa Major, but much larger. If the handle of this great Dipper is made
straight instead of being bent, the star in the end of it is α Persei,
of the second magnitude. This star has one of the third magnitude on
each side of it. The other stars in Perseus may be found by the chart.

Just below θ in the head of Pegasus (Plate 9) are three stars of the
third and fourth magnitudes, forming a small arc. These mark the urn of
Aquarius, the Water-bearer. His body consists of a trapezium of four
stars of the third and fourth magnitudes. Small clusters of stars show
the course of the water flowing from his urn.

This stream enters the mouth of the Southern Fish, or Piscis Australis.
The only bright star in this constellation is Fomalhaut, which is of the
first magnitude, and at this time will be low down in the southeast.

To the south of Aquarius is Capricornus, or the Goat. He is marked by
three pairs of stars arranged in a triangle. One pair is in his head,
another in his tail, and the third in his knees.

Near Altair (Plate 5), and a little higher up, is a small diamond of
stars forming the Dolphin, or Delphinus.

A little to the west of the Dolphin, in the Milky Way, are four stars of
the fourth magnitude, which form the constellation Sagitta, or the
Arrow.

CONSTELLATIONS VISIBLE IN OCTOBER. If we look at the heavens at eight
o’clock on the 15th of October, we shall see that all the constellations
described above have shifted somewhat towards the west. Arcturus and
Antares have set. In the east, below Andromeda (Plate 10), we see a pair
of bright stars, which are the only conspicuous ones in the
constellation Aries, or the Ram.

About half-way between Aries and γ Andromedæ are three stars which form
a small triangle. This constellation is called Triangulum, or the
Triangle.

Between Aries and Pegasus is the constellation Pisces, or the Fishes.
The southernmost Fish may be recognized by a pentagon of small stars
lying below the back of Pegasus. There are no conspicuous stars in the
other Fish, which is directly below Andromeda.

CONSTELLATIONS VISIBLE IN NOVEMBER. At eight o’clock in the evening on
the 15th of November, we see at a glance that the constellations with
which we have become acquainted have moved yet farther to the westward.
Boötes, the Crown, Ophiuchus, and the Archer have set; Pegasus,
Cassiopeia, and Andromeda are overhead; while new constellations appear
in the east.

We notice at once (Plate 11) a very bright star in the northeast,
directly below Perseus. This is Capella, or α Aurigæ. There are five
other conspicuous stars in Auriga, or the Charioteer; and with Capella
they form an irregular pentagon.

Somewhat to the eastward (Plate 12), and a little lower down, is a very
bright red star. This is Aldebaran, or α Tauri. It is familiarly known
as the Bull’s eye. It will be noticed by the map that it is at one end
of a V which forms the face of the Bull. This group is known as the
Hyades. Somewhat above the Hyades is a smaller group, called the
Pleiades,--more commonly known as the Seven Stars, though few persons
can distinguish more than six. The bright star on the northern horn, or
β Tauri, is also in the foot of Auriga, and counts as γ of that
constellation.

All the space between Taurus and the Southern Fish, and below Aries and
Pisces (Plate 13), is occupied by Cetus, the Whale. The head is marked
by a triangle of rather conspicuous stars below Aries; the tail, by a
bright star of the second magnitude, which is now just about as far
above the horizon as Fomalhaut. On the body there are five stars,
forming a sort of sickle. About halfway between this sickle and the
triangle, in the head, is σ Ceti, which is also called Mira, or the
wonderful star.

CONSTELLATIONS VISIBLE IN DECEMBER. At eight o’clock in the evening in
the middle of December, we shall find that Hercules, Aquila, and
Capricornus have sunk below the horizon; while Vega and the Swan are on
the point of setting. The Great Bear is climbing up in the northeast. In
the east we behold by far the most brilliant group of constellations we
have yet seen. Capella and Aldebaran are now high up; and below the
former (Plate 12) is the splendid constellation of Orion. His belt, made
up of three stars in a straight line, will be recognized at once. Above
this, on one shoulder, is a star of the first magnitude, called
Betelgeuse, or α Orionis. About as far from the belt, on the other side,
is another star of the first magnitude, called Rigel. There are two
other fainter stars which form a large trapezium with Betelgeuse and
Rigel. The three small stars below the belt are upon the sword.

Below Orion (Plate 14) is a small trapezium of stars which are in the
constellation of Lepus, or the Hare. The head is marked by a small
triangle, as seen on the map.

To the north of Orion, and a little lower down (Plate 12), are two
bright stars near together, one of the first and the other of the second
magnitude. The latter is called Castor, and the former Pollux. These
stars are in the constellation of Gemini, or the Twins. A line of three
smaller stars just in the edge of the Milky Way marks the feet, and
another line of three the knees. Pollux forms a large triangle with
Capella and Betelgeuse.

CONSTELLATIONS VISIBLE IN JANUARY. At eight in the evening on the 15th
of January, Vega, Altair, the Dolphin, Aquarius, and Fomalhaut have
disappeared in the west; Deneb and the Square of Pegasus are near the
horizon; while Capella and Aldebaran are nearly overhead. Two stars of
exceeding brilliancy have come up in the west. The one farthest to the
south (Plate 14) is the brightest star in the whole heavens. It is
called Sirius, or the Dogstar; and is in the constellation of Canis
Major, or the Great Dog, which can be readily traced by the lines on the
map.

The other bright star is between Sirius and Pollux (Plate 12), and is
called Procyon. It is in Canis Minor, or the Little Dog. The only other
prominent star in this constellation is one of the third magnitude near
Procyon.

Procyon, Sirius, and Betelgeuse form a large equilateral triangle.

Orion and the group of constellations about it constitute by far the
most brilliant portion of the heavens, as seen in our latitude. There
are, in all, only about twenty stars of the first magnitude, and seven
of these are in this immediate vicinity.

CONSTELLATIONS VISIBLE IN FEBRUARY. If we look at the heavens at the
same time in the evening about the middle of February, we shall miss
Cygnus and Pegasus from the west. Auriga and Orion are nearly overhead.

Southeast of the Great Bear (Plate 15) is a red star of the first
magnitude, called Regulus, in the constellation of Leo, or the Lion.
There are five stars near Regulus, which together with it form a group
often called the Sickle. The star in the tail is Denebola, which makes a
right-angled triangle with two others near it.

[Illustration: =MAP SHOWING THE LOCATIONS OF NORTHERN CONSTELLATIONS=]

Between Leo and Gemini is the constellation Cancer, or the Crab. It
contains no bright stars, but a remarkable cluster of small stars called
Præsepe, or the Beehive.

Below Regulus (Plate 14) is a bright red star of the second magnitude,
called Cor Hydræ, or the Hydra’s Heart. The head of Hydra is marked by
five small stars. The coils of the monster can be traced by the map. A
portion of the constellation is on Plate 16.

CONSTELLATIONS VISIBLE IN MARCH. At the middle of March, the heavens
will have shifted round somewhat towards the west; but all the
conspicuous constellations of the preceding month are still visible,
while no new ones at all brilliant have come into view.

If we draw a line from the end of the Great Bear’s tail to Denebola, it
will pass through two constellations,--Canes Venatici, described above;
and Coma Berenices, or Berenice’s Hair, a large cluster of faint stars.
(Plate 15).

[Illustration: =MAP SHOWING THE LOCATIONS OF THE SOUTHERN CONSTELLATIONS
AND ALSO MANY REMARKABLE NEBULAR FORMS=

1. Double nebula in Gemini. 2. Double nebula of great brilliancy in Coma
Berenicis. 3. Small double nebula. 4. Curiously shaped nebula in
Ophiuchus. 5. Two nebulous spots in Canes Venatici. 6. Remarkable
veil-like nebula in Lyra. 7. Elliptical nebula in Perseus. 8. Nebulous
spot in Sagittarius, split into three pieces; a double star in center.
9. Large curiously-shaped nebula in Rober Caroli, filled with minute
stars. 10. Great nebula in Andromeda, visible to the eye. 11. Nebula in
Cetus. 12. Elongated nebula in Cygnus. 13. Brilliant round spots in
Sagittarius. 14. Round spots in Andromeda. 15-16. Spots in Orion and
Ursa Major. 17. Most remarkable of all nebula, in Orion. 18. Great oval
nebula in Vulpes, containing two darker nebulae. 19. Nebulous figure in
Canis Venaticus. 20. Nebular clouds in the Southern hemisphere.]

CONSTELLATIONS VISIBLE IN APRIL. At the middle of April, Aries and
Andromeda have set; Taurus, Orion and Canis Major are sinking towards
the west; the Great Bear and the Lion are overhead; Arcturus has risen
in the northeast (Plate 16); and some way to the south of this is seen a
star of the first magnitude, which forms a large triangle with Arcturus
and Denebola. It is called Spica Virginis, and is the chief star in the
constellation Virgo, or the Virgin. The stars on the breast and wings
can be found with the aid of the map.

South of Virgo is a trapezium of four stars, which are in the
constellation of Corvus, or the Crow.

CONSTELLATIONS VISIBLE IN MAY. At the middle of May, Taurus, Orion, and
Canis Major have set; Vega has just come up in the northeast; and
between Vega and Arcturus we again see Hercules and Corona. Below Spica
are two stars of the second magnitude, belonging to the constellation
Libra, or the Balance. Another star of the fourth magnitude forms a
triangle with these, and marks one pan of the balance. (Plate 7).

CONSTELLATIONS VISIBLE IN JUNE. In June we shall find that Canis Minor,
Perseus, Auriga, and Gemini have either set, or are on the point of
setting; Arcturus is overhead; Cygnus and Aquila are just rising.
Ophiuchus is well up; and low in the southeast we see again the red star
Antares, in the constellation Scorpio, or the Scorpion (Plate 6). There
is a star of the third magnitude on each side of Antares, and several
stars of the third and fourth magnitudes in the head and claws. The
configuration of these stars is much like a boy’s kite with a long tail.
Scorpio is a very brilliant constellation, and is seen to better
advantage in July and August.

CONSTELLATIONS VISIBLE IN JULY AND AUGUST. We have now described all the
important constellations visible in our latitude. Those which are seen
in July and August are mainly those described under the last two or
three months, and under September.

SOUTHERN CIRCUMPOLAR CONSTELLATIONS. There are a number of
constellations near the South Pole of the heavens which never rise in
our latitude, just as there are certain ones near the North Pole which
never set. These are called the southern circumpolar constellations.

=CONSTELLATIONS VISIBLE EACH MONTH=

  The following table gives the constellations visible at eight
  o’clock in the evening about the middle of each month. The stars
  opposite the names of the constellations indicate those visible in
  the month designated at the top.

  +-------------------------------------------+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
  |                                           |S|O|N|D|J|F|M|A|M|J|J|A|
  |                                           |e|c|o|e|a|e|a|p|a|u|u|u|
  |           NAME OF CONSTELLATION           |p|t|v|c|n|b|r|r|y|n|l|g|
  |                                           |t|.|.|.|.|.|.|i| |e|y|.|
  |                                           |.| | | | | | |l| | | | |
  +-------------------------------------------+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
  |=Ursa Major= (_er´sa mā´jor_). The Greater | | | | | | | | | | | | |
  |Bear.                                      |*|*|*|*|*|*|*|*|*|*|*|*|
  |=Ursa Minor= (_er´sa mī´nor_). The Lesser  | | | | | | | | | | | | |
  |Bear.                                      |*|*|*|*|*|*|*|*|*|*|*|*|
  |=Draco= (_drak´ō_). Dragon.                |*|*|*|*|*|*|*|*|*|*|*|*|
  |=Cassiopeia= (_kas-si-o-pē´a_). Lady’s     | | | | | | | | | | | | |
  |Chair.                                     |*|*|*|*|*|*|*|*|*|*|*|*|
  |=Cepheus= (_sē´fe-us_).                    |*|*|*|*|*|*|*|*|*|*|*|*|
  |=Bootes= (_bo-ō´tēz_). The Oxdriver or     | | | | | | | | | | | | |
  |Plowman.                                   |*| | | | | | |*|*|*|*|*|
  |=Corona Borealis= (_kō-rō´na bō-rē-ā´lis_).| | | | | | | | | | | | |
  |The Northern Crown.                        |*|*| | | | | | |*|*|*|*|
  |=Ophiuchus= (_of-i-u´kus_). The Serpent    | | | | | | | | | | | | |
  |Bearer.                                    |*| | | | | | | | |*|*|*|
  |=Sagittarius= (_saj-i-tā´ri-us_). The      | | | | | | | | | | | | |
  |Archer.                                    |*| | | | | | | | | |*|*|
  |=Hercules= (_her´ku-lēz_).                 |*|*| | | | | | |*|*|*|*|
  |=Lyra= (_lī´ra_). The Lyre.                |*|*|*| | | | | | |*|*|*|
  |=Aquila= (_ak´wil-a_).                     |*|*|*| | | | | | | |*|*|
  |=Delphinus= (_del´fin-us_). Dolphin.       |*|*|*| | | | | | | |*|*|
  |=Capricornus= (_kap-ri-kor´nus_). The Goat.|*|*|*| | | | | | | | |*|
  |=Cygnus= (_sig´nus_). The Swan.            |*|*|*|*| | | | | |*|*|*|
  |=Sagitta= (_saj´it-ta_). The Arrow.        |*|*|*| | | | | | | |*|*|
  |=Aquarius= (_a-kwā´ri-us_). The Water-     | | | | | | | | | | | | |
  |bearer.                                    |*|*|*|*| | | | | | | | |
  |=Piscis Australis= (_pis´sis aw-strā´lis_).| | | | | | | | | | | | |
  |The Southern Fish.                         |*|*|*|*| | | | | | | | |
  |=Pegasus= (_peg´a-sus_). The Winged Horse. |*|*|*|*|*| | | | | | | |
  |=Andromeda= (_an-drom´e-da_).              |*|*|*|*|*|*|*| | | | | |
  |=Perseus= (_per´sus_).                     |*|*|*|*|*|*|*|*| | | | |
  |=Aries= (_a´ri-ēz_). Ram.                  | |*|*|*|*|*|*| | | | | |
  |=Pisces= (_pis´sēz_). Fishes.              | |*|*|*|*| | | | | | | |
  |=Cetus= (_sē´tus_). The Whale.             | | |*|*|*|*| | | | | | |
  |=Triangulum= (_trī-ang´u-lum_). The        | | | | | | | | | | | | |
  |Triangle.                                  | | |*|*|*|*|*| | | | | |
  |=Auriga= (_aw-ri´ga_). The Waggoner or The | | | | | | | | | | | | |
  |Charioteer.                                | | |*|*|*|*|*|*|*| | | |
  |=Taurus= (_tau´rus_). The Bull.            | | |*|*|*|*|*|*| | | | |
  |=Lepus= (_lep´us_). The Hare.              | | | |*|*|*|*| | | | | |
  |=Orion= (_ō-ri´on_). Giant and Hunter.     | | | |*|*|*|*|*| | | | |
  |=Gemini= (_jem´i-ni_). The Twins.          | | | |*|*|*|*|*|*| | | |
  |=Canis Major= (_kā´nis mā´jor_). The Great | | | | | | | | | | | | |
  |Dog.                                       | | | | |*|*|*|*| | | | |
  |=Canis Minor= (_kā´nis mī´nor_). The Little| | | | | | | | | | | | |
  |Dog.                                       | | | | |*|*|*|*|*| | | |
  |=Cancer= (_kan´ser_). The Crab.            | | | | | |*|*|*|*|*| | |
  |=Hydra= (_hī´dra_). The Snake.             | | | | | |*|*|*|*|*| | |
  |=Leo= (_lē´ō_). The Lion.                  | | | | | |*|*|*|*|*|*| |
  |=Coma Berenices= (_kō´ma ber-e-nī´sēz_).   | | | | | | | | | | | | |
  |Hair of Berenice.                          | | | | | | |*|*|*|*|*|*|
  |=Canes Venatici= (_ka´nēz vē-nā´ti-si_).   | | | | | | | | | | | | |
  |The Hunter’s Dogs.                         | | | | | | |*|*|*|*|*|*|
  |=Virgo= (_ver´gō_). The Virgin.            | | | | | | | |*|*|*|*|*|
  |=Corvus= (_kor´vus_). The crow.            | | | | | | | |*|*|*|*| |
  |=Libra= (_li´bra_). Balance.               | | | | | | | |*|*|*|*| |
  |=Scorpio= (_skor´pi-ō_). The Scorpion.     | | | | | | | | | |*|*|*|
  +-------------------------------------------+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+


THE WONDERFUL MILKY WAY

Everyone knows the Milky Way. It is one of the most striking sights of a
clear night, for only on clear, moonless nights can we see its cloudy
track of light across the heavens. More than any other celestial object
it affects us with a sense of mystery and of unknown destiny as, indeed,
it has affected men at all times and in all countries. To the American
Indian it was the “path of souls.” In ancient mythology it had various
meanings: thus, it was the highway of the gods to Olympus; or it sprang
from the ears of corn dropped by Isis as she fled from her pursuer; or
it marked the original course of the sun, which he later abandoned. In
mediæval times it became associated by pilgrims with their own journeys.

It stretches like a vast ragged semicircle over the sky. Indeed, it
traces a rough circle, for this line is continued over the southern
hemisphere also. The circle is, however, very far from being smooth or
even; the path is full of irregularities. It varies in width to an
extent of about thirty degrees, and varies also considerably in
brightness. Its total area has been estimated to cover rather less than
one-fourth of the whole northern hemisphere of the sky, and to cover
about one-third of the southern hemisphere. Its track lies through the
constellations Cassiopeia and Auriga; it passes between the feet of
Gemini and the horns of Taurus, through Orion just above the giant’s
club, and through the neck and shoulder of Monoceros. It passes above
Sirius into Argo, here entering the southern hemisphere, and through
Argo and the Southern Cross into the Centaur. In the Centaur the Milky
Way divides into two streams, in a manner which suggests the divided
course of a river around an island, a dark rift between the two luminous
streams representing the island.

It is a very long island, however, for the double conformation of the
Milky Way extends over one-third of its entire course--that is to say,
one hundred and twenty degrees of the circle. The divergent branches
reunite in the northern hemisphere in the constellation Cygnus. The
brighter stream passes through Norma, Ara, Scorpio and Sagittarius;
along the bow of Sagittarius into Antinous, here entering the northern
hemisphere again; then through Aquila, Sagitta, and Vulpecula it arrives
at Cygnus and reunion with the branch which left it in Centaur. From
Cygnus the stream, now single, passes through Lacerta and the head of
Cepheus to the point whence we started, in Cassiopeia.

As we follow the Milky Way throughout its course, we find it continually
sending out streaming appendages of nebulous appearance towards
clusters, nebulæ, or groups of stars. In Norma it sends out a
complicated series of nebulous streaks and patches, covering the
Scorpion’s tail, spreading faintly over the leg of Ophiuchus, and
extending beyond, as if to meet a corresponding branch sent off from the
region of Cygnus in the northern hemisphere. The latter is a very bright
and remarkable streak, running south through Cygnus and Aquila, to
become lost in a dim and sparsely starred region. From Cassiopeia a
vivid branch proceeds to the chief star of Perseus, and faint streaks
appear to continue the “feeler” towards the Hyades and the Pleiades.
There are many other “feelers” of the same kind, and they are all of
great interest, because they seem to show some sort of influence
exercised by the Milky Way upon the whole starry universe.

ANCIENT AND MODERN CONCEPTIONS OF THE NATURE OF THE MILKY WAY. Strange
theories as to the nature of the Milky Way have been put forward at
various times. Anaxagoras thought it might be due to the shadow of our
globe; Aristotle, that it was some kind of mist due to the exhalation of
vapors from the earth.

But a grander and truer conception of its nature and situation, removed
far from the earth and independent of any terrestrial cause, had early
come to several minds. Pythagoras and Democritus both formed the
conjecture that its shimmer might be due to innumerable stars, and
Galileo’s telescope confirmed their theory.

As we have seen, the Milky Way is by no means a simple stream of stars;
with careful observation, even the naked eye can perceive something of
its irregular detail, when the atmosphere is unusually clear, and there
is no moon. Viewed under these conditions through a good telescope, the
effect of the Milky Way, when made to pass progressively before the
vision, is one of unexampled grandeur and sublimity.

[Illustration: =THE STARRY GRANDEUR OF THE MILKY WAY=

=COURSE OF THE MILKY WAY THROUGH THE TWO HEMISPHERES OF THE HEAVENS=

These two drawings show the two semi-circles of the Milky Way as they
extend from the regions of the Polar Star to the region of the Southern
Cross on each side of the apparent sphere of the heavens. It will be
noticed that the bright stars congregate near its region, and that there
is a characteristic harmony in the way in which the wisps appear to
project into space, suggesting some common cause for this appearance
throughout the whole galaxy.]

The general effect has been well likened to that of an old, gnarled
tree-trunk, marked with knots and curving lines, and riddled with dark
holes and passages, linked together by shimmering wisps or arches. This
general effect is practically lost as the detail becomes clear in a
telescopic view. The detail is extremely various. At one point it may
consist of separate stars scattered irregularly upon a background of
darkness; at another, of star-clusters, sometimes following one upon
another in long, processional line; at another, the stars seem to
collect in small, soft clouds, presenting the appearance, as the
telescope sweeps over them, of drifting foam.

THE STRANGE, DARK RIFTS IN THE SKYSCAPE WHERE NO STARS APPEAR. At yet
another point the track may be involved in nebulosity in which many
stars appear to be imbedded. Perhaps the most characteristic features
are several which have already been remarked as conspicuous in
star-clusters or nebulæ, such as lines of stars, dark lanes or rifts,
and dark holes. The lines of stars, which are evidently connected by
some actual physical relation, are either straight, curved, radiated, or
in parallels. In Sagittarius is a very striking collection of about
thirty stars resembling in form a forked twig with a curved hook at the
unforked end. The dark rifts in the Milky Way show the same features as
those in star-clusters. Sometimes they are parallel; sometimes they
radiate like branches from a common center; sometimes they are lines
with bright stars; sometimes they are quite black, as if utterly void;
sometimes slightly luminous, as if powdered with small stars.

It can be by no accident or chance that in the vast edifice of the
heavens objects of certain classes should crowd into the belt of the
Milky Way, and other classes avoid it; it points to the whole forming a
single growth, an essential unity. For there is but one belt in the
heavens, like the Milky Way, a belt in which small stars, new stars, and
planetary nebulæ find their favorite home; and that belt encircles the
entire heavens; and similarly that belt is the only region from which
the white nebulæ appear to be repelled. The Milky Way forms the
foundation, the strong and buttressed wall of the celestial building;
the white nebulæ close in the roof of its dome.


NEBULAE AND THE THEORY OF THE UNIVERSE

It has already been observed that a number of stars are arranged in
clusters of groups, while others, like our own sun, are at vast
distances from their nearest neighbors. Some of these clusters, of which
the Pleiades afford the best example to the naked eye, can be resolved
by a keen eye into separate stars; some, like Præsepe in Cancer, which
only show to the naked eye as a hazy spot of light, break up in a good
field-glass into clusters of stars; but the majority of stellar clusters
require a powerful telescope for their resolution.

It was long ago noticed that, the more powerful a telescope was, the
greater was the number of these hazy spots of light which it would
resolve into clusters of stars. Consequently the opinion was formed that
all the hazy little clouds or nebulæ which are so prevalent throughout a
large part of the sky were simply clusters of stars, so far away that
their light merged into a single impression on the eye. A great number
of these nebulæ were only resolved by large telescopes; many were found
to be irresolvable by any telescope. It was simply concluded from this
that they were still more distant than the clusters which had yielded to
the resolving powers of the telescope; and it was further supposed that
each of these clusters of stars might be a separate universe or galaxy,
comparable in extent and importance with our own universe, bounded by
the vast girdle of the Milky Way.

THE NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS. This grand conception of innumerable universes
scattered throughout space was speedily destroyed by the spectroscope,
which distinguishes with entire certainty between the light sent to us
from a solid star and that emitted by a gas. When it was turned upon the
nebulæ which had been supposed in reality to be star-clusters so distant
that no telescope could resolve them, it showed unmistakably that these
nebulæ were not star-groups, but simply masses of incandescent gas.

Besides, nebulæ vary greatly in form and appearance; some are clearly
clusters of stars, others are perfectly hazy. A round or oval form is
sometimes exhibited, with a gradual condensation towards the center, and
a number of stars standing in the center of a nebulous haze can be
observed. Such observations on nebulæ caused Kant and Laplace to suggest
a theory--now known as the nebular theory--as to the formation of
worlds. They considered that the solar system, for example, originally
existed as uncondensed nebulous matter. This gradually condensed towards
the center, forming the nucleus of the sun, and later the outer parts
separated into distinct parts, each part condensing into a planet. The
different forms of nebulæ observed in the heavens are then supposed to
be systems in different stages of development.


THE VARIED COLOR OF THE STARS

Many of the stars shine with colored light, as red, blue, green, or
yellow.

These colors are exhibited in striking contrast in many of the double
stars. Combinations of blue and yellow, or green and yellow, are not
uncommon; while in fewer cases we find one star white and the other
purple, or one white and the other red. In several instances each star
has a rosy light.

The following are a few of the most interesting colored double stars:

                   Color of      Color of Smaller
  Name of Star    Larger One           One

  γ Andromedæ     Orange          Sea-Green.
  α Piscium       Pale Green      Blue.
  β Cygni         Yellow          Sapphire Blue.
  η Cassiopeiæ    Yellow          Purple.
  σ Cassiopeiæ    Greenish        Bright Blue.
  ζ Coronæ        White           Light Purple.
  ι Cancri        Orange          Blue.
  α Herculis      Orange          Emerald Green.

Single stars of a fiery red or deep orange color are common enough. Of
the first color may be mentioned Aldebaran, Antares and Betelgeuse.
Arcturus is a good example of an orange star. Isolated stars of a deep
blue or green color are very rarely found; among the conspicuous stars,
β Libræ appears to be the only instance.

It is now a well-established fact that the stars change their color.
Sirius was described as a fiery red star by the ancients, is now decided
green color.

=NAMES OF IMPORTANT STARS=

INCLUDING THOSE OF FIRST MAGNITUDE

  Individual                                   Constellation in
    Name            Meaning                       Which Found

  Achernar    The End of The River            α Eridani.
  Alcor       The Near One                    80 Ursæ Majoris.
  Alcyone     Daughter of Atlas and Pleione   η Tauri.
  Aldebaran   The Follower                    α Tauri.
  Algenib     The Side                        γ Pegasi.
  Algol       The Demon Star                  β Persei.
  Alioth      The Tail (of the Sheep)         ε Ursæ Majoris.
  Altair      The Soaring Eagle               α Aquilæ.
  Antares     The Rival of Mars               α Scorpii.
  Arcturus    The Watcher of the Bear         α Boötis.
  Bellatrix   The Woman Warrior               γ Orionis.
  Betelgeux   The Shoulder of the Giant       α Orionis.
  Canopus     The Pilot of Menelaus           α Argûs.
  Capella     The Goat                        α Aurigæ.
  Caph        The Hand                        β Cassiopeiæ.
  Castor      Son of Zeus and Leda            α Geminorum.
  Cor Caroli  Charles’ Heart                  α Canum Ven.
  Deneb       The Tail                        α Cygni.
  Denebola    The Lion’s Tail                 β Leonis.
  Dubhe       The Bear                        α Ursæ Majoris.
  Fomalhaut   The Fish’s Mouth                α Piscis Australis.
  Markab      The Saddle                      α Pegasi.
  Mira Ceti   The Wonderful Star of Cetus     ο Ceti.
  Mizar       The Girdle                      ζ Ursæ Majoris.
  Polaris     The Pole Star                   α Ursæ Minoris.
  Pollux      Son of Zeus and Leda            β Geminorum.
  Procyon     Before the Dog                  α Canis Minoris.
  Regulus     The Little King                 α Leonis.
  Rigel       The Foot                        β Orionis.
  Sirius      Chief                           α Canis Majoris.
  Spica       The Ear of Corn                 α Virginis.
  Vega        The Swooping Eagle              α Lyræ.


WHAT CAUSES THE ECLIPSES

When the earth is between the moon and the sun in a line, the moon lies
in the shadow of the earth, and so suffers temporary obscuration; a
_lunar eclipse_ then takes place. When the moon passes between the earth
and the sun, the latter is at certain places on the earth obscured by
the dark body of the moon, and a _solar eclipse_ takes place.

LUNAR ECLIPSES. The shadow cast by the earth is conical, and may be
shown to extend about one million miles from its surface. At a distance
of a quarter of a million miles away the width of this shadow is about
six thousand miles; and if the moon passes into it at that approximate
distance from the earth, its disc of two thousand miles diameter may be
partially or totally obscured. The moon and sun may be on opposite sides
of the earth, and yet the former not in shadow. This is due to the fact
that the moon’s orbit round the earth is not exactly in the same plane
as that of the earth’s orbit round the sun. If it were so, we should
have total eclipses at every full moon; but since the two planes are
inclined to each other at an angle of 5° 9′, eclipses will occur when
the moon is at or near its _nodes_ or positions of coincidence with the
plane of the ecliptic. Partial eclipses are produced when only a portion
of the moon passes into shadow; annular eclipses such as are sometimes
observed in the case of the sun cannot occur with the moon.

[Illustration: =GIANT SHADOWS CAST BY THE EARTH AND MOON=

=HOW THE MOON THROWS ITS SHADOW ON THE EARTH, SHUTTING OFF THE LIGHT OF
THE SUN=]

[Illustration: =HOW THE MOON COMES BETWEEN THE EARTH AND SUN, CAUSING
THE SHADOW SHOWN ABOVE=]

[Illustration: =HOW THE EARTH THROWS ITS SHADOW ACROSS THE MOON=

On its way through space the moon passes sometimes between the sun and
the earth, shutting off the sunlight from the earth, as shown in the top
picture. The drawing in the middle shows us that the moon does not hide
the sunlight from the whole of the earth, but only from a part of it.
But in the part from which the sun is hid the moon’s shadow makes day so
dark that we can see the stars. We call this an eclipse of the sun.
Sometimes, too, the earth passes between the moon and the sun so as to
cut off all sunlight from the moon, as shown in the bottom picture. We
call this an eclipse of the moon.]

SOLAR ECLIPSES. The shadow cast by the moon is also conical, and extends
over a slightly varying distance of about a quarter of a million miles
from the moon’s surface. This being the approximate distance of the moon
from the earth, it is seen that when the moon is between the earth and
the sun the shadow may reach the earth. The extreme limit of the shadow
may range from twenty-three thousand miles short of the earth, in which
case an entire eclipse of the sun is impossible, to fifteen thousand
miles beyond the earth. In the latter case a circular shadow will be
projected on the surface of the globe, travelling onwards slowly in the
direction of the motion of the moon. Within this shadow or _umbra_ the
body of the sun cannot be observed, and a total eclipse prevails. A
circular region exists round this shadow, in which only part of the sun
is visible; this region is therefore partly in shadow, and is called the
_penumbra_. Outside the penumbra the whole sun may be viewed; the moon’s
shadow is not nearly large enough to render a solar eclipse co-existent
over all parts of the earth’s face towards the sun.


THE MYTHOLOGY OF THE CONSTELLATIONS

To the Greeks the starry heavens were an illustrated mythological poem.
Every constellation was a picture, connected with some old fable of gods
or heroes.

The two Bears have one story. Callisto was a nymph beloved by Jupiter,
who changed her into a she-bear to save her from the jealous wrath of
Juno. But Juno learned the truth, and induced Diana to kill the bear in
the chase. Jupiter then placed her among the stars as Ursa Major, and
her son Arcas afterwards became Ursa Minor. Juno, indignant at the honor
thus shown the objects of her hatred, persuaded Tethys and Oceanus to
forbid the Bears to descend, like the other stars, into the sea.

According to Ovid, Juno changed Callisto into a bear; and when Arcas, in
hunting, was about to kill his mother, Jupiter placed both among the
stars.

Ursa Minor was also called Phœnice, because the Phœnicians made it their
guide in navigation, while the Greeks preferred the Great Bear for that
purpose. It was also known as Cynosura (dog’s tail) from its resemblance
to the upturned curl of a dog’s tail. The Great Bear was sometimes
called Helice (winding), either from its shape or its curved path.

Boötes (the Herdsman) was also called Arctophylax and Arcturus, both of
which names mean the guard or keeper of the bear. According to some of
the stories, Boötes was Arcas; according to others, he was Icarus, the
unfortunate son of Dædalus. The name Arcturus was afterwards given to
the chief star of the constellation.

Cepheus, Cassiopeia, Andromeda, Perseus, and Pegasus are a group of
star-pictures illustrating a single story.

Cepheus and Cassiopeia were the king and queen of Ethiopia, and had a
very beautiful daughter, Andromeda. Her mother boasted that the maiden
was fairer than the Nereids, who in their anger persuaded Neptune to
send a sea-monster to ravage the shores of Ethiopia. To appease the
offended deities Andromeda, by the command of an oracle, was exposed to
this monster. The hero Perseus rescued her and married her.

Pegasus, the winged horse, sprang from the blood of the frightful
Gorgon, Medusa, whom Perseus had slain not long before he rescued
Andromeda from the sea-monster. According to the most ancient account,
Pegasus became the horse of Jupiter, for whom he carried the thunder and
lightning; but he afterward came to be considered the horse of Aurora,
and finally of the Muses. Modern poets rarely speak of him except as
connected with the Muses.

The Dragon, according to some of the poets, was the one that guarded the
golden apples of the Hesperides; according to others, the monster sacred
to Mars which Cadmus killed in Bœotia.

The Lyre is said to be the one which Apollo gave to Orpheus. After the
death of Orpheus, Jupiter placed it among the stars at the intercession
of Apollo and the Muses.

The Crown was the bridal gift of Bacchus to Ariadne, transferred to the
heavens after her death.

Aquila is probably the eagle into which Merops was changed. It was
placed among the stars by Juno. Some, however, make it the Eagle of
Jupiter.

Cygnus or Cycnus, according to Ovid, was a relative of Phaëthon. While
lamenting the unhappy fate of his kinsman on the banks of the Eridanus,
he was changed by Apollo into a swan, and placed among the stars.

Sagittarius was said by the Greeks to be the Centaur Cheiron, the
instructor of Peleus, Achilles and Diomed. It is pretty certain,
however, that all the zodiacal constellations are of Egyptian origin,
and represent twelve Egyptian deities who presided over the months of
the year. Thus Aries was Jupiter Ammon; Taurus, the bull Apis; Gemini,
the inseparable gods Horus and Harpocrates; and so on. The Greeks
adopted the figures, and invented stories of their own to explain them.

Scorpio, in the Egyptian zodiac, represented the monster Typhon.
Originally this constellation extended also over the space now filled by
Libra.

Ophiuchus represents Æsculpius, the god of medicine. Serpents were
sacred to him, probably because they were a symbol of prudence and
renovation, and were believed to have the power of discovering herbs of
wondrous powers.

Aquarius, in Greek fable, was Ganymede, the Phrygian boy who became the
cup-bearer of the gods in place of Hebe.

Taurus, as has been stated above, was the Egyptian Apis. The Greeks made
it the bull which carried off Europa. The Pleiades are usually called
the daughters of Atlas, whence their name Atlantides. Milton speaks of
them as “the seven Atlantic Sisters.”

According to one legend the seventh was Sterope, who became invisible
because she had loved a mortal; according to another, her name was
Electra, and she left her place that she might not witness the downfall
of Troy, which was founded by her son, Dardanus.

The Hyades, according to one of several stories, were sisters of the
Pleiades. The name probably means “the Rainy,” since their rising
announced wet weather.

Cetus is said by most writers to be the sea-monster from which Perseus
rescued Andromeda.

Orion was a famous giant and hunter, who loved the daughter of Oinopion,
King of Chios. As her father was slow to consent to her marriage, Orion
attempted to carry off the maiden; whereupon Oinopion, with the help of
Bacchus, put out his eyes. But the hero, in obedience to an oracle,
exposed his eye-balls to the rays of the rising sun, and thus regained
his sight. The accounts of his subsequent life, and of his death, are
various and conflicting. According to some, Aurora loved him and carried
him off; but, as the gods were angry at this, Diana killed him with an
arrow. Others say that Diana loved him, and that Apollo, indignant at
his sister’s affection for the hero, once pointed out a distant object
on the surface of the sea, and challenged her to hit it. It was the head
of Orion swimming, and the unerring shot of the goddess pierced it with
a fatal wound. Another fable asserts that Orion boasted that he would
conquer every animal; but the earth sent forth a scorpion which
destroyed him.

Canis Major and Minor are the dogs of Orion, and are pursuing the Hare.

The Twins, Castor and Pollux, the sons of Jupiter and Leda, are the
theme of many a fable. They were especially worshipped as the protectors
of those who sailed the seas, for Neptune had rewarded their brotherly
love by giving them power over winds and waves, that they might assist
the shipwrecked.

Leo, according to the Greek story, was the famous Nemean lion slain by
Hercules. Jupiter placed it in the heavens in honor of the exploit.

The Hydra also commemorates one of the twelve labors of Hercules--the
destruction of the hundred-headed monster of the Lernæan lake.

Virgo represents Astræa, the goddess of innocence and purity, or, as
some say, of justice. She was the last of the gods to withdraw from
earth at the close of “the golden age.”

Libra, or the Balance, is the emblem of justice, and is usually
associated with the fable of Astræa.

Argo Navis is the famous ship in which Jason and his companions sailed
to find the Golden Fleece.

This slight sketch of the leading fables connected with the
constellations will serve to show how completely the Greeks
“nationalized the heavens.”


SCIENTIFIC TERMS USED IN ASTRONOMY

=Astronomy= (_as-tron´om-i_). The science which treats of the heavenly
bodies, explaining the motions, times and causes of the motions,
distances, magnitudes, gravities, light, etc., of the sun, moon, and
stars, the nature and causes of the eclipses of the sun and moon, the
conjunction and apposition of the planets, and any other of their mutual
aspects, with the times when they did or will happen.

       *       *       *       *       *

=Aberration= (_ab-er-ā´shun_). A small apparent motion of the fixed
stars, occasioned by the progressive motion of light and the earth’s
annual motion in its orbit. By this they sometimes appear twenty seconds
distant from their true situation.

=Amplitude= (_am´pli-tud_). An arc of the horizon intercepted between
the true east and west points and the center of the sun, or a star at
its rising or setting.

=Anomaly= (_an-om´al-i_). The angular distance of a planet from its
perihelion, as seen from the sun; either true, mean, or eccentric.

=Aphelion= (_af-ēl´yun_). That point of a planet’s orbit which is most
distant from the sun.

=Apogee= (_ap´o-jē_). That point in the orbit of the moon which is at
the greatest distance from the earth.

=Apparition= (_ap-par-ish´un_). The first appearance of a star or other
luminary after having been obscured.

=Ap´pulse=. The approach of a planet towards a conjunction with the sun
or any of the fixed stars.

=Apsis= (_ap´sis_). The two points of a planet’s orbit in which it is at
its greatest and least distance from the sun.

=Aquarius= (_a-kwā´ri-us_). The eleventh sign of the zodiac, which the
sun enters about the 21st of January.

=Asteroids= (_as´ter-oids_). The small planets that circulate between
the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.

=Ax´is= (_ax´is_). The imaginary line passing through the center and
poles of the earth, on which it performs its diurnal revolutions from
west to east.

=Azimuth= (_az´im-uth_). An arc of the horizon intercepted between the
meridian of the place and the vertical circle passing through the center
of a celestial object.

=Can´cer=. The fourth sign of the zodiac, being that of the summer
solstice, which the sun enters about the 21st of June.

=Capricorn= (_kap´ri-korn_). The tenth sign of the zodiac, which the sun
enters about the 21st of December, at the winter solstice.

=Colure= (_kol´ur_). Two great circles, supposed to intersect each other
at right angles in the poles of the world, one of them passing through
the solstitial and the other through the equinoctial points of the
ecliptic, viz., Cancer and Capricorn, Aries and Libra, dividing the
ecliptic into four equal parts.

=Coma= (_kō´ma_). A dense, nebulous covering, which surround the nucleus
or body of a comet.

=Com´et=. A member of the solar system, commonly consisting of three
parts: the nucleus, the envelope or coma, and the tail; but one or more
of these parts is frequently wanting.

=Conjunc´tion=. The meeting of two heavenly bodies in the same point or
place in the heavens.

=Constella´tion=. A number of stars which appear as if situated near
each other in the heavens, and are considered as forming a particular
division.

=Cynosure= (_sin´o-shōōr_ or _sī´_). A name of the constellation Ursa
Minor, or the Lesser Bear, which contains, in the tail, the pole star by
which mariners are guided.

=Declination= (_dek-lin-a´shun_). Distance of any object from the
celestial equator, either northward or southward.

=Disk=. The face or visible projection of a celestial body, usually
predicated of the sun, moon, or planets; but the stars have also
apparent disks.

=Eclipse´=. An obscuration or interception of the light of the sun,
moon, or other luminous body.

=Eclip´tic=. The great circle of the heavens which the sun appears to
describe in his annual revolution.

=Equa´tor=. The great circle of the sphere, equally distant from the two
poles of the world, or having the same poles as the world.

=Equinox= (_ē´kwi-noks_). The precise time when the sun enters one of
the equinoctial points, making the day and night of equal length.

=Faculae= (_fa´ku-lē_). Certain spots sometimes seen on the sun’s disk,
which appear brighter than the rest of his surface.

=Fixed Stars=. Those which retain the same or very nearly the same
position with respect to each other.

=Gal´axy=. The Milky-Way.

=Gemini= (_jem´i-nī_). The third sign or constellation in the zodiac,
which the sun enters about the 21st of May.

=Geocentric= (_jē-o-sen´trik_) =Par´allax=. The apparent change of a
body’s place that would arise from a change of the spectator’s station
from the surface to the center of the earth.

=Ha´lo=. A luminous circle, usually prismatically colored round the sun
or moon, and supposed to be caused by the refraction of light through
crystals of ice in the atmosphere.

=Heliocentric= (_hē-li-o-sen´trik_) =Par´allax=. The arc of the great
circle of the celestial sphere, drawn from the heliocentric to the
geocentric place of a body.

=Heliometer= (_hē-li-om´e-ter_). An instrument for measuring with
exactness the apparent diameter of the sun, moon, planets, etc.

=Hori´zon=. A circle touching the earth at the place of the spectator,
and bounded by the line in which the earth and skies seem to meet.

=Le´o= (Lat., the Lion). The fifth sign of the zodiac which the sun
enters about the 22d of July.

=Libra= (_lī´bra_), the Balance. The seventh sign of the zodiac, which
the sun enters at the autumnal equinox, in September.

=Luna´tion=. The period of a revolution of the moon round the earth, or
the time from one new moon to the next.

=Maculae= (_mak´u-lē_). Dark spots on the surfaces of sun and moon, and
on some of the planets.

=Moon=. A secondary planet or satellite of the earth, whose light,
borrowed from the sun, serves to dispel the darkness of night.

=Nadir= (_nā´dir_). The point of the heavens or lower hemisphere
directly opposite the zenith.

=Neb´ulae= (_neb´u-lē_). Misty appearances among the stars, usually, but
not always, resolved by telescope into myriads of small stars.

=Nodes= (_nōdes_). The two points in which the orbit of a planet
intersects the ecliptic.

=Nuta´tion=. A vibratory motion of the earth’s axis, arising from
periodical fluctuations in the obliquity of the ecliptic.

=Occulta´tion=. The hiding of a heavenly body from our sight by the
intervention of some other of the heavenly bodies.

=Or´bit=. The path described by a heavenly body in its periodical
revolution.

=Par´allax=. The change of place in a heavenly body in consequence of
being viewed from different points.

=Penum´bra=. A partial shadow or obscurity on the margin of the perfect
shadow in an eclipse, or between the perfect shadow, where the light is
entirely intercepted, and the full light.

=Perigee= (_per´i-jē_). That point in the orbit of the sun or moon in
which it is at the least distance from the earth.

=Perihelion= (_per-i-hē´li-on_). That part of the orbit of a planet or
comet in which it is at its least distance from the sun.

=Plan´et=. The name given to a few bright and conspicuous stars which
are constantly changing their apparent situations in the celestial
sphere.

=Precession= (_pre-sesh´un_) =of the Equinoxes=. A continual shifting of
the equinoctial points from east to west.

=Radius Vector=. An imaginary line joining the center of the sun and the
center of a body revolving about it.

=Retrocession= (_rē-tro-sesh´un_) =of the Equinoxes=. The going backward
of the equinoctial points.

=Sagittarius= (_saj-i-tā´ri-us_). One of the twelve signs of the zodiac,
which the sun enters about November 22.

=Sat´ellite=. A small planet revolving round another planet.

=Scor´pio=. The eighth sign of the zodiac, which the sun enters about
October 23.

=Selenography= (_sel-en-og´raf-i_). The description of the surface of
the moon.

=Sign=. The twelfth part of the ecliptic.

=Solstice= (_sol´stis_). The time when the sun, in its annual
revolution, arrives at that point in the ecliptic farthest north or
south of the equator, or reaches its greatest northern or southern
declination.

=Star=. An apparently small, luminous body in the heavens, that shines
in the night, or when its light is not obscured by clouds or lost in the
brighter effulgence of the sun.

=Sun=. The central body of our system, about which all the planets and
comets revolve, and by which their motions are regulated and controlled.

=Taurus= (_taw´rus_). The second sign of the zodiac, which the sun
enters about the 20th of April.

=Virgo= (_ver´go_). The sixth sign of the zodiac, which the sun enters
in August.

=Ze´nith=. The point in the heavens directly overhead.



BOOK OF THE EARTH


  THE EARTH AS A PLANET

  ITS STRUCTURE: INTERIOR, CRUST, ROCKS, FOSSILS, HEAT

  GEOLOGICAL VIEW OF GROWTH OF THE EARTH

  SURFACE OF THE EARTH: LAND FORMS: CONTINENTS, ISLANDS,
  MOUNTAINS, PLAINS; WATER FORMS: SPRINGS, RIVERS, LAKES,
  OCEANS

  CELEBRATED MOUNTAIN PEAKS AND RANGES

  ATMOSPHERE, CLIMATE AND WEATHER

  NATURAL WONDERS AND FORCES: VOLCANOES, EARTHQUAKES,
  GEYSERS, CAVERNS, WATERFALLS, WHIRLPOOLS, TIDES, DESERTS,
  OCEAN DEPTHS, CLOUDS, SEASONS, GLACIERS, ICEBERGS, SNOW,
  RAIN, HAIL, DEW, CORAL ISLANDS AND REEFS

  DICTIONARY OF MINERAL PRODUCTS

  TABLES FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF MINERALS

  GEMS AND PRECIOUS STONES

  PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS
  ABOUT THE EARTH

  NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS, CHARTS AND MAPS

  +--------------+--------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Life Ages of |=Pictorial Diagram Showing|=Rocks and Strata to      |
  |the Earth=    |the Corresponding Forms of|which they belong=        |
  |              |Animal and Plant Life, and|                          |
  |              |Rock Strata in the Earth’s|                          |
  |              |Crust.=                   |                          |
  +--------------+--------------------------+------------------+-------+
  |=Cenozoic=,   |                          |Alluvium, Gravel, |=Ceno- |
  |or Recent     |                          |Mud, Sand, Clay,  |zoic=  |
  |Life. Age     |                          |Marl, Limestone.  |       |
  |of Mammals.   |                          |                  |       |
  +--------------+                          +------------------+-------+
  |=Mesozoic=,   |                          |Chalk, Gault,     |=Meso- |
  |or Middle     |                          |Green Sand, Oo-   |zoic=  |
  |Life. Age     |                          |lite, Clays and   |       |
  |of Reptiles.  |                          |Limestone, China  |       |
  |              |                          |Clay, Shales,     |       |
  |              |                          |Cement, Sandstone,|       |
  |              |                          |Pervian.          |       |
  +--------------+                          +------------------+-------+
  |=Paleozoic=,  |      [Illustration]      |Coal Massives,    |=Paleo-|
  |or Old Life.  |                          |Upper and Lower.  |zoic=  |
  |Age of In-    |                          |Millstone, Grit,  |       |
  |vertebrates.  |                          |Mountain, Lime-   |       |
  |Age of Fishes.|                          |stone, Old Red    |       |
  |Age of        |                          |Sand Stone, Iron  |       |
  |Acrogens.     |                          |Ore, Gypsum, Gas, |       |
  |              |                          |Lead, Zinc, Phos- |       |
  |              |                          |phate, Marble,    |       |
  |              |                          |Sandstone, Shales,|       |
  |              |                          |Copper.           |       |
  +--------------+                          +------------------+-------+
  |=Proterozoic=,|                          |Copper, Silver,   |=Pro-  |
  |or Earlier    |                          |Lake Superior Iron|tero-  |
  |Life. Earliest|                          |Ores, and many    |zoic=  |
  |Forms of Life.|                          |Metals. Granite,  |       |
  |              |                          |Schists. Emery,   |       |
  |              |                          |Gems, and Building|       |
  |              |                          |Stone.            |       |
  +--------------+--------------------------+------------------+-------+
  1. Sivatherium, (_siv-a-thē´-ri-um_). 2. Mastodon, (_mas´tō-don_).
  3. Elephas, (_el´e-fas_). 4. Palæotherium, (_pā-lē-ō-thē´-ri-um_).
  5. Pterodactyl, (_ter-ō-dak´tīl_). 6. Ammonites, (_am´mo-nitz_).
  7. Plesiosaurus, (_plē-zi-ō-saw´rus_). 8. Ichthyosaurus, (_ik-thi-
  ō-saw´rus_). 9. Carboniferous, (_kär’bŏn-ĭf´ēr-ŭs_) fern.
  10. Lepidodendron, (_lep-ī-dō-den´dron_). 11. Calamites, (_kal´a-mits_
  or _kal´a-mī´tēz_). 12. Labyrinthodon, (_lab-i-rin´thō-don_).
  13. Acanthodus, (_a-kan-thō´dus_). 14. Diplacanthus, (_dip-la-kan´
  thus_). 15. Lepidosteus, (_lep-i-dos´te-us_). 16. Climatius, (_clī-
  măi´tē-us_). 17. Zosterites, (_zos-ter-i´tēz_). 18. Goniatites, (_gō-
  ni-a-tī´tēz_). 19. Strophomena, (_strō-phŏm´ĕ-na_).


BOOK OF THE EARTH

  Science tells us that the Earth was once a shining star, a globe of
  liquid fire. As it cooled down, a crust formed over its surface,
  composed chiefly of rocks and metals. This crust was rent by the
  force of the gases shut up within, and thus the mountains, valleys,
  gorges, and volcanoes were formed. The Earth, indeed, is still
  upheaving and subsiding, but so slowly that we rarely feel it.
  Through these agencies the distribution of land and water on the
  surface of the earth has undergone great changes. The shape of the
  Earth is that of a sphere somewhat flattened at the poles, and it
  has a diameter of about 8,000 miles. The solid crust is called the
  _lithosphere_--which is surrounded by an envelope of air--the
  _atmosphere_--and in part by an envelope of water--the
  _hydrosphere_.

[Illustration: =HOW THE EARTH WOULD APPEAR IF CUT THROUGH THE CENTER=

Beneath the rocky crust of the earth, thirty-five miles in thickness,
there is a broad belt of heavier material to a depth of nine hundred
miles. Within this shell lies the great metallic core.]


OUR EARTH: ITS STRUCTURE AND SURFACE

Our first glimpse of the earth as a planet shows it as a nebulous star,
still intensely hot, and with no solid nucleus, rotating on its own
axis, and at the same time revolving around the sun in a nearly circular
orbit.


WHAT THE HEAT OF THE EARTH SHOWS

At first it seems hardly possible that the earth could have been a star.
But, if we go down beneath the surface of the earth, we find that at a
depth of forty or fifty feet there is very slight variation in
temperature. When we go yet deeper, as in mines, we find that the earth
grows hotter as we descend. The temperature increases on an average
about one degree Fahrenheit for every sixty-four feet descent. But this
amount is variable according to the locality, geological formation, and
dip of strata. In the Calumet and Hecla Mine, observations show an
increase of one degree in about every one hundred and twenty-five feet.
At Paris, the water from a depth of 1794 feet has a temperature of
eighty-two degrees; at Salzwerth, in Germany, from a depth of 2144 feet,
a temperature of ninety-one degrees. Natural hot springs, rising from
unknown depths, are sometimes scalding hot. One in Arkansas has a
temperature of one hundred and eighty degrees.

At a depth of twenty miles, with this continual increase of temperature,
the ground must be fully red-hot; and not very much farther down the
heat must be sufficient to melt every known substance. The solid earth,
then, is merely a thin crust, covering a sea of liquid fire below. The
streams of lava poured forth from volcanoes are a proof of the existence
of this molten mass beneath our feet.


WHAT CAUSES THE INTERNAL HEAT OF THE EARTH

If we examine the solid crust of the earth we shall not long be at a
loss in regard to the origin of this internal heat. We are all familiar
with the burning of coal. Now coal is mainly a substance called
_carbon_, and when it burns it unites with _oxygen_, one of the gases in
the air. Many rarer substances, such as silicon, and the metals
magnesium, calcium, and sodium, are even more inflammable than carbon,
and in burning give rise to solid products. Now the rocks in the earth
are found to be made up almost wholly of these very inflammable
substances combined with oxygen. The solid portions of the earth, then,
are nothing but the ashes and cinders of a great conflagration. Even the
waters are made up of hydrogen, one of the most inflammable substances,
united with this same oxygen, and, strange as it may seem, they too, are
the products of combustion. When, therefore, the materials of which the
earth is formed were burning, our planet must have been a fiery star,
and the great heat must have reduced all the products of the
conflagration to a liquid state.


HOW THE EARTH’S CRUST WAS FORMED

When the fire went out for lack of fuel the mass began to cool at the
surface, and a solid crust was finally formed, which with the lapse of
time became thicker and thicker. This crust shut in the steam and gases
generated in the fiery ocean underneath; and these, acting upon the
crust with enormous pressure, heaved it into ridges. At times the strain
caused the crust to crack, and forced the melted mass up through it, and
in this way hills and mountains were formed. The thicker the crust the
greater the strain it would bear before it gave way, and the greater the
amount of molten matter driven out through the rent. The highest
mountains, then, are the last that were uplifted. In some cases the
openings thus made in the crust were never completely closed, and thus
volcanoes were formed. These act like safety-valves, and prevent the
forces within from accumulating sufficiently to cause fresh rents. But
notwithstanding the relief thus given to the pent-up forces, they still
manifest themselves in earthquakes.


SHAPE OF THE EARTH A SPHEROID

Like all other planets, the earth is a solid sphere that has undergone a
slight flattening at the opposite extremities or poles of the axis of
revolution. More accurately, it is an oblate spheroid generated by the
rotation of an ellipse about its minor axis. Such a figure would be
assumed by a sphere of liquid rotating about a diameter, centrifugal
force acting most vigorously at the equator, and tending to overcome the
internal forces that keep the molecules together.


SIZE AND DENSITY OF THE EARTH

The smallest diameter of the earth is that measured from pole to pole
along the axis of rotation; this is 7,899.6 miles, or about 500,000,000
inches. The greatest diameters are those measured between opposite
points on the equator; these are 7,926.6 miles, and, therefore, show
that the eccentricity of the earth, or the extent of its departure from
the perfect sphere, is very slight.

The circumference of the earth, measured along the equator, is 24,899
miles; the area is 197,000,000 square miles; and the volume is
260,000,000,000 cubic miles. Experiments on the comparative attraction
of the earth show that its density is about five and one-half times
that of pure water. Its mass is, therefore, approximately six thousand
trillion tons.


HOW WE KNOW THE EARTH IS A SPHERE

The ordinary proofs of the sphericity of the earth are: (1) It can be
circumnavigated; (2) the appearance of a vessel at sea always indicates
a nearer convexity of the earth’s surface; (3) the sea-horizon is always
depressed equally in all directions when viewed from an elevation; (4)
the elevation of the pole star increases as we travel northwards from
the equator; (5) the shadow of the earth on the moon during a lunar
eclipse is spherical.


THE ROTATION OF THE EARTH

The earth rotates uniformly about its axis. The time taken to make a
complete revolution of three hundred and sixty degrees is called a
sidereal day, for it is the interval of time between consecutive
transits of any distant star across any meridian of the earth. The time
between consecutive transits of the sun across any meridian is called a
solar day; the average of these throughout the whole year is called a
mean solar day, and is the practical standard of time adopted by
civilized nations. The ordinary proofs that the earth rotates are: (1)
Bodies falling from a great height have an easterly deviation; (2)
Foucault’s pendulum experiment; (3) a gyroscope delicately balanced so
as to be free to change the direction of its axis in any way will, if
rotated, exhibit an apparent deviation; (4) in northern hemispheres a
projectile deviates to the right, in southern hemispheres to the left;
(5) the trade winds; (6) Dove’s law of wind-change.

The speed of a body on the equator, due to the diurnal rotation, is
about 1,000 miles an hour. The centrifugal force due to this speed
diminishes the weight of bodies; if the earth rotated in an hour, they
would be thrown off from the surface at the equator.

The axis of the earth is not perpendicular to the ecliptic, but at angle
of 66° 32′ to it; the equator is, therefore, inclined to it at an angle
of 23° 28′. This unsymmetrical placing of the bulging portions of the
earth causes a slow wobbling, or precession of its axis, in the same
sort of way as a spinning top will wobble when pushed over on one side.
There is also a slight vibration or “nodding” motion of the earth’s
axis, known as nutation. The period of each precession is about
twenty-one thousand years; if the earth’s orbit occupied a constant
position in its plane, the periods would be twenty-six thousand years
each. These motions have considerable influence on climate, the modern
theories of the Ice Age being connected with the known facts of
precessional motion.


THE EARTH A SERIES OF SHELLS OF MATTER

The great bulk of the earth consists of the _lithosphere_, or solid
globe of rocks, with which geology properly deals. It is on the part of
this lithosphere, composing a little more than a quarter of the earth’s
whole area--55,500,000 square miles--which rises above the seas and is
called land, that mankind lives.

The central core is a globe of about 7600 miles in diameter, which is
composed of iron and other elements, probably not forming compounds, in
the gaseous state, but exposed to such tremendous pressure that it
behaves as a solid and extremely rigid body. Outside this core is a
shell of liquid matter which consists of all the rocks which we know at
the surface in a state of fusion, perhaps one hundred miles in
thickness. Upon this magma floats the solid crust, thirty or forty miles
thick, which is composed of various rocks, breaking down at the surface
into soil. Three-fourths of the surface of this crust are covered by the
water of the oceans, the hydrosphere, the rest being dry land. Outside
all comes the atmospheric mantle, chiefly composed of air, which
supports life, acts as a blanket to keep the earth warm, and as a shield
against the blows of meteorites.


HOW THE EARTH’S CRUST IS CONSTRUCTED

An examination of the Earth’s crust shows us that it is constructed of
numerous strata of rocks, some of limestone, some of sandstone, and some
of clay; and some are very hard, others soft and crumbling, and readily
worn away by the action of running streams or the waves of the ocean. To
these several substances which form the materials of the earth’s crust
we give the name _rock_. Hence we see that while in ordinary language
the word rock denotes a great mass of hard stone, in geology a rock is
any mass of natural substance forming part of the earth’s crust. In this
sense, loose sand, gravel, and soft clay are as much rocks as hard
limestone and granite.

[Illustration: =Granite=

=Porphyry=

=Basalt=

=Hornblende=

=COMPOSITION AND TEXTURE OF STONE AS REVEALED BY THE MICROSCOPE=]


MATERIALS OF WHICH ROCKS ARE COMPOSED

Rocks are formed of various materials called minerals. If we take a
piece of sandstone rock, or a piece of granite, we shall probably be
able to notice that the rock is made up of different substances.

On looking at a piece of _sandstone_, for example, especially if we use
a magnifying glass, we see that it is composed of little rounded grains
of a glassy-looking substance cemented together. In some specimens these
grains are larger than in others. This cementing material is not the
same in all sandstones, but in our specimen it is formed of _calcium
carbonate_, for when we drop a little diluted hydrochloric acid on the
rock there is an effervescence. The cementing material is dissolved, but
the little rounded grains, which consist of _quartz_, are not affected
by the acid. The sandstone, then, consists of quartz grains cemented
together by calcium carbonate. It is called a calcareous sandstone.

Now take a piece of granite, and break it with a hammer to get a
clean-cut face. On looking at this face we see that the rock is made up
of _three_ different substances.

One of these has a glassy appearance like the grains in the sandstone,
and is so hard that we cannot scratch it with a knife. This is _quartz_.
Another of the substances is of a dull white or pinkish color. It lies
in long, smooth-faced crystalline patches, which easily break along a
number of smooth parallel surfaces having a pearly lustre. It can be
scratched with difficulty by the point of a knife. This substance is
called _felspar_. The third substance consists of bright glistening
plates, sometimes of a dark color, which can be easily scratched, and
which readily split into transparent leaves. This is _mica_. Notice that
these substances do not occur in any definite order, but are scattered
about through the stone irregularly, the felspar occurring in some
specimens in larger crystals than in others.


WHAT A MINERAL IS

Hence we see that granite consists of a mixture of three substances,
called quartz, felspar, and mica, the felspar being in greatest
quantity. Each of these substances possesses properties more or less
peculiar to itself, such as hardness, solubility in acids, specific
gravity, crystalline form, way of splitting, etc. Hence, each of these
substances has a _definite chemical composition and constant physical
properties_ which define them as _minerals_.

This definition may be understood to include such substances as coal and
chalk, which are the mineralized remains of plants and animals
respectively. Even water and gases of the atmosphere may be said to
belong to the mineral kingdom of nature, as plants and their parts are
said to belong to the vegetable kingdom, and animals and their parts to
the animal kingdom.


CHIEF ROCK-FORMING MINERALS

The total number of rock-forming minerals is very large, but many of
them are very rare, and form but a very small part of the earth’s crust.

The most abundant materials or earths of which rocks are composed are
_silica_, _lime_ and _aluminum_. Silica or flint is very universally
diffused. It is found almost pure in quartz, opal, chalcedony, rock
crystal, and the flinty sand of the sea-shore. Lime is also a very
generally distributed earth, and is usually found in the form of
carbonate. Under the several names of marl, limestone, oolite, and chalk
it constitutes mountains, and even ranges of mountains. Aluminum is
likewise very abundant, and of great importance to mankind. It enters
largely into the clayey or argillaceous earths, and forms part of
various kinds of rock which possess the property of not permitting water
to pass through its substance--a property which renders it of
inestimable value both for natural and artificial reservoirs of water.


CHIEF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS WHICH FORM MINERALS

The larger number of elements play so small a part in the constitution
of the earth that they may be neglected by the geologist. The following
list includes the elements of which ninety-nine per cent of the earth’s
crust, as known to us, is composed, with their relative proportions, as
indicated by Clarke’s laborious analyses of a very large number of
typical rocks:

  =========+========+==============
   ELEMENT |CHEMICAL|PERCENTAGE OF
           | SYMBOL |EARTH’S CRUST
           |        |WHICH IT FORMS
  ---------+--------+--------------
  Oxygen   |   O    |    47.02
  Silicon  |   Si   |    28.06
  Aluminum |   Al   |     8.16
  Iron     |   Fe   |     4.64
  Calcium  |   Ca   |     3.50
  Magnesium|   Mg   |     2.62
  Sodium   |   Na   |     2.63
  Potassium|   K    |     2.32
  Hydrogen |   H    |     0.17
  Carbon   |   C    |     0.12
           |        |    -----
           |        |    99.24
  ---------+--------+--------------
  The ten elements given above form
  99.24 of the earth’s solid crust.


HOW ROCKS ARE CLASSIFIED

The beds or layers which form the crust of the earth are divided into
three classes: (1) _Sedimentary_, or stratified; (2) _Igneous_, or
unstratified; (3) _Metamorphic_, or transformed.


SEDIMENTARY OR STRATIFIED ROCKS

Sedimentary rocks are such as give evidence of having been formed by
successive deposits of sediment in water. They include sandstones or
freestones, limestones, clays, etc. The material for these must have
been derived from some original source, and in many instances this may
be traced to the disintegration of older rocks. Thus gneiss appears to
be formed by the disintegration of granite. The great class of
sedimentary rocks may be divided into three smaller divisions. These
divisions, with the chief rocks of each division, may be tabulated as
follows:

  (a) Mechanically formed rocks from detrital sediments:
  Conglomerates, sandstones, clay, and shale.

  (b) Organically formed rocks from animal and plant remains:
  Limestones, chalk, coral, peat, and coal.

  (c) Chemically formed rocks from material once in solution:
  Limestones, stalactites, gypsum, rock-salt and sinter.

Most of the stratified rocks contain fossils; and since each group
contains certain kinds peculiar to itself, it is by means of these
organic remains that their relative ages have been determined.

Although the lowest stratified rocks are more ancient than those which
have been deposited above them, the layers or beds do not always retain
a horizontal position. Were such the case, it could only be by deep
cuttings that we should arrive at the older strata. We however find
that, owing to some convulsion of nature, stratified rocks have been
thrown out of their original position, and thus crop out to the surface.
Not only is facility thus afforded us to become acquainted with the
nature of the lower rocks, but many of the most valuable products of the
earth are by this means rendered accessible to man.

[Illustration: =HOW THE HISTORY OF THE EARTH IS EMBEDDED IN THE ROCKS=

A million years ago, a little stream trickled down a mountain-side,
carrying with it grains of sand and stones which fell to the bottom of
the sea. In the sea swam a great and wonderful creature called an
ichthyosaurus. One day the great creature died, or probably it was
killed in battle with another strange monster, and its body fell to the
bottom of the sea among the shells and seaweed. Meanwhile, the stones
and sand brought down by the stream continued to fall upon the bed of
the sea until at last the great reptile’s body was buried, and the lower
layers became pressed into hard rock by the weight on top. One day an
elephant going to the river to drink broke off his tusk, and this was
carried down by the river and sank in the sea. Another day a bird was
drowned, and this, too, fell upon the ocean-bed. Dead fishes and shells
also sank, and all were buried by the never-ceasing shower of mud and
earth and sand and stones. Ages after the ichthyosaurus died, men began
to live on the earth, and one day a man who had made a boat went out to
fish. Trying to spear a big fish, the head of his harpoon broke off and
fell to the bottom of the sea. In course of time this also was buried in
the mud. The bottom of the sea crept higher and higher, till at last it
became dry land. Then one day men began to dig, and the world’s
wonderful story was revealed as we read it here. First the spear-head
was found, then the tusk, the bird’s skeleton, the shells, the fish, and
at last the skeleton of the great sea reptile, all turned to stone and
become _fossils_, a word that means “something dug up.”]

The greater number of these beds contain organic remains, i. e., the
remains of animals and plants, which are termed fossils. Among these the
most numerous are the remains of marine animals, and in some instances
shells and corals occur in such abundance as to form the principal part
of extensive beds. Every part of the earth exhibits similar, or nearly
similar formations; and not only are marine fossils met with in the
interior of continents, and at great elevations above the sea, but a
vast variety of plants, corals, shells, fish, reptiles, etc., are found,
of species dissimilar to any at present on the land or in the waters.
Besides rocks, we meet with earthy formations on the surface. These
include such loose materials as are disintegrated or worn away from
rocks, and form, when combined with decayed animal and vegetable matter,
the soil of meadows and arable lands.

IGNEOUS, OR UNSTRATIFIED ROCKS are such as appear to be of igneous
origin, or to have been formed by the action of fire or intense heat.
They are called unstratified, because instead of having been deposited
in successive layers, like the stratified rocks, they seem to have been
formed by the fusion or melting of the materials of which they are
composed, and the subsequent cooling and hardening of the melted matter
into one great mass. Granite, basalt, lava, etc., are examples of this
class of rocks, and represent respectively the sub-classes of plutonic,
trap, and volcanic rocks. Plutonic rocks are those which have cooled
under the pressure of overlying rocks; trap rocks, those which have
cooled under that of deep water; and volcanic rocks, such as have cooled
in the air.

Though granite is the most useful of the igneous rocks, basalt is
probably the most interesting because of the wonderful formations it
discloses. It is a dense basic lava of a dark color, that breaks with a
conchoidal or shell-like fracture, and shows a finely grained or
hemi-crystalline texture in a glassy base. The basalt rocks are found
both as intrusive masses and as sheets that have been poured out on the
surface. Many of these lava sheets of basalt in slowly cooling and
solidifying acquired a columnar structure, the columns often having a
more or less hexagonal shape, though the number of sides varies. Fine
examples of these columnar basalts occur at Fingal’s cave in the island
of Staffa, at the Giant’s Causeway in the north of Ireland, and on the
shores of Lake Superior.

METAMORPHIC, or Transformed rocks, include altered rocks of either
sedimentary or igneous origin, in which the acquired are more prominent
than the original characteristics. Igneous rocks have, in many cases,
forced their way up through stratified rocks. These igneous formations,
while still in a molten state, in coming in contact with the aqueous or
stratified rocks, have usually changed the character of those portions
immediately near them. The chief changes of structure effected by
metamorphic action are crystallization and foliation. Examples of
metamorphic rocks are marble, quartzite, slate, gneiss, and the schists.


HOW THE METALS ARE FOUND

In some localities fissures in rocks are found to contain metallic
substances. Such fissures are frequently found partially filled with
calcareous spar which forms the matrix in which the metals are inclosed.

Metallic veins are supposed to be partially filled by mechanical means,
the particles of metallic substances being conveyed into them by the
action of water or some other power, and partly by chemical action, or
by sublimation or fumes rising from below.

Some metallic deposits appear to occur in situations where igneous rocks
have intruded themselves. Gold is supposed to be found almost invariably
under such circumstances. Such appears to be the case in the rich
deposits near the Ural mountains, and also in California and in
Australia. In all these places it is met with in quartz. It is in
pebbles or sand of the same rock that it occurs in the beds of rivers,
and in some cases is found spread over a large extent of country.

Copper, though frequently met with in veins, is also found in extensive
masses or beds, interposed between layers of rock. The same remark
applies to tin, lead, and silver. Iron is also met with in beds, and
also in nodules or rounded masses, which occur in great abundance among
some kinds of rock. The last-named is the most universally diffused of
all metals, and the most useful.


A GEOLOGICAL VIEW OF THE GROWTH OF THE EARTH

Giving the geological ages, rock systems, strata and the development of
life, with their relative positions and order of succession, according
to the latest scientific knowledge. Many attempts have been made to
compute from geological, physical, and other data the length of the
period during which the earth has been in a solid state.

Geologists, however, are disinclined to accept any period much less than
100,000,000 years as sufficient for the elaboration of the present
structure of the earth. It is indisputable that many millions of years,
probably thirty or forty, must have elapsed while the great sedimentary
rocks were being deposited. With respect to the larger features of the
earth’s surface, it is likely that two different kinds of movement are
responsible. Where the contraction of the earth has caused a lessening
of the support below the surface, there has been a subsidence of great
areas. In the second place, where the rigid crust has been able to
contract into a smaller space, great mountain ridges and folds have been
formed. The subsidences which caused the ocean took place at different
ages. The Atlantic Ocean probably dates from middle Cenozoic times; the
Indian Ocean may be older; the Pacific suffered great modifications in
comparatively recent times.

  +-------------+------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |=Life Ages   |  =Rock Systems=  |    =Series of    |  =Characteristic  |
  |of the Earth=|                  |   Rock Strata=   |       Rocks=      |
  +-------------+------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |             |                  |Recent, or Human. |Alluvium, sand,    |
  |             |                  |                  |gravel, mud, clay, |
  |             |                  |                  |marl, loess.       |
  |             |                  |                  |                   |
  |             |                  |=Pleistocene=     |Drift, boulder     |
  |             |                  |(_plīs´tŏ-sēn_),  |clay, gravel,      |
  |             |=Quaternary=      |or “most recent.” |loess, silt, gla-  |
  |             |(_kwa-ter´na-ri_) |Glacial Period.   |cial deposits and  |
  |             |or “fourth.” Once |                  |other formations   |
  |             |supposed to be the|                  |formed during      |
  |             |_fourth_ sedimen- |                  |glacial period.    |
  |             |tary system. Age  |                  |                   |
  |             |of man.           |=Pliocene=        |In East and West,  |
  |             |                  |(_plī´ō-sēn_), or |land deposits pre- |
  |             |                  |“more recent.”    |dominate. Marine   |
  |             |                  |                  |sands, clays, marls|
  |             |                  |                  |on Atlantic and    |
  |             |                  |                  |Pacific coasts.    |
  |             |                  |                  |Igneous rocks in   |
  |             |                  |                  |West.              |
  |             +------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |             |                  |=Miocene= (_mī´ō- |On Atlantic coast: |
  |=Cenozoic=   |                  |sēn_), or “less   |sand, clay, shell  |
  |(_se´nō-zō´- |                  |recent.”          |marl, diatomaceous |
  |ik_), or     |                  |                  |earth. In West:    |
  |“Recent      |                  |                  |sandstone, shale,  |
  |life.”       |                  |                  |and diatomaceous   |
  |             |                  |                  |material. Extensive|
  |_Estimated   |                  |                  |volcanic formations|
  |Age of       |                  |                  |in Rocky Mountains |
  |Period_,     |                  |                  |and Great Basin    |
  |=3,000,000=  |                  |                  |region.            |
  |_years_.     |                  |                  |                   |
  |             |                  |=Oligocene=       |Limestone in       |
  |             |                  |(_ŏl´ĕ-gō-sēn_),  |Caribbean region,  |
  |             |=Tertiary= (_ter´-|or “a little more |and deposits in    |
  |             |shi-a-ri_), or    |recent.”          |West. Marine and   |
  |             |“third”. Once     |                  |fresh water beds on|
  |             |supposed to be the|                  |west coast. Many   |
  |             |_third_ sedimen-  |                  |coal beds in Puget |
  |             |tary system, or   |                  |Sound.             |
  |             |Age of mammals.   |                  |                   |
  |             |                  |=Eocene= (_ē´-ō-  |In Eastern States: |
  |             |                  |sēn_), or “dawn of|clays, sands,      |
  |             |                  |recent.”          |greensand marls.   |
  |             |                  |                  |In West: conglom-  |
  |             |                  |                  |erate, sandstone,  |
  |             |                  |                  |shale, diatomaceous|
  |             |                  |                  |shale and igneous  |
  |             |                  |                  |formations are de- |
  |             |                  |                  |veloped. Many coal |
  |             |                  |                  |beds in Puget      |
  |             |                  |                  |Sound. Fresh water |
  |             |                  |                  |beds in western    |
  |             |                  |                  |interior.          |
  +-------------+------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |             |                  |{Upper.           |In East: sand,     |
  |             |                  |{                 |clay, and greensand|
  |             |                  |{                 |marl. In West:     |
  |             |                  |{                 |sandstone, shale,  |
  |             |                  |{                 |limestone, chalk,  |
  |             |                  |{                 |extensive coal     |
  |             |=Cretaceous=      |{                 |beds, various      |
  |             |(_krē-ta´-she-us_)|{                 |igneous rocks.     |
  |             |or “bearing       |{                 |                   |
  |             |chalk.”           |{Lower.           |Clay, sand, gravel |
  |             |                  |{                 |on Atlantic coast  |
  |             |                  |{                 |and Gulf. Sedi-    |
  |             |                  |{                 |mentary and igneous|
  |             |                  |{                 |rocks on west      |
  |=Mesozoic=   |                  |{                 |coast. Some non-   |
  |(_mĕs-ō-zō´- |                  |{                 |marine beds in     |
  |ic_), or     |                  |{                 |Texas.             |
  |“Middle      +------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |life.”       |                  |{Upper.           |Probably not repre-|
  |             |=Jurassic= (_jȯȯ- |{                 |sented in East.    |
  |_Estimated   |ras´sik_), or like|{                 |Sandstones, lime-  |
  |Age of       |the mass of the   |{Middle.          |stones and shales  |
  |Period_,     |Jura Mountains.   |{                 |in West. Some “red |
  |=9,000,000=  |Age of Reptiles.  |{                 |beds” in western   |
  |_years_.     |                  |{Lower.           |interior.          |
  |             |                  |                  |                   |
  |             |                  |{Upper.           |In East sediments  |
  |             |                  |{                 |formed in shallow  |
  |             |                  |{                 |troughs between re-|
  |             |                  |{                 |cently formed moun-|
  |             |=Triassic=        |{                 |tains. Considerable|
  |             |(_trĭăs´ĭk_), or  |{                 |bodies of igneous  |
  |             |in a triple       |{Middle.          |rock, traps, and   |
  |             |series.           |{                 |other flows and    |
  |             |                  |{                 |dikes. “Red beds”  |
  |             |                  |{                 |in West with salt  |
  |             |                  |{                 |and gypsum. Some   |
  |             |                  |{                 |igneous rocks on   |
  |             |                  |{Lower.           |west coast.        |
  +-------------+------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |             |                  |=Permian= (_per´- |In East fresh water|
  |             |                  |mē-ăn_), like     |sediments including|
  |             |                  |those at Perm,    |coal; in West “red |
  |             |                  |Russia.           |beds” probably of  |
  |             |                  |                  |continental origin.|
  |             |                  |                  |Some marine sedi-  |
  |             |                  |                  |ments; salt and    |
  |             |                  |                  |gypsum in red beds |
  |             |                  |                  |in Kansas.         |
  |             |                  |                  |                   |
  |             |=Carboniferous=   |=Pennsylvanian=,  |In Eastern States  |
  |             |(_kăr-bŏn-if´-er- |like those of     |grits, sandstones, |
  |             |us_), or coal-    |Pennsylvania.     |shales, limestone  |
  |             |bearing. Age of   |                  |and coal. In       |
  |             |Amphibians.       |                  |Western States much|
  |             |                  |                  |limestone; no coal.|
  |             |                  |                  |Igneous rocks on   |
  |             |                  |                  |west coast.        |
  |             |                  |                  |                   |
  |             |                  |=Mississippian=,  |Limestones pre-    |
  |             |                  |or Lower Carboni- |dominate with sand-|
  |             |                  |ferous.           |stones near base   |
  |             |                  |                  |and shales near top|
  |             |                  |                  |of series. Igneous |
  |             |                  |                  |rocks in           |
  |             |                  |                  |California.        |
  |             +------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |             |=Devonian= (_de-  |{Upper.           |Sedimentary rocks, |
  |=Paleozoic=  |vō´ni-an_) like   |{                 |limestones, sand-  |
  |(_pāl-æ-ô-   |those of Devon-   |{Middle.          |stones, shales;    |
  |zō´ic_), or  |shire, England.   |{                 |igneous rocks in   |
  |“Old life.”  |Age of Fishes.    |{Lower.           |Maine, Nova Scotia,|
  |             |                  |{                 |and New Brunswick. |
  |_Estimated   +------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |Age of       |                  |{                 |Sedimentary rocks  |
  |Period_,     |                  |{=Ontarian= (_on- |predominate; con-  |
  |=24,000,000= |=Silurian= (_si-  |{tā´rē-ăn_), place|glomerates, sand-  |
  |_years_.     |lū´ri-an_), in the|{name.            |stones, shales,    |
  |             |land of the       |{                 |limestones, salt,  |
  |             |Silures, England. |{=Champlainian=   |gypsum. Igneous    |
  |             |Age of In-        |{(_shăm-plān´ē-   |rocks in Nova      |
  |             |vertebrates.      |{ăn_), place name.|Scotia, New Bruns- |
  |             |                  |{                 |wick, and Maine.   |
  |             +------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |             |                  |{=Cincinnatian=   |Chiefly limestone  |
  |             |=Ordovician= (_ŏr-|{(_sĭn-sĭn-năt´-ē-|with subordinate   |
  |             |dŏ-vīsh´ăn_), a   |{ăn_), place name.|sandstone and      |
  |             |place name in     |                  |shale. Rocks great-|
  |             |Wales.            |{=Mohawkian= (_mō-|ly folded in New   |
  |             |                  |{hŏk´ē-ăn_), place|York, in Taconic   |
  |             |                  |{name.            |Mountain region.   |
  |             +------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |             |                  |{                 |Mainly sandstones  |
  |             |                  |{=Saratogan=      |with some shales,  |
  |             |                  |{(_săr-ă-tō´găn_),|and in Western     |
  |             |                  |{place name.      |States considerable|
  |             |=Cambrian= (_kam´-|{                 |limestone. At some |
  |             |bri-an_), from    |{=Acadian= (_ä-   |places rocks are   |
  |             |Cambria, the old  |{kād´ē-ăn_), place|changed by pres-   |
  |             |name for Wales.   |{name.            |sure, especially in|
  |             |                  |{                 |the Appalachian    |
  |             |                  |{=Georgian= (_jōr´|Mountains. Upper   |
  |             |                  |{gē-ăn_), place   |Cambrian covered   |
  |             |                  |{name.            |larger area than   |
  |             |                  |{                 |lower Cambrian.    |
  +-------------+------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |             |                  |{=Keweenawan=,    |A great series of  |
  |             |                  |{(_kē´wē-năh-     |sandstones, lime-  |
  |             |                  |{wān_), pertaining|stones and shales, |
  |             |                  |{to Keweenaw Pen- |in middle portion  |
  |             |                  |{insula, Michigan.|of which are many  |
  |=Proterozoic=|                  |{                 |enormous flows of  |
  |(_prō-ter-ō- |                  |{                 |lava.              |
  |zō´ik_) or   |=Algonkian= (_ăl- |{                 |                   |
  |“Former      |gŏn´kē-ăn_), from |{=Huronian= (_hu- |Three great series |
  |life.”       |district of       |{rō´nē-ăn_),      |of sedimentary     |
  |             |Algonquin         |{rocks on borders |rocks, sandstone,  |
  |_Estimated   |Indians, north of |{of Lake Huron.   |shale and lime-    |
  |Age of       |St. Lawrence.     |{                 |stone, and iron    |
  |Period_,     |                  |{                 |formation. Contains|
  |=18,000,000= |                  |{                 |also many great    |
  |_years_.     |                  |{                 |igneous bodies,    |
  |             |                  |{                 |acidic and basic.  |
  |             |                  |{                 |Lower members much |
  |             |                  |{                 |metamorphosed by   |
  |             |                  |{                 |pressure.          |
  +-------------+------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |             |                  |{=Laurentian=     |Granitic rocks and |
  |             |                  |{(_law-ren´shi-   |gneisses that are  |
  |             |                  |{an_), pertaining |believed to be     |
  |             |                  |{to rocks along   |granitic rocks     |
  |             |                  |{the St. Lawrence |metamorphosed by   |
  |             |                  |{River.           |pressure. Formerly |
  |             |                  |{                 |supposed to be     |
  |             |                  |{                 |older than Keewatin|
  |=Archaeozoic=|                  |{                 |and regarded as the|
  |(_ar´kē-o-zō´|                  |{                 |“original crust of |
  |ic_), “With- |                  |{                 |the earth.”        |
  |out life.”   |=Archean= (_är-   |{                 |                   |
  |             |kē´-ăn_),         |{=Keewatin= (_kē- |A great schist     |
  |_Estimated   |“oldest.”         |{wā´tĭn_), rocks  |series made up of  |
  |Age of       |                  |{in a district of |lava flows, tuffs, |
  |Period_,     |                  |{Manitoba, Canada.|and volcanic ashes.|
  |=18,000,000= |                  |{                 |With these are sub-|
  |_years_.     |                  |{                 |ordinate sedimenta-|
  |             |                  |{                 |ry rocks; sand-    |
  |             |                  |{                 |stone, shale, lime-|
  |             |                  |{                 |stone, and iron ore|
  |             |                  |{                 |formations nearly  |
  |             |                  |{                 |everywhere greatly |
  |             |                  |{                 |metamorphosed by   |
  |             |                  |{                 |pressure. Includes |
  |             |                  |{                 |the oldest rocks   |
  |             |                  |{                 |known.             |
  +-------------+------------------+------------------+-------------------+

  +-------------+------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |=Life Ages   |  =Rock Systems=  |    =Series of    |  =Forms of Life=  |
  |of the Earth=|                  |   Rock Strata=   |                   |
  +-------------+------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |             |                  |Recent, or Human. |Man predominant.   |
  |             |                  |                  |                   |
  |             |                  |=Pleistocene=     |Mammoth, mastodon, |
  |             |                  |(_plīs´tŏ-sēn_),  |bear, bison, rein- |
  |             |=Quaternary=      |or “most recent.” |deer, musk-ox.     |
  |             |(_kwa-ter´na-ri_) |Glacial Period.   |Possibly man was   |
  |             |or “fourth.” Once |                  |living but that is |
  |             |supposed to be the|                  |uncertain.         |
  |             |_fourth_ sedimen- |                  |                   |
  |             |tary system. Age  |=Pliocene=        |Plants and animals |
  |             |of man.           |(_plī´ō-sēn_), or |much as today,     |
  |             |                  |“more recent.”    |aside from human   |
  |             |                  |                  |and domestic       |
  |             |                  |                  |species.           |
  |             +------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |=Cenozoic=   |                  |=Miocene= (_mī´ō- |Land animals in-   |
  |(_se´nō-zō´- |                  |sēn_), or “less   |clude elephants,   |
  |ik_), or     |                  |recent.”          |camels, deer, oxen,|
  |“Recent      |                  |                  |horses, true apes, |
  |life.”       |                  |                  |etc. Marine animals|
  |             |                  |                  |much like those to-|
  |_Estimated   |                  |                  |day. Among plants, |
  |Age of       |                  |                  |grasses become im- |
  |Period_,     |                  |                  |portant; deciduous |
  |=3,000,000=  |                  |                  |trees increase.    |
  |_years_.     |=Tertiary= (_ter´-|                  |                   |
  |             |shi-a-ri_), or    |=Oligocene=       |Ancient dogs, cats,|
  |             |“third”. Once     |(_ōl´ĕ-gō-sēn_),  |rabbits, squirrels,|
  |             |supposed to be the|or “a little more |camels, and horses |
  |             |_third_ sedimen-  |recent.”          |were represented.  |
  |             |tary system, or   |                  |                   |
  |             |Age of mammals.   |                  |                   |
  |             |                  |=Eocene= (_ē´-ō-  |Mammals flourished,|
  |             |                  |sēn_), or “dawn of|including rodentia,|
  |             |                  |recent.”          |carnivera, eden-   |
  |             |                  |                  |tates, lemuroids,  |
  |             |                  |                  |birds, reptiles,   |
  |             |                  |                  |etc. Flora included|
  |             |                  |                  |figs, palms,       |
  |             |                  |                  |bananas; willows,  |
  |             |                  |                  |chestnuts, oaks,   |
  |             |                  |                  |etc.               |
  +-------------+------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |             |                  |{Upper.           |Reptiles predomi-  |
  |             |                  |{                 |nate: turtles,     |
  |             |                  |{                 |lizards,           |
  |             |                  |{                 |crocodiles, flying |
  |             |                  |{                 |reptiles, etc. Many|
  |             |                  |{                 |waterbirds. Angio- |
  |             |=Cretaceous=      |{                 |sperms predominate:|
  |             |(_krē-ta´-she-us_)|{                 |larch, beech,      |
  |             |or “bearing       |{                 |walnut, tulip      |
  |             |chalk.”           |{                 |trees, etc.        |
  |             |                  |{                 |                   |
  |=Mesozoic=   |                  |{Lower.           |Reptiles abound.   |
  |(_mĕs-ō-zō´- |                  |{                 |Flora includes     |
  |ic_), or     |                  |{                 |cycadeous, coni-   |
  |“Middle      |                  |{                 |fers, horsetails;  |
  |Life.”       |                  |{                 |angiosperms appear.|
  |             +------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |_Estimated   |                  |{Upper.           |Ammonites, belem-  |
  |Age of       |=Jurassic= (_jȯȯ- |{                 |ites continue in   |
  |Period_,     |ras´sik_), or like|{                 |great variety.     |
  |=5,000,000=  |the mass of the   |{Middle.          |Reptiles numerous  |
  |_years_.     |Jura Mountains.   |{                 |and varied types.  |
  |             |Age of Reptiles.  |{                 |Flying reptiles and|
  |             |                  |{Lower.           |reptile-like birds |
  |             |                  |{                 |appear.            |
  |             |                  |                  |                   |
  |             |                  |{Upper.           |Reptiles of enor-  |
  |             |=Triassic=        |{                 |mous size dominate |
  |             |(_trĭ-ăs´ĭk_), or |{                 |the land and sea.  |
  |             |in a triple       |{Middle.          |Mammals appear.    |
  |             |series.           |{                 |Ammonites and      |
  |             |                  |{                 |belemites dominate |
  |             |                  |{Lower.           |invertebrate life. |
  +-------------+------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |             |                  |=Permian= (_per´- |Reptiles become    |
  |             |                  |mē-ăn_), like     |prominent in number|
  |             |                  |those at Perm,    |and variety; in-   |
  |             |                  |Russia.           |habit fresh water, |
  |             |                  |                  |salt water and     |
  |             |                  |                  |land.              |
  |             |                  |                  |                   |
  |             |=Carboniferous=   |=Pennsylvanian=,  |Plants abound.     |
  |             |(_kăr-bŏn-if´-er- |like those of     |Marked development |
  |             |us_), or coal-    |Pennsylvania.     |of land animals,   |
  |             |bearing. Age of   |                  |including insects, |
  |             |Amphibians.       |                  |spiders and scorpi-|
  |             |                  |                  |ons. Lizards become|
  |             |                  |                  |important. Amphibi-|
  |             |                  |                  |ans reach climax.  |
  |             |                  |                  |                   |
  |             |                  |=Mississippian=,  |Crinoids greatly   |
  |             |                  |or Lower Carboni- |developed. Am-     |
  |             |                  |ferous.           |phibians appear.   |
  |             |                  |                  |Plant life expands.|
  |             +------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |             |                  |{Upper.           |Rapid changes in   |
  |             |                  |{                 |animal kingdom;    |
  |             |=Devonian= (_de-  |{                 |shifting habitat;  |
  |             |vō´ni-an_) like   |{                 |extensive develop- |
  |             |those of Devon-   |{Middle.          |ment of fishes;    |
  |=Paleozoic=  |shire, England.   |{                 |sharks flourish.   |
  |(_pāl-æ-ô-   |Age of Fishes.    |{                 |Plants are mainly  |
  |zō´ic_), or  |                  |{                 |small leaf and reed|
  | “Old Life.” |                  |{Lower.           |types.             |
  |             +------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |_Estimated   |                  |{=Ontarian= (_on- |Vertebrates appear;|
  |Age of       |=Silurian= (_si-  |{tā´rē-ăn_), place|low forms of       |
  |Period_,     |lū´ri-an_), in the|{name.            |fishes. First reef |
  |=24,000,000= |land of the       |{                 |building corals.   |
  |_years_.     |Silures, England. |{=Champlainian=   |Crinoids and bra-  |
  |             |Age of In-        |{(_shăm-plān´ē-   |chiopods, important|
  |             |vertebrates.      |{ăn_), place name.|Cephalopods con-   |
  |             |                  |{                 |tinue to dominate. |
  |             +------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |             |                  |{=Cincinnatian=   |Much as in the Cam-|
  |             |                  |{(_sĭn-sĭn-năt´-ē-|brian. Remains are |
  |             |                  |{ăn_), place name.|more abundant.     |
  |             |=Ordovician= (_ŏr-|{                 |Species more numer-|
  |             |dŏ-vīsh´ăn_), a   |{=Mohawkian= (_mō-|ous; insects were  |
  |             |place name in     |{hŏk´ē-ăn_), place|present. Verte-    |
  |             |Wales.            |{name.            |brates appear. Low |
  |             |                  |{                 |forms of fishes.   |
  |             |                  |{                 |Trilobites reach   |
  |             |                  |{                 |climax.            |
  |             +------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |             |                  |{=Saratogan=      |All great divisions|
  |             |                  |{(_săr-ă-tō´găn_),|of animal kingdom  |
  |             |                  |{place name.      |except vertebrates |
  |             |=Cambrian= (_kam´-|{                 |are represented;   |
  |             |bri-an_), from    |{=Acadian= (_ä-   |trilobites, bra-   |
  |             |Cambria, the old  |{kād´ē-ăn_), place|chiopods, sponges, |
  |             |name for Wales.   |{name.            |graptolites, etc.  |
  |             |                  |{                 |Little evidence of |
  |             |                  |{=Georgian= (_jōr´|vegetation, but it |
  |             |                  |{gē-ăn_), place   |must have abounded |
  |             |                  |{name.            |as food for        |
  |             |                  |{                 |animals.           |
  +-------------+------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |=Proterozoic=|                  |{=Keweenawan=,    |Fossils rare or    |
  |(_prō-ter-ō- |                  |{(_kē´wē-năh-     |wanting.           |
  |zō´ik_) or   |=Algonkian= (_ăl- |{wān_), pertaining|                   |
  |“Former      |gŏn´kē-ăn_), from |{to Keweenaw Pen- |                   |
  |Life.”       |district of       |{insula, Michigan.|                   |
  |             |Algonquin         |{                 |                   |
  |_Estimated   |Indians, north of |{=Huronian= (_hu- |Rocks contain clear|
  |Age of       |St. Lawrence.     |{rō´nē-ăn,_),     |evidence of low    |
  |Period_,     |                  |{rocks on borders |forms of life.     |
  |=18,000,000= |                  |{of Lake Huron.   |                   |
  |_years_.     |                  |{                 |                   |
  +-------------+------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |             |                  |{=Laurentian=     |Since the rocks are|
  |=Archaeozoic=|                  |{(_law-ren´shi-   |of igneous origin, |
  |(_ar´kē-o-zō´|                  |{an_), pertaining |they contain no    |
  |ic_), “With- |                  |{to rocks along   |organic remains.   |
  |out Life.”   |                  |{the St. Lawrence |                   |
  |             |=Archean= (_är-   |{River.           |                   |
  |_Estimated   |kē´-ăn_),         |{                 |                   |
  |Age of       |“oldest.”         |{=Keewatin= (_kē- |No fossils found,  |
  |Period_,     |                  |{wā´tĭn_), rocks  |but carbonaceous   |
  |=18,000,000= |                  |{in a district of |schists and lime-  |
  |_years_.     |                  |{Manitoba, Canada.|stones are believed|
  |             |                  |{                 |to indicate the    |
  |             |                  |{                 |presence of life.  |
  +-------------+------------------+------------------+-------------------+

  +-------------+------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |=Life Ages   |  =Rock Systems=  |    =Series of    |  =Chief Economic  |
  |of the Earth=|                  |   Rock Strata=   |     Products=     |
  +-------------+------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |             |                  |Recent, or Human. |Clay, peat, bog    |
  |             |                  |                  |iron ore, marl,    |
  |             |                  |                  |gold placers.      |
  |             |=Quaternary=      |                  |                   |
  |             |(_kwa-ter´na-ri_) |=Pleistocene=     |Clay, gravel,      |
  |             |or “fourth.” Once |(_plīs´tŏ-sēn_),  |gold placers.      |
  |             |supposed to be the|or “most recent.” |                   |
  |=Cenozoic=   |_fourth_ sedimen- |Glacial Period.   |                   |
  |(_se´nō-zō´- |tary system. Age  |                  |                   |
  |ik_), or     |of man.           |=Pliocene=        |Gold (in part      |
  |“Recent      |                  |(_plī´ō-sēn_), or |placers), coal,    |
  |life.”       |                  |“more recent.”    |oil, gas.          |
  |             +------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |_Estimated   |                  |=Miocene= (_mī´ō- |Silver, gold, coal,|
  |Age of       |                  |sēn_), or “less   |oil, gas, phosphate|
  |Period_,     |                  |recent.”          |rock, diatomaceous |
  |=3,000,000=  |=Tertiary= (_ter´-|                  |earth.             |
  |_years_.     |shi-a-ri_), or    |                  |                   |
  |             |“third”. Once     |=Oligocene=       |Copper, silver.    |
  |             |supposed to be the|(_ōl´ĕ-gō-sēn_),  |                   |
  |             |_third_ sedimen-  |or “a little more |                   |
  |             |tary system, or   |recent.”          |                   |
  |             |Age of mammals.   |                  |                   |
  |             |                  |=Eocene= (_ē´-ō-  |Gold, zinc, lead,  |
  |             |                  |sēn_), or “dawn of|coal, oil, gas.    |
  |             |                  |recent.”          |                   |
  +-------------+------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |             |=Cretaceous=      |{                 |Coal, oil, gas,    |
  |             |(_krē-ta´-she-us_)|{Upper.           |copper, gold, china|
  |             |or “bearing       |{                 |clay, fire clay,   |
  |             |chalk.”           |{Lower.           |cement building    |
  |=Mesozoic=   |                  |{                 |stone.             |
  |(_mĕs-ō-zō´- |                  |{                 |                   |
  |ic_), or     |                  |{                 |                   |
  |“Middle      +------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |Life.”       |=Jurassic= (_jȯȯ- |{Upper.           |Oil, gold.         |
  |             |ras´sik_), or like|{                 |                   |
  |_Estimated   |the mass of the   |{Middle.          |                   |
  |Age of       |Jura Mountains.   |{                 |                   |
  |Period_,     |Age of Reptiles.  |{Lower.           |                   |
  |=5,000,000=  |                  |                  |                   |
  |_years_.     |                  |{Upper.           |Salt, gypsum, a    |
  |             |=Triassic=        |{                 |little coal in     |
  |             |(_trĭ-ăs´ĭk_), or |{Middle.          |Virginia, copper,  |
  |             |in a triple       |{                 |building stone.    |
  |             |series.           |{Lower.           |                   |
  +-------------+------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |             |                  |=Permian= (_per´- |Salt and gypsum;   |
  |             |                  |mē-ăn_), like     |some coal in       |
  |             |                  |those at Perm,    |Eastern States.    |
  |             |                  |Russia.           |                   |
  |             |                  |                  |                   |
  |             |=Carboniferous=   |=Pennsylvanian=,  |Coal, oil, gas,    |
  |             |(_kăr-bŏn-if´-er- |like those of     |iron ore, fire     |
  |             |us_), or coal-    |Pennsylvania.     |clay, phosphate    |
  |             |bearing. Age of   |                  |rock.              |
  |             |Amphibians.       |                  |                   |
  |             |                  |                  |                   |
  |             |                  |=Mississippian=,  |Oil, gas, lead,    |
  |             |                  |or Lower Carboni- |zinc, building     |
  |             |                  |ferous.           |stone, cement rock.|
  |             +------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |             |=Devonian= (_de-  |{Upper.           |                   |
  |             |vō´ni-an_) like   |{                 |Gas, oil, iron ore,|
  |             |those of Devon-   |{Middle.          |phosphate rock.    |
  |=Paleozoic=  |shire, England.   |{                 |                   |
  |(_pāl-œ-ô-   |Age of Fishes.    |{Lower.           |                   |
  |zō´ic_), or  +------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  | “Old Life.” |                  |{=Ontarian= (_on- |Iron ore, gas,     |
  |             |=Silurian= (_si-  |{tā´rē-ăn_), place|salt, gypsum,      |
  |_Estimated   |lū´ri-an_), in the|{name.            |cement rock.       |
  |Age of       |land of the       |{                 |                   |
  |Period_,     |Silures, England. |{=Champlainian=   |                   |
  |=24,000,000= |Age of In-        |{(_shăm-plān´ē-   |                   |
  |_years_.     |vertebrates.      |{ăn_), place name.|                   |
  |             +------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |             |                  |{=Cincinnatian=   |Oil, gas, lead,    |
  |             |=Ordovician= (_ŏr-|{(_sĭn-sĭn-năt´-ē-|zinc, phosphate    |
  |             |dŏ-vīsh´ăn_), a   |{ăn_), place name.|rock, manganese,   |
  |             |place name in     |{                 |marble.            |
  |             |Wales.            |{=Mohawkian= (_mō-|                   |
  |             |                  |{hŏk´ē-ăn_), place|                   |
  |             |                  |{name.            |                   |
  |             +------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |             |                  |{=Saratogan=      |Lead, zinc, barite,|
  |             |                  |{(_săr-ă-tō´găn_),|copper.            |
  |             |                  |{place name.      |                   |
  |             |=Cambrian= (_kam´-|{                 |                   |
  |             |bri-an_) from     |{=Acadian= (_ä-   |                   |
  |             |Cambria, the old  |{kād´ē-ăn_), place|                   |
  |             |name for Wales.   |{name.            |                   |
  |             |                  |{                 |                   |
  |             |                  |{=Georgian= (_jōr´|                   |
  |             |                  |{gē-ăn_), place   |                   |
  |             |                  |{name.            |                   |
  +-------------+------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |             |                  |{=Keweenawan=,    |Copper, silver.    |
  |=Proterozoic=|                  |{(_kē´wē-năh-     |                   |
  |(_prō-ter-ō- |                  |{wān_), pertaining|                   |
  |zō´ik_) or   |                  |{to Keweenaw Pen- |                   |
  |“Former      |=Algonkian= (_ăl- |{insula, Michigan.|                   |
  |Life.”       |gŏn´kē-ăn_), from |{                 |                   |
  |             |district of       |{=Huronian= (_hu- |Principal iron ores|
  |_Estimated   |Algonquin         |{rō´nē-ăn,_),     |of Lake Superior   |
  |Age of       |Indians, north of |{rocks on borders |region; also       |
  |Period_,     |St. Lawrence.     |{of Lake Huron.   |copper, nickel,    |
  |=18,000,000= |                  |{                 |silver, cobalt,    |
  |_years_.     |                  |{                 |gold. Building     |
  |             |                  |{                 |stone and ornamen- |
  |             |                  |{                 |tal stone.         |
  +-------------+------------------+------------------+-------------------+
  |             |                  |{=Laurentian=     |Iron ores, precious|
  |=Archaeozoic=|                  |{(_law-ren´shi-   |metals, gems,      |
  |(_ar´kē-o-zō´|                  |{an_), pertaining |apatite, rare      |
  |ic_), “With- |                  |{to rocks along   |earths, graphite,  |
  |out Life.”   |                  |{the St. Lawrence |asbestos.          |
  |             |=Archean= (_är-   |{River.           |                   |
  |_Estimated   |kē´-ăn_),         |{                 |                   |
  |Age of       |“oldest.”         |{=Keewatin= (_kē- |Emery, building and|
  |Period_,     |                  |{wā´tĭn_), rocks  |ornamental stones. |
  |=18,000,000= |                  |{in a district of |                   |
  |_years_.     |                  |{Manitoba, Canada.|                   |
  +-------------+------------------+------------------+-------------------+

[Illustration: =GEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE UNITED STATES SHOWING THE REGIONS
OF REPRESENTATIVE FORMATIONS=]


THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH

[Illustration: =MAP SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF LAND AND WATER=]


LAND FORMS OF THE WORLD

The proportion of land to water upon the earth is as 27 to 72, or
roughly _one-fourth_ to _three-fourths_; the land covering fifty-three
million square miles, the sea one hundred and forty-four million. The
land consists of six great bodies called continents, and a multitude of
small fragments called islands, which skirt the shores of the continents
or dot the broad expanse of the sea.


THE DISTRIBUTION OF LAND AND WATER

By far the greatest proportion of land is in the northern hemisphere,
and in temperate latitudes. Broadly speaking, the northern hemisphere is
the hemisphere of land, and the southern hemisphere is the hemisphere of
ocean. The earth could be bisected in such a way that one hemisphere
contained almost no land, while the other was composed almost equally of
land and water.


LOCATION OF THE CONTINENTS

The greater part of the land on the earth’s surface is grouped into two
great _hemispheres_, the Old and the New World. The former and far
larger of these consists of Eurasia in the north, separated by
ill-defined boundaries from Europe to the west and Asia to the east, and
of Africa in the south, united to Eurasia by the narrow neck of the
isthmus of Suez. The hemisphere of the New World is divided into North
America and South America, united by the long, narrow isthmus of Central
America. The island of Australia is also reckoned as a continent. It is
believed that an island continent, Antarctica, surrounds the South Pole.
Of islands not reckoned as continents, the largest is the polar island
of Greenland.


CERTAIN RESEMBLANCES OF THE CONTINENTS

In comparing the continents, we at once notice certain resemblances. The
first is the tapering to the south, which is seen in Greenland, North
and South America, Africa, and Australia (Tasmania). Another is the
southward-running peninsulas which characterize Europe and Asia. We may
notice, too, that the general lines of the Old World, broad in the
north, tapering in the south, resemble those of the New World,
especially if we include Australia (Tasmania), and compare its position
with that of South America. There is also a certain uniformity in the
distribution of relief. Notice the so-called Mid-World and Pacific
Mountain systems, which may be traced in the mountains of Central
Europe, North Africa, Central Asia, the islands of the Pacific from
Japan to New Guinea, and the lofty mountains of North, Central, and
South America.

[Illustration: =DIAGRAM SHOWING AVERAGE HEIGHT OF THE CONTINENTS=]

COMPARISON OF THE CONTINENTS

  +---------------------+------+------+------+------+------+-----+------+
  |                     |=Asia=|=Afri-|=North|=South| =Eu- |=Aus-| =All |
  |    =Continent=      |      |  ca= |Ameri-|Ameri-|rope= |tra- |Land= |
  |                     |      |      |  ca= |  ca= |      |lia= |      |
  +---------------------+------+------+------+------+------+-----+------+
  |Area (million square |      |      |      |      |      |     |      |
  |miles)               |  16.4|  11.1|   7.6|   6.8|   3.7|  3.0|  55.0|
  |Average Height (feet)| 3,000| 2,500| 1,900| 2,000|   940|  800| 2,100|
  |Highest Point (feet) |29,000|18,800|18,200|22,400|18,500|7,200|29,000|
  |                     |      |      |      |      |      |     |      |
  |PERCENTAGE AT VARIOUS|      |      |      |      |      |     |      |
  |  ALTITUDES (feet)   |      |      |      |      |      |     |      |
  |                     |      |      |      |      |      |     |      |
  |Below Sea-Level      |  1.4 |  0.1 |  0.05|  0.0 |  1.8 |  0.0|   0.6|
  |     0 to    600 feet| 23.3 | 12.5 | 32.25| 40.0 | 53.8 | 29.8|  26.7|
  |   600 to  1,500 feet| 16.0 | 34.8 | 32.1 | 26.8 | 27.0 | 64.3|  27.8|
  | 1,500 to  3,000 feet| 21.7 | 27.6 | 13.3 | 16.8 | 10.0 |  4.1|  19.3|
  | 3,000 to  6,000 feet| 21.8 | 21.8 | 13.2 |  7.0 |  5.5 |  1.5|  17.0|
  | 6,000 to 12,000 feet| 10.0 |  2.8 |  8.4 |  5.0 |  1.7 |  0.3|   6.0|
  | Above 12,000 feet   |  5.8 |  0.4 |  0.7 |  4.4 |  0.2 |  0.0|   2.6|
  +---------------------+------+------+------+------+------+-----+------+


THE SHAPING OF THE COAST

The coast line, or margin of sea and land, is an area rapidly wearing
away under the ceaseless influence of the waves, and of the sand and
rock, they are perpetually hurling to and fro. Coasts may be either flat
or high, composed either of hard or soft rock, and either submerged or
raised. A submerged coast is one where the land has sunk or the sea has
risen, so that the low grounds and valleys are flooded. A raised coast
is one where the land has risen or the sea has retired, and what was
formerly the sea bottom is bared.

A flat coast is usually sandy, often bordered by sandhills and lagoons.
It may be carved into cliffs, as in the clay cliffs of Norfolk, England.
A raised coast is usually flat from the long-continued action of the
waves during the period when it was submerged. Flat coasts have no good
harbors.

A submerged coast differs according to the nature of the submerged
region. If this was hilly or mountainous, with valleys running parallel
to the shore, the coast will be ironbound and harbor-less unless the
sea-level has risen sufficiently to give access to the valleys behind
the first range of heights. If this happens, T-shaped gulfs are formed.
Where the valleys open at right angles to the sea, they become bays,
usually with excellent harbors. The hills between the valleys rise as
peninsulas, or islands. If the land was flat before submerging took
place, a flat coast is the result.

Where the land is composed of soft rocks, a more uniform coast-line
results than where it is composed of harder rocks, or of hard and soft
rocks mixed. The waves, in eating out the softer rocks, often form
magnificent sea-caves, natural arches, and pinnacles.


THE COASTLINE OF THE VARIOUS CONTINENTS

EUROPE surpasses all the other continents in the magnitude of its
indentations and projections. Three great peninsulas--the Balkan
peninsula, Italy, and Spain, project into the Mediterranean; while
Brittany, Denmark, and Scandinavia jut into the shores of the Atlantic.
Even the British Isles are scarcely more than a projection of the
continent.

ASIA is a second in the relative extent of its peninsula. Asia Minor on
the west, Arabia, India, and Indo-China on the south, and China,
Manchuria with Corea and Kamchatka, advancing into the waters of the
Pacific, form a wide border of projecting lands, containing the richest
regions of the continent.

NORTH AMERICA is considerably less indented. Florida, Nova Scotia and
Labrador are more prominent on the Atlantic coast, and California
Peninsula and Alaska on the Pacific.

The southern continents on the contrary, are nowhere deeply penetrated
by the waters of the ocean. The Gulf of Arica in South America, the Gulf
of Guinea in Africa, and the Great Australian Bight, are merely gentle
bends in the coast line.


LOCATION OF THE GREAT PLAINS OF THE WORLD

Plains occupy nearly one-half of the surface of the continents. They are
most extensive and unbroken on the Arctic slopes of the Old World, and
in the interior of the two Americas.

Treeless plains, whose vegetation consists of grasses and other
herbaceous plants, or stunted shrubs, occur in every continent, and are
designated by a variety of terms. Wherever treeless plains are subject
to periodical rains, they lose their verdure in the season of drought,
and assume the aspect of a desert; but they resume their freshness on
the return of the rain, and many are adorned with a great variety of
beautiful flowers.

PLAINS OF THE OLD WORLD. The great Siberian plain extends from the
northeastern extremity of Asia to the Ural Mountains and Caspian Sea;
and the European plain stretches from the Ural westward, through Russia
and North Germany, to the lowlands of Holland.

The plains of the Caspian Sea and western Siberia are dreary steppes,
covered with coarse grasses, often growing in tufts, alternating with
patches of heather, furze, dwarf birch, and other stunted shrubs; or
old sea bottom, covered with salt efflorescence. Immense reaches of flat
country, near the Arctic shores of Asia and Europe, consist of frozen
marshes, called tundras, where mosses and lichens are almost the only
vegetation. Those of eastern Europe and Asia are denominated steppes;
while more limited treeless regions in western Europe are called landes
and heaths.

On the alluvial plains of the Old World, civilization began and
developed; and their inexhaustible fertility supplied the wants of the
most populous nations of antiquity. The great centers of ancient
civilization in Egypt, China, India and Babylonia, all had their growth
in alluvial plains, built up and fertilized by the mighty rivers which
traverse those countries.

PLAINS OF THE NEW WORLD. In North America the great _Central Plain_
extends, with but slight interruptions, from the Arctic shores to the
Gulf of Mexico. The fertile, treeless plains are termed “prairies”
(meadows), while the sterile ones, east of the Rocky Mountains, are
known as “the plains.” There are vast cane fields and forests in the
lower Mississippi Valley.

In South America the plains of the Orinoco basin, the _Selvas_ of the
Amazon, and the _Pampas_ of the La Plata, form an uninterrupted series
of lowlands which, continued by the plains of Patagonia to the southern
extremity of the continent, extend over a distance of three thousand
five hundred miles from north to south. The Spanish term “llano”
(plain), and the Peruvian “pampa,” designate the treeless plains of the
Orinoco and La Plata basins. The Llanos of the Orinoco, during one-half
of the year are covered by the richest pasturage, bright with flowers,
but during the other half are a parched waste. The Selvas of the Amazon,
a luxuriant forest, cover more than a million square miles; and the
treeless Pampas, with their tall grasses and thickets of clover and
thistles, illustrate the endless richness and variety of nature.

Alluvial and marine plains generally have but a slight altitude, while
the undulating plains are sometimes considerably elevated. The
Mississippi Valley, at St. Louis, one thousand miles from the ocean, is
hardly four hundred feet above the sea-level; and the Amazon, at an
equal distance from the sea, does not reach two hundred and fifty feet.
The marine plains adjacent to the Caspian and Aral seas are still lower,
the larger portion being below the sea-level.


SITUATION, ELEVATION AND SOIL OF PLATEAUS

Plateaus are situated either between two lofty mountain chains, which
form their margins, or descend by successive terraces to the nearest
seas; or they pass, by gradations, from the base of high mountains to
the low plains in the interior of the continents.

The Great American Basin, between the Rocky and Sierra Nevada Mountains,
and the plateau of Tibet, between the Himalaya and Kuenlun mountains,
are examples of the first position; and the table-land of Mexico, of the
second. The third is seen in the high plains at the eastern foot of the
Rocky Mountains, which descend from an altitude of five thousand or six
thousand feet, at the foot of the mountains, to the low plains of the
Mississippi basin.

The plateaus most remarkable for their elevation are, Tibet, from ten
thousand to eighteen thousand feet above the sea; and the elongated
valley-like highlands, from ten thousand to thirteen thousand feet high,
between the two chains of the Andes, in South America. East Turkestan
and Mongolia, in central Asia; the plateau of Iran, in western Asia;
Abyssinia, and the vast plateau which occupies all the southern part of
Africa; and the broad table-land which fills the western half of North
America with a continuous mass of high land, range in height from four
thousand to eight thousand feet.

The great peninsulas of Deccan, Arabia, Asia-Minor and Spain, the
central plateau of France, and those of Switzerland, Bavaria, and
Transylvania, vary from one thousand to four thousand feet in elevation.


SOIL AND CLIMATE OF PLATEAUS

The nature of the soil and climate of great plateaus is in general such
as to render them the least useful portions of the continents. Sahara,
with an average altitude of 1,000 feet, and the higher plateaus of
Mongolia, Iran and parts of the American Basin, may serve as types.

Their surface consists of hardened sand and rock; of hillocks and plains
of loose sand constantly shifting by the wind; and of immense tracts, as
in Mongolia, covered with pebbles varying from the size of a walnut, or
even less, to a foot in diameter: all indicating the original
transporting, grinding and depositing of these materials by water.

Salt lakes without outlet occur in each, and salt efflorescence often
covers the ground. A lack of rain to wash from the soil substances
injurious to vegetation, and supply the water necessary for the growth
of plants, leaves these plateaus generally sterile, and some of the most
extensive are in part, if not wholly, deserts.


MOUNTAINS AND THEIR STRUCTURES

Mountains rise in long and comparatively narrow lines or ridges, the
tops of which are often deeply indented, presenting to the eye the
appearance of a series of peaks detached one from another. As each of
these peaks or distinct elevations is called a mountain and often
receives a separate name, the common designation chain or range of
mountains is naturally applied to the whole.

The top of the ridge, from which the waters descend on opposite sides,
is called the crest; and the notches between the peaks, from which
transverse valleys often stretch like deep furrows down the slopes of
the chain, are called passes.


HOW MOUNTAIN CHAINS FORM SYSTEMS

Mountain chains are seldom isolated, but are usually combined into
_systems_, consisting of several more or less parallel and connected
chains, with their intervening valleys,--as the Appalachian system, the
Alps, and the Andes.

Most mountain chains seem to have been produced by tremendous lateral
pressure in portions of the Earth’s crust, causing either long folds, or
deep fissures with upturned edges rising into high ridges, the broken
strata forming ragged peaks.


TWO TYPES OF MOUNTAIN CHAINS

Mountains by folding are generally of moderate elevation, while
mountains by fracture include the highest chains of the globe. The
Appalachian Mountains in North America, and the Jura in Europe, are
examples of the first; the Rocky Mountains, Andes, Alps and Himalayas,
of the second.

Folded mountains are curved into long arches, either entire or broken at
the summit and forming a system of long, parallel ridges, of nearly
equal height, separated by trough-like valleys. Here and there,
however, deep gaps, or gorges, cut the chains allowing the rivers to
escape from one valley to another.

In systems of mountains produced by fracture, there is usually one main
central chain, with several subordinate ranges. They have, however, less
regularity and similarity among themselves than the parallel chains of
mountains by folding.

The crests are deeply indented, cut down one-third or one-half the
height of the range, forming isolated peaks and passes which present to
the eye the appearance of a saw, called in Spanish Sierra; in
Portuguese, Serra. Such ranges are frequently distinguished by these
terms, as the Sierra Nevada, in North America; and the Serra do Mar, in
Brazil.


HOW VALLEYS ARE FORMED

Valleys among mountains owe their existence primarily to folds or
fissures in the Earth’s crust, produced in the upheaving of the ranges;
but they are subsequently deepened, widened and otherwise changed in
form and extent, by the action of rains and frosts, and the streams to
which they furnish a pathway. Most of the Alpine lakes, celebrated for
their picturesque beauty, occupy deep basins at the outlet of transverse
valleys.

Valleys in plains and plateaus are mainly, if not entirely, the result
of the erosion, or wear of the surface, by running water.

Little rills, formed by the rains or issuing from springs, set out on
their course down the slope of the ground, each wearing its small furrow
in the surface. Uniting they form a rivulet which wears a broader and
deeper channel; and the rivulets in turn combining, form rivers which
produce still greater effects.

The great basin of the Mississippi for example, is one grand central
valley, cut by the main stream in the line of lowest level, towards
which the valleys of the Missouri, the Arkansas, the Ohio, and a
multitude of smaller streams, all converge.

[Illustration: =CELEBRATED MOUNTAIN PEAKS THAT STAND AS THE EARTH’S
GREATEST SENTINELS=

1. MOUNT EVEREST, the loftiest mountain in the world, is situated in
Nepal, India, and rises to an ascertained height of 29,000 feet--almost
six miles. It was named for Sir George Everest, an English engineer, and
outline Surveyor-General of India. Everest is only one of numerous
gigantic peaks of the Himalayas--often called the “Roof of the
World”--and is apparently guarded against all attempts at ascent by a
rampart of lofty pinnacles. It is best viewed from a point near
Darjeeling, India, one hundred and twenty miles distant. From this point
travelers are enthralled with the glistening peak of mountain piles as
nowhere else on earth. Though a thousand times described, the view is so
surpassingly sublime that its full glory can never be depicted in words.

2. MONT BLANC (_mòn-blon-g_) is the highest mountain in Europe, and of
the Alps. It is located between Great and Little St. Bernard passes, on
the frontier of France, Switzerland and Italy; and is best seen and
approached from the village of Chamounix (_shä-mo-nē´_), France. It was
first ascended in 1786, but frequently since, and, in 1893, an
observatory was built on its summit. The Mont Blanc chain is famous for
glaciers. Many great poets have described the majesty of Mont Blanc,
among them, Goethe, Victor Hugo, Byron, Shelley, Wordsworth, and
Coleridge.

3. THE MATTERHORN, or Mount Cervin, a splendid mountain obelisk, towers
above Zermatt, Switzerland, on the Italian border. The eastern side
seems almost vertical, and its ascent is very difficult; hence its name
which is due to the formation of the rocky, horn-shaped peak. The loss
of life attending its ascent has given the Matterhorn the grim name
“Fatal Mountain.”

4. MONTE ROSA (_mŏn´te rō´sa_), “rosy mountain,” is next to Mont Blanc,
the highest Alpine peak. It is the border between Italy and Switzerland,
sixty miles north of Turin, Switzerland. Unlike the Matterhorn, Monte
Rosa is easy of ascent and is frequently climbed by ladies. Its name
refers to the glaciers which abound and reflect beautiful colors.

5. JUNGFRAU (_yung´frau_), “virgin,” is one of the Bernese Alps,
Switzerland, thirteen miles from Interlaken. It is so named from the
pure whiteness of its snowclad peak. A wonderful mountain railway now
reaches to the summit, most of the line being through tunnels. Jungfrau
is 13,670 feet high.

6. MOUNT ELBURZ is one of the loftiest and most impressive of all the
Caucasian mountains. It is an extinct volcano with two peaks, the
western peak 18,470 feet above sea-level, and the other 18,347 feet. It
is covered with glaciers, and constitutes a watershed which divides Asia
from Europe. The Caucasus gave its name to that great branch of the
human race that has ruled the world for many generations.

7. MOUNT SINAI (_si´nā_ or _-nī_), famous as the sacred mountain on
which Moses received the Ten Commandments, is an individual peak in a
vast rocky mass that almost fills the peninsula of Sinai between the
Gulf of Suez and Gulf of Akaba. It is named from _Sin_, the Babylonian
moon-god. At its foot, in a ravine, is the monastery of St. Catherine,
founded by the Emperor Justinian; a short distance from it the Chapel of
St. Elias (Elijah); while on its summit is a little pilgrim church. Its
height is 8,593 feet.

8. PIKE’S PEAK. This famous mountain is six miles from Colorado Springs,
Colorado, and may be ascended by a cog railway. It is one of the
best-known summits of the Rocky Mountains, and rears its snowy crest to
a height of 14,134 feet. On its top is one of the highest weather
stations in the world. The view from the observatory is superb,
embracing thousands of square miles of mountain and plain.

9. MOUNT ST. ELIAS, on the Alaskan side of the Canadian frontier, was
long considered the highest peak in North America. It is a volcanic
mountain, stands in a wild, inaccessible region, and is clothed almost
from base to summit with eternal snow. Besides, there are huge glaciers,
impassable precipices and yawning chasms. Its height is 18,020 feet. It
was ascended by the Duke of the Abruzzi in 1897.

10. MOUNT ASSINIBOINE (_as-sin´i-boin_) is frequently called the
“Matterhorn of the Canadian Rockies”. It is 11,860 feet in height, and
is located near the boundary of British Columbia and Alberta, about
twenty miles south of Banff, in one of the most beautiful scenic regions
in America. In the immediate vicinity there are geysers, caves,
waterfalls, numerous lakes, natural bridges, and glaciers.

11. MOUNT POPOCATEPETL (_pō-pō-kă-tā-pet´l_) is one of the giant
volcanic peaks standing guard over Mexico City. Its summit is
perpetually covered with snow, but it may be ascended from Popo Park,
the terminal of the railway which climbs its slope, to a height of 8,000
feet. The peak itself is 17,887 feet, at the apex of which is a huge
crater sheathed with ice, from which clouds of vapor are continually
ascending. No great eruption, however, has taken place since 1540. The
most imposing spectacle of all from the summit is the remarkable
formation of clouds below.

12. MOUNT SALCANTAY, one of the most beautiful peaks of the Andes, in
Peru, is 21,000 feet in height. Its grandeur is enhanced by the presence
of glaciers and the enveloping clouds. It rises to a sharp point with
its sides covered with snow and ice, and lifts its head magnificently
thousands of feet higher than the surrounding mountains. It has been
recently explored by the Yale University expedition.

13. MOUNT ROBSON, the highest point in the Canadian Rockies, reaches an
elevation of 13,700 feet. It is on the border between Alberta and
British Columbia, one of the remarkable “show places” of the Canadian
Rockies. All around it is the finest of scenery--huge mountains,
snow-crested peaks, rushing rivers that swirl and foam, mysterious
canyons and earth-strewn boulders.

14. MOUNT RAINIER (_rā´ner_) an isolated mountain of the Cascade Range,
forty miles southeast of Tacoma, Washington, is an extinct volcano,
15,529 feet in height. There are still two craters at the summit which
give off heat and sulphurous fumes. Thick forests cover the lower region
of the mountain, while higher up there are fourteen glaciers. It is
difficult of ascent, though frequently made. A bridle path leads to a
point over 7,000 feet in elevation from which a magnificent view of
several of the glaciers may be had.

MOUNT ARARAT, famed as the mountain where Noah’s ark landed after the
flood, as recorded in Genesis, is in the Turkish province of Armenia.
Ararat is really a twin mountain, the two peaks of which are about seven
miles apart, with an elevation of about 17,000 and 13,000 feet,
respectively. They rise above a beautiful alluvial plain, and quite
naturally the higher peak--Great Ararat--is the one made historically
immortal as the motherland of the human race. From their isolation and
bareness the two peaks are very impressive, and it is little wonder that
Armenia regards these mountain tops as a crown of glory and all other
lands as her daughters. Within her borders, too, she gives rise to the
beautiful rivers Euphrates, Tigris, Pison, Araxes, and many others. The
first modern ascent of the mountain was made in 1829, though often
since.]


REMARKABLE CANONS OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN PLATEAUS

Wonderful examples of valleys by erosion occur in the plateaus adjacent
to the Rocky Mountains. The Grand Canon of the Colorado, three hundred
miles long, has a depth of from three thousand to six thousand feet
below the surrounding country. The sides of this tremendous gorge, which
are nearly or quite precipitous, exhibit the successive geological
strata down to the oldest rocks. A similar formation exists in the
upper course of the Yellowstone, one of the main tributaries of the
Missouri, and to a less extent in all the streams flowing through the
high barren plateaus.

Valleys descending the slopes of mountains are formed in the same
manner. The gathering drops make the rill, and the rill its little
furrow; rills combine into rivulets, and rivulets make a gully down the
hill-side; rivulets unite to form torrents, and these work with
accumulating force, and excavate deep gorges in the declivities. Other
torrents form in the same manner about the mountain ridge, and pursue
the same work of erosion until the slopes are a series of valleys and
ridges, and the summit a bold crest overlooking the eroding waters. The
larger part of the valleys of the world are formed entirely by running
water.


ISLANDS OF THE WORLD

The multitude of small and apparently fragmentary bodies of land, called
islands, form only about one-seventeenth part of the entire land surface
of the globe.


CONTINENTAL AND OCEANIC ISLANDS

Continental islands are situated in the immediate vicinity of the
continents, and form properly a part of the continental structure. They
have the same kinds of rocks and mountain forms, and the same varieties
of plants and large animals, which are found on the neighboring coasts
of the mainland.

The size of this class of islands varies extremely. Some are mere
isolated rocks, while others occupy large areas, like the British Isles,
Japan Islands and Madagascar; or, more extensive still, Papua and
Borneo, each of which has an area exceeding two hundred thousand square
miles.

The distinctive character of Oceanic islands is that they lie at a
distance from the continents, in the midst of the ocean basins. They are
always small, and, though sometimes forming lines, or bands, they more
frequently occur in groups.

The rocks which make up the body of the continents and continental
islands--sandstone, slate, granite, and the various metamorphic
rocks--are entirely wanting in oceanic islands. The latter are composed
either of volcanic substances, or of limestone. Hence they present much
less variety in relief forms than the continental islands.


FORMS OF VOLCANIC ISLANDS

The islands of volcanic origin are more or less circular in outline; are
usually considerably elevated, with rapid slopes; and are of moderate
size. Sometimes two or more volcanoes, clustered together, form a single
island of larger size and more irregular outline.

Occasional islands rise but little above the surface of the sea, their
craters being filled by sea water. Many, however, rise to Alpine
heights--like the peaks of Hawaii, in the Hawaiian Islands, nearly
fourteen thousand feet in elevation; Pico de Teyde, in the Canaries,
fourteen thousand feet; and Tahiti, in the Society Islands, over seven
thousand feet above the level of the sea.


WONDERFUL STRUCTURE OF CORAL ISLANDS

Coral islands are among the most striking phenomena of the tropical
seas. Whitsunday Island in the midst of the Pacific is an excellent
example. Rising but a few feet above the surface of the ocean, it forms
a narrow, unbroken, nearly circular ring, surrounding a central lagoon
of quiet water. When first seen, it presents the aspects of an angry
surf breaking on a white beach of coral sand, in strong contrast with
the deep blue color of the sea. Behind this a garland of luxuriant
vegetation, whose tropical beauty, enhanced by the noble cocoa-palm
encircles the quiet waters of the lagoon, while all around spreads the
broad blue sea.

=TWO OF THE GREATEST MARVELS OF LAND AND SEA=

[Illustration: =THE GRAND CANYON OF THE COLORADO RIVER, ARIZONA=

This greatest of nature’s gorges is more than twelve miles across, a
mile deep, and extends over two hundred miles in length. This whole vast
space has been sculptured by the wear of the river through countless
centuries. Its unparalleled magnitude, its architectural forms and
suggestions, and its wealth of color effects create a picture that is
grand beyond description.]

[Illustration: =THE BARRIER CORAL REEF OF AUSTRALIA=

This vast reef of coral islands was built by a colony of coral insects,
or polyps, as innumerable as the stars of the Milky Way. It rose from
the floor of the ocean, builded out of myriads upon myriads of the dead
skeletons of these marvellous insects.]


COMBINATION OF VOLCANIC AND CORAL ISLANDS

A large number of volcanic islands in the Pacific are encircled by coral
reefs, which, when near the shore, are called fringing reefs. When at a
considerable distance, leaving a lagoon of quiet water between them and
the volcanic island, they are termed barrier reefs.


CORAL REEFS AND THEIR BUILDERS

Coral reefs are masses of limestone originally secreted, in the form of
coral, by minute polyps which live in countless numbers in the tropical
seas. The coral produced by a single community of polyps grows chiefly
upward; but multitudes of distinct communities often live so near
together that the small lateral growth of each brings them into contact.

Their separate, fragile structures, gradually broken up and compacted by
various means, are in time transformed into a solid mass, forming walls
of coral rock frequently of enormous extent. The great barrier reef near
the northeastern shores of Australia, the longest known, is not less
than one thousand two hundred and fifty miles in length.

[Illustration: =A LIVING SINGLE CORAL FROM THE PACIFIC OCEAN=

The coral polyp is one of the master-builders of the world. It may be
likened to a sea-anemone, but is inferior in muscular organism, and
immensely superior in defensive organization.]

Reef-building polyps do not live below the depth of one hundred or one
hundred and twenty feet, and hence require a foundation near the
surface. This is supplied by submarine mountains and plateaus, or the
slopes of those volcanic cones which form the high islands.

Growing vertically, the reefs repeat at the surface the outlines of
their bases, which fact gives rise to the circular figure both of atolls
and reefs in mid-ocean, and to the elongated, wall-like form of reefs
adjacent to the continents, like those of Florida and of Australia.


DISTRIBUTION OF CORALS

Reef-building polyps are confined to the tropical seas, where the winter
temperature is not below sixty-eight degrees. Coral formations are most
extensive in the Pacific Ocean, especially south of the Equator, and in
the two great archipelagoes of the East and West Indies; but a large
number of coral islands also occur in the Indian Ocean. The Coral Sea,
east of northern Australia, is particularly remarkable for the great
extent of its coral reefs.


THE ATOLL FORM OF ISLAND

The usual form of coral islands is that of a broken ring, numerous
channels affording entrance into the lagoon. Such a group of islands is
called an atoll, a Malay term, which has been adopted to designate these
singular structures. The central lagoon enclosed by an atoll, is
invariably shallow, seldom exceeding a few scores, or at most hundreds,
of feet in depth; while the outer sea reaches a depth of thousands of
feet at a short distance from the shore, showing that the atoll rests
upon a submarine mountain.

Atolls are often clustered together in large numbers, forming extensive
archipelagoes. Paumotu, or Low Archipelago, numbers eighty coral
islands, nearly all of which are atolls; the Caroline, Gilbert and
Marshall islands together contain eighty-four atolls, while the
Laccadive and Maldive islands form two long double series of atolls
extending eight hundred miles from north to south.

[Illustration: =MAP SHOWING COMPARATIVE SIZE OF ISLANDS=

(See next page for the Area, Population and Countries to which these
islands belong).

=ISLANDS OF WESTERN HEMISPHERE=]

=MOST NOTED ISLANDS OF THE WORLD--WESTERN HEMISPHERE=

  -------------------------------------------+--------+----------
                                             | =Area  | =Popula-
  =Name and Sovereignty=                     | Square |   tion=
                                             | Miles= |
  -------------------------------------------+--------+----------
  =Anticosti= (to Britain)                   |  2,600 |       500
  =Bahamas= (to Britain)                     |  4,404 |    58,000
  =Bermudas= (to Britain)                    |     20 |    20,000
  =Cape Breton= (to Britain)                 |  3,120 |   100,000
  =Cuba= (Independent)                       | 44,164 | 2,155,000
  =Dominica= (to Britain)                    |    291 |    35,000
  =Falkland= (to Britain)                    |  5,500 |     3,250
  =Feeji, or Feejee= (to Britain)            |  7,435 |   155,000
  =Galapagos= (to Ecuador)                   |  2,400 |       400
  =Greenland= (to Denmark)                   | 46,740 |    15,000
  =Guadeloupe= (to France)                   |    688 |   182,000
  =Hawaiian= See Sandwich.                   |        |
  =Isla de Pinos= (Isle of Pines) (to Spain) |  1,200 |    32,000
  =Jamaica= (to Britain)                     |  4,200 |   865,000
  =Long Island= (to U. S.)                   |  1,682 | 2,700,000
  =Martinique= (to France)                   |    378 |   180,000
  =New Foundland= (to Britain)               | 42,734 |   218,000
  =Porto Rico= (to U. S.)                    |  3,604 | 1,120,000
  =Prince Edward= (to Britain)               |  2,184 |    94,000
  =Santo Domingo= (Independent)              | 28,250 | 2,700,000
  =Sandwich or Hawaiian= (to U. S.)          |  6,449 |   192,000
  =Staten Island= (to U. S.)                 |     65 |    86,000
  =Tahiti= (to France)                       |  1,500 |    30,000
  =Tierra del Fuego= (to Argentina)          | 18,500 |     1,700
  =Trinidad= (to Britain)                    |  1,750 |   350,000
  =Vancouver= (to Britain)                   | 15,937 |    55,000
  -------------------------------------------+--------+----------

[Illustration: =MAP SHOWING COMPARATIVE SIZE OF ISLANDS=

=ISLANDS OF EASTERN HEMISPHERE=]

=MOST NOTED ISLANDS OF THE WORLD--EASTERN HEMISPHERE=

  -------------------------------------------+--------+----------
                                             | =Area  | =Popula-
  =Name and Sovereignty=                     | Square |   tion=
                                             | Miles= |
  -------------------------------------------+--------+----------
  =Balearic Islands= (to Spain)              |  1,935 |   326,000
  =Borneo= (to Britain and Holland)          |284,000 | 2,000,000
  =Canary Islands= (to Spain)                |  2,807 |   420,000
  =Candia, or Crete= (to Turkey)             |  3,365 |   243,000
  =Cape Verde Islands= (to Portugal)         |  1,480 |   148,000
  =Celebes= (to Holland)                     | 71,470 | 2,000,000
  =Ceylon= (to Britain)                      | 25,332 | 3,595,000
  =Corsica= (to France)                      |  3,378 |   290,000
  =Cyprus= (to Britain)                      |  3,584 |   140,000
  =Elba= (to Italy)                          |     85 |    27,000
  =England= (Independent)                    | 88,729 |40,835,000
  =Formosa= (to Japan)                       | 13,458 | 3,392,000
  =Gothland= (to Sweden)                     |  1,217 |    56,000
  =Hainan= (to China)                        | 16,000 | 2,000,000
  =Iceland= (to Denmark)                     | 39,756 |    86,000
  =Ireland= (to Britain)                     | 32,360 | 4,382,000
          {Honshiu                           | 87,485 |37,415,000
  =Japan= {Khiushiu                          | 16,840 | 7,727,000
          {Skikoku                           |  7,031 | 3,290,000
          {Hokkaido (Yezo)                   | 36,299 | 1,140,000
  =Java= (to Holland)                        | 50,554 |30,100,000
  =Madagascar= (to France)                   |227,950 | 2,745,000
  =Madeira Islands= (to Portugal)            |    314 |   150,600
  =Malta= (to Britain)                       |    117 |   229,000
  =New Guinea= See Papua.                    |        |
  =New Zealand= {N. Island                   | 44,468 |   564,000
  (to Britain)  {S. Island                   | 58,325 |   445,000
  =Papua, or New Guinea= (to Britain,        |        |
  Germany and Holland)                       |313,183 |   710,000
                           {Luzon            | 40,969 | 3,800,000
                           {Mindanao         | 36,292 |   500,000
  =Philippines= (to U. S.) {Panay            |  4,611 |   744,000
                           {Cebu             |  1,762 |   593,000
                           {Leyte            |  2,722 |   358,000
  =St. Helena= (to Britain)                  |     47 |     3,520
  =Sakhalin= (Japan and Russia)              | 29,000 |    30,000
  =Sardinia= (to Italy)                      |  9,306 |   854,000
  =Sicily= (to Italy)                        |  9,935 | 3,685,000
  =Spitzbergen= (to Norway)                  | 27,000 |       ...
  =Sumatra= (to Holland)                     |165,000 | 3,200,000
  =Van Diemen, or Tasmania= (to Britain)     | 26,215 |   197,000
  =Zanzibar= (to Britain)                    |    640 |   115,000
  -------------------------------------------+--------+----------

[Illustration: =MARVELS OF THE EARTH’S ROTATION, FORCES AND STRUCTURE=

1. Midnight Sun Within the Arctic Circle. 2. The Geyser At Rest. 3.
Picture Diagram of a Section through a Volcano like Vesuvius. 4. The
Geyser in Action. 5. Section of the Earth’s Crust across France and
Italy.

1. Precambrian or Archaean. 2. Cambrian and Ordovician. 3. Silurian. 4.
Carboniferous Limestone. 5. Coal Measures. 6. Permian. 7. Trias. 8.
Jurassic. 9. Chalk. 10. Tertiary. 11. Volcanic Rocks. 12. Glacial
Deposits. 13. Granite. 14. Gneiss. 15. Schist. 16. Alluvium.]


VOLCANOES, GEYSERS AND EARTHQUAKES

[Illustration: =THE REMARKABLE SUBMARINE VOLCANO OF SANTORIN=
(_Săn-to-rē´n_)

In this little Bay of Santorin, enclosed by an island of the same name
in the Grecian Archipelago, occurred probably the most remarkable
volcanic exhibition known. During an eruption in 1866 flames issued from
the sea rising sometimes to a height of twenty-five feet, and a dense
column of white smoke mounted to an immense height. Within a few days a
new island appeared which gradually became united to the present
Santorin.]


CAUSE, STRUCTURE AND LOCATION OF VOLCANOES

The primary cause of volcanoes, as of geysers, earthquakes and other
similar phenomena of nature, is the intensely heated condition of the
earth’s interior. It is the same force that has produced the irregular
features of the earth’s surface--its mighty mountain chains, the sunken
basins of the oceans, and its hills, valleys and gorges. Quite
logically, volcanoes are most numerous and most intense along the deep
mountain fissures which establish a ready communication between the
interior and the surface of the earth. Consequently the significant
facts about them are: (1) Nearly all volcanoes are either along the
highest border of the continents, or in the great central zone of
fracture; (2) most of the volcanic groups exhibit a linear arrangement;
(3) the agent at work in these mighty engines is mainly vapor of water,
or steam power.


WHAT VOLCANOES ARE AND HOW THEY ACT

The form of typical volcanic mountain is that of a cone, with a circular
basin or depression, called a crater, at its summit. In the center of
the crater is the mouth of a perpendicular shaft or chimney, which emits
clouds of hot vapor and gases; and in periods of greater activity,
ejects ashes, fragments of heated rock, and streams of fiery lava.

Volcanic ashes, when examined under a microscope, are found to be simply
pulverized lava, frequently in minute crystals, and bear no resemblance
to ashes in the ordinary sense of the term.

The lava stream, when flowing white hot from the crater, is not unlike a
jet of melted iron escaping from a furnace, and moves at first with
considerable rapidity. It soon cools on the surface, and becomes covered
with a hard, black, porous crust, while the interior remains melted and
continues to flow. If the stream is thick, the lava may be found still
warm after ten or even twenty years.

The amount of matter ejected by volcanoes is very great. The whole
island of Hawaii, the largest of the Hawaiian Islands, seems to be only
an accumulation of lava thrown out by its four craters. All high oceanic
islands are of the same character. Iceland, with an area of forty
thousand square miles, is a vast table-land from three thousand to five
thousand feet in elevation, composed of volcanic rock similar to the
lavas still ejected by its numerous volcanoes.


VESUVIUS THE MOST REMARKABLE VOLCANO

Nearly all active volcanoes have intervals of comparative repose,
interrupted by periods of increased activity, which terminate in a
violent ejection of matter from the interior, during which the volcano
is said to be in a state of eruption.

The phenomena which characterize these differing phases of volcanic
activity may be best made clear by describing them as actually observed
in Vesuvius, one of the most carefully studied and most active volcanoes
of modern times.

  Vesuvius is a solitary mountain rising to the height of nearly 4,000
  feet, from the midst of a highly cultivated plain which borders upon
  the shores of the Bay of Naples. Though the mountain has a regular
  conical form, two summits, very nearly equal in height, are visible
  from Naples--Monte Somma on the north, and Vesuvius proper on the
  south.

  The Eruption begins generally with a tremendous explosion which
  seems to shake the mountain to its very foundations, and hurls into
  the air dense clouds of vapor and ashes. Other explosions succeed
  rapidly, and with increasing violence, each sending up a white,
  globular cloud of steam, or aqueous vapor. This long array of
  clouds, accompanied by dark ashes, volcanic sand, and fragments of
  red-hot lava of all sizes, soon forms a stupendous column.

  Finally the boiling lava overflows the rim of the crater, and
  descends in fiery torrents down the slopes; or, bursting the
  mountain by its weight, finds a vent through some fissure far below
  the summit. After the expulsion of the lava the eruption is
  generally near its end, though it does not necessarily terminate at
  once. Alternate phases of outbursting steam, ashes, and lava may
  continue with more or less violence for weeks or even months.

  The sudden condensation of the enormous accumulation of hot vapor
  thrown into the air by the eruption, gives rise to striking
  atmospheric phenomena. Vivid flashes of lightning start from all
  parts of the column, and play about the clouds above; and often a
  local thunderstorm, formed in the midst of a clear sky, pours a
  heavy rain of warm water and ashes upon the slopes of the mountain.
  The hot, destructive mud torrents, created by these rains, have
  often been mistaken for lava streams.

  The majesty of the spectacle is still greater at night. Though
  flames of burning gases are of rare occurrence, the clouds and
  columns of vapor are strongly illuminated by the reflection of the
  white-hot lava within the crater; and fragments of this lava
  constantly thrown into the air give the column all the brilliancy of
  a gigantic piece of fire-work. The sky itself, far and wide,
  partakes of the same vivid coloring, and the whole scene resembles a
  vast conflagration.


SIZE AND DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES

In size they vary from mere mounds a few yards in diameter, such as the
salses or mud-volcanoes near the Caspian, to Etna, 9,652 feet high, with
a base thirty miles in diameter; Cotopaxi, in the Andes, 18,880 feet
high; or Mauna Loa, in the Sandwich Isles, 13,600 feet high, with a base
seventy miles in diameter and two craters, one of which, Kilauea, is the
largest active crater in our earth, being seven miles in circuit.

Two great terrestrial zones include nearly all the known volcanoes of
the globe, arranged in long bands or series, or in isolated groups.

FIRST ZONE. This includes the vast array of mountain chains, peninsulas,
and bands of islands which encircle the Pacific Ocean with a belt of
burning mountains. Within it occur, in the New World: (1) the Andes
mountains, with three of the most remarkable series of volcanoes--those
of Chili, Bolivia, and Ecuador--separated by hundreds of miles; (2) the
volcanic group of Central America; (3) the series of Mexico; (4) the
series of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade mountains; (5) the group of
Alaska; and (6) the long series of the Aleutian Islands.

In the Old World are: (1) the series of Kamchatka and the Kurile
Islands; (2) the group of Japan; (3) the series south of Japan,
including Formosa, the Philippine and the Molucca Islands; and (4) the
Australian series, including New Guinea, New Britain, New Hebrides, and
New Zealand. In this vast zone there are not less than four hundred
volcanoes, one hundred and seventy of which are still active.

SECOND ZONE. This contains the belt of broken lands and inland seas,
which extending round the globe, separates the northern from the
southern continents, and intersects the first zone, in the equatorial
regions, nearly at right angles.

In it are: (1) the volcanic regions of Central America and Mexico, and
the series of the Lesser Antilles; (2) the groups of the Azores and
Canary islands (3) the Mediterranean islands and peninsulas, including
all the active volcanoes of Europe; (4) Asia Minor with numerous extinct
volcanoes; (5) the shores of the Red Sea and Persian Gulf, and the two
Indias, rich in traces of volcanic action; (6) the East Indian
Archipelago with hundreds of burning mountains; and (7) the Friendly
Islands and other volcanic groups of the central Pacific.

In this zone there are no less than one hundred and sixty volcanoes, so
that the two volcanic zones together contain five hundred and sixty, or
five-sixths of all known.

ISOLATED VOLCANOES. The volcanoes not included in these two great zones
are isolated, in the midst of the oceans, or in the broken polar lands.
The most noted are the Hawaiian Island group, in the Pacific; Bourbon
and Mauritius, in the Indian Ocean; Cape Verde Islands, Ascension, St.
Helena, and Tristan da Cunha, in the Atlantic; Iceland and Jan Mayen, in
the Arctic Ocean; and Erebus and Terror, in Antarctic.

=MOST NOTED VOLCANOES=

       =Name=              =Location=      =Height
                                           (feet)=
  =Altar=               Ecuador             17,710
  =Antisana=            Ecuador             19,335
  =Asosan=              Japan                5,630
  =Cayambi=             Ecuador             19,255
  =Chimborazo=          Ecuador             21,424
  =Copiapo=             Chile               19,700
  =Cotocachi=           Ecuador             16,300
  =Cotopaxi=            Ecuador             18,880
  =Demavend=            Persia              18,500
  =Etna=                Sicily               9,652
  =Fujiyama=            Japan               12,390
  =Hecla=               Iceland              5,110
  =Hood, Mt.=           Oregon              11,225
  =Iztaccihuati=        Mexico              16,076
  =Kirishima-yama=      Japan                5,530
  =Llullaillac=         Chile               21,000
  =Maipo=               Chile               17,670
  =Mauna Kea=           Hawaii              13,953
  =Mauna Loa=           Hawaii              13,600
  =Misti=               Peru                20,015
  =Nevado de Colima=    Mexico              14,210
  =Orizaba=             Mexico              18,310
  =Pelée=               Martinique, W. I.    4,300
  =Pichincha=           Ecuador             15,918
  =Pico, Peak of=       Azores               7,013
  =Popocatepetl=        Mexico              17,748
  =Ruiz=                Colombia            17,388
  =Sahama=              Peru                23,000
  =Sangai=              Ecuador             17,459
  =San Jose=            Chile               20,020
  =St. Elias, Mt.=      Alaska              18,024
  =St. Helena, Mt.=     United States       10,000
  =Stromboli=           Lipari Islands       3,090
  =Tahiti, Peak of=     Friendly Islands     7,400
  =Teneriffe=           Canary Islands      12,000
  =Tolima=              Columbia            18,069
  =Toluco=              Mexico              14,950
  =Tunguragua=          Ecuador             16,690
  =Vesuvius=            Italy                4,260


EARTHQUAKES

Earthquakes are movements of the earth’s crust, varying in intensity
from a slight tremor or shaking of the ground to the most violent
convulsions causing enormous destruction over wide areas.


KINDS OF MOTION OBSERVED IN EARTHQUAKES

The wave-like or undulatory motion is most common and least destructive.
It appears to be the normal one, and it is possible that the others may
be simply the result of various systems of waves intersecting one
another. The waves either advance in one direction, like waves of the
sea, or spread from a central point, like ripples produced by dropping a
pebble into still water.

The earthquakes of the Andes are chiefly linear, being propagated along
the mountains, with the undulations perpendicular to the direction of
the ranges. The destructive earthquake at Lisbon, was a central one, the
concentric waves gradually diminishing in intensity with increasing
distance from the place of origin.

The vertical motion acts from beneath like the explosion of a mine, and
when violent nothing can resist its force. The earthquake at Calcutta,
in September, 1828, owed its great destructiveness to the fact that the
main shock was vertical; and one in Murcia, Spain, in 1829, destroyed or
injured more than three thousand five hundred houses.

The rotary or whirling motion is the most dangerous, but happily the
rarest of all. In the great earthquake of Jamaica, in 1692, the surface
of the ground was so disturbed that fields changed places, or were found
twisted into each other.


EARTHQUAKE SHOCKS AND SOUNDS

Probably no part of the earth’s surface is entirely free from vibration,
but, fortunately, destructive earthquakes are confined to comparatively
limited regions. In most cases each shock lasts only a few seconds, but
the tremblings that follow may be continued for days, weeks, or even
months. Noises of sundry kinds usually precede, accompany, or succeed an
earthquake. Some earthquakes, however, are not attended by any
subterranean sounds. This has been the case with some of the most
destructive South American disturbances. Thus at the time of the
terrible shock which destroyed Riobamba in Ecuador in 1797, a complete
silence reigned. On the other hand, subterranean sounds may be heard
without any earth-tremor being perceived.

The sound which accompanies many earthquakes is due to the transmission
to the air of vibrations in the soil. To produce sound-waves in the air,
the ground must vibrate like a drumhead. Hence no sound will be heard
when the oscillations are horizontal.

The velocity of propagation of an earthquake is very variable. Thus in
the case of the earthquake of Lisbon in 1755, it seems to have
considerably exceeded one thousand feet per second, while in the Lisbon
earthquake of 1761 the rate was three times greater. At Tokio, in 1881,
the velocity, as estimated by Professor Milne, varied between four
thousand feet and nine thousand feet per second.

DEPTH OF EARTHQUAKES. Various attempts have been made to estimate the
depth at which earthquakes originate. Mallet was of opinion that the
centrum of the Neapolitan earthquake of 1857 was probably five and
one-half miles from the surface. The same eminent physicist thought that
an earthquake centrum probably never exceeded a depth of thirty
geographical miles. According to Professor Milne, the angles of
emergence of the earth-waves obtained during the Yokohama earthquake of
1880 showed that the depth of origin of that earthquake might be between
one and one-half and five miles; and he gives a table, compiled from the
writings of various observers, which exhibits the mean depths at which
certain earthquakes have originated. These estimated depths range from
17,260 feet to 127,309 feet.

The area disturbed by an earthquake is generally proportionate to the
intensity of the shock. The great earthquake of Lisbon disturbed an
area four times as great as the whole of Europe. In the form of tremors
and pulsations, Mr. Milne remarks, it may have shaken the whole globe.

In a violent submarine earthquake the ordinary earth-wave and sound-wave
are accompanied by sea-waves. These waves may be twenty, sixty or even
eighty feet higher than the highest tide, and are usually more dreaded
than the earthquake shock itself in such regions as the maritime
districts of South America. The greatest sea-wave on record is that
which in 1737, is said to have broken near Cape Lopatka, at the south
end of Kamchatka, two hundred and ten feet in height.

=NOTABLY DESTRUCTIVE EARTHQUAKES=

  79. One accompanied by the eruption of Vesuvius; the cities of
  Pompeii and Herculaneum buried.

  742. Awful one in Syria, Palestine, and Asia; more than 500 towns
  were destroyed and the loss of life surpassed all calculations.

  936. Constantinople overturned; all Greece shaken.

  1137. Catania, in Sicily, overturned, and 15,000 persons buried in
  the ruins.

  1186. At Calabria; one of its cities and all its inhabitants
  overwhelmed in the Adriatic Sea.

  1456. At Naples, 40,000 persons perished.

  1537. At Lisbon; 1,500 houses and 30,000 persons buried in the
  ruins; several neighboring towns ingulfed with their inhabitants.

  1596. In Japan; several cities made ruins, and thousands perished.

  1662. One in China, when 300,000 persons were buried in Pekin alone.

  1693. One in Sicily, which overturned fifty-four cities and towns,
  and 300 villages. Of Catania and its 18,000 inhabitants not a trace
  remained; more than 100,000 lives were lost.

  1726. Palermo nearly destroyed; 6,000 lives lost.

  1731. Again in China; and 100,000 people swallowed up at Pekin.

  1746. Lima and Callao demolished; 18,000 persons buried in the
  ruins.

  1754. At Grand Cairo; half of the houses and 40,000 persons
  swallowed up.

  1755. Quito destroyed.

  1755. Great earthquake at Lisbon. In about eight minutes most of the
  houses and upward of 50,000 inhabitants were swallowed up, and whole
  streets buried. The cities of Coimbra, Oporto, and Braga suffered
  dreadfully, and St. Ubes was wholly overturned. In Spain, a large
  part of Malaga became ruins. One-half of Fez, in Morocco, was
  destroyed, and more than 12,000 Arabs perished there. About half of
  the Island of Madeira became waste; and 2,000 houses in the Island
  of Mytilene, in the Archipelago, were overthrown. This awful
  earthquake extended 5,000 miles; even to Scotland.

  1759. In Syria, extended over 10,000 square miles; Baalbec
  destroyed.

  1783. Messina and other towns in Italy and Sicily overthrown; 40,000
  persons perished.

  1797. The whole country between Santa Fe and Panama destroyed,
  including Cusco and Quito, 40,000 people buried.

  1840. Awful and destructive earthquake at Mount Ararat, in one of
  the districts of Armenia; 3,137 houses were overthrown, and several
  hundred persons perished.

  1842. At Cape Haytien, St. Domingo, which destroyed nearly
  two-thirds of the town; between 4,000 and 5,000 lives were lost.

  1851. In South Italy; Melfi almost laid in ruins; 14,000 lives lost.

  1852. At Philippine Isles; Manila nearly destroyed.

  1853. Thebes, in Greece, nearly destroyed.

  1854. St. Salvador, South America, destroyed.

  1854. Amasca, in Japan, and Simoda, in Nippon, destroyed; Jeddo much
  injured.

  1855. Broussa, in Turkey, nearly destroyed.

  1857. In Calabria, Montemurro and many other towns destroyed, and
  about 22,000 lives lost in a few seconds.

  1858. Corinth nearly destroyed.

  1859. At Quito; about 5,000 persons killed, and an immense amount of
  property destroyed.

  1868. Cities of Arequipa, Iquique, Tacna, and Chincha, and many
  small towns in Peru and Ecuador destroyed; about 25,000 perished.

  1883. Krakatoa island, between Sumatra and Java, East Indies, was
  the scene of a series of volcanic discharges in May to August, 1883,
  constituting the most tremendous eruption known to history. A cubic
  mile of rock material was hurled into the air, and the explosions
  were heard 150 miles away. Violent atmospheric disturbances and
  gigantic sea-waves, the latter causing great loss of life, estimated
  at more than 30,000. As a result of the explosion, the north part of
  the island, including its highest peak, altogether disappeared.

  1886. Shocks throughout eastern United States; at Charleston, S. C,
  41 lives and $5,000,000 worth of property lost.

  1893. Islands of Zante and Stromboli, the former west of Greece, the
  latter one of the Lipari group, west of Calabria, Italy, severely
  shaken. Great loss of lives and property at Zante.

  1906. Severe shocks in California wrecked San Francisco and adjacent
  towns, and caused the greatest fire in history, lasting two days.
  Great loss of life, and $300,000,000 of property destroyed; over
  300,000 homeless. Stanford University buildings were damaged to the
  extent of $2,800,000, including the fine Memorial Church.

  1906. At Valparaiso, Chile, causing great destruction of life and
  property.

  1907. Large part of Kingston, Jamaica, destroyed.

  1909. In Sicily and southern Italy, Messina and many towns and
  villages desolated. Appalling loss of life; thousands buried alive;
  the survivors homeless; one of the greatest earthquakes of modern
  times if not of all time.


GEYSERS

Geysers are eruptive hot springs found chiefly in volcanic districts,
but particularly in the Yellowstone Park, Iceland, New Zealand, Tibet
and the Azores. At intervals these fountains of hot water and steam
sometimes rise to a height of two hundred feet. The eruptions occur at
intervals varying from every hour to once a day.

All the geyser waters hold in solution a considerable quantity of
silica. The highly heated water decomposes the felspar and other
volcanic rocks, and becoming slightly alkaline with the soda or potash
these contain, it is enabled to form a silicious solution. The silica
taken up is deposited again round the mouth of the orifice. Minute
plants termed algæ are known to live in the hot water, and to aid in
throwing down the silica from solution to form the sinter deposits.

The cause of the periodical eruptions is probably to be found in the
gradual increase of heat with the depth of the tube. In the middle and
lower parts the temperature is far above the boiling-point (212° F.) at
the ordinary pressure. But at last the lower portion rises to a position
where the temperature is above the boiling-point at the pressure it
there sustains, and then, flashing into steam, it hurls the column above
into the air. After playing for a few minutes the water falls back into
the basin, and remains quiet for a time.


WONDERFUL GEYSERS OF THE YELLOWSTONE

The geysers of the Yellowstone region are probably the most picturesque
and wonderful in the world. On the Firehole River alone there are
probably fifty geysers, throwing columns of water to a height of from
fifty to two hundred feet, while smaller jets rise occasionally to two
hundred and fifty feet. The “Old Faithful” geyser, in this region,
throws up a column of water six feet in diameter to a height of one
hundred to one hundred and fifty feet, at intervals of about an hour.
Near the north entrance to the National Park, also, are the hot springs
of the Gardiner River; here the “White Mountain,” built up of terraces
of white calcareous deposits, rises to a considerable height, with a
diameter of one hundred and fifty yards at the top.

The geysers of Iceland are situated within sight of Mount Hekla and are
the hottest springs in Europe. The principal geysers of this region are
known as the “Great Geyser” or “Roarer,” and the “Stroker” or “Churn.”

The geysers of New Zealand attained celebrity chiefly on account of the
beautiful terraces associated with them. Unfortunately, volcanic
activity manifested itself throughout the region in 1886, resulting in
the destruction of the terraces. The basins connected with these
geysers, catching the overflow of water, are, like those of Yellowstone
region, largely used by bathers, and are much resorted to by invalids.

The three localities mentioned are where geysers attain their highest
development; but they also exist in many volcanic regions notably in
Japan, South America, and the Malay Archipelago.

[Illustration: =HOW THE EVER-MOVING WATERS OF THE EARTH GO ON THEIR
MIRACULOUS JOURNEY FOREVER=

The circulation of the waters of the earth is just as marvellous as that
of the blood in the human body. First, it is drawn up from the sea by
the sun and rises as vapor; the cool air condenses it first into cloud
and then rain or snow; it runs together, forming springs and waterfalls
and rivers; and finally it finds its way to the sea, where again the
never-ending journey begins.]


THE WATERS OF THE EARTH

[Illustration: =THE WATERS UNDER THE EARTH=

The underground lake in its magnificent setting of dazzling stone
columns and stalactites in the Cheddar Caves, England. All these
wonderful natural halls, chasms and snowy incrustations were formed by
the age-long action of the water on the limestone rocks through which it
filtered.]

Water is found in Nature in three states or conditions--as ice, vapor or
steam, and as simple water. These three forms have the same chemical
composition--the substance being a compound of oxygen and hydrogen,
represented by the formula H₂O; but the physical condition depends
entirely on its temperature. Under ordinary atmospheric conditions water
is a _solid_ below 32 degrees Fahrenheit; a _gas_ above 212 degrees
Fahrenheit, and a _liquid_ between these temperatures.

The purest form of water which exists in nature is rain water, though
this always contains a little oxygen and carbon dioxide dissolved from
the air. To obtain pure water artificially, any ordinary water is
distilled, when all the solids dissolved in it are left behind. River
water and spring water always contain a small quantity of solid matter,
the amount and nature of the dissolved solids depending on the nature of
the rocks over which the water has flowed.

Geographically it may be considered under the four heads of _springs_,
_rivers_, _lakes_, and the _ocean_, which taken together forms the
_hydrosphere_ of the earth.


WHERE SPRINGS HAVE THEIR SOURCE

SPRINGS, or the natural fountains of water, take their rise from
reservoirs stored under ground. Water maintains a level, and hence the
height to which a spring will rise depends on that of the level from
which it is supplied. If the internal reservoir be on a hill, and the
spring should gush out in a valley, the water may rise to a considerable
height and form a natural fountain; but, on the other hand, if the
reservoir be at some depth below the surface, the water may never reach
the surface, and mechanical aid may be required to obtain it.

These internal reservoirs are in a great measure supplied by moisture
derived from rain, snow, mist, and dew. The atmospheric water enters the
earth through porous rocks, or by means of fissures, and continues to
sink until arrested in its progress by rocks, such as clay, which will
not permit the water to pass, or by faults which check it from
spreading. The waters will then gush forth as a spring, of greater or
less size, according to the supplies it may have received.


HOW MINERAL SPRINGS ARE FORMED

All springs contain a certain portion of air and gas, and also some
solid matter, usually in the form of salts. When these salts are
abundant, mineral springs are the result, which may be classified
according to the character of their several properties, as acidulous,
chalybeate, sulphurous, saline, calcareous, and silicious.

  Acidulous or acid springs are those surcharged with carbonic acid
  gas.

  Chalybeate springs are those in which iron, in the form of carbonate
  or sulphate, is held in solution.

  Sulphur, in the form of sulphureted hydrogen or sulphate of lime, is
  the distinguishing ingredient in Sulphurous springs.

  Saline springs are of two kinds--brine and medicinal; brine when
  containing a greater or less amount of chloride of sodium or common
  salt, and medicinal when containing other salts, as sulphate of
  soda, etc.

  Calcareous springs are those highly charged with the salts of lime,
  and which have the property of petrifying substances placed within
  their reach, and also of depositing their contents, forming the
  stalactites and stalagmites of caverns, etc.

  Silicious springs are so called from holding silica or flint in
  solution. The last-named are all hot or thermal as well as mineral
  springs, deriving their heat either from the natural heat of the
  earth at great depths, or from volcanic action. When occurring near
  volcanoes, they are frequently charged with bitumen, petroleum,
  naptha, asphaltum, etc.


WHY WATER FLOWS FROM ARTESIAN WELLS

An important class of artificial springs or wells is known as Artesian
Wells. Where bent pervious beds of rock lie between two bent impervious
beds, so as to make a basin-shaped depression, lower in the middle than
at the edges, the rain which sinks into the pervious rock where it
reaches the surface will begin to gather in the central part of the
porous rock as in a reservoir.

If a hole be now bored in the hollow of the upper impervious bed till it
reaches the water-bearing stratum, the water will flow out at the top.
The water thus obtained may have fallen a distance of many miles several
months previously, and if the gathering-ground be high the issue at the
well may be forced by the pressure of the water behind to a considerable
height.


FORMATION, CHARACTERISTICS AND PECULIARITIES OF RIVERS

Rivers have their sources from springs or from the melting of
accumulations of snow. They do not, however, receive their largest
supplies from the actual summits of mountains, for copious springs are
rarely met with in such situations, nor are glaciers formed on the
highest points of mountains, but more usually on slopes of the upper
mountain valleys. It is, accordingly, in the latter localities that many
of the largest rivers take their rise.

WATERSHED. It not unfrequently happens that several rivers take their
rise in one mountain ridge, some flowing in one direction, and others
taking an opposite course. Such a ridge is termed a _watershed_. Thus
the Rhine, the Rhone, and the Danube all take their rise in the Alps,
the first discharging itself into the North Sea, the second into the
Mediterranean Sea, and the last into the Black Sea.

BASIN. The portion of country drained by a river and its tributary
streams is called its _basin_, from its catching the rains which fall
within its circuit, and which the river carries to the sea. The largest
river-basin in Europe is that of the Volga, in Asia, that of the Ganges,
in Africa that of the Nile, in North America that of the Mississippi,
and in South America that of the Amazon.

=THE GREAT RIVERS OF THE WORLD=

  +-----------------------------+-------+----------------+-------------+
  |                             |=Length|                |  =Area of   |
  |          =RIVER=            |  in   | =Emptying Into=| Drainage in |
  |                             |Miles= |                |Square Miles,|
  |                             |       |                |    etc.=    |
  +-----------------------------+-------+----------------+-------------+
  |Mississippi-Missouri (United | 4,330 |Gulf of Mexico  |  1,245,000  |
  |States)                      |       |                |             |
  |Nile (Egypt)                 | 3,500 |Mediterranean   |  1,050,000  |
  |Amazon (Brazil): the only    | 3,300 |At Ocean on the |  2,700,000  |
  |large river with direct      |       |Equator         |             |
  |latitudinal course           |       |                |             |
  |Yangtze-Kiang (China)        | 3,000 |Yellow Sea      |    548,000  |
  |Congo (Central Africa)       | 2,900 |Atlantic Ocean  |  1,430,000  |
  |Lena (Russia in Asia)        | 2,800 |Arctic Ocean    |    856,000  |
  |Amur (Russia in Asia)        | 2,800 |Gulf of Saghalin|    772,000  |
  |Mekong (Indo-China)          | 2,800 |China Sea       |   Nav. 200  |
  |                             |       |                |     miles   |
  |Yenisei (Russia in Asia)     | 2,700 |Bay of Yenisei  |  1,000,000  |
  |Niger (West Africa)          | 2,600 |Atlantic Ocean  |    808,000  |
  |Hoangho (China)              | 2,500 |Gulf of         |    376,400  |
  |                             |       |Pe-Chi-Li       |             |
  |Obi (Russia in Asia)         | 2,300 |Gulf of Obi     |  1,125,000  |
  |Plata-Parana (Argentina and  | 2,300 |Atlantic Ocean  |  2,300,000  |
  |Brazil)                      |       |                |             |
  |Mackenzie (Canada)           | 2,300 |Arctic Ocean    |    676,000  |
  |Volga (Russia in Europe)     | 2,200 |Caspian Sea     |    560,000  |
  |St. Lawrence (United States  | 2,200 |Gulf of St.     |    500,000  |
  |and Canada)                  |       |Lawrence        |             |
  |Yukon (Alaska)               | 2,200 |Behring Sea     |    500,000  |
  |Indus (India)                | 2,000 |Arabian Sea     |    373,000  |
  |Sao Francisco (Brazil)       | 1,800 |Atlantic Ocean  |    249,000  |
  |Sir Daria (Turkestan)        | 1,800 |Sea of Aral     |    175,000  |
  |Brahmaputra or Burrampooter  | 1,800 |Bay of Bengal   |   Nav. 800  |
  |(India)                      |       |                |     miles   |
  |Rio Grande del Norte (U. S.  | 1,800 |Gulf of Mexico  |    240,000  |
  |and Mexico)                  |       |                |             |
  |Danube (Austria-Hungary)     | 1,780 |Black Sea       |    311,000  |
  |Saskatchewan-Nelson (Canada) | 1,732 |Hudson Bay      |    730,000  |
  |Euphrates (Turkey in Asia)   | 1,700 |Persian Gulf    |    260,000  |
  |Zambesi (East Africa)        | 1,600 |Indian Ocean    |    800,000  |
  |Ural (Russia in Europe)      | 1,500 |Caspian Sea     |     85,000  |
  |Arkansas (United States)     | 1,500 |Mississippi     |    181,000  |
  |                             |       |River           |             |
  |Orinoco (Colombia and        | 1,500 |Atlantic Ocean  |    364,000  |
  |Venezuela)                   |       |                |             |
  |Ganges (India)               | 1,500 |Bay of Bengal   |    409,000  |
  |Amu (Turkestan)              | 1,400 |Sea of Aral     |    174,000  |
  |Columbia (United States)     | 1,400 |Pacific Ocean   |    260,000  |
  |Dnieper (Russia in Europe)   | 1,400 |Black Sea       |    203,000  |
  |Murray (Australia)           | 1,400 |Indian Ocean    |    351,000  |
  |Don (Russia in Europe)       | 1,300 |Sea of Azov     |    166,000  |
  |Orange (S. W. Africa)        | 1,200 |Atlantic Ocean  |    370,000  |
  |Irawaddy (East India)        | 1,200 |Indian Ocean    |   Nav. 800  |
  |                             |       |                |     miles   |
  |Colorado (United States)     | 1,100 |Gulf of         |    250,000  |
  |                             |       |California      |             |
  |Senegal (West Africa)        | 1,100 |Atlantic Ocean  |    270,000  |
  |Tigris (Turkey in Asia)      | 1,000 |Euphrates and   |Nav. general-|
  |                             |       |Persian Gulf    |ly for small |
  |                             |       |                |    boats    |
  |Ohio (United States)         |   970 |Mississippi     |    201,000  |
  |                             |       |River           |             |
  |Churchill (Canada)           |   900 |Hudson Bay      |   Nav. by   |
  |                             |       |                |   canoes    |
  |Magdalena (Colombia)         |   840 |Caribbean Sea   |   Nav. 600  |
  |                             |       |                |    miles    |
  |Rhine (Germany)              |   800 |North Sea       |     76,000  |
  |Cambia (West Africa)         |   750 |Atlantic Ocean  |   Nav. 300  |
  |                             |       |                |     miles   |
  |Elbe (Germany)               |   720 |North Sea       |     57,000  |
  |Fraser (British Columbia)    |   650 |Gulf of Georgia |Nav. general-|
  |                             |       |                |ly for small |
  |                             |       |                |    boats    |
  |Vistula (Germany, Poland)    |   600 |Baltic Sea      |    120,000  |
  |Sacramento (United States)   |   600 |Pacific Ocean   |   Nav. 300  |
  |                             |       |                |    miles    |
  |Tagus (Portugal)             |   570 |Atlantic Ocean  |     32,000  |
  |Paranahiba (Brazil)          |   530 |Atlantic Ocean  |   Nav. 400  |
  |                             |       |                |    miles    |
  |Guadiana (Spain)             |   510 |Mediterranean   |     32,000  |
  |                             |       |Sea             |             |
  |Rhone (France)               |   500 |Gulf of Lyons   |     38,000  |
  |Seine (France)               |   480 |English Channel |     30,000  |
  |Ebro (Spain)                 |   470 |Mediterranean   |     32,000  |
  |                             |       |Sea             |             |
  |Susquehanna (United States)  |   450 |Chesapeake Bay  |      Not    |
  |                             |       |                |  navigable  |
  |Potomac (United States)      |   450 |Chesapeake Bay  |   Nav. to   |
  |                             |       |                | Washington, |
  |                             |       |                |    D. C.    |
  |Oder (Germany)               |   440 |Baltic Sea      |     43,000  |
  |Po (Italy)                   |   420 |Adriatic Sea    |     29,000  |
  |Garonne (France)             |   380 |Bay of Biscay   |     33,000  |
  |Hudson (United States)       |   350 |New York Bay    |Nav. to Troy;|
  |                             |       |                |  150 miles  |
  |Loire (France)               |   200 |Bay of Biscay   |     25,000  |
  |Thames (England)             |   200 |North Sea       |      5,250  |
  +-----------------------------+-------+----------------+-------------+

DELTAS AND ESTUARIES. Owing to local peculiarities at the mouths of
rivers, accumulations of sedimentary matter take place in the middle of
the stream, dividing it into two or more branches. By these depositions
_deltas_ (so called from the Greek letter (Δ) delta) are formed--many of
them, as those of the Mississippi and Orinoco and of the Rhine and the
Ganges, being of great extent. Some rivers fall into the ocean through
_estuaries_ or wide channels, and are subject to a great swell or sudden
rise of the waters when the tide enters.

[Illustration: =PICTURE DIAGRAM GIVING A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF THE WORLD’S
FAMOUS RIVERS AND MOUNTAINS=

=FIRST: Showing the comparative length of the rivers; where and how they
take their rise; where and how they empty; their chief branches and
connected lakes; and the principal cities located on their banks.=

=SECOND: Comparative height of mountains, arranged in groups by
continents, showing the relative height of both mountains and
continents. See next page for LOCATION and HEIGHT IN FEET of the various
mountain peaks.=]

Most rivers are subject to an occasional, and in some instances to a
periodical increase of volume. These seasons of flood are by no means
regular, being partly dependent on the melting of the snows, and partly
on occasional heavy falls of rain; and hence depend on the climatic
variations of the country in which rivers originate.

=FAMOUS MOUNTAIN AND OTHER ELEVATIONS OF THE WORLD=

  NOTE: The numbers refer back to the Picture Diagrams on the
  preceding page.

                        =NORTH AMERICA=
  --------------------------------------------------------------
  =Ref. =Name and Location=                              =Height
  No.=                                                  in Feet=
  --------------------------------------------------------------
   A.  *Mount McKinley, Coast Range, Alaska               20,300
   1.   Orizaba, Cordillera, Mexico                       18,310
   2.   Mount St. Elias, Coast Range, Alaska              18,024
   3.   Popocatapetl, Cordillera, Mexico                  17,748
   4.   Mount Brown, Rocky Mountains, Canada              15,990
   5.   Mount Hooker, Rocky Mountains, Canada             15,700
   6.   Mount Fairweather, Coast Range, Alaska            14,750
   7.  *Mount Rainier, Coast Range, Washington            14,408
   8.  *Mount Whitney, Coast Range, California            14,501
   9.   Mount Elbert, Rocky Mountains, Colorado           14,402
  10.   Pike’s Peak, Rocky Mountains, Colorado            14,108
  11.  *Gannett Peak, Rocky Mountains, Wyoming            13,785
  12.   Fremont’s Peak, Rocky Mountains, Wyoming          13,570
  13.  *Kings Peak, Utah                                  13,498
  14.  *N. Truchas Peak, Rocky Mountains, New Mexico      13,306
  15.  *E. Peak, White Mountains, Nevada                  13,145
  16.  *Granite Peak, Rocky Mountains, Montana            12,850
  17.  *San Francisco Peak, Arizona                       12,611
  18.   Mount Assiniboine, Rocky Mts., Canada             11,860
  19.  *Mount Hood, Coast Range, Oregon                   11,225
  20.  *El Capitan, Texas                                  9,020
  21.   Mount Potrillo, Cuba                               9,000
  22.   Cibao Mountains, Hayti, West Indies                8,970
  23.  *Harvey Peak, South Dakota                          7,242
  24.   Sierra del Cobre, Cuba                             7,200
  25.  *Mount Mitchell, Allegheny Mts., N. C.              6,711
  26.  *Mount Guyot, Allegheny Mts., Tennessee             6,636
  27.   Black Mountain, Allegheny Mts., N. C.              6,476
  28.  *Mount Washington, White Mts., N. H.                6,293
  29.   Roan Mountain, Allegheny Mts., N. C.               6,038
  30.   Mount Adams, White Mts., N. H.                     5,963
  31.   Mount Jefferson, White Mts., N. H.                 5,725
  32.  *Mount Rogers, Blue Ridge, Virginia                 5,719
  33.   Mount Monroe, White Mts., N. H.                    5,390
  34.  *Banner Peak, Nebraska                              5,350
  35.  *Mount Marcy, Adirondacks, New York                 5,344
  36.  *Mount Katahdin, Maine                              5,273
  37.   Mount McIntyre, Adirondacks, New York              5,112
  38.   Mount Hecla, Iceland                               5,110
  39.   Mount Franklin, White Mts., N. H.                  5,050
  40.   Skylight, Adirondacks, New York                    4,920
  41.   Haystack, Adirondacks, New York                    4,918
  42.   Morne Garon, St. Vincent, West Indies              4,800
  43.  *Spruce Knob, West Virginia                         4,860
  44.  *Brasstown Bald, Georgia                            4,768
  45.  *Cimarron Peak, Oklahoma                            4,750
  46.   Mount Lafayette, White Mts., N. H.                 4,723
  47.   Mount Morris, Adirondacks, New York                4,576
  48.   Mount Pelée, Martinique                            4,300
  49.  *Mount Mansfield, Green Mts., Vermont               4,364
  50.   Otter Peak, Allegheny Mountains, Virginia          4,260
  51.  *Highlands (West Boundary), Kansas                  4,135
  52.  *Big Black Mountain, Kentucky                       4,100
  53.   Killington, Green Mountains, Vermont               4,100
  54.   Mount Seward, Adirondacks, New York                4,000
  55.   Table Mountain, Allegheny Mts., Virginia           4,000
  56.  *Bald Mountain, Allegheny Mts., Virginia            4,000
  57.   Mount Parnassus, Spitzbergen                       3,951
  58.   Round Top, Catskills, New York                     3,804
  59.   High Peak, Catskills, New York                     3,718
  60.   Mount Misery, St. Christopher, West Indies         3,712
  61.   Sierra de Luquillo, Porto Rico                     3,678
  62.   Mount Greylock, Taconic Mts., Mass.                3,505
  63.  *Monadnock, White Mts., New Hampshire               3,450
  64.  *Bowman Summit                                      3,500
  65.   Backbone Mountain, Maryland                        3,340
  66.  *Blue Knob, Allegheny Mts., Pennsylvania            3,136
  67.   Central Peak, Nevis, West Indies                   3,000
  68.  *Blue Mountain, Arkansas                            2,800
  69.   Kearsarge, White Mts., New Hampshire               2,460
  70.  *Cheaha Mountain, Alabama                           2,407
  71.  *Bear Mountain, Connecticut                         2,355
  72.  *Rib Hill, Wisconsin                                1,940
  73.  *Mesabi Range Minnesota                             1,920
  74.   High Point, New Jersey                             1,809
  75.   Pringhar, Iowa                                     1,800
  76.   Taun Sauk Mountain, Ozarks, Missouri               1,750
  77.  *Logan Summit, Ohio                                 1,550
  78.   West Point, Highlands, New York                    1,500
  79.   Storm King, Highlands, New York                    1,389
  80.  *Charles Mound, Illinois                            1,241
  81.   Carlos Summit, Indiana                             1,210
  82.   Mount Tom, Massachusetts                           1,200
  83.   Berkshire Hills, Massachusetts                     1,200
  84.   Anthony’s Nose, Highlands, New York                1,048
  85.   Mount Holyoke, Massachusetts                         830
  86.   Palisades of Hudson, New York and N. J.              500
  87.   Mount Hope, Rhode Island                             300
  88.   Bunker Hill, Massachusetts                            62
  --------------------------------------------------------------
  * Greatest altitude in the state or territory.
                               =EUROPE=
  --------------------------------------------------------------
   1.   Monte Blanc, France                               15,782
   2.   Monte Rosa, Italy                                 15,217
   3.   Weisshorn, Switzerland                            14,808
   4.   Matterhorn, or Cervin, Switzerland                14,780
   5.   Finsteraarhorn, Switzerland                       14,026
   6.   Breithorn, Switzerland                            13,685
   7.   Jungfrau, Switzerland                             13,671
   8.   Mönch, Switzerland                                13,465
   9.   Pic des Ecrins, France                            13,462
  10.   Shreckhorn, Switzerland                           13,385
  11.   Mount Paradis, France                             13,300
  12.   Otherspitze, Austria                              12,800
  13.   Gross Glockner, Austria                           12,776
  14.   Aiguille du Midi, France                          12,743
  15.   Monte Viso, France                                12,582
  16.   The Gallonstock, Switzerland                      12,481
  17.   Aiguille de Sassire, Sardinia                     12,346
  18.   Wetterhorn, Switzerland                           12,150
  19.   Mont Genevre, Sardinia                            11,785
  20.   Monto Gavio, Austria                              11,754
  21.   Cerro de Mulhacen, Spain                          11,605
  22.   Simplon, Switzerland                              11,541
  23.   Wisbach Horn, Austria                             11,518
  24.   La Mormelata, Austria                             11,508
  25.   Mont Cenis, France                                11,457
  26.   Mont Nethou, Spain                                11,427
  27.   Pic Blanc, France                                 11,190
  28.   Great St. Bernard, Switzerland                    11,080
  29.   Vignemale, France and Spain                       10,980
  30.   St. Gothard, Switzerland                          10,595
  31.   Mount Calm, France and Spain                      10,500
  32.   Pic Blanc, France and Spain                       10,205
  33.   Splugen, Switzerland and Austria                   9,981
  34.   Peak of Oo, France and Spain                       9,730
  35.   Pic du Midi, France                                9,650
  36.   Mount Etna, Island of Sicily                       9,652
  37.   The Thorstein, Austria                             9,630
  38.   Little St. Bernard, France                         9,591
  39.   Monte Corno, Italy                                 9,523
  40.   Canigon, France                                    9,137
  41.   Monte Rotondo, Island of Corsica                   9,065
  42.   Guiona, Greece                                     8,620
  43.   Lomnitzer Spitze, Austria                          8,779
  44.   Rilo Dagh, Bulgaria                                8,300
  45.   Mount Parnassus, Greece                            8,000
  46.   Mount St. Elias, Greece                            7,946
  47.   Mount Ida, Crete                                   7,674
  48.   Col de Ferret, Switzerland                         7,641
  49.   Mount Dinara, Austria-Hungary                      7,458
  50.   Monte Cimone, Italy                                7,083
  51.   Mount Kleck, Austria-Hungary                       6,926
  52.   Pisanino, Italy                                    6,723
  53.   Pizzo di Casi, Sicily                              6,509
  54.   Oraefa Yokul, Iceland                              6,420
  55.   Kissovo, Bulgaria                                  6,407
  56.   Genargentu Peak, Sardinia Island                   6,290
  57.   Mount D’or, France                                 6,188
  58.   Mount Pierus, Bulgaria                             6,161
  59.   P. de Cantal, France                               6,093
  60.   Sulitelma, Sweden and Norway                       5,956
  61.   Monte Amiata, Tuscany                              5,792
  62.   Recullet de Toiry, Switzerland                     5,643
  63.   La Dole, Switzerland                               5,509
  64.   Black Mountain, Island of Cephalonia, Greece       5,356
  65.   Zagora, Bulgaria                                   5,310
  66.   St. Angelo, Lipari Island, Sicily                  5,260
  67.   Schneekoppe, Germany                               5,253
  68.   Feugari, Samothraki Island, Turkey                 5,248
  69.   Feldberg, Black Forest, Germany                    4,900
  70.   Puy de Dome, France                                4,846
  71.   Ballon de Alsace, France                           4,688
  72.   Monte Alto, Italy                                  4,380
  73.   Hohenstein, Austria                                4,284
  74.   Brokfeld, Norway                                   4,188
  75.   Mount Delphi, Island of Negropont, Greece          4,156
  76.   Kielburg, Erz Gebirge, Germany                     4,074
  77.   Montserrat, Spain                                  4,054
  78.   Vesuvius, Italy                                    4,260
  79.   Brocken, Harz Mountains, Germany                   3,740
  80.   Ispario, Thasos Island, Greece                     3,428
  81.   Great Beerberg, Thuringerwald, Germany             3,265
  82.   Summit, Norway                                     3,200
  83.   Great Feldsberg, Germany                           2,886
  84.   Stromboli, Lipari Island, Sicily                   3,090
  85.   Mount Delphi, Skopela Island, Greece               2,295
  86.   Tonnere, France                                    2,225
  87.   Mount St. Oreste, Italy                            2,140
  88.   Peak, Island of Corfu, Greece                      1,900
  89.   Kastri, Island of Thasos, Greece                   1,565
  90.   Gibraltar, Spain                                   1,437
  91.   Valdai Hills, Russia                               1,200
  92.   North Cape, Island of Mageroe, Norway              1,161
  93.   Himmelsberg, Plateau of Denmark, Denmark             928
  94.   Montmartre, Paris, France                            400
  95.   Observatory, Paris, France                           240
  96.   Heligoland Island, North Sea, Germany                230
  --------------------------------------------------------------
                        =BRITISH ISLES=
  --------------------------------------------------------------
   1.   Greenwich Observatory, Kent, England                 214
   2.   Holyhead, Island of Anglesea, Wales                  709
   3.   Carraton, Cornwall, England                        1,208
   4.   Penmaen Maur, Wales                                1,540
   5.   Axedge, Derby, England                             1,750
   6.   Pendlehill, Lancashire, England                    1,803
   7.   Holmernoss, Derby, England                         1,859
   8.   Ingleborough, Yorkshire, England                   2,361
   9.   Whernside, Yorkshire, England                      2,384
  10.   Plinlimmon, Cardiganshire, Wales                   2,463
  11.   Cradle Mountain, Brecknockshire, Wales             2,545
  12.   Coniston Fell, Westmoreland, England               2,577
  13.   Caermarthen Vau, Caermarthenshire, Wales           2,596
  14.   Cheviot, Northumberland, England                   2,684
  15.   Grassmere Fell, Cumberland, England                2,756
  16.   Cross Fell, Cumberland, England                    2,909
  17.   Bow Fell, Cumberland, England                      2,911
  18.   Cader Idris, Merionethshire, Wales                 2,914
  19.   Arran Mowdwy, Merionethshire, Wales                2,955
  20.   Skiddaw, Cumberland, England                       3,022
  21.   Helvellyn, Cumberland, England                     3,313
  22.   Carnedd Llewellyn, Caernarvon, Wales               3,471
  23.   Snowdon, Caernarvon, Wales                         3,571
  24.   Cairn Gorm, Invernesshire, Scotland                4,095
  25.   Ben Macdui, Aberdeenshire, Scotland                4,305
  26.   Ben Nevis, Inverness, Scotland                     4,368
  27.   Cairntoul, Aberdeenshire, Scotland                 4,245
  28.   Ben Lawers, Perthshire, Scotland                   3,945
  29.   Ben More, Perthshire, Scotland                     2,944
  30.   Ben Gloe, Perthshire, Scotland                     3,690
  31.   Ben Cruachan, Argyleshire, Scotland                3,669
  32.   Ben Deirg, Perthshire, Scotland                    3,550
  33.   Schehallien, Perthshire, Scotland                  3,514
  34.   Macgillicuddy Reeks, Kerry, Ireland                3,404
  35.   Scarscoch, Aberdeenshire, Scotland                 3,402
  36.   Ben Gurdy, Perthshire, Scotland                    3,364
  37.   Ben More, Sutherlandshire, Scotland                3,231
  38.   Ben Lomond, Stirlingshire, Scotland                3,180
  39.   Ben Voirlich, Perthshire, Scotland                 3,055
  40.   Lunaquilla, Wicklow, Ireland                       3,039
  41.   Galtee Mountains, Tipperary, Ireland               3,008
  42.   Slatterwind, Stromoe, Faroe Islands                2,998
  43.   Black Larg, Ayrshire, Scotland                     2,890
  44.   Goat Fell, Island of Arran, Scotland               2,865
  45.   Ben Ledi, Perthshire, Scotland                     2,863
  46.   The Cobbler, Argyleshire, Scotland                 2,863
  47.   Slievedonard, Ulster, Ireland                      2,796
  48.   Broad Law, Peeblesshire, Scotland                  2,741
  49.   Ben Wyvis, Rosshire, Scotland                      2,720
  50.   Hart Fell, Dunfriesshire, Scotland                 2,635
  51.   Mount Battock, Kincardineshire, Scotland           2,600
  52.   Lowther Hill, Lanarkshire, Scotland                2,522
  53.   Kippure, Leinster, Ireland                         2,473
  54.   Paps of Jura, Argyleshire, Scotland                2,470
  55.   Slievenaman, Tipperary, Ireland                    2,362
  56.   The Paps, Kerry, Ireland                           2,280
  57.   Snaefell, Isle of Man, Great Britain               2,004
  58.   Campsie Hills, Stirlingshire, Scotland             1,850
  59.   Achil Head, Mayo, Ireland                          1,800
  60.   Pentland Hills, Scotland                           1,700
  61.   Peak, Hoy Island, Orkney Group                     1,569
  62.   Eildon Hills, Roxburgshire, Scotland               1,364
  63.   Ailsa Craig, Firth of Clyde, Scotland              1,139
  64.   Dunnose, Isle of Wight, England                      792
  65.   Salisbury Craigs, Mid Lothian, Scotland              550
  66.   Hill of Howth, Dublin, Ireland                       549
  67.   Edinburg Castle, Mid Lothian, Scotland               434
  68.   Bass Rock, Firth of Forth, Scotland                  400
  69.   St. Paul’s, London, England                          404
  --------------------------------------------------------------
                  =ASIA AND PACIFIC ISLANDS=
  --------------------------------------------------------------
   A.   Mount Everest, India-China                        29,002
   1.   Godwin-Austin, India-China                        28,278
   2.   Dapsang, Tibet                                    28,273
   3.   Kanchanjanga, India-China                         28,156
   4.   Nanga-Parbat, India                               26,629
   5.   Dhawalaghiri, India                               26,286
   6.   Nanda-Devi, India                                 25,661
   7.   Bride Peak, India                                 25,100
   8.   Chumolhari, India                                 23,933
   9.   Kaufmann, Turkestan                               23,000
  10.   Cantas, India-China                               22,500
  11.   St. Patrick, India-China                          22,385
  12.   St. George, India-China                           22,240
  13.   Gemini, India-China                               21,600
  14.   Bunderpooch, India-China                          21,155
  15.   Pyramid, India-China                              20,966
  16.   Peak, Hindu Kush, Afghanistan                     20,230
  17.   Bunderpooch 2d, India                             20,122
  18.   Mount Elburz, Russian Empire                      18,526
  19.   Mount Ararat, Asia Minor                          17,160
  20.   Mount Kasbeck, Russian Empire                     16,592
  21.   Kliontsheoskoi, Kamtschatka                       16,512
  22.   Kassoumba, Sumatra, Malaysia                      15,000
  23.   Australian Alps, Australia                        15,000
  24.   Demavend, Persia                                  18,500
  25.   Mouna Kea, Hawaii, Hawaiian Islands               13,953
  26.   Mount Ophir, Sumatra, Malaysia                    13,842
  27.   Mouna Loa, Hawaii, Hawaiian Islands               13,600
  28.   Arjish Dagh, Asia Minor                           13,100
  29.   Sevellan, Persia                                  13,000
  30.   Gunong Dempu, Sumatra, Malaysia                   12,465
   A.   Mount Erebus, Victoria Land, Antarctic Continent  12,400
  31.   Peak, Formosa, Japan                              12,000
   B.   Mount Terror, Victoria Land, Antarctic Continent  11,500
  32.   Koriatskaia, Kamtschatka                          11,215
  33.   Mount Lebanon, Syria                              11,050
  34.   Mount Bielucha, Russian Empire                    11,063
  35.   Peak, Otaheite, Polynesia                         10,895
  36.   Italitskui, Russian Empire                        10,735
  37.   Kriontskaia, Kamtschatka                          10,625
  38.   Shivelutsh, Kamtschatka                           10,591
  39.   Haleakala, Maui, Hawaiian Islands                 10,200
  40.   Murtchurti Bet, India                             10,070
  41.   Mount Olympus, Asia Minor                          9,100
  42.   Mount Egmont, New Zealand                          8,839
  43.   Arvatskaa, Kamtschatka                             8,760
  44.   Dodabetta, India                                   8,760
  45.   Mount St. Catherine, Arabia                        8,593
  46.   Mount Sinai, Arabia                                8,300
  47.   Pedro-talla-galla, Ceylon                          8,326
  48.   Melin, China                                       8,200
  49.   Kirrigal Pota, Ceylon                              7,810
  50.   Totta Rella, Ceylon                                7,720
  51.   Peak of Yeddo, Japan                               7,680
  52.   Adams’ Peak, Ceylon                                7,420
  53.   Mount Serbal, Arabia                               6,760
  54.   Quelpaert, Quelpaert Island                        6,400
  55.   Sea View Hill, Australia                           6,300
  56.   Taddiamdamala, India                               6,055
  57.   Subramain, India                                   5,560
  58.   Jebel, Akral, Arabia                               5,318
  59.   Abu, India                                         5,100
  60.   Mount Ida, Asia Minor                              4,960
  61.   Peak of Teneriffe, Tasmania                        4,500
  62.   Mount Williams, Australia                          4,500
  63.   Corean Mountains, Japan                            4,480
  64.   Baskirian Urals, Russian Empire                    4,400
  65.   Ben Lomond, Tasmania                               4,200
  66.   Mount Wellington, Tasmania                         3,795
  67.   Forest Hill Peak, Australia                        3,776
  68.   Quamby’s Bluff, Tasmania                           3,500
  69.   Karnalighur, India                                 3,203
  70.   Mount York, Australia                              3,192
  71.   Mount Exmouth, Australia                           3,000
  72.   Mount Cole, Australia                              3,000
  73.   Mount Field, Tasmania                              3,000
  74.   Peak, St. Paul’s Island, Indian Ocean              2,760
  75.   Sugar Loaf, Peak, Australia                        2,527
  76.   St. Paul’s Dome, Tasmania                          2,500
  77.   Mount Carmel, Palestine, Syria                     2,250
  78.   Mount Tabor, Palestine, Syria                      2,053
  79.   Bathurst Heights, Australia                        1,970
  --------------------------------------------------------------
                             =AFRICA=
  --------------------------------------------------------------
   1.   Kilimanjaro, East Africa                          19,780
   2.   Kibo Peak, German East Africa                     19,320
   3.   Mount Kenia, British Africa                       17,200
   4.   Mount Stanley, Central Africa                     16,800
   5.   Abba Yared, Abyssinia                             15,200
   6.   Bushad, Abyssinia, Central Africa                 14,364
   7.   Mongo-ma-Lobah, Central Africa                    13,760
   8.   Peak of Teneriffe, Canary Islands                 12,000
   9.   Mount Miltsen, North Africa                       11,400
  10.   Clarence Peak, Fernando Po Island, Gulf of Guinea 10,655
  11.   Pic Nieges, Bourbon Island, Indian Ocean          10,355
  12.   Spitz-Kop, South Africa                           10,240
  13.   Mount Alantika, Central Africa                     9,000
  14.   Tarami, Abyssinia                                  8,643
  15.   Peak, Tristan de’Acunha Island, Atlantic Ocean     8,236
  16.   Peak of Pico, Azores, Atlantic Ocean               7,013
  17.   Volcano Fogo, Cape de Verd Islands, Atlantic Ocean 7,884
  18.   El Cumbre, Canary Islands, Atlantic Ocean          6,648
  19.   Jebel Akhal, East Africa                           6,500
  20.   Pico Ruivo, Madeira Island, Atlantic Ocean         6,056
  21.   Mount Dogen, Central Africa                        5,000
  22.   Table Mountain, South Africa                       3,582
  23.   Devil’s Peak, South Africa                         3,315
  24.   Green Mountain, Ascension Island, Atlantic Ocean   2,868
  25.   Mount Tekut, North Africa                          2,800
  26.   Diana’s Peak, St. Helena, Atlantic Ocean           2,692
  27.   Lion’s Head, South Africa                          2,166
  28.   Cape, Cape Colony, South Africa                    1,000
  29.   Pyramid of Cheops, Egypt                             479
  30.   Pyramid of Chephren, Egypt                           456
  --------------------------------------------------------------
                         =SOUTH AMERICA=
  --------------------------------------------------------------
   1.   Aconcagua, Chile                                  23,080
   2.   Sorata or Illampu, Bolivia                        23,000
   3.   Mercedario, Argentina                             22,312
   4.   Illimani, Bolivia                                 22,200
   5.   Tupungato, Chile                                  21,550
   6.   Condor, Argentina                                 21,128
   7.   Famatina, Argentina                               20,680
   8.   Salcantay, Peru                                   20,540
   9.   Chimborazo, Ecuador                               20,475
  10.   Antisana, Ecuador                                 19,184
  11.   Santa Morta, Colombia                             19,030
  12.   Tacora, Bolivia                                   19,000
  13.   Cotopaxi, Ecuador                                 18,880
  14.   Arequipa, Peru                                    18,370
  15.   Tolima, Colombia                                  18,069
  16.   Maispo, Chile                                     17,670
  17.   Peak of Cuzco, Peru                               17,525
  18.   Sangai, Ecuador                                   17,460
  19.   Ruiz, Colombia                                    17,388
  20.   Tunguraqua, Ecuador                               16,690
  21.   Cotocachi, Ecuador                                16,300
  22.   Cerro de Potosi, Bolivia                          16,037
  23.   Pichincha, Ecuador                                15,918
  24.   Roraima, Venezuela                                 8,740
  25.   Silla de Caracas, Venezuela                        8,632
  26.   Duida, Venezuela                                   8,467
  27.   Corcorada, Argentina                               7,510
  28.   Minchinmadiva, Argentina                           7,046
  29.   Mount Sarmiento, Tierra del Fuego                  7,000
  30.   Mount Darwin, Tierra del Fuego                     6,800
  31.   Guadarrama, Colombia                               6,400
  32.   Itambe, Brazil                                     5,960
  33.   Piedade, Brazil                                    5,820
  34.   Itacolumi, Brazil                                  5,750
  35.   Morro dos Canudos, Brazil                          4,476
  36.   Macarapan, Guayana                                 3,500
  37.   Cape Horn, Argentina                               1,870
  --------------------------------------------------------------


FRESHWATER AND SALT LAKES

Lakes are of different kinds. Some are mere tanks which receive the
first outpourings of springs, others consist of basins or reservoirs
which occur in the line of a river’s course; some consist of basins or
cavities, into which rivers flow, but which, on account of their
depression or their mountainous cincture have no outlets; lakes are also
formed in the craters of extinct volcanoes; and some lakes are periodic,
or subject to have their basins alternately empty and full of water.

MOUNTAIN LAKES, which are valleys or chasms filled by streams, are long
and narrow, rarely of extensive area, but often of great depth. Examples
of this class are found in Lakes Champlain and George, among the
Appalachian Mountains; Lakes Constance and Geneva, on the northern side
of the Alps; and Lake Maggiore and Lake Como, on the south side; all of
which are renowned for the loveliness of their shores, or the grandeur
of the surrounding mountain scenery.

Lake Maggiore, which is hardly three miles wide, is, according to
Italian engineers, 2,623 feet deep--more than double the depth of Lake
Superior--its basin reaching 1,936 feet below the sea level.

The forms of mountain lakes are very irregular, for the water often
covers several contiguous and connected valleys. This is the case in
Lake Como, which has two long arms; and Lakes Lucerne and Lugano, each
of which fills four distinct valleys, meeting one another nearly at
right angles.

LAKES IN PLAINS. The lake basins in plains and plateaus are, usually,
simple depressions in a comparatively uniform surface. The lakes are,
therefore, often of great size, broad in proportion to their length, but
of little depth compared with their area.

The largest lakes of the globe--the Caspian and Aral seas, and the great
North American and African lakes--and the largest in Europe and South
America, all belong to this class. Their vast expanse, together with the
tameness of their shores, deprives them of the picturesque beauty of
mountain lakes.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SALT LAKES. Numerous lakes in the interior of the
continents, though receiving affluents, have no outlet. Their waters are
chiefly lost by evaporation, though some portion may be absorbed by the
sandy soil.

The surfaces of the continents having been the beds of the primeval
oceans, the presence of salt in the soil is a natural consequence.

FAMOUS SALT LAKES. The Great Salt Lake of Utah, in the Great American
Basin, is one of the finest examples of its class. The Caspian and Aral
seas, at the bottom of the vast depression between Europe and Asia, are
the most extensive salt lakes. The former has about four times the area
of Lake Superior; and the latter is a little larger than Lake Michigan.

The Caspian, though receiving the Volga, the largest river of Europe,
evaporates so much water that its surface is about 83 feet lower than
that of the Mediterranean, varying with the seasons. Many lakes in its
neighborhood disappear entirely in the heat and drought of summer,
leaving their beds covered with a crust of pure white crystalline salt.

THE REMARKABLE DEAD SEA, in Syria, is a lake in which the salt has
accumulated until the water is converted into a heavy brine. It may be
the remnant of an ancient sea of much greater extent, which has been
gradually reduced in size by the excess of evaporation over the supply
of water in its basin.

This celebrated body of water lies in the deepest part of a long chasm
or valley, which is sunk not less than 4,000 feet below the level of
the surrounding country. The surface of the lake is 1,286 feet, and its
bottom 2,500 feet, below the level of the Mediterranean.

Its feeder, the river Jordan, flows almost throughout its entire course
below the level of the sea, the only known instance of the kind. The
beautiful lake of Tiberias, the scene of so many of the miracles of
Jesus, which is but an expansion of the Jordan in its upper course, is
about 650 feet below the surface of the Mediterranean.


HOW THE LAKES ARE DISTRIBUTED OVER THE GLOBE

Lakes are most numerous in the central and northern portions of Asia,
Europe and North America. The southern continents, except Africa, have
comparatively few.

ASIA is pre-eminently the continent of salt lakes. They occur in
countless numbers, both in the steppes north of the Caspian and Aral,
and in all the interior plateaus. Lakes of fresh water are also found
among the Altai Mountains and adjacent chains. Lake Baikal, one of
these, is the largest mountain lake known, being nearly 500 miles long.

EUROPE. The most characteristic and celebrated lakes are those which
adorn the Alps of Switzerland and Scandinavia, and the less lofty
mountain chains of the British Isles. But the largest lakes are found in
the low lands and slight swells which surround the Baltic Sea, in
western Russia and Sweden. Lakes Ladoga and Onega in Russia, and Wener
and Wetter in Sweden, are the largest in Europe.

NORTH AMERICA is peculiarly rich in great lakes. No continent presents a
more remarkable series than that which stretches from northwest to
southeast, through the central plains, along the line of contact of the
oldest geological formations of the continent. This series includes
Great Bear and Great Slave lakes, Athabasca and Winnipeg, and the five
great lakes of the St. Lawrence, with many of less area.

Innumerable small lakes are scattered throughout the middle portions of
the central plain, and the northern and less regular part of the
Appalachian mountain region; but south of the parallel of Lake Erie
there is an almost entire absence of lakes, whether large or small.

[Illustration: =Relative Size of Lakes of the Western Hemisphere=]

PRINCIPAL SALT-WATER LAKES OF THE WORLD

  +-----------------+---------------+--------+----------------------+
  |   =NAME=        |   =Location=  |=Area in|    =Mean Elevation   |
  |                 |               | Square |       in Feet=       |
  |                 |               | Miles= |                      |
  +-----------------+---------------+--------+----------------------+
  |Black Sea        |Asia and Europe| 170,000|Sea-level             |
  |Caspian Sea      |Asia           | 170,000|    90 below sea-level|
  |Sea of Aral      |Asia           | 26,160 |   157 above sea-level|
  |Balkash          |Asia           |   7,135|   779 above sea-level|
  |Maracaibo        |South America  |   6,315|     0 above sea-level|
  |Eyre             |Australia      |   3,600|    70 above sea-level|
  |Titicaca         |South America  |   3,200|12,506 above sea-level|
  |(slightly saline)|               |        |                      |
  |Issik-kul        |Asia           |   2,250| 5,300 above sea-level|
  |Great Salt Lake  |North America  |   2,177| 4,218 above sea-level|
  |Koko-nor         |Asia           |   2,040| 9,970 above sea-level|
  |Urumiah          |Asia           |   1,795| 4,100 above sea-level|
  |Van              |Asia           |   1,400| 5,200 above sea-level|
  |Dead Sea         |Asia           |     444| 1,290 below sea-level|
  |Ngami (nearly    |Africa         |     297| 2,919 above sea-level|
  |dried up)        |               |        |                      |
  +-----------------+---------------+--------+----------------------+

[Illustration: =Relative Size of Lakes of the Eastern Hemisphere=]

PRINCIPAL FRESH-WATER LAKES OF THE WORLD

  +-----------------+---------------+--------+----------------------+
  |   =NAME=        |   =Location=  |=Area in|    =Mean Elevation   |
  |                 |               | Square |       in Feet=       |
  |                 |               | Miles= |                      |
  +-----------------+---------------+--------+----------------------+
  |Superior         |North America  | 31,200 |  601 above sea-level |
  |Victoria Nyanza  |Africa         | 26,500 |3,300 above sea-level |
  |Huron            |North America  | 23,800 |  581 above sea-level |
  |Michigan         |North America  | 22,450 |  581 above sea-level |
  |Baikal           |Asia           | 13,200 |1,542 above sea-level |
  |Tanganyika       |Africa         | 12,000 |2,756 above sea-level |
  |Great Bear       |North America  | 11,200 |  391 above sea-level |
  |Nyassa           |Africa         | 10,230 |1,706 above sea-level |
  |Great Slave      |North America  | 10,200 |  520 above sea-level |
  |Erie             |North America  |  9,960 |  573 above sea-level |
  |Winnipeg         |North America  |  9,400 |  710 above sea-level |
  |Lake of the Woods|North America  |  7,650 |1,060 above sea-level |
  |Ontario          |North America  |  7,240 |  247 above sea-level |
  |Ladoga           |Europe         |  6,998 |   49 above sea-level |
  |Tchad            |Africa         |  6,000 |1,150 above sea-level |
  |                 |               |   to   |                      |
  |                 |               | 40,000 |                      |
  |Athabasca        |North America  |  4,400 |  690 above sea-level |
  |Onega            |Europe         |  3,760 |  237 above sea-level |
  |Nicaragua        |Central America|  2,972 |  131 above sea-level |
  |Wener            |Europe         |  2,400 |  147 above sea-level |
  |Albert Nyanza    |Africa         |  1,730 |2,230 above sea-level |
  |Dembea           |Africa         |  1,000 |6,100 above sea-level |
  |Wetter           |Europe         |    936 |  288 above sea-level |
  |Champlain        |North America  |    750 |   96 above sea-level |
  |Managua          |North America  |    560 |  154 above sea-level |
  |Bangweolo        |Africa         |    400 |3,690 above sea-level |
  |                 |               |   to   |                      |
  |                 |               |  5,800 |                      |
  |St. Clair        |North America  |    396 |  576 above sea-level |
  |Balaton (Platten |Europe         |    266 |  426 above sea-level |
  |See)             |               |        |                      |
  |Geneva (or Leman)|Europe         |    214 |1,220 above sea-level |
  |Constance (or    |Europe         |    208 |1,308 above sea-level |
  |Boden See)       |               |        |                      |
  |Garda            |Europe         |    136 |  213 above sea-level |
  |Neuchatel        |Europe         |     90 |1,424 above sea-level |
  |Maggiore         |Europe         |     78 |  646 above sea-level |
  |Cayuga           |North America  |     76 |  381 above sea-level |
  |George           |North America  |     61 |  323 above sea-level |
  |Como             |Europe         |     56 |  649 above sea-level |
  |Lucerne          |Europe         |     40 |1,435 above sea-level |
  |Zurich           |Europe         | 37-1/2 |1,340 above sea-level |
  +-----------------+---------------+--------+----------------------+

AFRICA. The great plateau lakes are typical of the continent. The
Victoria Nyanza and Albert Nyanza, feeding the White Nile; Tanganyika,
whose outlet is unknown; Tzana, at the head of the Blue Nile; and Lake
Nyassa, in the Zambezi basin, all rest on the high plateaus of Central
Africa. Lake Tchad alone, among large African lakes, is surrounded by
low plains.

WATERFALLS AND RAPIDS. The variations in the slope of a river-bed,
arising from unequal erosion, or from the original irregularities in the
surface, give rise to rapids and falls.

The first occur where an increased slope causes the stream to flow with
more than its average velocity. The second are caused by nearly
perpendicular rocky walls, down which the foaming water descends in
picturesque cascades, or imposing cataracts.

The famous “Cataracts of the Nile” are merely rapids which impede but do
not entirely obstruct, the navigation as cataracts must. The so-called
Falls of St. Anthony, in the upper Mississippi, and the rapids of the
St. Lawrence, above Montreal, are among the finest rapids in American
rivers.

The highest falls are in the upper course of rivers, in mountainous
regions; the greatest and most imposing, in their middle course.

The Niagara Falls exhibit a most important industrial utilization of
water power. The Falls of St. Anthony in the Mississippi, the Falls of
Foyers in Scotland, the Rhine falls, the Rhone falls of Bellegarde, and
the innumerable waterfalls of Scandinavia, Switzerland, and similar
mountainous lands, are all utilized in this way. It has been proposed to
convey power generated at the Victoria falls of the Zambezi to the Rand
goldfield of the Transvaal, and a scheme for this is now being prepared.

=FAMOUS WATERFALLS OF THE WORLD=

           NAME                LOCATION       HEIGHT
                                              (FEET)
  =Bridal Veil=           California            900
  =Foyers=                Great Britain         205
  =Gastein Falls=         Austria               469
  =Gavarnie=              Pyrenees            1,400
  =Genesee=               New York               95
  =Grand Falls=           Labrador            2,000
  =Great Falls=           Montana               500
  =Hay River=             Alaska                200
  =Kaieteur Falls=        Guiana                740
  =Krimmler Falls=        Austria             1,300
  =Kukenam Fall=          Guiana              1,500
  =Maanelvan=             Norway                940
  =Minnehaha=             Minnesota              50
  =Missouri=              Montana                90
  =Montmorenci=           Quebec                265
  =Multnomah=             Oregon                850
  =Murchison=             Africa                120
  =Nevada Falls=          California            600
  =Niagara=               New York              165
  =Oroco Falls=           Monte Rosa          2,400
  =Rjukanfos=             Norway                804
  =Roraima Fall=          Guiana              2,000
  =Rukaufos=              Norway                513
  =St. Anthony=           Minnesota              80
  =Schaffhausen=          Switzerland           100
  =Seven Falls=           Colorado              266
  =Shoshone=              Idaho                 210
  =Skykjefos=             Norway                700
  =Snoqualmie=            Washington            268
  =Staubbach=             Switzerland         1,000
  =Stirling=              New Zealand           500
  =Sutherland=            New Zealand         1,904
  =Takkakaw=              British Columbia    1,200
  =Tequendama=            Colombia              475
  =Tessa Falls=           Austria               541
  =Twin=                  Idaho                 180
  =Velino Falls=          Italy                 591
  =Vermafos=              Norway                984
  =Vettisfos=             Norway                950
  =Victoria Falls=        Zambezi               400
  =Voringsfos=            Norway                600
  =Yellowstone (upper)=   Montana               110
  =Yellowstone (lower)=   Montana               310
  =Yguazu or Iguazu=      Brazil                210
  =Yosemite (upper)=      California          1,436
  =Yosemite (middle)=     California            626
  =Yosemite (lower)=      California            400

[Illustration: =FAMOUS WATER PICTURES OF THE NEW AND OLD WORLD=

Niagara in winter presents a picture of frozen grandeur equaled nowhere
else in the world.]

[Illustration: The Rhine at Schaffhausen, Switzerland, rushes over
rugged rocks on its way down from the highlands into the lovely and
historic valley it has carved for itself on its way to the sea.]

[Illustration: =FAR-FAMED WATERFALLS THAT HAVE INSPIRED TRAVELERS AND
WRITERS=

1. The NIAGARA FALLS and rapids form one of the most impressive
spectacles in the world. The Niagara River, which is the sole outlet of
the great lakes, pours itself in two vast sheets over a precipice about
160 feet high. Goat Island, which is situated on the lip of the falls,
divides the cataract into two sections--the Horseshoe, or Canadian fall,
which is by far the more majestic, and the America fall. It has a
descent of 158 feet and the American fall of 167 feet. The volume of
water which sweeps over this immense chasm is about 15,000,000 cubic
feet per minute. The limestone edge of both falls is wearing away in the
center, the Canadian fall now being V-shaped, and the American fall
showing the same tendency, although its process of recession has begun
more recently. For some distance below the falls there is smooth
current, the mass of water which pours over the precipice sinking and
only coming to the surface two miles below, where the rapids, more
magnificent and wilder than those above the falls, begin, and culminate
in the rapids of the Upper Whirlpool. Lower down the river is the
whirlpool itself, where a sharp turn sends the waters hurling against
the Canadian side; they then sweep round in a gigantic circle before
they find a vent at right angle with their former course. The sight of
the falls is equally awe-inspiring from the bridge on the lip of the
fall, from the boat which plies from shore to shore below the cataract,
or from the Cave of the Winds, reached from Goat Island. Although in
summer the magnificence of the sight is extraordinary, it is in winter,
when the wizardry of the frost is upon it, that it is superlatively
beautiful. The falls were first discovered by Father Hennepin in 1678.

2. The FALLS OF JUANACATLAN (_hoo-ă-nă-kwt-lăn_), Mexico, are located
near the island city of Guadalajara (guă-dă-lă-hă´ră) on the Rio Grande
de Santiago. Though only 70 feet in height they are more than 600 feet
wide, and as known as the “Niagara” of Mexico.

3. The CATARACTS OF IGUAZU (_e-gwă´soo_) on the frontiers of Brazil,
Argentina and Paraguay. These falls, situated in a remote wilderness,
far from civilization, are a veritable fortress in protecting the
peace-loving peoples on their borders. They constitute a series of falls
extending over three miles, and more than 200 feet in height, and of
magnificent scenic beauty. Their energy is estimated to be about
14,000,000 horse-power, or almost three times that of Niagara.

4. The YOSEMITE (_yo-sem´i-tee_) FALLS of California, are highest and
probably the most remarkable of their class. They descend on almost
perpendicular ledge of rocks 2,600 feet high to the bottom of the
Yosemite valley, forming three separate cataracts. The first fall is
1,600 feet sheer descent. Then comes a series of cascades, partly
hidden, 600 feet downward, and a final leap of 400 feet. Seen from afar,
the Yosemite Falls seem insignificant; but they are, in fact, 35 feet
wide, and the shock of their descent is observed a mile away.

5. The STAUBBACH (_stoub´băk_) FALLS, in the Swiss Alps near
Lauterbrunnen, descends a precipice of 980 feet, and is reduced to spray
like a misty veil before reaching the bottom. It is the highest unbroken
fall in Switzerland, and the most noted.

6. The GREAT FALLS OF THE YELLOWSTONE, though not so high, vie with the
Yosemite in striking beauty. These famous falls plunge from a height of
360 feet into the abyss of a mighty chasm. At the point of descent, the
waters of the Yellowstone suddenly contract from a width of 250 feet to
75 feet.

7. The BRIDAL VEIL FALLS of California, belong to the famous Yosemite
Valley. Its waters, over 30 feet wide, leap from the granite rocks on
the south wall of the Yosemite in two vertical descents aggregating over
900 feet. The first fall covers a distance of 600 feet, then the waters
rushing over a sloping pile of jagged rocks drops a perpendicular
distance of 300 feet more. From the chief points of view it seems to
make but one plunge, in an unbroken descent similar to the Staubbach,
but carrying a much greater volume of water. Frequently the wind swings
the great plume of water from the face of the cliff and waves it like a
scarf or veil. At sunset rainbows with an indescribable radiance bejewel
its foam and the glistening leaves surrounding it.

8. The REICHENBACH (_ri´ken-băk_) FALLS near Meiningen, Switzerland,
comprise five fine cascades in the Reichenbach River. The most gorgeous
of these, known as the Upper Fall, makes a huge leap of 300 feet into a
deep rocky basin, which then continues in several foaming and plunging
cascades in general aspect not unlike the Niagara gorge.]


THE OCEANS OF THE WORLD AND THEIR MYSTERIES

[Illustration: =THE LAND AND WATER HEMISPHERES=]

The Oceans consist of one great fluid mass, and in extent covers three
times the area of the dry land. There is also about three times as much
land to the north of the equator as there is to the south of it. Though
the waters of the ocean surround the land on every side, yet they are
broken up into certain areas by the arrangement of the land portions,
and to these various parts we give particular names.

  The Atlantic Ocean, lying between the western shores of Europe and
  Africa and the east coast of America.

  The Pacific Ocean, lying between the west coast of America and the
  east coast of Asia.

  The Indian Ocean, lying between the south of Asia and the Antarctic
  circle.

  The Arctic Ocean, lying within the Arctic circle.

  The Antarctic Ocean, lying within the Antarctic circle.


VAST EXTENT OF THE OCEANS

THE ATLANTIC is the most branching of the oceans, and is especially
distinguished by the number and great size of its inland seas. Two of
these, the Mediterranean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, lie in the warm
regions; and two, Hudson Bay and the Baltic Sea, in colder latitudes.

The broader seas are represented by the Caribbean Sea, within the
tropics and the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the North Sea in temperate
latitudes. The Gulf of Guinea, and the Bay of Biscay, are examples of
the more shallow coast waters.

THE PACIFIC is particularly rich in vast border seas, a continuous
series of which lines the Asiatic and Australian coasts. Among these are
the Behring Sea, enclosed by the peninsula of Alaska and the Aleutian
Islands; Okhotsk Sea, enclosed by Kamchatka and the Kurile Islands; the
Sea of Japan, and the North and South China seas; and the Arafura,
Coral, and New Zealand seas, on the Australian Coast.

Only two inland seas of considerable size--the Gulf of California in
North America, and the Yellow Sea in Asia--mark this entire basin.

THE INDIAN OCEAN is characterized by gulfs, two of which form the entire
extension of the basin; namely, the Gulf of Bengal, and the Arabian Sea.
It has also two inland seas of considerable extent, the Red Sea and the
Persian Gulf, isolating the peninsula of Arabia from the adjacent
continents; but border seas are wholly wanting in the Indian Ocean.

THE ARCTIC OCEAN is a partially enclosed sea, which a comparatively
inconsiderable rise of the sea-bottom would convert into a true
Mediterranean. Three openings connect it with the Pacific and Atlantic
Oceans, namely, Behring Straight (narrow and shallow), Davis Straight,
and the broad expanse of water lying between Norway and Greenland. Of
these, the last is by far the most important, for through it the warm
waters of the Gulf Stream find access to the Polar basin, and keep the
sea free from ice throughout the year. This current is supposed to flow
feebly along the coast of Siberia, until, deflected by the land, it
becomes merged in the cold counter-currents which, passing along the
eastern coasts of Greenland and Labrador, carry immense masses of ice
into the Atlantic.

[Illustration: =PICTORIAL DIAGRAM OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH IF THE
WATERS WERE REMOVED=

Ridges, mountains, plateaus, which may represent submerged continents of
the past, and many an abyss that exceeds in depth the height of the
highest mountains, are shown above. The shallow coasts, marked by the
lightest shade, are part of the present Continental Shelf, and do not
exceed six hundred feet in depth. Beyond this shelf, as a rule, the
oceans rapidly attain great depths. Our knowledge of the ocean bed has
been obtained from the extensive soundings.]

THE ANTARCTIC OCEAN is situated about or within the antarctic circle.
The great Southern Ocean is that part of the ocean which surrounds the
world between the latitude of 40 degrees south and the antarctic circle.
The northern portions of this band are often called the South Atlantic,
South Indian and South Pacific, while the southern portions are usually
called the Antarctic Ocean. The average depth of the continuous ocean
which surrounds south polar land is about two miles; it gradually shoals
toward antarctic land, which in some places is met with a short distance
within the antarctic circle. Life is abundant in the surface waters, and
at the bottom of the ocean.


HOW THE FLOOR OF THE OCEAN APPEARS

As a rule the sea is shallowest near the land, though in a few cases
there is a sudden descent to a great depth at a very short distance from
the coast. Lowlands have usually shallow seas near the coast, and
highlands deep water.

Along the American shores, in the latitude of New York, the depth, for a
distance of more than 100 miles, is less than 600 feet; then suddenly
the bed descends, by a steep slope, to the depth of 6,000 or 9,000 feet.
After a comparatively narrow interval, a second terrace descends to the
main basin, from 15,000 to 18,000 feet deep.

The bottom of the trough of the ocean, in general, is equally varied
with that of the land surface of the globe, forming mountains, hills,
valleys, tablelands, etc. In many parts these marine mountains reach
above the surface and form islands. On the table land extending across
the Atlantic between Newfoundland and Ireland is laid the
submarine-telegraph cable which connects the two hemispheres.

THE DEPTH OF THE OCEANS. The average depth of the Pacific Ocean has been
estimated at between 15,000 and 18,000 feet, which is slightly greater
than that of the Atlantic. The deeper portions may be learned on
reference to the map. The western portion of the North Pacific in
particular shows some very deep depressions. To the east of Japan lies a
long deep trough which in one part has furnished the sounding of nearly
five and one-half miles. This abyss is often called the Tuscarora Deep.
South of the Ladrone Islands, in the Caroline Archipelago, there is also
a deep abyss where an English ship, the _Challenger_, obtained a
sounding of nearly 27,000 feet. In the Pacific soundings of over 30,000
feet have been made.

The Indian Ocean has an average depth of about 12,000 feet, and the
deepest soundings have been taken on the eastern side. It is interesting
to observe that the deepest sounding, about five and three-quarter
miles, in the South Pacific somewhat exceeds the height of the highest
mountain. Mount Everest has a height of 29,000 feet above the sea level.
And it must also be noted that the mean height of the land, 1,000 feet,
is only about one-twelfth the mean depth of the whole ocean, 12,000
feet. (See colored map showing comparative surfaces of land areas and
ocean depths.)

INLAND AND BORDER WATERS. These enclosed basins belong to the structure
of the continents, rather than to the oceans. All are shallow in
comparison with the great basins with which they are connected, as is
apparent from the depths given below.

  The Gulf of Mexico is from 5,000 to 7,000 feet in depth. The deepest
  part of the Caribbean Sea, on a line connecting Porto Rico and Costa
  Rica, averages 7,000 feet, and near the latter it reaches a depth of
  14,000; but the ocean, immediately outside of the Lesser Antilles,
  is more than 18,000 feet deep.

  The Mediterranean is divided into two basins, by a rocky isthmus,
  from 50 to 500 feet below the surface, lying between Sicily and Cape
  Bon, in Africa. The western basin is over 9,000 feet in depth, and
  comparatively uniform; while the eastern is more irregular, varying
  from 6,000 near the center, to 13,000 feet, south of the Ionian
  Islands. The Red Sea has an irregular bottom, with an average depth
  of 3,000 feet, but in some places it reaches 6,000.

  The Baltic Sea, being a simple depression in the great European
  plain, is but a few hundred feet deep. In the North Sea, the depth
  averages 300 feet, and rarely exceeds 600. The continent is here
  prolonged in the form of a submarine plain, whose highest portions
  form the British Isles.

  The Border Seas of Asia, lying within the chain of continental
  islands, are only a few hundred feet in depth, while immediately
  without those islands, abrupt slopes descend to the great depths of
  the Pacific basin.

  Smaller inlets are also of frequent occurrence, especially in
  districts where mountain ranges approach the borders of the ocean.
  Such are the _lochs_ of Scotland, the _voes_ of the Shetland
  Islands, and the _fiords_ of Norway and Greenland. The term _lagoon_
  is usually applied to lake-like inlets.

SALT AND OTHER INGREDIENTS OF SEA-WATER. The waters of the ocean are
salt, holding in solution various saline matters. The saline ingredients
amount to rather more than thirty-five grains in a thousand grains of
sea-water. The most abundant of these is chloride of sodium or common
salt, which in general forms about a third of the whole. Besides this,
sea-water contains some magnesia, lime, potash, and traces of iodine and
bromine.

The following table exhibits the exact percentage composition of
sea-water.

  One hundred parts by weight of sea-water contain:

  Water                                        96.470
  Sodium Chloride                               2.700
  Magnesium Chloride                             .360
  Potassium Chloride                             .070
  Magnesium Sulphate                             .230
  Calcium Sulphate                               .140
  Calcium Carbonate                              .003
  Magnesium Bromide                              .002
  Traces of Iodides, Silica, etc., estimated     .025
                                              -------
                                              100.000

HOW THE SEA GETS ITS COLOR. The color of sea-water is due to the
character of the skies and clouds above, and to vegetable and animal
objects growing and living in it. The luminosity or phosphorescence of
the ocean is due to the decay of animal and vegetable substances, but in
some cases it arises from the presence of myriads of living animals,
which, like the glow-worm and fire-fly of the land and air, have the
power of emitting light.

OCEAN TEMPERATURE. The water of the ocean appears generally to agree
with that of the climate in which it is situated. In warm latitudes the
temperature of the deep sea diminishes with the depth below the surface
until a certain depth is reached, below which it appears to retain an
equable temperature, this being about 40 degrees Fahrenheit. In the
Polar Seas, where the temperature of the surface is lower than 40
degrees the heat increases downward until it reaches that point. In
latitude 70° the temperature of the ocean is considered to be the same
at all depths.

[Illustration: =HOW TIDES ARE FORMED BY ACTION OF THE MOON=

The moon pulls the waters of the earth into a great double wave heaping
it up on the side nearest to the moon and on the opposite side. As the
earth rotates, this double wave moves round the earth, and the crests
and troughs alternately produce high and low tide. Thus there are two
high and two low tides daily, at intervals of about twelve hours, or
half a Sun or day.]


CAUSE OF THE TIDES, WAVES AND CURRENTS OF THE OCEANS

The waters of the ocean are retained in their bed by the attraction of
gravitation. This power is great in proportion to the mass; and as the
earth is of much greater mass than the particles of water on its
surface, it attracts them and keeps them in their assigned places. But
the sun and moon also possess this power of attraction, and
notwithstanding their distance, attract and draw them up to a certain
elevation. The vast mass of the waters being drawn up by the moon into a
mountain or curve of water forms what is called the “great primary or
tidal wave.”

[Illustration: =VAST OCEAN CAVERN AT CAPRI, WIDELY KNOWN AS THE “BLUE
GROTTO”=

This remarkable cavern, on the shore of the island of Capri, at the
entrance of the Bay of Naples, is entered from the sea, and is one
hundred and eighteen feet long and forty feet high, with a breadth of
ninety-eight feet at its widest part. It derives its name from the
wonderful blue reflection of the sun’s rays through the water, which
gives the interior its marvelous beauty and majesty. The cavern has been
created by the ceaseless action of the tide.]

EBB-TIDE AND FLOOD-TIDE. This drawing up of the waters of mid-ocean
causes a recession from the shores, thus giving rise to ebb-tide, or low
water. But when the temporary attraction ceases the waters flow back to
their natural level, returning to shore and forming flood-tide, or high
water. This culmination or rising of the waters in the great tidal wave
takes place twice in twenty-four hours and fifty minutes. The combined
influence of the sun and moon at new and full moon augments the size of
this wave, and causes the “spring-tides” at those periods.

HEIGHT OF TIDES. High water at the various points along the coast is
dependent on the return of this great wave, though some variations are
caused by local peculiarities; and the height of the tide also varies
greatly in different parts of the earth.

On the eastern coast of North America, the average rise of the tide is
from nine to twelve feet. At the entrance to the Bay of Fundy, however,
it rises eighteen feet, while at the head of that bay it reaches sixty,
and in the highest spring tides, even seventy feet. At Bristol, in
England, the spring tides rise to forty feet; and at St. Malo, on the
south coast of the English Channel, they reach fifty feet.


THE MAELSTROM, CHARYBDIS AND HELL GATE

Differences in level, produced by high tides, cause currents which vary
in force and direction with the condition of the tide, producing, in
some cases, dangerous whirlpools. The famous Maelstrom, off the coast of
Norway, is but a tidal current, which rushes with great violence between
two of the Lofoden Islands, causing a whirling motion in the water which
is reversed at each ebb and flow of the tide.

Such is, also, the famous whirlpool of Charybdis, in the Straight of
Messina, and many others of less note. The powerful currents of Hell
Gate, in the passage from Long Island Sound to New York Bay, are due to
a similar cause, high water occurring at different hours in the bay and
in the west end of the sound.


WHAT CAUSES THE WAVES OF THE OCEAN

The waves of the ocean, which are caused by the action of the wind, and
which are called secondary or wind waves are of a totally different
character from the tidal wave. The influence of the wind is supposed not
to extend to a greater depth than forty or fifty feet, the deep sea,
though raised in a great mass by the grand tidal movement, being free
from agitation. Wind waves at a distance from the shore are
comparatively low and long, but in shoal water they assume a greater
curvature, and fall on the beach either in gentle ripples or in mighty
breakers, according to the depth of the water and the force of the wind.
The heavy swell which occasionally takes place, called the “ground sea,”
is supposed to originate in distant storms of wind.


THE RIVERS IN THE SEA

Currents in the ocean arise from various causes. They may be produced by
long-continued gales of wind, by the melting of polar ice, or by any
cause that may give rise to onward movements of limited portions of the
great mass of waters. Other currents, and of these only is it necessary
to speak in this connection, are permanent. The most remarkable of these
are the polar currents and the equatorial currents.

POLAR CURRENTS are produced by the perpetual movement of the waters from
the poles to the equator. In accordance with the laws of mechanics, an
accumulation of the waters takes place on that part of the globe which
has the greatest velocity of motion; and as the earth in turning on its
axis moves with far greater velocity at the equator, the waters
continually flow toward that line from the poles.

EQUATORIAL CURRENTS. This accumulation of the waters at the equator
tends to produce the equatorial currents, which consist of the
continuous progression of the tropical seas in a westerly direction.
When the wave brought by the polar currents arrives--coming as it does
from regions where it naturally has less velocity--it does not at once
acquire the velocity of the earth’s motion at the equator; and since
the rotation of the earth is from west to east, this portion of the
water lagging behind forms a stream or current which has an apparent
motion from east to west, that is to say, apparent as regards the earth,
but real in relation to the adjacent land and water. The trade winds,
which in this zone blow constantly in the same direction, lend their aid
in maintaining the equatorial current.


THE GREAT SYSTEMS OF OCEAN CURRENTS

An extensive system of currents appears to arise in the Antarctic Ocean.
A current of cold water flowing northward joins the equatorial current
in the Pacific. Entering the Indian Ocean, it maintains its westerly
course until it approaches the shores of Africa; then bending southward
it rushes through the Mozambique Channel, and doubling the Cape of Good
Hope travels northward until it arrives at the Bight of Benin. This
current then joins the equatorial current, and crossing the Atlantic
from the coast of Guinea to that of Brazil, it is divided into two
branches by the projecting headland of Cape San Roque, one flowing
southward and the other northward.

THE GULF STREAM. After passing the Island of Trinidad, this great
oceanic current enters the Gulf of Mexico, and there acquires a high
temperature, and sweeping round that sea it again pours forth into the
Atlantic, forming the most powerful of known currents, called the Gulf
Stream. Issuing from the Gulf of Mexico, this current of warm water
rushes with considerable force through the Bahama Channel; then taking a
northerly course it travels along the eastern shores of North America,
and at Newfoundland is turned to the eastward by an opposing cold
current which sets in from Baffin’s Bay. It now maintains an easterly
direction, and crossing the Atlantic arrives at the Azores in about
twenty-eight days, and divides its waters on the coast of France and
Spain: one portion goes southward and at length joins the grand current
which sets from the coast of Guinea; and another portion travels
northward and skirts the western coasts of Europe. These currents are
seldom more than 500 feet deep.


ATMOSPHERE, CLIMATE AND WEATHER

  The atmosphere is the vast ocean of air that envelops the earth and
  makes life possible on our globe. It absorbs the heat and vapors
  caused by the action of the sun upon the surface of both land and
  water, and is the medium through which the ever-changing phenomena
  of _climate_ and _weather_ are produced. The two great forces of
  nature acting in connection with it are _gravitation_ and _heat_, or
  solar radiation; and the results of their ceaseless action may be
  summed up as follows: (1) _Temperature_, or heat, which we soon
  learn to know by our senses, and to measure by the thermometer. (2)
  _Evaporation_, which changes the weight of the air by carrying
  invisible moisture through it. This change of _weight_ is indicated
  by the barometer. (3) _Condensation_, producing fog, dew, rain,
  hail, and snow; all estimated accurately by the rain gauge or
  pluviometer. (4) _Motions_, as in the winds, varying from the gentle
  breeze to the awful cyclone, the force and velocity of which are
  indicated by the anemometer. (5) _Electricity_, producing lightning,
  thunder, magnetic and chemical changes in the atmosphere. (6)
  _Optical Phenomena_, such as rainbows, haloes, coronas, mirage, and
  the auroras.


_THE ATMOSPHERE: ITS EXTENT, CHARACTER, USE AND EFFECT_

The Earth is enveloped in its own atmosphere, which like a transparent
covering surrounds it, and revolves with it. This atmosphere does not
extend to more than forty or fifty miles above the earth’s surface, and
is higher at the equator than at the poles.

[Illustration]


WHAT THE ATMOSPHERE IS COMPOSED OF

The atmosphere is an elastic fluid consisting of a mixture (not a
compound) of oxygen and nitrogen, in the proportions of about twenty-one
of the first to seventy-nine parts of the last named. It also contains a
small quantity of carbonic acid gas, and a yet smaller quantity of
ammonia; and water in the form of invisible vapor is always present in
it, though the quantity is subject to great variations. All these
substances move freely among each other, and are continually changing
places: the oxygen being ever ready to perform the office assigned to it
of sustaining life and combustion; the carbonic acid to promote the
growth of vegetation; the nitrogen to perfect the fruits of the earth,
and the vapor to descend to the thirsty ground, in the form of showers
and dew.

The atmosphere is elastic, and therefore capable of expansion and
compression; and is also a ponderable body. The consequence of these
properties is, that it is much lighter and thinner in the upper regions
than nearer the earth’s surface; for at the sea-level its whole weight
presses on its lower strata and gives it greater density. Ascending from
the earth’s surface it becomes gradually lighter and thinner, and at
great elevations is so rarefied as to be unsusceptible of sustaining
life.


HOW THE ATMOSPHERE IS WEIGHED AND MEASURED

The weight of the atmosphere at the level of the sea is equal to about
fourteen and one-half pounds on every square inch of surface. This
weight is balanced by a column of mercury thirty inches in height; but
at an elevation of 18,000 feet it would be balanced by a column of only
fifteen inches in height, and at 36,000 by one only seven and one-half
inches in height. It is on this principle that the mercurial barometer
has been constructed; and since the mercury in the barometer stands at
the same point at all places at the sea-level, and falls in a regular
ratio on ascending therefrom, this instrument forms a most useful
standard for measuring altitudes.

As we ascend from the sea the atmosphere becomes colder; but, as with
the density, the temperature does not appear to pass through regular
gradations of change. From experiment, however, it has been assumed that
the atmosphere loses one degree of heat by Fahrenheit’s thermometer for
every 350 feet of ascent; and hence even in the hotter regions very
lofty mountains are covered with perpetual ice and snow.


DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE OVER THE EARTH

The amount of heat produced by the sun upon the Earth’s surface, is
greatest near the Equator, and diminishes gradually towards the Poles.
Three general causes, each referable to the spherical form of the Earth,
combine to produce the gradual diminution of temperature from the
Equator to the Poles.

1. The angle at which the Sun’s rays strike the surface. In the
Equatorial regions they are perpendicular to the surface of the sphere,
and there produce their maximum effect; but, on account of the curved
outline of the globe, they fall more and more obliquely with increasing
latitude, and the intensity of action diminishes proportionately. At the
Poles their effect is practically nothing.

2. The area on which a given amount of heating power is expended, is
least at the Equator, consequently the resulting heat is greatest. The
area covered increases, and the effect diminishes, with the increasing
obliquity of the Sun’s rays in higher latitudes, which, as we have seen
above, results from the spherical form of the Earth.

3. The absorption of heat by the atmosphere, as the Sun’s rays pass
through it, is least where they fall perpendicularly,--that is, in the
Equatorial regions,--and increases, with their increasing obliquity,
towards the Poles.


EFFECT OF THE MOTIONS OF THE EARTH

The Earth revolves constantly around the Sun, and at the same time
rotates upon an axis inclined twenty-three and one-half degrees towards
the plane of its orbit. In consequence of the inclination of the axis,
the declination of the Sun, or its angular distance from the Equator,
varies with the advance of the Earth in its orbit, causing periodical
variations in the length of day and night, and, consequently, in
temperature.

VERNAL EQUINOX. On the twentieth of March, at mid-day, the Sun is
vertical at the Equator. Rising directly in the east it ascends the
heavens to the zenith, and, descending, sets directly in the west.

The illuminated hemisphere extends from pole to pole, and embraces half
of every parallel of latitude; hence every point on the Earth’s surface
is under the rays of the Sun during half of the diurnal rotation; the
days and nights are equal all over the globe; and the heating power of
the Sun is the same in both the northern and the southern hemisphere.

SUMMER SOLSTICE. As the Earth advances in its orbit the vertical Sun
declines northward; and on the twenty-first of June, at the Summer
Solstice, it is over the northern Tropic, twenty-three and one-half
degrees from the Equator.

The illuminated hemisphere, extending ninety degrees on each side of the
parallel of the vertical Sun, reaches twenty-three and one-half degrees
beyond the North Pole; but, at the south, it barely touches the
Antarctic circle. It embraces more than half of each parallel north of
the Equator, hence throughout the northern hemisphere the day is longer
than the night, the difference in their duration increasing with the
latitude; and all points within the Arctic circle are in the light
during the entire rotation.

In the southern hemisphere, less than half of each parallel being
illuminated, the night is longer than the day, and within the Antarctic
circle there is constant night. The heating power of the Sun is now at
the maximum in the northern hemisphere, while in the southern it is at
the minimum.

AUTUMNAL EQUINOX. On the twenty-second of September, the distribution of
light and heat upon the two hemispheres is the same as at the Vernal,
and at the _Winter Solstice_, on the twenty-second of December, it is
the reverse of that at the Summer Solstice.

=WHAT CAUSES THE SEASONS AND DAY AND NIGHT=

[Illustration: =FIGURE ILLUSTRATING THE CHANGE OF SEASONS THROUGHOUT THE
YEAR=

The change of seasons is caused by the _revolution_ of the earth around
the sun, and the inclinations of the planes of the equator and ecliptic.
These causes also account for the difference in the length of the days
and nights and the difference in the height of the midday sun. The exact
duration of the seasons we get by observing the dates of equinoxes and
solstices.]

[Illustration: =FIGURE SHOWING THE CAUSE OF DAY AND NIGHT=

The _revolution_ of the earth gives us the length of the year; its
_rotation_ on its axis, the length of the day and night, by causing the
risings and settings and daily apparent motion of the sun and stars.]


EFFECT OF UNEQUAL DAYS AND NIGHTS ON TEMPERATURE

The inequality in the length of the days in different parts of the year,
occasioned by the inclination of the Earth’s axis, is of itself
sufficient to produce a marked variation in temperature.

During the day the Earth receives from the Sun more heat than it
radiates into space; while during the night it radiates more than it
receives. Hence a succession of long days and short nights results in an
accumulation of heat, raising the average temperature and producing
summer; while long nights and short days result in a temperature below
the average, producing winter.

Again, the heating power of the Sun in each hemisphere is greatest at
the period of the longest days, because of its greater altitude in the
heavens; and least at the period of shortest days. Thus long days and a
high sun operate together to produce the high temperature of summer;
while long nights and a low sun cause the low temperature of winter.

The following table gives the length of the longest day, excluding the
time of twilight, and of the shortest night, in the different latitudes,
with the difference of duration in hours and minutes, thus exhibiting
more clearly the above law.

TABLE OF UNEQUAL DAYS AND NIGHTS

  =============+=============+================+============
  =LATITUDE=   |=Longest Day=|=Shortest Night=|=Difference=
  -------------+-------------+----------------+------------
  Equator      | 12.0 hours  |   12.0 hours   | 00.0 hours
    10°        | 12.7   „    |   11.3   „     |  1.4   „
    20°        | 13.3   „    |   10.7   „     |  2.6   „
  Tropics      | 13.5   „    |   10.5   „     |  3.0   „
    30°        | 14.0   „    |   10.0   „     |  4.0   „
    35°        | 14.5   „    |    9.5   „     |  5.0   „
    40°        | 15.0   „    |    9.0   „     |  6.0   „
    45°        | 15.6   „    |    8.4   „     |  7.2   „
    50°        | 16.3   „    |    7.7   „     |  8.6   „
    55°        | 17.3   „    |    6.7   „     | 10.6   „
    60°        | 18.7   „    |    5.3   „     | 13.4   „
  Polar Circles| 24.0   „    |    0.0   „     | 24.0   „
    67-1/2°    |    1 month  |    0.0   „     | ...
    69-1/2°    |    2 months |    0.0   „     | ...
    73.3°      |    3   „    |    0.0   „     | ...
    78.3°      |    4   „    |    0.0   „     | ...
    84°        |    5   „    |    0.0   „     | ...
  North Pole   |    6   „    |    0.0   „     | ...
  -------------+-------------+----------------+------------


LAW OF VARIATION OF DAY AND NIGHT

The inequality of day and night increases slowly in the tropical
regions, but more and more rapidly towards the polar circles. Beyond
these circles the Sun, in the hemisphere in which it is vertical, makes
the entire circuit of the heavens, without sinking below the horizon,
for a period varying from twenty-four hours to six months; while in the
opposite hemisphere there is a corresponding period of continuous night.


RESULT OF THIS LAW IN DIFFERENT ZONES

In the tropical regions, where the days and nights vary little in
length, the temperature is nearly uniform throughout the year; while the
increasing inequality of day and night towards the Poles, causes an
increasing difference between the summer and the winter temperature.

Again, the length of the day, in the summer of high latitudes,
compensates for the diminished intensity of the Sun’s influence; so that
the temperature, in the hottest part of the day, may equal, or even
exceed, that within the tropics. A summer day in Labrador or Petrograd
may be as warm as one under the Equator; but in the former latitudes
there are only a few days of extreme heat in the year, while with
increasing nearness to the Equator the number of warm days constantly
increases.


HOW THE SEASONS VARY IN DIFFERENT LATITUDES

The high latitudes have short, hot summers, and long, severe winters.
The transition seasons, spring and autumn, on account of the very rapid
change in the length of the days, are short and scarcely perceptible.

In the middle latitudes the summer and winter are more nearly equal in
length, with less difference in the extreme temperatures; and the
transition seasons are distinctly marked. Farther towards the Equator
the summer increases in length, and the winter diminishes, while the
tropical latitudes have constant summer.


WINDS AND OTHER AIR CURRENTS

The winds appear to be caused by partial changes in the density of the
atmosphere in a great measure arising from a diverse distribution of
heat. When air is warmed it becomes less dense, or, in other words, it
occupies a greater space. If an adjacent stratum of air be cooler, it
will on coming in contact with the warmer air expand and pour into
space occupied by the latter, thus forming a current. The greater the
difference between the temperature of the one or other portion, the
greater will be the force which the cold portion will rush into the
space occupied by the warm portion, or, in other terms, the more violent
will be the wind. In temperate climates the winds are variable; but in
some parts of the world they blow with great regularity, and in others
are subject to periodical changes.


WHAT CAUSES THE TRADE-WINDS

The most remarkable of the regular winds are the trade-winds. The
atmosphere at the surface between the tropics is much warmer than in the
higher latitudes; and since air expands when heated, the light warm air
of intertropical regions perpetually rises, and its place is as
perpetually supplied by the colder air from the north and the south. If
it were not for the Earth’s rotation, these would be merely north and
south winds; but like the equinoctial water-currents, these cool
currents of air coming from regions which have not an equal velocity of
rotation with the air at the equator, pause and hang back, and thus
these aerial currents acquire a westerly direction, forming
north-easterly constant winds in the northern hemisphere, and
south-easterly in the southern hemisphere.


MONSOONS AND THEIR LOCATION

The monsoons or periodical winds of the Indian Ocean owe their origin to
the same cause which gives rise to the trade-winds, though they acquire
a different character in consequence of the proximity of the land. In
the southern portions of the ocean which are remote from this cause of
disturbance, the trade-wind blows with its wonted regularity; but in the
seas occupying the region between the eastern coast of Africa on the one
side, and the Malay peninsula and the island of Sumatra on the other,
the course of the trade-wind is reversed for half the year. This change
occurs from April to October; the sun at that period being vertical
north of the equator, and the land in the adjacent regions acquiring in
consequence a high temperature, and the air over the sea being cooler
than that over the land, a south-west wind prevails. This wind, called
the “south-west monsoon,” commences at about three degrees south of the
equator, and passing over the ocean arrives charged with moisture, and
accordingly usually deposits copious supplies of rain in India and some
of the adjoining territories. In the remaining half of the year, or from
October to April, the wind assumes the ordinary north-easterly direction
of the trade-wind.

Sea-breezes, which occur in regions bordering on the ocean in hot
climates, are produced by causes similar to those which give rise to the
south-west monsoon, but on a more limited scale of action, and changing
their direction daily.


THE WHIRL OF THE HURRICANE

Hurricanes are storms of wind which sweep or whirl round a regular
course, and are at the same time carried onward along the surface of the
Earth. In the northern hemisphere the whirling motion follows the course
of east, north, west, and south to east again, and in the southern
hemisphere it takes the opposite course. In the Atlantic Ocean, the
principal region of hurricanes lies to the eastward of the West India
Islands. They are also frequent in the Indian Ocean, at no great
distance from the island of Madagascar. The “typhoons” of the China
seas, and the “ox-eye” of the Cape of Good Hope, are also revolving
storms.


TORNADOES AND OTHER CHARACTERISTIC STORMS

The tornadoes of the western coast of Africa, the pamperos of South
America, and the northers of North America appear to be of a different
character, and not to possess a revolving motion. The sirocco of Italy
and Sicily, and the solano of Spain, as also the simoon of Arabia, and
the harmattan of western Africa, are all winds which owe their origin to
the heated surfaces of Africa and Arabia. The principal difference
between these winds appears to be, that the sirocco and the solano
acquire some moisture in their passage across the Mediterranean, and
therefore do not possess that extreme degree of aridity which forms the
distinguishing character of the simoon and the harmattan.


CLOUDS--THEIR FORM AND CLASSIFICATION

Clouds are continually varying in their form and appearance, but may be
classed under the four principal heads of the cirrus, the cumulus, the
stratus, and the nimbus.

The cirrus is a light, fleecy cloud resembling a lock of hair or a
feather.

The cumulus or summer cloud is generally massive and of a round form;
sometimes of small size, and sometimes covering nearly the whole sky,
and occasionally appearing in the horizon like mountains capped with
snow.

The stratus is a horizontal, misty cloud sometimes observed on fine
summer evenings comparatively near the ground, and often crossing the
middle regions of mountainous or hilly districts.

The nimbus or rain cloud has a uniform gray tint; it is fringed at the
edges when these are displayed, but usually covers the whole sky. The
region of clouds is a zone extending in the atmosphere from about one to
four miles above the Earth. The most elevated clouds, which are light
and fleecy, are those comprehended under the name of cirrus, and the
lowest are those which are called stratus.

The cirro-cumulus, cirro-stratus, and cumulo-stratus are only
modifications and combinations of the above-named principal classes.


FORMS OF ATMOSPHERIC VAPOR

Warm air is capable of holding suspended a larger quantity of moisture
than cold air, and therefore the amount of vapor present in the
atmosphere is subject to great variations.


WHAT CAUSES DEW

These facts also account for the formation of dew, which is caused by
the reduction of the temperature and the deposition of the moisture
which the warmer atmosphere of the day had held in suspension. Dews will
hence be usually most abundant when cool nights succeed warm days, and
on a clear night than when the skies are obscured by clouds, because a
cloudless sky is usually much colder than a beclouded one. It is also
essential for the copious formation of dew, that the ground or other
substance on which it is deposited should be much cooler than the
superincumbent air; for if the ground be warm it will impart its
temperature to the air near its surface and dew will not be formed.


FORMATION OF MISTS AND FOGS

When the ground or water is warmer than the air, mists and fogs are
frequently formed; and since water and marshy surfaces cool less rapidly
than dry land, mists and fogs are of more common occurrence in low, damp
situations than in dry, elevated districts. They are formed by the
condensation of the vapor, or, in other terms, its transformation into
the minute globules of water, which instead of descending to the earth
in the form of dew, remain suspended above the land or the water.


RAIN, HAIL AND SNOW

Clouds are formed by the condensation of vapor at considerable but
various elevations in the atmosphere. Vapor is always invisible, clouds,
therefore, are not vapor but water, and consist of a fine watery powder,
the size of each particle being exceedingly minute; and consequently
they are so light that clouds formed of an accumulation of such
particles are readily borne forward by the winds. Clouds are sometimes
suddenly formed and as suddenly disappear, probably owing to sudden and
partial changes of temperature. When a considerable difference of
temperature prevails in the aerial currents which may come in contact
with the local atmosphere, a further condensation takes place, and the
particles of this fine watery powder unite into drops, and, becoming
heavier, fall to the earth in the form of _rain_, _hail_ or _snow_.


SNOW AND SNOW-CRYSTALS

Vapor condensed in air having a temperature below thirty-two degrees
Fahrenheit freezes, or passes to a crystalline form, producing snow.
Snowflakes occur in a great variety of forms, which usually present the
outline of either a regular hexagon or a six-pointed star.

Their size depends upon the temperature and the relative humidity of the
air through which they fall, for, like raindrops, they increase by
successive additions from the vapors with which they come in contact in
descending. Thus in mild weather they are much larger than in very cold
weather.

[Illustration: =PICTORIAL CHART OF THE CLOUDS, SHOWING THEIR FORMS AND
POSITION=

1. =Cirrus= (_sir´rus_).--Small curl-like clouds, usually high in
the heavens. 2. =Cirro-stratus= (_sir-ro-strā´tus_).--Intermediate
between the cirrus and stratus. 3. =Cirro-cumulus=
(_sir-ro-kū´mu-lŭs_).--Resembling the scales of mackerel. 4.
=Alto-cumulus= (_al´tō-kū´mu-lus_).--High cumulus clouds. 5.
=Alto-stratus= (_ăltō-strā´tūs_).--High stratus clouds. 6.
=Strato-cumulus= (_strā´to-kū´mu-lŭs_).--Forms of cumulus and stratus
combined. 7. =Nimbus= (_nim´būs_).--A rain cloud. 8. =Cumulus=
(_kū´mū-lus_).--A conical heap of clouds. 9. =Cumulo-stratus=
(_kū´mu-lo-stra´tŭs_).--Intermediate between the cumulus and the
stratus. 10. =Stratus= (_strā´tŭs_).--Arranged in a horizontal band or
layer. 11. =Fracto-stratus= (_frăk´tō-strā´tŭs_).--Broken forms of
stratus. 12. =Fracto-cumulus= (_frăk´to-kū´mu-lus_).--Broken forms of
cumulus.]

[Illustration: =THE BEAUTIFUL CRYSTAL-FORMS OF SNOWFLAKES=

1-3. Six-rayed stars. 4-13, 18-25. Combinations of six-rayed stars with
decorated flat surfaces. 14, 16, 17. Combinations of stars and columns.
15. A true pyramid.]

When the lower air is warm enough partially to melt the crystals, they
form minute balls. When raindrops, formed in the upper air, fall through
a cold current, they are often frozen, producing _sleet_ instead of
snow.


WHERE PERMANENT SNOW EXISTS

Though the winter snows upon the plains, and the slopes of mountains of
medium height, disappear during the warm season; yet, in all latitudes,
the tops of high mountains are covered with a layer of permanent snow,
which the summer heat of these great altitudes is not sufficient to
melt.

The lower limit of perpetual snow, called the snow line, is found,
within the tropics, about three miles above the level of the sea. In
temperate latitudes it occurs at the height of a little less than two
miles; and at the northern limit of the continents, it is about half a
mile above the level of the sea, or, perhaps, even less than this.

On the Arctic Islands, vast fields of snow remain permanently, at a few
hundred feet above the sea level.

The winter snows, falling into the icy waters of the polar oceans, are
but partially dissolved; and, remaining upon the freezing surface, they
help to form those vast ice floes which encumber the polar seas at all
times.

The following table gives the observed height of the snow line in the
different latitudes:--

HEIGHT OF THE SNOW LINE

  ==========+============================+=======
  =Lat. N.= |         =New World=        |=Feet=
  ----------+----------------------------+-------
     75°    |North Greenland             | 2,300
     54°    |Unalaska                    | 3,500
     48°    |Mt. Baker, Oregon, about    | 8,000
     43°    |Rocky Mountains             |12,500
     39°    |Rocky Mountains             |14,500
     38°    |Sierra Nevada               |11,000
     19°    |Popocatepetl, Mexico        |14,900
      5°    |Tolima, Columbia            |15,300
  Lat. S. 1°|Andes of Ecuador            |15,800
     17°    |Andes of Bolivia, west side |18,500
     17°    |Andes of Bolivia, east side |15,700
     33°    |Andes of central Chili      |14,700
     42°    |Andes of Patagonia          | 6,000
     54°    |Andes of Straits of Magellan| 3,700
     75°    |Bear Island                 |   600
     71°    |Mageroe, Cape North         | 2,300
     67°    |Sulitelma, Lapland          | 3,800
     61°    |Scandinavian Alps           | 5,300
     50°    |Altai Mountains             | 7,000
     46°    |Alps, north side            | 8,800
     46°    |Alps, south side            | 9,200
     43°    |Caucasus                    |11,000
     35°    |Hindu Kush                  |13,000
     31°    |Himalaya, south side        |16,200
     31°    |Himalaya, north side        |17,400
     12°    |Abyssinian Mountains        |14,000
  Lat. S. 3°|Kilimanjaro                 |16,000
     44°    |New Zealand Alps            | 7,500
  ----------+----------------------------+-------


HOW SNOW AND ICE FORM GLACIERS AND ICEBERGS

Glaciers (from the French glace, ice) are vast streams of ice which
descend from the lower edge of the perpetual snows, like long icicles
from a snow-covered roof. They follow the windings of the Alpine
valleys, and terminate abruptly in a massive wall of ice, from beneath
which the waters of the melting glacier escape, through a large icy
vault.


MOST FAMOUS GLACIER REGION

The mountain systems in the middle latitudes, with abundant snows and
alternate warm and cold seasons, are most favorable to the formation of
glaciers. The best known, and probably the most remarkable glaciers are
those of the high Alps, in the heart of which are Mont Blanc, Monte
Rosa, and the Bernese Alps. Late explorers have found large glaciers in
the Caucasus and in the Himalayas, the last being of the grandest
proportions. In the Scandinavia are many which descend, in the deep
western fiords, nearly to the sea level.

In the New World glaciers are less frequent. On Mount Shasta and Mount
Rainier fine examples are in evidence.

By far the most extensive glaciers however, are found on the
snow-covered islands of the polar oceans.

Vast masses of ice, broken from the ends of these glaciers, form the
enormous _icebergs_ (mountains of ice) which are so numerous in the
polar seas, and are transported by the currents even to middle
latitudes.


CLIMATE AND WEATHER

The term _climate_ is used to express the combination of temperature and
moisture which prevails at any particular place, or, in more familiar
terms, the prevailing _weather_.

The most prominent causes of diversity of climate are the heat of the
sun, the respective position of land and water, and the elevation of
land above the level of the sea. To these may be added, as producing
considerable though less marked effects, the nature of the soil, the
prevailing winds, the position of mountain ranges, and the currents of
the ocean.


THE SUPREME INFLUENCE OF THE SUN

The sun is the grand agent in diffusing heat over the earth’s surface.
While the sun is above the horizon of any place, that place is receiving
heat; and when the sun is below the horizon, it is parting with it by
the process called “radiation.” Whenever therefore the sun remains more
than twelve hours out of the twenty-four above the horizon of any place,
and consequently less than twelve hours below, the general temperature
of that place will be above average; and when the reverse occurs, it
will be below average. If the temperature depended solely on the heat of
the sun, then indeed a tolerably accurate view of the respective
climates of the zones of the globe might easily be assumed; but it is so
greatly modified by other circumstances, that considerable differences
prevail in countries situated in the same parallels of latitude.


HOW AFFECTED BY POSITION OF LAND AND WATER

The relative position of the land and water is an essential cause of
this diversity. The waters of the ocean are of very equal temperature,
and have a tendency to moderate both heat and cold, wherever their
influence extends. Thus when a cold wind passes over the sea, it becomes
warmed, while a hot wind becomes cooled; and thus islands generally
experience milder winters and more temperate summers than continents.
Such countries are said to possess an insular climate. But when any
region experiences great severity of cold in winter and a high degree of
heat in summer, it is said to possess an extreme or excessive climate.
The most striking instances of an extreme climate are drawn from places
like Yakutsk, situated in the depths of Siberia, where the difference
between the average temperature of winter and summer amounts to the
astonishing sum of 101 degrees Fahrenheit.

[Illustration: =THE LIFE-GIVING SUN SENDING HEAT AND LIGHT=

The sun is the great life-giver of our earth. Its waves of light and
heat and electricity come to the earth through a measureless ocean of
ether and make it a living rather than a dead world. The above
illustration shows how these waves are constantly bombarding the earth,
and not only giving it life but contributing to it the glory of the
seasons, the wonders of color, and the brilliant effects of light which
we see in the skies and call Auroras, or Northern and Southern Lights.]


INFLUENCE OF ELEVATIONS

A gradual decrease in temperature takes place in the ascent from the sea
to the line of perpetual snow. This line, which is called the snow-line,
varies in different latitudes, and sometimes, owing to local causes,
differs on the same latitude; as a general rule, however, a gradual
decrease in elevation of the snow-line takes place as we recede from the
equator north and south. The height of this line within the tropics
varies from 16,000 to 17,000 feet above the level of the sea, and in the
northern hemisphere meets the level at about the eightieth parallel.


MODIFICATIONS BY PREVAILING WINDS, MOUNTAINS AND OCEAN CURRENTS

Countries where the prevailing winds sweep across a wide expanse of
ocean are not subject to extremes of heat and cold. Thus the climate of
oceanic islands is always moderate, and the climates of all coasts are
more equable than in the interior of continents.

Climate is also modified greatly by the position of mountain ranges,
especially when ridges extend east and west, screening it from the north
or leaving it exposed unsheltered in that direction.

Thus the Carpathians screen Hungary from the cold blasts of the north;
while Poland, to the north of that range, and therefore unprotected from
those piercing winds, suffers from a very cold and humid atmosphere.

The currents of the ocean are likewise potent agents in the formation of
climates, and render places which would otherwise be uninhabitable, fit
for man’s habitation. Thus the Polar currents coming to the equatorial
regions cool, and the Gulf Stream making its way to Polar regions warms,
otherwise extreme temperatures.


RAINLESS AND RAINY REGIONS OF THE EARTH

In some parts of the Earth extensive tracts exist where rain is never
known to fall, and if at all only at intervals, and then in small
quantities. The rainless districts of the New World include the flat
territories of northern Chili and Peru, some parts of Mexico, and some
parts of California. In the Old World an extensive rainless band extends
from the western shores of Africa to the central regions of Asia,
including the Great Sahara Desert, Egypt, part of Arabia, and the Desert
of Gobi. Countries so circumstanced, unless like Egypt rendered fertile
by the irrigation of a great river, constitute the most arid and
desolate regions of the earth.

The quantity of rain which falls in any region depends greatly on local
causes, such as the variations of the surface, the prevailing winds or
the proximity of the ocean. Rain is usually more copiously deposited in
mountains and well-wooded islands than in any other description of
surface.

In tropical regions the rains follow the sun, i. e., when the sun is
north of the equator, the rains prevail in the northern tropic, and when
south of that line in the southern tropic. This forms the rainy and dry
seasons to which countries so situated are subject. This does not,
however, apply to the whole intertropical regions, for in a zone
extending from the fifth to the tenth parallels on each side of the
equator there are two rainy and two dry seasons.

In the narrow belt called the variables, between the regions of the
north and south trade-winds, rain is almost incessant, accompanied by
thunder and lightning. In many parts of the intertropical regions during
the rainy season the rain pours down in such torrents that a larger
quantity falls in a few hours than in a whole month in temperate North
America.

[Illustration: =TRAVELERS GROUPED ON THE SANDS OF THE SAHARA, TERRORIZED
BY AN APPROACHING SIMOON=

The dreaded Simoon of the desert is a whirlwind of terrific force that
raises great gyrating clouds of sand, and sweeps forward with
suffocating effect upon both man and beasts. It frequently darkens the
sky at midday, and sometimes lightning accompanies it caused by the
friction of the sand and air, though no rain falls. The Simoon seldom
lasts more than twenty minutes.]


NATURE WONDERS OF ELECTRICITY AND LIGHT

Electricity produces an infinity of changes in the natural world. It may
be artificially elicited or called forth by friction; or by contact of
certain substances and the action attendant on this contact. In the one
case it is termed ordinary, and in the other case voltaic or galvanic
electricity.

All substances are supposed to contain a certain portion of electricity,
and if by friction or other means any substance acquires more electrical
action than it would naturally possess, it is said to be positively
electrified; and if less, it is said to be negatively electrified.
Substances when positively electrified attract or draw toward them other
substances which are in a state of negative electricity, or even those
which are in a natural state, but will repel or force from them
substances which are positively electrified. The sudden contact of
bodies in an opposite state of electricity is attended with vivid light
called the “electric spark,” and accompanied by explosion and shock.


EARTH AND AIR FORM NATURE’S ELECTRIC BATTERY

The earth is always in a state of positive electricity, and the air when
pure in a state of negative electricity. Atmospheric air, however, is
subject to incessant variations, and hence its “electrical equilibrium”
or natural electrical state is subject to be disturbed. This equilibrium
will be restored when an explosion has taken place, and thus it is that
in peculiar states of the atmosphere thunder storms act a beneficial
part in restoring the air to a normal condition. The intensity of
electrical action is greater during the day than at night and also in
summer than in winter; and diminishes from the equator to the poles.

Electricity is perpetually effecting great changes in the earth’s crust,
and in very many instances acts on the principal of voltaic electricity,
the action in such cases being produced by long-continued currents.


LIGHTNING--THE ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE IN THE HEAVENS

Lightning is the dazzling light produced by an electrical discharge
passing between clouds which are oppositely electrified, or between the
clouds and the earth. Lightning flashes have been distinguished as
zigzag or chain lightning, sheet and globular lightning.

The first has the aspect of a sharply defined chain of fire, and moves
at the rate of 250,000 miles per second. Its zigzag course is attributed
to the resistance of the air, condensed in the passage of the electrical
discharge, which is sufficient to turn it aside frequently in the
direction of less resistance.

Sheet lightning includes the expanded flashes which occur during a
storm, and the heat lightning, seen on summer evenings, when no clouds
are visible, which is supposed to be the reflection of a storm taking
place below the horizon.

Globular lightning is seen on rare occasions, when the electrical
discharge takes the form of a ball of fire, and descending with less
rapidity, is visible for several seconds. In certain conditions of the
atmosphere, globes or spires of electrical light, called St. Elmo’s
fire, are seen tipping the extremities of bodies in contact with the
earth, like church spires, or masts of ships.

All the conditions which give rise to electrical excitement in the
atmosphere are much more intense in warm than in cold latitudes; hence
the thunder storms of the tropical regions greatly exceed, both in
frequency and in violence, those of temperate and cold climates.


THE AURORA BOREALIS, OR NORTHERN LIGHTS

This phenomenon is frequently observed in the northern heavens. It
occurs in many forms, but the most common is that of a luminous arch
whose summit is in the magnetic meridian of the place of observation,
and from which vivid flashes of light dart towards the zenith. A like
phenomenon in the southern heavens is denominated the Aurora Australis.
Auroras are most frequent and brilliant in the polar regions, and
diminish in intensity towards the equator.


RAINBOWS, HALOS AND CORONAS

Rainbows are arches of prismatic colors, formed by the reflection of
rays of light from within drops of water. The rays, which are refracted
in entering the drops, are reflected from their posterior surfaces, and
again refracted as they re-enter the air, the colors being separated by
their unequal refrangibility.

Halos and coronas are circles of prismatic colors which, in certain
states of the atmosphere, surround the Sun and the Moon.

Halos are supposed to be occasioned by the presence, in the atmosphere,
of small ice crystals which act as minute prisms, decomposing and
refracting the light which passes through them.

Coronas are seen when a light mist is floating in the air, and are
supposed to be formed by reflection from the external surface of the
globules of vapor.


COLORS OF THE SKY AND CLOUDS

The azure tint of the cloudless sky is due to the decomposition and
refraction of light, as it passes through layers of air successively
increasing in density. The blue and violet, being more refrangible than
other colors of the solar spectrum, are diffused through the atmosphere;
and being reflected from its particles, they impart to it their own
color.

The clouds, floating in the atmosphere, absorb the more refrangible
rays, and reflect the less. At sunrise and sunset, when the light
traverses the greatest depth of atmosphere, all the colors are absorbed
except the red and the yellow; and these, being deflected from the
particles of vapor, produce the brilliant coloring of sunrise and
sunset.


THE MYSTIFYING MIRAGE

The mirage is an optical phenomenon in which images of distant objects
are seen, reflected beneath, or suspended in the heavens above.
Occasionally, also, objects are seen double, being repeated laterally
instead of vertically.

The mirage is caused by the refraction and reflection of light as it
passes from denser to rarer strata of air. It is most frequent in arid
plains, where the soil, exposed to the burning rays of the sun, becomes
intensely heated, and, in consequence, the strata of air near the ground
are less dense than those above.

In this case rays of light passing from any distant object, as a tree,
to the ground, are refracted more and more towards the horizontal, until
finally they are reflected from a horizontal layer of the heated air,
and reach the eye from beneath. Then an image of the object is seen as
if mirrored in the tranquil waters of a lake.

[Illustration: =THE MAGNIFICENT CURTAINS OF LIGHT THAT FORM THE AURORA
BOREALIS=]


USEFUL MINERALS OF THE EARTH


HOW MINERALS ARE IDENTIFIED

Minerals can be identified and distinguished by various physical
properties and by ascertaining their chemical composition. The chief
distinguishing physical properties are crystalline form, cleavage,
hardness, and specific gravity.

Each mineral or special class of minerals has its own definite
geometrical shape or crystalline form. The crystals of each mineral have
also a tendency to break or cleave most readily in a particular
direction. The term hardness, as applied to minerals and other solid
bodies, is used to indicate resistance to being scratched or the power
to scratch. The harder of two bodies is the one which will scratch the
other, and which resists being scratched by that other.


CRYSTALS THE MOST BEAUTIFUL OF MINERAL FORMS

There are three general classes of crystals--calcareous, silicious and
gypsum--but by far the most important are the silicious crystals because
of their great hardness. These include quartz or rock crystal--which is
quite common--and the so-called _precious stones_, among which are the
diamond, rubies, sapphires, etc., a description of which will be found
in the Dictionary of Minerals.

To find the relative hardness of substances, a scale has been arranged,
beginning with the softest mineral (talc) and ending with the hardest
(diamond). The minerals of the scale, therefore, are so arranged that
each will scratch any other mineral of lower number in the scale, or be
scratched by any of higher number.

=SCALE OF HARDNESS=

            MINERAL                                 CHEMICAL NAME
   1. Talc.                 }Can be scratched{ 1. Magnesium silicate.
   2. Gypsum (or rocksalt). }     by the     { 2. Calcium sulphate or
                            }  finger-nail   {    Sodium chloride.

   3. Calc-spar.            }                { 3. Calcium carbonate.
   4. Fluor-spar.           }     Can be     { 4. Calcium fluoride.
   5. Apatite.              }    scratched   { 5. Calcium phosphate.
   6. Felspar.              }   by knife or  { 6. Potassium and
                            }      file      {    aluminum silicates.

   7. Quartz (rock-crystal).}    Cannot      { 7. Silica.
   8. Topaz.                } be scratched   { 8. Aluminum
                            }      by        {    fluosilicate.
   9. Corundum (sapphire,   }    knife       { 9. These gems are
      ruby).                }      or        {    crystallized alumina.
  10. Diamond.              }     file       {10. Crystallized carbon.

As a first inquiry into the chemical composition of a mineral, dilute
hydrochloric or sulphuric acid is tried. All _carbonates_ effervesce
when placed in acid or when acid is dropped upon them, while quartz and
all the _silicates_ show no effervescense when so treated.

The table on pages 104-7 contains a brief description of the distinctive
physical features of a number of the very common or important minerals.


DICTIONARY OF IMPORTANT MINERAL PRODUCTS

=Aluminum=, a metal which does not occur in nature in the free state,
but for the most part in combination with silica, as a silicate of
aluminum, in clay and many minerals. As extracted from clay by a series
of very difficult chemical operations, it forms a white metal, very
ductile and malleable, and susceptible of a high polish. On account of
its lightness, aluminum is highly valued; it forms excellent alloys.

_Bauxite_ (aluminum hydrate) is the only ore. It is mined in France,
Ireland, Austria, Arkansas, Alabama and Georgia, and is refined by
electric processes. It is used largely as an addition to iron and steel,
preventing bubbles and waste in castings; in electrical work, and for
purposes where a light, strong metal is necessary, as in certain
machinery, hulls for small boats, etc. Refineries are located in
Switzerland, France, Great Britain and United States.

_Cryolite_ (fluoride of aluminum and sodium), a mineral mined only in
Greenland, was formerly used as an ore but is now utilized in the
manufacture of alum and soda.

_Alum_ (a sulphate) is made from cryolite or clays.

_Corundum_ (aluminum oxide) is, next to the diamond, the hardest natural
mineral. Canada, North Carolina, Alabama and India have mines of
corundum. Emery is produced chiefly in Greece and Asia Minor. Corundum
and emery are powdered for use as abrasives in wheels, sharpening
stones, polishing powder and cloth.

_Emery_ is an impure form of corundum.

_Feldspar_ is a silicate of aluminum with other metals. It is mined in
Canada, Pennsylvania, Connecticut, New York, Maine and Norway, and
ground up for use in pottery making.

_Clay_ is chiefly silicate of aluminum and other metals. _Kaolin_ is its
purest form. The properties of clay vary with its composition, as china
clay, fire clay, pipe clay, brick clay. Clays are found in all parts of
the world as a result of the decomposition of other rocks.

The location of manufacturing centers of pottery of all kinds and of
bricks, is dependent on clay deposits. In pottery making, Ohio, New
Jersey and Pennsylvania lead the United States. Abroad, fine china is
made in France, Germany, Austria, England, Japan, and China.

=TABLE FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF COMMON MINERALS; THEIR SCIENTIFIC AND
COMMON NAMES AND CHIEF CHARACTERISTICS=

  +-------------------+---------------+---------------+------+----------+
  | =Name of Mineral= | =Common Name= | =Composition= |=Hard-| =Lustre= |
  |                   |               |               | ness=|          |
  +-------------------+---------------+---------------+------+----------+
  |=Amphibole.=       |...            |Silicate of    | 5-6  |Glassy  to|
  |(_ăm´fĭ-bōl_)      |               |magnesium,     |      |dull.     |
  |                   |               |calcium, alumi-|      |          |
  |                   |               |num, iron, etc.|      |          |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Arsenopyrite.=    |Mispickel.     |Sulphide and   |  6   |Metallic. |
  |(_är´sĕn-ō-py̆r´īt_)|               |arsenide of    |      |          |
  |                   |               |iron.          |      |          |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Barite.=          |Barytes. Heavy |Sulphate of    |  3   |Glassy to |
  |(_bā´rīt_)         |spur.          |barium.        |      |stony.    |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Biotite.=         |Black Mica.    |Hydrous sili-  |2-1/2-|Glassy to |
  |(_bī´ō-tīt_)       |               |cate of alumi- |  3   |almost    |
  |                   |               |num, potassium,|      |metallic. |
  |                   |               |magnesium and  |      |          |
  |                   |               |iron.          |      |          |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Calcite.=         |Lime. Calespar.|Carbonate of   |  3   |Glassy to |
  |(_kăl´sīt_)        |               |Calcium.       |      |earthy.   |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Chalcocite.=      |Copper Glance. |Sulphide of    |  3   |Metallic; |
  |(_kăl´kŏ-sīt_)     |               |copper.        |      |dull when |
  |                   |               |               |      |impure or |
  |                   |               |               |      |tarnished.|
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Chalcopyrite.=    |Copper Pyrites.|Sulphide of    |  4   |Metallic. |
  |(_kăl´kō-pĭr´īt_)  |Fools gold.    |copper and     |      |          |
  |                   |               |iron.          |      |          |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Copper.=          |...            |Native metallic|2-1/2-|Metallic. |
  |                   |               |copper.        |  3   |          |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Corundum.=        |...            |Oxide of alu-  |  9   |Glassy.   |
  |(_kō-rŭn´dŭm_)     |               |minum.         |      |          |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Epidote.=         |...            |Basic silicate | 6-7  |Glassy to |
  |(_ēp´ĭ-dōt_)       |               |of calcium,    |      |dull.     |
  |                   |               |aluminum and   |      |          |
  |                   |               |iron.          |      |          |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Fluorite.=        |Fluor Spar.    |Calcium        |  4   |Glassy.   |
  |(_flōō´or-īt_)     |Fluorine.      |fluoride.      |      |          |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Galenite.=        |Galena. Lead.  |Sulphide of    |  3   |Metallic. |
  |(_gȧ-lē´nīt_)      |               |lead.          |      |          |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Garnet.=          |...            |Silicate of    |6-1/2-|Glassy to |
  |                   |               |various ele-   |7-1/2 |resinous. |
  |                   |               |ments: calcium,|      |          |
  |                   |               |aluminum and   |      |          |
  |                   |               |iron are       |      |          |
  |                   |               |commonest.     |      |          |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Gold.=            |...            |Native metallic|2-1/2-|Metallic. |
  |                   |               |gold with a    |  3   |          |
  |                   |               |little silver, |      |          |
  |                   |               |copper, etc.   |      |          |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Graphite.=        |Black Lead.    |Carbon.        | 1-2  |Metallic  |
  |(_graph´īt_)       |Plumbago.      |               |      |to dull.  |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Gypsum.=          |...            |Hydrous sul-   |1-1/2-|Pearly,   |
  |(_jĭp´sŭm_)        |               |phate of       |  2   |silky,    |
  |                   |               |calcium.       |      |vitreous, |
  |                   |               |               |      |dull.     |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Halite.=          |Rock salt.     |Chloride of    |2-1/2 |Glassy.   |
  |(_hā´līt_)         |               |sodium.        |      |          |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Hematite.=        |Red oxide of   |Oxide of iron. |5-1/2-|Metallic  |
  |(_hēm´ȧ-tīt_)      |iron.          |               |6-1/2 |to earthy.|
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Limonite.=        |Yellow oxide of|Hydrous oxide  |  5-  |Dull,     |
  |(_lī´mŏn-īt_)      |iron.          |of iron.       |5-1/2 |silky,    |
  |                   |               |               |      |varnish-  |
  |                   |               |               |      |like.     |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Magnetite.=       |Magnetic iron  |Oxide of iron. |5-1/2-|Metallic  |
  |(_mag´net-īt_)     |ore.           |               |6-1/2 |to dull.  |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Malachite.=       |...            |Hydrous carbon-|3-1/2-|Silky to  |
  |(_măl´ȧ-kīt_)      |               |ate of copper. |  4   |dull.     |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Muscovite.=       |Mica, isin-    |Hydrous sili-  |  2-  |Glassy.   |
  |(_mŭs´ko̱vīt_)      |glass. White   |cate of potas- |2-1/2 |Pearly on |
  |                   |Mica.          |sium and alu-  |      |cleavage  |
  |                   |               |minum.         |      |faces.    |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Orthoclase.=      |Feldspar.      |Silicate of    |  6   |Glassy to |
  |(_ôr´tho̱-klās_)    |Potash.        |potassium and  |      |stony.    |
  |                   |               |aluminum.      |      |          |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Pyrite.=          |Pyrites. White |Sulphide of    |  6-  |Metallic. |
  |(_pĭr´īt_)         |iron. Fools    |iron.          |6-1/2 |          |
  |                   |gold.          |               |      |          |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Pyrolusite.=      |...            |Oxide of       |  1-  |Metallic  |
  |(_pĭr´o̱-lū´sīt_)   |               |manganese.     |2-1/2 |to dull.  |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Pyroxene.=        |...            |Silicate of    | 5-6  |Glassy to |
  |(_pĭr´ŏks-ēn_)     |               |magnesium,     |      |dull.     |
  |                   |               |calcium, alu-  |      |          |
  |                   |               |minum and iron.|      |          |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Quartz.= (Pheno-  |...            |Oxide of       |  7   |Glassy.   |
  |crystalline).      |               |silicon.       |      |          |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Quartz.= (Crypto- |...            |...            | ...  |Dull to   |
  |crystalline).      |               |               |      |earthy.   |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Serpentine.=      |...            |Hydrous sili-  |  4+  |Wax-like, |
  |(_sēr´pēn-tīn_)    |               |cate of magne- |      |silky,    |
  |                   |               |sium and iron. |      |earthy.   |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Siderite.=        |...            |Carbonate of   |3-1/2-|Glassy to |
  |(_sĭd´ēr-īt_)      |               |iron.          |  4   |earthy.   |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Sphalerite.=      |Blende, Jack   |Sulphide of    |3-1/2-|Resinous  |
  |(_sfāl´ēr-īt_)     |Rosin zinc,    |zinc.          |  4   |to nearly |
  |                   |zinc, etc.     |               |      |metallic. |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Stibnite.=        |...            |Sulphide of    |  2   |Metallic. |
  |(_stĭb´nīt_)       |               |antimony.      |      |          |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Talc.=            |Talcum.        |Hydrous sili-  |  1-  |Waxy to   |
  |(_tălk_)           |               |cate of mag-   |1-1/2 |dull.     |
  |                   |               |nesium.        |      |Pearly on |
  |                   |               |               |      |cleavage  |
  |                   |               |               |      |faces.    |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Tetrahedrite.=    |Gray copper.   |Sulph-         |  3-  |Metallic. |
  |(_tet´ra-he´drīt_) |               |antimonite of  |4-1/2 |          |
  |                   |               |copper.        |      |          |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Tourmaline.=      |Schorl.        |Silicate of    |  7-  |Glassy to |
  |(_tōōr´mȧ-lĭn_)    |               |boron and      |7-1/2 |resinous. |
  |                   |               |various other  |      |          |
  |                   |               |bases varying  |      |          |
  |                   |               |with the       |      |          |
  |                   |               |variety.       |      |          |
  |                   |               |               |      |          |
  |=Zoisite.=         |...            |Silica, alumi- |  6   |Pearly.   |
  |(_zois´īt_)        |               |na, lime, per- |      |          |
  |                   |               |oxide of iron, |      |          |
  |                   |               |water.         |      |          |
  +-------------------+---------------+---------------+------+----------+

  +-----------------+--------------+-------------+-----------------------+
  |=Name of Mineral=|   =Color=    |  =Streak=   |     =Cleavage or      |
  |                 |              |             |       Fracture=       |
  +-----------------+--------------+-------------+-----------------------+
  |=Amphibole.=     |Black or light|White.       |Perfect in two direc-  |
  |                 |to dark green.|             |tions at angle of 124°.|
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Arsenopyrite.=  |Silver,       |Black.       |Good in two directions |
  |                 |yellowish, or |             |at an angle of 112°.   |
  |                 |light grayish |             |Not evident on fine    |
  |                 |white.        |             |grained material.      |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Barite.=        |White, yellow,|White.       |Perfect in one direc-  |
  |                 |blue or brown.|             |tion; two other good   |
  |                 |              |             |cleavages at right     |
  |                 |              |             |angles to the first and|
  |                 |              |             |at 101° with each      |
  |                 |              |             |other.                 |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Biotite.=       |Black or dark |White.       |Very perfect in one di-|
  |                 |brown.        |             |rection, yielding thin |
  |                 |              |             |sheets.                |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Calcite.=       |Colorless or  |White.       |Perfect in three di-   |
  |                 |white when    |             |rections at angles of  |
  |                 |pure, all     |             |about 105° or 75°.     |
  |                 |colors when   |             |                       |
  |                 |impure.       |             |                       |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Chalcocite.=    |Dark gray.    |Lead-gray.   |No cleavage, smooth    |
  |                 |Tarnishes     |             |conchoidal fracture.   |
  |                 |black or      |             |                       |
  |                 |green.        |             |                       |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Chalcopyrite.=  |Bright brass- |Greenish     |No cleavage. Uneven    |
  |                 |yellow. Often |black.       |fracture.              |
  |                 |tarnished iri-|             |                       |
  |                 |descent.      |             |                       |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Copper.=        |Copper-red.   |Copper-red.  |No cleavage. Hackly    |
  |                 |Tarnishes     |             |fracture.              |
  |                 |green to      |             |                       |
  |                 |black.        |             |                       |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Corundum.=      |All colors;   |White.       |Often parts readily    |
  |                 |usually gray  |             |into almost rectangular|
  |                 |or brown when |             |pieces whose faces are |
  |                 |massive.      |             |cross-hatched.         |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Epidote.=       |Dark green or |White.       |Perfect in one direc-  |
  |                 |greenish brown|             |tion.                  |
  |                 |(crystals) to |             |                       |
  |                 |light yellow- |             |                       |
  |                 |ish green.    |             |                       |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Fluorite.=      |All colors;   |White.       |Cleaves easily into    |
  |                 |green, violet,|             |octahedrons, i. e.,    |
  |                 |purple, color-|             |in four directions, at |
  |                 |less and      |             |angles of 109° or 71°. |
  |                 |white, the    |             |                       |
  |                 |commoner.     |             |                       |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Galenite.=      |Bluish lead,  |Lead-gray.   |Perfect cubical, i. e.,|
  |                 |gray. Tar-    |             |in three directions at |
  |                 |nishes black. |             |angle of 90°.          |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Garnet.=        |Commonly some |White.       |No cleavage. Uneven    |
  |                 |shade of red; |             |fracture.              |
  |                 |also brown,   |             |                       |
  |                 |yellow, white,|             |                       |
  |                 |black, green. |             |                       |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Gold.=          |Golden yellow |Yellow to    |No cleavage. Hackly    |
  |                 |to nearly     |nearly white.|fracture.              |
  |                 |silver-white. |             |                       |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Graphite.=      |Dark gray to  |Dark gray.   |Perfect in one direc-  |
  |                 |black.        |             |tion. Cleavage faces   |
  |                 |              |             |are apt to be curved.  |
  |                 |              |             |Not shown if finely    |
  |                 |              |             |granular.              |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Gypsum.=        |White, gray,  |White.       |Very perfect in one    |
  |                 |red, yellow or|             |direction; two others  |
  |                 |other tints   |             |show as cracks at angle|
  |                 |due to        |             |of 114°, on the perfect|
  |                 |impurities.   |             |cleavage faces.        |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Halite.=        |Colorless or  |White.       |Perfect cubic i. e., in|
  |                 |white when    |             |three directions at    |
  |                 |pure. Yellow, |             |angle of 90°.          |
  |                 |brown, red,   |             |                       |
  |                 |etc., when    |             |                       |
  |                 |impure.       |             |                       |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Hematite.=      |Black when    |Red.         |No cleavage; may have a|
  |                 |metallic; red-|             |parting in one direc-  |
  |                 |dish black    |             |tion producing a platy |
  |                 |when dull, red|             |structure. Uneven      |
  |                 |when earthy.  |             |fracture.              |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Limonite.=      |Yellow, brown |Yellow or    |No cleavage. Uneven    |
  |                 |or nearly     |yellowish    |fracture.              |
  |                 |black.        |brown.       |                       |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Magnetite.=     |Iron-black.   |Black.       |No cleavage. Sometimes |
  |                 |              |             |parts in four direc-   |
  |                 |              |             |tions at angles of 109°|
  |                 |              |             |and 71°. Uneven to sub-|
  |                 |              |             |conchoidal fracture.   |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Malachite.=     |Green, often  |Green. Paler |No cleavage. Uneven    |
  |                 |nearly black  |than the     |fracture.              |
  |                 |on exposed    |color.       |                       |
  |                 |surfaces.     |             |                       |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Muscovite.=     |White or light|White.       |Very perfect in one    |
  |                 |tints of other|             |direction, yielding    |
  |                 |colors, par-  |             |thin sheets.           |
  |                 |ticularly     |             |                       |
  |                 |gray, brown or|             |                       |
  |                 |green.        |             |                       |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Orthoclase.=    |Flesh-red,    |White.       |In two directions at   |
  |                 |gray, yellow, |             |angle of 90°, one di-  |
  |                 |white or      |             |rection slightly less  |
  |                 |colorless.    |             |perfect than the other.|
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Pyrite.=        |Pale to deep  |Black.       |No cleavage. Conchoidal|
  |                 |brass-yellow. |             |to uneven fracture.    |
  |                 |Tarnishes     |             |                       |
  |                 |brown or      |             |                       |
  |                 |iridescent.   |             |                       |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Pyrolusite.=    |Black to dark |Sooty black. |May appear to have good|
  |                 |steel-gray.   |             |cleavage in one direc- |
  |                 |              |             |tion but usually shows |
  |                 |              |             |none.                  |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Pyroxene.=      |Black or light|White to     |Poor in two directions |
  |                 |to dark green.|greenish.    |at angle of nearly 90°.|
  |                 |              |             |May have a fine platy  |
  |                 |              |             |parting.               |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Quartz.= (Pheno-|White or      |White or     |No cleavage. Single    |
  |crystalline).    |colorless when|light tints. |crystal has conchoidal |
  |                 |pure. All     |             |fracture, otherwise the|
  |                 |colors when   |             |fracture is uneven.    |
  |                 |impure.       |             |                       |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Quartz.= (Cryp- |...           |...          |No cleavage. Conchoidal|
  |tocrystalline).  |              |             |fracture.              |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Serpentine.=    |Light to dark |White. No    |Conchoidal fracture    |
  |                 |green, yellow,|cleavage.    |when massive.          |
  |                 |brownish red, |             |                       |
  |                 |variegated.   |             |                       |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Siderite.=      |Light to dark |White to     |Very perfect in three  |
  |                 |brown or gray.|yellowish.   |directions at angle of |
  |                 |Tarnishes red-|             |107° and 73°. Not      |
  |                 |dish brown or |             |evident when fine      |
  |                 |brownish      |             |grained.               |
  |                 |black.        |             |                       |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Sphalerite.=    |Commonly yel- |White, yellow|Very perfect in six    |
  |                 |low, brown,   |or brown.    |directions at angles of|
  |                 |black or red; |             |60°, 90° and 120°.     |
  |                 |sometimes     |             |                       |
  |                 |green or      |             |                       |
  |                 |white.        |             |                       |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Stibnite.=      |Light gray.   |Lead-gray.   |Perfect in one direc-  |
  |                 |Cleavage faces|             |tion, yielding blade-  |
  |                 |appear silver |             |like strips which are  |
  |                 |white when    |             |bent or hatched perpen-|
  |                 |reflecting    |             |dicular to their       |
  |                 |light.        |             |length.                |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Talc.=          |White, light  |White to     |Perfect in one direc-  |
  |                 |green, gray;  |greenish.    |tion, yielding thin    |
  |                 |other colors  |             |flexible plates. Not   |
  |                 |when impure.  |             |shown on the fine      |
  |                 |              |             |grained soapstone.     |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Tetrahedrite.=  |Gray.         |Gray, brown, |No cleavage. Uneven,   |
  |                 |              |or reddish.  |granular fracture.     |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Tourmaline.=    |All colors.   |White.       |No cleavage. Uneven to |
  |                 |Interior and  |             |poor conchoidal        |
  |                 |exterior or   |             |fracture.              |
  |                 |opposite ends |             |                       |
  |                 |of a crystal  |             |                       |
  |                 |may differ in |             |                       |
  |                 |color.        |             |                       |
  |                 |              |             |                       |
  |=Zoisite.=       |White, gray,  |Uncolored.   |Parallel cleavage;     |
  |                 |yellow, brown.|             |sometimes fibrous.     |
  +-----------------+--------------+-------------+-----------------------+

  +-----------------+-----------------------+--------------+-------------+
  |=Name of Mineral=| =Crystallization and  |  =Tenacity   |=Diaphaneity=|
  |                 |      Occurrence=      |     etc.=    |             |
  +-----------------+-----------------------+--------------+-------------+
  |=Amphibole.=     |Prismatic crystals with|Brittle to    |Opaque to    |
  |                 |hexagonal cross-sec-   |tough.        |transparent. |
  |                 |tion, common; also     |              |             |
  |                 |cleavable masses.      |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Arsenopyrite.=  |Crystals resemble a    |Brittle.      |Opaque.      |
  |                 |double-edged axe.      |              |             |
  |                 |Occurs also coarse to  |              |             |
  |                 |fine granular.         |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Barite.=        |Diamond shaped or rect-|Brittle.      |Transparent  |
  |                 |angular tabular, or    |              |to           |
  |                 |prismatic crystals and |              |translucent. |
  |                 |platy masses.          |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Biotite.=       |Six-sided tabular crys-|Flexible and  |Opaque to    |
  |                 |tals, and as scales,   |elastic.      |transparent. |
  |                 |plates, or scaly       |              |             |
  |                 |masses.                |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Calcite.=       |Prismatic or tabular   |Brittle.      |Transparent  |
  |                 |six-sided crystals;    |              |to opaque.   |
  |                 |also granular,         |              |             |
  |                 |cleavable, or earthy   |              |             |
  |                 |masses.                |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Chalcocite.=    |Usually very compact   |Slightly      |Opaque.      |
  |                 |masses; six-sided,     |sectile.      |             |
  |                 |tabular crystals rare. |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Chalcopyrite.=  |Occurs massive or in   |Brittle.      |Opaque.      |
  |                 |scattered particles.   |              |             |
  |                 |Crystals usually have  |              |             |
  |                 |four triangular faces. |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Copper.=        |Masses, plates, scales,|Malleable     |Opaque.      |
  |                 |branching aggregates   |sectile.      |             |
  |                 |and octahedral crys-   |              |             |
  |                 |tals, usually          |              |             |
  |                 |distorted.             |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Corundum.=      |Prismatic or tabular   |Brittle to    |Translucent  |
  |                 |six-sided crystals;    |tough.        |to           |
  |                 |also granular and      |              |transparent. |
  |                 |pseudo-cleavable       |              |             |
  |                 |masses.                |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Epidote.=       |Slender, deeply grooved|Brittle.      |Transparent  |
  |                 |prismatic crystals and |              |to opaque.   |
  |                 |cleavable to fine      |              |             |
  |                 |granular masses.       |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Fluorite.=      |In groups of crystals, |Brittle.      |Transparent  |
  |                 |usually cubical; also  |              |to           |
  |                 |in cleavable masses.   |              |translucent. |
  |                 |Sometimes granular.    |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Galenite.=      |Cubical crystals, often|Very Brittle. |Opaque.      |
  |                 |with triangular faces  |              |             |
  |                 |on the corners; also,  |              |             |
  |                 |cleavable to granular  |              |             |
  |                 |masses.                |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Garnet.=        |Complex, rounded crys- |Brittle.      |Transparent  |
  |                 |tals, glassy masses and|              |to opaque.   |
  |                 |granular.              |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Gold.=          |Nuggets, plates,       |Malleable     |Opaque.      |
  |                 |scales, wires;         |sectile.      |             |
  |                 |branching aggregates   |              |             |
  |                 |and distorted crystals,|              |             |
  |                 |usually octahedral.    |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Graphite.=      |Imbedded scales and    |Sectile       |Opaque.      |
  |                 |foliated, granular or  |Flexible.     |             |
  |                 |compact masses. Rarely |              |             |
  |                 |in six-sided, tabular  |              |             |
  |                 |crystals.              |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Gypsum.=        |Diamond shaped crys-   |Sectile, Thin |Translucent  |
  |                 |tals, and cleavable,   |flakes,       |to           |
  |                 |fibrous, granular,     |flexible.     |transparent. |
  |                 |foliated or compact    |              |             |
  |                 |masses.                |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Halite.=        |Cubical or octahedral  |Brittle.      |Translucent  |
  |                 |crystals; also         |              |to           |
  |                 |cleavable, granular or |              |transparent. |
  |                 |compact masses.        |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Hematite.=      |Complex, tabular or    |Brittle.      |Opaque.      |
  |                 |rounded crystals; also |              |             |
  |                 |platy, oolitic, earthy,|              |             |
  |                 |micaceous, and kidney  |              |             |
  |                 |shaped masses.         |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Limonite.=      |Botryoidal or stalac-  |Brittle.      |Opaque.      |
  |                 |titic forms with a     |              |             |
  |                 |radiating fibrous      |              |             |
  |                 |structure and a        |              |             |
  |                 |varnish-like surface,  |              |             |
  |                 |also earthy masses and |              |             |
  |                 |concretions.           |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Magnetite.=     |Octahedral crystals,   |Brittle.      |Opaque.      |
  |                 |and coarse to fine     |              |             |
  |                 |granular, laminated, or|              |             |
  |                 |compact masses.        |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Malachite.=     |Massive, as botryoidal |Brittle.      |Translucent  |
  |                 |crusts with a radiating|              |to opaque.   |
  |                 |structure and silky    |              |             |
  |                 |lustre, and as slender |              |             |
  |                 |crystals forming       |              |             |
  |                 |velvety surfaces.      |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Muscovite.=     |Six-sided, tabular     |Flexible and  |Transparent  |
  |                 |crystals, and as       |elastic.      |to           |
  |                 |scales, plates, or     |              |translucent. |
  |                 |scaly masses.          |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Orthoclase.=    |Thick-set square or    |Brittle.      |Transparent  |
  |                 |six-sided crystals, or |              |to opaque.   |
  |                 |cleavable masses or    |              |             |
  |                 |grains.                |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Pyrite.=        |Cubical, octahedral, or|Brittle.      |Opaque.      |
  |                 |complexly rounded crys-|              |             |
  |                 |tals, coarse to fine   |              |             |
  |                 |granular, and massive. |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Pyrolusite.=    |Occurs as radiating    |Brittle.      |Opaque.      |
  |                 |prismatic layers,      |              |             |
  |                 |velvety crust and      |              |             |
  |                 |granular to compact    |              |             |
  |                 |masses. Soils the      |              |             |
  |                 |fingers.               |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Pyroxene.=      |Prismatic crystals with|Brittle.      |Transparent  |
  |                 |square or octagonal    |              |to opaque.   |
  |                 |cross-section; also    |              |             |
  |                 |foliated and massive.  |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Quartz.= (Pheno-|Six-sided prism termi- |Brittle.      |Transparent. |
  |crystalline).    |nated by a six-sided   |              |             |
  |                 |pyramid; also massive, |              |             |
  |                 |coarse to fine         |              |             |
  |                 |granular, and as sand. |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Quartz.= (Cryp- |Very fine grained      |Brittle.      |Translucent  |
  |tocrystalline).  |massive, botryoidal,   |              |to opaque.   |
  |                 |nodular, or filling or |              |             |
  |                 |lining cavities in     |              |             |
  |                 |rocks.                 |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Serpentine.=    |Compact, massive or    |Tough. Fibres |Translucent  |
  |                 |coarse to fine fibrous.|are flexible. |to opaque.   |
  |                 |The two habits are     |              |             |
  |                 |often in parallel      |              |             |
  |                 |layers.                |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Siderite.=      |Cleavable masses,      |Brittle.      |Translucent  |
  |                 |coarse to fine,        |              |to opaque.   |
  |                 |granular and at warped |              |             |
  |                 |crystals that resemble |              |             |
  |                 |distorted cubes.       |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Sphalerite.=    |Complexly rounded or   |Brittle.      |Transparent  |
  |                 |modified cubical crys- |              |to opaque.   |
  |                 |tals; also cleavable,  |              |             |
  |                 |coarse to fine granular|              |             |
  |                 |masses, and botryoidal,|              |             |
  |                 |etc.                   |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Stibnite.=      |Sharp, vertically      |Very brittle. |Opaque.      |
  |                 |grooved, prismatic     |              |             |
  |                 |crystals and in        |              |             |
  |                 |cleavable masses with a|              |             |
  |                 |bladed structure.      |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Talc.=          |Foliated, coarse to    |Tough sectile.|Transparent  |
  |                 |fine granular, or      |              |to           |
  |                 |compact masses. Feels  |              |translucent. |
  |                 |greasy to soapy.       |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Tetrahedrite.=  |Crystals have four     |Brittle.      |Opaque.      |
  |                 |triangular faces.      |              |             |
  |                 |Occurs usually granular|              |             |
  |                 |massives.              |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Tourmaline.=    |Vertically lined,      |Very brittle. |Transparent  |
  |                 |prismatic crystals with|              |to opaque.   |
  |                 |spherical triangular   |              |             |
  |                 |cross-sections. Also   |              |             |
  |                 |columnar or compact    |              |             |
  |                 |massive.               |              |             |
  |                 |                       |              |             |
  |=Zoisite.=       |Occurs in tri-metric   |Brittle.      |Transparent, |
  |                 |crystals; also massive.|              |translucent. |
  +-----------------+-----------------------+--------------+-------------+

  +-----------------+-------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Name of Mineral=|       =Varieties=       |        =Remarks=         |
  +-----------------+-------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Amphibole.=     |Actinolite (green, trans-|Common constituent of     |
  |                 |parent). Asbestos        |igneous and metamorphic   |
  |                 |(fibrous, dull). Horn-   |rocks. Valueless.         |
  |                 |blende (black).          |                          |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Arsenopyrite.=  |...                      |Principal ore of arsenic  |
  |                 |                         |and sometimes carries     |
  |                 |                         |gold. Gives sparks and    |
  |                 |                         |garlic odor when struck   |
  |                 |                         |with a hammer. Yellow     |
  |                 |                         |tarnish.                  |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Barite.=        |...                      |Used to adulterate white  |
  |                 |                         |lead and give weight to   |
  |                 |                         |paper. Often associated   |
  |                 |                         |with lead ores. Very      |
  |                 |                         |heavy.                    |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Biotite.=       |...                      |Common constituent of     |
  |                 |                         |igneous rocks. May be     |
  |                 |                         |brittle when altered.     |
  |                 |                         |Valueless.                |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Calcite.=       |Marble (granular). Lime- |Effervesces vigorously in |
  |                 |stone (dull, compact).   |hydrochloric acid of any  |
  |                 |Chalk (soft, white,      |strength and temperature. |
  |                 |earthy). Mexican Onyx    |Used as flux, building or |
  |                 |(compact, banded).       |ornamental stone, to make |
  |                 |                         |lime, etc.                |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Chalcocite.=    |...                      |An important ore of       |
  |                 |                         |copper. Cuts easily,      |
  |                 |                         |yielding a highly polished|
  |                 |                         |surface.                  |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Chalcopyrite.=  |...                      |One of the most important |
  |                 |                         |ores of copper and often  |
  |                 |                         |carries silver and gold.  |
  |                 |                         |Is often mistaken for the |
  |                 |                         |latter.                   |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Copper.=        |...                      |The value and uses of     |
  |                 |                         |copper are well known.    |
  |                 |                         |Often carries some silver.|
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Corundum.=      |Ruby (red). Sapphire     |A very valuable gem       |
  |                 |(blue, etc.). Adamantine.|mineral and a fine        |
  |                 |Spar (massive). Emery    |abrasive. See plate I,    |
  |                 |(granular, impure).      |figures 10, 11 and 13.    |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Epidote.=       |...                      |Common constituent of     |
  |                 |                         |metamorphic rocks. Rarely |
  |                 |                         |cut as a gem.             |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Fluorite.=      |Rock fluorite (finely    |Used as a flux in smelting|
  |                 |granular and usually very|ores, and in several arts |
  |                 |impure and hard).        |and trades.               |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Galenite.=      |Steel galena (very fine  |Most important lead and   |
  |                 |grained masses). Often   |silver ore. Often contains|
  |                 |rich in silver.          |the latter metal with     |
  |                 |                         |sometimes gold and other  |
  |                 |                         |elements.                 |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Garnet.=        |...                      |An important abrasive and |
  |                 |                         |a beautiful gem. Found in |
  |                 |                         |metamorphic rocks. See    |
  |                 |                         |plate I, figures 8 and 15.|
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Gold.=          |Based upon and named     |The value and uses of gold|
  |                 |after any impurities that|are well known.           |
  |                 |may be present.          |                          |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Graphite.=      |...                      |Used in the manufacture of|
  |                 |                         |lubricants, infusible     |
  |                 |                         |crucibles, and “lead”     |
  |                 |                         |pencils.                  |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Gypsum.=        |Selenite (cleavable,     |Is carved into vases,     |
  |                 |transparent). Satin spar |statues, etc., and forms  |
  |                 |(white, fibrous, silky). |plaster of paris when     |
  |                 |Alabaster, (white, fine  |calcined and ground. Is a |
  |                 |grained).                |precipitate rock.         |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Halite.=        |...                      |Tastes salty. Enormous    |
  |                 |                         |quantities are used to    |
  |                 |                         |season food, in various   |
  |                 |                         |arts and trades, and as a |
  |                 |                         |source of sodium and its  |
  |                 |                         |salts. A precipitate rock.|
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Hematite.=      |Specular iron (mirror-   |The most important ore of |
  |                 |like plates or crystals).|iron, and is also used to |
  |                 |Red Ochre or Ruddle (red,|make cheap paint,         |
  |                 |earthy).                 |polishing powder, etc.    |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Limonite.=      |Bog iron ore (porous,    |Commonest, but most impure|
  |                 |earthy, often encloses   |ore of iron, and is also  |
  |                 |vegetation). Yellow ochre|used to make cheap yellow |
  |                 |or umber (earthy with    |and brown paint.          |
  |                 |clay, etc.).             |                          |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Magnetite.=     |Lodestone (a natural     |The only black, brittle,  |
  |                 |magnet).                 |magnetic mineral, and a   |
  |                 |                         |very pure and valuable    |
  |                 |                         |ore of iron.              |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Malachite.=     |...                      |Is an ore of copper and is|
  |                 |                         |used as an ornamental     |
  |                 |                         |stone and in jewelry.     |
  |                 |                         |Azur-malachite is         |
  |                 |                         |malachite mixed with blue |
  |                 |                         |azurite. See plate I,     |
  |                 |                         |figure 4.                 |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Muscovite.=     |...                      |Used in stove doors, as   |
  |                 |                         |insulation in electrical  |
  |                 |                         |apparatus, and for        |
  |                 |                         |spangling or frosting     |
  |                 |                         |paper and fabric.         |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Orthoclase.=    |Sanadine (transparent    |Associated with quartz and|
  |                 |crystals or grains im-   |mica in many rocks. Used  |
  |                 |bedded in igneous rocks).|in making glass and       |
  |                 |                         |porcelain. Next to quartz |
  |                 |                         |in frequency of           |
  |                 |                         |occurrence.               |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Pyrite.=        |...                      |Used in making sulphuric  |
  |                 |                         |acid and often contains so|
  |                 |                         |much gold, silver and     |
  |                 |                         |copper as to make it an   |
  |                 |                         |ore of these metals.      |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Pyrolusite.=    |...                      |Has many uses and is      |
  |                 |                         |valuable. Usually         |
  |                 |                         |associated with a very    |
  |                 |                         |fine grained, hard, black |
  |                 |                         |mineral that is often     |
  |                 |                         |botryoidal.               |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Pyroxene.=      |Diopside (light green,   |A common constituent of   |
  |                 |glassy). Diallage (light |igneous rocks. Diopside is|
  |                 |green, dull, foliated).  |sometimes used as a gem.  |
  |                 |Auagite (black).         |                          |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Quartz.= (Pheno-|Rock crystal (colorless, |The commonest of all      |
  |crystalline).    |transparent). Amethyst   |minerals. A constituent of|
  |                 |(purple). Rose (pink).   |most rock. Great quanti-  |
  |                 |False topaz or Citrine   |ties are used as a flux in|
  |                 |(yellow). Smoky quartz or|smelting, as abrasives,   |
  |                 |Topaz (brown or gray).   |and in the manufacture of |
  |                 |Milky (white). Ferrugi-  |glass and porcelain. The  |
  |                 |nous (iron stained).     |transparent varieties of  |
  |                 |                         |pleasing tints are used as|
  |                 |                         |gems. Water-clear spheres |
  |                 |                         |are very valuable.        |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Quartz.= (Cryp- |Chalcedony (drab). Car-  |...                       |
  |tocrystalline).  |nelian (red, trans-      |                          |
  |                 |lucent). Jasper (red,    |                          |
  |                 |brown, yellow, opaque).  |                          |
  |                 |Heliotrope or Bloodstone |                          |
  |                 |(dark green with red     |                          |
  |                 |spots). Flint (dark gray |                          |
  |                 |concretions). Agate      |                          |
  |                 |(banded or particolored).|                          |
  |                 |Onyx (agate with flat    |                          |
  |                 |layers). Petrified wood  |                          |
  |                 |(wood replaced by        |                          |
  |                 |quartz).                 |                          |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Serpentine.=    |Precious or noble        |Chrysolite is the best    |
  |                 |(massive, translucent).  |commercial asbestos. Other|
  |                 |Chrysolite (silky,       |varieties are used as     |
  |                 |fibres). Verde antique   |ornamental stone and      |
  |                 |(massive with calcite).  |occasionally in jewelry.  |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Siderite.=      |Sphaerosidirite or Clay- |The most valuable ore of  |
  |                 |ironstone (concretions of|iron, but is rather un-   |
  |                 |fine grained siderite    |common. The impure clay-  |
  |                 |mixed with clay).        |ironstone is fairly common|
  |                 |                         |in sediments.             |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Sphalerite.=    |...                      |The commonest zinc ore and|
  |                 |                         |an impure variety         |
  |                 |                         |furnishes most of the     |
  |                 |                         |cadmium of commerce.      |
  |                 |                         |Associated with galenite  |
  |                 |                         |and silver minerals.      |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Stibnite.=      |...                      |The chief source of       |
  |                 |                         |antimony and its salts.   |
  |                 |                         |Sometimes carries gold and|
  |                 |                         |silver.                   |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Talc.=          |Steatite or soapstone    |Used in making porcelain, |
  |                 |(granular, impure, hard- |polishing powder, lubri-  |
  |                 |ness up to 2-1/2). French|cants, gas jets, tinted   |
  |                 |chalk (white, fine       |plasters, paper, soap,    |
  |                 |grained soft).           |leather dressing, talcum  |
  |                 |                         |powder, slate pencils, and|
  |                 |                         |in other ways.            |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Tetrahedrite.=  |...                      |Often contains enough     |
  |                 |                         |silver to make it a valu- |
  |                 |                         |able ore of this metal as |
  |                 |                         |well as copper.           |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Tourmaline.=    |Schorl (black). Rubellite|A popular semi-precious   |
  |                 |(pink). Indicolite       |gem. When heated (not     |
  |                 |(blue). Achroite (white).|above 212° F.), will      |
  |                 |                         |usually pick up bits of   |
  |                 |                         |paper. Opposite ends of   |
  |                 |                         |crystals have different   |
  |                 |                         |forms.                    |
  |                 |                         |                          |
  |=Zoisite.=       |...                      |Often a constituent of    |
  |                 |                         |metamorphic rocks.        |
  +-----------------+-------------------------+--------------------------+

=Antimony and Bismuth.= Antimony is produced in Germany, France,
Italy, Hungary, United States, Japan and other countries.

_Bismuth_ comes mainly from Bolivia and Australia. Some is produced in
Saxony and England.

_Stibnite_ (antimony sulphide) is the chief ore of antimony. Bismuth
occurs in small amounts in a pure state and also combined with sulphur.

These metals form many alloys such as type metal, anti-friction metals,
white metal, babbitt metal, fusible metals.

_Tartar emetic_ and other antimony compounds are used in medicine and
dyeing.

=Amber= is a fossil resin found chiefly along the shores of the Baltic.
It is used in making mouthpieces for pipes, cigar holders, beads and
other articles.

=Arsenic.= Germany, England, Canada, the United States and Spain produce
the ores. Chemical laboratories transform them into the useful
compounds.

_Arsenopyrite_ (arsenic and iron sulphide), orpiment and realgar
(sulphides of arsenic) and the sources of arsenic.

_Arsenic_ (white arsenic, arsenious acid or oxide of arsenic), paris
green and other compounds and salts are prepared.

Sheep dip, rat poison, insecticides, embalming fluid, pigments and dyes
are prepared with arsenic compounds. Arsenic salts are used in preparing
certain coal-tar colors.

=Asphaltum= (or mineral pitch) is a bituminous mineral substance found
more or less pure, in some localities. The pitch lake of Trinidad and
the Bermudez lake at the mouth of the Orinoco in Venezuela, are the
largest known deposits of moderately pure asphalt. Smaller deposits of
high grade occur in Utah, Cuba and the Barbadoes.

_Rock asphalt_ consists of sandstone or limestone impregnated with
asphalt. Much asphalt is produced in refining certain grades of
petroleum--such as those obtained in California and Texas.

Rock asphalts are mined in France, Switzerland, Sicily, California,
Kentucky and Oklahoma.

For paving rock asphalts are much used in Europe. Trinidad and
Venezuelan asphalts are exported in large quantities to the United
States and Europe. For paving, these lake asphalts are mixed with broken
stone, sand and petroleum residuum.

Pure varieties (gilsonite, marjak, glance pitch) are made into black
varnish, used for insulating, etc.

=Barium= is mined in the United States and Germany.

_Barytes_ or barite is a heavy, white mineral (barium sulphate). It is
used as a substitute or adulterant for white lead in paints, and in
making oxygen.

=Bismuth.= See antimony.

=Building Stones= are quarried for local use in all parts of the world.

_Granite_, _syenite_, _gneiss_, _basalt_ and other hard or durable
rocks.

Only stone of exceptional beauty is shipped to a great distance.
Scotland, Norway, Massachusetts, Maine and other localities produce
fine stones.

=Calcium= has no commercial use in the metallic state. Its compounds,
both natural and artificial, are of great economic importance.

_Limestone_ (calcium carbonate) is a very common rock used for building.
It may be of almost any color and coarse or fine in texture. It is found
and utilized in all parts of the world. In the United States,
Pennsylvania, Illinois, Ohio, Indiana, New York and Missouri are the
chief producers.

Lime is used in chemical industries and mortar.

_Marble_ is a name applied to limestones suitable for polishing or
ornamental work. _Mexican onyx_ is translucent. Fine marbles are
quarried in Italy, Egypt, France, Spain and Greece. Vermont, Georgia,
Tennessee and New York supply the greater part of the marble used in the
United States. Handsome marbles are imported from Carrara, Italy, and
other parts of Europe. Mexican onyx is also imported.

Chalk comes mainly from the south of England. We export some Portland
cement and import a little from Europe.

_Chalk_ is of peculiar soft texture; _whiting_ is prepared chalk used to
make putty and paints; _precipitated chalk_ is similar.

_Lime_ is made by burning (calcining) common limestones. _Portland_ and
_hydraulic cements_ are prepared by calcining siliceous limestones or a
mixture of limestone and clay. They are of enormous commercial
importance, being used in concrete construction work. Europe and the
United States produce large quantities. Pennsylvania is the leading
state in this industry.

Buildings (both commercial and residences) are now being extensively
constructed of cement--in the former case being re-enforced by iron
rods.

_Chloride of lime_ (or bleaching powder), _acetate of lime_, _calcium
carbide_ and many other compounds are of industrial value.

_Gypsum_ (hydrous calcium sulphate) is used in fertilizers. Plaster is
prepared by calcining (burning) gypsum. _Plaster of paris_ is its purest
form. _Alabaster_ is compact white gypsum. It is a common mineral mined
in many parts of the world. Michigan, Kansas, New York, Ohio and other
states produce it. Fertilizers and plaster use up large quantities of
this mineral. Plaster of paris is used for casts, decorative plaster
work, cement, etc.

_Fluorite_ (calcium fluoride) is a less common mineral. Mined in
England, Kentucky and Illinois. It is used in chemical manufacture and
as a flux for ores.

_Phosphate rock_ (chiefly calcium phosphate) is important in the
preparation of fertilizers, and chemicals containing phosphorus. It is
found in deposits of organic origin in South Carolina, Florida,
Tennessee, the West Indies, Canada, Spain, France, Germany and England.

The natural phosphates are treated with sulphuric acid as a first step
in the manufacture of phosphatic fertilizers. Exported in large amount
to Germany, England and other countries.

=Carborundum=, or carbide of silicon, is harder than any known substance
but the diamond. Much is manufactured at Niagara Falls, by electrically
heating a mixture of coke, sand and salt. It is used for making
polishing powder, in grinding wheels, sharpening stones, abrasive cloth,
etc.

=Cerium.= See rare metals.

=Chrome= is mined in Asia Minor, Greece, Canada, New Caledonia and
California. Its salts are prepared in chemical laboratories.

_Chromite_ (oxide of chromium and iron) is the only ore.

_Bichromate of potash_ is the most important compound. It, together with
chromic acid, is used in tanning soft leather. A small percentage added
to steel makes it very hard and suitable for burglar-proof safes, tools,
etc. Salts of chrome are used for dyes and pigments, such as chrome
yellow, chrome green, etc.

=Coal= is one of the most important of all rocks and first among fuels.
It consists chiefly of carbon, and is universally regarded as of
vegetable origin.

Several theories as to the origin of coal have been put forth from time
to time. The one now generally accepted is that the rank and luxuriant
vegetation which prevailed during the carboniferous age grew and decayed
upon land but slightly raised above the sea; that by slow subsidence
this thick layer of vegetable matter sank below the water, and became
gradually covered with sand, mud, and other mineral sediment; that then,
by some slight upheaval or gradual silting up of the sea bottom, a land
surface was once more formed, and covered with a dense mass of plants,
which in course of time decayed, sank, and became overlaid with silt and
sand as before. At length, thick masses of stratified matter would
accumulate, producing great pressure, and this, acting along with
chemical changes, would gradually mineralize the vegetable layers into
coal.

In passing from wood or peat to coal, the proportion of carbon
increases, while that of oxygen and hydrogen decreases, these substances
being given off in the form of marsh-gas and carbonic acid gas in the
process of decay.

Deposits occur in almost all parts of the world, but many are almost
entirely undeveloped; as, for example, the coal fields of China. The
largest production is in the United States, Wales, England, Germany,
Austria, Russia and Australia. Mines are worked in India, Japan, Mexico,
South America, South Africa, China and the Philippines. Pennsylvania,
Ohio, West Virginia, Alabama, Indiana, Iowa and many other states mine
coal in great amount. Pennsylvania produces nearly all of the anthracite
and a large quantity of bituminous coal.

_Bituminous coal_, coking coal, non-coking coal, cannel coal, cherry
coal, splint coal, gas coal, steam coal, etc., are all varieties of soft
coal and contain a considerable percentage of volatile matter.

Bituminous coal is the fuel which runs the factories, railways and
steamships of the world. The distillation of coal tar and the
utilization of its numerous by-products, is one of the best examples of
modern economy which turns waste material into useful products and
large profits. Much coke is made without saving the by-products.

By distillation, bituminous coal yields gas, ammonia, coal tar and coke.
Coal tar products are numbered by the thousand. Among them are naphtha,
benzine, oil of mirbane, perfumes, flavors, drugs, saccharine, aniline
and other dyes, phenol, carbolic acid, salicylic acid, naphthaline,
photographic developers, creosote, oils, tar and pitch.

_Anthracite coal_ is almost pure carbon.

=Cobalt= is a metal the ores of which are sparingly distributed. It
generally occurs as Speiss-cobalt, cobalt-glance (or cobaltite), wad,
cobalt-bloom, linnæite and skutterudite. Its minerals are found chiefly
in the Erzgebirge Mountains, Sweden, Norway, Chile, in silver ores near
Coleman township, Ontario, in Oregon (as garnierite), and in New
Caledonia. The metal itself is of a gray color with a reddish tinge,
brittle, hard, and very magnetic.

Many of its compounds are valued on account of the brilliance and
permanence of their colors. The protoxide of cobalt, is employed in the
form of smalt in the production of the blue colors in porcelain,
pottery, glass, encaustic tiles, fresco-painting, etc., and forms the
principal ingredient in Old Sevres Blue, Thenard’s Blue, etc. The
chlorid of cobalt, dissolved in much water, may be employed as a
sympathetic ink. In dilute solutions, it is of a faint pink color, which
is not observable upon paper; but when heated before the fire, it loses
water, and becomes blue, and the writing is then capable of being read.

=Copper= is, next to iron, the most important metal in use. Its greatest
production is in the United States, in Arizona, Montana, Michigan, and
Utah. Spain, Japan, Chili, Australia and Germany produce smaller
amounts. The metal is purified by smelting, and refined, often by
electrolytic methods. There are many ores.

_Chalcopyrite_ and _bornite_ (sulphides of copper and iron) are widely
distributed.

_Chalcocite_ (copper sulphide) is mined in Montana, _malachite_ and
_azurite_ (carbonates of copper) in Arizona and metallic copper in
Michigan.

_Copper matte_ is the crude metal as it comes from the smelter.

_Brass_ and _bronze_ are alloys of copper with zinc, tin, aluminum, etc.

_Copper sulphate_ (blue vitriol) is the most important chemical compound
of copper.

The value of copper has increased within recent years, due to its
enormous use in electrical work. Aside from this, copper is employed in
large amount in the various alloys into which it enters, and in coins,
utensils, printing plates, etc. Copper sulphate is extensively used in
electrical apparatus dyes, chemical work and as an antiseptic. Large
amounts of manufactured copper are exported to Europe. Smaller
quantities of ores, matte and regulus are imported from Mexico, South
America and other countries. Copper wire is extensively used by
telephone and telegraph companies.

=Diamond.= See gems.

=Gems, or Precious Stones= are those which, because of their beauty,
hardness, and rarity, are prized for use in ornamentation, especially
in jewelry. The diamond, ruby, sapphire, and emerald are the only stones
which are, strictly speaking, entitled to be called “precious” in this
sense; but the opal, on account of its beauty, is often classed with the
precious stones; as is also the pearl, which is really not a stone, but
a secretion of a shellfish.

_Alexandrite._--A variety of chrysoberyl found in the mica slate of the
Ural mountains. It is of a rich garnet color by artificial light, by
daylight of a dark moss green. It is the only stone that so changes. The
finest specimens of alexandrite are nearly as valuable as diamonds.

_Amethyst._--A variety of crystallized quartz of a purple or
bluish-violet color, of different shades. It is much used as a jeweler’s
stone. The lighter colored ones come from Brazil, the deep purple ones
from Siberia. In value they are about the same as the garnet.

_Beryl._--A very hard mineral of much beauty when transparent. It occurs
in hexagonal prisms, commonly of a green or bluish-green color, but also
yellow, pink and white. It is a silicate of aluminum and glucinum.
Beryls are very rich in colors.

_Bloodstone._--A green siliceous stone sprinkled with red jasper, whence
the name.

_Cameo._--A figure cut in stone or shell that is composed of different
colored layers. The value depends on the artistic merit of the engraved
figure.

_Carbuncle._--A beautiful gem of a deep red color (with a mixture of
scarlet), found in the East Indies. When held up to the sun it loses its
deep tinge, and becomes of the color of a burning coal.

_Carnelian._--A variety of chalcedony, of a clear, deep red, flesh-red,
or reddish-white color. It is moderately hard, capable of a good polish,
and often used for seals. It is now used but little.

_Cat’s-eye._--A variety of quartz or chalcedony exhibiting opalescent
reflections from within, like the eye of a cat. The name is given to
other gems affording like effects, especially the chrysoberyl.

_Chalcedony._--A translucent variety of quartz, having usually a whitish
color, and a luster nearly like wax.

_Dendrite._--A stone or mineral in which are branching figures,
resembling shrubs or trees, produced by a foreign mineral, usually by an
oxide of manganese, and the moss agate.

_Diamond._--A precious stone or gem excelling in brilliancy, beauty of
prismatic colors, and remarkable for extreme hardness. It is found in
many hues--green, rose, straw, yellow, etc.--but the straw-colored ones
are the most common. The diamond is a native carbon, occurring in
isometric crystals, often octahedrons, with rounded edges. It is the
hardest substance known. Diamonds are said to be of the first water when
very transparent, and of the second and third water as the transparency
decreases.

_Diopside._--A crystallized variety of pyroxene (a silicate of lime and
magnesia), of a clear, grayish-green color; also called mussite.

_Emerald._--A precious stone of a rich green color; it is the most
valuable variety of beryl. (See beryl.)

_Epidote._--A mineral, commonly of a yellowish-green color, occurring
granular, massive, columnar, and in crystals. It is a silicate of
alumina, lime, and oxide of iron, or manganese.

_Fluorite._--Calcium fluoride, a mineral of many different colors,
white, yellow, purple, red, etc., often very beautiful. When
crystallized it is commonly in cubes with perfect octahedral cleavage.
Some varieties are used for ornamental vessels. Also called fluor spar,
or simply fluor. The colored varieties are often called false ruby,
false emerald, false topaz, false sapphire, and false amethyst.

_Flint._--A massive, somewhat impure variety of quartz, in color usually
of a gray to brown or nearly black. (See quartz.)

_Garnet._--A mineral having many varieties, differing in color and in
their constituents, but with the same general chemical formula. The
commonest color is red; the luster is vitreous, or glassy; and the
hardness is greater than that of quartz, about half as hard as the
diamond. Besides the red varieties there are also white, green, yellow,
brown and black ones.

The garnet is a silicate with various bases. The transparent red
varieties are used as gems. The garnet was the carbuncle of the
ancients. Garnet is a very common mineral in gneiss and mica slate.

The finest specimens of red garnets come from Arizona and a single carat
stone is worth about two dollars. A green variety that comes from Russia
is worth about half as much as the diamond.

_Heliotrope_ or _bloodstone_.--A green siliceous stone sprinkled with
jasper, as if with blood, whence the name.

_Hyacinth._--A red variety of zircon, sometimes used as a gem. It
resembles closely a dark Spanish topaz, and is worth a little more than
the garnet.

_Indicolite._--A variety of tourmaline of an indigo-blue color.

_Iolite._--A silicate of alumina, iron, and magnesia, having a bright
blue color and a vitreous or glassy luster. It is remarkable for its
dichroism, and is also called dichroite.

_Jacinth._--Same as hyacinth.

_Jade._--A stone commonly of a pale to dark green color, but sometimes
whitish. It is hard and very tough, capable of a fine polish, and is
used for ornamental purposes and for implements, especially in eastern
countries and among many primitive peoples.

_Jasper._--An opaque, impure variety of quartz, of red, yellow, and
other dull colors, breaking with a smooth surface. (See quartz.)

_Labradorite._--A kind of feldspar, commonly showing a beautiful play of
bluish-gray colors, and, hence, much used for ornamental purposes. The
finest specimens come from Labrador.

_Lapis-lazuli_ or _lazuli_.--A mineral of a fine azure-blue color,
usually occurring in small rounded masses. It is essentially a silicate
of alumina, lime, and soda, with some sodium sulphide. It is often
marked by yellow spots or veins of sulphide of iron, and is much valued
for ornamental work.

_Moonstone._--A nearly pellucid variety of feldspar, showing pearly or
opaline reflections from within.

The best specimens come from Ceylon. Their value is not much more than
the expense of cutting.

_Obsidian._--A kind of glass produced by volcanoes. It is usually of a
black color and opaque, except in thin splinters.

_Onyx._--Chalcedony in parallel layers of different shades of color. It
is used for making cameos, the figure being cut in one layer with the
next layer as a background (see cameo). It is stained black and used to
make mourning jewelry.

_Opal._--A mineral consisting, like quartz, of silica, but inferior to
quartz in hardness and specific gravity. The precious opal shows a
peculiar play of colors of delicate tints and it is highly esteemed as a
gem. One kind, with a varied play of colors in a reddish ground, is
called harlequin opal. The fire opal (which comes from Mexico) has
colors like the red and yellow of flame. This is not the cheap variety
commonly called Mexican opal.

[Illustration: =CELEBRATED HISTORIC DIAMONDS OF THE WORLD=]

  +-------------------------------------+----------+--------+----------+
  |        =Name and Possessor=         |  =Carats |=Carats |  =Dis-   |
  |                                     |  (Cut=)  |(Uncut=)| covered= |
  +-------------------------------------+----------+--------+----------+
  |   1. Great Mogul       Indian Moguls| 280      |  ...   |17th Cent.|
  |2-11. Pitt or Regent          King of| 136-7/8  |  410   |  1702    |
  |                              Prussia|          |        |          |
  | 3-5. Florentine           Emperor of| 139-1/2  |  ...   |  ...     |
  |                              Austria|          |        |          |
  |4-12. Star of the           Brazilian| 127      |  254   |  1853    |
  |      South                Government|          |        |          |
  |   6. Sancy                   Czar of|  53-1/2  |   83   |15th Cent.|
  |                               Russia|          |        |          |
  |   7. Green Diamond   Dresden Museum |  40      |  ...   |  ...     |
  |8-10. Koh-i-noor    Crown of England |{280 (Old)|  ...   | B. C. 56 |
  |                                     |{106-9/16 |        |          |
  |                                     |  (New)   |        |          |
  |  9. Hope          Mrs. E. B. McLean,|  44-1/2  |  ...   |  ...     |
  |                    Washington, D. C.|          |        |          |
  +-------------------------------------+----------+--------+----------+

=OTHER NOTED DIAMONDS=

  +-------------------------------------+----------+--------+----------+
  |Cullinan I  }         King Edward VII|{ 561-1/2 |}3,025- |   1905   |
  |Cullinan II }                        |{ 309-3/4 |} 3/4   |          |
  |Braganza             King of Portugal|Never Cut | 1,680  |   1741   |
  |Rajah of Mattan       Rajah of Mattan|  367.9   |787-1/2 |   1756   |
  |                             (Borneo)|          |        |          |
  |Orloff       Czar of Russia (scepter)|  194-3/4 |  ...   |    ...   |
  |Tavernier              Stolen in 1792|    ...   |242-1/2 |   1668   |
  |King of Portugal                     |  138-1/2 |  150   |   1775   |
  |Light Yellow        Stewart (diamond)|    ...   |288-5/8 |    ...   |
  |Shah                   Czar of Russia|   86     |  ...   |    ...   |
  |Nassac              Lord (Marquis of)|   78-5/8 | 89-5/8 |    ...   |
  |                          Westminster|          |        |          |
  |Porter Rhodes  Found in South America|    ...   |  150   |   1872   |
  |Blue                                 |   67-1/2 |  112   |    ...   |
  |Pigott      Bought by Messrs. Rundell|   49     |  ...   |    ...   |
  |                           and Bridge|          |        |          |
  |Dudley                 Earl of Dudley|   49-1/2 | 88-1/2 |    ...   |
  |Star of South Africa                 |   46-1/2 | 83-1/2 |   1867   |
  |Pasha of Egypt       Khedive of Egypt|   40     |  ...   |    ...   |
  |Charles the Bold                     |   28     |  ...   |    ...   |
  +-------------------------------------+----------+--------+----------+

_Pearl._--A shelly concretion, usually rounded, having a brilliant
luster, with varying tints, formed in the mantle, or between the mantle
and shell, of certain bivalve mollusks (especially in the pearl oysters
and river mussels) and sometimes in certain univalves. Its substance is
the same as nacre or mother-of-pearl. Pearls which are round, or nearly
round, and of fine luster, are highly prized as jewels. They are sold by
carat grains instead of carats.

_Rhodonite._--Manganese spar, or silicate of manganese, a mineral
occurring crystallized and in rose-red masses. It is almost entirely
used for ornamental purposes, in slabs, blocks, etc.

_Rock crystal_ or _mountain crystal_.--Any transparent crystal of
quartz, particularly of limpid or colorless quartz. A sphere of rock
crystal of absolutely perfect clearness, about five inches in diameter,
is worth at least twenty thousand dollars.

_Rose quartz._--A variety of quartz which is pinkish red.

_Rubellite._--A variety of tourmaline varying in color from a pale
rose-red to a deep ruby, and containing lithium. It is a little more
valuable than the garnet.

_Ruby._--A precious stone of a carmine-red color, sometimes verging to
violet, or intermediate between carmine and hyacinth red. It is a
crystallized variety of corundum. The ruby from Siam is of a dark color
and is called oxblood ruby. It has about the same value as the diamond.
The ruby from Burmah, called the pigeon-blood ruby, is of a lighter
color and several times more valuable than the oxblood ruby.

_Sapphire._--A variety of native corundum or aluminium sesquioxide. As
the name of a gem the term is restricted to the transparent varieties of
blue, pink, yellow, and other colors. The best specimens of the blue
variety are nearly as valuable as the diamond. The sapphire is next to
the diamond in hardness.

_Sard._--A variety of carnelian, of a reddish-yellow or brownish color.

_Sardonyx._--A variety of onyx consisting of sard and white chalcedony
in alternate layers. (See onyx.)

_Spinel._--A mineral occurring in octahedrons of great hardness and
various colors, as red, green, blue, brown, and black, the red variety
being the gem spinel ruby. It consists essentially of aluminum
magnesium, but commonly contains iron and sometimes also chromium. The
fine specimens of spinel ruby are worth rather more than half as much as
the diamond.

_Topaz._--A mineral occurring in rhombic prisms, generally yellowish and
pellucid, also colorless, and of greenish, bluish, or brownish shades.
It sometimes occurs massive and opaque.

_Tourmaline._--A mineral occurring in three-sided prisms. Black
tourmaline is the most common variety, but there are also other
varieties, as the blue (indicolite), red (rubellite); also green, brown,
and white. The red and green varieties, when transparent, are valued as
jewels. The finest ones come from Maine, and are worth four or five
times as much as garnets.

_Turquoise._--A hydrous phosphate of alumina containing a little copper.
It has a blue, or bluish-green color, and usually occurs in
kidney-shaped masses with a nodular surface like that of a bunch of
grapes. The finest specimens are worth nearly half as much as diamonds.

_Verd antique._--A mottled-green, serpentine marble, also a green
porphyry, which is called oriental verd antique.

_Zircon._--A mineral usually of a brown or gray color. It consists of
silicon and zirconium, and is harder than the garnet. The transparent
varieties are used as gems. The red variety is called Hyacinth; a
colorless, pale yellow, or smoky-brown variety from Ceylon is called
jargon.

=Gold=, a metal valued on account of its scarcity, color, luster, and
power of resisting oxidation. It is found in nearly all parts of the
world. South Africa and the United States are the leading producers.
Australia, South America and parts of Europe possess important gold
fields.

Gold is separated from gravel (placer mines) by washing with water. The
particles of metal, being heavy, sink and can be collected. Rock
containing gold is crushed to fine powder and the gold combined with
mercury (amalgamation). Low-grade ores are treated with a solution of
cyanide of potassium which dissolves the gold and the metal is later
separated.

_Chloride of gold_, used in photographic work, is its only important
compound. Pure gold is called twenty-four carats fine. A smaller figure
indicates that the metal is alloyed to harden it.

Gold is used for money, jewelry, gold leaf (gilding) and in dentistry.
It is almost always alloyed with copper and silver. Gold is the world’s
accepted standard of value. Shipments of gold go from one country to
another chiefly to balance international business dealings. Government
treasuries and bank vaults are the chief storehouses for gold, either
as bullion or coin.

=Graphite= is almost pure carbon. It is produced in Bohemia, Ceylon,
Italy, Germany, Mexico and the United States. The deposits in Ceylon are
the largest in the world. Much of that mined in New York and Alabama is
of very high grade.

_Plumbago_ or _black lead_ is used in making crucibles, lead pencils,
lubricants for heavy machinery, stove polish, foundry facings, paint,
etc.

_Artificial graphite_ is made from coal or coke by an electric process.

Powdered graphite is mixed with fine clay in greater or less proportion
and then molded and baked to form such articles as crucibles and lead
for pencils. Graphite is imported from Ceylon to the United States, and
lead pencils from Europe.

=Iron= is the most useful of all metals. The United States, Germany,
Great Britain, Spain and France are the greatest producers of iron. Its
ores occur in almost all parts of the world. Hematite is mined in
Minnesota, Michigan, Alabama and other parts of the United States and in
Germany, England, France, Spain, Russia, etc. Limonite is also widely
distributed. Pig iron is made by smelting iron ore in a blast furnace.
The ore, mixed with limestone, is melted by burning coke, coal or
charcoal.

_Pyrite_ (iron pyrites, or fool’s gold) is found in Spain and many other
parts of the world and is valuable in the preparation of sulphuric acid
(oil of vitriol), but useless as an iron ore.

_Hematite_ (sesquioxide of iron) is the ore which supplies three-fourths
of the iron of commerce.

_Limonite_ brown (hematite) is a hydrous oxide and furnishes nearly
one-fourth of the world’s supply of the metal. Magnetite and siderite
are less common ores.

_Pig iron_ is the crude form of the refined metal and is transformed
into cast iron, wrought iron and steel in their multitudinous forms.

These three forms of iron differ in hardness, strength, elasticity,
malleability, etc., according to the amounts of carbon, sulphur,
phosphorus, manganese and other elements.

_Ochers_ and metallic paints are iron oxides. _Prussian blue_ and
_copperas_ are iron compounds.

The United States manufactures more iron and steel than any other
country. Almost half of the production is in Pennsylvania. _Cast iron_
appears in many articles but is weaker than other forms of iron.
_Wrought iron_ contains less impurity and is used for bars, plates,
wire, structural material and parts of machinery. _Steel_ (Bessemer,
Siemens-Martin, open hearth, etc.) contains more carbon than wrought
iron, possesses both strength and hardness, and is used for rails,
structural material, machinery, tools, wire rope, sheet steel, etc. Its
hardness may be increased by tempering. The United States imports iron
ore from Cuba and Spain, pig iron from Great Britain and a little
manufactured iron and steel from Europe. We export large quantities of
manufactured iron and steel.

=Lanthanum.= See rare metals.

=Lead= is the softest, heaviest, most malleable and most easily melted
of the common metals. Its ores are found in many countries but the main
supply is from the United States, Spain, Germany and Mexico. The chief
lead mines of the United States are in Missouri, Idaho, Utah, Colorado
and Kansas. Much lead bullion is from smelters where silver ores are
reduced.

_Galena_ (lead sulphide) is the only important ore; it often carries a
considerable percentage of silver. Carbonates and sulphates of lead are
less common. _Solder_ and _type metal_ are alloys of lead with tin and
antimony. _White lead_ is a carbonate, _red lead_ and _litharge_ are
oxides. _Chrome yellow_ and _orange mineral_ are lead compounds used as
pigments.

The chief use of metallic lead is in piping, sheet lead, shot and
alloys. Large amounts of ore are transformed not into metallic lead but
into white lead for use in paints. Lead ores and lead bullion are
imported from Mexico. England is the greatest importer of lead and lead
ores.

=Lithium= is the metallic base of the Alkali lithia. The metal is of a
white, silvery appearance, and is much harder than sodium or potassium,
but softer than lead. It is the lightest of all known solids, its
specific gravity being little more than half that of water. It comes
principally from South Dakota, California and Sweden.

In chemical laboratories it is converted into lithium carbonate for
medicinal tablets and mineral waters.

=Magnesium= is a metal widely distributed over the globe, and chiefly
mined in Austria, Germany and Greece. The metal is used in flash powders
for photographic use, and in chemical manufacture, in fireproofing and
lining furnaces.

_Magnesite_ (magnesium carbonate) is used in making carbon dioxide gas
and epsom salts and for preparing magnesia (calcined magnesia).

_Dolomite_ (magnesium calcium carbonate) is common limestone, used for
building. Found in many parts of the world. Calcined dolomite is used
for lining iron furnaces.

_Talc_ (hydrous magnesium silicate), soapstone or steatite, is a soft
mineral. Mined in Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, etc., and in
Europe. It is made into laundry tubs, firebrick, hearthstones, griddles,
slate and tailor’s pencils, gas tips, etc. Imported in small amount from
France and Italy.

_Meerschaum_ or sepiolite (magnesium silicate), comes from Asia Minor
and New Mexico. It is easily carved and made into pipes and cigar
holders. Austria and France use large quantities. It is largely
imitated.

_Asbestos_ is a fibrous variety of serpentine (a magnesium silicate).
Mineral wool is an artificial fibrous mineral. It is mined in Quebec,
Canada. Another variety of asbestos comes from Italy. Mines have been
recently discovered in Wyoming. It is used as a fireproofing material.
This mineral fiber is spun and woven into fireproof fabrics for theater
curtains or made into felt building paper, pipe covering, etc.

=Mercury= (or quicksilver) is a heavy metal which is liquid at ordinary
temperatures. It is produced in Spain, the United States, Austria,
Italy and Russia. California supplies most of this country’s quota. It
is obtained by distillation of the ore.

_Cinnabar_ (sulphide of mercury) is the source of the metal, although a
little is found in nature in the pure state.

_Vermilion_ (artificially prepared cinnabar) is used in paints.

_Calomel_ and _corrosive sublimate_ are used in medicine and
_fulminates_ of mercury in explosives.

It is used principally in the extraction of gold and silver from their
ores by amalgamation. Employed in thermometers and barometers, silvering
mirrors, and in making amalgams for dental work.

=Mica= is a common mineral found in rocks in many parts of the world. It
is mined in India, Canada, North Carolina and South Dakota. Several
varieties occur (muscovite, biotite, etc.)--valuable only when found in
large sheets which can be split smoothly. Transparent sheets are used
for lamp chimneys and stove doors. It is also employed in electrical
work, and lubricating. Some is imported from India.

=Molybdenum.= See rare metals.

=Nickel= is found in the ores pyrrhotite and garnierites, mined in
largest amount in New Caledonia and Canada. Norway produces other ores.

_Garnierite_ (a silicate of nickel and magnesium) is the common ore.
Magnetic iron pyrite (_pyrrhotite_) often carries several per cent of
nickel. Sulphides and other compounds occur. _German silver_ contains
nickel, copper and zinc. It enters into other alloys.

France and Germany refine nickel from imported ore, chiefly from New
Caledonia. Nickel steel, being especially hard and tough is used for
armor plate, special machinery and wire rope. Nickel is extensively used
for cheap electro plating.

Nickel and nickel oxide are exported to Holland and England from the
United States and ores and matte are imported from Canada.

=Petroleum= (or coal oil) is obtained from wells in the United States,
Russia, Dutch East Indies, Galicia, Roumania and other countries. More
than half of the world’s output is from the United States, the leading
districts being (1) Kansas and Oklahoma, (2) California, (3) Illinois,
(4) Pennsylvania and (5) Texas. Crude oil is transported from the wells
for hundreds of miles through pipe lines to the refineries.

In its crude state, petroleum is a dark colored liquid. It yields by
distillation, first: light oils, _gasoline_, _naphtha_, _benzine_;
second: _illuminating oils_, _kerosene_, _headlight oil_, etc.; third:
_lubricating oils_, _engine oil_, _cylinder oil_, _machine oil_; fourth:
_petroleum residuum_ (for asphalt paving) and _coke_. _Petrolatum_,
_vaseline_ and _paraffin wax_ are by-products in petroleum refining.

American kerosene oil is exported to all parts of the globe. Crude oil
is also exported as well as other petroleum products.

=Platinum= is a rare metal found with gold, iridium and other rare
metals in placer mines. It comes chiefly from Russia. Smaller amounts
from Colombia, California, Canada and Australia.

It is used in the terminals of incandescent electric lamps, and also
employed by chemists, jewelers and dentists.

=Potash= (or potassium) is an alkaline metal. Chlorides, sulphates,
etc., are found in Germany. Wood ashes and sugar beet refuse furnish
much of the world’s potash. Stassfurt, Germany, possesses the only known
large deposit of natural potash salts. These salts are the source of
potash in many chemical industries and in fertilizers. It is exported in
large amount from Germany to England, France and America.

=Quartz= (silica) is of many varieties, crystalline to amorphous.

_Rock flint_ is mined in Connecticut and Pennsylvania, and also comes
from the chalk cliffs of England and France.

_Sandstones_ are quarried and used for building in almost all parts of
the world. Pennsylvania, Ohio, and New York supply the greatest
quantities in the United States. _Honestones_ and _whetstones_ are
mostly sandstone, and in this country are largely quarried in Arkansas,
Michigan and New Hampshire.

_Rock crystal_ is employed for lenses. Many semiprecious stones are
varieties of quartz, as _agate_, _moss agate_, _onyx_, _sard_,
_chalcedony_, _chrysoprase_, _jasper_, etc.

_Rock flint_ and _quartz sand_ are used in making glass and pottery.

Outside of building stones, quartz is used in greatest amount in making
glass and pottery. For glass it is melted with alkali (soda ash) and
either lime or lead oxide. Glass is either blown or molded. Belgium,
Austria, Germany, France, Great Britain and the United States
manufacture glassware. Pennsylvania, Indiana and New Jersey are the
leading states.

=Radium= is the most characteristic of those substances which possess
the property of radio-activity--i.e. have the power of producing
photographic or electric effects by a process identical with or
analogous to radiation. The property was first observed in _uranium_ by
Becquerel in 1896--hence the name “Becquerel rays.” In 1898 Schmidt and
Madame Curie discovered almost simultaneously that the compounds of
_thorium_ had the same radio-active property; and further elaborate
investigations led to the discovery of _polonium_, _radium_, and
_actinium_, as new substances with radio-active properties. Polonium was
the name given by M. and Mme. Curie to the radio-active component of
bismuth separated from pitchblende. Its activity is transient. In the
new field of research thus opened up important work has been done by
Rutherford, Crooks, Ramsay, Soddy, Huggins, and others.

Radium is derived from _pitchblende_, in which it exists in very small
quantities. After a long-continued process of fractional crystallization
it has been prepared in the form of a tolerably pure salt. The process
of obtaining the element is very tedious. One to two kilograms of impure
radium bromide can be procured from a ton of pitchblende residue only
after processes extending over months. For the remarkable chemical
properties of radium, see further under Radio-activity.

=Rare Metals.= These include chiefly the following: _Tungsten_,
_molybdenum_, _vanadium_ and _uranium_. They are found in Colorado,
Arizona, Germany, England and Sweden. The ores of these metals are
unusual minerals, and the metals themselves are used in making special
high grades of steel. Their salts are used in dyeing.

_Thorium_, _cerium_, _lanthanum_ and _yttrium_, found in North Carolina,
Norway, Brazil and Ceylon, are also to be classified under this head.
Monazite, samarskite, thorite and other rare minerals contain these
elements. They are used in preparing the mantles for incandescent gas
lights.

=Silver=, the more common precious metal, is produced in greatest amount
in the Rocky Mountains and the Andes. The United States, Mexico,
Australia, Bolivia, Chili, Peru and Germany contribute nearly the entire
supply. Montana, Colorado, Nevada and Utah lead in silver production in
the United States. The ores are usually smelted and refined to purify
the metal.

_Argentiferous galena_ (lead ore) is the commonest ore of silver. The
amount of silver per ton varies greatly. Zinc and copper ores often
carry silver. Many sulphides of silver (argentite, pyrargyrite, etc.)
are found, as well as chlorides and bromides (cerargyrite and
bromyrite). _Chloride_ and _nitrate of silver_ are used in photography.

Silver is manufactured into innumerable articles for household use and
personal adornment. The cheapest articles are not solid (sterling) but
are electrically plated with a very thin coating of silver. Silver coins
form the bulk of the currency of the world, although in most countries
gold is the standard.

=Sodium= is the most important alkaline metal, and has a wide use.

_Salt_ (rock salt, sea salt, lake salt, halite or sodium chloride) is
the commonest natural compound of sodium. Important for food and in
chemical manufacture.

Rock salt is mined in Germany, Austria, Spain, England, Louisiana,
Kansas, India and other parts of the world. Obtained by evaporating salt
water from wells in England, Michigan, New York, Ohio and China, or by
evaporating salt water in the West Indies, Great Salt Lake, etc.

Besides its use for meat packing, curing fish, domestic purposes, etc.,
it is employed in silver refining, and the preparation of hydrochloric
acid, soda ash, carbonate of soda and other chemical products.

_Soda niter_ (nitrate of sodium) is a very easily soluble mineral. It is
found in quantity only in the deserts of northern Chili, and is exported
in large amounts to Europe and America for fertilizer and the
manufacture of nitric acid and other chemicals.

_Borax_ (hydrous sodium borate) occurs in nature in an impure form and
is prepared also from calcium borates. Borates are found in Tuscany,
Central Asia, California and Nevada, and in South America.

Borax and boracic acid are used in pottery manufacture, for the
preservation of meat, in dyeing and in medicine.

=Strontium= is found in Germany, Scotland, Texas and New York.
Strontianite (strontium carbonate) and celestite (strontium sulphate)
contain this element. Strontium salts are used in sugar refining and
making red fire.

=Sulphur= or brimstone is found in a pure state in volcanic regions or
associated with gypsum and limestone. Pyrite (sulphide of iron) is also
a source of sulphur compounds.

Sicily, Italy, Japan, Louisiana and Utah have mines of native sulphur,
which is used in manufacturing sulphuric acid, gunpowder, matches, as a
disinfectant, for bleaching and vulcanizing rubber.

Blue vitriol, green vitriol and alum are sulphates. Sulphur is imported
from Sicily and Italy.

=Thorium.= See rare metals.

=Tin= is less abundant than most of the common metals. The Malay
peninsula and nearby islands (Banca and Billiton) produce over half the
tin ore of the world. The remainder is mined in Bolivia, Australia,
Tasmania and Cornwall, England. Small deposits occur in the United
States.

Tin melts at a low temperature and is easily refined.

_Cassiterite_ (tin oxide) is the only important ore. This mineral is
commonly found as pebbles (stream tin) in gravel.

_Tinplate_ and alloys containing tin are of enormous importance in the
arts. Of these, _bronze_ is chief. _Gun metal_, _pewter_, _solder_,
_type metal_ and _britannia metal_ are other alloys. Salts of tin are
used in dyeing, glass making, etc.

Tinplate, used for tin cans, roofing and kitchen utensils, is made by
dipping sheet iron or steel in a bath of melted tin, thus covering it
with a thin layer of tin. Tinplate is manufactured in the United States
and imported from England. Tin metal is imported from England and
Straits Settlements.

=Tungsten.= See rare metals.

=Uranium.= See rare metals.

=Vanadium.= See rare metals.

=Zinc= is one of the most useful metals. Germany, United States and
Belgium supply most of the zinc. In this country, Missouri and Kansas
lead in zinc production.

_Sphalerite_ or blend (zinc sulphide) is the chief ore. Carbonates,
silicates and oxides of zinc are found. Crude zinc (_spelter_) is
distilled from roasted ore.

_Brass_, _German silver_ and other alloys contain zinc. _Galvanized
iron_ consists of a coating of zinc on sheet iron. _Zinc oxide_ (zinc
white) resembles white lead and is used in paints.

Used in electric batteries, making hydrogen, zinc etchings, etc. The
greatest amount of zinc is used in alloys and zinc compounds. Zinc and
zinc ores are both imported and exported by the United States, the
imports exceeding the exports. Zinc oxide is exported in larger amount
than any other form.

[Illustration: =HOW AND WHERE WE GET THE SALT FOR OUR FOOD=

=THE PRODUCTIVE CALIFORNIA SALT BEDS=

The United States produces one-fourth of the entire output of the world.
Salt was one of the first two great articles of international commerce
in the history of the world trade.]

[Illustration: =AN UNDERGROUND PASSAGE WAY THROUGH SOLID SALT=

The most wonderful salt mines in the world are those of Galicia, in
Austria. In this region there is a mass of salt estimated to measure 500
miles in length, 20 miles in breadth, and 1,200 feet in thickness.]


SCIENTIFIC TERMS USED IN THE EARTH SCIENCES

=Acanthodus= (_a-kan-thō´dus_).--Fossil fish, having thorn-like fins.

=Aërodynamics= (_ā-ẽr-ō-di-nam´iks_).--The science which treats of the
air and other gaseous bodies under the action of force, and of their
mechanical effects.

=Aërognosy= (_ā-ẽr-ŏg´nô-sy_̆).--The science which treats of the
properties of the air, and of the part it plays in nature.

=Aërolite= (_ā´ẽr-ô-līt_).--A stone, or metallic mass, which has fallen
to the earth from distant space; a meteorite; a meteoric stone.

=Aërology= (_ā-ẽr-ŏl´ôjy̆_).--That department of physics which treats of
the atmosphere.

=Aerometer= (_ā´ẽr-ŏm´ê-tẽr_).--An instrument for ascertaining the
weight or density of air and gases.

=Ammonites= (_am´mo-nitz_).--Fossil mollusks of spiral form, found in
all strata from the palæozoic to the chalk; very numerous, varying
greatly in size; all now extinct; sometimes called snakestones.

=Anemology= (_ăn-ĕ-mŏl´ô-jy̆_).--The science of the wind.

=Anemometer= (_ăn-ĕ-mŏm´ẽ-tẽr_).--An instrument for measuring the force
and velocity of the wind; a wind gauge.

=Attrition= (_ăt-trĭsh´ŭn_).--The act of rubbing together; friction; the
act of wearing by friction, or by rubbing substances together; abrasion.

=Aurora= (_aw-rō´rȧ_).--The rising light of the morning; the dawn of
day; the redness of the sky just before the sun rises.

=Aurora Borealis= (_bō´rẽ-ā´lĭs_), i. e., northern daybreak; popularly
called northern lights. A luminous meteoric phenomenon, visible only at
night, and supposed to be of electrical origin. This species of light
usually appears in streams, ascending toward the zenith from a dusky
line or bank, a few degrees above the northern horizon. Occasionally the
aurora appears as an arch of light across the heavens from east to west.
Sometimes it assumes a wavy appearance. They assume a variety of colors,
from a pale red or yellow to a deep red or blood color.

The =Aurora Australis= (_aws-trā´lĭs_) is a corresponding phenomenon in
the southern hemisphere, the streams of light ascending in the same
manner from near the southern horizon.

=Barometer= (_bȧ-rŏm´ẽ-tẽr_).--An instrument for determining the weight
or pressure of the atmosphere, and hence for judging of the probable
changes of weather, or for ascertaining the height of any ascent.

=Calamites= (_kal´a-mīts_ or _kal´a-mī´tēz_).--Reed-like plants, found
in coal.

=Carboniferous= (_kär´bŏn-ĭf´ẽr-ŭs_).--Producing or containing carbon or
coal.

=Conglomerate= (_kŏn-glŏm´ẽr-ât_).--Pudding stone, composed of gravel
and pebbles cemented together.

=Corona= (_kô-rō´nȧ_).--A circle, usually colored, seen in peculiar
states of the atmosphere around and close to a luminous body as the sun
or moon.

=Cosmogony= (_kŏs-mŏg´o-ny̆_).--The creation of the world or universe; a
theory or account of such creation.

=Cosmology= (_kŏz-mŏl´ô-jy̆_).--The science of the world or universe; or
a treatise relating to the structure and parts of the system of
creation, the elements of bodies, the modifications of material things,
the laws of motion, and the order and course of nature.

=Crystallography= (_krĭs´tal-lŏg´rȧ-fy̆_).--The science of
crystallization, teaching the system of forms among crystals, their
structure, and their methods of formation.

=Cyclone= (_sī´klōn_).--A violent storm, often of vast extent,
characterized by high winds rotating about a calm center of low
atmospheric pressure. This center moves onward, often with a velocity of
twenty or thirty miles an hour.

=Denudation= (_dĕn´û-dā´shŭn_ or _dē´nū-_).--The laying bare of rocks by
the washing away of the overlying earth, etc.; or the excavation and
removal of them by the action of running water.

=Deposit.=--A body of ore distinct from a ledge; pocket of gravel or pay
dirt.

=Diplacanthus= (_dip-lä-kăn´thus_).--A fish, belonging to Acanthodii,
known only by fossil remains in Old Red Sandstone.

=Drifts.=--Tunnels leading off from the main shaft, or from other
tunnels or levels, through and along the vein.

=Drift Matter.=--Earth, pebbles and bowlders that have been drifted by
water, and deposited over a country while submerged.

=Druse= (_drṳs_).--A cavity in a rock, having its interior surface
studded with crystals and sometimes filled with water.

=Elephas= (_el´e-fas_).--The Latin name for Elephant. The primitive
elephant was what is known as the Mammoth.

=Fata Morgana= (_fä´tȧ môr-gä´nȧ_).--A kind of mirage by which distant
objects appear inverted, distorted, displaced, or multiplied. It is
noticed particularly at the Straits of Messina, between Calabria and
Sicily, Italy.

=Fire-damp.=--An explosive carburetted hydrogen of coal mines.

=Fissures.=--Seams or crevices in rocks formed by volcanic or earthquake
action, and when filled subsequently by metal or metallic ores they
become fissure veins.

=Fog.=--Watery vapor condensed in the lower part of the atmosphere and
disturbing its transparency. It differs from cloud only in being near
the ground, and from mist in not approaching so nearly to fine rain.

=Geography= (_je-ŏg´rȧ-fy̆_).--The science which treats of the world and
its inhabitants; a description of the earth, or a portion of the earth,
including its structure, features, products, political divisions, and
the people by whom it is inhabited.

ASTRONOMICAL, or MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY treats of the earth as a planet,
of its shape, its size, its lines of latitude and longitude, its zones
and the phenomena due to the earth’s diurnal and annual motions.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY or PHYSIOGRAPHY treats of the conformation of the
earth’s surface, of the distribution of land and water, of minerals,
plants, animals, etc., and applies the principles of physics to the
explanation of the diversities of climate, productions, etc.

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY treats of the different countries into which the
earth is divided with regard to political and social institutions and
conditions.

=Geology= (_jē-ŏl´o-jy̆_).--The science which treats: (a) Of the
structure and mineral constitution of the globe; structural geology. (b)
Of its history as regards rocks, minerals, rivers, valleys, mountains,
climates, life, etc.; historical geology. (c) Of the causes and methods
by which its structure, features, changes, and conditions have been
produced; dynamical geology.

=Goniatites= (_gō-ni-a-tī´tēz_).--Fossil remains of Ammonites, many
species of which are found in Devonian and Carboniferous Limestone.

=Hail= (_hāl_).--Frozen rain, or particles of ice precipitated from the
clouds, where they are formed by the congelation of vapor. The separate
particles are called hailstones.

=Harmattan= (_här-măt´tan_).--A dry, hot wind, prevailing on the
Atlantic coast of Africa, in December, January, and February, blowing
from the interior or Sahara. It is usually accompanied by a haze which
obscures the sun.

=Hoarfrost= (_hōr´frŏst_).--The white particles formed by the
congelation of dew; white frost.

=Hydrography= (_hī-drŏg´rȧ-fy̆_).--The art of measuring and describing
the sea, lakes, rivers, and other waters, with their phenomena.

=Hygrometer= (_hī-grŏm´ê-tẽr_).--An instrument for measuring the degree
of moisture of the atmosphere.

=Ignis fatuus= (_ĭg´-nĭs făt´ûŭs_).--A phosphorescent light that
appears, in the night, over marshy grounds, supposed to be occasioned by
the decomposition of animal or vegetable substances, or by some
inflammable gas,--popularly called also Will-with-the-wisp, or
Will-o’-the-wisp, and Jack-with-a-lantern, or Jack-o’-lantern.

=Ichthyosaurus= (_ĭk-thē-ō-saw´rus_).--A large marine reptile, known
only by fossil vertebræ and other bones, found in oolite rocks.

=Labyrinthodon= (_lab-i-rin´thō-don_), or Mastodon. A large animal,
belonging to Amphibia, remains of which are found in Upper Trias rocks
and strata.

=Lepidodendron= (_lep-i-dō-den´dron_).--Coal-plants, belonging to the
Lycopods, of which very many remains are found in coal.

=Lepidosteus= (_lep-i-dŏs´te-us_).--Bony-pike fish, the fossil remains
of which are found in rocks and earth strata.

=Lightning= (_līt´nĭng_).--A discharge of atmospheric electricity,
accompanied by a vivid flash of light, commonly from one cloud to
another, sometimes from a cloud to the earth. The sound produced by the
electricity in passing rapidly through the atmosphere constitutes
thunder.

=Lithology= (_li-thŏl´ō-jy̆_).--The science which treats of rocks, as
regards their mineral constitution and classification, and their mode of
occurrence in nature.

=Lode= (_lōd_).--A metallic vein; a longitudinal fissure or chasm filled
with ore-bearing matter and having well-defined side walls; lode, lead,
vein and ledge are synonymous; a mineral vein in the rock.

=Mastodon= (_mas´tō-don_).--An extinct elephant-like mammal of America,
whose teeth have a nipple-like surface.

=Metallurgy= (_mĕt´al-ler-jy̆_).--The art of working metals,
comprehending the whole process of separating them from other matters in
the ore, smelting, refining and parting them; sometimes, in a narrower
sense, only the process of extracting metals from their ores.

=Meteorology= (_mĕ-tē-er-ŏl´o-jy̆_).--The science which treats of the
atmosphere and its phenomena, particularly of its variations of heat and
moisture, of its winds, storms, etc.

=Min´er-al´o-gy= (_mĭn-er-ăl´ō-jy_).--The science which treats of
minerals, and teaches how to describe, distinguish, and classify them.

=Mist= (_mĭst_).--Visible watery vapor suspended in the atmosphere, at
or near the surface of the earth; fog.

=Monsoon= (_mŏn-sōōn´_).--A wind blowing part of the year from one
direction, alternating with a wind from the opposite direction--a term
applied particularly to periodical winds of the Indian Ocean, which blow
from the southwest from the latter part of May to the middle of
September, and from the northeast from about the middle of October to
the middle of December.

=Oceanography= (_ō´shan-ŏg´rȧ-fy̆_).--A description of the ocean.

=Oceanology= (_ō´shan-ŏl´ô-jy̆_).--That branch of science which relates
to the ocean.

=Oreography= (_ō-rē-ŏg´rȧ-fy̆_).--The science of mountains; orography.

=Palæotherium= (_pā-lē-ō-thē´ri-um_).--A tapir-like mammal, having
canine teeth, known only by fossil remains found in Tertiary rocks.

=Pampero= (_pȧm-pâ´rô_).--A violent wind from the west or southwest,
which sweeps over the pampas of South America and the adjacent seas,
often doing great damage.

=Parhelion= (_pär-hēl´yŭn_ or _hē´lĭ-ŏn_).--A mock sun appearing in the
form of a bright light, sometimes near the sun, and tinged with colors
like the rainbow, and sometimes opposite to the sun. The latter is
usually called an _anthelion_. Often several mock suns appear at the
same time.

=Petrology= (_pē-trŏl´ô-jy̆_).--The science which is concerned with the
mineralogical and chemical composition of rocks, and with their
classification; lithology.

=Physiography= (_fiz-e-ŏg´rȧ-fy̆_).--The science which treats of the
earth’s exterior physical features, climate, life, etc., and of the
physical movements or changes on the earth’s surface, as the currents of
the atmosphere and ocean, the secular variations in heat, moisture,
magnetism, etc.; physical geography.

=Plesiosaurus= (_plē-zi-ō-saw´rus_).--An oolithic reptile with
crocodile-like head, known by fossil remains, chiefly vertebræ, found in
lias and oolitic rocks, named from its fossil remains being found near
those of the ichthyosaurus.

=Pneumatics= (_nû-măt´ĭks_).--That branch of science which treats of the
mechanical properties of air and other elastic fluids, as of their
weight, pressure, elasticity, etc.

=Pterodactyl= (_ter-ō-dak´tīl_).--Winged lizard: extinct reptile; fossil
remains found in Kentish chalk.

=Pyroscope= (_pĭr´ô-skōp_).--An instrument for measuring the intensity
of heat radiating from a fire, or the cooling influence of bodies. It is
a differential thermometer, having one bulb coated with gold or silver
leaf.

=Rainbow.=--A bow or arch exhibiting, in concentric bands, the several
colors of the spectrum, and formed in the part of the hemisphere
opposite to the sun by the refraction and reflection of the sun’s rays
in drops of falling rain. Besides the ordinary bow, called also primary
rainbow, which is formed by two refractions and one reflection, there is
also another often seen exterior to it, called the secondary rainbow,
concentric with the first, and separated from it by a small interval. It
is formed by two refractions and two reflections, is much fainter than
the primary bow, and has its colors arranged in the reverse order from
those of the latter.

=Seismology= (_sīs-mŏl´ô-jy̆_).--The science of earthquakes.

=Seismometer= (_sīs-mŏm´e-tẽr_).--An instrument for measuring the
direction, duration, and force of earthquakes and like concussions.

=Simoon= (_sĭ-mōōn´_).--A hot, dry, suffocating, dust-laden wind, that
blows occasionally in Arabia, Syria, and the neighboring countries,
generated by the extreme heat of the parched deserts or sandy plains.

=Sirocco= (_sĭ-rŏk´kô_).--An oppressive, relaxing wind from the Libyan
deserts, chiefly experienced in Italy, Malta, and Sicily.

=Sivatherium= (_siv-a-thē´ri-um_).--A large four-horned antelope, known
by fossil remains found in Pliocene rocks of Hindustan.

=Strophomena= (_strō-fŏm´ĕ-nä_).--A genus of shell-like animals similar
to the nautilus, found in numerous fossil forms in Lower Silurian and
the carboniferous strata.

=Tornado= (_tor-nā´dô_).--A violent whirling wind; specifically a
tempest distinguished by a rapid whirling and slow progressive motion,
usually accompanied with severe thunder, lightning, and torrents of
rain, and commonly of short duration and small breadth; a small cyclone.

=Typhoon= (_tï-fōōn´_).--A violent whirlwind; specifically, a violent
whirlwind occurring in the Chinese seas.

=Wind.=--Air naturally in motion with any degree of velocity; a current
of air.

=Zosterites= (_zos-ter-ī´tez_).--Sear-wracks: marine plants, resembling
sea-weeds, with small naked flowers, found at the bottom of the sea.



BOOK OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM


  REALMS OF LIFE UPON THE EARTH

  CHIEF DIVISIONS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM:

    (1) CEREALS, GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS

    (2) KITCHEN VEGETABLES

    (3) THE FRUIT TREES

    (4) FRUIT-BEARING SHRUBS AND PLANTS

    (5) FLOWERS AND OTHER ORNAMENTAL PLANTS

    (6) WILD FLOWERS AND FLOWERLESS PLANTS

    (7) TREES OF THE FOREST

    (8) FIBER AND COMMERCIAL PLANTS

    (9) POISONOUS PLANTS

   (10) SOME WONDERS OF PLANT LIFE

  BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

  SCIENTIFIC TERMS USED IN BOTANY, ILLUSTRATED

  WORLD MAP SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF PLANT LIFE

[Illustration: =MAP INDICATING THE DISTRIBUTION OF PLANT LIFE THROUGHOUT
THE WORLD=]


THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM


RELATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF PLANT AND ANIMAL LIFE

  Life in the world is represented by the _Vegetable_ and _Animal_
  kingdoms. Plants and animals, unlike minerals, grow from germs, and
  develop into individuals with definite forms and organs. After a
  limited existence they die, their species being perpetuated by seed
  or offspring. The _functions_ of plants and animals in nature are,
  however, entirely unlike. Plants are rooted in the soil; animals are
  free to move over the land, through the water or air. The plant,
  moreover, transforms the lifeless, inorganic elements (earth and
  air) into organic matter and thus prepares food for the animal. In
  its quiet, steady growth it gathers a store of force which the
  animal uses up in action. Thus the distribution of vegetation
  regulates that of animal life. Besides, vegetation clothes the
  surface of the land with that rich mantle of verdure and flowers
  which is its greatest ornament.

  All living things are termed _organisms_, and the science which
  takes account of them with special regard to their common
  characteristics is termed _Biology_, or Life-lore. The
  classification and life-history of plants are the objects of that
  part of biology known as _Botany_. That part similarly occupied with
  the study of animals is known as _Zoology_.

Throughout the entire realm of nature, in the _animal_ world as well as
in the _vegetable_, the development of life increases in energy, and in
the variety and perfection of the types, with the increasing intensity
of light and heat, from the poles to the equator.


TROPICAL LIFE

Within the tropics, under the stimulating rays of a vertical Sun, grow
the most dense and varied forests, the most expanded foliage, and the
largest and the most brilliant flowers. Here, also, are found the most
delicious fruits, the most powerful aromatics, the greatest variety of
plants capable of affording sustenance to man, and the largest number of
those which contribute to the luxuries of civilized life.

In the tropical regions, also, are found the greatest variety of land
animals; with the highest types, the greatest stature, the most intense
activity, and the keenest intelligence exhibited in the brute creation.


WHERE THE MOST POWERFUL ANIMALS ARE FOUND

This zone is the home of the gigantic elephant and giraffe; of the lion
and the tiger, the most powerful of all the beasts of prey; and of the
gorilla, chimpanzee, and ourang-outang, of all animals most resembling
men.

Here, also, are the ostrich, the largest and most powerful of birds; the
condor, surpassing in size all other birds of flight; and the
humming-birds of South America, the smallest of the feathered tribes,
unsurpassed in brilliancy of coloring, rapidity of motion, and grace of
form.

In the same zone are those enormous reptiles, the crocodile and the
boa-constrictor, with the hooded snakes and other serpents of most
deadly venom; and insects of all sizes in indescribable profusion.


LIFE IN THE TEMPERATE ZONES

In the Warm-Temperate Zone, though the Sun never reaches the zenith, yet
during the long summer his rays are almost vertical; while the winter is
so mild that snow and ice are of rare occurrence.

Here the vegetable world is less prodigal in species, and less luxuriant
in growth, than in the tropical regions; still, verdure is continuous
throughout the year, and fruits and flowers succeed each other almost
without interruption.

The animal world shows a similar, though less marked, decrease in the
exuberance of life. The higher orders are less numerous, the individuals
less gigantic and powerful; yet the antelopes, among the most graceful
of animals, and the camel, one of the most useful, especially
characterize this zone.


HOW THE LIFE OF THE TEMPERATE ZONE DIFFERS FROM THAT OF WARMER ZONES

In the Temperate Zone, farther from the tropics, and receiving the Sun’s
rays with greater obliquity, all the forms of vegetable growth are more
modest than in the preceding. The forests are less dense and varied, the
foliage is less luxuriant, and flowers of brilliant hues are confined
to shrubs and herbaceous plants.

Though useful plants are numerous, yet scarce a species is of value in
its spontaneous growth; and, above all, the long dormant season, when
the trees and shrubs are bare and apparently lifeless, stamps the
vegetation of this zone with an aspect of inferiority.

The animal world still shows a large number of noble species; yet there
are some orders which, like the plants, are dormant during the winter;
while many of the birds migrate to warmer climes. Associated with
deciduous forests, boundless fertile prairies, and arid steppes--are the
bear, the wolf, the lynx, the bison, and many species of elk and deer.


ORIGINAL HOME OF OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS

Here is the home of the horse, the ass, and many varieties of oxen,
sheep, and goats,--those animals which, domesticated by man, have
accompanied him to all climes, adapting themselves to all circumstances.
The American turkey, the European pheasant, and the Asiatic parents of
many of our domestic fowls, also belong to the temperate zone; together
with a multitude of song birds, whose sober plumage, contrasting so
gloomily with the brilliant colors of their neighbors of the tropics, is
compensated by the sweetness of their notes. Here, also, is the home of
the honey-bee, and of the silk-worm, almost the only insects directly
useful to man.


LIFE IN THE COLD ZONES

In these regions, where the sun is always low, and in winter is above
the horizon but a small part of the time, all nature becomes
increasingly monotonous. The conifers, with their stiff forms and sombre
hues, impart a dreary aspect even to the summer landscape; and, during
the long winter, all life seems suspended.

The animal world, however, is more rich and varied than the vegetable.

Here we meet the great moose and the brown bear, the beaver and other
rodents, in large numbers; the sable, the mink, the ermine, and a host
of other animals whose fine, soft furs form one of the main resources of
this inhospitable clime.

In the Arctic Zone--where the forests give place to dwarf trees, stunted
or creeping shrubs, mosses, and lichens--the reindeer, the musk-ox, and
the white bear are the only representatives of the larger land animals,
though the smaller furry tribes are still numerous.

The sea, however, more genial in its temperature than the land, swarms
with living creatures of innumerable species, among which are the
largest representatives of the animal kingdom. The whale, the walrus,
and the seal, inhabit the Arctic seas; with every grade of marine life,
down to the animalculæ, which are so numerous as to give their color to
great areas of sea-water; and water-fowl, without number, and of many
varieties, enlivens the icy shores.


CHIEF DIVISIONS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM

The great divisions of the science of plant life, or botany, are:
Structural Botany which treats of the gross anatomy of plants; Plant
Histology, of their minute anatomy; Plant Morphology, of the forms of
plants and their organs; Plant Physiology, of the functions of these
organs; Systematic Botany, of the relationship and classification of
plants; Geographical Botany, of the distribution of plants over the
surface of the globe; Paleobotany, of the vegetable life of past ages
and the successive appearance in the world of the great classes of
plants, as traced in their fossil remains; and Economic Botany, which
deals with the products of plants and their uses.

It is in the last division of the subject that our greatest practical
interest lies, and, consequently, it is best to reverse the general
order of treatment pursued by many botanists. Foremost in importance are
those plants grown for food, which form the great products of
_agriculture_, _gardening_ and _horticulture_. Scarcely less important
are those which yield fibers used for industrial purposes, such as
cotton, flax, jute and hemp; nor must we forget those producing
vegetable oils, rubber, and the large number of drugs so valuable to the
science of medicine in the alleviation of suffering.

(=See page 176 for scientific classification of the Vegetable or Plant
Kingdom.=)

[Illustration: =AN AUTUMN HARVEST OF BEAUTY AND PLENTY=]


_I. CEREALS, GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS_

Among all the plants in the world, the first place must be given to the
food-producing cereals upon which our very existence depends. The most
important among these are undoubtedly wheat, barley, oats, rye, rice,
Indian corn or maize, millets, sorghum and others less widely used. More
than one-half the whole population of the world subsists to a great
extent on rice, and the vital importance of wheat needs no
demonstration. For our present purposes the use of the word “cereal” is
extended to include buckwheat and other starch-yielding plants, but
these are not true cereals.


HOW OUR CEREALS WERE DEVELOPED

The cereals are members of a great family of the grasses which have been
cultivated by man from time immemorial. Originally, no doubt, they were
wild plants which attracted attention owing to the comparatively large
quantities of foodstuffs they yielded, the ease with which they could be
collected, and their edible qualities. Now, in the majority of cases,
the original wild forms are no longer known, and as is common with
plants cultivated in many lands and during long periods, innumerable
species and varieties have been evolved as the result of selection by
man of the forms which appeared desirable for one or other of their
qualities.


HOW THE WORD “CEREAL” ORIGINATED

Their very name--cereals or cerealia--indicates the great value attached
to them in early historic times. These are so named after the goddess
Ceres, as the Romans called her--Demeter of the Greeks--the patroness of
agriculture and all the fruits of the earth.


WHERE THE CEREALS GROW

In the temperate regions of the world wheat is the principal cereal
grown, and there are many different varieties suited to varying
conditions. As we go farther north, barley, oats and rye increase in
importance, and although they are grown for special purposes along with
wheat, it is important to note that they will thrive in countries and
under conditions not suited to wheat. Starting again from the temperate
zones and traveling north or south, as the case may be, we enter the
warmer countries where wheat cultivation is often associated with that
of rice, corn, sorghum, etc. In the tropics, however, wheat will not
thrive at low elevations, but rice, corn, sorghum and various millets
form the great cereal crops, their relative importance varying in
different countries.

The grasses proper grow upon our meadows, pastures, fields and in the
woods and are only used as food for cattle.


HOW THE BOTANIST DESCRIBES CEREALS AND GRASSES

The roots of most kinds of grasses are persistent; the stems are hollow
and knotty, and the leaves consist of sheaths and discs. Their flowers
are arranged either in spikes or panicles, and are essentially the same
in form as those of the herbs. In the interior there is an ovary, from
which project two pistils with feathery styles. Close to the ovary are
three stamens, with very long filaments and large anthers. These
internal organs are generally surrounded by two tender bracts called the
_paleæ_, and two harder outer bracts forming the _glumes_. In the
grasses also self-fertilization does not take place, the wind here
taking the place of the insects. Consequently the anthers are suspended
from long filaments, and contain a quantity of pollen. As the grasses do
not need to attract insects, their flowers are small with little color,
and have no scent; nor do they secrete honey. The fruit is enclosed in a
husk.

=Alfalfa= (_Medicago sativa_) is a cultivated hay and pasture plant,
yielding per annum, without reseeding, three to six or more cuttings of
hay, averaging a ton each and often much more, for an indefinite period.
It is the richest forage plant known, and while old in history is
comparatively new to the agriculture of North America.

Alfalfa thrives on all soils except those too wet or having too much
acidity. The former calls for drainage and the latter demands lime.
Besides its abundance of rich forage, the leaves of which approximate
the value of wheat bran in animal rations, it is highly prized as a soil
improver, as it restores and enriches the land in which it grows, and
improves extraordinarily the physical character of the soil. Its roots
reaching to great depths, make it drought-resistant; they also gather
much nitrogen from the air, and it yields assuredly whether the season
be wet or dry. It has been demonstrated the greatest fertilizing and
soil renovating plant known to agriculture.

For hay it is cut whenever the first blossoms appear or when sprouts for
a new growth from the root crowns are discovered, which in some regions
is every month in the year. It is relished by all live stock, and is
particularly valuable in dairy husbandry, affording at lowest cost
important ingredients of the well balanced feeding ration. As pasturage
it is excellent for hogs and horses, but ruminants, such as cattle and
sheep are not safely grazed upon it, owing to its liability to cause
bloat, which if not promptly treated may bring speedy death.

Alfalfa requires a carefully prepared seedbed, with a thoroughly fine,
smooth surface, as the seeds are small. From fifteen to twenty pounds of
seed per acre are generally sown, although often much more, or less,
either with drills or broadcast, preferably in early fall and without a
nurse crop. Where the winters are long or severe from two to ten tons of
hay per acre in a season, and from two to seven bushels of seed.

=Blue-Grass= (_Poa pratensis_), frequently designated Kentucky Blue
Grass, is a perennial, and the most highly prized pasture grass, but is
not a profitable hay plant. Its growth has a wider range than timothy.
It is sown in autumn or spring, the former being preferable, as it can
endure cold better than heat, and thrives rather best when partially
shaded. One approved way is to sow the seed on snow, where the ground is
free from weeds. It is broadcasted at the rate of about one bushel of
seed in the chaff to the acre. Blue-grass is an extremely aggressive and
persistent plant voluntarily spreading among and displacing others where
it has not been sown. Its taking possession of and thriving on land that
has not been cultivated is not uncommon. The seed weighs fourteen pounds
to the bushel.

ENGLISH BLUE-GRASS or Meadow Fescue (_Fescuta elatior_) is a valuable
and hardy grass either for mowing or pasture. It thrives on soils not
too dry, and being long lived, is especially valuable for permanent
pastures. It is sown either in the spring or fall, by drilling or
broadcasting from one to three pecks per acre if for seed, and three
pecks to an acre if for pasture. It is harvested and handled much the
same as wheat. Kansas produces nearly seventy-five per cent of the seed
raised in America and ninety per cent of the total for the United States
is exported, Germany being the largest taker. This grass is very
nutritious and grazing animals are fond of it. A bushel of seed weighs
twenty-two pounds, and the yield of seed per acre is from five to
fifteen bushels.

=Brome-grass= (_Bromus inermis_) is a vigorous, hardy perennial pasture
and hay plant, with strong, creeping rootstocks, and is valuable for dry
regions. It is not adapted to a rotation, as its sod becomes too matted
and tough for comfortable cultivation. Owing to this tendency, after
three or four years of hay cropping its better use is for pasture. It
yields luxuriantly, is rich in flesh-forming elements, and much relished
by farm animals. It is sown broadcast, in spring or fall, eighteen to
twenty pounds of seed to the acre. The seed is chaffy and weighs but
fourteen pounds per bushel.

=Barley= is grown chiefly in the states of Minnesota, California,
Wisconsin, North and South Dakota, in the order named, these states
raising seventy-five per cent of the output grown in the United States.
It is used as food for live stock, and as an article of commerce is in
demand principally for the making of malt in brewing beer, but in
California and other western states, where Indian corn does not
flourish, barley is used as a substitute grain for horses and mules.
About two bushels to the acre are sown in the spring, with a drill or a
broadcast seeder. It is admirably adapted as a nurse crop, as it stands
up well and does not shade the ground so much as many other plants.

Barley for malting should be cut before fully ripe and put in
well-capped shocks to cure; the price paid is largely governed by the
color acquired in curing, which should be bright. A bushel weighs
forty-eight pounds, and the yield is from twenty-five to forty bushels
per acre.

=Buckwheat= (_Fagopyrum esculentum_) is a grain of minor importance, its
flour being used as human food, mostly in the form of griddle cakes. The
plant is esteemed for plowing under in summer, to supply humus, and its
blossoms for the honey bee. Most of it is grown in New York and
Pennsylvania, and it does well in soils too poor for most other crops.
It is sensitive to frost, and used as a sort of catch crop, sown
generally about the beginning of July, broadcast. Forty bushels,
weighing forty-eight pounds per bushel, is a maximum yield.

=Clover= (_Trifolium pratense_). In the states east of the Missouri
river _red clover_ is highly esteemed. It has much the same qualities as
alfalfa, except it is a biennial, enduring but two years without
re-seeding and at best gives two cuttings of hay per year, aggregating
two to three tons. It is from the second cutting that seed is usually
saved. Four quarts of seed is a common quantity to sow per acre. Red
clover makes excellent hay, except for horses. Its seed, like that of
alfalfa, weighs sixty pounds per bushel, and its yield is from one to
five bushels per acre.

WHITE CLOVER (_Trifolium repens_) is a very useful pasture and honey
plant, but is not used for hay. It spreads rapidly, and is widely used
for sowing with other pasture grasses.

ALSIKE CLOVER (_Trifolium hybridum_) is largely sown on lands not well
adapted to red clover, where land is either too wet or too dry for the
latter, and it does not require so sweet a soil.

[Illustration: =THE COSTLIEST EARS OF CORN IN THE WORLD=

The champion ten ears of corn shown in the illustration average ten and
one-half inches in length and seven and three-quarters in circumference,
each ear carrying twenty rows of kernels, the depth of the kernels being
three fourths of an inch, and the average weight of each ear was twenty
ounces. They were sold at the rate of $2,345 per bushel or $335 for the
ten ears. The champion single ear of corn was sold at the Omaha National
Corn Show for $85.]

=Corn= (_Zea mays_). Indian corn, or maize is a product native to
America, an annual, and is the most important member of the grass
family. It is America’s foremost cereal, with a wider adaptability than
any other, and is grown in every state and territory. The temperate
climate of the Central States is most favorable to it, and Illinois,
Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri, Indiana, Kansas and Ohio are the leading
states in its planting. The bulk of the world’s production of maize is
grown in this country, although it is an important crop in Hungary,
Italy, Egypt, South Africa, and other parts of the world.

ECONOMIC USES.--Corn is of primary importance as a food for live stock,
enormous quantities being used to fatten cattle and swine.

The manufacture of starch and other products from corn is an industry of
increasing magnitude. The chief starch derivatives are dextrine and
glucose or grape sugar (used in brewing beer and as a substitute for
true sugar).

Corn oil may be called a by-product in starch manufacture, yet the
annual value of corn oil is greater than that of cornstarch produced in
the United States. It is used in soap and paints. Vulcanized by heating
with sulphur, it forms a widely used adulterant and substitute for
rubber.

Among the dozens of useful products made from corn are corn meal, corn
grits, hominy, breakfast foods, beer, whisky, alcohol, cologne spirits,
cornstarch, dextrine, glucose, grape sugar, corn sirup, corn oil, soap,
rubber substitute and cattle foods.

A special variety of corn is raised to make cob pipes. Compressed corn
pith is packed between the double hulls of warships. Corn husks are used
in mattresses and paper is made in very limited amount from the leaves
and stalks. Large amounts of popcorn, plain and candied, are eaten in
the United States.

METHODS OF CULTIVATION.--Owing to its widespread growing, the methods of
corn culture vary greatly, and no rigid rules can be laid down for all
conditions. For maximum results the cornfield must be rich in humus, its
soil finely pulverized, mellow and well drained. Many successful growers
in the so-called corn states find these conditions best assured by
plowing deeply in the fall, turning under liberal quantities of organic
matter such as stable and barnyard manure and leaving the subsoil
upturned to benefit from the action of the elements during winter,
following with the disk harrow or other like implement in the spring.
Planting is done when the soil is thoroughly warmed and when danger of
frost is past.

There are two methods of planting commonly practiced, one by drilling or
dropping the seed (three or four grains) in hills with a machine drawn
by horses and completing two rows at once. The other is planting with an
implement known as a lister, dropping and covering one grain in a place
in the bottom of a furrow, at intervals of eight to twelve inches. The
latter method is quite extensively followed in the more western of the
corn states, such as Kansas, Oklahoma and Nebraska. The lister is a plow
and planter combined, with moldboards at once turning the soil to the
right and left, opening a furrow, dropping and covering the seed at the
same time, economizing labor, time and expense. Corn is planted about
two inches deep, and if in hills or rows generally three and one-half
feet apart each way. A bushel of fifty-six pounds of seed suffices for
planting nearly eight acres. For soiling, forage or ensiling it is
planted more thickly.

Cultivation, with horse-drawn cultivators, cleaning one row at a time,
and by some implements two rows, repeated three or four times in a
season, is given to kill weeds, aid in the retention of moisture, and
aerate the soil. This begins in many instances before the plants appear,
and often in the earlier stages is done with a harrow and later by using
the cultivator, upon which the operator usually rides.

HARVESTING, done after the grains have become hardened is by cutting the
stalks from the hills where grown, by hand or machinery, and standing
them in large shocks to be husked later, or, husking the ears directly
from the stalks without cutting or shocking. No machine equal to human
hands has yet been invented for husking corn. The yield ranges from
twenty-five to one hundred bushels of sixty pounds, shelled, or seventy
pounds unshelled, per acre. The stalks and husks, whether harvested or
not are used as food for live stock, and somewhat in manufactures.

=Emmer.= See Spelt.

=Johnson Grass= (_Sorghum halapense_) is a coarse perennial, most
extensively grown in the South or the Gulf States, for hay. It spreads
so persistently and is so difficult to eradicate that its growing is
frowned upon by most of the best authorities. One bushel of seed, or
thirty-five pounds per acre is about the quantity sown. It is propagated
by roots also. Never plant Johnson grass with the expectation of
destroying it.

=Millet= (_Panicum miliaceum_) is a native of the East Indies, and is
about three feet high; each panicle contains five to six hundred grains.
Hungarian grass is one of the most common grown for hay and grain. In
the United States they are principally grown for forage. It is a general
rule to sow after corn planting has been done but they may be safely
sown considerably later, as a catch crop when the regular hay crop is
short or a probable failure. Millets are excellent for ensilage, and a
succession of cuttings for that purpose or for soiling can be easily
secured by sowing at intervals of two or three weeks from early May to
late July. The seed is sown broadcast or with grain drills, mostly
broadcast, at the rate of two to three pecks per acre, for hay and
somewhat less for seed. The hay is harvested and handled after the
manner of other hay crops, and the seed crop as that of other small
grains. Well drained, rich, warm, loam soils are preferable for millet,
and it does not prosper on thin or poor land. A crop of millet leaves
the soil where it grew in a delightful condition of tilth. Its yield of
seed is from twenty to forty bushels per acre.

=Oats= (_Avena sativa_) have a broad panicle; the individual ears are
two-rowed, with and without beards. Another much-cultivated species are
the bearded oats (_A. orientalis_). The greater portion of the oats crop
of the United States is grown in the north central states, more than
one-half in the six states of Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin,
Nebraska and Ohio, ranking in order named. Russia is also a large
producer and it is cultivated throughout the temperate parts of the
civilized world. The yield per acre ranges from twenty-five to one
hundred bushels, weighing thirty-two pounds. Oats thrives best in cool
weather with abundant moisture, and in the principal oats territory
should be sown as early as possible in the spring--earlier than any
other spring grain. The ground for oats should be plowed, but it is not
uncommon to merely disk harrow the land before sowing. If the latter,
about four bushels is sown to the acre, broadcast or drilled, but on
well prepared ground ten to twelve pecks of clean, graded seed is
sufficient. In the main the oats crop is harvested, stacked and threshed
as other small grains.

Oats is used chiefly for horse feed, and in lesser amounts for making
oatmeal and breakfast foods.

The manufacture of oatmeal is of relatively small importance since the
more nourishing products of wheat are increasingly used.

=Orchard Grass= (_Dactylis glomerata_) is a hardy, nutritious perennial,
growing two to five feet high, that does well in either shade or
sunshine. It flourishes in nearly every state between the Mississippi
River and the Rocky Mountains, and is profitably grown in all the states
east of the Mississippi River lying between thirty-five degrees and
forty-seven degrees north latitude, but is partial to a rich soil. Two
to three bushels of seed are sown to the acre, from about the middle of
March to the middle of April. It provides either hay or pasturage, and
is prized for the latter, as “it comes early and stays late.”

=Rape= (_Brassica napus_) is a valuable farm crop, supplies an abundance
of succulent green food in a short time, for soiling or pasture,
especially for sheep and swine, being ready to use ordinarily six weeks
after sowing, and is prized chiefly as a catch crop. Three pounds of
seed per acre sown in rows thirty inches apart is customary, and the
favorite is the Dwarf Essex.

=Redtop=, or Herd’s Grass (_Agrostis alba_) is a meadow grass and also
one of the best pasture plants. It prospers on land where blue-grass,
timothy and clover are not thrifty. It is most at home in a moist soil,
flourishing in swampy places unfit for almost any other useful grass,
and it also has ability to withstand severe drought. On thin soil it
makes excellent pasture, but yields lightly of hay. It may be sown in
the fall or spring, alone, or with a nurse crop. For meadow, it is best
sown alone, using one bushel of seed in the chaff, or half as much if
winnowed. A bushel of recleaned seed weighs thirty-five pounds.

=Rice= (_Oryza sativa_) is grown in nearly all the warmer countries of
the earth, and forms the daily food of many millions of people. It is
estimated that one-third of the people of the world live principally on
rice.

There are two general varieties--the mountain rice and the marsh rice,
the latter being the most cultivated. It is usually grown in swampy land
or else on irrigated fields. In most countries rice is grown in the most
primitive fashion. Immense irrigating plants and modern agricultural
machinery make possible the large production in parts of the United
States.

It is the chief crop in southeastern Asia, from India through
Indo-China, a great part of China, southern Japan and many islands of
the Pacific. Rice of excellent quality is raised in Texas, Louisiana and
South Carolina, and an amount about equal to the production of this
country is imported from eastern Asia.

ECONOMIC USES.--Rough rice or paddy (rice in the hull) is first hulled
by machinery and then the grains are polished or whitened. The rice
polish, which consists of the powdered outer coats, is a very nourishing
cattle food. Saké, the national drink of Japan, is a weak alcoholic
liquor brewed from rice. Rice straw is of enormous use in Asia, being
employed for hundreds of purposes, some of them as unexpected as the
making of bags, ropes and sandals. Rough rice and clean rice are the
common commercial articles.

=Rye= (_Secale cereale_) is cultivated in all northern countries. The
stalk grows up to six feet, and the ears are double-rowed with a long
beard. The grain is dark green and very mealy, and furnishes a good
bread. It is cultivated in the cold climates of northern Europe,
especially in Russia. Only small amounts are grown in the United States.

The leading rye states, in order of yields, are Pennsylvania, Michigan,
Wisconsin, New York and Minnesota, which together raised nearly
two-thirds of the crop.

It is usually sown at the same time as winter wheat, or earlier, one and
a half to two bushels of seed per acre, and its habits and treatment are
essentially the same. Its yield per acre is from twenty to fifty
bushels, weighing fifty-six pounds. It is noted for its ability to
thrive and yield fairly on soils too poor for the more important
cereals. Rye is used for breadmaking, live stock food, and in the
manufacture of malt and alcoholic beverages. It is the chief breadstuff
in parts of Russia, Scandinavia and Germany. It also furnishes valuable
pasturage late in the fall and early spring, for which it is extensively
sown where early tame grasses do not prosper. Its straw is in
considerable demand for various uses, such as the making of paper,
filling horse collars, for packing and otherwise.

=Sugar-Cane= (_Saccharum officinarium_), a tree-like grass, grows nine
to fifteen feet high, and contains in its pith a sweet sap, from which
our raw sugar is obtained. The sugar-cane is a native of the East
Indies, but it is now grown in India, Cuba, Hawaii, Java, Brazil,
Mauritius, Louisiana and other parts of the tropics and subtropics.
India’s large production is consumed locally and enters little into
export trade. Louisiana produces all made in the United States, except
ten thousand to fifteen thousand tons, annually, from Texas. Cane for
molasses and sirup is grown more or less in all of the Gulf Coast
states.

METHOD OF CULTIVATION.--It requires a fertile soil, rich in humus. Sandy
and clay loams are both good, but alluvial soils are best. In preparing
for sugar cane the soil is thrown up by plows in beds six to seven feet
wide. In planting, furrows are opened, and in these the cane stalks,
one, two or three are laid side by side, covering by plows. It is
cultivated largely after the manner of corn, care being taken to leave
the rows well ridged up by the last cultivation, to facilitate drainage.
The quantity of cane required for planting an acre ranges from four to
six tons. Two and sometimes three crops or cuttings are had from one
planting. Yields of forty to forty-five tons of stripped cane per acre
are not uncommon, although half those quantities are considered
creditable averages for large plantations.

MANUFACTURE.--After harvesting, sugar cane is carried (usually by rail)
promptly to the mill, where the juice is pressed out. Modern mills have
nine rollers, arranged in three sets. The trash, or bagasse, is almost
dry when it leaves the last rollers and is used as fuel to run the mill.
The juice is boiled down, generally in vacuum pans heated by steam, and
the sugar crystals which form are separated from the molasses in
centrifugals.

PRODUCTS.--Raw cane sugar, brown to yellowish in color, produced by
evaporation of the juice in open pans (muscovados), and crystals from
vacuum pans are both important commercially. White sugar, granulated,
loaf and pulverized, as commonly sold, is more nearly chemically pure
than most other articles of commerce. Molasses, from cane juice boiled
in open pans, is palatable for human food, and, like all cane molasses,
is fermented and distilled to make rum.

=Sorghum= is a cultivated grass of many varieties (_Panicum_, _Setaria_,
_Andropogon_, etc.) Guinea corn, kaffir corn, broom corn and other names
are employed to distinguish the different kinds. They may, however, be
divided into two classes: the _saccharine_ or sweet sorghums and the
_non-saccharine_. The sweet sorghums are grown for making sirup, but
principally for forage and hay, and yield heavily, from five to fifteen
tons per acre. The seed being somewhat bitter is not entirely relished
by animals, but it finds a ready market for seeding purposes. For hay
about a bushel of seed is sown to the acre, and for fodder and seed
about ten pounds per acre is planted in rows and cultivated.

KAFFIR CORN is by far the most valuable of the non-saccharine sorghums.
Its grain, of which it yields from thirty to sixty bushels per acre, has
a feeding value approximating that of Indian corn, and its forage after
the seed heads have been removed is valuable feed for live stock.

MILO is one of the non-saccharine sorghums especially adapted to dry
regions, and the most successful summer grain crop for the southern half
of the plains country. It does not rank with the sweet sorghums and
Kaffir corn as forage, being principally valued for its seed, which
makes a satisfactory substitute for Indian corn.

JERUSALEM CORN is also a non-saccharine sorghum. It is cultivated mostly
in the cooler climates of the dry regions. It will mature in a short
season, and is quite productive of seed, but its fodder yield is light.

BROOM-CORN, a non-saccharine sorghum, is grown only for its brush for
making brooms. It is a hardy plant, withstanding dry weather well, and
is grown chiefly in Oklahoma, Illinois and Kansas. There are two
varieties--the Standard and Dwarf, the former growing taller and
producing the longer brush.

In adaptability sorghums cover about as wide a range of soils and
climate as corn, and are noted for their drought-resisting powers.
Kaffir corn is especially adapted to hot, dry and semi-arid portions of
the West, where corn is uncertain, and there it is regarded with
increasing appreciation.

In some places the juice of sorghum is boiled down to make sirup or
sugar. Common brooms are made of the tops of the Broom-corn.

=Spelt= (_Triticum Spelta_) is chiefly cultivated in south Germany, but
is also grown in a small way in some of our northwestern states. It is
sown in both fall and spring, dealt with the same as other wheats, and
some authorities recommend it as a very hardy drought-resistant grain
for semi-arid regions. About seven pecks of seed are sown to the acre,
and the yield is from twenty-five to sixty bushels per acre. The small
ears are arranged on a brittle stalk, and consist of three or four
blooms, of which, as a rule, only two are fruitful. Spelt is, generally,
not bearded. The corn furnishes a white bread. When unripe, it is
manufactured into a soup, which is highly esteemed.

=Timothy= (_Phleum pratense_) is a popular and most widely used hay
plant in America, and also extensively seeded with other grasses for
pasture, prospering best in moist loams. It yields the year following
its sowing, grows from one and a half to four feet high, and twelve to
fifteen pounds of seed are sown per acre. The chief timothy region is
the northern half of the United States, east of the 100th meridian,
where it is usually sown in the fall with winter wheat, or in the spring
with oats. Forty-five pounds of seed make a bushel.

=Wheat= (_Triticum vulgare_), does not grow as high as the rye, but has
a thicker stalk and thicker ears, which are composed of several small
ears. In each little ear there are generally four seeds. There are, as a
rule, no beards; but, on the other hand, there is often a short spur at
the top of the ears. It grows in temperate climates, the largest crops
being raised in United States (especially in Minnesota, North Dakota,
Ohio, South Dakota and Kansas); Central Europe (Russia, France,
Austria-Hungary and Italy); India, Argentina, Canada and Australia. The
area of wheat production is steadily increasing and wheat raising has
become an important industry in newly developed countries, such as parts
of British America, West Australia and Manchuria.

CULTIVATION.--The soil conditions in the Middle West are most favorable
for giving quality. Its rich prairies contain large amounts of decaying
vegetable matter, and because of the lime and alkaline substances in
these soils, the elements of plant food are readily available,
particularly the nitrogen in the soil, that contributes so largely to
the glutinous character of the wheat.

Wheat is more than ordinarily adapted to machine farming and the
invention of the successful reaper was largely responsible for the rapid
increase of wheat acreage in America. In many parts of the wheat region
immense plows drawn by traction engines and turning six to twelve and
more furrows are employed. In other portions where operations are large
many fields are plowed only once in two or three years. For various
reasons, among which may be mentioned the control of weeds and the
conserving of moisture in the soil, early plowing for winter wheat is
preferable, and where the rainfall is scant very satisfactory conditions
are obtained by stirring the surface soil with disc harrows only.

The average quantity of seed sown per acre is between four and five
pecks, varying with the quality, the locality, method and time of
seeding and the whim of the sower. The yield ranges from ten to sixty
bushels per acre, the bushel weighing sixty pounds.

Wheat is mostly sown with drills, the old method of sowing broadcast
having been mostly abandoned. By drilling a more even distribution and
covering of the seed, and a better stand and yield of grain may be
confidently expected.

In harvesting small areas the self-binding reaping machine is popular.
This cuts the standing grain and binds it in sheaves of convenient size
which are stood in shocks of three or four dozen bundles each, whence it
is either threshed direct or put in stacks for threshing at a more
convenient season. On larger areas and especially where the wheat is
quite ripe, the header is commonly and widely used. This clips off the
heads of grain, and elevates them into large receptacles called barges,
set on wagons, leaving the straw standing. Usually when headed the grain
is put directly into stacks, and threshed at convenience.

ECONOMIC PRODUCTS.--Its commercial varieties, hard, soft, red, white,
etc., differ in percentage of starch and gluten.

The whole grain is ground into graham flour, made into breakfast foods
and used in brewing.

From parts of the grain are prepared whole wheat flour, white flour,
middlings, bran, wheat grits, wheat starch, macaroni, spaghetti, etc.

Wheatflour may be said to be the standard foodstuff of modern civilized
man.

Macaroni is made from special varieties of hard, glutinous wheat.

Wheat straw is plaited into braids (Leghorn, etc.) for hat making, and
is used like the straw from other grains for packing material and as
bedding for animals.

Straw braids come largely from Italy, China and Japan.

The principal countries exporting wheat are United States, Russia,
Argentina, Canada, Roumania, India and Australia.


_II. KITCHEN VEGETABLES_

  Among the commercial products of the world, vegetables are a most
  important item, and their value as foodstuffs needs no emphasizing.
  The inhabitants of the world could subsist without animal-flesh,
  could scarcely subsist entirely on cereals, but they most certainly
  could not subsist without vegetables. Practically every nation,
  savage and civilized alike, cultivates a few plants for use as
  vegetables. The vegetables we know and prize most are one and all
  the result of long cultivation, the origin of most being lost in
  antiquity. The world has been ransacked, and for the vegetables
  cultivated in America nearly every country under the sun has been
  laid under contribution.

=Asparagus= (_Asparagus officinalis_). The common Asparagus is a native
of Great Britain, Russia and Poland. It is one of the oldest as well as
one of the most delicious of our garden vegetables. It was cultivated in
the time of Cato the Elder, 200 B. C.; and Pliny mentions a sort that
grew in his time near Ravenna, of which three heads would weigh a pound.
As many of our best gardeners contend, adaptation of soil, together with
thorough cultivation, alone explains the difference in this vegetable,
as offered in our markets or seen in our gardens.

=Bean= (_Phaseolus vulgaris_) is cultivated in many countries for the
sake of its seed and husks. By cultivation many varieties have been
produced, of which the following are the best known: BROAD BEAN, an
important article of food in Europe and western Asia, and valuable
forage plant, grown in gardens and as a field crop. All species of the
bean have a very high food value; are relatively cheap in price, but
much less easily digested than cereals. LIMA BEAN, widely cultivated in
tropical Africa, sparingly in temperate regions. Production in the
United States most extensive in California. NAVY or KIDNEY BEAN,
extensively grown in the United States, over one hundred and fifty
varieties of which are in cultivation as a garden vegetable, “string
beans,” fodder and for food. The closely related “frijole” is
universally grown in Mexico and Spanish American countries where it
ranks next to maize as a staple food. SOY BEAN, the common bean of China
and Japan is grown in immense quantities. Various preparations form a
part of the daily food. It is now grown in Europe and southern and
southwestern United States as forage and soiling crop.

[Illustration: =NEWEST VEGETABLES GROWN IN AMERICAN GARDENS=

=UDO=--This fine salad vegetable comes from Japan, is similar to
asparagus, and much easier to grow. It has a fresh taste like lettuce
with an agreeable flavor. There are numerous ways of serving it, but it
is possibly best simply boiled and seasoned like asparagus. It will grow
in any soil suitable for asparagus.]

[Illustration: =THE CHAYOTE=, or Vegetable Pear, is large, green and
pear-shaped, with a texture somewhat like a squash, and a flavor more
delicate than a cucumber. It is grown on lowlands near the coast, in a
moderately warm climate. Its keeping qualities are remarkable, making it
an excellent winter vegetable. Both roots and stalks are also edible.]

[Illustration: =THE BUR ARTICHOKE=, long imported from France, may now
be successfully grown in this country. It is used like the cauliflower
in many ways but commands a higher price. The scalelike leaves make a
delicious salad when pulled apart after boiling, and may be served on
lettuce with either mayonnaise or French dressing.]

[Illustration: =THE PETSAI=, or Odorless Cabbage, is much superior to
the ordinary cabbage, and is wholly without disagreeable odor. It does
not closely resemble cabbage in appearance; it is rather tall than
squatty, and the leaves cluster around the stalk compactly. It requires
cultivation similar to cabbage but is not transplanted. It is served
after the fashion of cabbage.]

=Brussels Sprouts=, or Bud-bearing Cabbage (_B. oleracea bullata minor_)
originated in Belgium, and has been cultivated around Brussels from time
immemorial, although it is only within the last fifty years that it has
become generally known in this country. It is so named on account of its
peculiar habit, producing a bud-like cluster of leaves in the axil of
each leaf from the base to the top of the stem. These buds or sprouts
are the parts of the plant that are eaten, and are highly esteemed for
their delicate flavor and wholesome quality. Brussels sprouts is one of
the hardiest of green winter vegetables. As a rule, the shorter-stemmed
strains have the largest and most compact sprouts, and are consequently
the most favored. As regards cultivation, the plant, like all of the
cabbage tribe, requires deep, rich soil to bring it to fullest
perfection.

=Cabbage= (_Brassica oleraceæ_) is found in a wild state in various
parts of Europe and in southern England, always on maritime cliffs. It
is a biennial, with fleshy lobed leaves covered with a glaucous bloom;
altogether so different in form and appearance from the cabbage of our
gardens that few would believe it could possibly have been the parent of
so varied a progeny as are comprised in the Savoy, Brussels Sprouts,
Cauliflower, Broccoli and other numerous varieties. Over one hundred
fifty varieties are enumerated. The common or cultivated cabbage is well
known, and from a very early period has been a favorite culinary
vegetable in almost daily use throughout the civilized world.

=Carrot= (_Daucus_) of which there are about twenty species are mostly
natives of the Mediterranean countries. The common carrot is a biennial
plant and is universally cultivated for the sake of its root. In all
varieties of the wild plant this is slender, woody and of a very strong
flavor; and that of the cultivated variety is much thicker and more
fleshy, much milder in its flavor and qualities. Its color is generally
red, but sometimes orange or yellowish white.

=Cauliflower= (_B. oleracea botrytis cauliflora_) is of great antiquity,
but its origin is unknown, although it is usually ascribed to Italy. To
the English and Dutch gardeners we are chiefly indebted for the
perfection it has attained. Heads of immense size are now grown for the
market. It is by no means uncommon to see a head perfectly sound and
smooth, fully ten inches in diameter, and, contrary to the usual rule,
size is not obtained at the expense of quality, the larger, if differing
at all, being more tender and delicious. The varieties of the
Cauliflower are numerous.

=Celery= (_Apium graveolens_). The plant is hardy, and is largely
cultivated in the United States, Canada and Europe. In cultivation,
however, abundant nutrition has greatly mollified its properties, and
two principal forms have arisen. The first sort is the common celery,
where the familiar long blanched succulent stalks are produced by
transplanting the seedlings into richly manured trenches, which are
filled up as the plants grow, and finally raised into ridges over which
little more than the tops of the leaves appear; and a supply is thus
insured throughout the whole winter. The other form is the turnip-rooted
celery, or celeriac.

=Cucumber= (_Cucumis sativus_). The common cucumber is distinguished by
heart-shaped leaves, which are rough with hairs approaching to bristles,
and oblong fruit. It is a native of the middle and south of Asia, and
has been cultivated from the earliest times. Its fruit forms an
important article of food in its native regions, the south of Europe,
etc., and an esteemed delicacy in colder countries, where it is
produced by the aid of artificial heat. Many varieties are in
cultivation, with fruit from four inches to two feet long, rough,
smooth, etc.

VEGETABLE MARROW (_Cucurbita ovifera_) is closely allied to the
cucumber, and is supposed to have been originally brought from Persia.
Like the cucumber it is a tender annual, but succeeds out of doors in
summer in this country.

Many other members of the cucumber family are cultivated as esculents,
notably in the warmer parts of the world. Of these the chief are
Pumpkins, Melon Pumpkin, Water Melon, Chocho, Bottle Gourd, Squash.

=Egg-plant= (_Solanum melongena_). The egg-like fruit known as
egg-apple, etc., is a favorite article of food in the East Indies, and
has thence been introduced to most warm countries. It varies in size
from that of a hen’s egg to that of a swan’s egg, in color from white or
yellow to violet. Egg-plants are much grown in the United States, where
“Jew’s-apple” is one of the names for the fruit.

=Kale=, or Borecole (_B. oleracea acephala_) is distinguished by its
leaves being beautifully cut and curled, of a green or purple color, or
variegated with red, green, and yellow, never closing so as to form a
heart, nor producing edible flower heads like a Cauliflower. Its leaves
and tender shoots are not only edible but form one of the most useful
green vegetables.

=Lentils= (_Ervum Lens_), a slender plant supposed to be native of
Western Asia, Greece and Italy. The Lentil was introduced into Egypt as
a cultivated plant at an early date, and from this center spread east
and west. It is a weak, straggling plant, rarely exceeding eighteen
inches high, often much more dwarfed, having pinnate leaves terminating
in tendrils. The flowers are white, lilac, or pale blue, small and
formed like those of a pea. There are three varieties of lentil
recognized in the countries in which it is cultivated: the small brown,
which is the lightest flavored and the best esteemed for soups and
haricots; the yellow variety, which is slightly larger; and the lentil
of Provence, France, which has seeds as large as a small pea, but is
better appreciated as fodder for cattle than for food for man.

=Lettuce= (_Lactuca sativa_). The garden lettuce is supposed to be a
native of the East Indies, but is not known to exist anywhere in a wild
state, and from remote antiquity has been cultivated as an esculent and
particularly as a salad. It has a leafy stem, oblong leaves, a
spreading, flat-topped panicle, with yellow flowers, and a fruit without
margin. It is now generally cultivated in all parts of the world where
the climate admits of it.

=Melon= (_Cucumis melo_), a plant of the same genus with the cucumber,
much cultivated for its fruit. The melon is an annual, with trailing or
climbing stems, lateral tendrils, rounded, angular leaves, small, yellow
flowers and large round or somewhat ovate fruit. The varieties in
cultivation are very numerous, some of them distinguished by a thick and
warty rind, some by a rind cracked in a net-like manner, some by ribs
and furrows, some by a perfectly smooth and thin rind; they differ also
in the color of the flesh of the fruit, which is green, red, yellow,
etc.; and in the size of the fruit, which varies from three or four
inches to a foot or more in diameter. They are widely cultivated in the
United States, ranking fifth in acreage among vegetables. New Jersey
leads in production, growing about one-seventh of entire crop.
Cultivation under irrigation is highly developed in Colorado. They are
often called cantaloupe in the markets.

=Mushroom.= See Cryptogams.

=Okra= or Gumbo (_Hibiscus esculentus_) is a generally used food plant
most commonly employed in soups in the East and West Indies and also in
the southern United States. It was anciently grown in tropical Africa
and Egypt, and is now diffused in tropical countries and in the
southern United States.

=Onion= (_Allium Cepa_) is extensively cultivated throughout the world,
and is grown in every state in the United States, New York and Ohio
leading in production. Bermuda and Spanish varieties are now grown in
California. It was cultivated by the ancient Egyptians; also by the
Greeks and Romans. Many other important vegetables are allied to the
onion, viz.: Leek, Shallot, Onion, Chives and Garlic. All of these are
highly esteemed in cookery.

=Parsnip= (_Pastinaca_), an annual, biennial, or perennial herb, with
carrot-like, often fleshy root and pinnate leaves. The parsnip has long
been cultivated for the sake of its root, which in cultivation has
greatly increased in size and become more fleshy. The flavor is disliked
by some, as well as the too great sweetness, but highly relished by
others; and the root of the parsnip is more nutritious than that of the
carrot. The crop is also on many soils of larger quantity; and although
the parsnip delights in a very open, rich soil, it will succeed in
clayey soils far too stiff for the carrot.

=Pea= (_Pisum sativum_) has been cultivated from very remote times. The
pea plant is covered with a delicate, glaucous bloom, and its white or
pale violet flowers are familiar to all. The pods are pendulous, smooth,
deep green and variable in size and may contain any number up to
thirteen (rarely more) peas. The peas when ripe are also variable, some
being white and round, others blue and wrinkled, and a few large,
irregular, and dull green. They are cultivated in Europe, Asia and the
United States. Chiefly used as green vegetable, but also for fodder.
Ranks seventh in acreage among minor vegetables in the United States.

=Peppers= or Capsicums or Chillies (_Capsicum annum_ and _C.
frutescens_) are widely cultivated in the warmer parts of both
hemispheres. The fruits vary considerably in shape and size, and when
green are cooked and eaten as a vegetable.

=Potato= (_Solanum tuberosum_) is the greatest of vegetable gifts to
man. Its cabbage-like stalks have a height of from eighteen to twenty
inches; its leaves are solitary and pennate; its large pentagonal
blossoms are white, reddish or violet; its fruit is a green berry.
Attached to its underground runners are those bulbs which serve as food
to many millions of people, and from which starch, sago, sugar of grapes
and brandy are prepared.

The potato stands second only to corn as the most important contribution
of America to the food plants of the world. Preëminently the most
important vegetable grown in Europe and America. The world crop is
enormous, exceeding five billion bushels; in bulk surpassing by about
one-half the world crop of wheat, corn or oats. Germany, Russia,
Austria-Hungary, France, the United States and Great Britain are the
chief producers in order named. Germany grows one-third of the world
crop, Russia one-fifth. In the United States they are grown in every
state and territory; also in Hawaii and Alaska.

Their cultivation was even ancient in Peru. It was widely diffused from
Chile to Colombia at time of Spanish discovery, but there were no
evidences of culture in Mexico or by North American Indians. It was
introduced into what is now North Carolina and Virginia late in the
sixteenth century; taken to Europe first by the Spaniards early in the
sixteenth century and to England by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1585. SWEET
POTATOES are the thickened roots of _Ipomoea Batatas_, a climbing plant.
This plant is extensively cultivated in most tropical countries,
although not known in a wild state. The root contains much starch and
saccharine matter. They are second only to the potato in the United
States, being widely grown in the South--Georgia, North Carolina,
Alabama, South Carolina and Tennessee producing over half of the total
crop, which in acreage and value is about one-fifth that of the potato.

=Radish= (_Raphanus sativus_) is a well-known plant, the root of which
is a valuable salad; it has been cultivated from a remote period. It is
now possible to have a supply the whole year round. Crisp, tender
radishes with delicate flavor are only obtained by quick growth on rich,
moist soil. The earliest crops are grown in frames on hotbeds, the crop
being ready about five weeks from sowing. The earliest sowing outdoors
can be made from December to February in sheltered sunny positions, the
beds being covered with a thick layer of litter. There are round, oval
and long-rooted varieties.

=Tomato= or Love-apple (_Lycopersicum esculentum_). The fruit of this
plant is fleshy, usually red or yellow, divided into two, three or more
cells containing numerous seeds imbedded in pulp. The tomato is one of a
genus of several species, all natives of South America, chiefly on the
Peruvian side. In the warmer countries of the United States, Europe and
other countries in which the summer is warm and prolonged, it has long
been cultivated for the excellent qualities of the fruit as an article
of diet. The tomato is extensively grown as a field crop for canneries
in the United States, and in the North is one of the chief
winter-forcing crops. It is exceeded in acreage only by the watermelon
and sweet corn among the minor vegetables. In the United States the crop
exceeds thirty million bushels, nearly half of which is grown in
Maryland and New Jersey.

=Turnip= (_Brassica rapa_). Although the turnip is of great value for
feeding stock, it is not very nutritious, no less than nine to
ninety-six parts of its weight actually consisting of water. One of the
best early varieties is purple top strap leaf. Early flat Dutch is also
good. The Swedish turnip, or _ruta baga_, which was introduced into
cultivation from the north of Europe more recently than the common
turnip, and has proved of very great value to the farmer, is regarded by
some botanists as a variety of the same species, and by some as a
variety of _B. napus_, but more generally as a variety of _B.
campestris_, a species common in cornfields and sides of ditches in
Britain and the north of Europe.

=Watermelon= (_Citrullus vulgaris_). The most popular melon in
cultivation, is extensively grown in warm climates throughout the world,
but most abundantly in southern Russia and the southern United States.
It leads all minor vegetables in acreage, being surpassed only by the
major vegetables, potato and sweet potato. Texas, Georgia, North
Carolina and Missouri are the chief growers in the order named. Very
anciently it was cultivated by Egyptians.

=Yam= (_Dioscorea alata_). Yams, the tubers of various species of
_Dioscorea_, are cultivated in nearly all tropical countries. Yam tubers
abound in farinaceous matter and often reach a large size. They resemble
but are inferior to the sweet potato.

=PLANTING TABLE FOR GARDEN VEGETABLES=

  Time given is for latitude of New York. Each one hundred miles north
  or south will make a difference of from five to seven days in the
  season. The distances given here indicate the distance apart the
  plants should stand after thinning. The seed should be sown much
  nearer together. CLASS A. These plants may be started early (in the
  greenhouse or hotbed, in early spring, or outdoors in the seedbed
  later), and afterwards transplanted to their permanent location.
  CLASS B. These crops usually occupy the ground for the entire
  season. CLASS C. These are quick maturing crops which, for a
  constant supply, should be planted at several different times in
  “succession”--a week or two weeks apart. CLASS D. These are crops
  which often may be cleared off in time to permit planting another
  quickly maturing crop, usually of some early variety. CLASS E. These
  crops are supplementary to those in Class D and may be used to
  obtain a second crop out of the ground from which early crops have
  been cleared.

  +-----------------+-----------------+-------+---------------------------+
  |   =Name and     | =Time to Plant= |=Class=|=How to Plant and Care for=|
  |    Variety=     |                 |       |                           |
  +-----------------+-----------------+-------+---------------------------+
  |=Asparagus=      |April.           |   B   |Plant 4 inches deep, at    |
  |(Plant).         |                 |       |distance of 1 foot; in rows|
  |                 |                 |       |3 feet apart; heavily      |
  |                 |                 |       |manured, spreading the     |
  |                 |                 |       |roots out evenly. Do not   |
  |                 |                 |       |cut for use until _second_ |
  |                 |                 |       |spring. Keep bed clean; cut|
  |                 |                 |       |off tops in the fall.      |
  |                 |                 |       |Transplant third spring.   |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Asparagus=      |April-May.       |   B   |Seed 2 to 4 inches apart,  |
  |(Seed).          |                 |       |in rows 15 inches apart; 1 |
  |                 |                 |       |inch deep.                 |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Beans, Bush     |March 15,        |   B   |Tender. Set out in May.    |
  |Lima.=           |under glass.     |       |Plant 2 inches deep in rows|
  |Burpee Improved. |May 1, outside.  |       |2 feet apart.              |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Beans, Pole     |May 15, out-     |   B   |Tender. Plant 2 inches deep|
  |Lima.=           |side.            |       |in hills 4 feet apart.     |
  |King of Garden.  |Ready in 10      |       |Pinch off at 6 feet high. 1|
  |                 |weeks.           |       |pint of seed to 50 hills.  |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Beans, String.= |April 15, out-   |   C   |Tender. Plant 2 inches deep|
  |                 |side.            |       |in rows 2 feet apart, 6    |
  |Bountiful.       |May 1, outside.  |       |inches apart in row. 1 pint|
  |Hodson Wax.      |May 15, outside. |       |of seed to 75-foot row.    |
  |Bountiful.       |June 1, outside. |       |                           |
  |Hodson Wax.      |June 15, outside.|       |                           |
  |Bountiful.       |July 1, outside. |       |                           |
  |Hodson Wax.      |July 15, outside.|       |                           |
  |Bountiful.       |Ready in 6 weeks.|       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Beets.=         |March 1, under   |  A-D  |Transplant outside in      |
  |                 |glass.           |       |April. Hardy. Plant 1 inch |
  |Eclipse.         |April 15, out-   |  B-E  |deep in rows 2 feet apart, |
  |                 |side.            |       |6 inches apart in row. Soak|
  |Crimson Globe.   |May 15, outside. |       |seed over night. 1 ounce of|
  |                 |June 15, outside.|       |seed to 50 feet. Winter in |
  |                 |July 15, outside.|       |sand or pits.              |
  |                 |Ready in 9 weeks.|       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Brussels        |March 15, under  |  A-E  |Plant 1/2 inch deep in rows|
  |Sprouts.=        |glass.           |       |2 feet apart, 1 foot apart |
  |L. I. Half Dwarf.|May 1, under     |       |in row. 1 ounce of seed to |
  |                 |glass.           |       |1500 plants. Hang in cellar|
  |                 |Ready in 20      |       |for winter.                |
  |                 |weeks.           |       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Cabbage.=       |March 1, under   |  A-C  |Hardy. Plant 1/2 inch deep |
  |                 |glass.           |       |in rows 3 feet apart, 2    |
  |Copenhagen       |March 1, under   |       |feet apart in row. Manure  |
  |Market.          |glass.           |       |well. 1 ounce of seed to   |
  |Drumhead Savoy.  |May 1, under     |       |2500 plants. Winter in pits|
  |                 |glass.           |       |upside down.               |
  |                 |Transplant to    |       |                           |
  |                 |garden.          |       |                           |
  |                 |Ready in 18      |       |                           |
  |                 |weeks.           |       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Carrot.=        |April 1, outside.|  C-B  |Hardy. Plant 1/2 inch deep |
  |Half-long        |June 1, outside. |       |in rows 1-1/2 feet apart, 6|
  |Danvers.         |Ready in 15      |       |inches apart in row. 1     |
  |                 |weeks.           |       |ounce of seed to 100 feet. |
  |                 |                 |       |Winter in sand or pits.    |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Cauliflower.=   |March 1, under   | A-C-E |Hardy. Plant 1/2 inch deep |
  |                 |glass.           |       |in rows 3 feet apart, 2    |
  |Dwarf Erfurt.    |April 1, under   |       |feet apart in row. 1 ounce |
  |                 |glass.           |       |seed to 2500 plants. Manure|
  |                 |May 1, under     |       |well.                      |
  |                 |glass.           |       |                           |
  |                 |Transplant to    |       |                           |
  |                 |garden.          |       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Chard.=         |April 15, out-   |       |Hardy. Plant 1 inch deep in|
  |                 |side.            |       |rows 2 feet apart, 1 foot  |
  |Lucullus.        |Ready in 8 weeks.|       |apart in row. 1 ounce of   |
  |                 |                 |       |seed to 50 feet.           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Celery.=        |March 1, under   |  A-E  |Hardy. Set out in May.     |
  |                 |glass.           |       |Barely cover. Rows 3 feet  |
  |Golden Self-     |April 15, under  |       |apart, 1/2 feet apart in   |
  |blanching.       |glass.           |       |row. Rich, moist soil.     |
  |Fin de Siecle.   |Ready in 18      |       |Transplant twice. 1 ounce  |
  |                 |weeks.           |       |of seed to 3000 plants. In |
  |                 |                 |       |August bank up to blanch.  |
  |                 |                 |       |Winter in pits.            |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Corn.=          |April 1, under   |  B-E  |Tender. Set out in May.    |
  |                 |glass.           |       |Plant 2 inches deep in rows|
  |Golden Bantam.   |April 15, out-   |       |4 feet apart, 2 feet apart |
  |                 |side.            |       |in row. Manure and remove  |
  |Evergreen.       |May 1, outside.  |       |suckers. 1 quart of seed to|
  |Country Gentle-  |May 1, outside.  |       |200 hills.                 |
  |man.             |                 |       |                           |
  |Mexican.         |May 15, outside. |       |                           |
  |Country Gentle-  |June 1, outside. |       |                           |
  |man.             |June 1, outside. |       |                           |
  |                 |June 15, outside.|       |                           |
  |                 |July 15, outside.|       |                           |
  |                 |Ready:    Early 9|       |                           |
  |                 |           weeks.|       |                           |
  |                 |          Late 11|       |                           |
  |                 |           weeks.|       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Cucumber.=      |March 15, under  |  A-B  |Tender. Set out in May.    |
  |                 |glass.           |       |Plant 1 inch deep, 4 feet  |
  |Cool and Crisp.  |May 1, outside.  |       |apart. 1 ounce of seed to  |
  |                 |June 1, outside. |       |50 hills.                  |
  |                 |July 1, outside. |       |                           |
  |                 |Ready in 9 weeks.|       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Endive.=        |July 1.          |  A-E  |Hardy. Plant in rows 2 feet|
  |Green Curled.    |Ready in 8 weeks.|       |apart, 1 foot apart in row.|
  |                 |                 |       |1 ounce of seed to 100-foot|
  |                 |                 |       |row. Transplant to dark    |
  |                 |                 |       |cellar to blanch for       |
  |                 |                 |       |winter.                    |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Eggplant.=      |March 1, under   |  A-B  |Very tender. Plant 1/2 inch|
  |Black Beauty.    |glass, with good |       |deep in rows 3 feet apart, |
  |                 |heat.            |       |2 feet apart in row. Rich  |
  |                 |Transplant to    |       |and moist soil. 1 ounce of |
  |                 |garden.          |       |seed to 1000 plants. Store |
  |                 |Ready in 15      |       |dry for late fall use.     |
  |                 |weeks.           |       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Kale.=          |May 15, under    |   E   |Hardy. Plant 1/2 inch deep |
  |Dwarf Scotch.    |glass.           |       |in rows 2 feet apart, 1    |
  |Siberian.        |Transplant to    |       |foot apart in row. 1 ounce |
  |                 |garden like      |       |of seed to 200 feet. Mulch |
  |                 |cabbage.         |       |for winter.                |
  |                 |July 1, outside. |       |                           |
  |                 |Ready in 20      |       |                           |
  |                 |weeks.           |       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Lettuce.=       |March 1, under   |   C   |Hardy. Plant 1/4 inch deep |
  |                 |glass.           |       |in rows 1-1/2 feet apart.  |
  |May King.        |March 15, under  |       |Rich soil. 1 ounce of seed |
  |                 |glass.           |       |to 3000 plants. Shade and  |
  |                 |Outside every 2  |       |water in summer.           |
  |                 |weeks to Sept. 1.|       |                           |
  |                 |Ready in 6 weeks.|       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Muskmelon.=     |May 1, outside.  |  A-B  |Plant 1 inch deep in hills |
  |Emerald Gem.     |May 1, outside.  |       |four feet apart. Pinch off |
  |Osage.           |May 1, outside.  |       |ends of shoots. Make       |
  |Early Hackensack.|Ready in 6 weeks.|       |special soil of sand and   |
  |                 |                 |       |manure. 1 ounce of seed to |
  |                 |                 |       |50 hills.                  |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Watermelon.=    |May 1, outside.  |   B   |Tender. Plant 1 inch deep  |
  |Cole’s Early.    |May 1, outside.  |       |in hills 6 feet apart. Make|
  |Halbert Honey.   |                 |       |special soil of sand and   |
  |Cole’s Early.    |                 |       |manure. Pinch off ends of  |
  |Halbert Honey.   |                 |       |shoots. 1 ounce of seed to |
  |                 |                 |       |30 hills.                  |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Onion.=         |April 1, plant   |  A-B  |Hardy. Plant seeds 1/2 inch|
  |                 |sets.            |       |deep; sets 2 inches deep in|
  |Yellow Danvers.  |Seeds April 15,  |       |rows 2 feet apart. 1 ounce |
  |                 |outside.         |       |of seed to 150 feet. Dig   |
  |Prizetakers.     |Seeds April 15,  |       |and dry for winter. 1 quart|
  |                 |outside.         |       |sets to 100 feet.          |
  |                 |Ready in 18 weeks|       |                           |
  |                 |from seed.       |       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Parsley.=       |April 15, out-   |   B   |Hardy. Plant 1/2 inch deep |
  |Triple Curled.   |side.            |       |in rows 2 feet apart, 6    |
  |                 |Ready in 8 weeks.|       |inches apart in row. Soak  |
  |                 |                 |       |seeds over night. Seeds are|
  |                 |                 |       |slow to start. 1 ounce of  |
  |                 |                 |       |seed to 150-foot row.      |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Parsnip.=       |April 15, out-   |   B   |Hardy. Plant 1/2 inch deep |
  |                 |side.            |       |in rows 1-1/2 feet apart.  |
  |Hollow Crown.    |Ready in 15      |       |Seeds start slowly. 1 ounce|
  |                 |weeks.           |       |seed to 200 feet. Winter in|
  |                 |                 |       |place or in pits. Improved |
  |                 |                 |       |by frost.                  |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Peas.=          |April 15, out-   |  B-E  |Hardy. Plant early varie-  |
  |Thomas Laxton.   |side.            |       |ties 4 inches deep and late|
  |Juno.            |May 1, outside.  |       |varieties 3 inches deep.   |
  |Telephone.       |May 1, outside.  |       |Early in double rows and   |
  |                 |May 15, outside. |       |late in rows 3 feet apart. |
  |                 |June 1, outside. |       |Moist soil. 1 quart of seed|
  |                 |June 15, outside.|       |to 150 feet.               |
  |                 |July 1, outside. |       |                           |
  |                 |July 15, outside.|       |                           |
  |                 |Ready in 8 weeks.|       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Pepper.=        |March 1, under   |   A   |Very tender. Plant 1/2 inch|
  |                 |glass.           |       |deep in rows 2 feet apart. |
  |Chinese Giant.   |Set out in May.  |       |Start in good heat. Hang in|
  |                 |Ready in 20      |       |cellar for winter.         |
  |                 |weeks.           |       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Potatoes.=      |April 1 (early). |   B   |Plant early varieties 2    |
  |Noroton Beauty.  |May 1 (early).   |       |inches deep, and late      |
  |Gold Coin.       |May 15 (main     |       |varieties 5 inches deep in |
  |                 |crop).           |       |rows 3 feet apart. 1 peck  |
  |                 |Ready in 12      |       |to 100-foot row. 8 or 10   |
  |                 |weeks.           |       |bushels to acre. Sprout    |
  |                 |                 |       |before planting.           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Pumpkin.=       |May 15, outside. |   B   |Tender. Plant 6 feet apart.|
  |Winter Luxury.   |Ready in 15      |       |Manure. 1 ounce of seed to |
  |                 |weeks.           |       |50 hills. Winter warm and  |
  |                 |                 |       |dry.                       |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Radish.=        |March 7, under   |   C   |Hardy. Plant 1/2 inch deep.|
  |                 |glass and every 2|       |1 ounce of seed to 100     |
  |                 |weeks.           |       |feet. Soil light and rich. |
  |French Breakfast.|Ready in 4 weeks.|       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Rhubarb=        |April.           |   B   |Set out root-clumps at     |
  |(Plant).         |                 |       |distance of 2 to 3 feet, in|
  |                 |                 |       |rows 3 to 4 feet apart.    |
  |                 |                 |       |Give them dressing of bone |
  |                 |                 |       |meal and soda in the       |
  |                 |                 |       |spring.                    |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Salsify.=       |April 15, out-   |   B   |Hardy. Plant 1/4 inch deep |
  |                 |side.            |       |in rows 2 feet apart. 1    |
  |Mammoth Sandwich |Ready in 18      |       |ounce of seed to 100 feet. |
  |Island.          |weeks.           |       |Winter in place or in pits.|
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Spinach.=       |April 1, outside.| A-B-E |Hardy. Plant 1 inch deep in|
  |Victoria.        |April 15, out-   |       |rows 1-1/2 feet apart. 1   |
  |                 |side.            |       |ounce of seed to 200 feet. |
  |New Zealand.     |May 1, outside.  |       |Very rich soil. Winter     |
  |                 |May 1, outside.  |       |under straw cover.         |
  |                 |June 1, outside. |       |                           |
  |                 |Sept. 1, outside.|       |                           |
  |                 |Ready in 5 weeks.|       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Squash.=        |March 15, under  |   B   |Tender. Plant 1 inch deep, |
  |                 |glass.           |       |4 feet apart. Hubbard 6    |
  |Crookneck.       |May 15, outside. |       |feet apart. Winter warm and|
  |Delicata.        |May 15, outside. |       |dry. 1 ounce of seed for 25|
  |Early Golden     |May 15, outside. |       |hills. For Hubbard make    |
  |Custard.         |                 |       |special soil of sand and   |
  |Crookneck.       |Ready in 7 weeks.|       |manure.                    |
  |Hubbard.         |May 15, outside. |       |                           |
  |                 |Ready in 15      |       |                           |
  |                 |weeks.           |       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Tomato.=        |March 1, under   |  B-A  |Tender. Plant 1/2 inch deep|
  |                 |glass.           |       |in rows 3 feet apart, 3    |
  |Earliana.        |April 1, under   |       |feet apart in row. Keep    |
  |                 |glass.           |       |hotbed cool. Pinch off side|
  |Crimson Cushion. |Set out in May.  |       |shoots. 1 ounce of seed to |
  |                 |Ready in 18      |       |2000 plants. Hang in cellar|
  |                 |weeks.           |       |for early winter.          |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Turnip.=        |April 17, out-   |   C   |Hardy. Plant 1/2 inch deep |
  |Early Milan      |side.            |       |in rows 1-1/2 feet apart. 1|
  |White.           |June 15, outside.|       |ounce of seed to 200 feet. |
  |                 |Ready in 9 weeks.|       |Winter in pits.            |
  +-----------------+-----------------+-------+---------------------------+

=PLANTING TABLE FOR GARDEN VEGETABLES--Continued=

Especially Adapted to Southern United States

  +-----------------+-----------------+-------+---------------------------+
  |   =Name and     | =Time to Plant= |=Class=|=How to Plant and Care for=|
  |    Variety=     |                 |       |                           |
  +-----------------+-----------------+-------+---------------------------+
  |=Artichoke,      |March 1, outside.|  ...  |Hardy Perennial. Plant     |
  |Jerusalem.=      |Ready in 6 to 8  |       |tubers 6 inches deep in    |
  |                 |months.          |       |rows 5 feet apart, 2 feet  |
  |                 |                 |       |apart in row. Light soil   |
  |                 |                 |       |and sun. 2 quarts of tubers|
  |                 |                 |       |to 100 feet. Fine for soup |
  |                 |                 |       |or boiled and creamed, or  |
  |                 |                 |       |salad or pickles.          |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Asparagus.=     |December, out-   |   B   |Hardy. Plant 2-year roots 8|
  |Palmetto.        |side.            |       |inches deep in rows 2 feet |
  |                 |Ready in February|       |apart, 1 foot apart in row.|
  |                 |or March.        |       |Rich and moist mulch with  |
  |                 |                 |       |manure all summer, salt    |
  |                 |                 |       |well.                      |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Beans.=         |Cold-frames or   |  B-C  |Tender. Plant seeds 2      |
  |Valentine or     |green-house.     |       |inches deep in rows 1-1/2  |
  |Refugee or       |September 1 and  |       |feet apart, 4 inches apart |
  |Golden Wax.      |every two weeks  |       |in row. Not too rich soil. |
  |                 |thereafter.      |       |1 quart for 150 feet.      |
  |                 |Ready in 6 weeks.|       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Beets.=         |Sept. 1, outside.|  A-D  |Hardy. Plant 1 inch deep in|
  |Eclipse or       |Oct. 1, outside. |  B-E  |rows 1-1/2 feet apart. Thin|
  |Crimson Globe.   |Ready in 9 weeks.|       |to 4 inches apart. Deep    |
  |                 |                 |       |soil, no fresh manure. 1   |
  |                 |                 |       |ounce to 50 feet. Soak seed|
  |                 |                 |       |over night.                |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Chard.=         |Sept. 15, cold-  |  ...  |Almost hardy. Grow like    |
  |Lucullus.        |frame.           |       |beets. Use outside leaves, |
  |                 |                 |       |leaving crown to grow. Use |
  |                 |                 |       |for greens, or leaf stalks |
  |                 |                 |       |like asparagus.            |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Brussels        |Seed-bed August  |  A-E  |Hardy. Plant seeds 1/2 inch|
  |Sprouts.=        |1.               |       |deep in rows 2 feet apart, |
  |                 |Transplant out-  |       |1-1/2 feet apart in row.   |
  |                 |side September   |       |Cultivate like cabbage. 1  |
  |                 |15.              |       |packet of seed enough.     |
  |                 |Ready in 4       |       |                           |
  |                 |months.          |       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Cabbage.=       |Seed-bed August  | A-C-E |Hardy. Plant seeds 1/2 inch|
  |Wakefield or     |15.              |       |deep. Plant rows 3 feet    |
  |Savoy or         |Transplant out-  |       |apart; 1-1/2 feet apart in |
  |Winningstadt.    |side September.  |       |rows. Moist, manure and    |
  |                 |Ready in 4       |       |cultivate well. 1 packet of|
  |                 |months.          |       |seed enough. Set plants    |
  |                 |                 |       |deep.                      |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Carrots.=       |Aug. 15, outside.|  C-B  |Hardy. Plant 1/2 inch deep |
  |Half Long or     |Oct. 1, outside. |       |in rows 1-1/2 feet apart, 4|
  |Long Orange.     |Ready 12 to 15   |       |inches apart in row. 1     |
  |                 |weeks.           |       |ounce for 200 feet. Seed   |
  |                 |                 |       |slow to start.             |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Cauliflower.=   |Seed-bed Septem- | A-C-E |Almost hardy. Plant seed   |
  |Early Snowball or|ber 1.           |       |1/2 inch deep in rows 2    |
  |Dwarf Erfurt.    |Transplant to    |       |feet apart, 1-1/2 feet     |
  |                 |cold-frames      |       |apart in row. Moist, rich  |
  |                 |October 1.       |       |and manure. 1 packet of    |
  |                 |Ready in 4       |       |seed enough. Blanch heads  |
  |                 |months.          |       |by tying up.               |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Collards.=      |Cultivate like   |  ...  |A non-heading cabbage not  |
  |                 |cabbage.         |       |equal to it in quality.    |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Cucumber.=      |Sept. 15, green- |  A-B  |Tender. Plant 1 inch deep, |
  |English Tele-    |house.           |       |5 feet apart. 1 ounce for  |
  |graph.           |Oct. 15, green-  |       |50 hills. Moist, rich soil.|
  |                 |house.           |       |Pinch out main stem when 2 |
  |                 |Nov. 15, green-  |       |feet long. Pinch outside   |
  |                 |house.           |       |branches at 6 or 8 feet.   |
  |                 |Dec. 15, green-  |       |Leave only 3 side branches |
  |                 |house.           |       |to a plant and only half   |
  |                 |Day heat, 85°.   |       |the fruit. Do not fertilize|
  |                 |Night heat, 65°. |       |blossoms.                  |
  |                 |Ready in 6 to 8  |       |                           |
  |                 |weeks.           |       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Cress, Water.=  |Outside in water.|  ...  |Hardy. Sow in quiet pool   |
  |                 |September 1.     |       |near running water. Start  |
  |                 |Ready in 3       |       |seed on mud, then flood 3  |
  |                 |months.          |       |inches deep. 1 packet of   |
  |                 |                 |       |seed enough.               |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Endive.=        |Sept. 1, outside.|  A-E  |Hardy. Plant 1/2 inch deep |
  |Green curled or  |Nov. 1, outside  |       |in rows 1-1/2 feet apart.  |
  |Self-blanching.  |or in cold-      |       |Thin to 10 inches apart in |
  |                 |frames.          |       |row. Light, rich soil,     |
  |                 |Ready in 3       |       |deep. 1 ounce for 100 feet.|
  |                 |months.          |       |Can transplant like        |
  |                 |                 |       |lettuce. Tie up heads for  |
  |                 |                 |       |blanching 2 weeks before   |
  |                 |                 |       |use.                       |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Eggplant.=      |Aug. 15, green-  |  A-B  |Very tender. Plant 1/2 inch|
  |Round Purple.    |house.           |       |deep, 2 feet apart. Rich   |
  |                 |Dry heat, day,   |       |and moist soil. 1 packet   |
  |                 |90°.             |       |enough. Blossoms should be |
  |                 |Dry heat, night, |       |fertilized by hand.        |
  |                 |65°.             |       |                           |
  |                 |Ready in 4 or 5  |       |                           |
  |                 |months.          |       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Kale.=          |Aug. 15, seed-   |   E   |Hardy. Plant 1/2 inch deep |
  |Dwarf Scotch or  |bed.             |       |in rows 1-1/2 feet apart, 1|
  |Tall Scotch.     |Sept. 15, set    |       |foot apart in row. Deep    |
  |                 |outside.         |       |sand and mold. 1 ounce to  |
  |                 |Sept. 15, start  |       |200 feet. When top is cut  |
  |                 |some.            |       |off for use, side shoots   |
  |                 |October, set out-|       |will start.                |
  |                 |side.            |       |                           |
  |                 |Ready in 3 or 4  |       |                           |
  |                 |months.          |       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Kohlrabi.=      |October 1, out-  |   C   |Hardy. Plant 1/2 inch deep |
  |Early Vienna.    |side.            |       |in rows 1-1/2 feet apart, 6|
  |                 |Ready in 2 to 3  |       |inches apart in row. 1     |
  |                 |months.          |       |ounce for 150 feet. Grow   |
  |                 |                 |       |and use like turnip.       |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Lettuce.=       |Seed-bed Septem- |   C   |Almost hardy. 1/4 inch     |
  |May King or      |ber 15 and every |       |deep, 6 inches apart each  |
  |California Butter|2 weeks after.   |       |way. Light, rich soil. 1   |
  |or Boston Market.|Transplant into  |       |ounce for 2000 plants.     |
  |                 |cold-frames.     |       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Muskmelon.=     |August 15, green-|  A-B  |Tender. Plant 1 inch deep  |
  |English: Sutton’s|house.           |       |in hills 5 feet apart.     |
  |Ar.              |Dry heat, day    |       |Manure. Light soil. 1 ounce|
  |Sutton’s Emerald |90°.             |       |for 50 hills. Blossoms to  |
  |Gem.             |Dry heat, night, |       |be fertilized by hand.     |
  |                 |70°.             |       |Pinch off tip of vine when |
  |                 |Ready in 4 to 5  |       |first blossoms come.       |
  |                 |months.          |       |                           |
  |                 |Sets ready 2     |       |                           |
  |                 |months.          |       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Onions.=        |July 1, outside, |  A-B  |Hardy. Plant seed 1/2 inch |
  |Prizetaker or    |seed.            |       |deep, sets 2 inches deep in|
  |Multiplier or    |Sept. 1, outside,|       |rows 1-1/2 feet apart.     |
  |Globe.           |sets.            |       |Moist, rich soil and sun. 1|
  |                 |Ready in 4 to 5  |       |ounce of seed for 150 feet.|
  |                 |months.          |       |1 quart of sets for 100    |
  |                 |                 |       |feet.                      |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Parsley.=       |September 1, out-|   B   |Hardy. Plant 1/4 inch deep |
  |                 |side.            |       |in rows 1-1/2 feet apart. 1|
  |                 |Soak seeds over  |       |packet seed enough. Seeds  |
  |                 |night.           |       |slow to start.             |
  |                 |Ready in 2       |       |                           |
  |                 |months.          |       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Parsnip.=       |September 1, out-|   B   |Hardy. Plant 1/2 inch deep |
  |Hollow Crown.    |side.            |       |in rows 1-1/2 feet apart, 3|
  |                 |                 |       |inches apart in row. Seeds |
  |                 |                 |       |slow to start. Rich, deep  |
  |                 |                 |       |soil. 1 ounce for 200 feet.|
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Peanuts.=       |April 1, outside.|  ...  |Plant 3 inches deep in     |
  |Virginia or      |                 |       |hills 2 feet apart. Light, |
  |Georgia.         |                 |       |deep soil. Shell before    |
  |                 |                 |       |planting.                  |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Peas.=          |In cold-frames.  |  B-E  |Almost hardy. Plant 4      |
  |Nott’s Excelsior.|September 15 and |       |inches deep in rows 2 feet |
  |Gradus or Tom    |every 2 weeks.   |       |apart. Moist, not too rich.|
  |Thumb.           |Ready in 2 to 3  |       |Soak over night. 1 pint to |
  |Extra Early      |months.          |       |100 feet.                  |
  |(smooth varie-   |Outside same     |       |                           |
  |ties).           |dates (always an |       |                           |
  |Marrow Fat.      |uncertain crop). |       |                           |
  |                 |Outside, December|       |                           |
  |                 |1 (more hardy,   |       |                           |
  |                 |less quality).   |       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Pepper.=        |August 1, green- |   B   |Tender. Plant seeds 1/2    |
  |Sweet Spanish or |house.           |       |inch deep, 2 feet apart. 1 |
  |Sweet Mountain.  |Moist heat, day, |       |packet of seed enough. Need|
  |                 |90°.             |       |not fertilize blossoms.    |
  |                 |Moist heat,      |       |                           |
  |                 |night, 70°.      |       |                           |
  |                 |Ready in 4       |       |                           |
  |                 |months.          |       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Potato.=        |August 1, out-   |   B   |Hardy. Plant whole in rows |
  |Irish Cobbler or |side.            |       |3 feet apart, 1 foot apart |
  |other earlies.   |For new potatoes |       |in row. Moist, light, rich |
  |                 |all winter.      |       |soil. 8 bushels per acre.  |
  |                 |Ready in 3       |       |                           |
  |                 |months.          |       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Potato, Sweet.= |Bed thickly in   |  ...  |Very deep sand. Rows 3 feet|
  |Yellow Yam or    |March.           |       |apart, 2 feet apart in row.|
  |Georgia Yam.     |Transplant the   |       |3 pounds to 100-foot row.  |
  |                 |sprouts outside  |       |Dig as wanted through the  |
  |                 |May 1.           |       |winter.                    |
  |                 |Ready in 6       |       |                           |
  |                 |months.          |       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Radish.=        |Oct. 1, outside. |   C   |Hardy. Plant 1/2 inch deep |
  |French Breakfast |Oct. 15, outside.|       |in rows 8 inches apart. 1  |
  |or Scarlet       |Nov. 1, outside. |       |ounce to 100-foot row.     |
  |Turnip.          |Cold-frames      |       |                           |
  |                 |November 1 and   |       |                           |
  |                 |every 10 days.   |       |                           |
  |                 |Ready in 6 weeks.|       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Salsify.=       |Outside, August 1|   B   |Hardy. Plant 1/4 inch deep |
  |Sandwich Island. |and September. (A|       |in rows 1-1/2 feet apart, 4|
  |                 |difficult crop in|       |inches apart in row. Water |
  |                 |the South).      |       |freely.                    |
  |                 |Ready in 5       |       |                           |
  |                 |months.          |       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Spinach.=       |Sept. 1, outside.| A-B-E |Almost hardy. Plant 1 inch |
  |Viroflay.        |Oct. 1, outside. |       |deep in rows 1-1/2 feet    |
  |New Zealand.     |Nov. 1, outside. |       |apart, 3 inches apart in   |
  |                 |(doubtful crop). |       |row. 1 ounce for 150 feet. |
  |                 |Sept. 1, cold-   |       |                           |
  |                 |frame. (A sure   |       |                           |
  |                 |abundant product |       |                           |
  |                 |all winter).     |       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Strawberries.=  |Transplant every |  ...  |Hardy. Rows 2 feet apart, 1|
  |Lady Thompson or |year in October. |       |foot apart in rows. Rich,  |
  |Hefflin or       |Ready in February|       |sandy loam. Mulch in       |
  |Hoffman.         |or March.        |       |summer. No stable manure.  |
  |                 |                 |       |Confine to single crowns.  |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Tomato.=        |Aug. 15, green-  |  B-A  |Tender. Plant 1/2 inch     |
  |Beauty or        |house.           |       |deep, 1-1/2 feet apart. 1  |
  |Perfection.      |Sept. 15, green- |       |packet of seed enough.     |
  |                 |house.           |       |Pinch out tips at desired  |
  |                 |Oct. 15, green-  |       |height. Pinch out all side |
  |                 |house.           |       |shoots. Fertilize blossoms |
  |                 |Ready in 4       |       |by hand.                   |
  |                 |months.          |       |                           |
  |                 |                 |       |                           |
  |=Turnip.=        |October 1, out-  |   C   |Hardy. Plant 1/2 inch deep |
  |Early Milan.     |side.            |       |in rows 1-1/2 feet apart, 3|
  |                 |Ready in 2 to 3  |       |inches apart in row. 1     |
  |                 |months.          |       |ounce for 200 feet. Moist  |
  |                 |                 |       |and rich soil.             |
  +-----------------+-----------------+-------+---------------------------+


_III. THE FRUIT TREES_

  The fruit trees are cultivated for the sake of their fruit. They
  bear either kernel fruit, when their seed kernels are enclosed in
  cores of parchment-like formation; or stone fruit, when the seed
  kernel is enclosed in a hard shell, which is in its turn enclosed in
  some succulent pulp; or shell fruit, when the fleshy interior is
  enclosed in a hard shell.

=Almond=, a small tree belonging to the rose family, native to northwest
Africa. The flowers are solitary and generally pink, and appear before
the lance-shaped leaves. The fruit is egg-shaped, downy externally, with
a tough, fibrous covering and a wrinkled stone. It has long been widely
cultivated, and many varieties exist, differing in the hardness of the
stone and in the flavor of the seed. SWEET ALMONDS include the large
thin-shelled Jordan (from the French _jardin_), the Valencia almond,
imported as a dessert fruit from Malaga, the smaller Barbary and Italian
forms, and the California product. The BITTER ALMOND yields an essential
oil, employed in confectionery, but dangerous from sometimes containing
prussic acid.

=Apple= (_Pyrus Malus_), grows wild in forests, but it is found
artificially improved everywhere in gardens and orchards. Its bark is
generally smooth; its wood somewhat soft; its leaves oval-shaped and
about double the length of their stalks; its blossoms are white with
reddish margins. Fruit horticulture has produced many species of apples
in the course of time, and they are now the most important fruit of the
temperate zone, area of production, consumption, and variety of product
being considered, ranking with the grape, olive, orange, lemon and
banana, among the six leading fruits of the world. North America is
preëminently the leading apple growing region. In the United States, New
York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio produce about one-third of the total crop.

The cultivation of the apple is prehistoric. Abundantly used by Lake
Dwellers of the Stone Age in Italy and Switzerland.

[Illustration: =CACAO FRUIT OR PODS=

Each pod contains some sixty seeds, arranged in five or eight rows
(mostly five); the seeds are white when they are fresh, but brown and
covered with a fragile skin or shell when dried. These seeds, which are
not unlike beans or almonds, are imbedded in a mass of mucilaginous
pulp, of a sweet but acid taste. The seeds only require to be extracted,
cured and dried, to become the cacao-beans of commerce.]

=Apricot= (_Prunus Armeniaca_). The tree attains a height of thirteen to
sixteen feet, and shows its blossoms in the months of March and April.
Its smooth leaves are oval, doubly serrated; and its white blossoms have
a tinge of red. Its globular, velvet-like, downy fruits are a favorite
dish for dessert.

Apricots are extensively grown in north India, Persia, south Europe and
Egypt. Although grown in New York, the crop is only commercially
important in California and Oregon, whence large quantities of the fresh
and dried fruit are shipped to the eastern states and abroad.

=HOW THE COCOA BEANS ARE DRIED AND ROASTED=

[Illustration: Small crops of beans are spread out on the ground, or on
a tray, or on a piece of matting, and dried in the sun. In other cases,
artificial heat is used in specially constructed and equipped
drying-houses.]

[Illustration: The beans are roasted, similar to coffee, in large iron
drums to increase the aroma, make them more soluable in water, and
improve their flavor. After being ground, and mixed with sugar, the
product becomes chocolate--and is used in many ways.]

Cultivation in China antedates 2000 B. C. It was introduced into Europe
at the time of Alexander the Great, about 325 B. C.

=Bread-fruit= (_Artocarpus incisa_), grows upon the islands of the
Pacific Ocean, and has also been transplanted to those parts of America
which lie in the Torrid Zone. It attains a very great height, and bears
fruits weighing from three to four pounds. The latter are cut into
slices, and after being dried and roasted are used as food. These
fruits, when pounded and mixed with milk of the cocoanut, form a dough,
which is either consumed raw or baked into bread. All parts of this tree
are useful; its yellow wood is used for the construction of houses, from
its fibres articles of clothing are made, and its sap is used for making
birdlime. Its large leaves serve as tablecloths and napkins, and its
blossoms when dried are an excellent tinder. The bread-fruit tree is
therefore much cultivated.

=Butternut= (_Juglans cinerea_), a North American species of walnut. Its
dark yellow wood takes a fine polish, and is used in cabinet work; the
bark yields a brown dye, and the brown-husked, rugged nuts contain oil,
and are very pleasant in flavor.

=Cacao= (_Theobroma cacao_), a small tree, native to Mexico, Central
America and the north of South America, is cultivated also in Brazil,
Guiana, Trinidad and Grenada. It has large, oblong, pointed, entire
leaves and clusters of flowers with rose-colored calyx and yellowish
petals. The fruit is yellow, from six to ten inches long, and from three
to five broad, oblong, blunt, with ten longitudinal ridges externally,
and five chambers, containing ten or twenty seeds each, internally. The
thick, tough rind is almost woody. The seeds are dried, roasted,
bruised, and winnowed, so as to remove their testa from the cocoa-nibs
or cotyledons. These contain more than fifty per cent of fat or
cocoa-butter, part of which is generally removed in the process of
“preparing” cocoa. It is used in making chocolate “creams.” Cocoa is
also a valuable article of food; contains a gently stimulating alkaloid,
theobromine, a fragrant essential oil and a red coloring matter. Sugar
and vanilla or other flavoring are added in the preparation of
chocolate.

=Cherry= (_Prunus avium_), is a stately tree of from twenty-five to
forty-five feet in height. It has a pyramidal crown; its smooth bark
splits crosswise; its leaves are elliptical, and covered with down on
their lower sides; its blossoms are snowy white and its fruits sweet and
of different colors. The latter furnish an agreeable nourishment,
whether consumed raw, boiled, or preserved. Cherry-brandy is also made
from them. The Cherry is cultivated in temperate regions of Europe,
Asia, and the United States, and included among the fifteen leading
fruits of the world. Ranks about eighth among fruits of the United
States. Pennsylvania and California lead in production.

It was grown before the Christian Era in western Asia and southern
Europe, and is mentioned in Vergil’s _Georgics_.

=Cinnamon= (_Cinnamomum zeylanicum_), is largely grown in Ceylon. The
bark is stripped off two-year-old shoots in May and November and dried
in the sun, undergoing a slight fermentation. It rolls up into quills,
the thinnest being the best. Cinnamon contains a fragrant essential oil
and has long been valued as a spice. It has also some medicinal value as
a cordial and stomachic. It is also cultivated for bark in Brazil, West
Indies, Egypt, and Java, but cultivation is now declining in favor of
coffee.

=Clove= (_Eugenia caryophyllata_), a small evergreen spice tree, native
of the Moluccas. The fruits are imported as mother cloves, and the
stalks are used to adulterate the spice when ground. The whole plant is
aromatic from the presence of the essential oil of cloves, which occurs
to the extent of sixteen to eighteen per cent in the flower-buds. The
dried flower buds are the cloves of commerce. Cultivated on many
tropical islands and coasts, chiefly in the Moluccas, Sumatra, Java,
Mauritius, Zanzibar, Jamaica, and French Guiana. The oil of cloves is
widely used in flavoring and perfumery and also in medicine.

=Cocoa-nut= (_Cocos nucifera_), a small genus of palms. The cocoa-nut
palm is apparently a native of the Indian Archipelago, but has been
dispersed throughout the tropics from early times, flourishing
especially near the sea. It has a cylindric stem reaching two feet in
diameter, and from sixty to one hundred feet in height; a crown of
pinnate leaves, each eighteen to twenty feet long, with a sheathing and
fibrous base, succeeded by bunches of from ten to twenty fruits. These
are about a foot long, six or eight inches across, three-sided, with a
stony shell and one seed filling its cavity. The seed contains a fleshy
kernel and a milky liquid. No tree of the tropics has so many uses,
every part of it being employed, and in southern India furnishing
several of the chief necessaries of life. The wood of the outer part of
the stem is used, under the name of Porcupine wood, for inlaying; the
leaves for thatch, mats, hats, etc.; the fibrous part under the name of
coir, for cordage, etc.; the shell for bottles, cups, spoons, and when
properly burned, for excellent charcoal and lamp-black. The solid white
kernel contains thirty-six per cent of oil known as copra oil, from
which, by pressure, the solid stearine used for candles is separated
from the liquid lamp-oil. The “milk,” when fresh, is an agreeable drink;
and from the sap sugar is obtained, and, by fermentation, toddy, from
which vinegar and by distillation, arrack are prepared. It is
extensively cultivated on the coasts of India, the East and West India
Islands, and Brazil, and recently in Florida.

=Coffee Tree= (_Coffea Arabica_), originally a native of Africa attains
a height of twenty-five to thirty feet. It is generally, however, kept
at a much inferior height, in order to facilitate the collection of the
fruit. Its leaves are evergreen; its blossoms white and fragrant. The
fruit is a red berry about the size of a cherry, which contains two
kernels, lying closely side by side: the coffee beans. These coffee
beans are used everywhere for the preparation of that coffee which has
become an indispensable beverage for many millions of people.
Commercially it is of great importance, being largely grown in Brazil,
Mexico, Central America, West Indies, Arabia, Java, Sumatra, Ceylon,
India, and Hawaii. Brazil leads with a production of over one-half of
the world’s crop. In the United States the consumption greatly exceeds
that of tea.

Beginning of its cultivation is uncertain, but not ancient. It was
introduced for cultivation in South America by the Dutch in 1718.

=Date or Date-Palm= (_Phœnix dactylifera_), a tree sixty to eighty feet
high, with large pinnate leaves, cultivated in immense quantities in
north Africa, western Asia and southern Europe. The stem is covered with
leaf scars, and the flowers each have three sepals and three petals. The
wood of the stem is used in building; huts are built of its leaves; the
petioles are made into baskets and the fibre surrounding their bases
into ropes and coarse cloth; the young leaf-bud or “cabbage” is
sometimes eaten as a vegetable, or, if tapped, it yields a sugary sap
which may be fermented; and even the seeds are ground into meal for
camels. In central Arabia and some parts of north Africa the fruit forms
the staple food of the inhabitants, camels, horses, and dogs. It is the
chief source of wealth in Arabia. It was very anciently cultivated in
Egypt and Babylonia and is the _palm_ of the Bible.

=SCENES IN THE PRODUCTION OF THE COFFEE BERRY=

[Illustration: =THE COFFEE PLANT IN FLOWER=]

[Illustration: =FROM FLOWER TO RIPE “CHERRIES”=]

[Illustration: =METHOD OF DRYING COFFEE ON WOODEN TRAYS IN THE OPEN AIR,
AS STILL PRACTICED IN ARABIA AND OTHER ORIENTAL COUNTRIES=]

[Illustration: =WOMEN OF JAVA HULLING COFFEE=

The “cherries” when gathered contain two seeds, or coffee beans. The
coverings are removed from the seeds by “hulling.”]

[Illustration: =SIZING, OR SORTING THE COFFEE BEANS FOR THE MARKET BY
PASSING THEM THROUGH SIEVES MESHES=]

=Fig= (_Ficus Carica_). The common fig is a native of the East. It is a
low deciduous tree or shrub (fifteen to twenty-five feet), with large,
deeply-lobed leaves, which are rough above and downy beneath. The
branches are clothed with short hairs, and the bark is greenish. The
fruit is produced singly in the axils of the leaves, is pear-shaped, and
has a very short stalk; the color in some varieties is bluish-black; in
others, red, purple, yellow, green or white. The fig is extensively
cultivated in subtropical countries, particularly in Spain, Italy, and
southern France, in Europe, and in southwestern Asia. It is also grown
in the Gulf States and in California. All dried figs in the United
States are produced in California. Commercial figs come largely from
Asiatic Turkey, though Smyrna figs are now established in California.

=Grape-fruit or Shaddock= (_Citrus decumanus_), a tree, which, like the
other species of the same genus, is a native of the East Indies, and has
long been cultivated in the south of Europe. It is readily distinguished
by its large leaves and broad-winged leaf-stalk; it has very large white
flowers, and the fruit is also very large, sometimes weighing ten or
even fourteen pounds, roundish, pale yellow; the rind thick, white, and
spongy within, bitter; the pulp greenish and watery, subacid and
subaromatic. It is a pleasant, cooling fruit, and much used for
preserves. Finer and smaller than the shaddock proper is the Pomelo
(also called Pummelo, and grape-fruit) a variety rather larger than an
orange which bears its fruit in clusters. It was anciently cultivated
and much prized fruit in India, China, East Indies and Pacific Islands.
Now successfully established in Florida and California, and rapidly
becoming popular table fruit in the United States.

=Lemon= (_Citrus Limonum_), a small tree or shrub closely related to the
orange, apparently truly indigenous in the north of India, carried to
Palestine and Egypt by the Arabs, and to Italy by the Crusaders, and now
naturalized in the West Indies and elsewhere. The fruit is oval, and
ends in a nipple-like point; the rind is thin, smooth, and not readily
separable; and the juice is acid. There are numerous varieties,
including the citron, bergamot, lime, and sweet lime. Cultivation in the
United States is limited mostly to Southern California.

=Lime= (_Citrus acida_), is a variety of orange with small flowers, and
small, very acid, fruit, varying in form but ending, like the lemon, in
a nipple-like boss. It is said to have been anciently cultivated in
India, from whence it has been widely diffused in tropical countries. It
is widely imported in temperate regions, but sparingly used, being much
less popular than the lemon. Now successfully grown in Florida, which
produces a small crop.

=Mango= (_Mangifera indica_), a small tree indigenous to tropical Asia,
but now cultivated throughout the tropics. It has scattered, entire
leaves and small pink or yellow flowers. Though its glossy leaves make
it valuable for shade, it is chiefly valued for its fruit, which varies
considerably in size and flavor. In an unripe state it is used in
pickles; but in India is largely eaten when ripe as a dessert fruit. The
seeds, bark and resin have some medicinal value, apparently as
astringents, and the wood, though soft, is used as timber.

=Maté or Paraguay Tea= (_Ilex paraguayensis_), a species of holly
growing in Paraguay and south Brazil, which furnishes the chief
non-alcoholic drink of South America. Though used immemorially by the
Indians, the tree was first cultivated by the Jesuits. The dried leaves
are packed in scrons or raw hides containing about two hundred pounds
each. The infusion is prepared in a calabash or maté, usually
silver-mounted, boiling water and sugar, with milk or lemon-juice, being
added to the leaves (yerba), and the beverage taken very hot through a
metal or reed tube or bombilla with a strainer at one end. Maté contains
1.85 per cent of caffein, acting as a restorative, much as tea does;
but, being bitter, the taste for it has to be acquired.

=Mulberry= (_Morus_), allied to the nettle, hemp, and elm families. The
BLACK MULBERRY, mainly cultivated for its fruit, is perhaps a native of
Armenia, but was early introduced into Greece, where its leaves are
still used for feeding silkworms. The Asiatic species, or the WHITE
MULBERRY, of which there are numerous varieties, mostly with white
fruit, is that mainly cultivated in Japan, China, India and Italy for
the silkworm. The fibrous inner bark of the PAPER MULBERRY is made into
paper by the Chinese and Japanese, and into tapa cloth in the South Sea
Islands. The so-called fruit is formed from a whole cluster of flowers
which become fleshy, turn color and sweeten while they enlarge until
they meet those of the other flowers, enclosing the true fruits, small
dry capsules. Extensively grown for market near large cities in Europe
and the United States.

=Nutmeg= (_Myristica fragrans_), an evergreen tree native to the East
Indies, and now in cultivation in the East and West Indies and Brazil.
The fruit is pear-shaped and about two inches across. The seed has a
thin, hard shell enclosing the nutmeg, which is mottled in appearance.
The largest and roundest nutmegs are the best, and though generally
about one hundred and ten to the pound, they may be as few as
sixty-eight. Nutmegs contain about twenty-five per cent of nutmeg butter
or oil of mace, a vegetable fat now considerably employed in
soap-making.

=Olive= (_Olea europæa_), a very valuable small tree, seldom more than
thirty feet high, of slow growth, but sometimes exceeding twenty feet in
girth and seven centuries in age. The wild olive has squarish, spinous
branches; opposite evergreen, leathery, shortly-stalked leaves, hoary on
their under surface, and small white flowers. The cultivated olive (var.
_sativa_) differs in its rounder branches which have no spines, longer
leaves and larger fruit. For pickling, the fruits are gathered unripe,
soaked in an alkaline lye, and then bottled in brine. For oil, the ripe
fruit, which usually yields sixty to seventy per cent, is squeezed,
yielding virgin oil, and the marc or cake is wetted and re-pressed, and
the kernels crushed and boiled to yield a second and third quality. The
tree grows best on light or calcareous soils near the sea, and the value
attached to its oil as an article of food in countries where butter can
with difficulty be preserved made the tree from early times the symbol
of peace and good-will. It is extensively cultivated in Mediterranean
Europe, Syria, South Africa, Australia and California.

=Orange= (_Citrus Aurantium_), small evergreen trees, probably a native
of southern China and Burma, but grows wild and spinous in Indian
jungles. The scattered glossy leaves are remarkable for their double
articulation, having one joint at each end of the winged leaf-stalk. The
fragrant white or pinkish flowers have five sepals, five petals, and
branched stamens. The fruit has a leathery rind, containing large
spindle-shaped cells filled with watery juice. As the fruit takes some
months to ripen, it occurs on the tree at the same time as the next
year’s blossoms. There are two chief varieties or sub-species, the sweet
or China orange, and the bitter, bigarade or Seville orange, but the
Mandarin and Tangerine oranges are sometimes ranked as a distinct
species. The principal orange-growing sections of the United States are
Florida, Louisiana and California.

The MANDARIN ORANGE or CLOVE ORANGE has fruit much broader than long,
with a rind very loosely attached to the flesh, and small leaves; the
TANGERINE ORANGE is apparently derived from the mandarin. It is grown in
Florida. The JAFFA ORANGE has now a great reputation. The MAJORCA ORANGE
is seedless. The KUM-QUAT from China and Japan, is little bigger than a
gooseberry, and grows well in Australia. The NAVEL ORANGE, nearly
seedless, is a favorite variety with California growers.

Orange trees are often extremely fruitful, so that a tree twenty feet
high and occupying a space of little more than twelve feet in diameter
sometimes yields from three thousand to four thousand oranges in a year.
One tree in Florida has often borne ten thousand oranges in a single
season. The orange tree attains an age of at least one hundred to one
hundred and fifty years. Young trees are less productive than old ones,
and the fruit is also less juicy, has a thicker rind, and more numerous
seeds.

=Palms= were called by Linnæus “the princess of the vegetable kingdom,”
and comprising over one thousand species, chiefly natives of the
tropics. They have mostly cylindric, unbranched stems, bearing a tuft of
large, often gigantic, leathery leaves at the top, the leaves being torn
into segments. The leaves are sometimes spattered, and in most cases
have a fibrous sheathing base to the leaf-stalk. The terminal leaf-bud
is the “cabbage” which, in some species, is eaten. The fruit varies very
much, with a hard seed, as in the date; drupaceous, as in the cocoa-nut;
or covered with woody reflexed scales, as in the sago palm. The use of
palms are innumerable. Beams, veneers, canes, thatch, fibre for cordage
and matting, fans, hats, bowls, spoons, sago, sugar, wine, spirits,
food, oil and wax are only some among the number. See also DATE,
BETEL-NUT, COCOA-NUT.

=Peach= (_Amygdalus persica_), probably a native of China. The nectarine
is merely a smooth-fruited variety, differing, however, in flavor. The
stone in both is coarsely furrowed. The flowers which appear before the
leaves, are of a delicate pink. The fruit in the peach has a separable
wooly skin. Though deliciously flavored and refreshing, since it
contains eighty-five per cent of water and eight per cent of pectose and
gum, it does not contain much nutriment. Peaches grow extensively in
Europe and Asia and second only to the apple as an orchard fruit in the
United States. California, Michigan, Georgia and Texas lead in
production.

=Pear= (_Pyrus communis_), is a tree belonging to the same genus as the
apple. It grows from thirty to seventy feet high, with a pyramidal
outline; branches spinous in the wild state; leaves scattered and
somewhat leathery; flowers in clusters; fruit with a fleshily-enlarged
stalk, core near the apex and parchment-like, and black seeds. Gritty
particles, due to groups of wood-cells, occur in the flesh. They are
widely cultivated in temperate regions, but chiefly in France and the
United States. Ranks fourth among American orchard fruits, being
preceded by the apple, peach and plum. Chiefly grown in California, New
York and Michigan.

=Pecan= (_C. illinoensis_), is a large, slender tree reaching a maximum
height of one hundred and seventy feet and a diameter of six feet. It
grows in moist soil, especially along streams, from Indiana to Iowa and
Missouri, south to Kentucky and Texas. It is cultivated in the Southern
States for its sweet, edible nut, which forms an important article of
commerce.

=Persimmon=, the Virginian date-plum (_Dios pyros virginiana_), a
moderately-sized tree of the United States, belonging to the ebony
tribe, the round orange fruit of which, though austere, becomes edible
when affected by frost. They are fermented into a beer and distilled for
spirit in the Southern States. The bark has medicinal properties.

=Plum= (_Prunus domestica_), a small fruit-tree, native to Asia Minor
and the Caucasus, and naturalized in most temperate parts of the world.
The Damson or Damascus variety was grown by the Romans from very early
times. Large quantities of many varieties, both home and foreign are
grown, which are eaten raw, in tarts, and in preserves, or, when dried
as _prunes_. Extensive cultivation is carried on throughout temperate
regions. Third most important orchard fruit in the United States,
exceeding eight million bushels, California growing two-thirds. All
prunes produced in the United States grown in the Pacific States; first
prune orchard planted at San Jose, California, in 1870.

=Pomegranate= (_Punica Granatum_), long valued in hot countries for the
refreshing pulp of its fruit. It is a tree, fifteen to twenty-five feet
in height, native to West Asia and North Africa. It has opposite,
simple, entire leaves, and the flower has five scarlet or white petals.
The fruit has a tough, leathery gold-colored, but partly reddened,
exterior and numerous seeds each surrounded by a reddish pulp. This
varies in flavor in the numerous cultivated varieties. The rind is rich
in tannin, and is employed in tanning Morocco leather.

=Walnut= (_Juglans regia_), or COMMON WALNUT is a native of Persia and
the Himalayas, but has long been cultivated in all parts of the south of
Europe. It is a tree of sixty to ninety feet, with large spreading
branches. The leaves have two to four pairs of leaflets, and a terminal
one. The ripe fruit is one of the best of nuts. It yields a bland fixed
oil, which, under the names of walnut oil and nut oil, is much used by
painters as a drying oil. The timber of the walnut is of great value,
and is much used by cabinet-makers. The wood of the roots is beautifully
veined. Both the root and the husks of the walnut yield a dye, which is
used for staining light-colored woods brown. Very similar to the common
walnut, but more valuable, is the BLACK WALNUT of North America, found
in most parts of the United States, except the most northern. See also
BUTTERNUT.


_IV. FRUIT-BEARING SHRUBS AND PLANTS_

  The trees previously mentioned are woody plants with only one stem,
  which begin to form branches at some distance from the ground. The
  shrubs, on the contrary, are woody plants in which the stem forms
  branches close to the ground, or even underground.

=Banana= (_Musa sapientium_), a handsome plant, long cultivated in
tropical and sub-tropical countries for its fruit. The sheathing bases
of the large, oblong leaves form a false stem twenty to thirty feet
high. The spikes of irregular flowers are succeeded by a branch of one
hundred to two hundred fruits, weighing together from fifty to eighty
pounds. The long, berry-like fruits, as they ripen, convert nearly all
their starch into sugar and pectose, and form a valuable article of
food, the staple food in many tropical countries, producing forty-four
times the weight of food per acre yielded by the potato. It is produced
in enormous quantities in the West Indies and Brazil, and shipped in
constantly increasing volume to the United States and Europe. Beginning
with a few hundred bunches in 1870, consumption in the United States has
increased to upwards of five million dollars worth annually. Banana
flour is becoming a staple article of food.

Its cultivation antedates historical records in India. Pliny mentions
that the Greeks under Alexander the Great saw it in India.

[Illustration: The banana plant is the most wonderfully productive fruit
in the world. It is a native of Asia, but most of our bananas come from
the New World. Here the plant is full grown and the bananas ripe. From
the time the suckers are planted to the gathering of the fruit is less
than a year, so rapidly does the plant come to maturity.]

=Blueberry.= See Huckleberry.

=Cassava= (_Manihot utilissima_), the bitter cassava, and _M. Aipi_, the
sweet cassava, are both natives of tropical America. Both are shrubby
plants, the former with yellow poisonous roots and seven-lobed leaves,
the latter with reddish wholesome roots and five-lobed leaves. The
coarsely-grated roots are baked into cassava cakes, from which the
intoxicating drink piwarrie is prepared. The juice of the poisonous kind
is rendered harmless by boiling, and is then the delicious sauce known
as cassareep. If allowed to settle, it deposits a large quantity of
starch, known as Brazilian arrowroot when simply sun-dried, or as
tapioca when partly converted into dextrine by roasting on hot plates.
It was long cultivated in Brazil, and, after Spanish discovery, extended
to Africa and Asia.

=Cranberry= (_Oxycoccus_), a small evergreen shrub, that grows in bogs
and marshy grounds, and is a small wiry shrub with creeping, thread-like
branches, and small oval leaves rolled back at the edges. The berries
are an excellent antiscorbutic, and hence furnish an excellent addition
to sea stores. The American cranberry (_O. macrocarpa_) is larger and
more upright with bigger leaves and berries. Large quantities are
exported to Europe and other varieties are also imported into Britain
and Germany from Russia and other parts of northern Europe.

=Currant= (_Ribes rubrum_), is an important shrub, bearing red, black
and white fruit. Its branches are not prickly; its leaves have three to
five lobes, greenish-yellow blossoms and the berries hang in clusters
like grapes. It is often planted in gardens for the sake of its fruit,
but is also found in a wild state. Black currants are extensively grown
in Continental Europe, Scotland and Canada; sparingly in the United
States. In France the _liqueur de cassis_ is made from the fruit. Red
currants are very widely grown in Europe and the United States, chiefly
for jellies. New York and Michigan lead in production.

[Illustration: The method of gathering bananas is practically the same
wherever they are grown, and here we see the bunches being brought to
the railway. Bananas need a great deal of water. They will only grow in
a warm, damp atmosphere and if much rain does not fall they must be
supplied with water artificially. This is done by having canals between
the rows of plants.]

=Elder= (_Sambucus_) has thorny branches, elliptical, serrated leaves
and single, white blossoms which grow in such numbers that they
sometimes resemble snow. Its fruit is black and blue. It grows from
three to six feet high in copses, hedges and forests. Few of the species
are considered of much value though _S. Canadensis_ is used to make a
domestic wine and jelly. The most ornamental of the species is _S.
pubens_, which has large, loose panicles of bright scarlet berries. This
species is occasionally found in moist high grounds from New York
southward. It is very abundant and beautiful on the slopes of the
Alleghany Mountains.

=Gooseberry= (_Ribes Grossularia_) has branches covered with spines,
brown-reddish blossoms and berries of green, yellow or reddish color,
which stand singly on the young shoots. It is frequently planted in
gardens, and has many varieties. It is highly prized in northwestern
Europe; not cultivated in southern Europe, and reaches highest
perfection in England. In the United States, while widely grown, is of
minor importance, ranking sixth among small fruits, being preceded by
the strawberry, raspberry, blackberry, cranberry and currant.

=Grape= (_Vitis Labrusca_) has a climbing, knotty trunk, which sometimes
attains a length of thirty to fifty feet; its leaves have from three to
five lobes, and are coarsely serrated; its small, fragrant, greenish
blossoms stand in panicles. The fruit of many varieties of vine, which
have been produced by cultivation in the course of thousands of years is
very different in color, size and flavor. It is either consumed raw and
dried, or manufactured into wine.

In the United States the first vineyard was planted by Lord Delaware in
1610, but not extensively grown until after the introduction of the
Concord grape during the last century. While the Concord, Catawba,
Isabella, Hartford and most of the cultivated varieties originated from
the wild northern fox or plum grape, _Vitis Labrusca_, the Clinton grape
was derived from the wild species, _Vitis riparia_, and most of the
American wine grapes from the native summer grape, _Vitis aestivalis_.

Since 1860 grape culture has made remarkable progress, the last census
showing a crop exceeding eight million dollars in value. New York
produces one-third of the American grape crop and is followed by Ohio,
Pennsylvania, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Missouri and Kansas, in order
named. Notwithstanding the extensive culture of the European grape in
the Pacific States, the American grape constitutes three-fifths in value
of all grape products of the United States. Millions of young vines have
been shipped to Europe to be top grafted with the European vine.

The grape shares leading rank with the apple among the world fruits.
Chief products: raisins, currants and wine of great commercial
importance. Raisin production largest in Spain, but important in
southwestern Asia, Australia and California. _Currants_ are small,
seedless raisins, mostly grown in Greece (name derived from Corinth).
Wine is made throughout the world, total production estimated at four
billion gallons, France, Italy and Spain contributing about
three-fourths of this enormous amount. The European grape products of
California--wine, raisins and table grapes,--amount in value to
two-fifths of all grape products of the United States.

Remotely ancient in Egypt. Used by Lake Dwellers of the Bronze Age in
Italy. Cultivated by the Phoenicians, Hebrews, Greeks and Romans.
Introduced into China 120 B. C.

=Huckleberry.= The popular name of the genus _Gaylussacia_, of which
there are several species. The _Dwarf_ huckleberry, the _Blue_
huckleberry and the _Black_ huckleberry are common throughout the United
States, the latter being the huckleberry of the Northern States. In New
England the name is commonly restricted to the black berry species in
distinction from the blue berry. The shrubs range in height from about
three feet to twelve feet high. In New England canning huckleberries is
an extensive if not exceedingly profitable industry. The crop is first
picked by hand and afterwards with a “blueberry rake.” The Indians long
ago gathered the fruit and dried it for use during wintertime.

=Pepper Plant= (_Piper nigrum_) is found all over the Torrid Zone. Its
berries stand to the number of twenty to thirty on one spike; at first
they are green, then they turn red, and finally black. The black pepper
is prepared from the unripe fruit, the white from the ripe fruit, which
loses its black shell by being put into salt water (sea water). Pepper
is now the most commonly and widely used spice. It is extensively
cultivated in East and West Indies, Siam and Malay Peninsula, whence
millions of pounds are exported.

Cayenne pepper, or chili is much grown in tropical Africa and America,
but less generally used than black pepper.

=Pistacia= is a small tree, about twenty feet high, and native to Persia
and Syria, but now cultivated in all parts of southern Europe and
northern Africa. Flowers in racemes, fruit ovate and about the size of
an olive. Pistachio nuts are much esteemed; but readily become rancid.
Oil is expressed from them for culinary and other uses.

[Illustration: =A PINE-APPLE PLANTATION IN FLORIDA=]

=Pine-apple= (_Ananassa sativa_) is highly esteemed and much cultivated
for its fruit. It has a number of long, serrated or smooth-edged,
sharp-pointed, rigid leaves, springing from the root, in the midst of
which a short flower-stem is thrown up, bearing a single spike of
flowers, and therefore a single fruit. From the summit of the fruit
springs a crown or tuft of small leaves; capable of becoming a new
plant; the pine-apple, in cultivation, being propagated entirely by
crowns and suckers, as, in a state of high cultivation, perfect seed is
almost never produced. The pine-apple is a native of tropical America,
and is found wild in sandy maritime districts in certain parts of South
America, but has been very much changed by cultivation. It is
extensively grown in Florida, and in the West Indies for shipment to
northern markets and to Europe. Increasing outdoor plantations have also
been developed in the Azores, the Hawaiian Islands, northern Africa,
Queensland, and the Bahamas. Florida supports upward of fourteen million
plants. Great care is requisite in the cultivation of the pine-apple,
which without it is generally fibrous and coarse, with little sweetness
or flavor, and with it one of the most delicate and richly flavored of
fruits.

=WHERE TEA GROWS AND IS CULTIVATED=

[Illustration: =A TEA PLANTATION IN THE BEAUTIFUL HILL COUNTRY OF
CEYLON=

The most productive tea gardens are at an elevation of about one
thousand feet, the land at this altitude being generally of an
undulating character, well watered, and the climate sufficiently humid
to encourage leaf-production.]

[Illustration: The plants are ready for plucking when three years old,
at which time they send out numerous leaf-shoots, known as “flush.” The
plucking season begins in September and lasts until June of the
following year, during which period each bush is plucked about sixteen
times.]

For producing superior fruit in winter the Smooth Cayenne and Black
Jamaica are two of the best and most reliable, and the Queen is the most
highly esteemed for summer fruiting. The Spanish is the variety commonly
grown in Florida. A spirituous liquor (Pine-Apple Rum) is made from the
pine-apple in some warm countries.

=Raspberry= (_Rubus Idæus_), the most valued of all the species of
Rubus. The wild raspberry has scarlet fruit and is found in thickets and
woods throughout the whole of Europe and northern Asia. It was early
introduced into the United States, but those now grown originated in
native American varieties. The black raspberry, is largely grown in New
York and Ohio as a commercial industry. The red variety is widely grown
in the United States, but production is small compared to that of the
black raspberry. Among the more promising varieties of the blacks are
Gregg, Ohio and Kansas. Cuthbert is one of the best of the red
varieties. The raspberry has long been in cultivation for its fruit. The
root is creeping, perennial; the stems only biennial, bearing fruit in
the second year, woody, but with very large pith. The raspberry is the
leading bush fruit of the United States and second only to the
strawberry among small fruits. New York, Michigan, Ohio and
Pennsylvania, ranking in the order named, grow over one-half of the
total crop, which exceeds seventy-five million quarts. The berries are
consumed raw or in a preserved state, or are manufactured into raspberry
juice, wine and cordial.

=Tea= (_Camellia theifera_) is a plant of which there are two well-known
varieties: (1) Assam tea; and (2) China tea. The Assam variety, known as
“indigenous” tea, is a tree of vigorous growth attaining a height of
thirty to forty feet with a leaf from eight to ten inches in length.
The China variety is a comparatively stunted shrub, growing to a height
of twelve to fifteen feet, with a rounder leaf about three and one-half
inches in length, and calyx covered with soft, short hairs. These two
varieties have resulted in a hybrid which combines the hardy character
of the China with the other features of the indigenous, now largely
cultivated on the hills of India and Ceylon, and known as
“hybrid-Assam.” The hybrids vary much in productiveness.

The tea-plant will flourish in all parts of the tropical and subtropical
zones where the rainfall is over sixty inches and evenly distributed
throughout the year. In Ceylon it grows from sea-level to an altitude of
seven thousand feet.

The tea-plant is not particular as to soil, but it succeeds best on new
forest-land containing plenty of humus. As is the case with cacao,
coffee and other economic plants, tea grown on rich, alluvial soil is
stronger than tea grown on poorer land, though the latter is often of
more delicate flavor.

Chinese teas may be classified thus: Monings, or black leaf teas are
grown in the north of China, and shipped from Hankow and Shanghai. Green
teas are shipped from Shanghai and consist of Gunpowder, Imperial,
Hyson, Young Hyson and Twankay. Kaisows or Red-leafs are grown farther
south and are shipped from Foo Chow.

The United States and Canada consume nearly all the tea exported from
Japan, all of which is of light character, consisting mostly of Oolongs
and greens. Tea has been grown with success in South Carolina and
experimentally elsewhere in the United States.

MANUFACTURE.--The first process is to spread the green leaf thinly on
hessian trays in the withering house, where it is exposed to a free
current of air--a very important operation, which takes from twelve to
forty-eight hours. When the leaf is tough and flaccid, like an old kid
glove, it is ready for rolling. The old or Chinese system of rolling was
by hand. Now this process is performed by machinery, and in India and
Ceylon tea is not manipulated after plucking. The rolled leaf is now
ready for fermentation, an operation requiring close attention. It is
placed in drawers or on tables and covered. The state of the weather
hastens or retards the process; in hot, dry weather the leaf will be
sufficiently fermented or oxidized in twenty minutes, in cold wet
weather it may take hours. Whenever the leaf assumes a bright copper
color it must be fired; over-fermentation is a fatal error.

The difference between black and green teas is simply this: if the tea
is fired immediately after rolling it is green tea; if it is fermented
it becomes black tea. After firing the manufacture is complete, and the
tea is what is known as “unassorted,” which contains all the different
grades into which tea is usually separated. Sorting by hand sieves is
still done in small factories, but in large factories machinery is
used.


_V. FLOWERS AND OTHER ORNAMENTAL PLANTS_

  We cultivate in our gardens plants of all kinds, which give us great
  pleasure on account of their lovely blossoms or their agreeable
  odors. They are no longer luxuries, but have become necessities of
  life; and never have they become so extensively grown and widely
  appreciated as now. There are plants suited for sunny and shaded
  aspects and for various positions, from the mossy dell to high and
  dry situations in the country; from the area to the housetop in the
  town. Only knowledge is wanted for making the best selections for
  different purposes and sites, with information on culture for the
  uninitiated to achieve satisfactory results.

  Plants and flowers grown in gardens are embraced in three groups: 1.
  ANNUALS, 2. BIENNIALS, and 3. PERENNIALS, the last-named being
  divided into two sections: (_a_) _herbaceous_, with soft or
  succulent stems that die in the winter; and (_b_) _shrubby_
  perennials with woody stems that survive the winter.

  ANNUALS are those flowers which are born, grow, flower, ripen seeds,
  and die within a year. They never push growths a second season after
  flowering, because the roots die as well as the tops and branches.
  The common scarlet Poppy is a typical example.

  BIENNIALS are those plants which are raised from seeds in the spring
  or early summer and require the whole season to make their growth
  preparatory to flowering the next year, dying after ripening seeds.

  PERENNIALS differ from the above in living more than two years. All
  plants, such as hardy border flowers, that die down and spring up
  again from the root-stock year after year are
  perennials--herbaceous. Roses and other flowering shrubs are also
  perennials, but not herbaceous. _Orchids._ One of the best examples
  of herbaceous perennials is that of the Orchids, the most popular of
  which are the Odontoglossums and the Cattleyas.

  FLORIST’S FLOWERS. This term has been applied to a number of plants
  which under cultivation and by selection or hybridization have
  produced from seed varieties of improved form, habit or color. The
  plants included under this title are constantly being added to, and
  great impetus given to the cultivation of hardy flowers and plants
  in recent years. The following are representative of this class:

=Begonia.= Named in honor of M. Begon, a French patron of botany. All
the species of Begonia are interesting and beautiful winter ornaments of
the hot-house or green-house, of the simplest culture in any rich soil
if allowed an abundant supply of water. There are several
tuberous-rooted species and varieties. They have large, showy flowers,
and succeed well in a moist, shady border. The tubers should be kept
warm and dry during the winter. They are readily propagated by cuttings,
seeds, or division of tubers.

=Carnation= (_Dianthus caryophyllus_) is an almost hardy herbaceous
perennial plant, a native of southern Europe. The Greeks and Romans used
it for making chaplets whence it was called “coronation.” It is a
favorite exhibition flower, of many varieties, forms and colors; but the
red, white, pink and yellow predominate. Carnations are among the plants
which can be grown in the atmosphere of cities, but they are intolerant
of shade. Propagation is usually effected by the process of layering,
but cutting, seeds, and divisions are also employed.

=Cattleya.= What the rose and carnation are among garden plants, the
Cattleya is among Orchids, preëminently beautiful. Not a species but
possesses claims of the strongest nature on the culturist’s attention,
either for its delicate loveliness or the rich and vivid coloring of its
large and handsome flowers. They are natives of the temperate parts of
South America, and in cultivation are found to succeed in a lower
temperature than is necessary for the majority of plants of the same
order. The plants grow vigorously, and consequently flower in
perfection. The colors of the flowers run through all the shades of
white, rose, rosy-lilac, crimson and carmine, nor is even yellow absent.

=Dahlia.= This, through constant improvement, has become one of the
indispensable flowers. It derived its name from the Swedish botanist
Dahl. Dahlias are known as show, fancy, pompon, single and cactus. They
vary from the single type, not unlike a daisy, with broad rays, to the
tiny, tightly-quilled, formal “pompon,” and to the “cactus-flowered,”
resembling a chrysanthemum; and their lines are equally varied. Yellow,
lilac, white and the deepest maroon, are found in innumerable
combinations. It is necessary to lift the roots in late autumn, and,
having ripened them in a shed, to store them for the winter in a cool,
dry place, where the temperature will not fall below thirty-two degrees
Fahrenheit. In the spring, the separate tubers may be planted in deep,
rich soil; or the roots may be placed in February in a hot-bed, and when
the young shoots which form are about three and a half inches long, they
may be separated, together with a small piece of the tuber, and potted
in small pots, which should be placed in the hot-bed until the young
plants are ready to be hardened, preparatory to being planted outdoors.

=Geranium.= Our native species, called “crane’s bill,” from the
beak-like appearance of the fruit, have palmately lobed or cleft leaves.
The flowers have unusually bright-colored petals. The plants commonly
cultivated in gardens and greenhouses under the name of Geraniums are
species of Pelargonium. There are about one hundred and twenty-five
species, mostly natives of the Cape of Good Hope, prized on account of
the brilliant colors, of the flowers and the shape and markings of the
leaves.

The most popular method of propagating is by cuttings, which can be
rooted in pots or boxes of light soil placed in a greenhouse, or even a
cottage window, at any time from spring to autumn, provided the soil is
not kept very moist. Good loam is the best potting material, and beyond
a little sand it needs no addition. Firm potting is a point to be well
observed. Avoid coddling.

=Gloxinia= is the florists’ name for plants belonging to the genus
_Sinningia_, tropical American plants. They have beautiful,
many-colored, funnel-shaped flowers and velvety leaves. Seeds should be
sown in February; and if the young plants are carefully potted, they
flower the first year. They require the temperature of a warm greenhouse
during the summer months; but as the leaves die away in autumn, the
roots may be stored in a dry place, merely protected from cold. They
like a sandy soil, containing abundance of leaf-mould and heat.

=Lily= (_Lilium_) in its many forms is one of the noblest and must
beautiful of all bulbous plants. About forty-five species are natives of
the north temperate zone, many of which are prized for the size and
beauty of the flowers. The WHITE LILY (_L. candidum_), a native of the
Levant, with large white flowers, has long been in cultivation in
gardens. The EUROPEAN ORANGE LILY (_L. bulbiferum_), with large,
orange-colored flowers, is a well-known and very showy ornament in
flower gardens. The TIGER LILY (_L. tigrinum_) has a stout stem two to
five feet high with beautiful orange-colored flowers, spotted with
purple. It is a native of China but has escaped from cultivation in many
parts of the United States.

[Illustration: =PROUD COLOR BEAUTIES OF THE LAND OF FLOWERS=

1. ANTIRRHINUM. 2. THE ODONTOGLOSSUM. 3. POPPIES. 4. GLOXINIA. 5.
CORNFLOWERS. 6. NASTURTIUMS. 7. THE CATTLEYA FOBIA. 8. FOXGLOVE.]

=Nasturtium=, the generic name of a plant of the _cruciferæ_ or mustard
family, and the common name of the widely different genus _tropæolum_.
The best known of these is _Tropæolum tricolorum_, one of the most
generally cultivated annuals. It has tuberous roots, and such very weak
and slender stems, that it is found necessary always to train them over
a wire frame, as they are quite unable to support themselves. The stem
climbs six or eight feet; the flowers vary from yellow to orange,
scarlet and crimson. The unexpanded flower buds, and the young fruit
while still tender, are pickled in vinegar. The dwarf varieties of this
form bushy, rounded tufts about a foot high, and are used for bedding;
some of them have flowers of exceedingly rich colors.

=Odontoglossum.= Unquestionably the most popular genus of Orchids. Very
many of the species have been introduced into the green-house, and are
greatly prized by cultivators for their magnificent flowers, which are
remarkable both for their size and the beauty of their colors. Many of
the species have pure white flowers, variously mottled; and some have a
powerful odor of violets. With but few exceptions, they require to be
grown in a moderately cool house. They are propagated by division, and
grown like the other varieties of Orchids.

=Tulip= (_Tulipa_). A genus of upward of eighty species of hardy bulbous
plants. Between forty and fifty species are known, mostly natives of the
warmer parts of Asia. The most famous of all florists’ flowers is the
garden tulip (_T. gesneriana_), which is from eighteen inches to two
feet high, with a smooth stem, bearing one erect, large flower. The
tulip is still most sedulously cultivated in Holland, especially at
Haarlem, whence bulbs are largely exported; but attention is almost
exclusively devoted to the cheaper varieties, which are used in hundreds
of thousands for the purposes of decoration in gardens and rooms
throughout winter and spring. Tulips are propagated by offset bulbs, and
new varieties are raised from seed. Another species of tulip cultivated
in gardens is the sweet-scented tulip, or Van Thol tulip (_T.
suaveolens_), which has yellow or red flowers, inferior to those of the
common garden tulip in beauty, but prized for their fragrance, and for
appearing more early in the season.


ROSES AND ROSE CULTURE

  Roses are perhaps the most universally admired of all flowers, and
  few respond so well to the care of the cultivator. The earlier they
  are planted in the autumn (October 15th to November 15th) the better
  they will grow. Spring planting is fairly successful, provided the
  roots are kept moist when out of the ground. Time, April 15th to May
  15th.

  Roses enjoy deeply worked and fertile soil, and may be grown in
  specially prepared beds, or as borders. An open position, with a
  south or southeast exposure is preferable. Pruning should be done
  toward the end of March. When especially large blooms are desired,
  only one should be borne on each stem, the remainder of the buds
  being removed.


DESIRABLE VARIETIES FOR THE ROSE GARDEN

HYBRID PERPETUALS.--These produce handsome blooms in varied colors in
the summer followed by a more or less bountiful supply in the autumn.
Hardiest of the garden roses.

_Varieties_:

  Frau Karl Druschki.--An ideal white rose.
  Jacqueminot (Jack Rose).--Brilliant scarlet.
  Paul Neyron.--Dark rose; largest of all.
  Magna Charta.--Bright pink; a favorite.
  George Arends.--Splendid soft pink.

HYBRID TEAS.--These possess the freedom of growth of the foregoing with
much of the delicacy of flowers for which Tea-scented Roses are admired.
The most satisfactory for the general garden.

_Varieties_:

  Robert Huey.--One of the largest bright reds.
  The Lyon.--Deep coral pink verging on yellow.
  White Killarney.--One of the best pure whites.
  La France.--Clear, satiny pink.
  Burbank.--Rich pink.
  Richmond.--Brilliant crimson.

TEA AND NOISETTES.--Loveliness with profuseness are combined in this
section. Much tenderer than the Hybrid Teas; sweet scented. The Noisette
is an excellent climber for walls.

_Varieties_:

  The Bride.--Pure white.
  Perle des Jardins.--Beautiful rich yellow.
  Papa Goutier.--Dark crimson.
  William Allen Richardson.--Deep orange-yellow flowers.
  Garland.--Semi-double, blush and white.
  Longworth Rambler.--Splendid autumn climber; flowers, semi-double and
  crimson.

HARDY CLIMBERS.--Popular and showy.

_Varieties_:

  American Pillar.--Large, single, pink flowers.
  Excelsa.--Finest of crimson ramblers.
  Hiawatha.--Single, brilliant crimson.
  Dorothy Perkins.--Soft shell-pink, fragrant.
  Lady Gay.--Delicate cerise-pink which change to creamy white.
  Wichmoss.--A “Moss” rose, light bluish-pink, fragrant.

HYBRID BRIERS.--Hardy semi-climbing roses.

_Varieties_:

  Lord Penzance.--Beautiful contrasting shades.
  Refulgence.--Dazzling scarlet, in clusters.
  Juliet.--Rosy red with reverse petals of old gold.

THE “BABY RAMBLERS.”--Dwarf, “perpetual bloomers.”

_Varieties_:

  Phyllis.--Beautiful pink.
  Jessie.--Bright cherry-red, white center.
  Orleans.--Brilliant red, white center.
  Snowball.--White, free flowering.

JAPANESE AND CHINESE.--

_Varieties_:

  Blairii (China).--Vigorous climber for sunny walls; flowers, blush and
  rose.
  Rugosa (Japanese).--No pruning is needed; flowers, white, rose and
  violet.

=GUIDE FOR THE BEST ANNUAL FLOWERS=

  +--------------------------------+---------------------+-----------------+
  |     =Common and Botanical      | =Color, Height and  |=Kind of Soil and|
  |         Name; Hints on         |   Time in Bloom=    | Light Required= |
  |          Cultivation=          |                     |                 |
  +--------------------------------+---------------------+-----------------+
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |        BLOOMING IN MAY         |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Pansies= (_Viola tricolor_),   |Various; 7 inches; 8 |Rich, light;     |
  |generally wintered in frames,   |weeks.               |partial shade.   |
  |but protected with leaves often |                     |                 |
  |survive the winter outdoors.    |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Trailing Catchfly= (_Silene    |Pink, white; 12      |Light, rich loam;|
  |pendula_).--For succession from |inches; 4 weeks.     |sun.             |
  |May 15th to July 15th sow out-  |                     |                 |
  |doors September 1st, and again  |                     |                 |
  |in early spring.                |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Cornflower= (_Centaurea        |Blue; 24 inches; 10  |Light; sun.      |
  |Cyanus_).--With moisture and    |weeks.               |                 |
  |frequent picking will bloom     |                     |                 |
  |longer.                         |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=_Calliopsis_= (_Coreopsis      |Yellow and brown; 24 |Light; sun.      |
  |tinctoria_).--_Calliopsis       |inches; 12 weeks.    |                 |
  |elegans_ is one of the best     |                     |                 |
  |browns among flowers.           |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |     BLOOMING IN JUNE           |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Giant Spider Plant= (_Cleome   |Rosy purple; 36      |Light; sun.      |
  |spinosa_).--Usually planted in  |inches; 4 weeks.     |                 |
  |the front of shrubbery.         |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Ageratum= (_Ageratum           |Blue; 8 inches; 16   |Rich, light; sun |
  |conyzoides_).--Sow seed under   |weeks.               |or half shade.   |
  |glass in March. For edging.     |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Annual Phlox= (_Phlox          |Various; 12 inches;  |Rich, moist; sun.|
  |Drummondi_).--Remove fading     |12 weeks.            |                 |
  |flowers daily.                  |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Monkey Flower= (_Mimulus       |Various; 36 inches; 6|Rich, moist;     |
  |luteus_).--Spotted petals.      |weeks.               |shade.           |
  |Flowers somewhat resemble a     |                     |                 |
  |snapdragon.                     |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Three-colored Gilia= (_Gilia   |Various; 24 inches; 8|Any good; sun.   |
  |tricolor_).--A profuse bloomer. |weeks.               |                 |
  |Sow seeds where plants are to   |                     |                 |
  |grow by May 1st, and it will    |                     |                 |
  |bloom in late June.             |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Shirley Poppy= (_Papaver       |Various; 24 inches; 2|Good, moisture;  |
  |Rhœas_).--A form of the common  |weeks.               |sun.             |
  |corn poppy. Sow seeds in the    |                     |                 |
  |poppy bed in early September or |                     |                 |
  |April.                          |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Sweet Pea= (_Lathyrus          |Various; 72 inches; 8|Heavy, rich loam;|
  |odoratus_).--Manure and moisture|weeks.               |sun.             |
  |cause abundance of blossoms. Sow|                     |                 |
  |seed March 20th near New York.  |                     |                 |
  |Cut flowers daily.              |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Candytuft= (_Iberis            |Various; 8 inches; 4 |Good; sun.       |
  |umbellata_).--Sow early where   |weeks.               |                 |
  |plants are to stand.            |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Petunia= (_Petunia hybrida_).--|White, pink; 12      |Good; sun.       |
  |Grow somewhat apart from low    |inches; 16 weeks     |                 |
  |plants because straggling.      |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Western Wallflower= (_Erysimum |Orange; 18 inches; 4 |Dry; sun.        |
  |asperum_).--For May bloom sow in|weeks.               |                 |
  |September, for June flowers sow |                     |                 |
  |in April.                       |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Antirrhinum or Snapdragon=     |Various; 24 inches;  |Rich, moist sun. |
  |(_Antirrhinum majus_).--Sow in  |12 weeks.            |                 |
  |hotbed in February for June     |                     |                 |
  |bloom.                          |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |       BLOOMING IN JULY         |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Lavatera= (_Lavatera tri_).--  |Pink, white; 24      |Light, rich; sun.|
  |Sow early May where plants are  |inches; 5 weeks.     |                 |
  |to grow.                        |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=_ neriifolia_= (_Clarkia       |White, lilac, pink;  |Light, rich; sun |
  |elegans_).--_Clarkia pulchella_ |24 inches; 6 weeks.  |or half shade.   |
  |is also useful for edging beds. |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Large-flowered Godetia=        |White, lilac, pink;  |Good; sun.       |
  |(_Œnothera Whitneyi_).--The     |12 inches; 6 weeks.  |                 |
  |large-flowered species. Some    |                     |                 |
  |with spotted throats.           |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Early Cosmos= (_Cosmos         |White, pink, crimson;|Light; sun.      |
  |binnatus_).--Very rich soil     |48 inches; 8 weeks.  |                 |
  |makes it bloom too late.        |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Sweet Alyssum= (_Alyssum       |White; 8 inches; 14  |Light; sun.      |
  |maritimum_).--Blooms till frost.|weeks.               |                 |
  |Trim back moderately when       |                     |                 |
  |flowers fade.                   |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=_Nicotiana affinis_=           |White; 36 inches; 12 |Light; sun or    |
  |(_Nicotiana alata_).--Very      |weeks.               |part shade.      |
  |fragrant at night. Plants       |                     |                 |
  |usually started in cold frame.  |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Sander’s Nicotiana= (_Nicotiana|Various; 36 inches;  |Light, rich; sun |
  |Sanderæ_).--More satisfactory as|12 weeks.            |or part shade.   |
  |a greenhouse plant, steadily    |                     |                 |
  |improving.                      |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=_Arctotis grandis_= (_Arctotis |White and lilac; 18  |Light, rich; sun.|
  |grandis_).--Petals white above, |inches; 14 weeks.    |                 |
  |lilac beneath. Blue-centered    |                     |                 |
  |daisy.                          |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Stock, Gilliflower= (_Matthiola|Various; 18 inches;  |Deep, rich; sun. |
  |incana_, var. _annua_).--For    |12 weeks.            |                 |
  |July bloom sow February in      |                     |                 |
  |greenhouse or hotbed.           |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Annual Larkspur= (_Delphinium  |Various; 18 inches; 8|Good, light; sun.|
  |Ajacis_).--Sow seeds in Septem- |weeks.               |                 |
  |ber outdoors to have flowers    |                     |                 |
  |July 1st.                       |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Bedding Lobelia= (_Lobelia     |Blue; 10 inches; 12  |Light, rich,     |
  |Erinus_).--Blooms till frost in |weeks.               |moist; half      |
  |partial shade if watered.       |                     |shade.           |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Wishbone Flower= (_Torenia     |Blue; 8 inches; 12   |Light, rich,     |
  |Fournieri_).--Set five inches   |weeks.               |moist; half      |
  |apart in two or three lines.    |                     |shade.           |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=_Phacelia congesta_= (_Phacelia|Blue; 12 inches; 6   |Light, rich; sun.|
  |congesta_)--An interesting      |weeks.               |                 |
  |little plant for border edge.   |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=African Marigold= (_Tagetes    |Yellow; 36 inches; 16|Rich; sun.       |
  |erecta_).--Colors range from    |weeks.               |                 |
  |deep orange to sulphur yellow.  |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=California Poppy=              |Yellow; 15 inches; 16|Rich; sun.       |
  |(_Eschscholzia Californica_).-- |weeks.               |                 |
  |Sow early in border edge. Avoid |                     |                 |
  |transplanting.                  |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Giant Tulip= (_Hunnemannia     |Yellow, red; 24      |Rich; sun.       |
  |fumariæfolia_).--Bushy in habit.|inches; 8 weeks.     |                 |
  |Sow seeds in May outdoors.      |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Annual Gaillardia= (_Gaillardia|Crimson, red, yellow;|Rich, light; sun.|
  |pulchella_).--Best kinds belong |24 inches; 14 weeks. |                 |
  |to var. _picta_. Profuse        |                     |                 |
  |bloomer.                        |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Salvia or Scarlet Sage=        |Red; 36 inches; 14   |Good; sun or half|
  |(_Salvia splendens_).--Don’t    |weeks.               |shade.           |
  |place near pink flowers. Start  |                     |                 |
  |indoors in March.               |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Youth and Old Age= (_Zinnia    |Various; 36 inches;  |Rich; sun.       |
  |elegans_).--Rather stiff, but   |14 weeks.            |                 |
  |splendid for mass effects in    |                     |                 |
  |garden.                         |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Rose Moss= (_Portulaca         |Various; 6 inches; 14|Light, sun.      |
  |grandiflora_).--Sow outdoors    |weeks.               |                 |
  |June 1st. It self-sows freely.  |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Balsam= (_Impatiens            |Various; 24 inches; 6|Light, rich,     |
  |Balsamina_).--_Balsamina        |weeks.               |moist; sun.      |
  |hortensis_ strain is best. Pinch|                     |                 |
  |plants once.                    |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Painted Tongue= (_Salpiglossis |Various; 18 inches; 8|Rich, light; sun.|
  |nuala_).--Beautiful venation.   |weeks.               |                 |
  |Best started under glass.       |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Verbena.=--Sow indoors in      |Various; 12 inches;  |Rich, light,     |
  |February to get earliest bloom. |10 weeks.            |moist; sun.      |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |     BLOOMING IN AUGUST         |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Three-Colored Chrysanthemum=   |Various; 24 inches; 8|Rich, light; sun.|
  |(_Chrysanthemum carinatum_).--  |weeks.               |                 |
  |Sometimes called “painted       |                     |                 |
  |daisy.”                         |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Mourning Bride= (_Scabiosa     |Various; 24 inches; 8|Rich, light; sun.|
  |atropurpurea_).--Sown in April  |weeks.               |                 |
  |for early August bloom.         |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=China Asters= (_Callistephus   |Various; 24 inches; 6|Rich, light; sun.|
  |Chinensis_).--Dig in wood ashes |weeks.               |                 |
  |around roots to prevent         |                     |                 |
  |diseases.                       |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Everlasting= (_Helichrysum     |Deep red; 36 inches; |Light, rich; sun.|
  |bracteatum_).--This shade is by |8 weeks.             |                 |
  |far the most desirable.         |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Didiscus= (_Trachymene         |Light blue; 24       |Rich, light; sun.|
  |cærulea_).--Sow _Didiscus       |inches; 8 weeks.     |                 |
  |cæruleus_ under glass in April. |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |    BLOOMING IN SEPTEMBER       |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=China Aster= (_Callistephus    |Various; 24 inches; 4|Light, rich; sun.|
  |hortensis_).--Dig in wood ashes |weeks.               |                 |
  |to prevent aster disease.       |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Cosmos= (_Cosmos bipinnatus_). |Pink, white and red; |Fairly good; sun.|
  |--Dig around it and jolt it in  |6 inches; 2 weeks.   |                 |
  |midsummer.                      |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |    BLOOMING IN OCTOBER         |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Autumn Crocus= (_Colchicum     |Purple, white, pink; |Rich, light; sun.|
  |autumnale_).--They begin to     |4 inches; 4 weeks.   |                 |
  |bloom in September.             |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Datsch’s Aster= (_Aster        |White; 36 inches; 3  |Good, deep; sun. |
  |Datschi_).--Latest aster of its |weeks.               |                 |
  |color in trade.                 |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Himalayan Aster= (_Aster       |Violet-purple; 30    |Good, deep; sun. |
  |trinervis_).--Latest aster of   |inches; 3 weeks.     |                 |
  |its color in trade.             |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Tea Rose= (_Rosa Chinensis_).--|Various; 24 inches; 2|Rich, deep; sun. |
  |Last bloom of the monthly or tea|weeks.               |                 |
  |rose.                           |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Perennial Larkspur=            |Blue; 24 inches; 2   |Deep, rich; sun. |
  |(_Delphinium sp._).--Cut back   |weeks.               |                 |
  |larkspur after annual bloom.    |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Everbloom Torch Lily=          |Orange-scarlet; 36   |Rich, deep; sun. |
  |(_Kniphofia Pfitzerii_).--Store |inches; 6 weeks.     |                 |
  |roots of _Tritoma Pfitzerii_ in |                     |                 |
  |cellar over winter.             |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |    BLOOMING IN NOVEMBER        |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Pompon Chrysanthemum=          |Various; 36 inches; 4|Rich, loam; sun. |
  |(_Chrysanthemum Indicum_).--    |weeks.               |                 |
  |Buttons one-half inch across or |                     |                 |
  |flowers one inch across.        |                     |                 |
  +--------------------------------+---------------------+-----------------+

=GUIDE FOR THE BEST PERENNIAL FLOWERS=

  +--------------------------------+---------------------+-----------------+
  |     =Common and Botanical      | =Color, Height and  |=Kind of Soil and|
  |         Name; Hints on         |   Time in Bloom=    | Light Required= |
  |          Cultivation=          |                     |                 |
  +--------------------------------+---------------------+-----------------+
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |      BLOOMING IN MARCH         |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Anemone or Hepatica= (_Hepatica|Blue, lilac, pink,   |Rich, drained    |
  |triloba_).--For wild garden or  |white; 5 inches; 3   |loam; shade.     |
  |rock garden. Evergreen.         |weeks.               |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |      BLOOMING IN APRIL         |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Bluebell= (_Mertensia          |Blue; 16 inches; 3   |Rich loam; sun.  |
  |Virginica_).--Leave undisturbed |weeks.               |                 |
  |for years. Foliage dies in      |                     |                 |
  |summer.                         |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Shooting Star= (_Dodecatheon   |Pink; 8 inches; 3    |Good; partial    |
  |Meadia_).--Its English name is  |weeks.               |shade.           |
  |very descriptive.               |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Wild Sweet William= (_Phlox    |Blue; 16 inches; 4   |Rich; sun or     |
  |divaricata_).--The tallest of   |weeks.               |shade.           |
  |the early phloxes.              |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Sweet Violet= (_Viola          |Blue; 8 inches; 6    |Heavy rich; sun  |
  |adorata_).--Blooms again in     |weeks.               |or shade.        |
  |autumn.                         |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Rock Cress= (_Arabis albida_). |White; 4 inches; 3   |Any; sun.        |
  |--For edgings, carpeting bare   |weeks.               |                 |
  |spots, covering banks, etc.     |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Large-Leaved Saxifrage=        |White, blue, pink; 12|Any; partial     |
  |(_Saxifraga sp._).--The         |inches; 2 weeks.     |shade.           |
  |different species known to the  |                     |                 |
  |trade as _Saxifraga Megasea_    |                     |                 |
  |generally appear in early April.|                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Moss Pink= (_Phlox subulata_). |Pink; 6 inches; 4    |Good; full sun.  |
  |--Spreads rapidly. Moss-like    |weeks.               |                 |
  |foliage. Carpets ground.        |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=English Primrose= (_Primula    |Yellow; 9 inches; 3  |Light rich; full |
  |vulgaris_).--Some moisture is   |weeks.               |sun.             |
  |necessary to produce fine       |                     |                 |
  |blossoms.                       |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Leopard’s Bane= (_Doronicum    |Yellow; 10 inches; 4 |Any; sun or semi-|
  |plantagineum_, var. _excelsum_).|weeks.               |shade.           |
  |--Showiest early flower of the  |                     |                 |
  |daisy family. Flowers sometimes |                     |                 |
  |four inches across. Give        |                     |                 |
  |scattering bloom all season.    |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Poppy Mallow= (_Callirhoe      |Red, purple; 9       |Good sun.        |
  |involucrata_).--Hardy. May bloom|inches; 8 weeks.     |                 |
  |again in late summer.           |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |     BLOOMING IN MAY            |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Spiderwort= (_Tradescantia     |Violet, blue; 24     |Good; sun or half|
  |Virginiana_).--For mixed        |inches; 12 weeks.    |shade.           |
  |borders, wild garden or front of|                     |                 |
  |shrubbery.                      |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Many-Leaved Lupine= (_Lupinus  |Blue, white; 36      |Rich, heavy; sun |
  |polyphyllus_).--Easily raised   |inches; 4 weeks.     |or shade.        |
  |from seed. Soil must not dry    |                     |                 |
  |quickly.                        |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Common Columbine= (_Aquilegia  |Violet, white; 36    |Rich; sun or     |
  |vulgaris_).--Also grow _A.      |inches; 5 weeks.     |shade.           |
  |chrysantha_ (yellow), and _A.   |                     |                 |
  |Canadensis_ (red).              |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=German Iris= (_Iris            |Various; 24 inches; 3|Good; sun.       |
  |Germanica_).--Plant rhizomes    |weeks.               |                 |
  |flat, cover half their depth.   |                     |                 |
  |Best transplanted after bloom.  |                     |                 |
  |Keep from contact with manure.  |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Scotch Pink= (_Dianthus        |White, pink; 10      |Good; sun.       |
  |plumarius_).--Evergreen. Don’t  |inches; 2 weeks.     |                 |
  |cover with litter in winter.    |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Garden Heliotrope= (_Valeriana |White; 36 inches; 3  |Good; sun or half|
  |officinalis_).--Sweet spicy     |weeks.               |shade.           |
  |fragrance; rapid spreader; an   |                     |                 |
  |old favorite.                   |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Yellow Larkspur= (_Delphinium  |Yellow; 12 inches; 10|Deep, rich,      |
  |nudicaule_).--Grows wild near   |weeks.               |sandy loam; sun. |
  |streams in northern California, |                     |                 |
  |a pretty, early variety for the |                     |                 |
  |garden.                         |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Brown and Yellow Corn Flower=  |Brown and yellow; 24 |Any good; sun.   |
  |(_Lepachys columnaris_, var.    |inches; 12 weeks.    |                 |
  |_pulcherrima_).--Grown as an    |                     |                 |
  |annual for bedding. Start       |                     |                 |
  |indoors in March; it will bloom |                     |                 |
  |June to September.              |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Lily-of-the-Valley=            |White; 8 inches; 3   |Good, heavy;     |
  |(_Convallaria majalis_).--Divide|weeks.               |partial shade.   |
  |every four or five years if     |                     |                 |
  |crowded. Plant six or seven pips|                     |                 |
  |in a bunch.                     |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Bachelor’s Button= (_Ranunculus|Yellow; 18 inches; 5 |Good, moist;     |
  |acris_, var. _flore pleno_).--  |weeks.               |partial shade.   |
  |Easiest to raise of the yellow  |                     |                 |
  |buttons.                        |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Cowslip= (_Primula             |Yellow; 8 inches; 3  |Moist, deep,     |
  |officinalis_).--Small flowers   |weeks.               |light; part      |
  |well above leaves. Water during |                     |shade.           |
  |drought.                        |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Lemon Lily= (_Hemerocallis     |Yellow; 18 inches; 4 |Good; sun or     |
  |flava_).--This sweet scented    |weeks.               |partial shade.   |
  |flower is the best Hemerocallis.|                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Early Peony= (_Pæonia          |Red, white; 6 inches;|Rich, heavy; sun.|
  |officinalis_).--This European   |8 weeks.             |                 |
  |species is the parent of the    |                     |                 |
  |early peonies; blooms fortnight |                     |                 |
  |before the Chinese peonies.     |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Carolina Phlox= (_Phlox        |Rosy red; 8 inches; 4|Good, light; sun.|
  |ovata_).--A rich color for the  |weeks.               |                 |
  |front of a bed.                 |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Bleeding Heart= (_Dicentra     |Rosy red; 18 inches; |Rich, light; sun.|
  |spectabilis_).--Commonly planted|4 weeks.             |                 |
  |in fall. Sold by bulb dealers   |                     |                 |
  |also.                           |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Pyrethrum= (_Chrysanthemum     |Pink, white; 24      |Rich, deep,      |
  |coccineum_).--_Pyrethrum roseum_|inches; 5 weeks.     |light; sun.      |
  |dies from too much moisture in  |                     |                 |
  |clay soil. Wilts if too dry.    |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=English Daisy= (_Bellis        |Pink, white; 6       |Rich, rather     |
  |perennis_).--Best to winter in  |inches; 8 weeks.     |heavy; sun.      |
  |cold frames. Water freely while |                     |                 |
  |growing.                        |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Siberian Primrose= (_Primula   |Pink; 12 inches; 5   |Dry, rich; sun.  |
  |cortusoides_).--One of the      |weeks.               |                 |
  |latest primroses. Flowers one   |                     |                 |
  |inch across.                    |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |     BLOOMING IN JUNE           |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Perennial Larkspur=            |Blue; 24 inches; 6   |Rich, well-      |
  |(_Delphinium formosum_).--_D.   |weeks.               |drained, heavy;  |
  |Zalil_ is yellow, two feet. _D. |                     |sun.             |
  |elatum_ is blue, six feet. _D.  |                     |                 |
  |Chinensis_ is a dwarf kind, two |                     |                 |
  |feet.                           |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Canterbury Bells= (_Campanula  |Blue, white, pink; 24|Rich, not too    |
  |Medium_).--Biennial, needs      |inches; 5 weeks.     |light; sun.      |
  |winter protection. Var.         |                     |                 |
  |_calycanthema_ best.            |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Foxglove= (_Digitalis          |Purple; 36 inches; 5 |Light, good,     |
  |purpurea_).--Short-lived        |weeks.               |moist; sun;      |
  |perennial but self-sows. Highest|                     |shade.           |
  |type is var. _gloxiniæflora_,   |                     |                 |
  |best sown in August; wintered in|                     |                 |
  |cold frames.                    |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Beard-Tongue= (_Pentstemon     |Blue; 24 inches; 3   |Good soil;       |
  |diffusus_).--Tall slender spikes|weeks.               |partial shade.   |
  |of light purplish blue flower.  |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Japanese Iris= (_Iris          |Various; 48 inches; 4|Rich, moist; sun.|
  |lævigata_).--Largest flowered   |weeks.               |                 |
  |iris. Needs more moisture.      |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Siberian Columbine= (_Aquilegia|Light blue; 24       |Rich, dry; sun or|
  |Sibirica_).--Give columbine     |inches; 4 weeks.     |half shade.      |
  |seeds light soil; plants rather |                     |                 |
  |heavy soil.                     |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=False Indigo= (_Baptisia       |Blue; 36 inches; 3   |Good; sun.       |
  |australis_).--Resembles the     |weeks.               |                 |
  |lupine.                         |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Douglas’ Clematis= (_Clematis  |Blue; 24 inches; 3   |Rich, light loam;|
  |Douglasi_).--Bell-shaped flowers|weeks.               |sun.             |
  |darker within than without.     |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Jacob’s Ladder= (_Polemonium   |Blue, white; 24      |Rich, deep loam; |
  |cæruleum_).--Likes moisture. An |inches; 4 weeks.     |sun.             |
  |old-time flower.                |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Amsonia= (_Amsonia             |Blue; 24 inches; 4   |Good; sun.       |
  |Tabernæmontana_).--Subshrub with|weeks.               |                 |
  |willow-like leaves. Grows well  |                     |                 |
  |in shrubbery.                   |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Goat’s Beard= (_Aruncus        |White; 24 inches; 3  |Good; sun.       |
  |astilboides_).--Feathery-spiked |weeks.               |                 |
  |flowers. Fine cut foliage.      |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Pearl Achillea= (_Achillea     |White; 24 inches; 12 |Rich; sun.       |
  |Ptarmica_, var. _Pearl_).--Fence|weeks.               |                 |
  |in roots with a square of       |                     |                 |
  |boards.                         |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Phlox Miss Lingard= (_Phlox    |White; 18 inches; 6  |Rich; sun.       |
  |maculata_, var. _Miss Lingard_).|weeks.               |                 |
  |--Healthiest and best variety of|                     |                 |
  |common early perennial garden   |                     |                 |
  |phlox.                          |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Gas Plant= (_Dictamnus         |White, pink; 24      |Rich, heavy; sun.|
  |Fraxinella_).--Will also grow in|inches.              |                 |
  |partial shade. Very long-lived. |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Hardy Yucca= (_Yucca           |White; 60 inches; 4  |Rich, light loam;|
  |flaccida_).--“_Yucca            |weeks.               |sun.             |
  |filamentosa_” of nurserymen, not|                     |                 |
  |of botanists. Transplant only in|                     |                 |
  |early spring. Makes new plants  |                     |                 |
  |every year by suckers.          |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Golden Marguerite= (_Anthemis  |Yellow; 12 inches; 10|Good; sun.       |
  |tinctoria_).--Divide every year.|weeks.               |                 |
  |Var. _Kelwayi_ best.            |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Perennial Coreopsis=           |Yellow; 18 inches; 10|Good; sun.       |
  |(_Coreopsis lanceolata_).--Don’t|weeks.               |                 |
  |let it go to seed.              |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Woolly Yarrow= (_Achillea      |Yellow; 8 inches; 4  |Dry, rich; sun.  |
  |tomentosa_).--Carpets the ground|weeks.               |                 |
  |in early June.                  |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Perennial Gaillardia=          |Yellow; 12 inches; 16|Good, light; sun.|
  |(_Gaillardia aristata_).--The   |weeks.               |                 |
  |yellow with maroon disk is      |                     |                 |
  |perhaps the best. Blooms        |                     |                 |
  |steadily till frost if fading   |                     |                 |
  |flowers are cut.                |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Thin-Leaved Coneflower=        |Yellow; 36 inches; 5 |Rich, moist; sun.|
  |(_Rudbeckia triloba_).--        |weeks.               |                 |
  |Biennial, but blooms first year |                     |                 |
  |and self-sows.                  |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Wild Indigo= (_Baptisia        |Yellow; 24 inches; 4 |Good; sun.       |
  |tinctoria_).--_Baptisia         |weeks.               |                 |
  |australis_, blue, is showier.   |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=German Catchfly= (_Lychnis     |Deep red; 9 inches; 3|Good, light; sun.|
  |Viscaria_).--Beautiful, old-    |weeks.               |                 |
  |fashioned, long-lived in        |                     |                 |
  |congenial situation.            |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Late or Chinese Peony= (_Pæonia|Crimson, white, pink;|Very rich, deep; |
  |Chinensis_).--Flowers best in   |30 inches; 3 weeks.  |sun.             |
  |rather heavy soil, with moisture|                     |                 |
  |in spring and summer. Single    |                     |                 |
  |varieties are exquisite.        |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Oriental Poppy= (_Papaver      |Red; 36 inches; 2    |Rich; sun.       |
  |orientale_).--The variety       |weeks.               |                 |
  |_bracteatum_--deep red--is the  |                     |                 |
  |best.                           |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Sweet William= (_Dianthus      |Various; 12 inches; 5|Light, rich; sun.|
  |barbatus_).--Biennial but self- |weeks.               |                 |
  |sows.                           |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Japanese Pinks= (_Dianthus     |Various; 9 inches; 12|Light, rich; sun.|
  |Chinensis_, var. _Heddewigi_).--|weeks.               |                 |
  |Best treated as annual. Start   |                     |                 |
  |indoors.                        |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Coral Bells= (_Heuchera        |Crimson; 18 inches;  |Good; sun or     |
  |sanguinea_).--Graceful racemes  |12 weeks.            |half-shade.      |
  |of delicate flowers. Blooms all |                     |                 |
  |summer.                         |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Fire Pink= (_Silene            |Crimson; 18 inches; 8|Good; sun or half|
  |Virginica_).--It cannot stand   |weeks.               |shade.           |
  |much moisture.                  |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |      BLOOMING IN JULY          |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Fremont’s Clematis= (_Clematis |Bluish purple; 24    |Deep, rich; sun. |
  |Fremonti_).--A western bush     |inches; 3 weeks.     |                 |
  |clematis for the hardy border.  |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Beard-Tongue= (_Pentstemon     |Blue; 36 inches; 3   |Moist; sun.      |
  |ovatus_).--Short-lived but very |weeks.               |                 |
  |free blooming while it lasts.   |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=True Monkshood= (_Aconitum     |Blue; 48 inches; 3   |Rich; partial    |
  |Napellus_).--This plant lives   |weeks.               |shade.           |
  |longer in partial shade.        |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Japanese Bellflower=           |Blue, white; 18      |Light loam; sun. |
  |(_Platycodon grandiflorum_).--  |inches; 4 weeks.     |                 |
  |Largest easily grown flower of  |                     |                 |
  |the bellflower family.          |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Double Feverfew=               |White; 18 inches; 12 |Rich; sun.       |
  |(_Chrysanthemum Parthenium_).-- |weeks.               |                 |
  |Gives many white buttons.       |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=False Chamomile= (_Boltonia    |White, violet; 60    |Any good; sun.   |
  |asteroides_).--Like a wild      |inches; 4 weeks.     |                 |
  |aster. Very profuse of bloom.   |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Bugbane= (_Cimicifuga          |White; 60 inches; 4  |Good; partial    |
  |racemosa_).--For shrubbery back |weeks.               |                 |
  |of border, or wild garden.      |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Meadow Rue= (_Thalictrum       |White; 60 inches; 4  |Moist; sun.      |
  |polygamum_).--For wild garden or|weeks.               |                 |
  |shrubbery. Fern-like foliage.   |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Perennial Phlox= (_Phlox       |White, pink, red,    |Rich, moist; sun.|
  |paniculata_).--See also _Phlox  |blue; 36 inches; 4   |                 |
  |maculata_ in June.              |weeks.               |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Hollyhock= (_Althæa rosea_).-- |White, pink, red; 72 |Deep, rich,      |
  |Dig dry Bordeaux about crowns in|inches; 4 weeks.     |heavy; sun.      |
  |spring; spray under side of     |                     |                 |
  |leaves weekly with ammoniacal   |                     |                 |
  |copper carbonate.               |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Double Perennial Sunflower=    |Yellow; 60 inches; 6 |Any good; sun.   |
  |(_Helianthus decapetalus_, var. |weeks.               |                 |
  |_multiflorus_).--Divide every   |                     |                 |
  |two years. Flowers deteriorate. |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Shining-Leaved Coneflower=     |Yellow; 24 inches; 4 |Any good; sun.   |
  |(_Rudbeckia nitida_).--Plenty of|weeks.               |                 |
  |moisture suits it best.         |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Golden Glow= (_Rudbeckia       |Yellow; 72 inches; 3 |Any good; sun.   |
  |laciniata, fl._ pf.).--         |weeks.               |                 |
  |Wonderfully prolific. Divide    |                     |                 |
  |annually. Getting common.       |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Pitcher’s Sunflower=           |Yellow; 6 weeks.     |Good, dry; sun.  |
  |(_Heliopsis lævis_).--Earlier   |                     |                 |
  |than sunflowers, smaller. Var.  |                     |                 |
  |_Pitcheriana_ best.             |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Gay Feather= (_Liatris         |Pink; 48 inches; 3   |Good; sun.       |
  |pycnostachya_).--Very striking. |weeks.               |                 |
  |Plant in groups of five or more.|                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Purple Coneflower= (_Echinacea |Pinkish; 24 inches; 6|Good: deep: sun. |
  |purpurea_).--Rather coarse but  |weeks.               |                 |
  |effective flowers. Sometimes    |                     |                 |
  |four feet high.                 |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Bee Balm= (_Monarda didyma_).--|Red; 36 inches; 8    |Good; sun.       |
  |Rapid spreading. Place next to  |weeks.               |                 |
  |white phlox.                    |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |      BLOOMING IN AUGUST        |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Long-Leaved Veronica=          |Blue; 36 inches; 3   |Deep, rich; sun. |
  |(_Veronica longifolia_).--The   |weeks.               |                 |
  |best is var. _subsesilis_.      |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Stoke’s Aster= (_Stokesia      |Blue; 18 inches; 4   |Well drained,    |
  |cyanea_).--Hardy near Boston. An|weeks.               |light, rich; sun.|
  |unusually fine shade of blue.   |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Mist Flower= (_Conoclinium     |Blue; 18 inches; 4   |Any good; sun.   |
  |cœlestinum_).--Easily grown.    |weeks.               |                 |
  |Light blue color.               |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Joe-Pye Weed= (_Eupatorium     |Purple; 96 inches; 4 |Any good; sun.   |
  |purpureum_).--For back of broad |weeks.               |                 |
  |border, or shrubbery.           |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Arkansas Ironweed= (_Vernonia  |Purple; 96 inches; 6 |Rich, deep; sun. |
  |Arkansana_).--Flowers by August |weeks.               |                 |
  |1st. For shrubbery or wild      |                     |                 |
  |garden.                         |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=New York Ironweed= (_Vernonia  |Purple; 60 inches; 6 |Rich, deep; sun. |
  |Noveboracensis_).--Bushy. May be|weeks.               |                 |
  |placed near _V. Arkansana_.     |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Lyon’s Turtlehead= (_Chelone   |Purplish; 24 inches; |Rich; partial    |
  |Lyonii_).--Resembles            |4 weeks.             |shade.           |
  |pentstemons. Don’t allow to     |                     |                 |
  |suffer from drought.            |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Baby’s Breath= (_Gypsophila    |White; 24 inches; 3  |Rich, light; sun.|
  |paniculata_).--Beautiful misty  |weeks.               |                 |
  |white flower. Effective in      |                     |                 |
  |bouquets.                       |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Marshmallow= (_Hibiscus        |Rose, white; 60      |Rich; sun.       |
  |Moscheutos_).--They have deep   |inches; 3 weeks.     |                 |
  |crimson or purple eyes.         |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Showy Coneflower= (_Rudbeckia  |Yellow; 24 inches; 6 |Good; sun or half|
  |speciosa_).--Moisture will      |weeks.               |shade.           |
  |increase the size of the flower.|                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Showy Sunflower= (_Helianthus  |Yellow; 72 inches; 6 |Good; sun.       |
  |lætiflorus_).--Spread too       |weeks.               |                 |
  |rapidly for a crowded border.   |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Long-headed Coneflower=        |Yellow; 24 inches; 6 |Good; sun.       |
  |(_Lepachys columnaris_).--      |weeks.               |                 |
  |Resembles black-eyed Susan.     |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Canadian Goldenrods= (_Solidago|Yellow; 48 inches; 5 |Any good; sun.   |
  |Canadensis_).--Goldenrods all   |weeks.               |                 |
  |welcome in the wild garden.     |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Yarrow, Milfoil= (_Achillea    |Pinkish; 24 inches; 8|Any good dry;    |
  |Millefolium_).--Pink kind is    |weeks.               |sun.             |
  |var. _roseum_. Sink boards      |                     |                 |
  |around it.                      |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Butterfly Weed= (_Asclepias    |Orange; 24 inches; 5 |Good, dry; sun.  |
  |tuberosa_).--Has big woody root.|weeks.               |                 |
  |Transplant young seedlings.     |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Cardinal Flower= (_Lobelia     |Red; 36 inches; 5    |Deep, moist;     |
  |cardinalis_).--Does well in     |weeks.               |partial shade.   |
  |garden soil. Water freely.      |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Showy Stonecrop= (_Sedum       |Pink; 18 inches; 6   |Good, rich; sun. |
  |spectabile_).--Give good        |weeks.               |                 |
  |drainage. Best of the tall      |                     |                 |
  |stonecrops.                     |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=False Chamomile= (_Boltonia    |Pinkish; 60 inches; 5|Rich, deep; sun. |
  |latisquama_).--Satisfactory for |weeks.               |                 |
  |back of border. Spreads         |                     |                 |
  |considerably.                   |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |    BLOOMING IN SEPTEMBER       |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Fischer’s Aconite= (_Aconitum  |Blue; 60 inches; 4   |Rich, deep,      |
  |Fischeri_).--Early frost does   |weeks.               |partial shade.   |
  |not harm this beautiful flower. |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Blazing Star= (_Liatris        |Rosy, purple; 36     |Rich, good; sun. |
  |graminifolia_).--A singular and |inches; 3 weeks.     |                 |
  |strikingly beautiful flower.    |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Tartarian Aster= (_Aster       |Blue; 72 inches; 3   |Any good; sun.   |
  |Tataricus_).--Tallest of all    |weeks.               |                 |
  |asters. Many other good blue    |                     |                 |
  |kinds.                          |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=New England Aster= (_Aster Novæ|Purple; 48 inches; 3 |Any good; sun.   |
  |Angliæ_).--The rose variety is  |weeks.               |                 |
  |better.                         |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Giant Daisy= (_Chrysanthemum   |White; 60 inches; 3  |Rich, moist; sun.|
  |uliginosum_).--Spreads rapidly. |weeks.               |                 |
  |For back of borders. Rather     |                     |                 |
  |heavy soil.                     |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Graceful Sunflower=            |Yellow; 96 inches; 4 |Any good; sun.   |
  |(_Helianthus orgyalis_).--One of|weeks.               |                 |
  |the best hardy sunflowers.      |                     |                 |
  |Blooms late.                    |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Maximilian’s Sunflower=        |Yellow; 72 inches; 5 |Any good; sun.   |
  |(_Helianthus Maximiliana_).--   |weeks.               |                 |
  |Another graceful sunflower.     |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Sneezeweed= (_Helenium         |Yellow; 60 inches; 8 |Any good; sun.   |
  |autumnale_).--Begins to bloom in|weeks.               |                 |
  |August, sometimes in July.      |                     |                 |
  +--------------------------------+---------------------+-----------------+

=DESIRABLE ANNUAL VINES=

  +--------------------------------+---------------------+-----------------+
  |     =Common and Botanical      | =Color, Height and  |=Kind of Soil and|
  |         Name; Hints on         |   Time in Bloom=    | Light Required= |
  |          Cultivation=          |                     |                 |
  +--------------------------------+---------------------+-----------------+
  |=Hyacinth Bean= (_Dolichos      |Purple; 15 feet; 4   |Rich, light; sun.|
  |Lablab_).--Sensitive to frost.  |weeks.               |                 |
  |Makes good screen. Plant one    |                     |                 |
  |foot apart.                     |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Cup and Saucer Vine= (_Cobæa   |Purplish, white; 15  |Rich, light; sun.|
  |scandens_).--Rapid climber. Set |feet; 6 weeks.       |                 |
  |plants six inches apart.        |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Allegheny Vine= (_Adlumia      |Pinkish; 10 feet; 3  |Moist, rich;     |
  |cirrhosa_).--For covering       |weeks.               |shade.           |
  |bushes. Set eight inches apart. |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Ivy-Leaved Gourd= (_Coccinea   |White; 10 feet; 4    |Light, rich; sun.|
  |cordifolia_).--_Coccinea Indica_|weeks.               |                 |
  |is grown for its scarlet fruit. |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Canary-Bird Vine= (_Tropæolum  |Canary yellow; 15    |Light, rich; sun.|
  |Canariense_).--Not showy, but   |feet; 3 weeks.       |                 |
  |quick growing. Set eight inches |                     |                 |
  |apart.                          |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Balloon Vine= (_Cardiospermum  |White; 10 feet; 3    |Light, rich; sun.|
  |Halicabum_).--Seed vessels like |weeks.               |                 |
  |balloons. Set plants ten inches |                     |                 |
  |apart.                          |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Balsam Pear= (_Momordica       |Yellow; 10 feet; 3   |Light, rich; sun.|
  |Charantia_).--Plant seeds       |weeks.               |                 |
  |outdoors after last frost, else |                     |                 |
  |under glass earlier.            |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Climbing Nasturtium=           |Yellow or red; 10    |Light, rich; sun.|
  |(_Tropæolum majus_).--For close |feet; 8 weeks.       |                 |
  |screen plant ten inches apart.  |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Cypress Vine= (_Ipomœa         |Scarlet; 15 feet; 3  |Light, rich; sun.|
  |Quamoclit_).--Star-shaped       |weeks.               |                 |
  |flowers. Finely cut leaves.     |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Scarlet Runner Bean=           |Red, white; 18 feet; |Light, rich; sun.|
  |(_Phaseolus multiflorus_).--    |4 weeks.             |                 |
  |Tender perennial with tuberous  |                     |                 |
  |roots.                          |                     |                 |
  |                                |                     |                 |
  |=Maurandia= (_Maurandia         |White, blue; 10 feet;|Light, rich; sun.|
  |Barclaina_).--Showy leaves and  |2 weeks.             |                 |
  |trumpet-shaped flowers.         |                     |                 |
  +--------------------------------+---------------------+-----------------+

=FLOWERING SHRUBS AND HEDGE PLANTS=

  +-----------------------------+---------+----------+---------------------+
  |  =Names and Descriptions=   | =Height |=Flowering|=Cultivation and Use=|
  |                             |in Feet= |  Time=   |                     |
  +-----------------------------+---------+----------+---------------------+
  |=Spirea= (_Spiraea Van       |    6    |   June   |Plant in a conspicu- |
  |Houtter_).--The most showy of|         |          |ous place with ample |
  |the spireas; flowers in      |         |          |room. Cut out flower-|
  |umbels two inches across.    |         |          |ing wood in summer.  |
  |Handsome foliage all summer. |         |          |Thrives anywhere.    |
  |                             |         |          |                     |
  |=Spirea= (_Spiraea_, _Anthony|    3    |   July   |Prune off old flower |
  |Waterer_).--The only shrub of|         |          |heads as soon as     |
  |its season. Flowers crimson  |         |          |withered to induce   |
  |red produced successively for|         |          |good second crop.    |
  |six weeks. Good for edging.  |         |          |                     |
  |                             |         |          |                     |
  |=Mock Orange= (_Philadelphus |   12    |   June   |Old wood should be   |
  |coronarius_).--Most fragrant |         |          |cut out from time to |
  |white large flowered shrub.  |         |          |time, otherwise the  |
  |Valuable for tall screen.    |         |          |tree gets very       |
  |Flowers one and one-half     |         |          |ragged.              |
  |inches across.               |         |          |                     |
  |                             |         |          |                     |
  |=Althea or Rose of Sharon=   |   12    |  August  |Good for hedges and  |
  |(_Hibiscus Syriacus_).--The  |         |          |screens. Must be     |
  |only tall shrub of late      |         |          |planted very early in|
  |summer. Very hardy; leafs    |         |          |the autumn.          |
  |late. White or rose flowers. |         |          |                     |
  |                             |         |          |                     |
  |=Hydrangea= (_Hydrangea      | 6 to 15 |   July-  |Prune very completely|
  |paniculata_, var.            |         |  August  |in winter for        |
  |_grandiflora_).--Most showy  |         |          |quantity of flowers  |
  |of all summer shrubs. White  |         |          |next year.           |
  |flowers, shading into pink   |         |          |                     |
  |and persisting all winter.   |         |          |                     |
  |                             |         |          |                     |
  |=Golden Bell= (_Forsythia    |  5 to 8 | April-May|Plant against a dark |
  |suspensa_).--The most showy, |         |          |background, such as  |
  |early-flowering shrub. Yellow|         |          |evergreens, or a     |
  |flowers before the leaves.   |         |          |hillside to set off  |
  |Branches arch over and root  |         |          |flowers.             |
  |at tips.                     |         |          |                     |
  |                             |         |          |                     |
  |=Japan Quince= (_Cydonia     |  4 to 8 |    May   |Very subject to San  |
  |Japonica_).--Earliest bright |         |          |Jose scale. Don’t    |
  |scarlet flowered shrub.      |         |          |plant near orchards  |
  |Useful also as a hedge. Plant|         |          |unless systematically|
  |as specimen. Slow growing.   |         |          |sprayed. Stands close|
  |                             |         |          |pruning.             |
  |                             |         |          |                     |
  |=Lilac= (_Syringa vulgaris_).| 8 to 15 | May-June |Spray with potassium |
  |--Very fragrant lilac, white |         |          |sulphide for mildew  |
  |or purple flowers. Grows     |         |          |in August, September.|
  |anywhere, even in partial    |         |          |Do not permit suckers|
  |shade.                       |         |          |to develop. Prune for|
  |                             |         |          |form only.           |
  |                             |         |          |                     |
  |=Japanese Snowball=          |  6 to 8 | May-June |Prune as little as   |
  |(_Viburnum plicatum_).--     |         |          |possible. Should be  |
  |Largest showy white balls of |         |          |planted on lawn as a |
  |bloom, better habit than the |         |          |specimen, or trained |
  |common snowball and not so   |         |          |on wall of house.    |
  |subject to plant louse.      |         |          |                     |
  |                             |         |          |                     |
  |=Tartarian Honeysuckle=      | 8 to 10 | May-June |Plant in shrubbery   |
  |(_Lonicera Tatarica_).--Most |         |          |where its presence is|
  |fragrant of all the early    |         |          |made known by the    |
  |summer shrubs, especially at |         |          |odor. Valuable as a  |
  |dusk. Flowers pink; several  |         |          |low screen on        |
  |varieties red or white.      |         |          |seaside.             |
  |                             |         |          |                     |
  |=Weigela= (_Diervilla        |  6 to 8 |   June   |Can be planted where |
  |florida_).--Showiest shrub of|         |          |other shrubs fail.   |
  |midsummer. Flowers pink,     |         |          |Free from insects and|
  |white, red. Best flowering   |         |          |disease. Cut out old |
  |shrub under big trees.       |         |          |wood to the ground.  |
  |                             |         |          |                     |
  |=Wistaria or Wisteria= (_W.  | 8 to 15 |All Summer|Adapted for screen or|
  |Frutescens_).--Handsome      |         |          |trellis.             |
  |hardy, slow-growing, climbing|         |          |                     |
  |shrub. Flowers in elegant    |         |          |                     |
  |lilac-colored racemes,       |         |          |                     |
  |slightly scented.            |         |          |                     |
  |                             |         |          |                     |
  |=California Privet=          |  6 to 8 |    ...   |Set six inches deeper|
  |(_Ligustrum ovalifolium_).-- |         |          |than in the nursery  |
  |Fastest growing. Stands salt |         |          |and cut back to six  |
  |spray. Good soil binder.     |         |          |inches or less.      |
  |Stands severest pruning and  |         |          |                     |
  |can be trained high or low.  |         |          |                     |
  |                             |         |          |                     |
  |=Regel’s Privet= (_Ligustrum |  2 to 6 |   June   |Useful as a border   |
  |Ibota_, var. _Regelianum_).--|         |          |hedge to plantations |
  |Low growing, denser habit    |         |          |and along roadways.  |
  |with spreading, drooping     |         |          |Should not be planted|
  |branches clothed with white  |         |          |as a protection.     |
  |tassels.                     |         |          |                     |
  |                             |         |          |                     |
  |=Osage Orange= (_Maclura     | 3 to 15 |    May   |Unless regularly     |
  |pomifera_).--Grows in any    |         |          |trimmed, the top     |
  |soil. Makes a dense defensive|         |          |branches will spread.|
  |hedge as far north as        |         |          |Will exhaust soil on |
  |Massachusetts. Flowers white.|         |          |each side for some   |
  |                             |         |          |feet.                |
  |                             |         |          |                     |
  |=Japanese Barberry=          |    4    |   June   |Does not need        |
  |(_Berberis Thunbergii_).--   |         |          |pruning. Red berries |
  |Foliage down to the ground.  |         |          |all winter, and      |
  |Dense compact growth of small|         |          |foliage red until    |
  |spiny branches making        |         |          |Christmas. Do not    |
  |effective hedge in winter.   |         |          |plant in wheat       |
  |                             |         |          |districts.           |
  |                             |         |          |                     |
  |=Honey Locust= (_Gleditschia | 3 to 15 |    May   |Plant thickly and    |
  |triacanthos_).--The thorniest|         |          |prune severely. Mice |
  |of all. “Bull strong, horse  |         |          |girdle in winter.    |
  |high and pig tight.”         |         |          |Spring trimmings must|
  |Perfectly hardy. Fast and    |         |          |be burned. Needs     |
  |vigorous grower. Suckers.    |         |          |strict control.      |
  |                             |         |          |                     |
  |=Buckthorn= (_Rhamnus        | 6 to 10 |    ...   |Spray with kerosene  |
  |cathartica_).--The best      |         |          |emulsion for hop     |
  |strong hedge, as dense and   |         |          |louse. Old hedges    |
  |tight as honey locust but not|         |          |that are out of      |
  |so high. Thorny. Never       |         |          |condition are easily |
  |ragged. Moderate grower.     |         |          |recovered by cutting |
  |                             |         |          |back.                |
  |                             |         |          |                     |
  |=Trifoliate Orange= (_Citrus |   ...   |    ...   |Not reliably hardy   |
  |trifoliatus_).--Best medium  |         |          |north of Phila-      |
  |height hedge for the South   |         |          |delphia. White       |
  |where it is evergreen.       |         |          |flowers followed by  |
  |Deciduous in the North.      |         |          |small yellow fruits  |
  |Foliage yellow in fall.      |         |          |make it ornamental   |
  |                             |         |          |also.                |
  |                             |         |          |                     |
  |=Tamarix= (_Tamarix          | 5 to 10 |    ...   |Flowers feathery pink|
  |Gallica_).--Unexcelled for   |         |          |on old wood; on new  |
  |saline and alkaline soils,   |         |          |wood in var.         |
  |growing on the salt water’s  |         |          |_Narbonnensis_.      |
  |edge where nothing else will.|         |          |Foliage small.       |
  |                             |         |          |                     |
  |=Japanese Briar= (_Rosa      |  5 to 8 |All Summer|Suited for boundary  |
  |rugosa_).--The only rose     |         |          |or screen.           |
  |suitable for a hedge. White, |         |          |                     |
  |pink and red flowers.        |         |          |                     |
  +-----------------------------+---------+----------+---------------------+

=BEST LAWN GRASSES FOR ALL PURPOSES=

  +---------------+------------+---------+--------+-----------------------+
  |  =Common and  |            |=Lbs. per|=Sow per| =Conditions and Uses= |
  |   Botanical   | =Region of | bushel  |  acre  |                       |
  |     Name=     |    Use=    | cleaned | bushels|                       |
  |               |            |  seed=  | alone= |                       |
  +---------------+------------+---------+--------+-----------------------+
  |=Rhode Island  |On sandy    |   15    |    3   |For close, fine turf.  |
  |Bent=          |seasides.   |         |        |Color very green.      |
  |(_Agrostis     |            |         |        |                       |
  |canina_).      |            |         |        |                       |
  |               |            |         |        |                       |
  |=Creeping Bent=|Low lying   |   15    |    3   |Rapid growing, forms a |
  |(_Agrostis     |inland and  |         |        |strong turf, that is   |
  |alba_, var.    |dry valleys |         |        |improved by heavy      |
  |_stolonifera_).|of the East.|         |        |rolling or tramping.   |
  |               |            |         |        |                       |
  |=Red Top, Fancy|From Tennes-|   14    |    4   |Stands hot weather and |
  |Red Top=       |see north.  |   35    |   5-6  |hard usage. Fills in   |
  |(_Agrostis     |            |         |        |well with blue grass.  |
  |alba_, var.    |            |         |        |                       |
  |_vulgaris_).   |            |         |        |                       |
  |               |            |         |        |                       |
  |=Beach= (_Ammo-|On railway  |   15    |  3-1/2 |Dry, loose soils. Holds|
  |phila arena-   |cuttings and|         |        |drifting sands and     |
  |ria_, _A. arun-|embankments |         |        |banks.                 |
  |dinacea_).     |on the sea  |         |        |                       |
  |               |coast.      |         |        |                       |
  |               |            |         |        |                       |
  |=Biennial Sweet|Useful only |Used only in mix- |Starts early in spring,|
  |Vernal=        |to lend     |ture two pounds to|and makes new root-    |
  |(_Anthoxanthum |fragrance to|the acre.         |leaves all the year    |
  |odoratum_).    |the lawn    |         |        |after cutting.         |
  |               |when cut.   |         |        |                       |
  |               |            |         |        |                       |
  |=Bermuda=      |Is killed by|   15    |   1/2  |Can be used for binding|
  |(_Capriola     |frost;      |         |        |banks. The best lawn   |
  |Dactylon_).    |valueless   |         |        |grass for the South    |
  |               |north of    |         |        |from Virginia to       |
  |               |Virginia. A |         |        |Florida. Withstands    |
  |               |weed in blue|         |        |heat and drought.      |
  |               |grass lawns |         |        |Thrives on poorest     |
  |               |where it    |         |        |soils.                 |
  |               |dies early. |         |        |                       |
  |               |            |         |        |                       |
  |=Crested Dog’s |Valuable for|   30    |    1   |Same color as Kentucky |
  |Tail=          |shady places|         |        |blue and so mixes well |
  |(_Cynosurus    |and under   |         |        |with that. A good      |
  |cristatus_).   |trees. Also |         |        |bottom grass. Not re-  |
  |               |for terraces|         |        |commended alone.       |
  |               |on deep     |         |        |Prefers rich, moist    |
  |               |soil.       |         |        |soil.                  |
  |               |            |         |        |                       |
  |=Various Leaved|Northern    |   15    |  1-1/2 |Does best in cold,     |
  |Fescue=        |States and  |         |        |moist soils, rich in   |
  |(_Festuca      |on cold, wet|         |        |humus and potash.      |
  |heterophylla_).|soils.      |         |        |                       |
  |               |            |         |        |                       |
  |=Sheep’s       |Useful in   |   16    |    2   |This is a “bunch” or   |
  |Fescue=        |mixtures for|         |        |“stool” grass with very|
  |(_Festuca      |the North-  |         |        |fine foliage and dense |
  |ovina_).       |west and for|         |        |dwarf growth for any   |
  |               |lands on    |         |        |uplands.               |
  |               |poorest     |         |        |                       |
  |               |sands.      |         |        |                       |
  |               |            |         |        |                       |
  |=Slender       |Dry slopes  |   22    |  1-1/2 |Finer leaf than sheep’s|
  |Fescue=        |on lawns or |         |        |fescue and stools like |
  |(_Festuca      |on dry, high|         |        |that. Recommended only |
  |ovina_ var.    |situations. |         |        |in special situations. |
  |_tenuifolia_). |            |         |        |                       |
  |               |            |         |        |                       |
  |=Italian Rye=  |Very thickly|   22    |  2-1/2 |Very rapid growing and |
  |(_Lolium       |or in mix-  |         |        |valuable for short,    |
  |Italicum_).    |ture as far |         |        |quick effects. Is prac-|
  |               |south as    |         |        |tically an annual.     |
  |               |Jackson-    |         |        |                       |
  |               |ville, Fla. |         |        |                       |
  |               |            |         |        |                       |
  |=Pacey’s or    |For quick   |   28    |    2   |Makes good verdure in  |
  |English Rye=   |effects in  |         |        |four weeks. Dies out in|
  |(_Lolium       |the Middle  |         |        |two or three years.    |
  |perenne_ var.  |and Eastern |         |        |                       |
  |_tenue_).      |States.     |         |        |                       |
  |               |            |         |        |                       |
  |=Canada Blue=  |Throughout  |   14    |    3   |Flatter, more wiry stem|
  |(_Poa compres- |the East and|         |        |than the Kentucky      |
  |sa_).          |North in-   |         |        |grass, also bluer      |
  |               |cluding     |         |        |color. Used in the very|
  |               |Canada on   |         |        |cheap mixtures as a    |
  |               |dry sand or |         |        |substitute.            |
  |               |clay.       |         |        |                       |
  |               |            |         |        |                       |
  |=Wood Meadow=  |Best grass  |   19    |  1-1/2 |Very hardy and early,  |
  |(_Poa          |for very    |         |        |resisting heat, too.   |
  |memoralis_).   |shady places|         |        |                       |
  |               |in woodland |         |        |                       |
  |               |parks.      |         |        |                       |
  |               |            |         |        |                       |
  |=Kentucky Blue=|Best lawn   |   14    |    3   |Starts early, lasts    |
  |(_Poa praten-  |grass north |         |        |till frost, fine       |
  |sis_).         |of Washing- |         |        |texture, rich green    |
  |               |ton and west|         |        |color, smooth, even    |
  |               |to the      |         |        |growth. Three years to |
  |               |Allegheny   |         |        |establish. Dislikes    |
  |               |range.      |         |        |some soils.            |
  |               |            |         |        |                       |
  |=Rough Stalked |More shaded |   26    |   4-5  |Does not do well on dry|
  |Meadow= (_Poa  |portions of |         |        |land. Forms a fine turf|
  |trivialis_).   |lawns or    |         |        |and dense mat.         |
  |               |north side  |         |        |                       |
  |               |of          |         |        |                       |
  |               |buildings.  |         |        |                       |
  |               |            |         |        |                       |
  |=St. Augustine=|Florida and |   26    |   4-5  |Coarse and upright     |
  |(_Stenotaphrum |the West    |         |        |leaf, but keeps green  |
  |secundatum_,   |Indian      |         |        |when even Bermuda grass|
  |_S. America    |Islands.    |         |        |burns out.             |
  |num_).         |            |         |        |                       |
  +---------------+------------+---------+--------+-----------------------+


_VI. WILD FLOWERS AND FLOWERLESS PLANTS_

  The beauty and inspiration of wild flowers, which lovers of Nature
  constantly bring to our attention, should by no means, be passed by.
  There are few, indeed, whose joy in living is not more than a little
  deepened by contact with the woods and meadows, perfumed with the
  scent of wild-growing flowers and blossoms, and made beautiful to
  the eye by a riot of colors both soothing and delightful. They are
  to be found under forest trees, in bushes and hedges, amidst grasses
  in meadows, on highways and declivities, and on rubbish heaps and in
  water; they crowd together, as though unwilling to be hidden from
  view.

  Among the leading representatives of these plants, grouped according
  to the localities in which they are found, are sure to be the
  following.


FLOWERS THAT GROW IN THE WOODS

A prime favorite among the flowers of spring is the TRAILING ARBUTUS
(_Epigaea repens_), a trailing plant of the Heath family, with branches
six to fifteen feet long and evergreen leaves, called Mayflower in New
England and Ground Laurel in the Southern States. It grows in sandy or
rocky soils, especially in the shade of evergreen trees, from Canada to
Texas. It is prized for its early blooming, and delicate flowers, now
gathered in considerable quantities for city flower markets. In the
early spring also the LUNGWORT (_Pulmonaria officinalis_) delights us
with its violet and blue flowers; as does also the LIVERWORT (_Hepatica
triloba_), the three-lobed leaves of which live through the winter. That
familiar little favorite, the sweet-scented LILY OF THE VALLEY
(_Convallaria majalis_), raises its tender string of blooms surrounded
by two large leaves in May. This is followed by the sweet-scented
WOODRUFF (_Asperula odorata_). In some districts the fresh leaves of the
woodruff are used for making May wine; when dried they emit an agreeable
scent, and are therefore frequently laid in wardrobes. Its leaves are
stellate, and its small blossoms are arranged in umbels. It grows from
nine to twelve inches high. Other plants found in the woods are the
FORGET-ME-NOT (_Myosotis silvatica_), and the CENTAURY (_Erythræa
Centaurium_). The rose-red blossoms of the latter are arranged in
clusters, and its leaves have medicinal properties. Late in the year
towards autumn the common LING or heather (_Calluna vulgaris_) opens
its red blooms. The leaves are small, and arranged in four rows along
the stem. The young heather contains a rich honey, and is consequently
much sought after by all kinds of insects.


WILD FLOWERS AMONG THE HEDGES AND BUSHES

In March and April, in concealed spots, the sweet-scented VIOLET blows
(_Viola odorata_), filling the air with its sweet fragrance every
morning. The ANEMONE (_Anemone nemerosa_) raises its white flower,
tinged with red, from the midst of three large green leaves. The
WOOD-SORREL (_Oxalis acetosella_), sends out from its root graceful
trifoliate leaves and white blooms traversed by violet veins. In the
hedges and bushes, also, we meet with the ARUM (_Arum maculatum_), the
common wake-robin or lords and ladies. On closely observing this plant,
we shall find rather deep in the earth a tuberous root as large as a
walnut, from which spring three or four long-stalked, bright leaves.
Between the leaves a smooth stem arises six to nine inches high, which
bears at its upper end the blossoms, surrounded by a greenish sheath.
The arum has acrid properties, but its corm yields Portland sago or
arrowroot. In the vicinity of this plant we also find the VALERIAN
(_Valeriana officinalis_), the root of which possesses healing
properties. It contains an oil, which is used as a remedy for cramp.


THE FLOWERS OF THE OPEN MEADOWS

The uniform green which covers the meadows all the year round is
agreeably relieved by a large number of plants with colored flowers.
Here blooms the sky-blue GENTIAN (_Gentiana verna_), which delights both
the eye and the heart. There the beautiful blue bells of the CAMPANULA
(_Campanula Rapunculus_) raise their heads, together with the violet
flowers of the SCABIOUS (_Scabiosa pratensis_), and the numerous
bloom-whorls of the meadow SAGE (_Salvia pratensis_). Between these can
be seen the red and white heads of the meadow and white CLOVER
(_Trifolia pratensis_ and _T. repens_); and from a distance we can
recognize the small DAISY (_Bellis perennis_), the similar but larger
Dog Daisy (_Chrysanthemum leucanthemum_), the yellow MEADOW SWEET
(_Tragopogon pratensis_), and the DANDELION (_Taraxacum officinale_). In
these the fructification is carried out by insects; but, as the single
flowers are so small that they would be overlooked by the insects,
Nature has arranged many of them in the form of a small chalice or cup,
which can be seen from afar, especially in those cases where the
radiating petals are different in color from the sepals, like those in
the dog daisies. Many meadow plants grow with their stalks and blooms
high over their neighbors, as though they were the lords of the meadows.

In these the flowers are very small; but as they are united in large
numbers in flat umbals, they show up well. On the dry ridges blooms the
PLANTAIN (_Plantago_), which has good healing properties; and the wild
THYME (_Thymus Serpylum_), a graceful plant, which is sometimes made
into tea, and is frequently placed in children’s baths. The shape of its
blooms shows it to be a member of the family of the labiate flowers, to
which belongs also the meadow sage.


FLOWERS OF THE WOODED PASTURES

Another large natural family of plants, the milkworts, have a pretty
representative in the meadows in the CUCKOO-FLOWER (_Cardamine
pratensis_). Its leaves are pennate, and the lilac-colored flowers
contain four large and two short stamens; the fruit is a pod. Upon woody
pastures we also often find the ORCHIS (_Orchis Morio_). From the two
oval tubers a stem arises enclosed in sheath-like leaves. At the top of
the stem are the curiously formed flowers, which are fructified by
insects in a very peculiar and striking manner. The somewhat
unattractive SOUR-SORREL (_Rumex Acetosa_), Fig. 13, is well known, and
its soft stem and juicy leaves are sometimes eaten by children. The
leaves are arrow-shaped; the small flowers are reddish in color.


WILD FLOWERS ON HIGHWAYS AND WASTE LAND

Here we meet, besides old acquaintances from the meadows, the GROUNDSEL
(_Senecio vulgaris_) and the CHICKWEED (_Stellaria media_), both valued
as birds’ food, and common everywhere; the SHEPARD’S POUCH (_Capsella
Bursa pastoris_), easily recognized by its almost three-cornered little
pods, and blooming, like the groundsel, nearly all the year round; the
white, spotted, and purple BLIND-NETTLES (_Lamium album_, _L.
maculatum_, and _L. purpureum_), and the ORIGANUM (_Origanum vulgare_),
are labiate flowers, which are diligently visited by insects for their
honey. Here, too, are the bristly, blue-flowered ADDER-WORT (_Echium
vulgare_); the round-leaved MALLOW (_Malva rotundifolia_); the BURDOCK
(_Lappa major_), the blossoms of which cling to the clothes so readily;
the common NETTLES (_Urtica_); and the TANSY.


FLOWERS IN CULTIVATED FIELDS

Several plants grow amid the corn which are really ornamental with their
bright flowers. A very pretty example is the larkspur (_Delphinium
Consolida_), a small graceful little plant, with numerous blue spur-like
flowers. Near the latter we also find the blue CORNFLOWER (_Centaurea
Cyanus_), which is so frequently plucked by children and woven into
wreaths.

The CAMOMILE (_Matricaria Chamomilla_), is recognized by its strong
odor. It has a small chalice with white petals, and is an important
medicinal plant. The CORN-COCKLE (_Agrostemma Githago_) and the red
POPPY (_Papaver Rhœas_) are also seen; and at the time when the wind
sweeps over the field of stubble the latter is adorned with the wild
PANSY (_Viola tricolor_), the leaves and flowers of which have healing
properties, and are collected for medicinal uses.


THE GREAT GROUPS OF CRYPTOGAMS OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS

The Cryptogams are plants without true, or without visible flowers; to
these belong the shave grasses, the ferns, the mosses, the algæ, the
lichens, and the fungi.

The HORSE-TAIL (_Equisetum arvense_), frequently grows in damp, sandy
fields. The spring stem of the plant is simple and reddish in color, and
bears fruit called spores in an upright ear.

The WALL RUE (_Asplenium Ruta muraria_), belongs to the family of ferns.
It grows everywhere on walls, and has a short root, three-cornered
leaves, and along both sides of the middle ribs of the leaves the fruit
lies in rows.

The COMMON FERN (_Polypodium vulgare_), grows on walls and rocks. It has
a creeping stem, and beautiful serrated leaves, bearing on their
underside the somewhat large fruit glands which contain the spores.
Other familiar ferns are the WORM FERN (_Aspidium Filix mas_), and the
EAGLE FERN (_Pteris Aquilina_), from three to five feet high.

The COMMON HAIR MOSS (_Polytrichum commune_), grows in all the woods and
in wet fields. The stem is upright; the small leaves are pointed and
serrated at their edges. The spores develop in a quadrangular sheath,
which is surrounded by a cell. The mosses play an important part in the
economy of Nature; they retain in the woods a quantity of the water
which falls as rain, and thus preserve the lands from being flooded,
store up moisture for the plants, and also influence the climatic
conditions of a country. The so-called PEAT-MOSS (_Sphagnum_) enters
largely into the composition of peat.

The REINDEER MOSS (_Cladonia rangiferina_), is a much-branched little
plant of a greyish color. The small fruit corpuscles are at the ends of
the branches. The reindeer moss is common in the pine woods of northern
Europe.

The TOAD’S-STOOL (_Agricus muscarius_), grows in the woods in autumn.
The blood-red cap has numerous white excrescences on its surface. It is
very poisonous and ill-smelling, and has a bitter taste. It is often
used as a poison for flies, but is also dangerous to men and animals.

The MUSHROOM (_Agricus campestris_), is common from May to October in
fields, gardens, and meadows. It has lately also been cultivated in
cellars and greenhouses. It is a favorite article of food, and one of
the most useful of the edible fungi.

[Illustration: =CAMPHOR TREE= (_Cinnamomum camphora_), one of the most
beautiful of all trees, grows in China and Japan, more especially in the
island of Formosa. It has also been planted in Ceylon and Florida. The
wood of the tree is valued by the cabinet maker, but its chief value is
in the solid, essential oil, called _gum camphor_, extracted from it by
a process of distillation. When pure, camphor is a white, soft
semi-transparent body, with a peculiarly strong aromatic odor, and a
bitter, burning taste. It is used extensively in making celluloid and
smokeless powder, in medicine and as a protection against insects.
Nine-tenths of the world’s supply of raw material is exported from
Formosa. Its production is a monopoly of the Japanese government.]


_VII. TREES OF THE FOREST_

  The forest trees are divided into two groups: Trees Bearing Foliage,
  and Trees with Aciculous Leaves. The former lose their leaves in
  autumn; the stiff linear leaves of the latter, on the contrary, live
  throughout the winter, with the exception of those of the larch
  tree.

=Alder= (_Alnus_), trees native to the North Temperate and Arctic zones
and to the Andes into Chili. The Black Alder grows near the brooks. The
male blossoms stand in long, cylindrical catkins; the female blossoms in
small, roundish catkins. The fruit is found in small cones. The alder
tree blossoms in April and May. It may reach seventy feet in height and
nine in girth, but seldom exceeds forty in height. The bark of the
shoots is used in tanning and dyeing leather red, brown, yellow, or,
with copperas, black. The wood is durable under water, and is said by
Virgil to have been the first wood used by man for boats. It was used
for piles at Ravenna and for the Rialto at Venice, and is still so
employed in Holland. Its chief use is for gunpowder-charcoal. For this
purpose shoots five or six years old, or about four inches across, are
employed.

=Ash= (_Fraxinus_), a valuable timber-tree belonging to the olive tribe.
It has smooth, olive-grey bark, black buds, opposite pinnate leaves of
from seven to fifteen leaflets, flowers without calyx or corolla, and an
oblong-winged fruit. Its wood is more flexible than that of any other
European tree, and is used for walking-sticks, spade-handles, the spokes
and felloes of wheels, etc. There are about twelve species native to
North America. The best known are: COMMON ASH, a large tree one hundred
to one hundred and fifty feet high, growing wild in southern Europe and
northern Asia. WHITE ASH, a large tree forty-five to ninety feet high;
Nova Scotia to Florida, westward to Minnesota and Texas. GREEN ASH,
forty to fifty feet high, Vermont to Florida, intermittently to Utah and
Arizona. RED ASH, a small tree, rarely more than forty feet high,
growing in moist soil from New Brunswick to South Dakota, Florida,
Alabama and Missouri. BLUE ASH, fifty to seventy-five feet high,
Ontario, Minnesota, and Michigan to Alabama, west to Iowa and Arkansas.
BLACK or HOOP ASH, a large tree, seventy to eighty feet high,
Newfoundland to Manitoba, south to Virginia and Arkansas.

=Aspen or Trembling Poplar= (_Populus tremula_), has a greenish-grey
bark. Its leaves have long stalks, and tremble at the slightest current
of air. The AMERICAN ASPEN called QUAKING ASPEN or QUAKING ASP, is one
of the most widely distributed trees of North America, growing from
Alaska and Newfoundland to lower California. A slender tree with light
green bark, maximum height 100 feet. Wood soft, light, and largely used
for manufacture of wood pulp. The EUROPEAN ASPEN is a quick growing
tree, fifty to eighty feet high. The wood is soft and porous, and is
used in turnery and in interior finish for houses.

=Beech= (_Fagus_), a genus containing about sixteen species. The trees
have smooth, silver-grey trunks, egg-shaped leaves like leather, and
blossoms at the base of the leaves. The beechnuts are three-cornered;
they grow in couples in a wooden capsule. The beech trees attain a
height of from sixty to ninety feet, and blossom in April and May. The
AMERICAN BEECH is the only North American species. It is a beautiful
tree seventy to eighty and sometimes one hundred feet high, and is one
of the most widely distributed trees of eastern North America. The wood
is tough, close grained, and is largely used in the manufacture of tool
handles, chairs and for fuel. The COMMON BEECH, forming pure forests in
many parts of Europe, is a large tree one hundred to one hundred and
twenty feet high. The wood is dark colored, solid, and very durable
under water and is much used in cabinet making, for weirs, and for fuel.
The bark is sometimes used in tanning. The nuts are used for the
manufacture of beech oil.

=Birch= (_Betula_), is known by all on account of its chalk-white bark,
and its fine, pendent leaves. The male and female blossoms of this tree
also grow separate on the same plant. Its seeds are small and plumed,
whereby they are particularly adapted for being sown by the aid of the
wind. There are about thirteen species in North America. COMMON BIRCH,
abounding in northern Europe, is a beautiful tree sixty to seventy feet
high. The bark is used in medicine and dyeing, and it yields the birch
tar employed in the preparation of Russia leather. RED or RIVER BIRCH
grows in the United States from Massachusetts to Iowa and Kansas, south
to Florida and Texas. It is a slender tree, seventy to ninety feet high,
which produces a hard, valuable timber. CHERRY BLACK or SWEET BIRCH is a
large tree, sometimes eighty feet high. Wood fine grained and valuable
for making furniture. The bark yields an oil identical with the oil of
wintergreen. It grows from Newfoundland to western Ontario, Florida, and
Tennessee. YELLOW BIRCH, a large tree, maximum height one hundred feet,
is used in shipbuilding. It grows from Newfoundland to Manitoba, south
to Carolina and Tennessee. PAPER or CANOE BIRCH, a large tree, maximum
height eighty feet, is of a beautiful white color, and the bark is
capable of division into thin sheets, used for making canoes, baskets,
and ornaments. Found in Newfoundland to Alaska, northern Pennsylvania,
Michigan, and Washington.

=Buttonwood.= See Plane Tree.

=Cedar= (_Cedrus_), the popular name of a variety of trees, mostly
agreeing in having a reddish-brown aromatic wood. The coniferous genus
includes only four forms, all native to the Old World, the most noted of
which are the Cedars of Lebanon, frequently mentioned in the Bible. It
has its needle-like leaves fascicled, like the larches; but unlike those
trees, evergreen, so that they remain on the tree for several years
after the dwarf-shoot has elongated. Its cones are erect, with broad,
thin-edged scales which ultimately fall away from the axis, as in the
firs. The WHITE CEDAR of the United States is more nearly a cypress, and
the so-called RED CEDAR is a juniper. The wood of the latter is used in
making lead-pencils. The species native to the West Indies, yields the
wood known as Honduras, Jamaica, or Barbadoes cedar, used for cigar
boxes.

=Chestnut= (_Castanea vulgaris_), is a fine tree that may reach a large
size, and has deeply furrowed bark and large, glossy, serrate but simple
leaves in tufts, which turn yellow in autumn. Its flowers are in long
pendulous catkins. The dark brown nuts are surmounted by the remains of
the perianth, being “inferior” fruits. In a wild state two or three
kernels or seeds, separated by a membrane, are contained in each nut;
but the Lyons marron, the most valued cultivated race, contains only
one. The tree is native from Portugal to the Caspian and in Algeria, and
is represented by allied forms in Japan and temperate North America,
flourishing in the Alps and Pyrenees at 2,500 to 2,800 feet above
sea-level. Its timber resembles oak, but is softer and more brittle.

=HOW WE MAY KNOW THE TREES OF THE FOREST=

[Illustration: =THE OAK=

Massive strength is the chief characteristic of the oak, and it was the
broad-based trunk of an oak that suggested the design for the first
great lighthouse. The branches twist about in zig-zag fashion, and the
thick bark is deeply furrowed.]

[Illustration: =THE BIRCH=

We have only to glance at the birch to realize that its name “the lady
of the woods” is well deserved. Its chief characteristic is slender
gracefulness, and we cannot mistake the silvery white bark, quite unlike
any other tree.]

=Cork Oak or Cork Tree= (_Quercus suber_), is a species of oak, native
of southern Europe and northern Africa, the spongy bark of which is the
common cork of commerce. It ranges from twenty to forty feet in height,
attains a diameter of five feet, and sometimes lives three hundred to
five hundred years, producing crops of bark for one hundred and fifty
years.

=Cypress= (_Cupressus_), is an evergreen tree of the pine family, with
small, imbricated leaves and globular cones, comprising about twelve
species, in northern regions of the world. The COMMON CYPRESS of Europe
is famous for its durable wood and is believed to be the cedar or gopher
wood of the Bible. The MONTEREY CYPRESS, a beautiful tree sometimes one
hundred and fifty feet high and eight or ten feet in diameter, grows
near the sea in California and three others occur on the Pacific Coast.
The so-called CYPRESS or WHITE CEDAR of the Eastern States, and the BALD
CYPRESS of southern swamps, valued for timber, are distant varieties of
cypress.

=Dogwood= (_Cornus_), is a shrub or small tree, the wood of which is
exceedingly hard and is used for many purposes. The astringent bark and
sometimes the leaves are used in medicine. There are about eighteen
species in the United States. The FLOWERING DOGWOOD is a small tree,
native of the Eastern States. It has showy white petal-like bracts
surrounding its clusters of small flowers.

=Ebony= (_Efenaceæ_), is chiefly a species of tropical trees. The hard,
dark colored heartwood of these is the source of most of the ebony of
commerce. Those of India, Ceylon, and other tropical countries, furnish
the best quality.

=Elm= (_Ulmus_). There are about six species which are native to the
United States. They attain a height of forty-five to ninety feet, and
blossom before their leaves appear, in March and April. The AMERICAN
WHITE ELM is a large tree ninety to one hundred feet high, growing from
Newfoundland to Florida and Texas. The wood is tough, strong, and
largely used for wheel hubs, in cooperage, and for shipbuilding. It is a
fine street and park tree. The CORK ELM is a tree seventy to ninety feet
high, growing from Quebec and Vermont westward to Nebraska and
Tennessee. The wood is considered the best of American elms, and is much
used for agricultural implements and bridge timbers. The SLIPPERY, or
RED ELM is a tree sixty to seventy feet high, growing from Ontario to
Florida, westward to Nebraska and Texas. The wood is durable in contact
with the soil and is much used for fence posts and railway ties. The
mucilaginous inner bark is used in medicine.

=Eucalyptus=, a genus of _Myrtaceæ_, contains about two hundred lofty
trees occurring chiefly in Australia and the Malayan Archipelago. Many
reach a height of one hundred and fifty feet and a girth of twenty-five
feet, and they frequently become hollow. The species are of great
economic value, yielding oils, kinos, and useful timber, while the
well-known oil of eucalyptus is obtained from the blue-gum tree.

=Fir= (_Abies_), a genus of the Pine family containing about twenty-five
species, natives of the cooler portions of the north temperate zone. The
SILVER FIR, is a common tree in central Europe, and is common to the
mountainous forests of Germany. It reaches ninety to one hundred and
thirty feet in height, and has a smooth, light silver-grey bark, and
needle-shaped leaves, which, although they stand singly and in a spiral
form round the branches, are yet distinctly turned towards two sides,
and are serrated at their points. The large, conical fruits stand like
tapers upright on the branches, and decay upon the tree; whilst their
spindles remain standing. The wood of the white fir tree is much valued.
It is used as timber, and in particular for making masts; it is also
useful for making all kinds of carved work, and for the manufacture of
musical instruments. It is also the source of the Strassburg turpentine.
The BALSAM FIR is a tree fifty to eighty feet high, growing from
Virginia northward. Canada balsam is made from the sap. The WHITE FIR or
GREAT SILVER FIR is a large tree, often three hundred feet high and ten
feet in diameter, growing from British Columbia to lower California. The
wood is soft and extensively used for cooperage and boxes. The RED FIR
is a large tree one hundred and fifty to two hundred feet high, found in
the same regions as the white fir. It is often planted in Europe as an
ornamental tree. The MEXICAN FIR is a magnificent silver-leaved tree one
hundred and fifty feet high.

=Gum.= The name given to several trees in America and Australia: (a) The
BLACK-GUM, one of the largest trees of the Southern States, bearing a
small blue fruit, the favorite food of the opossum. Most of the large
trees become hollow. (b) A tree of the genus _Eucalyptus_. See
Eucalyptus. (3) The SWEET GUM tree of the United States, a large and
beautiful tree with pointedly lobed leaves and woody, burlike fruit. It
exudes an aromatic juice. The wood is now extensively used in cabinet
work and interior finish.

=Hemlock Tree= (_Tsuga_), is a genus of the Pine family containing about
four species which are native to North America. The COMMON HEMLOCK is a
large tree sometimes attaining a height of one hundred and ten feet, and
growing from Nova Scotia to Alabama and west to Wisconsin and Minnesota.
The wood is light and soft and is extensively used in building. The bark
is largely used in tanning and hemlock oil is distilled from the
branches and leaves. There are many cultivated varieties which are very
ornamental. The CAROLINA HEMLOCK is a tree attaining a maximum height of
eighty feet, and growing in Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia.

=Hickory= (_Carya_), is represented by ten species, exclusively of North
America. Their timber is very heavy, strong, and tough, and is much used
in the manufacture of agricultural implements, carriages, and hoops for
casks. The fruit is a hardshelled nut, which in some species has an
excellent flavor. The SHAGBARK or SHELLBARK HICKORY is a large tree,
sometimes one hundred and twenty feet high, growing in rich soils from
Ontario and Minnesota south to Florida, Kansas and Texas. The nuts form
an important article of commerce, though less used than the pecan. The
WHITEHEART HICKORY or MOCKERNUT is a large tree seventy-five to one
hundred feet high, growing from Ontario to Florida, occasionally to
Missouri and Texas. It has a thick-shelled, edible nut. The PIGNUT
HICKORY, a tree seventy-five to one hundred and sometimes one hundred
and twenty feet high, ranges from Ontario to Florida, westward to
Nebraska and Texas. See also PECAN.

=Horse-Chestnut= (_Aesculus_), is rarely found in forests, but
frequently in pleasure-gardens. This beautiful tree, of sixty feet and
over, has large leaves, and splendid yellow-and-red colored blossoms
forming large pods. The brown chestnuts are enveloped by a prickly
cover, which bursts open in the autumn. The OHIO or FETID BUCKEYE,
reaching a height of about fifty feet, grows from Pennsylvania to
Alabama, west to Michigan and Oklahoma. The wood is used for making
artificial limbs and wooden ware. The SWEET or BIG BUCKEYE is a large
tree eighty to ninety feet high, growing from Pennsylvania to Georgia,
west to Iowa and Texas, and often planted as an ornamental tree. The
CALIFORNIA BUCKEYE is a small tree thirty to forty feet high, native of
California, and sparingly planted for ornament.

=Judas Tree= (_Cercis siliquastrum_), is a beautiful leguminous tree,
growing wild from Japan to the shores of the Mediterranean, with smooth
kidney-shaped leaves, glaucous above, and pink or red flowers, which
spring from both old and young wood before the appearance of the leaves.
From its appearance at this season the tree shares with the elder the
sinister reputation of having formed the gallows of Judas Iscariot.

=BARK, CELLS, HEART AND RINGS OF THE TREE=

[Illustration: Scaly Bark of Willow]

[Illustration: Membranous Bark of Birch]

[Illustration: Fibrous Bark of Honeysuckle]

[Illustration: Fissured Bark of Oak]

[Illustration: The Structure of a Young Twig of Oak, showing the layer
of cells (A) which increases the girth of the twig as it grows into a
branch]

[Illustration: Section of the Trunk of a Laburnum, showing Heart and
Sap-wood]

[Illustration: Section of the Trunk of an Oak, showing the Annual
Rings]

=Juniper Tree= (_Juniperus communis_), is rarely seen as a tree, but
appears usually as a low shrub. Its awl-shaped, pointed leaves stand
always by threes of the same height on the young shoots. The male
blossom catkins are short-stalked, and stand singly in the axils of the
bracts; the fruit is a black berry. These berries are employed for
medicinal purposes. The so-called WHITE CEDAR of the Eastern States and
the BERMUDA CEDAR, much prized for timber, are junipers.

=Larch= (_Larix Europæa_), has leaves which grow in clusters, and drop
during the Autumn. Its bark is rough and cracked; its red-blossom
catkins stand at the side of the yellow catkins. Its egg-shaped little
cones have backward bent stalks. The larch tree attains a height of from
forty-five to sixty feet, and is found in forests everywhere. The
AMERICAN LARCH or TAMARACK is a slender tree fifty to sixty feet high,
growing from Virginia to Hudson Bay. It is often planted as an
ornamental tree and the wood is highly valued for shipbuilding and for
telegraph poles.

=Linden or Lime= (_Tilia_), is the emblem of intense feeling. It has
been from time immemorial the favorite of the Germans. Below the large
linden trees the judicial proceedings, the fairs, and national games
formerly took place in Germany, and to this day men and women like to
sit under the village linden tree, and talk of the good old times. They
do not blossom before June and July. The blossom is five-leaved, and
contains many stamens and one pistil. The fruit is a little nut. The
AMERICAN LINDEN or BASSWOOD is a large tree seventy to one hundred and
twenty-five feet high, growing from New Brunswick to Georgia, west to
Nebraska and Texas. The wood is extensively used for making cheap
furniture and paper pulp. The SOUTHERN BASSWOOD or WHITEWOOD is a small
tree forty to fifty feet high growing from Long Island to Florida, west
to Texas. The WHITE BASSWOOD or BEE TREE is a forest tree forty-five to
seventy feet high, Pennsylvania to Florida, west to Illinois and
Tennessee.

=Locust= is a name applied to various trees of the Pea family. The
AMERICAN LOCUST TREE or the False Acacia is seventy to eighty feet high,
growing from Pennsylvania to Georgia. It is widely naturalized in most
states east to the Rocky Mountains. The wood is compact and hard and is
extensively used for shipbuilding and all purposes where great strength
and toughness are required.

=Mahogany= (_Swietenia Mahagoni_), is a native of Mexico, Central
America, and the West Indies, and yields one of the most generally used
of cabinet woods. The leaves resemble those of the ash; the flowers are
clustered and small, with their parts in whorls of five, and ten united
stamens; and the fruit is a pear-shaped, woody capsule with winged
seeds. The wood is a rich reddish-brown, often richly mottled, uniform
in grain, susceptible of the highest polish, and very durable. In Mexico
the timber is sometimes in thirty-foot lengths and forty-eight inches
square. Mahogany is commonly divided into SPANISH, the darker, heavier
and more figured, from San Domingo and Cuba, and HONDURAS, lighter,
softer, and plainer, from the mainland. It is employed in carving,
turning, veneering and cabinet-making, and for solid furniture, easily
holding first rank among cabinet woods.

=Maple= (_Acer_). This genus of trees contains nearly one hundred
species, natives of north temperate regions, especially North America
and eastern Asia. The SUGAR MAPLE is ninety to one hundred and twenty
feet high, and grows from Newfoundland to Georgia, west to eastern
Nebraska and Kansas. The wood is extensively used in cabinet work and
interior finish. Large quantities of sugar and syrup are made from the
sap. The SILVER or SOFT MAPLE is found from New Brunswick to Florida,
west to Ontario, Nebraska and Oklahoma. It is often planted as a shade
tree. The SCARLET or RED MAPLE grows in swamps and low ground from New
Brunswick to Manitoba, south to Florida and Texas. The close-grained
wood is largely used for furniture, and in turnery. The OREGON MAPLE
grows from Alaska to California. It is often planted as an ornamental
tree.

=Mesquite= (_Prosopis_), is a genus of trees containing about sixteen
species, natives of America, Asia, and Africa, three of which grow in
the United States. It varies from a straggling shrub to a
widely-branched tree fifty feet high and occurs from central Texas to
eastern California, and southward to Chile and Argentina. The very heavy
wood is used for fuel and fence posts, while the pods and leaves are
much eaten by stock. The SCREWPOD MESQUITE is twenty-five to thirty feet
high and valuable in arid regions.

=Oak= (_Quercus_), is most numerous in temperate climates, though some
are tropical; fully fifty species occur in the United States, with many
intermediate forms or hybrids. The Oak is a true giant among forest
trees. Its trunk often attains a circumference of thirty feet. Its bark
is smooth in the young trees and rough in the old oaks. The strong,
widely extended boughs are pronged and knotty; the crown is large, with
a sinuate outline. The blossoms are within long pendent catkins and
appear in the month of May. The bark and the acorns, which are contained
in pretty little cups, are medicinal. Along the stems and the boughs
mosses and lichens grow exuberantly. In the galls of the leaves and
branches different gall insects live. The horn beetles suck the sap of
the oaks, and the acorns form the food of squirrels and other rodents.
The EUROPEAN OAK, the most important Old World timber oak, is sparingly
planted in the United States. The WHITE OAK, the most valuable American
timber oak, occurs from Texas to Minnesota and eastward. With similar
range, but less valuable for timber, are BUR OAK or MOSSY CUP OAK, the
SCARLET OAK and the RED OAK. The COW OAK or BASKET OAK and the YELLOW or
CHESTNUT OAK produce edible acorns. The bark of the QUERCITRON is used
in tanning, as a yellow dye, and in medicine. The LIVE OAK, once famous
for ship-building, is a sturdy species with entire evergreen leaves
occurring in the Southern States, Cuba and the Pacific States.

=Osage Orange or Bow Wood= (_Maclura pomifera_), is a native of the
southwestern United States. It attains a height of twenty to sixty feet,
and is extensively planted for hedges, while the wood, of orange color
and of great hardness, is valuable for fence posts, mallet heads, and to
some extent in cabinet work.

=Pine= (_Pinus_), comprises a genus of about eighty species, nearly
two-thirds of which occur in the northern part of the western
hemisphere. The WHITE PINE, a tree seventy-five to one hundred feet
high, is one of the most important timber trees of North America. Its
range is from Newfoundland to Minnesota, south to Georgia. The wood is
soft, straight grained, and is much used for building and cabinet work.
The YELLOW PINE or LONG-LEAVED PINE sometimes attains a height of one
hundred feet, and grows in sandy soil from Virginia to Florida and
Texas. The wood is heavier and stronger than that of any other pine, and
is used in all kinds of building. The tree is the chief source of
turpentine, tar, resin, etc. The WESTERN YELLOW PINE or BULL PINE is
sometimes one hundred and fifty to two hundred and fifty feet high and
five to eight feet in diameter. It is found from the Rocky Mountains to
the Pacific coast and is one of the most important lumber trees of the
West. The SUGAR PINE of Oregon and California attains a height of one
hundred and fifty to three hundred feet and a diameter of more than ten
feet. The timber is strong, straight grained, and is much used for a
finishing lumber and cabinet work.

=Palm Family= (_Palmaceae_), is a very distinct natural family of trees
and shrubs, chiefly tropical and subtropical, embracing about one
thousand species which are second in economic importance only to the
cereal grasses. The Palm Trees have generally straight, scaly trunks
without boughs, and many species attain a considerable height. Their
large fan-shaped leaves grow near the top, and form a beautiful crown.
The numerous blossoms stand in long panicles. The palm trees represent
the only riches of many tribes of mankind in the tropics, providing them
with food, drink, dress, and building materials for their dwellings. The
most valued are the cocoanut, date and sago palm trees. The large nuts
of the first named are the well-known cocoanuts.

=Plane Tree= (_Platanus_), a genus of six or seven species, is a native
of the north temperate zone. The SYCAMORE, PLANE TREE, or BUTTONWOOD
reaches a height of one hundred and thirty feet with a trunk diameter of
fourteen feet. It is found from Quebec to Georgia, west to Manitoba and
Kansas. The wood is a favorite material for tobacco boxes and butcher
blocks and is largely used for furniture. Other species in the United
States are the CALIFORNIA SYCAMORE and the ARIZONA SYCAMORE, both large
trees.

=Poplar= (_Populus_), a hardy genus of about twenty trees, native to
temperate and cold regions. Half of the species occur in the United
States, all of soft wood and rapid growth. The COTTON-WOOD, common along
streams from the Rocky Mountains eastward, sometimes attaining one
hundred and fifty feet in height and a diameter of seven feet, is much
planted for ornament. The BALSAM POPLAR, sometimes one hundred feet
high, occurs northward and in Siberia. The EUROPEAN WHITE POPLAR and
BLACK POPLAR, much-planted ornamentals, have become naturalized in the
Eastern States. The LOMBARDY POPLAR, with very upright boughs,
frequently grows along the roadside in Asia, Europe and America.

=Redwood.= See Sequoia.

=Sandalwood= (_Santalum album_), is a small tree, native of India and
the Indian Archipelago. It produces a compact, fine-grained wood which
is used for making small ornamental articles and possesses a remarkable
fragrance which persists long after it has become thoroughly seasoned.

=Sassafras= is a genus containing but two known species, one in North
America and the other in China. The SASSAFRAS or AGUE TREE, is eighty to
ninety feet high, is found from Canada to Florida, west to Kansas and
Texas. Oil of sassafras, used for flavoring confectionery, is distilled
from the roots, and the bark is frequently employed as a household
medicine and beverage.

=Sequoia=, a genus of trees named after a remarkable Cherokee Indian
(otherwise George Guess), who gave his tribe a written alphabet of
eighty-six characters, and died in New Mexico in 1845. There are only
two living species, both natives of Western North America, the Big or
Mammoth Tree and the California Redwood. The Big Tree is a native of the
Sierra Nevada, and reaches over one thousand years of age, four hundred
and fifty feet in height, and one hundred and twelve feet in
circumference. The Redwood has a wider range in latitude as a wild tree,
and reaches three hundred feet in height. It has a shaggy, reddish bark
and very dark foliage. Its wood is of good texture, but monotonous in
grain. It is used in cabinet work and interiors.

=Spruce= (_Picea_), a genus of about eighteen species, native of the
Northern Hemisphere. The WHITE SPRUCE is a slender tree fifty to one
hundred and fifty feet high, found from New York to British Columbia,
north to Newfoundland, Hudson Bay and Alaska. The wood is light and soft
and is largely used for construction and for paper pulp. The BLACK
SPRUCE is twenty to thirty and very rarely one hundred feet high; grows
from Newfoundland and Hudson Bay and Alberta south to North Carolina,
Michigan and Minnesota. It is largely used for wood pulp and paper. The
RED SPRUCE, seventy to eighty feet high, grows from Nova Scotia to
Virginia, and is largely manufactured into lumber. The TIDELAND or SITKA
SPRUCE is a large tree usually one hundred feet, sometimes two hundred
feet high, occurring abundantly from northern California to Alaska. Its
valuable timber is used for all kinds of building purposes. The NORWAY
SPRUCE is largely planted in the Eastern States as an ornamental tree.

=Sycamore.= Only certain trees of the genus _Ficus_, mostly natives of
Asia and Africa, are properly called sycamores. The EGYPTIAN SYCAMORE,
supposed to be the sycamore of the Bible, is a large spreading tree
often planted for shade in Egypt and western Asia. In northern Europe
this name is also given to the species of maple, and in the United
States to the AMERICAN PLANE TREE. See PLANE TREE.

=Upas= (_Antiaris toxicaria_). A tree found in the Philippine Islands
and tropical Asia. The fiber of the bark is sometimes made into cloth
and the juice of the roots is used by the Malays for poisoning their
arrows. This tree figures in both religion and mythology.

=Walnut= (_Juglans_), a genus of about ten species, mostly natives of
North America and Asia. The BLACK WALNUT is sometimes one hundred to one
hundred and twenty-five feet high, growing from Ontario to Florida, west
to Nebraska and Texas. The dark brown wood is largely used for cabinet
making and gunstocks. The WHITE WALNUT or BUTTERNUT resembles the black
walnut, but is seldom over one hundred feet high. The wood is used in
the interior finish of houses and for furniture. The CALIFORNIA WALNUT,
a tree sometimes sixty-five feet high, is often cultivated in California
for shade and as a stock on which to graft the English Walnut. The
ENGLISH WALNUT is sixty to ninety feet high, native of Persia, and has
long been cultivated for its edible nuts.

=Willow= (_Salix_), a genus of over one hundred and fifty species,
mostly of cool, northern regions, fully one-half occurring within the
United States. The leaves are egg-shaped and wrinkled; the blossoms
yellow and greenish. They possess great quantities of honey, and
attract, therefore, all kinds of insects, especially bees. The WEEPING
WILLOW is much planted for ornament. The EUROPEAN OSIER is cultivated
for its twigs. Of the native species, the shrubby SHINING WILLOW, the
BLACK WILLOW, is sometimes forty feet high, and the HEART-LEAVED WILLOW
are among the best known.

=Yew= (_Taxus_), a genus of some six trees and shrubs, are widely
distributed in the northern hemisphere, three species occurring in the
United States. The AMERICAN YEW is a low, straggling shrub seldom over
five feet high growing in woods from Newfoundland to Manitoba and south
to Virginia and Iowa. The FLORIDA YEW is a bushy tree rarely twenty-five
feet high. The CALIFORNIA YEW is a tree forty to fifty feet high
occurring from British Columbia to California, sometimes cultivated in
gardens in Europe. The hard wood is used for fence posts. The EUROPEAN
YEW is a native of Europe and Siberia reaching a height of forty feet.


_VIII. FIBER AND COMMERCIAL PLANTS_

  The cultivation of the fiber-yielding plants and the manufacture of
  their products into textiles, ropes, cordage, and matting are among
  the most important industries of the world, and afford employment
  directly and indirectly to many millions of people. The industries,
  moreover, are of great antiquity, for we have definite evidence from
  the Lake Dwellings of Switzerland that flax was cultivated and used
  as a textile during the Stone Age, and the occurrence of linen cloth
  in the tombs of Egypt and constant references to the same material
  in the earliest books of the Bible are well known to everyone. How
  and when mankind first became aware of the possibilities of
  vegetable fibers as materials for clothing it is not easy to say,
  but it is not improbable that he first employed the fibers to supply
  his need for string cordage, especially in his hunting expeditions,
  and that gradually the idea of weaving the strings to form a fabric
  occurred to him. The apparatus employed must have been of extreme
  simplicity and the finished product crude according to modern ideas;
  but that thousands of years ago textiles of superlative quality,
  rivaling anything that can be produced to-day, were manufactured by
  Eastern races is a matter of history and observation.

=Annotto, Anatto or Arnotto.= The red substance imported under this name
consists of the aggregated seed pellicles of _Bixa Orellana_. The
coloring matter is best extracted by alcohol, as it is not very soluble
in water. It is the source of coloring for dairy products, being the
standard butter and cheese color in the United States, England and
Holland. Has also a limited use as a dye in calico printing. It was
anciently used by natives of Brazil, Central America, and West Indies to
stain their bodies red, and by Mexicans in painting. Cultivation
prehistoric in tropical America. Now naturalized in India.

=Bamboo= (_Bambusa_) grows in the tropics of Asia, Africa and America.
The plants are in reality merely gigantic grasses. The stems are hollow
and contain only a light pith, but they are jointed and at the nodes
strong partitions stretch across the inside. They grow in clumps, and
may reach a height of one hundred and twenty feet and a thickness of ten
inches. Some species flower only once, some every year, and others at
longer intervals.

The Bamboo is noted for its great economic importance, and serves a
variety of useful purposes. The young shoots of some species are cut
when tender and eaten like asparagus; the seeds also are sometimes used
as food, and for making beer; some species exude a saccharine juice at
the nodes which is of domestic value.

The hard stems are converted into bows, arrows, quivers, lance-shafts,
masts of vessels, bed-posts, walking-sticks, poles of palanquins, rustic
bridges, bee-hives, water-pipes, gutters, furniture, ladders, domestic
utensils and agricultural implements. Split up finely they afford a most
durable material for weaving into mats, baskets, window-blinds, ropes
and even sails of boats. Perhaps the greatest use to which they are put
is in building, for in India, China, Japan, Assam, Malay, and other
countries of the East, houses are frequently constructed solely of this
material.

=Betel-nut= (_Areca Catechu_), a palm cultivated in tropical Asia. The
seed or nut resembles a nutmeg in size and in color. Pieces of this nut
are rolled up with a little lime in leaves of _Piper Betel_, the
Betel-pepper, and chewed by the natives. The pellet is hot, acrid,
aromatic and astringent, tinges the saliva red, and stains the teeth.
Its charcoal is used as toothpowder.

Cultivated extensively in the East Indies, where the consumption of
leaves by chewing with the areca nut is enormous. Narcotic stimulant.

=Cinchona,= a genus of evergreen trees, includes thirty-six species,
about a dozen of which are utilized. They are natives of the Andes,
growing mostly between five thousand and eight thousand feet above the
sea-level. It is the source of quinine, the most important drug in
tropical medicine, and widely used throughout the world. Its cultivation
is becoming quite extensive.

The bark introduced into Europe in 1639 by the Countess of Cinchon,
whence the name. Now extensively cultivated in India, Japan, Ceylon and
Jamaica.

=Cotton= (_Gossypium herbaceum_) is one of the most important cultivated
shrubs. It is an annual and grows from two to four feet in height, with
stalks branching extensively. At the bottom of the stalk the limbs are
longest, and at the top they are light and short.

The flowers are white, or pale yellow, or cream-colored the first day.
They darken and redden on the second day, and fall to the ground on the
third or fourth day, leaving a tiny boll developed in the calyx. This
boll develops and enlarges until maturity, when it is somewhat like a
hen’s egg, both in size and shape. This boll is the house of the seed
and lint--the products of commerce. In it are from three to five
apartments or cells (often more than five in improved types), which hold
the lint from its earliest formation until it is picked in the fall. The
bolls of the cotton plant mature all the way from the last of August
until frost attacks them. When matured, the fibrous wool, known as seed
cotton, is gathered, ginned, and baled. When separated from the seed the
lint becomes the cotton of commerce.

The chief commercial types of cotton are American upland, sea island,
Egyptian, India, Brazilian and Peruvian. These differ in the length of
the individual fibers (staple). The quality is indicated by the grading
under such names as fine, good, good fair, fully fair, middling fair,
good middling, middling, etc. Sea island cotton has the longest staple
and is used for the finest qualities of yarn and fabrics. Egyptian
cotton also has a long staple. Large amounts are imported into the
United States.

Cotton is next to corn the most valuable farm crop of the United States.
Nearly three-fourths of all the cotton produced annually in the world is
grown in the south Atlantic and gulf states. The remainder comes mostly
from India, Egypt, China, Brazil, and Asiatic Russia. A comparatively
small percentage of the crop is sea island cotton from the coast of
Georgia and from islands in the West Indies. The area of cotton
production is spreading in the United States as well as in foreign
countries.

Cotton fiber is spun into yarn and made into thread, muslin, calico and
hundreds of other cotton or part cotton fabrics. Mercerized yarn is
prepared by treatment with strong caustic alkali. Cotton linters are
used in cheap yarns, cotton batting, mattresses, and the manufacture of
celluloid and artificial silk.

Cotton seeds are subjected to heavy pressure in machines in order to
extract the oil. The oil-cake is a valuable cattle food and the hulls
are used for fuel or for paper making.

Cottonseed oil is used for table purposes, for packing sardines, for
cooking, making soap, candles, etc.

The greatest centers of cotton manufacture are in England, New England,
the Carolinas and Georgia. Germany, Russia, India and Japan are among
the important manufacturing nations.

Modern cotton mills are of immense size. The bales are opened, the
cotton cleaned, carded, and twisted into slivers, rovings, and finally
into yarn. Raw cotton, cotton yarn and cotton fabrics are all important
in trade. About half the crop of the United States is exported in bales
to be manufactured in the mills of other countries.

England has an enormous foreign trade in cotton fabrics. The United
States exports chiefly unbleached muslin, more of which goes to China
than to any other country.

It is certain that cotton was in use in India three thousand years ago,
and in Egypt more than two thousand years ago. It was well known to the
ancient civilizations of Mexico, Peru, Central America and the West
Indies. When the European voyagers, Columbus, Pizarro, and Cortez,
visited for the first time these ancient civilizations, the manufacture
of cotton was in a flourishing condition, and the quality and beauty of
the cotton goods of a high order.

=Flax= (_Linum usitatissimum_) has been cultivated for centuries. Along
the upright stalk, of eighteen to twenty inches high, small narrow
leaves grow; the blossoms appear in July and August, and are light blue.

Flax is grown for fiber in Russia, Belgium, Italy, France, Holland,
Ireland and Egypt. Little flax fiber is produced in the United States.
Plants for fiber production are straight stemmed, while the varieties
grown for seed have many branches. Flax seeds are produced in Russia,
India, Argentina and the United States. Plants harvested for fiber are
pulled up by the root in order to obtain the greatest possible length.
The fiber is separated from the stalk of the plant by retting, a process
of partial decay, breaking and scutching to remove the woody parts and
hackling or combing. In the best grades of flax most of this work is
done by hand.

Flax or linen fiber and linseed oil are the chief products of the plant.
Tow is a by-product in making linen and flax yarns and fabrics.

Linseed oil is used in paints, varnishes, printer’s ink, oilcloth and
linoleum. Linseed oil-cake is a valuable cattle food. Flax seeds find
limited use in medicine.

Flax yarns are used in making rope, twine, bagging and coarse,
unbleached fabrics. Linen yarns are made into products of the better
grade, including fine linens, cambrics, laces, etc.

Linen is bleached by exposure to the sun and by treatment with a dilute
solution of chloride of lime. Linen rags are the stock for the best
qualities of paper.

The United States imports flax fiber mainly from Europe, as well as
large quantities of linens, laces, etc. Some flax seeds are imported and
large amounts of linseed oil-cake are sent to Europe.

=Guava= (_Psidium Guayava_), small trees of tropical America belonging
to the Myrtle family. The fruits vary very much in size, shape and
color, the most valued being the _white guava_, with pear-shaped,
yellow or whitish fruits the size of a hen’s egg. The inferior _red
guava_ which is more apple-shaped, is also used in preparing guava-jelly
and guava-cheese, which preserves, owing to the perishable character of
the fruit, are the only forms in which the fruit is imported. The tree
has been naturalized in the East, and is commonly grown from Mexico to
Peru at date of Spanish discovery. Since widely diffused in East and
West India Islands, India, and China. Recently established in Florida
and California.

=Hemp= (_Cannabis sativa_) is cultivated in many countries. It is about
three feet in height, has finger-like leaves and the fruit has the form
of a little nut. The home of the hemp is the East Indies. The stalks are
dried in the sun, then steeped in water or upon wet (moist) meadows, and
again exposed to the sun, when the woody parts are stripped off. The
remaining fibers are manufactured into cables, ropes, sail-cloth, linen
and paper.

Other hemps of different botanical origin and having quite different
qualities are called by such names as manila hemp, sisal hemp, tampico
hemp, Mauritius hemp, sunn hemp, bowstring hemp, etc. Strictly speaking,
none of these is true hemp.

It is cultivated in Russia, the warm countries of Asia, the shores of
the Mediterranean, Kentucky, Missouri, Illinois and California. Russia
produces more hemp fiber than all the rest of the world. Russia and
Italy are the largest exporters.

As with other cordage fibers of this character, the long, combed fibers
are called line and the short strands, tow. The commercial fiber is
longer, coarser and less strong than flax. It can not be bleached
perfectly white, although used in so-called coarse linens. Russian,
Italian and Kentucky, as applied to hemp, denote the country of origin.
Italian hemp is the finest, Kentucky the strongest.

Hemp oil is pressed from the seeds. It is used in paints, varnishes and
soap. The oil-cake is a cattle food.

=Hop= (_Humulus lupulus_), sometimes grows wild in hedges and bushes,
and is also frequently cultivated. Its stalk, which leans to the right,
is eighteen to twenty-four feet high; its petiolate leaves are
heart-shaped, with three to five lobes. The blossoms of its stamens form
panicles; the female cones stand either singly in the axils of the
leaves or in clusters. In these cones a yellow, bitter resin, the
hop-powder or lupulin, is secreted, which yields the wort for beer, and
is also used by chemists. Hops are cultivated in almost all parts of
Europe, especially in England, Germany and Austria. In the United
States, California, Oregon, Washington, New York and Wisconsin produce
the largest crops.

Hops are added to the malt, liquor, or wort before fermentation and give
a bitter flavor to malt liquors. Hops are not exported on a large enough
scale to be an important item in commerce.

=Jute= is an East Indian plant whose fibers are strong, coarse, dark in
color and sometimes twelve feet long. The fibers are largely employed in
the manufacture of coarse bagging and sacking called gunny cloth. Gunny
bags, in which pepper, ginger, sugar, cotton, rice, gums, etc., are
shipped are made of it. Jute is also largely mixed with silk, as it has
a gloss that can scarcely be distinguished from silk when woven with it.
Attempts have been made to manufacture paper out of jute, but it is
difficult to bleach it white, and only a coarse kind of brown paper is
obtained.

=Licorice= (_Glycyrrhiza_) is a plant having long, pliant, sweet roots,
and generally creeping rootstocks; pinnate leaves of many leaflets, and
terminating in an odd one; and whitish, violet-colored flowers in
spikes, racemes, or heads. The roots of licorice depend for the valuable
properties on a substance called _Glycyrrhizine_, allied to sugar,
yellow, transparent, uncrystallizable, soluble in both water and
alcohol, and forming compounds both with acids and with bases. They are
a well-known article of materia medica, and were used by the ancients as
in modern times, being emollient, demulcent, very useful in catarrh and
irritations of the mucous membrane. It is a native of the south of
Europe and of many parts of Asia, as far as China. It is cultivated in
many countries of Europe. The only American species grows in the plains
of the Missouri.

=Ramie= is the bast fiber from a plant (_Boehmeria nivea_), commonly
called China grass, or rhea, although fibers from other plants sometimes
receive these names. It is usually strong and silky in appearance but
difficult to clean and bleach.

It is used largely in China for weaving grass cloth, or Canton linen.
The fiber is very difficult to “de-gum.” Many experiments have been made
to find a satisfactory process. It is now used in making fabrics which
resemble linen, laces, underwear, plushes, etc.

=Raphia,= a strong and useful fiber is obtained from the leaves of
_Raphia Ruffia_, a palm cultivated in Madagascar, Mauritius, and
neighboring islands, and of the Jupati palm, of Brazil. Madagascar
raphia is the only important grade. A similar soft fiber used locally is
produced in West Africa.

It is exported in considerable amounts from Madagascar and used by
gardeners for tying plants; and also for making mats and basketry and in
kindergartens.

=Rattan= is the stem of a species of climbing palm, natives of Asia,
though some occur in Australia and in Africa. They have slender,
reed-like but solid stems, seldom more than one or two inches in
diameter, which grow to great lengths, clambering up among the branches
of trees by means of the hooked prickles on the stalks of their leaves.
The Indian and Malayan species are the source of the largely-imported
rattan canes, used for the seats of chairs, and, in their native
countries, for cables and a variety of other purposes.

=Sisal= (henequen or sisal hemp) is a hard, strong fiber from the leaves
of a century plant (_Agave rigida_). It is cultivated in Yucatan and
the Bahamas. Plantations of henequen, or maguey, have been established
in Cuba, Hawaii, India, German and British East Africa and the
Philippines. The home of the agave plants is Mexico and Central America
and this part of the world produces most of these fibers.

On modern plantations machines have superseded the primitive hand
methods of cleaning the fiber. Sisal is the chief product of Yucatan and
its greatest export. The bulk of the production is used in the United
States in making rope, twine and sacking. All of the other agave fibers
are of less commercial importance than sisal or henequen.

The fiber of this species is especially valuable for ship cables, as it
has been found to resist the action of sea-water better than most other
materials.

=Tobacco Plant= (_Nicotiana tabacum_) is three to four feet in height;
its leaves longish and lancet-shaped; its corolla pink; its fruit is a
capsule, with many seeds. It is indigenous to America. Its leaves are
either used for chewing, for smoking, or for snuff. It belongs to the
poisonous plants, and contains no nutritious substance; its flavor and
odor are disagreeable; nevertheless it furnishes much enjoyment to a
large portion of mankind.

More tobacco is raised in the United States than in any other country
and Kentucky raises more than any other state. India is the second
largest producer. In Europe it is cultivated in Austria-Hungary, Russia,
Germany, Netherlands, France, Belgium and Turkey. Cuba, Porto Rico,
Mexico, Central and South America, China, Java, Sumatra, Philippines,
Ceylon, Syria and Cape Colony are important producers.

Commercial grades are named from the locality of production as Havana,
Sumatra, Mexican, Turkish, Virginia, etc. Certain grades are appropriate
for use as cigar wrappers and others for fillers and are so named in the
trade.

The United States exports over half of the tobacco raised, chiefly to
England in the form of leaf tobacco. Few cigars are exported, but
cigarettes and plug tobacco go to the East Indies, China and Australia.


_IX. POISONOUS PLANTS_

  A number of plants contain so powerful a poison that we should take
  especial care to avoid them. As the danger may be better avoided by
  a general knowledge of these plants, a detailed description of them
  is highly desirable. Many of them are also important medicinal
  plants; and we should therefore by no means regret the existence of
  these poisonous growths; for, if we apply them to their proper uses,
  they serve to supply us with valuable medical aids.

=Darnell= (_Lolium temulentum_) is from eighteen to thirty-six inches
high, and often found in cornfields. Its seeds contain a poison, which
is narcotic and stupefying.

=Deadly Nightshade= (_Atropa Belladonna_) is common in the woods. The
sappy stem is from three to six feet high; the egg-shaped leaves are
covered with down; the brownish-red blossoms are arranged solitary in
the axils of the leaves. The bright black berry is as large as a cherry.
The nightshade is our most dangerous poisonous plant, and there is
little hope for children who have eaten of its berries. From the fresh
leaves atropine is prepared, which is a very powerful remedy in certain
diseases of the eye.

=Black Hellebore= (_Helleborus niger_) blooms in December, January and
February, and is a native of the mountainous woods of South Germany and
Austria. The black root, which is white inside, is poisonous.

=Fool’s Parsley or Dog’s Parsley= (_Aethusa Cynapium_) is a common weed,
growing in gardens, fields, and also on rubbish. It is easily mistaken
for parsley. As it is very poisonous, it is well to remember that it can
be easily recognized by three long pendent floral leaves on solitary
umbels; the leaves are odorless, and only when crushed emit a faint,
garlic-like scent.

=Hellebore= (_H. viridis_ and _H. fœtidus_) is also rightly described as
a poisonous plant. One species is used for killing lice and vermin on
cattle, horses, and other live stock.

=Henbane= (_Hyoscyamus niger_) grows on rubbish and waste ground. The
entire plant is covered with sticky hairs, and has a repulsive odor. The
stem is about thirteen inches high; the longish leaves are widely
serrated; the flowers are pale yellow, streaked with dark-violet veins;
the fruit is a capsule, which opens with a spring lid. The henbane is
also a dangerous, poisonous plant, but its leaves and seeds supply an
important medicine.

=Herb-Paris= (_Paris quadrifolia_) grows in hedges and shady woods. On
its upright stem there are four oval leaves. It has never more than one
blossom, consisting of greenish-yellow petals, eight stamens, and one
pistil. Its fruit is a dark blue, round berry, which ripens in July and
August. The latter when eaten causes diarrhœa, convulsions and other
disturbances.

=Marsh Crow’s-Foot= (_Ranunculus sceleratus_) grows in ditches and
marshes. The upright branching stem is from twelve to eighteen inches
high; the leaves are divided in the shape of a hand, and the blossoms
are small and yellow. The marsh crow’s-foot contains very poisonous
juices, which cause blisters and ulcers to rise on the skin, and when
taken inwardly nearly always cause death. The other species of
crow’s-foot found in meadows, fields, woods, etc., are also more or less
poisonous.

=Meadow Saffron= (_Colchicum autumnale_) is a bulbous plant, which
blooms in dry meadows in September and October. The flesh-colored
blossoms appear in the autumn, and leaves are thrown up in the following
spring; between the leaves are large capsules, each containing numerous
seeds. The seeds and the bulbous root contain poison, and the former are
used in medicine.

=Mezereon= (_Daphne Mezereum_) grows solitary in the woods. It is a
tough plant, from one to three feet high; the lanceolate leaves are
arranged in tufts at the end of the shoots; the rose-colored blossoms
appear before the leaves, and are generally situated in clusters of
three on the branches; the fruit is a red stone-fruit. The whole plant
is poisonous; a medicine is prepared from the bark.

=Purple Foxglove= (_Digitalis purpurea_) is a common wild flower, and
grows to a height of fifty inches. The longish leaves are felt-like, and
the large purple flowers stand in a cluster; the fruit is a capsule. The
purple foxglove is poisonous, and its leaves are used in medicine.

=Spotted Hemlock= (_Conium maculatum_) grows upon rubbish, hedges,
fences, and highways. The stem is three to six feet high, marked with
blue and bluish-red spots; the leaves are tripennate; the white blossoms
also stand in flat umbels. The leaves when bruised emit a very peculiar
mouse-like odor which is very noticeable on hot summer days. The root,
especially, is poisonous, and when eaten causes the most fatal
consequences. Hemlock is a powerful sedative, and is used medicinally.

=Thorn Apple= (_Datura Stamonium_) originally came from the East Indies,
but is now widely spread, growing on rubbish and in gardens. Never more
than a few plants are found. Its forked stem is from eighteen inches to
three feet high; the petiolate leaves are widely serrated; the large
blossoms are a pure white; the fruit resembles the horse chestnut, and
contains numerous black seeds. The thorn apple has a very repulsive
odor, a disagreeable flavor, and is poisonous in all parts. The leaves
and seeds are used in medicines.

=Water Hemlock= (_Cicuta virosa_), is very common in many localities on
the banks of streams, ditches, and in flooded fields; in other
localities it is rare. The thick, fleshy root is hollow, and divided in
the interior into sections; the upright stem is hollow and smooth; the
leaves are tripennate; the small white blossoms are arranged in umbels
of ten or more rays. The poison is chiefly contained in the red root,
which, when eaten by children, who mistake it for an edible root, nearly
always causes death, unless medical aid is immediately at hand. The
other parts of the plant also contain a poison, which is so strong that
its odor alone will produce headache and giddiness.

=Wolf’s-Bane or Monk’s-Hood= (_Aconitum Lycotonum_) is a rare plant from
eighteen inches to three feet high; the leaves are shaped like a hand,
with three, five or seven lobes. The blossom is yellow. The wolf’s-bane
contains a virulent poison, especially in the root and in the seeds.
This description also applies to the _Aconitum Napellus_, which is grown
as an ornamental plant in gardens; its tubers are used medicinally.


_X. SOME WONDERS OF PLANT LIFE_

  We usually think of plants as quite harmless things, almost wholly
  at the mercy of the animal creation. This, however, is only one side
  of the story, for quite a number of plants have a very cunning plan
  whereby they entrap flies and other insects. The ingenuity with
  which these plants lure their victims on to death is simply amazing.
  Everything is done to tempt the creature to visit the death traps of
  the plants, and, on the other hand, no means are spared to make an
  escape impossible.


THE MOST CRUEL PLANT IN THE WORLD

One of the most singular instances of this is to be seen in a little
plant which is only found growing in the bogs of the Carolinas. This has
been rather cynically called the Venus Fly Trap (_Dionæa muscipula_), a
fanciful name which hides its cruel practices. Few plants have adopted a
more certain plan than the Dionæa. Every leaf which the plant produces
is the most perfect device for the securing of prey that could be
imagined.

The mechanical construction of this remarkable vegetable trap is
somewhat on the following lines. The leaf is borne at the end of a
curiously broad stalk, and is divided into two lobes; these are joined
together by a hinge-like arrangement. The outside borders of the lobes
are fringed with from a dozen to twenty long teeth. When fully expanded
the leaf lies back on the moss amid which the plant grows.

If we examine the inside surface of the lobes we shall see that these
are in the middle colored a rosy red. Just at this point will be
discovered three hairs arranged in triangular fashion.

It is interesting to consider the actual manner in which the plant
carries out its fly-catching.

As is well known, bright colors have a great attraction for insects. In
this case it is apparently the red areas on the lobes of the leaves
which possess such an attraction for insects of all kinds. Possibly they
secrete a sweet substance, but this is not definitely known. All goes on
well as long as the creatures avoid doing one thing; unhappily, this
they are almost certain to do sooner or later. Nothing happens unless
the insect brushes up against one of the hairs previously mentioned as
being on the surface of the lobes. The succeeding happenings are
disastrous for the fly.

With really astonishing rapidity the sides of the leaf snap together so
that the spines on the borders of the lobes meet. Thus, in a very brief
time a most perfect little cage is devised from which any sort of escape
is absolutely impossible. During the next half hour the sides draw in
still closer, so that the spines overlap. At this stage the leaf pours
out a copious discharge of digestive fluid, which enables the plant to
make use of the nutritious element in the fly.

[Illustration: =CRUEL PLANTS THAT ENTRAP AND KILL ANIMALS=

The light streaming through the transparent spaces induces the prisoner
to waste its strength in a vain effort to escape through them.]

[Illustration: Once below the inside edge, escape is almost impossible.
Pitchers have been found almost full of flies and other insects.]

[Illustration: Absorbed in the delights of feasting on the nectar of the
Nepenthes, the insect wanders with fatal ease down the fluted rim.]

[Illustration: The fruits of the Martynia fasten themselves to passing
animals that sometimes get the hooks caught in their mouths and die a
dreadful death.]

After an interval of several days the leaf of the Dionæa opens and
allows the hard carcass of the fly to roll away. The plant is then ready
for another meal, and unable to realize the fate which is in store for
it, another fly falls a victim. Quite often the Venus Fly Trap is able
to capture large insects.


THE STRANGE HABITS OF THE NEPENTHES

Scattered over the tropics of the old world there is a remarkable group
of plants known as Nepenthes. Many of these are of a climbing habit,
rooting in bark crevices where a little moist soil may have collected.
To augment their food supply they have produced pitchers, which in some
species are of great size. Indeed, in one kind of receptacles will hold
as much as two quarts of water. In all cases these pitchers have a
thick, corrugated rim, and it is this which plays a big part both in the
luring and the capturing of the insects. On this rim, as well as on the
lid of the pitcher, there are honey secreting glands, and these, of
course, make the strongest appeal to hungry insects.

Absorbed in the delights of the feast, the insect wanders with fatal
ease down the fluted rim. Once below the inside edge of this, escape is
almost impossible, for the border is adorned with sharp, teeth-like
processes, all pointing downward to the pit of destruction. Moreover,
the inside walls of the pitcher are specially smoothed with a wax-like
secretion, which makes climbing up a very difficult feat. Even insects
with wings seem to find a great difficulty in making good their escape.

The pitchers of the Nepenthes are usually about half filled with fluid;
this is not entirely collected rain or dew, but is largely formed by a
definite secretion of the plant. Into this fluid the exhausted insect
tumbles sooner or later, there to end miserably among a mass of drowning
victims. It has been definitely proved that this fluid is an acid
secretion--not unlike the digestive juices of an animal--which enables
the plant to extract the nutriment it needs from the bodies of its
victims.


THE NEPENTHES CATCH EVEN MICE AND BIRDS

It is in connection with the fluid contained in the pitchers of the
Nepenthes that these plants catch much larger prey than insects. In the
tropics it is not always an easy matter for birds and other small
animals to secure a drink readily. The half-filled pitchers entice many
a small creature to creep over the fluted rim in order to secure a
draught of the fluid, which is not unpleasant to the taste. Now and
again the venturesome visitor loses his hold and tumbles into the
pitcher. Even in the case of mice and small birds the pitcher proves a
veritable death-trap. The slippery sides are almost insurmountable,
while the sharp hooks round the rim still further check an escape.
Sooner or later the victim falls back into the fluid and is drowned.
Strange as it may appear, after such a capture the plant grows
vigorously, for the decaying body of its victim is rich in just the food
material of which it stands in need.


THE DEATH PITCHER OF THE SARRACENIAS

A very singular group of plants, the Sarracenias, are quite common in
the bogs of North America. These are of an elegant shape, and may be as
much as one foot or two feet in height. Nearly always they are highly
colored, and altogether so attractive do they appear that insects of all
kinds simply crowd to them. On arrival at the lip of the pitcher, the
insects find a feast of honey spread out for their delectation. With
almost devilish ingenuity this becomes sweeter and more plentiful the
farther down into the pitcher one traverses. At a certain point,
however, the nectar ceases, and the insect thinks that he will retrace
his steps. But although it has been easy enough to go down, it is almost
impossible to get back, for the surface of the inside of the pitcher is
thickly covered with sharp bristles, all pointing downward.

Some flying insects may escape, but even these do not find it easy, as
witness the fact that the plant often catches a large number of winged
creatures. In the lower part of the Sarracenia pitcher a fluid is
secreted, and it is into this that the creatures ultimately fall, and,
of course, perish. How successful are the Sarracenias in their
insect-catching may be gathered from the fact that pitchers have been
discovered well nigh full of flies and other small creatures.


A PLANT WITH PRISON WINDOWS

The California Darlingtonia seems to have been specially devised for the
securing of winged creatures. The plant is most singular in appearance,
and the upper part of the pitchers bear a remarkable resemblance to the
head of a snake. Part of the hood and also the two protruding leaves are
gaily colored in crimson. It should also be noted that the upper portion
of the hood is adorned with transparent patches, like so many little
windows. Now, the only opening into the pitcher of the Darlingtonia is
quite a small hole on the under side of the hood. As in the case of the
other pitcher plants, the orifice of this hole is freely supplied with
honey, and this extends well into the interior of the receptacle.

Owing to the attraction of the little windows, which have been already
mentioned, the flies do not attempt to get out of the hole to the extent
which might be supposed. The light streaming through the transparent
spaces seems to convince the insects that in that direction lies the
path to freedom. At all times it is possible to see perhaps a dozen
flies bobbing against the windows in a vain endeavor to escape. Finally,
wearied to death by their hopeless endeavors to escape, the insects fall
down into the lower part of the pitcher and become suffocated by the
fluid it contains.


AN AUSTRALIAN PLANT WITH TWO KINDS OF LEAVES

A curious little Australian plant which has adopted a very similar plan
of fly catching to that to be seen in the Nepenthes is the Cephalotus.
One singular feature about this Australian pitcher plant is that it
produces quite ordinary leaves in addition to the highly specialized
fly-catching ones.


PLANTS THAT KILL EVEN THE POWERFUL LION

The Martynias of South America produce fruits with hooks sometimes five
or six inches in length, which get imbedded into the flesh of animals.
The African Grapple-plants (_Harpagophyton procumbens_) are even worse
in the amount of suffering which they cause; thousands of antelopes,
goats, and other creatures are lamed by them every season. The seed
vessel of this plant is provided with a large number of curved hooks by
which it attaches itself to the coats or hoofs of animals and is thus
transported from place to place. It has been known to choke and cause
the death of lions.

[Illustration: The pretty little parachute-like device of the Dandelion
seed which helps to waft it over a wide area. It often rises to a height
of thirty feet, and is wafted many miles away.]

[Illustration: The Willow Herb produces an enormous number of flying
fruits. These often sail away in masses and are carried for a great
distance over the countryside, to take root in a new location.]

[Illustration: The seed of the Sycamore is provided with a long wing.
These wings revolve quickly when the heavy seed is falling, prevent a
rapid decent, and help to scatter them.]

[Illustration: The head of a seeding Dandelion. Observe the enlarged
view of one of the parachutes above.]

[Illustration: When the fruits of the Coltsfoot are ripe the smallest
puff of air disperses the seed far and wide.]


HOW PLANTS TRAVEL

Many plants provide their seeds with an apparatus which forms a
singularly effective flying machine. Some of these are among the most
beautiful and ingenious contrivances in the plant world.


NATURE’S AVIATORS AND SEED-SOWERS

By far the commonest method of ensuring a wide distribution of a seed is
that in which the object is attached to some light, feathery substance
which prevents a speedy falling. Of this there is no better instance
than the common dandelion, which at seed time produces the handsome
“clock” so prized by the children.

Here each seed is attached to a feathery process which plays the part of
a parachute. On a dry day, when the dandelion heads are parting with
their fruits, we may see how well the scheme works. Each puff of wind
releases a few of the seeds, and these, unlike the ordinary parachute
with a load, are so light that they rise upwards on the air currents.

Curiously enough, the fruits seem to travel farther when the breezes are
light, and a very rough wind blows them back to earth, where they may
catch in the grass or become damaged. Thus, like the airman, the
dandelion seed stands the best chance of a safe journey when the weather
is not too boisterous.

A very similar arrangement is to be seen in the case of the goat’s-beard
fruit and that of the coltsfoot, which, by reason of its flying device,
secures a very wide distribution.


THE WILLOW ALSO PRODUCES FLYING SEEDS

After flowering the Willow Herb develops long, pod-like processes.
During damp and stormy weather these pods remain tightly closed. On a
day when the air is dry and the breezes are light, the sides of the case
split open and reveal a prodigious number of perfect flying machines.
The seed itself weighs a mere trifle, and to this is attached a
beautiful arrangement of feathery hairs. The whole thing is so well
adapted for an aërial voyage that it mounts rapidly upward on the
faintest puff of air. It should be here explained that by experiment it
has been shown that the air currents tend to move upward. So light are
some of these flying fruits that they often rise to an immense height.
It is not an uncommon thing for them to be found on mountains thousands
of feet above sea-level.

Of course, many foreign seeds have remarkable flying appendages. That of
the South African Stapelia has a vast mass of fluffy hairs which will
support it on quite a long aërial voyage. In the case of the cotton
plant man has turned to good account the hairs by which the seed flies.


SEEDS OF THE SYCAMORE A DIFFERENT TYPE OF FLYING MACHINE

In a large number of cases the conveyance of the seeds to a distant
point is accomplished by the adoption of the screw-propeller principle.
An excellent example of this is to be seen in the fruits of the
sycamore. Here the actual seed is large and heavy, but it is attached to
a wing-like expansion. When the fruit falls from the tree the wing
revolves with great rapidity, very much on the lines of a propeller
blade. This has the effect of controlling the rate of fall, so that the
whole contrivance is carried to some distance before the seed is
actually brought to earth.


PLANT TRAVELERS ON LAND

Some kinds of touring plants send out long trailing stems to search for
fresh rooting places. A little Alpine saxifrage is curious in this
respect, for the plant will traverse over many feet of barren rock to
reach a suitable position. Directly the shoot touches the soil, a new
plant is formed, and as this grows up, the connection between it and the
parent is severed. A kind of lily has an even more singular way of
traveling about. Here, after the plant has flowered, buds arise on the
stems which bore the blossoms. Eventually they take root in fresh
positions. This plant if left alone would rapidly cover many yards with
its offspring, and this without setting a single seed.

A strange group of plants are those which actually break themselves in
pieces in order to pursue their journeys abroad. A plant belonging to
the Houseleek order (_Sempervivum soboliferum_) is remarkable in this
respect. The species naturally finds its home in the crevices of rocks,
and at a certain stage in its development numerous little ball-like
offshoots are produced. In the early days these are kept at home by the
stems by means of which they are attached to the parent plant.
Eventually these attachments shrivel up and the offshoots go rolling
away over the rocks often much helped in their journey by the wind. A
considerable distance may be traversed before a little ball finds a
resting-place in some niche.

[Illustration: =HOW THE CACTUS PROTECTS ITS FLOWERS=]


HOW THE PLANTS DEFEND THEMSELVES

It is well-known to every intelligent observer that plants are menaced
by a host of enemies. Though the plant cannot take up the aggressive to
any extent, the weapons which it employs in its own defense are of an
exceedingly efficient nature. In their way they are quite as effective
as anything that animals employ in their battle for existence.

Among the commonest defenses of the plant are spines, thorns and
prickles. In the sloe (_Prunus spinosa_), for example, the spines are
modified branches; in gorse (_Ulex Europæus_) they are branches and
leaves; and in cacti the green parts are thickened stems and the spines
reduced leaves; while in holly (_Ilex aquifolium_) the prickly leaves
answer the purpose of spines. The stinging hairs of the nettle which
exude an irritating acid when touched are a familiar example of
protection against vegetarian animals.

The way in which seeds are protected by spines is well illustrated in
the case of the Sweet Chestnut. Here it would be a very knowing animal
that could open one of the cases before they split naturally with the
ripening of the seed.


HOW THE CACTUS DEFENDS ITS LIFE

There are few plants so well armed as the Cactus, the evident design of
which is to conserve its moisture. This is accomplished in several ways.
Of course, the very shapes of the plants are all in their favor. Being
either round, globular, or cylindrical, they offer a limited surface to
the dry air inconceivably less than a plant of the same size bearing a
quantity of leaves. The thick skins, too, play a big part in keeping in
the moisture, and many kinds of cacti, such as that known as Old Man’s
Beard, are covered with dense masses of hair.

Many of these succulent desert plants grow to a great size. Thus the
Giant Cactus sends up a tall column, often with only a very few
branches, which may be eighty or even one hundred feet in height.

Curiously enough, some cacti produce the most beautiful flowers,
blossoms without rival in the whole world. The various kinds bear
flowers of every conceivable shade except blue, and the blooms are often
of an immense size. It is not unusual for the blossoms to measure
eighteen inches, or even two feet, across.

Living as they do in arid regions, cacti are peculiarly liable to be
attacked by thirsty animals. Now, a common mode of defense is the
covering of the plant with sharp spines. These spines are so arranged
that they completely shield the juicy stem from any possibility of
attack, it is said that on occasion Mexican ponies will try to knock a
cactus to pieces with their heels when they are thirsty. More often than
not the animals suffer cruelly for their temerity by being severely
pricked.

In much the same way the Aloes and Agaves are protected, so that a hedge
of these plants when placed round a field, is better than the most
perfect barbed wire fence.


THE AMERICAN AGAVE, OR “CENTURY PLANT”

This plant is remarkable for its beauty, and grows to a height of twenty
to thirty-five feet. It was long popularly supposed to bloom only once
in a century; hence the name. Though this is a mistaken idea, the
vegetative growth of the plant is many years. The plant produces
flowering stems, sometimes several feet in height, ultimately
terminating in a large panicle of flowers and dying of the effort. A
single plant may produce five thousand flowers, so that the ground
beneath is wet with the honey distilled by them. The fiber of the leaves
was used by the ancient Mexicans for paper parchment, and is now largely
exported for that purpose and for cordage.


THE CURIOUS MISTLETOE, A ROBBER PLANT OR PARASITE

The mistletoe is one of the most interesting of the parasite plants. It
grows on various trees, and is celebrated on account of the religious
purposes to which it was consecrated by the ancient Celtic nations of
Europe. It is a small shrub, with oblong, somewhat leathery leaves, and
small yellowish-green flowers, the whole forming a pendent bush, covered
in winter with small white berries, which contain a glutinous substance.
It is common enough on certain species of trees, such as apple and pear
trees, hawthorn, maple, lime, and other similar trees, but is very
seldom found on the oak. Its roots penetrate into the substance of the
tree on which it grows, and though it may live for forty years, it
finally kills the branch supporting it.

In days of old the mistletoe was looked upon with awe as a mysterious
and wonderful plant. The ancient Druids held it sacred, and cut it down
with a golden sickle with all sorts of strange, mystic rites. It was the
symbol of peace and friendship; and that is why we hang it up at
Christmas time, and when two people meet under its green leaves, they
are expected to “kiss and be friends.”


A PLANT THAT GROWS IN SNOW

Strangest of all the plants is the Soldanellas, a small species which
exists on the lower slopes of the Alps. When the flower stems are in
their most active state of growth they release a considerable amount of
heat. In this way they will bore a course up through a thick coating of
ice and snow to the light and air above, when by some means the plant is
aware that the spring has arrived. There seems to be something more
wonderful in this than can be explained by mere mechanical causes.
Indeed, the sympathy of the plant with its surroundings is surely one of
those mysteries which are as inscrutable as life itself.


THE PRIMARY USE OF LIQUID RUBBER TO PLANTS

The grubs of many beetles live in wood, upon which they feed. This
probably gives a clue to the primary use of the important commercial
substances india-rubber and guttapercha, which are the dried sticky
juices of various shrubs and trees growing in hot climates. Beetles of
the wood-boring kind, which seek to pierce and lay eggs in such plants,
are liable to be snarled and killed by the viscid fluids which ooze out.

Arums, and various other plants, ward off the attacks of snails and
slugs in a rather curious way The outer parts of their stems and
leafstalks contain bundles of excessively sharp crystals (_raphides_),
composed of oxalate of lime. These pierce the soft mouths of snails and
slugs like so many needles, conveying a lesson which usually needs no
repetition.

=STRANGE LIFE HABITS OF UNUSUAL PLANTS=

[Illustration: =The Giant Cactus of the American Desert=

These plants are little more than succulent stems covered with a thick
skin which retains the moisture of the juicy shoot.]

[Illustration: =The Century Plant=

The Century Plant is a native of Mexico, and is remarkable for the long
intervals between the blooming periods--once erroneously thought to be
100 years.]

[Illustration: =CHRISTMAS ROSE IN WINTER=

In defiance of the weather a few plants elect to come into bloom right
in the middle of winter. The most striking of these is the Christmas
Rose, or Hellebore. The flowers of this plant are protected by the
encircling sepals, and are fully able to hold their own until the
approach of a more favorable season.]


=SCIENTIFIC TERMS USED IN BOTANY=

=Completely Classified, Illustrated and Exemplified=


ROOTS.

=Kinds.=--(1.) PRIMARY, growing from root-end of embryo.

(a.) SIMPLE.--_Conical_, [Illustration]; _napiform_, [Illustration];
_fusiform_, [Illustration].

(b.) MULTIPLE.--_Moniliform_, [Illustration] necklace-like.
_Fasciculated_, [Illustration] tufted, thick and fleshy. _Tubercular_,
[Illustration] having small tubers. _Fibrous_, [Illustration]
threadlike.

(2.) SECONDARY, growing from stems.

_Underground_, starting from stem below ground. _Aerial_, starting from
stem above ground.


STEM.

=Parts.=--[Illustration] _n_, _Node_, part to which the leaf is
fastened.

_i_, _Internode_, portion between nodes.

_a_, _Axil_, the angle between leaf and stem, upper side.

=Class.=--_Exogenous_, outside-growing (Maple, Elm).

_Endogenous_, inside-growing (Corn-stalk, Timothy).

=Situation.=--(1.) _Above ground_, usually leaf-bearing.

(2.) _Under ground_, scale-bearing.


Stems above Ground.

=Character.=--_Herbaceous_, soft, not woody (Four-o’clock).

_Suffrutescent_, slightly shrubby (Toad-flax).

_Suffruticous_, shrubby at base (Trailing Arbutus).

_Fruticous_, shrubby (Currant-bushes).

_Arborescent_, tree-like (Flowering Dogwood).

_Arboreous_, tree (Elm).

=Direction of Growth.=--_Repent_, [Illustration] prostrate and rooting
from the under surface (Partridge-berry).

_Procumbent_, prostrate, but not rooting (Purslane).

_Decumbent_, [Illustration] prostrate, except at the extremity (Poor
Man’s Weather-glass).

_Assurgent_, [Illustration] ascending obliquely.

_Erect_, upright (Indian Corn).

_Scandent_, [Illustration] climbing with tendrils or rootlets (Grape,
English Ivy).

_Voluble_, [Illustration] twining (Morning-glory).

_Declinate_, [Illustration] declined or bent downwards (Blackberry).

_Diffuse_, [Illustration] loosely-spreading (Red Currant).

=Forms of Branches.=--_Sucker_, [Illustration] a branch of subterranean
origin that finally rises out of the ground. The Raspberry multiplies in
this way.

_Offset_, [Illustration] a short, prostrate-rooting branch with a tuft
of leaves at the end (Houseleek).

_Runner_, [Illustration] a long, prostrate-rooting branch with tuft of
leaves (Strawberry).

_Stolon_, [Illustration] a branch that curves downward and takes root.
The Currant multiplies in this way.

_Tendril_, [Illustration] a thread-like coiling branch used for
climbing.

_Spine or Thorn_, [Illustration] a hard, sharp-pointed branch.


Stems under Ground.

=Kinds.=--_Rhizoma or Rootstock_, [Illustration] a perennial, horizontal
stem, partially or wholly subterranean (Calamus).

_Tuber_, [Illustration] an enlarged stem with eyes (White-potato).

_Bulb_, [Illustration] a bud, usually subterranean with fleshy scales
(Onion, Lily).

_Corm_, [Illustration] a solid bulb (Indian Turnip).


LEAVES.

=Parts.=--[Illustration] _b_, _Blade_, the expanded portion.

_p_, _Petiole_, the stem.

_s_, _Stipules_, leaf-like appendages at base of petiole.

=Kinds.=--(1.) SIMPLE, [Illustration] having but one blade.

_Sessile_, [Illustration] without petiole.

_Petiolate_, [Illustration] with petiole.

_Stipulate_, [Illustration] with stipules.

_Cirrhous_, [Illustration] with tendril.

(2.) COMPOUND, [Illustration] having more than one blade.

(a.) _Pinnate_, [Illustration] with leaflets arranged along a common
petiole.

_Abruptly pinnate_, [Illustration] with even number of leaflets.

_Odd-pinnate_, [Illustration] having an odd leaflet.

_Unipinnate_, [Illustration] divided but once.

_Bipinnate_, [Illustration] divided twice.

_Tripinnate_, divided three times.

(b.) _Palmate_, [Illustration] leaflets diverging from one point.

_Unipalmate_, [Illustration] divided but once.

_Bipalmate_, [Illustration] divided twice.

_Tripalmate_, [Illustration] divided three times.

=Framework.=--_Midrib_, the central vein.

_Ribs_, [Illustration], [Illustration] strong veins branching from near
the base of midrib.

_Veins_, the branching framework.

_Veinlets_, [Illustration] small veins.

=Venation.=--_Parallel_, [Illustration] with simple veins running
parallel from base to apex.

_Feather_, [Illustration] with lateral veins branching at regular
intervals from midrib.

_Radiate_, [Illustration] with strong veins branching from apex of
petiole.

_Reticulate_, [Illustration] with veins and veinlets that unite and
separate in the form of network.

=Form.=--(a.) BROADEST AT THE MIDDLE.--_Peliate_, [Illustration];
_orbicular_, [Illustration], _oval_, [Illustration]; _elliptical_,
[Illustration]; _oblong_, [Illustration]; _linear_, [Illustration];
_acerōse_, [Illustration] (Pine).

(b.) BROADEST AT BASE.--_Deltoid_, [Illustration]; _ovate_
[Illustration]; _lanceolate_, [Illustration]; _subulate_,
[Illustration]; _cordate_, [Illustration]; _reniform_, [Illustration];
_hastate_, [Illustration]; _sagittate_, [Illustration].

(c.) BROADEST AT THE APEX.--_Obovate_, [Illustration]; _oblanceolate_,
[Illustration]; _spatulate_ [Illustration]; _cuneate_ [Illustration];
_obcordate_, [Illustration]; _lyrate_, [Illustration]; _runcinate_,
[Illustration].

=Bases.=--_Auriculate_, [Illustration]; _oblique_, [Illustration];
_tapering_, [Illustration]; _abrupt_, [Illustration]; _clasping_,
[Illustration]; _perfoliate_, [Illustration]; _connate_, [Illustration];
_decurrent_, [Illustration].

=Apexes.=--_Obcordate_, [Illustration]; _emarginate_, [Illustration];
_retuse_, [Illustration]; _truncate_, [Illustration]; _obtuse_,
[Illustration]; _acute_ [Illustration]; _acuminate_, [Illustration];
_mucronate_, [Illustration]; _cuspidate_, [Illustration]; _aristate_,
[Illustration].

=Margins.=--_Entire_, [Illustration]; _repand_, [Illustration];
_sinuate_, [Illustration]; _crenate_, [Illustration]; _dentate_,
[Illustration]; _serrate_, [Illustration]; _incised_, [Illustration];
_laciniate_, [Illustration]; _palmately-lobed_, [Illustration];
_palmately-cleft_, [Illustration]; _palmately-parted_, [Illustration];
_palmately-divided_, [Illustration]; _pinnately-lobed_, [Illustration];
_pinnately-cleft_, [Illustration]; _pinnately-parted_, [Illustration];
_pinnately-divided_, [Illustration].

=Surface.=--(a.) WITHOUT HAIRS.--_Glabrous_, smooth.

(b.) SOFT HAIRS.--_Pílous_, few, short; _hirsute_, few, long;
_pubéscent_, dense, short; _villous_, dense, long; _seríceous_, silky;
_lanūginous_, woolly; _toméntous_, matted like felt; _flóccous_, fleecy
tufts.

(c.) STIFF HAIRS.--_Scābrous_, minute, hard points; _hispid_, few, short
points; _sētous_, bristly; _spinous_, having spines.

=Color.=--_Glaucous_, covered with whitish powder.

_Canéscent_, grayish-white with fine pubescence.

_Incānous_, hoary-white.

_Punctate_, having transparent dots.

_Hyaline_, nearly transparent.

=Texture.=--_Succulent_, fleshy; _coriaceous_, leather-like; _scarious_,
dry; _rúgous_, wrinkled.

=Phyllotaxis=, arrangement on the stem.--_Alternate_, [Illustration];
_opposite_, [Illustration]; _whorled_ (verticillate); _radical_,
[Illustration] near the ground; _cauline_, on the stem; _rosulate_,
[Illustration] clustered; _fascículate_, [Illustration] in bundles.

=Vernation=, arrangement in the bud.

_Induplicate_, [Illustration] folded crosswise (Tulip-tree).

_Conduplicate_, [Illustration] folded along midrib (Oak).

_Plicate_, [Illustration] folded like a fan (Red-currant).

_Circinate_, [Illustration] rolled lengthwise (Fern).

_Convolute_, [Illustration] rolled edgewise (Cherry).

_Involute_, [Illustration] both edges rolled inward (Apple).

_Revolute_, [Illustration] both edges rolled outward (Willow).

_Equitant_, [Illustration] astraddle (Iris).

_Obvolute_, [Illustration] half equitant (Jerusalem Sage).

_Triquētrous_ [Illustration] triangular equitant (Sedges).

=Duration.=--_Fugacious_, falling very early.

_Deciduous,_ falling at the close of the season.

_Persistent_, remaining through the winter.


INFLORESCENCE.

=Parts.=--_Flower_, [Illustration] the blossom.

_Peduncle_, [Illustration] the stem of a solitary flower or the main
stem of a flower-cluster.

_Scape_, [Illustration] a peduncle that grows from the ground.

_Pedicel_, [Illustration], p, the stem of each flower of a
flower-cluster. _Bracts_, b, small floral leaves.

_Involucre_, [Illustration] a cluster of bracts.

=Kinds.=--(1.) SOLITARY, single, alone.

_Terminal_, at the summit of the stem.

_Axillary_, [Illustration] in the axils of the leaves.

(2.) CLUSTERED, several flowers collected in a bunch.

(a.) INDEFINITE OR INDETERMINATE, flowering from axillary buds.
Inflorescence centripetal.

               {_Racēme_, [Illustration] flowers arranged along the
               {axis; pedicels about equal in length (Currant).
               {
               {_Córymb_, [Illustration] same as raceme, except that the
               {lower pedicels are elongated, making the top flat
  FLOWERS      {(Hawthorn).
  PEDICELLATE  {
               {_Umbel_. [Illustration] same as corymb, except that the
               {pedicels branch from about the same point (Milkweed).
               {
               {_Panicle_, [Illustration] compound raceme (Blue-grass).
               {
               {_Thyrsus_, a compact panicle (Lilac).

               {_Spike_, [Illustration] same as raceme with flowers
               {sessile (Mullein).
               {
               {_Spādix_, [Illustration] a fleshy spike, generally
               {{enveloped by a large bract called a _Spāthe_,
  FLOWERS      {[Illustration] (Calla Lily).
  SESSILE      {
               {_Ȧment_ or _Catkin_, [Illustration] a slender pendent
               {spike, with scaly bracts (Birch).
               {
               {_Head_ or _Capitulum_, [Illustration] a shortened spike,
               {reduced to a globular form (Clover).

(b.) DEFINITE or DETERMINATE, flowers all terminal. Inflorescence
centrifugal.

_Cyme_, [Illustration] flat-topped or rounded inflorescence (Elder).

_Fascicle_, a compact cyme (Sweet-William).

_Glomerule_, a cyme condensed into a head (Mint).

_Verticillaster_, [Illustration] two opposite glomerules joined
(Motherwort).

_Scorpioid_, [Illustration] a one-sided and coiled cyme (Forget-me-not).


FLOWER. [Illustration]

=Parts.=--_Receptacle_, the part upon which the several organs of the
flower are inserted.

_Calyx_, [Illustration] the exterior floral envelope.

_Corolla_, [Illustration] the interior floral envelope. The calyx and
corolla constitute the _protecting organs_, sometimes called _perianth_.

_Stamens_, [Illustration] the fertilizing organs.

_Pistils_, [Illustration] the seed-bearing organs. The stamens and
pistils constitute the _essential organs_.

=Kinds.=--_Symmetrical_, [Illustration] same number in each set of
organs; _unsymmetrical_, different number.

_Complete_, [Illustration] all the sets present; incomplete, some sets
wanting.

_Regular_ [Illustration] sepals and petals uniform; _irregular_,
[Illustration] sepals or petals unlike.

_Perfect_, stamens and pistils both present; _imperfect_, one set
absent.

_Staminate_, with stamens only; _pistillate_, with pistils only;
_neutral_, with neither.

_Monœcious_, staminate and pistillate on same plant; _diœcious_, on
different plants.

_Dichlamydeous_, having calyx and corolla; _monochlamydecous_, having
calyx only; _achlamydecous_, having neither.

_Di_, [Illustration] _trí_, _tetrá_, _pentá-merous_, [Illustration] two,
three, four, or five parts in each set.

_Sessile_, without peduncle; _pedunculate_, [Illustration] with
peduncle.

DEVIATIONS FROM THE NORMAL OR PATTERN FLOWER ARISE FROM

_Augmentation_, increase of floral circles (Water Lily).

_Cherisis_, increase of organs by division. The Bleeding-heart shows the
_collateral chorisis_ of stamens, and the Catchfly [Illustration] shows
the _transverse chorisis_ of corolla.

_Anteposition_, parts opposite instead of alternate (Grape).

_Cohesion_, [Illustration] union of parts of the same set (corolla of
Morning-glory).

_Adnation_, union of different sets. In the Cherry the stamens and
corolla are inserted upon the calyx.

_Irregularity_, parts of the same set unequally developed (Violet, Pea).

_Suppression_, non-development of some parts. In the mints some of the
stamens are suppressed or wanting.


CALYX.

=Parts.=--_Sepals_, [Illustration] the divisions of the calyx.

_Tube_, the united portion of a gamosepalous calyx.

_Teeth_ or _lobes_, the distinct or divided portions of a gamosepalous
calyx.

_Throat_, the orifice or summit of the tube.

_Pappus_, [Illustration] in Compositæ, the calyx border consisting of
scales, teeth, bristles, or slender hairs.

=Cohesion.=--_Gamosepalous_ or _Monosepalous_, [Illustration] sepals
partially or wholly grown together.

_Truncate_, [Illustration] without lobes.

_Toothed_, [Illustration] lobes small.

_Lobed_, [Illustration] parted about one fourth.

_Cleft_, [Illustration] parted about one half.

_Parted_, [Illustration] separated nearly to the base.

_Polysepalous_, [Illustration] separated to the base.

=Adnation.=--_Inferior_, [Illustration] calyx free from ovary.

_Half-inferior_, [Illustration] calyx adherent to the ovary half-way.

_Superior_, [Illustration] calyx adherent to the ovary.

=Form.=--See under COROLLA.

=Æstivation.=--See under COROLLA.


COROLLA.

=Parts.=--_Petals_, [Illustration] the divisions of the Corolla.

_Lamina_, the expanded portion of the petal.

_Claw_, [Illustration], the stem portion of the petal.

_Spur_, [Illustration]; _s_, the hollow portion of certain corollas.

_Crown_, [Illustration], a small projection from certain petals
(Catchfly).

=Cohesion.=--_Gamopetalous_ or _Monopetalous_, [Illustration] petals
partially or wholly grown together.

_Truncate_, [Illustration] _toothed_, _lobed_, [Illustration] _cleft_,
_parted_.

_Polypetalous_, [Illustration] petals separate.

=Adnation.=--_Hypógynous_, [Illustration] corolla attached under the
pistil (_gynia_, pistil).

_Perígynous_, [Illustration] corolla attached to the calyx. It is thus
around the pistil.

_Epígynous_, [Illustration] corolla attached to the ovary. It is thus
upon the ovary which is a part of the pistil.

=Form.=--GAMOPETALOUS and POLYPETALOUS.

                {REGULAR.
                {
                {  _Urceoiate_, [Illustration] urn-shaped (Whortle-
                {  berry).
                {
                {  _Tubular_ [Illustration] cylindrical (Trumpet Honey-
                {  suckle)
                {
                {  _Campánulate_, [Illustration] bell-shaped (Harebell).
                {
                {  _Infundíbular_, [Illustration] funnel-shaped
                {  (Morning-glory).
                {
                {  _Hypocraterimórphous_, [Illustration] salver-shaped
                {  (Phlox).
  GAMOPETALOUS. {
                {  _Rotate_, [Illustration] wheel-shaped (Potato).
                {
                {IRREGULAR.
                {
                {  _Ligulate_, [Illustration] strap-shaped (Dandelion).
                {
                {  _Lābiate_, two-lipped.
                {
                {  _Gāleate_, [Illustration] upper lip arched (Catmint).
                {
                {  _Ringent_, [Illustration] both lips arched (Dead-
                {  nettle).
                {
                {  _Personate_, [Illustration] throat closed (Toad-
                {  flax).

                {REGULAR.
                {
                {  _Rosāceous_, [Illustration] petals without claws
                {  (Rose).
                {
                {  _Liliāceous_, [Illustration] petals with claws
                {  gradually spreading (Lily).
                {
                {  _Caryophyllāceous_, long claws enclosed in a tube
                {  (Pink).
  POLYPETALOUS. {
                {  _Crucíferous_, [Illustration] four clawed petals in
                {  the form of a cross (Mustard).
                {
                {IRREGULAR.
                {
                {  _Papilionāceous_, [Illustration] butterfly-shaped
                {  (Bean).
                {
                {    PARTS.--_Vexillum_, banner; _alæ_, wings; _carīna_,
                {    keel.

=Æstivation=, the arrangement of the floral organs in the bud.

_Valvular_, [Illustration] pieces met by their margins (Lilac).

_Induplicate_, [Illustration] margins turned inward (sepals of
Clematis).

_Reduplicate_, [Illustration] margins turned outward (sepals of
Hollyhock).

_Convolute_, or _contorted_, [Illustration] each piece overlaps its
neighbor in one direction (Geranium).

_Imbricated_, [Illustration] one or more petals wholly outside.

_Quincúncial_, [Illustration] five petals, two without and two within
and the remaining one with one edge outside and the other inside.

_Triquētrous_, [Illustration] three petals, one without and one within,
and the remaining one with one edge outside and the other inside.

_Véxillary_, [Illustration] having one large petal enclosing the others
(Pea).

_Plicate_, [Illustration] the folding of gamopétalous flowers.

_Supervolute_, [Illustration] with folds turned obliquely in the same
direction (Morning-glory).


STAMENS (ANDRŒCIUM).

=Parts.=--[Illustration] _Anther_, the enlarged and essential portion.

_Filament_, the stem holding the anther.

_Pollen_, the fertilizing powder found in the anther.

=Kinds.=--_Sessile_, [Illustration] anther without filament.

_Sterile_, filament without anther.

_Connivent_, [Illustration] converging.

_Exserted_, [Illustration] protruding out of corolla.

_Included_, entirely within the corolla.

_Didẏnamous_, [Illustration] four in number, two long and two short.

_Tetradẏnanious_, [Illustration] six in number, four long and two
short.

=Cohesion.=--_Syngenesious_, [Illustration] united by their anthers.

_Monodelphous_, united by their filaments into one set.

_Diadelphous_, united into two sets.

_Polyadelphous_, united into many sets.

=Adnation.=--_Hypógynous_, [Illustration] borne on the receptacle.

_Perígynous_, [Illustration] borne on the calyx.

_Epipétalous_, borne on the corolla.

_Alternate_, [Illustration] with the lobes.

_Opposite_, in front of the lobes.

_Epígynous_, borne on the ovary at its summit.

_Gynándrous_, borne on the style (Orchid).


FILAMENT.

=Kinds.=--_Filiform_, _subulate_, _dilated_, _petaloid_, _bidentate_.


ANTHER.

=Parts.=--_Lobes_ (_thecæ_) and _connective_.

=Adnation.=--_Innate_, [Illustration] anther firm on summit of filament.

_Adnate_, [Illustration] anther attached by its whole length to
filament.

_Extrórse_, facing the petals.

_Intrórse_, facing the pistils.

_Versatile_, [Illustration] attached near the middle.

=Dehiscence.=--_Longitudinal_, [Illustration] opening lengthwise.

_Transverse_, [Illustration] opening crosswise.

_Porous_, [Illustration] opening by terminal holes.

_Valved_, [Illustration] opening by valves or doors.


PISTILS (GYNŒCIUM).

=Parts.=--[Illustration] _Stigma_, the rough end to which the pollen
adheres.

_Style_, the stem holding the stigma.

_Ovary_, the enlarged portion containing the ovules.

=Cohesion.=--_Simple_, [Illustration] having but one cell, placenta
style and stigma.

_Multiple_, [Illustration] a collection of simple pistils (Blackberry).

_Compound_, [Illustration] simple pistils grown together, each called a
_carpel_.


STIGMA.

=Kinds.=--_Sessile_, stigma on ovary: no style.

_Globose_, globular (Four-o’clock).

_Capitate_, [Illustration] broad and flat.

_Lobed_, rounded.

_Feathered_, like a feather (Grasses).

_Linear_, thread-like (Corn).


STYLE.

=Kinds.=--_Basal_, attached to base of ovary (Forget-me-not).

_Lateral_, attached to side of ovary (Strawberry).

_Terminal_, [Illustration] attached to top of ovary.


OVARY.

=Parts.=--_Placentæ_, the parts to which the ovules are attached.

_Dissepiments_, [Illustration] partitions.

_Cells_, cavities in which the ovules are arranged.

_Ovules_, unfertilized seeds.

=Adnation.=--_Inferior_, [Illustration] calyx adherent to ovary, same as
superior calyx.

_Superior_, [Illustration] calyx free from ovary, same as inferior
calyx.

=Placentation.=--_Free-central_, [Illustration] ovules attached to a
central column in a one-celled ovary (Pink).

_Axillary_, [Illustration] ovules attached to a central column in a
compound ovary.

_Parietal_, [Illustration] ovules attached to the outer walls of the
ovary.


OVULE. [Illustration]

=Parts.=--_Nucleus_, _n_, the essential part in which the embryo is
formed.

_Prīmĭne_, _p_, the exterior coat.

_Secundine_, _s_, the interior coat.

_Mícropyle_, _m_, the opening of the ovary coats.

_Funículus_, the stem to which the ovule is attached.

_Hilum_, _h_, the point of attachment on the ovule.

_Chalāza_, _c_, the place where the coverings and nucleus join

_Rhāphe_, _r_, the connection between the hilum and the chalaza.

N. B.--Through the funiculus, the rhaphe, and the chalaza the ovule
receives its nourishment from the placenta. Through the micropyle it
receives the tubular prolongation of the pollen.

=Kinds.=--_Orthótropous_ [Illustration] straight; no change in direction
of parts (Buckwheat).

_Campylótropous_, [Illustration] curved; the micropyle brought near the
chalaza (Bean).

_Anátropous_, [Illustration] inverted; the micropyle brought near the
hilum, pointing to the placentæ. Rhaphe the whole length of the ovule
(Magnolia).

_Amphítropous_, [Illustration] half inverted; short rhaphe (Mallow).

=Direction of Ovary.=--_Erect_, [Illustration]; _ascending_,
[Illustration]; _horizontal_, [Illustration]; _pendulous_,
[Illustration]; _suspended_, [Illustration].


FRUIT.

=Parts.=--_Seed_, the part containing the embryo.

_Pericarp_, the covering of the seeds, including the ovary and all
adnate parts. The parts of the pericarp are _epicarp_, or outer coat;
_mesocarp_, or middle coat; and _endocarp_, or inner coat.

=Dehiscence.=--_Septicīdal_, [Illustration] opening of the partitions.

_Loculicīdal_, [Illustration] opening at the dorsal suture.

_Septífragal_, [Illustration] valves falling away from partitions.

_Circumscissile_, [Illustration] opening by a circular horizontal line.

=Kinds.=--_Simple_, _aggregate_, _accessory_, _multiple_.

(1.) SIMPLE FRUITS.--_Fleshy_, _Stone_, _Dry_ (formed by a single
pistil).

(a.) FLESHY FRUITS.--Indehiscent (with two or more seeds).

                   {_Berry_, rind membranous (Grape).
                   {_Hesperidium_, rind leathery, separable (Orange).
  Seeds immersed   {
  in a pulpy mass. {_Pēpo_, rind hard (Cucumber).
                   {
                   {Seeds in cells.--_Pome_, succulent calyx (Apple).

(b.) STONE FRUITS.--Indehiscent; one-celled; endocarp hard.

_Drupe_, three-coated; stone-cell entire (Peach).

_Tryma_, two-coated; stone-cell two-parted (Walnut).

_Etærio_, an aggregation of drupes (Raspberry).

(c.) DRY FRUITS.--Indehiscent, usually one seed with one coat.

_Achēnium_, [Illustration] coat separable from seed (Dandelion).

_Utricle_, coat inflated (Goosefoot).

_Caryópsis_, coat inseparable (Wheat).

_Glans_, invested with a cūpule, [Illustration] (Acorn).

_Samāra_, [Illustration] having winged appendages (Maple).

(c¹.) DRY FRUITS.--Dehiscent.

           {_Follicle_, [Illustration] opening by a ventral suture
           {(Columbine).
  Single   {
  pistil.  {_Legūme_, [Illustration] opening by both sutures (Bean).
           {
           {_Loment_, [Illustration] jointed legume (Desmodium).

           {_Capsule_, any compound dehiscent fruit.
           {
  Compound {_Sílique_, [Illustration] a two-valved capsule (Mustard).
  pistil.  {
           {_Sílicle_, [Illustration] a short silique (Shepherd’s
           {Purse).

_Pyxis_, [Illustration] circumscissile dehiscence (Purslane).

(2.) AGGREGATE FRUITS, [Illustration]. A cluster of carpels on one
receptacle taken as a whole (Raspberry).

(3.) ACCESSORY OR ANTHOCARPOUS FRUITS.--Those of which the most
conspicuous portion, although appearing like a pericarp in some cases,
does not belong to the pistil (Rose-hip).

(4.) MULTIPLE OR COLLECTIVE FRUITS.--Those which result from the
aggregation of several flowers into one mass (Pine-apple, Mulberry).

_Stróbile_ or _Cone_, a scaly multiple fruit, resulting from the
ripening of some kinds of catkins (Hop, Conifers).

_Gálbalus_, a closed cone (Juniper-berry, Red Cedar).


SEED. [Illustration]

=Parts.=--_Integuments_, seed-coats. _Nucleus_, part containing the
embryo.

(1.) PARTS OF INTEGUMENTS:

_Testa_ (_episperm_), the outer or proper seed-coat.

_Tegmen_ (_endopleura_), the inner coat, sometimes wanting.

_Funículus Hílum_ (_h_), _Chalāza_ (_c_), _Rhāphe_ (_r_), are the same
as in ovule.

_Aril_, covering exterior to the integuments (not in the ovule)
(May-apple, Water-lily).

_Coma_, [Illustration] a tuft of hairs on certain seeds (Silkweed).

This is to be distinguished from pappus, which is a tuft on the fruit
(Achenium).

(2.) PARTS OF NUCLEUS: [Illustration]

_Embryo_ (_e_), the initial plantlet.

_Radicle_ (_r_), [Illustration] the rudimentary stem or first internode.

_Cotylēdon_ (_c_), the seed leaf at the primary node.

_Plūmule_ (_p_), the growing points above the cotyledons.

_Albūmen_ (_a_), [Illustration] the food for the plantlet’s first
growth, stored outside the embryo.

=Kinds.=--(1.) GENERAL FORM: _Orthotropous_, [Illustration];
_campylótropous_, [Illustration]; _anátropous_, [Illustration];
_amphítropous_, [Illustration] same as in ovule.

(2.) FORM OF COVERING:

_Conformed_, adhering closely to nucleus.

_Cellular_, loose (Pyrola).

_Winged_, [Illustration] having expanded appendages (Catalpa).

_Woolly_, covered closely with fibers (Cotton).

_Cōmose_, [Illustration] with coma at the end (Willow Herb).

(3.) TEXTURE OF ALBUMEN:

_Farinaceous_, mealy (Wheat).

_Oily_, mealy but mixed with oil (Poppy).

_Muciláginous_, like mucilage (Morning-glory).

_Ruminated_, wrinkled (Papaw).

(4.) NUMBER OF COTYLEDONS:

_Monocotylédonous_, [Illustration] (Corn).

_Dicotylédonous_, [Illustration] (Bean).

_Polycotylédonous_, [Illustration] (Pine).

(5.) POSITION AND ARRANGEMENT OF EMBRYO:

_Eccentric_, [Illustration] embryo on one side of albumen (Indian Corn).

_Perípheric_, [Illustration] curved around albumen (Four-o’clock).

_Accumbent_, [Illustration] applied to the cotyledons when the radicle
is bent and lies along their edge (Water-cress).

_Incumbent_, [Illustration] applied to the cotyledons when the radicle
rests against the back of one of them (Shepherd’s Purse).

_Conduplicate_, [Illustration] applied to cotyledons that are incumbent
and so folded as to embrace the radicle (Mustard).

(6.) THE DIRECTION OF THE EMBRYO AS RESPECTS THE PERICARP.

_Ascending_, pointing to the apex.

_Descending_, pointing to the base.

_Centripetal_, pointing to the axis.

_Centrifugal_, pointing to the sides.


BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS

  The living plants may be divided into two grand divisions--Flowering
  Plants and Flowerless Plants--with five main subdivisions, according
  to the complexity and structure of their reproductive organs, or
  seed structure. The scientific names of these groups are the
  _Thallophyta_, the _Bryophyta_, the _Pteridophyta_, the
  _Gymnosperms_, and the _Angiosperms_.

  Each of the five main groups is divided into a number of lesser
  subdivisions, sometimes called _phyla_, orders, each of which is
  composed of several families.

  Most systematic botanists begin the study of plants with the lowest
  forms of plants and proceed to the highest. In the following
  classification, however, the usual order has been _reversed_ because
  of its greater interest for a large majority of readers; the highest
  division is placed first and the lowest last.

  In the earlier days of the science of botany nearly every botanist’s
  energies were devoted to this branch which we now call _systematic
  botany_. There are now named and described close on a quarter of a
  million of living species of plants altogether, including the lower
  and often nearly invisible forms, and of this vast number about one
  hundred and thirty thousand belong to the highest group of all--the
  Angiosperms. With nearly a quarter of a million described forms to
  deal with the value of such keys will be recognized.

SUB-KINGDOM I.--Flowering Plants (_Phanerogams_), or Spermophytæ.

(1) _Angiosperms_ (_anj´ĭ-o-sperms_)--Plants producing protected seeds.

The greatest group, the _Angiosperms_, with over a hundred and thirty
thousand species, contains nearly all the plants that yield crops of
economic importance to man, or that decorate his gardens, or that feed
his sheep or cattle. They have netted-veined leaves. When this group is
further examined, there are found to be two well marked
divisions--Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons. The first has embryos with
only one cotyledon or “seed leaf,” the second has embryos with two. The
Angiosperms include over one hundred and thirty thousand species,
divided among sixty-two orders, only the most important families of
which can be given here.

ORDER I.--=Ranunculaceæ=: Herbs or small shrubs; about thirty genera.

  _Anemone_ (windflower): Perennial herb. Dry copses. Massachusetts to
  New Jersey and west to Colorado.

  _Anemonella_ (rose anemone): Open woods. Canada to Georgia and west
  through Mississippi Valley.

  _Caltha_ (cowslip, marsh marigold): Perennial herb. United States
  and Canada.

  _Clematis_ (virgin’s bower): Perennial. United States and Canada.

  _Ranunculus_ (buttercup, crowfoot): Herb, annual or perennial.
  Canada, United States and Europe.

  _Thalictrum_ (meadow rue): Perennial herb. United States and Canada.

ORDER II.--=Berberidaceæ=: Shrubs or perennial herbs; nineteen genera.

  _Berberis_ (barberry): Fruit, a sour berry. Found in Europe;
  naturalized in New England.

  _Podophyllum_ (May apple, mandrake): Perennial herb. Fruit, a berry.
  Found: Eastern North America; a species in Himalaya Mountains.

ORDER III.--=Papaveraceæ=: Annual or perennial herbs with milky or
colored juice; about twenty-four genera.

  _Papaver_ (poppy): Geographical home on southern edge of North
  Temperate Zone, spreading north and south. Great opium districts are
  the valley of Ganges, Asiatic Turkey, Persia, Egypt, Asia Minor,
  China. From India, fourteen million pounds annually. Persia and
  Turkey, seventy-one million pounds.

ORDER IV.--=Cruciferæ=: Herbs; about one hundred and seventy-two genera.

  _Brassica_ (turnip, mustard, cabbage, cauliflower, rape): United
  States, Europe, India, Syria and Russia.

  _Capsella_ (shepherd’s purse): Naturalized in United States; from
  Europe.

  _Cochlearia_ (horseradish): Perennial. Root. Middle and southern
  edges of North Temperate Zone, from Great Britain to Asia and
  northeastern America.

  _Isatis_ (woad): Biennial. Throughout Europe. Cultivated in Azores
  and Canary Isles.

  _Nasturtium_ (watercress): Europe and northern Asia. Cultivated in
  Palestine, Hindustan, Japan.

ORDER V.--=Capparidaceæ=: Herbs, shrubs, trees; twenty-three genera.

  _Capparis_ (caper): Small shrub. Southern France and Mediterranean
  countries, Sicily, Malta.

ORDER VI.--=Violaceæ=: Herbs; twenty-one genera.

  _Viola_ (violet): Perennial. Canada; United States, west to
  Colorado; throughout Europe, some parts of China, Japan, India.

ORDER VII.--=Biximæ=: Shrubs; 29 genera.

  _Bixa_ (arnotto): Tropical America. Cultivated in southern Europe,
  Burma, Philippine Islands, Hindustan.

ORDER VIII.--=Terustrœmiaceæ=: Shrubs and small trees; thirty-two
genera.

  _Thea_ (tea): Shrub. China. Cultivated between parallels of 25° and
  35° throughout Asia. In Kangra, Gurhwal, Assam, Cachar, Sylhet,
  Chittagong, Darjeeling, Chota, Nagpur, Hindustan, Japan, Australia,
  Jamaica, Brazil, North America.

ORDER IX.--=Malvaceæ=: Herbs, shrubs.

  _Gossypium_ (cotton): Tropical and sub-tropical. East Indies, China,
  Asiatic Islands, Greece, islands in eastern Mediterranean, Asia
  Minor, northern and western Africa, Australia, West Indies, southern
  United States, Venezuela, British Guiana, Brazil.

ORDER X.--=Sterculeaceæ=: Trees and shrubs.

  _Theobroma_ (cocoa): Tropical and sub-tropical. Brazil and north of
  Brazil, West Indies, Mexico. Cultivated in Philippine Islands,
  southern Europe, India.

ORDER XI.--=Tiliaceæ=: Trees and shrubs; 40 genera.

  _Corchorus_ (yellow jute): Southern belt of North Temperate Zone and
  Tropics. Cultivated in southern and western Asia, Grecian
  Archipelago, central and northern Africa.

ORDER XII.--=Linaceæ=: Shrubs and herbs; 94 genera.

  _Linum_ (flax): Herb. Widely distributed. Hindustan, southern Egypt,
  throughout Europe, southern and middle Russia, northeastern America.

  _Erythroxylon_ (coca): Shrub. Tropical and sub-tropical. Bolivia,
  Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, northern Brazil.

ORDER XIII.--=Zygophyllaceæ=: Trees, shrubs, herbs; seventeen genera.

  _Guaiacum_ (lignum-vitæ): Tree. Tropical and sub-tropical.
  Exclusively American; native to West Indies.

ORDER XIV.--=Rutaceæ=: Small trees and shrubs; eighty-three genera.

  _Citrus_ (orange, lemon, shaddock): In all regions of no frost.
  India. Cultivated in Persia, Syria, southern Europe, northern
  Africa, Spain, China, Japan, Sicily, Australia, Brazil, West Indies,
  Florida, southern California, Azores.

ORDER XV.--=Meliaceæ=: Trees; thirty-seven genera.

  _Swietenia_ (mahogany): Large tree. Tropical and sub-tropical. West
  Indies, Bahamas, Central America, southern Florida. Cultivated in
  southern British India.

ORDER XVI.--=Iliciniæ=: Trees and shrubs; three genera.

  _Ilex_ (Paraguay tea): Small tree. Paraguay. In Parana, ten million
  pounds produced annually.

ORDER XVII.--=Rhamnaceæ=: Trees and shrubs; thirty-seven genera.

  _Ceanothus_ (New Jersey tea): Shrub. Eastern North America.

  _Rhamnus_ (buckthorn): Shrubs, small trees. Southern Persia and
  southern Levant countries. Grows as far north as England.

ORDER XVIII.--=Ampelideæ=: Woody vine; few genera.

  _Vitis_ (grape): Zone from 21° N. latitude to 48°. British Isles
  and Portugal, east to Persia. Middle Atlantic States to California.
  Cultivated in Australia.

ORDER XIX.--=Sapindaceæ=: Trees and shrubs; seventy-three genera.

  _Acer_ (maple): Tree. Not south of 38° N. latitude, except in high
  mountains in northern United States and southern British America.

ORDER XX.--=Anacardeaceæ=: Trees and shrubs; forty-six genera.

  _Anacardium_ (cashew nut): Tropics of Asia and America, Jamaica.

  _Rhus_ (sumach): North America, Canada to Gulf States; Arkansas,
  Levant, and western Europe, Syria. Cultivated in Sicily, Italy,
  Turkey, Spain, Portugal.

ORDER XXI.--=Leguminosæ=: Herbs, shrubs, trees; four hundred genera.

  _Acacia_ (gum arabic): Shrubs and small trees. Tropical and
  sub-tropical, but widely distributed. Australia, Africa, Asia,
  America.

  _Arachis_ (peanut): Sub-tropical. Southern United States, southern
  and central Virginia, the Carolinas and Tennessee.

  _Astragalus_ (gum tragacanth): Small shrub or herb. Sub-tropical.
  Persia, Greece, east Mediterranean Islands, Syria.

  _Cassia_ (senna): Tropical and sub-tropical. Widely distributed.

  _Cæsalpinia_ (Brazil wood): Trees. Brazil.

  _Dalbergia_ (rosewood): Trees and vines. Brazil and southern Asia.

  _Glycyrrhiza_ (licorice): Small shrub and herb. Italy and southern
  Europe, southern England. Cultivated in Spain and Portugal.

  _Hæmatoxylon_ (logwood): Small tree. Yucatan, Guatemala, Honduras,
  Isthmus of Panama, West Indies. Cultivated in Burma.

  _Indigofera_ (indigo): Shrub. India, Java, East Indies, north
  Africa, West Indies, Central Asia.

  _Lens_ (lentil): Annual. Syria, Egypt, southern and central Europe,
  Hindustan.

  _Phaseolus_ (bean): Annual herb. Tropics and Temperate Zones to
  forty-fifth parallels.

  _Pisum_ (pea): Annual herb. Central and southern Europe, Egypt,
  Syria, Japan, India, China.

  _Tamarindus_ (tamarind): Tree. Tropical and sub-tropical. Africa.
  Cultivated in Arabia, southern India, Ceylon, Java, Philippines,
  northern Australia, Pacific Isles, South America.

ORDER XXII.--=Rosaceæ=: Trees, shrubs, herbs; seventy-one genera.

  _Fragaria_ (strawberry): Herb. Widely distributed, even to Kamchatka
  and Alaska.

  _Prunus_ (plum): Tree. Temperate Zone, south of 60°. Europe, western
  Asia. Cultivated in northeast America.

  _Prunus_ (cherry): Tree. North Africa, Holland, Portugal. Cultivated
  in southeastern Africa, America, Belgium, England.

  _Prunus_ (apricot): Tree. Armenia, Persia, China, Japan, California.

  _Prunus_ (peach): Tree. Southern half of North Temperate Zone in
  Asia, Europe, America, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland.

  _Pyrus_ (apple): Tree. England, France, Germany, Netherlands,
  Prussia, Poland, United States, south Australia.

  _Pyrus_ (pear): Tree. China, Syria, Persia, central and northern
  Europe, Belgium, France, Great Britain. Cultivated in North America.

  _Pyrus_ (quince): Tree. Northern Persia, east and west. Cultivated
  in northeastern America, Portugal.

  _Rubus_ (black raspberry and raspberry): Shrub. Temperate Zone,
  between 30° and 50° latitude. In North America, Europe north to
  sixtieth parallel, south to northern parts of Africa, Asia Minor,
  and eastward into India; also in British Isles.

ORDER XXIII.--=Saxifragaceæ=: Shrubs, herbs; seventy-three genera.

  _Ribes_ (currant): Shrub. Lapland and southern Europe; also in the
  New World, northern United States to south and middle Canada.

  _Ribes_ (gooseberry): Shrub. France, England, Germany and
  northeastern Russia, Siberia.

ORDER XXIV.--=Combretaceæ=: Shrubs, trees; seven genera.

  _Terminalia_ (myrobalano): Large trees. Tropical India, along
  southern fringes of Ghaut Mountains, and in Burma.

ORDER XXV.--=Myrtaceæ=: Trees; seventy-six genera.

  _Bertholletia_ (Brazil nut): Large tree. Tropical South America,
  Panama.

  _Eugenia_ (cloves): Molucca Islands. Cultivated in Brazil, West
  Indies.

  _Eugenia_ (allspice): Jamaica.

  _Myrtus_ (myrtle): Tropical and sub-tropical. Southeastern Italy.
  Cultivated in all Mediterranean countries.

ORDER XXVI.--=Lythraceæ=: Tropical trees; thirty genera.

  _Punica_ (pomegranate): Persia. Cultivated in Syria, Asia Minor,
  Levant, southern Europe, China, Japan, South and North America.

ORDER XXVII.--=Cucurbitaceæ=: Herbs; sixty-eight genera.

  _Citrullus_ (watermelon): Herbaceous vine. Africa. Cultivated in
  southern Europe and southern and middle North America.

  _Cucumis_ (cucumber): Northeastern India. Cultivated in Levant,
  southern Asia, southern Europe, Africa, southern Russia, United
  States.

  _Cucumis_ (muskmelon): British India, Baluchistan, West Africa,
  Guinea, banks of Niger. Cultivated in Mediterranean States, India,
  China, Japan, middle and southern United States.

  _Cucurbita_ (squash): Annual. Europe and western Asia. Cultivated in
  Pacific Islands, southern Asia, Africa.

  _Cucurbita_ (pumpkin): Warm climates.

ORDER XXVIII.--=Umbelliferæ=: Herbs; one hundred and fifty-two genera.

  _Apium_ (celery): Biennial. Great Britain, western Europe,
  Mediterranean shores, Peloponnesus, Caucasus, Palestine, South
  America, and western coast of North America to southern California.

  _Coriandrum_ (coriander): Annual. Tartary. Cultivated in Hindustan,
  Burma, middle, southern and western Europe, North America.

  _Carum_ (parsley): Biennial. Mediterranean countries and Asia Minor.
  Cultivated in Japan, England, and northeastern America.

  _Carum_ (caraway seed): Lapland to Siberia. Cultivated in Great
  Britain and Continent south of 60°, North Africa, Hindustan, Burma,
  northeastern America.

  _Cuminum_ (cumin): Northern Africa, middle and southern Europe,
  Syria, Hindustan, Bombay, Burma.

  _Daucus_ (carrot): Biennial. Herb. All over Europe south of 60°,
  especially in France, Germany, northern Africa, southwestern Asia,
  China, Japan. Cultivated in North America.

  _Fœniculum_ (fennel): Biennial. Levant. Cultivated in Hindustan,
  Atlantic States, France, Germany, Great Britain, southern Europe.

  _Pinipinella_ (anise): Perennial. Egypt, Syria, Malta, Spain,
  southern Germany, Hindustan, Japan.

  _Pencedanum_ (parsnip): Biennial. Europe, southern Greece.
  Cultivated in Asia and North America.

  _Ferula_ (asafetida): Middle and western Asia.

ORDER XXIX.--=Rubiaceæ=: Trees, shrubs, herbs; three hundred and
thirty-seven genera, including madder, coffee, tea, etc., according to
most authorities.

  _Cephaelis_ (ipecacuanha): Shrub. Tropical and sub-tropical.
  Bolivia, Colombia. Cultivated in West Indies, Hindustan, India,
  America.

  _Cinchona_ (Peruvian bark): Trees. Tropical Andes. Cultivated in
  Ceylon, Jamaica.

  _Coffea_ (coffee): Shrub. Persia. Cultivated in Arabia, East Indies,
  Mexico, Brazil, Guatemala, Cuba, British West Indies, Santo Domingo,
  Java, Padang, Sumatra, Macassar, Ceylon, British India, Manila.

  _Rubia_ (madder): Perennial. West Asia, Mediterranean countries.

ORDER XXXVII.--=Borraginaceæ=: Herbs; sixty-eight genera.

  _Symphytum_ (comfrey): Perennial herb. Peloponnesus and Greek
  islands. Cultivated in middle Europe and older parts of the United
  States.

ORDER XXXVIII.--=Convolvulaceæ=: Herb; thirty-two genera.

  _Ipomoea_ (sweet potato): Perennial. Asia and America. Cultivated in
  southern United States, Carolinas, Virginia, Maryland, Delaware,
  southern New Jersey, southern Spain, Italy.

ORDER XXXIX.--=Solanaceæ=: Herb; sixty-six genera.

  _Atropa_ (deadly nightshade): Europe, western Asia. Cultivated in
  North America.

  _Capsicum_ (red pepper, cayenne pepper): Annual. South America,
  southern Asia. Cultivated in southern Europe and in United States,
  West Indies, middle Africa, southern Asia.

  _Lycopersicum_ (tomato): Annual. South and Central America.
  Cultivated in Italy, southern France, Spain, Greece, northern
  Africa, Islands of southern Asia, England (under glass), Virginia,
  Carolinas.

  _Nicotiana_ (tobacco): Santo Domingo, South Atlantic States of
  United States of America. Cultivated in Virginia, Kentucky,
  Carolinas, Venezuela, Cuba, Brazil, Connecticut, Pennsylvania,
  Holland, Flanders, France, Alsace, Hungary, European Turkey, China,
  Japan, southern Africa, Australia.

  _Solanum_ (potato): Chile. Cultivated wherever cereals flourish.

ORDER XL.--=Pedalineæ=: Herb; ten genera.

  _Sesamum_ (sesame): Sunda Islands. Cultivated in India, western
  Asia, southern Europe, northern Africa, America.

ORDER XLI.--=Verbenaceæ=: Tree; fifty genera.

  _Tectona_ (teak): Tropical. East Indies, Burma, Philippines.

ORDER XLII.--=Labiatæ=: Herb; one hundred and thirty-six genera.

  _Lavandula_ (lavender): Greece and Grecian Isles. Cultivated in
  Hindustan, Atlantic States of North America, Levant.

  _Marrubium_ (hoarhound): Perennial. Levant, Peloponnesus, etc.
  Cultivated all over Europe, and in Temperate Zone in Asia, and
  Atlantic States in North America.

  _Mentha_ (pennyroyal): England, Hindustan, Japan, Persia, India,
  Egypt. In a belt from eastern side of Mississippi Valley to Japan.

  _Mentha_ (spearmint): England, etc., as above.

  _Nepita_ (catnip): Perennial or annual. Europe, western Asia,
  Levant, North America.

  _Origanum_ (marjoram): Levant, Mediterranean countries, Europe, as
  far north as fiftieth parallel. Sweet marjoram, native in Greece.

  _Rosmarius_ (rosemary): Evergreen. Southern Europe, Greek islands in
  the Peloponnesus. Cultivated in western Europe, Japan, Egypt,
  Hindustan, Asia.

  _Salvia_ (sage): Mediterranean countries. Cultivated in
  middle-southern Europe, British Isles, North America, British India.

  _Thymus_ (sweet thyme): Perennial. Spain, southern Europe,
  Mediterranean States, mountains of Greece, and islands of
  Archipelago, British Isles, southern Siberia.

ORDER XLIII.--=Chenopodiaceæ=: Herb; eighty genera.

  _Beta_ (beet): Europe and western Asia. Cultivated in Europe, west
  Africa, temperate British India, North America.

  _Spinacia_ (spinach): Annual. Persia. Cultivated in middle of North
  Temperate Zone, from Hindustan to western shores and islands of
  Europe, eastern United States of North America, South Pacific
  Islands.

ORDER XLIV.--=Polygonaceæ=: Herb; thirty genera.

  _Fagopyrum_ (buckwheat): Central Asia and Tartary, Russia.
  Cultivated in Canada, northern United States, northern and central
  Europe.

  _Rheum_ (rhubarb): Perennial. Tartary. Cultivated as far north as
  fiftieth parallel, China, especially in provinces of Shensi, Kansu,
  and Szechuen.

ORDER XLV.--=Piperaceæ=: Shrub; eight genera.

  _Piper_ (pepper): Southern Asia. Cultivated in southern India, Java,
  Sumatra, and Malabar.

ORDER XLVI.--=Myristicaceæ=: Trees, shrubs; one genus.

  _Myristica_ (nutmeg): Molucca Islands. Cultivated in Sumatra, Island
  of Bourbon, Mauritius, Madagascar, West Indies.

ORDER XLVII.--=Lauraceæ=: Tree; thirty-four genera.

  _Cinnamomum_ (cinnamon): East India Archipelago. Cultivated in
  Ceylon, West Indies, South America, Pacific Isles.

  _Cinnamomum_ (camphor): Trees. Japan, Formosa, China, Borneo. The
  camphor gum of commerce was introduced into Europe by the Arabs.

ORDER XLVIII.--=Santalaceæ=: Herbs, shrubs, trees; twenty-eight genera.

  _Santalum_ (sandalwood): Trees. East Indies, Asia, Malaysia, Pacific
  Islands, India, China.

ORDER XLIX.--=Euphorbiaceæ=: Herbs, shrubs, trees; one hundred and
ninety-five genera.

  _Buxus_ (box): Evergreen, shrub, and small trees. Southern Europe,
  western Asia, Syria, Persia, and south of Black Sea. Cultivated in
  middle States of North America and Virginia.

  _Croton_ (croton-oil plant): Cultivated in southeastern Hindustan
  and East India Islands.

  _Hevea_ (caoutchouc): Large tree. South America. Cultivated in
  southern Asia, middle Africa, northern Australia.

  _Manihot_ (tapioca): Tropical and sub-tropical South America.
  Cultivated in southern Asia and western Africa.

  _Ricinus_ (castor-oil plant): Annual. Southern Asia, eastern Africa.
  Cultivated in Japan, Bengal, eastern and northern Africa, southern
  Europe and United States, especially Kansas.

ORDER L.--=Urticaceæ=: Trees, shrubs, herbs; one hundred and eight
genera.

  _Cannabis_ (hemp): Annual. Chinese Tartary, northern India,
  southwestern Siberia. Cultivated in China, Japan, Persia, Hindustan,
  Egypt, southern Africa, Russia, European states, Canada, United
  States.

  _Ficus_ (fig): Tree. Subtropical. Western Asia. Cultivated through
  Mediterranean countries west to Canary Isles.

  _Humulus_ (hop): Perennial herb. Middle Europe, Siberia, Levant,
  Asia Minor, Japan, North America, foot-hills of Rocky Mountains, and
  along upper Arkansas River, Missouri and Mississippi Rivers, Lake
  Winnipeg, North Atlantic States. Cultivated in Egypt.

  _Morus_ (mulberry): Tree. Cultivated in western New England,
  southern upper Canada, Dakotas, Kansas and the South. White mulberry
  is a native of China and Japan. Cultivated in Italy, Greece, Asia
  Minor, Armenia.

  _Ulmus_ (elm): Tree. From Mediterranean countries to the middle of
  European Russia, from southern banks of St. Lawrence River to Gulf
  of Mexico, and westerly to foot-hills of Rocky Mountains.

ORDER LI.--=Juglandaceæ=: Trees; five genera.

  _Juglans_ (butternut): Northeastern North Africa. Cultivated in
  middle Europe and England.

  _Juglans_ (walnut): Southwestern New York and southward to Gulf of
  Mexico and westward beyond Mississippi River. Cultivated in eastern
  middle States and southern New England, England and southern Europe.

  _Hicoria_ (hickory nut): North and middle States of North America
  from Atlantic to Mississippi River, and cultivated in corresponding
  latitude in Europe.

  _Hicoria_ (pecan nut): Southern North America. Cultivated in Prussia
  and England.

ORDER LII.--=Cupuliferæ=: Trees; ten genera.

  _Castanea_ (chestnut): Eastern coast of North America, west to
  eastern Kentucky and Tennessee. Cultivated in middle and southern
  England, middle and southern Europe, northern Africa, Levant, and
  southern and eastern Asia.

  _Corylus_ (hazelnut): Levant. Cultivated between 35° and 55°
  latitude in Northern Hemisphere, eastern parts of Western
  Hemisphere, and western Old World.

  _Fagus_ (beech): Temperate Zones up to 60° north latitude, south to
  50°.

  _Quercus_ (oak): Temperate Zones above 35°, and in a zone between
  30° and 60° around the globe.

ORDER LIII.--=Salicaceæ=: Shrubs, trees; numerous genera.

  _Salix_ (weeping willow): Western and southern Asia. Cultivated in
  southern England.

  _Salix_ (curled willow): England. Cultivated in eastern United
  States.


ANGIOSPERMS (LEAVES PARALLEL-VEINED)

ORDER LIV.--=Orchidaceæ=: Woody vine; three hundred and thirty-four
genera.

  _Vanilla_ (climbs over lofty trees): Tropical and sub-tropical
  southern Mexico, coast of Vera Cruz. Cultivated in Guatemala,
  Mauritius, Bourbon, Madagascar, Java.

ORDER LV.--=Zingiberaceæ=: Herbs; thirty-six genera.

  _Curcuma_ (turmeric): Farther India and Asiatic isles, southern Asia
  and Malay Peninsula. Cultivated in Hindustan, Cochin-China, southern
  India, Bengal, Java, Pacific Isles.

  _Elettaria_ (cardamom): Perennial. Tropical Asia. Cultivated in
  southern India, Madras, Allepy, Ceylon.

  _Maranta_ (arrowroot): Tropical America, Florida.

  _Musa_ (banana): Asia. Cultivated in Indian Archipelago, China,
  Cochin-China, Hindustan, Australia, Pacific Islands, Madagascar,
  western Africa, Sicily, southern Spain, Mexico, Central America,
  Colombia, Peru, northern Brazil, Guiana, West Indies, southern
  Florida, and Louisiana.

  _Musa_ (manila): Philippines. Cultivated in India and southern Asia.

  _Zingiber_ (ginger): Sub-tropical. Southern Asia. Cultivated on
  western coast of Africa, in the West Indies, and southern slopes of
  Himalayas.

ORDER LVI.--=Bromeliaceæ=: Herbs; twenty-seven genera.

  _Ananassa_ (pineapple): Perennial root. Tropical. Bahama Islands.
  Cultivated in South America, Florida, southern shores of Europe,
  East Africa, Pacific Isles, India.

ORDER LVII.--=Iridaceæ=: Herbs; fifty-seven genera.

  _Crocus_ (saffron): Throughout southern parts of North Temperate
  Zone.

ORDER LVIII.--=Dioscoreaceæ=: Shrubs; eight genera.

  _Dioscorea_ (yam): Tropical and sub-tropical Africa.

  _Dioscorea_ (Chinese yam): America, Asia, Malaysia. Cultivated in
  Japan, East Indies, Siam.

ORDER LIX.--=Liliaceæ=: Herbs; one hundred and eighty-seven genera.

  _Asparagus_: Perennial herb. Japan, Levant. Cultivated in England,
  Holland, central Europe, Mediterranean countries, sandy places of
  Poland, southern Russia, Hindustan, North America.

  _Aloe_: Southern Asia, Arabia, southern Africa. Cultivated in
  southern Europe, northern Africa, British West Indies.

ORDER LX.--=Palmæ=: Shrubs and small and large trees; one hundred and
thirty-seven genera.

  _Areca_ (betelnut): Sunda Isles, Philippines, Cochin-China, Sumatra,
  southern India.

  _Cocos_ (cocoanut): East India Archipelago, Arabia, Persia, Malay.
  Cultivated in eastern Africa, western America, Brazil, West Indies,
  islands of Central America.

  _Metroxylon_ (sago palm): Malacca, southern China. Cultivated in
  Eastern Archipelago.

  _Phœnix_ (date palm): Between 15° and 30° north latitude, from
  Atlantic Coast to the River Indus; Sahara oases. Cultivated in Acre,
  Palmyra, Jaffa.

ORDER LXI.--=Gramineæ=: Herbs; one thousand two hundred and ninety-eight
genera.

  _Avena_ (oats): West central Asia, east central Europe. Cultivated
  in Scotland, Ireland, Norway, Canada, United States.

  _Hordeum_ (barley): Annual. Temperate western Asia. Cultivated in
  northern Russia, Siberia, etc.

  _Oryza_ (rice): Southern Asia. Cultivated in India, China, Japan,
  East Indies, Africa, southern Europe, Hungary, South America,
  southern United States.

  _Setaria_ (millet): China, Japan, India. Cultivated wherever oats
  and rye are, except in United States.

  _Saccharum_ (sugar-cane): Perennial. Cochin-China. Cultivated in
  West Indies, Brazil, Mexico, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri,
  Mauritius, southern India, Pacific Islands, northern Australia.

  _Sorghum_ (broom corn): Annual. Middle Africa. Cultivated in
  southern India, northern Africa, southern and middle Europe,
  throughout United States.

  _Secale_ (rye): Southern Russia and north of Black and Caspian Seas.
  Cultivated in northern Germany, Poland, Sweden, Norway, Russia,
  western Europe, United States.

  _Triticum_ (wheat): Cultivated in western Asia, western America,
  southern Russia, central and western Europe, southern Italy, Turkey,
  Syria, northern and southern Africa, Brazil, Chile, Australia. Great
  wheat-growing regions are southwestern plains of Russia and central
  plain of North America, and in southern California, northern India,
  England.

  _Zea_ (Indian corn or maize): America. Cultivated in United States,
  upper Canada, South America, Mexico, southern Europe, Africa,
  western Asia.

ORDER LXII.--=Coniferæ=: Shrubs, trees; thirty-two genera.

  _Abies_ (fir): Northeastern North America, Quebec, New Brunswick,
  Nova Scotia, middle States, western Wisconsin. Cultivated in
  England.

  _Chamæcyparis_ (cypress): Evergreen, cypress. Cultivated between 30°
  and 42° N. latitude in both hemispheres, Carolinas, Georgia,
  Florida.

  _Lumpirus_ (cedar): Trees and shrubs. Middle and western Europe,
  northern Asia, North America.

  _Larix_ (larch): Mountains of middle Europe, north of New York to
  Pacific Ocean.

(2) _Gymnosperms (jĭm´ṉō̇-sperms)._--Plants producing naked seeds (_i.
e._, seeds not inclosed in an ovary), as the common pine and hemlock.

This second division of flowering plants (_phanerogams_) includes four
living groups: (a) Coniferæ, including all evergreen trees, such as
pine, fir, redwood (_Sequoia_), etc.; (b) Cycadaceæ, trees such as
cypress, palmetto, etc.; (c) Gnetaceæ; (d) Ginkgo. There are about five
hundred living species.

ORDER LX.--

ORDER LXX.--

SUB-KINGDOM II.--Flowerless Plants, or Cryptogamia
(_krĭp´ṯō̇-gā´mĭ-ȧ_).

(3) _Pteridophyta (tĕr-ĭ-dŏf´ĭ-ta)._

This group does not include over five thousand species altogether. All
its members have a well-marked differentiation into leaves and stems,
some with large leaves like the Bracken fern and some with small leaves
like the Club-moss. All are provided with well-differentiated wood and
phlœm, which are arranged in bundles in the stem. All the members, also,
have a well-marked alternation of generations, but it differs from that
of the bryophytes, for the leafy plant which is conspicuous is the
spore-producing generation, while the sexual generation is a very small
and inconspicuous little structure, as simple as an alga except for its
sexual organs. To this cohort belong all the ferns, all the Equisetums,
or Horsetails, and the Club-mosses and Selaginellas.

(4) _Bryophyta (brĭ-ŏfĭ´-tȧ)._

The _Bryophyta_ form a much smaller group, reported to have about
sixteen thousand species. Some of these appear, as do the mosses, to
have true leaves, but their apparent leaves are not really like those of
the higher plants. They have no true wood or vessels. They have a
definite alternation of generations, but the spore-producing generation
grows on to the “leafy” sexual generation, and is generally, but
wrongly, called its “fruit capsule.” To this group belong the Mosses and
Liverworts.

(5) _Thallophytes (thāl´ō-fitz)._

The _Thallophytes_ have the largest number of species after the
Angiosperms, and number about eighty thousand species all told. They are
all comparatively simple in structure and have no differentiation into
stems and roots. The Thallophytes include the algæ, the large fungi, the
toadstools, and all the parasitic and disease producing forms of plants.

ALGÆ are divided into FLORIDEÆ, the Red Seaweeds, and the orders
_Dictyoteæ_, _Oösporeæ_, _Zoösporeæ_, _Conjugatæ_, _Diatomaceæ_, and
_Cryptophyceæ_.

FUNGI include the molds, mildews, mushrooms, puffballs, etc., which are
variously grouped into several sub-classes and many orders. The
_Lichenes_ or Lichens are now considered to be of a mixed nature, each
plant partly a Fungus and partly an Alga.

=THREE CELEBRATED PICTURES OF ANIMAL FAVORITES=

[Illustration: =ORPHEUS AND HIS LUTE.= From the painting by J. C.
Dollman.]

[Illustration: =THE POLAR BEAR BEGS=]

[Illustration: =LION-MARMOSETS OF BRAZIL=]



BOOK OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM


  SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS

  TABULAR VIEW OF REPRESENTATIVE ANIMAL TYPES

  ANIMALS IN CLASSIFIED GROUPS:

  =I. Wild Animals:=

      (1) THE MAMMALS: (_a_) The Monkey Tribe; (_b_) Animals of Prey;
          (_c_) Gnawing Animals; (_d_) Hoofed Animals; (_e_) Toothless
          Animals; (_f_) Thick-Skinned Animals; (_g_) Pouched Animals;
          (_h_) Flying Animals; (_i_) The Seals; (_j_) The Whales.

      (2) THE BIRDS: (_a_) Birds of Prey; (_b_) Climbing Birds; (_c_)
          Singing Birds; (_d_) Wading Birds; (_e_) Swimming Birds; (_f_)
          Running Birds; (_g_) Game Birds.

      (3) THE REPTILES: Lizards; Chameleons; Snakes; Crocodiles;
          Tortoises; Turtles.

      (4) AMPHIBIANS: Frogs; Toads; Salamanders.

      (5) THE FISHES: (_a_) Bony Fishes; (_b_) Cartilaginous Fishes;
          (_c_) Armored Fishes; (_d_) Lungfishes.

      (6) THE MOLLUSCS: Snails; Cuttlefish; Squids; Octopus; Tusk
          Shells; Bivalves; Oysters.

      (7) JOINTED-LIMBED ANIMALS: Crabs; Lobsters; Scorpions; Spiders;
          Insects; Grasshoppers.

      (8) BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS: Straight-Winged Insects; Ants and Bees;
          Flies.

      (9) STARFISHES AND SEA-URCHINS.

     (10) SIMPLEST FORMS OF LIFE.

  =II. Domesticated Animals:=

      (1) DOMESTICATED MAMMALS: Alpaca; Ass; Camel; Cat; Cattle; Dog;
          Elephant; Gayal; Goat; Guinea Pig; Horse; Llama; Rabbit;
          Reindeer; Sheep; Swine; Yak; Zebu.

      (2) DOMESTICATED BIRDS: Canary; Chickens or Fowls; Guinea; Goose;
          Ostrich; Parrot; Peacock; Pigeon; Swan; Turkey.

      (3) DOMESTICATED INSECTS: Bee; Cochineal; Silkworm Moth.

  PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS CONCERNING ANIMALS

  WORLD MAP SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMAL LIFE

[Illustration: =MAP OF THE WORLD SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMAL
LIFE=]


THE ANIMAL KINGDOM

  SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS. MAMMALS: The Monkey Tribe;
  Animals of Prey; Hoofed Animals; Gnawing Animals; Thick-skinned
  Animals; Toothless Animals; Pouched Animals; Flying Mammals; The
  Seal Family; Whales. BIRDS: Song Birds; Birds of Prey; Game Birds;
  Running Birds; Wading Birds; Swimming Birds. CROCODILES AND OTHER
  REPTILES. FROGS AND OTHER AMPHIBIA. FISHES. LOBSTERS AND CRABS.
  INSECTS: Beetles, Butterflies and Moths; Ants; Bees and Wasps;
  Spiders; Grasshoppers and Locusts; Flies and Mosquitoes. SIMPLE
  MARINE ANIMALS: Starfish; Jellyfish; Corals; Sponges; Protozoa.
  DOMESTICATED ANIMALS: Domesticated Mammals; Domesticated Birds;
  Domesticated Fish and Insects. DICTIONARY OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS.

Of all the sciences, Zoology is the most extensive. It is estimated that
over two million species of living creatures exist in the world. Between
the elephant and the whale, the giants of animal creation, and the mite
that is just discernible with the human eye, there are myriads of
creatures differing in size, form and habit.


WHY AND HOW ANIMALS ARE CLASSIFIED

It is highly desirable, therefore, to have before us a bird’s-eye view
of the Animal Kingdom even if it is only occasionally brought into
actual use by the average reader. Classification, it should be
understood, is only a process of comparison for the purpose of enabling
us to determine the exact place of each animal in the plan of Nature. In
other words it is simply a scientific method of naming the various
animals from the relation of their resemblances.

We are chiefly indebted to the great Swedish scientist Linnæus for the
scientific method of naming animals. For his purpose, Linnæus used the
Latin as the universal language of science. For example, he named the
dog in his classification _Canis familiaris_, using a generic word and a
specific word--just as they are used in the name of George Washington.
In scientific classification, however, these names have become abstract
terms, and they represent certain grades or degrees of resemblance which
are spoken of as species, genera, families, orders, classes, and so on.


SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION OF THE DOG

In this way we determine the exact place of each animal. The dog belongs
to the kingdom _Animalia_, sub-kingdom _Metazoa_, class _Mammalia_,
order _Carnivora_, family _Canidæ_, genus _Canis_, species _Familiaris_,
variety _Hound_ (possibly) and its individual name, perhaps, is “Rover.”

The important thing is that the reader should have a picture of the
actual animal representing each class in his mind’s eye. He should
master the distinctions between the _great groups_, or classes, before
proceeding to a more minute classification.


TABULAR VIEW OF REPRESENTATIVE ANIMAL TYPES

The present day classification of animal life falls into two great
divisions: (1) _Protozoa_, representing those composed of a single cell;
and (2) _Metazoa_, those whose bodies are composed of many cells. The
Protozoa, so far as known, form a single division or branch of the
animal kingdom, and the Metazoa comprise various higher branches. In the
following table the divisions are given from the highest forms to the
lowest, rather than in the reverse order frequently given, and sets out
the chief characteristic and animal examples of each division.

ANIMAL KINGDOM (_Kingdom Animalia_)

  SUB-KINGDOM METAZOA (Gr. _meta_, after; _zȯon_, animal).--Animals with
  cellular tissues, true eggs, and blastoderm. The group comprises all
  animals except the Protozoa.

    CLASS I. =Mammalia= (Lat., _mamma_, breast).--Animals which suckle
    their young, bringing them into the world alive. _Examples_: man,
    monkey, ox, elephant and whale.

      ORDER I. =Primates= (Lat., _primus_, first).

        _Sub-Order I._
           =Bimana= (Lat., _bis_, twice; _manus_, a hand).--Two-handed
           animals. _Example_: man.

        _Sub-Order II._
          =Quadrumana= (Lat., _quatuor_, four; _manus_, a hand).--Four-
          handed animals. _Example_: the monkey.

      ORDER II. =Chiroptera= (Gr., _cheir_, a hand; _pteron_, a wing).--
      Hand-winged animals. _Example_: the bat.

      ORDER III. =Insectivora= (Lat., _insecta_, insects; _voro_, “I
      devour”).--Insect-eaters. _Examples_: the hedgehog and mole.

      ORDER IV. =Carnivora= (Lat., _caro_, _carnis_, flesh).--Flesh-
      eaters. _Examples_: lion, tiger, fox and weasel.

      ORDER V. =Rodentia= (Lat. _rodere_, to gnaw).--Gnawing animals.
      _Examples_: rat, rabbit and beaver.

      ORDER VI. =Ungulata= (Lat., _ungula_, nail, claw or hoof).--Hoofed
      animals.

        _Sub-Order I._
          =Hyracoidea= (Gr., _hyrax_, shrew-mouse).--_Example_: Syrian
          hyrax.

        _Sub-Order II._
          =Proboscidea= (Lat., from the Gr., _proboskis_, an elephant’s
          trunk; literally a front-feeder), proboscis-bearers.
          _Example_: elephant.

        _Sub-Order III._
          =Perissodactyla= (Gr., _perisos_, superfluous; _daktulos_,
          finger or toe), odd-toed animals. _Examples_: tapir,
          rhinoceros, horse, ass, and zebra.

        _Sub-Order IV._
          =Artiodactyla= (Gr., _artios_, equal; _daktulos_, finger or
          toe), equal-toed animals.

          GROUP I. =Pecora= (Lat., plural of _pecus_, cattle) or
          Ruminantia (Lat., _rumen_, a paunch).--Ruminating or cud-
          chewing animals. _Examples_: ox, sheep, goat, antelope, deer
          and giraffe.

          GROUP II. =Tragulina= (Gr., _tragos_, goat), or Deerlets.
          _Example_: kanchil.

          GROUP III. =Tylopada= (Gr., _tylos_, a knob or swelling, and
          _pous_, _podos_, a foot).--Ruminants with digits encased in
          cutaneous pads. _Example_: camel.

          GROUP IV. =Suina= (Lat., _sus_, a pig).--Swine-like animals.
          _Examples_: swine, peccary and hippopotamus.

      ORDER VII. =Sirenia= (Lat., _siren_, a sea nymph).--Sea-cows.
      _Examples_: manatee and dugong.

      ORDER VIII. =Cetacea= (Gr., _ketos_, a whale), animals of the
      whale kind. _Examples_: whale and dolphin.

      ORDER IX. =Edentata= (Lat., _edentatus_, toothless).--Toothless
      animals. _Examples_: sloth, anteater and armadillo.

      ORDER X. =Marsupialia= (Lat., _marsupium_, a pouch).--Pouched
      animals. _Examples_: kangaroo and opossum.

      ORDER XI. =Monotremata= (Gr., _monos_, single; _trema_, orifice).
      --Egg-laying mammals. _Examples_: duckbill or water mole.

    CLASS II. =Aves= (Lat., _avis_, a bird).--Birds, animals produced
    from eggs by the application of heat, usually supplied by the body
    of the mother bird in close contact with them. They are always
    clothed with feathers, which are a part of their special
    construction for flight. _Examples_: eagle, swan, ostrich and lark.

      ORDER I. =Birds of Prey= (_Raptores_).--Sharp, curved beak and
      talons; strong legs; three toes front, one behind. _Examples_:
      vultures, falcons, secretary birds, owls.

      ORDER II. =Perching Birds= (_Insessores_).--Short, slender, legs;
      three toes front, one behind. _Examples_: swallows, trogons,
      kingfishers, humming-birds, warblers, thrushes, crows, starlings,
      finches, hornbills, birds of paradise.

      ORDER III. =Climbing Birds= (_Scansores_).--Toes paired; beak
      usually hooked. _Examples_: toucans, parrots, woodpeckers,
      cuckoos.

      ORDER IV. =Doves and Pigeons= (_Columbæ_).--Legs weak; wings long
      and pointed. _Examples_: doves, pigeons.

      ORDER V. =Game Birds= (_Gallinæ_).--Legs stout, short; beak stout,
      arched. _Examples_: pheasants, grouse, partridge, turkey, peacock,
      guinea, prairie chicken, domestic chickens.

      ORDER VI. =Ostrich Family= (_Cursores_).--No keel or breast bone;
      rudimentary wings; stout legs. _Examples_: ostrich, cassowary,
      bustard.

      ORDER VII. =Wading Birds= (_Grallatores_).--Legs and neck long;
      knee free from body. _Examples_: cranes, herons, snipes, plovers,
      storks, flamingo.

      ORDER VIII. =Swimming Birds= (_Natatores_).--Web-footed.
      _Examples_: swans, ducks, geese, pelicans, petrels, auks,
      penguins, gulls, cormorants.

    CLASS III. =Reptilia= (Lat., _repo._ “I creep”)--Reptiles, cold-
    blooded animals, protected by scales and not infrequently by hard,
    bony plates. They are mostly oviparous, but developed from the eggs
    more or less casually by the heat of the sun. “Reptile” is not an
    apt name, for there are many members of the class that do not creep.
    _Examples_: crocodile, lizard, tortoise and snake.

      ORDER I. =Serpents= (_Orphidia_).--Body long, cylindrical, scaly,
      usually limbless; numerous vertabræ and ribs; no eyelids. Lower
      jaw loosely united in front. _Examples_: rattlesnakes, vipers,
      boas, pythons, cobras, copperheads, water snakes.

      ORDER II. =Lizards= (_Lacertilia_).--Body with long tail; usually
      four limbs; scaly; bones of the jaw firm. _Examples_: striped and
      green lizards, horned toads, chameleons, iguana.

      ORDER III. =Tortoises and Turtles= (_Chelonia_).--Horny and bony
      shell within which the head and limbs can be drawn; no teeth;
      eyelids; four legs. _Examples_: turtles, tortoise, gophers,
      terrapins.

      ORDER IV. =Crocodiles and Alligators= (_Crocodilia_).--Covered
      with scales and bony plates, teeth in sockets; heart with four
      cavities; eyelids and earlids. _Examples_: Crocodile and
      alligator.

    CLASS IV. =Batrachia= (Gr., _batrachos_, a frog), or Amphibia (Gr.,
    _amphibios_, having a double life).--Animals that can exist for a
    considerable time on dry land or in water. They are oviparous,
    hatched by the heat of the sun from eggs, covered with a soft,
    glutinous membrane, which the mother had laid in the water, and
    develop through tadpole stages. In the early period of their
    existence they are fishlike in their structure, breathing by means
    of gills and a two-chambered heart; in the later stages of their
    development they acquire lungs and a heart of three chambers. A true
    amphibian possesses at once both lungs and gills. _Examples_: frog,
    toad, newt and salamander.

    CLASS V. =Pisces= (Lat., _piscis_, a fish).--Fishes, oviparous
    animals covered with scales, which form an important part of their
    special organization for life in the water. Their gills, acting as
    lungs, extract air from the water instead of from the atmosphere.

      ORDER I. =Sharks and Rays= (_Elasmobranchii_).--Shagreen skin;
      gills fixed and uncovered; cartilaginous skeleton.

      ORDER II. =Ganoids= (_Ganoidei_).--Enameled plates or scales;
      gills free; skeleton partly cartilaginous. _Examples_: garpikes,
      mud-fish, lung-fish.

      ORDER III. =Bony or Fin Fishes= (_Teleostei_).--Skeleton bony;
      scales; fins; usually four pairs of gills; mostly oviparous.
      _Examples_: bass, perch and ten thousand other kinds.

    CLASS VI. =Arthropoda= (Gr., _arthron_, joint; _pous_, foot).--
    Metazoa, with definite number of segments; jointed legs; distinct
    feet and hard, external skeleton.

      ORDER I. =Crustacea= (Lat., _crusta_, a crust or shell).--Water-
      breathing; having gills and more than eight jointed legs; four
      antennæ. _Examples_: fairy-shrimp, water-fleas, goose barnacle,
      acorn barnacle, opossum-shrimp, prawn, lobster, crayfish, cancer-
      crab, rock-crab, pill-bug, sand-hopper.

      ORDER II. =Arachnida= (Gr., _arachne_, spider).--Eight legs; air-
      breathing. _Examples_: garden-spider, tarantula, bird-spider,
      trap-door spider, mite, tick, king-crab or horseshoe crab.

      ORDER III. =Insecta= (Lat., _insectum_, cut in, owing to the
      grooves surrounding the body).--Distinct head, thorax and abdomen;
      air-breathing. _Examples_: fishmoth, springtail, cockroach,
      grasshopper, cricket, katydid, locust, dragon-fly, caddis-fly,
      may-fly, white ants or termites, ant-lion, water-boatman, water-
      bug, back-swimmer, chinch-bug, squash-bug, lice, plant-lice,
      scale-insect, gnat, mosquito, flea, house-fly, stage-beetle, wood-
      beetle, water-beetle, potato-beetle, ladybug, firefly, moth,
      butterfly, ants, honey-bees and bumblebees, wasps, hornets,
      yellow-jackets, centipeds.

    CLASS VII. =Mollusca= (Lat., _mollis_. soft),--Soft-bodied,
    unjointed Metazoa, with muscular skin (“mantle”), generally
    protected by a calcareous shell; two or three-chambered heart; three
    main pairs of nerve-ganglia. _Examples_: Clams, oysters, snails,
    cuttlefish, devil-fish, nautilus.

    CLASS VIII. =Echinodermata= (Gr., _echinos_, a hedgehog; _derma_,
    skin).--Radiated Metazoa, with distinct alimentary canal and well
    developed nervous system; body-walls secreting calcareous plates;
    parts in multiple of five. _Examples_: starfish, sea urchins, sea
    cucumbers, sea lilies, serpent or brittle stars, basket stars.

    CLASS IX. =Worms= (Lat., _vermes_).--Bilateral Metazoa, with no
    jointed legs, nor primitive stripe. _Examples_: earth worm, leech,
    tube worm, tape worm, bristle worms, vinegar eel, rotifers.

    CLASS X. =Cœlenterata= (animals with combined body and stomach
    cavity).--Radiated Metazoa, with distinct digestive cavity,
    tentacles and nettling thread-cells. _Examples_: jellyfish, sea-
    anemones, coral polyps.

    CLASS XI. =Porifera= (Lat., _porus_, pore; _fero_, to carry).--
    Sponges, Metazoa, with numerous ingoing openings, one or few
    outgoing orifices, a skeleton, independent cells. _Example_:
    sponges.

  SUB-KINGDOM PROTOZOA (Gr., _protos_, first; _zoon_, animal).--One-
  celled animals of microscopic size. Simplest forms of animal life.
  _Examples_: amœba, bell animalcule (_vorticella_), euglena.


ANIMALS IN CLASSIFIED GROUPS


_THE MAMMALS_ (_Mammalia_)

  Mammals constitute the highest class of animal creation, and include
  Man. They have a hard, bony skeleton and a vertebral column or
  backbone; warm red blood flows in their veins; they breathe by means
  of lungs, and suckle their young, which they bring forth alive.
  Their bodies are generally covered with hair. More than three
  thousand species of mammals are known.


THE MONKEY TRIBE (_Quadrumana_)

  Monkeys are animals whose four feet are hand-like, and hence their
  scientific name, Quadrumana, which means four-handed. They are
  distinguished from the other animals by their docility, and, more
  especially, by their power of imitation. It is evident at the first
  glance that they are nearer related to man than any other animal.

  The monkeys have long, loosely hanging arms, with elongated,
  claw-like fingers; their feet resemble hands. They swing themselves
  with ease from branch to branch and from tree to tree; they are good
  climbers, and bring down fruit from the topmost branches. But
  notwithstanding the aptitude of their hands for climbing, the latter
  cannot equal the dexterity of the human hand, which is justly
  described as the tool of all tools.

  Monkeys differ outwardly from man in many respects: their foreheads
  are low, and almost disappear under the overhanging hair; their ears
  are directed upwards; their nose is exceedingly flat and scarcely
  projects; their teeth resemble those of the animals of prey; their
  chin is receding; their entire skin is hairy, except in a few
  places; and their movements are, in most instances, only possible
  with the assistance of their long arms.

  The intellectual qualities of monkeys are not of very high order. In
  this attribute, they are surpassed by the dog, the horse, and the
  elephant. There is especially no trace of those qualities of
  fidelity and gratitude which we so highly value in the animals last
  mentioned.

  All of the American monkeys are true monkeys, but in the old world
  there is no line between ape, baboon, gibbon, macaque and monkey.
  Most of the American species (the marmosets excepted) have one more
  molar tooth on each side of each jaw than does man, but the forms of
  the eastern continent are like man in that respect, as they are in
  having nails rather than claws on at least some of the fingers and
  toes. Many of the new world species have prehensile tails, but this
  never occurs in the others, the tail exhibiting a tendency to be
  reduced, at last disappearing in the man-like apes.

  The American apes have the nostrils widely separated and opening
  sidewise, while in the others they open in front and downward as in
  man.

  Monkeys are extremely interesting because of their caricature of
  man. Some make most interesting pets, and others are disagreeable,
  in looks, temper, and habits. Most of them are vegetarians for most
  of their diet, but they are fond of eggs and young birds, as well as
  insects. None stray far out of the tropics and only one enters
  Europe at Gibraltar.

  There are over one hundred various kinds of monkeys, only a few of
  which it will be necessary to describe with more detail.

=Baboon= (_Cynocephalus babuin_).--The Greek name, signifying
“dog’s-head,” is very appropriate to the baboons, for they resemble a
dog both in the shape of the head and in the hairy covering of the skin,
and even in the tone of the voice.

They are very powerful animals, with protruding jaws like those of a
bull-dog. Their jaws, supplied with immense incisor teeth, would do
honor to any beast of prey, and their whole expression is fierce and
malicious. Their limbs are strikingly short in comparison with those of
the monkeys mentioned above. The baboons are found in Africa and the
East Indies, and live chiefly in rocky and hilly regions, avoiding the
woods as far as possible.

Their food consists of all kinds of plants, fruits, herbs, grasses,
bulbs, etc., and also of small animals, especially snails, insects, and
spiders. The structure of their body prevents them from walking upright,
and their whole behavior, whether at rest or when running and jumping,
exhibits a malicious disposition. Notwithstanding the fierceness of
their nature, they may be tamed and made obedient when young; but their
innate malicious nature reappears in old age. They are then no longer
obedient, but again grin, scratch and bite.

=Chimpanzee= (_Simia troglodytes_) attains to the same height as the
orang-outan; its body is covered with dark hair, and its hairless face
is of a leathery yellow. It lives in forests, and is social and much
livelier than the orang-outan, but it is also extraordinarily fierce. It
builds hut-like constructions in the trees. The chimpanzee cannot live
longer than a few years in our climate.

=Douc= (_Semnopithecus nemæus_).--The douc, or variegated monkey, is a
native of Cochin-China. Its tail is almost as long as its body. From its
variegated external appearance this monkey might be called a clown; its
jacket is grey; its breeches, head-band, and gloves are black, its
stockings brownish red; its sleeves, beard, loins, and tail white; its
face yellow; and its necktie brownish red.

It is timid and shy, and at the sight of man quickly makes off into the
recesses of the forest. It does not live long in captivity.

=Galago= (_G. senegalensis_).--They vary from the size of a rabbit to
that of a rat, are covered with thick, soft, wooly fur, have somewhat
bushy tails longer than the body, and hind-legs longer and stronger than
the arms. The head is round like a cat’s; the eyes are large with oval
pupils contracting in daylight to vertical slits; the ears are naked
and very big, expanded during activity, but rolled together when the
animal rests. The digits are strong and well adapted for grasping the
branches; all bear nails except the second on the hind-foot, which is
clawed. The galago proper is a pretty animal with wooly fur, grayish
fawn above, whitish beneath. It seems to be distributed throughout
tropical Africa, and is known in Senegal as “the gum animal” from its
frequent habitat in mimosa or gum-acacia forests.

=Gorilla= (_Simia gorilla_) is the largest of the monkeys, growing to a
height of six feet. Its grey, sparkling eyes are deeply sunk, and the
powerful bony forehead gives the face an expression of wild ferocity.
The mouth is wide, and the lips are sharply cut, without any red at the
edges; the jaws are extremely powerful, and are armed with strong
incisor teeth. The eyes stand wide apart, and the nose is more prominent
and the head better formed than is the case with the other monkeys.

=Howling Monkey= (_Mycetes niger_).--The coat of the male is black, that
of the female rather brown. Their tails are what are known as prehensile
tails, and are of great service to them when climbing. The howling
monkeys are found in South America. They live chiefly in the dense, damp
woods, and along the banks of rivers. Every morning and evening their
dismal howling fills the hearer with horror. They sit or lie about in
the trees, and sometimes hang from the boughs by means of their
prehensile tails. Their faces have a serious expression, and are
surrounded by long beards. Their dismal chorus is begun by one of the
old monkeys, and the whole company afterwards join in, the concert often
lasting several hours.

The Indians hunt the howling monkey and eat its flesh; but it very often
escapes the hunter, even after having been mortally wounded; for while
in the act of falling down from the tree it will twist its tail around a
bough, and remain there suspended long after death.

=Mandrill= (_C. mormon_).--This monkey has a repulsive appearance. The
high puffed-up cheeks are blue with red lines, the nose a fiery red, the
hair of the head greyish green, and the whiskers lemon yellow. It is as
malicious and violent as it is rapacious, and is found on the west coast
of Africa. It is much feared on account of its strength. As it feeds
chiefly on plants, it frequently does a great deal of damage; troops of
these animals are said to have invaded the inhabited districts on the
coast.

The mandrill does not fear man, and is never to be frightened by a
gun-shot; the smallest trifle suffices to put it in a most violent rage.
The natives very rarely dare to enter the forests in which the mandrills
are known to live.

=Marmoset= (_Hápale Jacchus_).--One of the few monkeys that can with
truthfulness be termed pretty is the Marmoset. There are several
species, and all are beautiful, with the gentle, engaging manners. Only
seven or eight inches long, or about as big as a full-grown rat, the
thick, soft fur and the long, bushy tail, a foot in length, give it the
aspect of a considerably larger animal. The color of the coat is a
peculiarly rich brown, which appears quite ruddy when the hairs are
blown aside. The tail, which is not prehensile, is light grey, ringed
with black, and there is a prominent tuft of white hair on either side
of the head, standing out before the ears. The Marmoset has claws
instead of nails except on its great toe. Its voice is a low, gentle
whistle, quickly repeated when alarmed. It is common in many parts of
South America. Its chief food consists of fruit, but it is very fond of
insects.

=ANIMALS THAT INTEREST US AT THE ZOO=

[Illustration: =MARKHOR= (Page 202)]

[Illustration: =WHITE MONKEY= (Page 191)]

[Illustration: =SAMBUR= (Page 202)]

[Illustration: =PRAIRIE WOLF= (Page 197)]

[Illustration: =TAHR= (Page 202)]

[Illustration: =OPOSSUM= (Page 205)]

[Illustration: =KOALA AND CUB= (Page 204)]

[Illustration: =WHITE WOLF= (Page 197)]

[Illustration: =PORCUPINE= (Page 199)]

[Illustration: =GALAGO= (Page 192)]

[Illustration: =HEDGEHOG= (Page 195)]

=Orang-Outan= (_Simia satyrus_).--The orang-outan is found in the
islands of Borneo and Sumatra. It attains to a height of four and a half
feet. The face and the inside of its hands are hairless, and are of a
bluish-grey tint; but the other parts of its body are covered more or
less thickly with hair, generally of a rusty-brown color. Its hands
reach almost to the ground.

When at liberty it feeds on plants only, and especially on tree-fruits.
Hard shelled-fruit, as big as a human head, which a man could only open
with an axe, the orang-outan tears asunder with its hands. It is by no
means so lively as the monkeys, and sits for hours at a time in a
melancholy mood on the bough of a tree, exhibiting only the natural
fierceness of its class when attacked.

In youth it is sociable, and lives with others of its kind, but when old
it leads a more solitary life; the old males are especially fond of
solitude. With increasing age the orang-outans scarcely ever climb the
trees. On the ground, however, they move with difficulty, and their gait
is awkward and clumsy. They build a kind of nest in the thick branches
nineteen or twenty feet above the ground. Their attachment to their
young is very touching.

=Wanderoo= (_Macacus silenus_).--A remarkable species which the
Ceylonese call Black Monkey, on account of the color of its long fur. On
the top of its head the hair is particularly long, falling on either
side of its face like the full-dress wig of a judge. It also possesses a
long grey beard, so that it has quite a venerable aspect. Unlike the
other macaques, it has a tuft of hair on the end of its tail, much like
that of a lion. The wanderoo is furnished with cheek pouches of
considerable size; and probably the rapidity with which it feeds is due
to the fact that it is storing away a portion of its food for future
use. The animal stands about thirty inches high, weighs as much as
eighty pounds, and is possessed of considerable muscular power.


THE ANIMALS OF PREY

  The animals of prey proper are very powerful, and some of them are
  even dangerous to man; they feed on the flesh of other animals. The
  Insectivora, or insect eaters, are, on the contrary, small; they
  feed chiefly on insects and worms, and are therefore useful. Of
  these several groups are distinguished: the cat-like, hyaena-like,
  dog-like, marten-like, and bear-like animals of prey.

=Badger= (_Meles taxus_).--The compact body of the badger is covered
with blackish fur, with white stripes at the neck and head. It lives in
forests, near fields and vineyards, where it digs burrows, with about
six to eight passages leading to a kettle-shaped chamber, which lies
from four to six feet under the surface. It sleeps in the daytime and
during the winter, but at night it goes out on its predatory excursions.
Its food consists of insects, worms, snails, frogs, snakes, birds’ eggs,
young birds, and young hares; nor does it despise fruit, roots, and
honey. The badger is very wary, and defends itself with great courage in
its burrow. It is hunted chiefly for its fur; its flesh is rarely eaten.
Paint brushes are made from its hair.

=Bear, Brown= (_Ursus arctos_), also called the common or European bear,
has a shaggy light or dark brown fur. It is only about five feet long,
and attains a weight of five hundred to six hundred pounds. Its home is
in the temperate regions of Europe and Asia. Although not so strong as
the polar bear, it is not to be despised as an adversary. It is the king
of the northern forests. When attacked it will place itself in an erect
position, and try to tear its enemy with strokes of its paws. In the
fables of animals it is represented as an awkward, foolish simpleton,
who is always brought to shame and disgrace by the cunning of the fox.
It can easily be tamed, and nearly everybody has seen its clown-like
performances. Its habitation is in caverns or hollow trees. Its flesh is
eaten, and its fur used like that of the polar bear.

=Bear, Polar= (_Ursus maritimus_).--Its fur is quite white. Its body
attains eight feet in length, and weighs from fifteen hundred to sixteen
hundred pounds. It inhabits the most northern parts of Europe, Asia and
America. Its movements are equally quick on water and land; and it is a
terrible animal of prey, attacking even man with the greatest fury. It
pursues its predatory excursions on the numerous islands of the northern
polar regions, and its chief food is fish and seals. Sometimes it will
come into more southern latitudes, when it causes terrible havoc among
the herds, and only with the greatest difficulty can this strong and
fearless animal be killed. The polar bear has its home in the regions of
everlasting snow, and can only obtain the necessaries of life by means
of never-ceasing activity. It often uses a sheet of ice as a raft to
transport itself to spots where it can obtain its prey. Its flesh is
eaten; its fat is used for food and fuel, and its fur for carpets and
rugs.

=Caracal= (_Felis_ or _Lynx caracal_), a species of lynx found in the
warmer parts of Asia and throughout the whole of Africa. It is larger
than a fox, about the same height, but much more powerful; of a uniform
deep chestnut color, except two spots near each eye, the under parts of
the body, and inner parts of the legs, which are white, and tufts of
long black hair which terminate the ears. The young forms are spotted.
The ears are about three inches in length. The caracal is powerful
enough to tear a hound to pieces.

=Fox= (_Canis vulpes_).--The common fox, also called red fox, has thick,
soft fur, which is, on its upper parts, a light rust red, and on its
lower parts whitish. Its body attains a length of thirty inches. Its
long tail is bushy, and ends in a white tip.

The fox is a common inhabitant of the whole of Europe, and of the
northern parts of Asia, America, and Africa. It inhabits forests and
woods, where it lives with its mate in caverns. In rapacity it is nearly
equal to the wolf; but it can master its cupidity and wait for better
opportunities if danger should threaten. No animal is the subject of so
many fables. “Master Reynard” is always the cunning rogue, who outwits
his adversaries. Only on behalf of their young will the male as well as
the female fox risk their lives; intense love will then overcome every
fear and precaution.

The fox hunts hares, fowls, geese, and ducks, and even fish; but it
always destroys a great number of mice, whereby the injury done by it is
partly equalized. Its cover has always several exits. If found to be
rather deep, it was not constructed by the fox, but by a badger, which
either left its burrow willingly or was driven out by the new tenant.
The fox is hunted in different ways.

=Hedgehog= (_Erinaceus Europæus_).--The hedgehog is likewise an
inhabitant of the underground world, for it lives in holes below the
roots of trees, and under heaps of stones. Its body, with the exception
of its belly, is covered with sharp spines, and its feet are short and
strong. It begins to hunt for its prey in the darkness of the night.
Should it be disturbed it will suddenly roll itself up into a ball, its
sharp spines projecting in all directions. In this condition no dog can
get at it; but, if water is poured on it, it will unroll again. Its
spines are also of great service to it in other ways; for when rolled up
it can let itself down the steepest precipices, and fall from walls ten
feet high, without sustaining the smallest injury.

The hedgehog may also be called a useful animal; for it destroys mice,
rats, and vermin of all kinds, and will even feed on vipers, as poison
does not affect it. Its flesh is eaten in some countries.

=Hyena= (_Hyæna maculata_).--This whitish-grey and white-spotted animal
attains a length of four feet, and has its home in Southern and Eastern
Africa. It has a repulsive appearance, and emits a very disagreeable
odor. Hyenas remain hidden during the daytime; in the evening and during
the night they go out in quest of prey. They are great cowards, and
sometimes encircle human habitations in troups, and fall on their
sleeping prey. Hyenas force their way even into villages, clear off the
decayed animal matter, and dig the corpses out of their shallow graves.
The HYENA DOG (_Canis pictus_) does not belong to the hyenas proper, but
to the dog-like animals of prey. It inhabits the central and southern
parts of Africa, and is very dangerous to the antelopes and the herds of
sheep; it also attacks cattle.

=Ichneumon= (_Herpestes ichneumon_).--This animal is also called
Pharaoh’s rat. It inhabits Africa, and was considered a holy animal by
the ancient Egyptians. The color of its hair is greenish-grey, somewhat
darker on the head and back. Its snout is rather short; its tail ends
in a tuft. It feeds on rats, mice, toads, frogs, and snakes, birds’
eggs, and the eggs of crocodiles.

=Jackal= (_Canis aureus_).--Very similar in appearance to the fox, the
hair of the jackal is of a dark rusty yellow, whitish on its lower
parts. It inhabits Asia and north Africa, and is also found in the
south-eastern parts of Europe, in Greece, and Turkey. It makes its
excursions during the night in troops. Like the hyena, the jackal prowls
round the herds and human habitations, and, failing living prey, is
content with carrion.

=Jaguar= (_Felis onca_), sometimes called the American tiger, has
reddish-yellow fur, spotted with black. It inhabits South America, from
Paraguay to Mexico, and is the largest and most dangerous animal of prey
in those parts of the globe. The jaguar lies in wait for all sorts of
animals, and shows a great fondness for fish; but most frequently it
attacks grazing animals. It does not even hesitate to spring upon man.

=Leopard= (_Felis pardus_).--Now generally supposed to be identical with
the panther. The leopard is at home in Africa, from Algeria to Cape
Colony; it is also found in Asia, from Palestine through central Asia to
Manchuria. It is characterized by a peculiar gracefulness, slenderness
and flexibility of form, with a very long tail, and spotted fur, the
spots being arranged in numerous rows along the sides, and each spot
composed of five or six small spots arranged in a circle or rosette. The
general color is yellowish; the lower parts lighter; the spots darker
than the general color of the fur. The leopard is extremely agile, and
possesses the power of leaping and also that of climbing trees in great
perfection. Deer and antelopes are its habitual prey; but it is equally
ready to feed on pigs, poultry, or whatever animals may be found in the
vicinity of a farm or village. The size and strength of the leopard
render it dangerous to man; but it generally seems to dread and flee
from man, unless assailed.

=Lion= (_Felis leo_).--The lion is covered with short, smooth hair,
which lies close to the skin. Its fur is mostly of a uniform yellow
color. A male lion measures about ten feet in length; the female is
about a foot shorter. The male has a long mane on its neck and breast.
Its claws are retractile--_i. e._, may be drawn back entirely into their
sheaths. At the end of the tail is a horny point, which is surrounded by
a tuft of hair.

The lion, the king of animals, inhabits the Old World, Africa and Asia
and was formerly also found in Greece and Macedonia. The majesty of
terror and violence accompanies its movements. Its most striking
qualities are courage, pride, and circumspection. It chooses lonely
spots with rocky caves for its habitation, where it passes the day in
sleep.

At the beginning of twilight it rises from its couch, stretches its
limbs, and gives vent to a roar which makes man and beast tremble far
and wide. Then it begins to roam through the neighborhood; and woe to
the animal or man who approaches too near to it! It crouches like the
cat, and will sometimes spring thirty feet. The results of such an
attack are terrible; for with one stroke of its paw it can kill a
galloping horse, together with its rider. But it rarely attacks man.

The lion often overcomes animals larger than himself by means of his
stealthy, cat-like habit of springing upon them unawares. He preys upon
buffaloes, zebras, and even young elephants. Lions sometimes go in
troops, being sociable rather than gregarious. The male aids in care and
feeding of the young, which number from two to four, usually three, at a
birth. The pupil of the lion’s eye is circular when contracted, not a
narrow slit, as in the cat. The papillæ of its tongue are so large that
it can rapidly rasp the flesh from bones by licking them.

=Lynx= (_Felix lynx_).--This animal, which is widely spread, is of a
reddish grey, with darker spots on its upper parts and white on its
lower parts. It is frequently seen upon the Alps, the Carpathian
Mountains, and in the north of Europe and Asia. Hidden in the tops of
low trees, it lies in wait for the passing animals, and springs even
upon horses and stags. It commits great havoc among game, and is
therefore eagerly hunted. Every year about fifty thousand furs of the
common lynx and its nearest relations, the desert, polar, red, pardel,
and bog lynx, are sold in the markets of the world.

=Marten= (_Mustela martes_).--The tree marten has a yellowish-brown fur
and a reddish-yellow patch across its breast. It inhabits Europe and the
western parts of Asia. It is always found in forests, where it lies
hidden in hollow trees. It not only causes great destruction among game,
but is also a great robber of useful birds. It also hunts squirrels,
which, as soon as they get sight of it, try to escape as rapidly as
possible.

Related to the tree marten are the STONE or HOUSE MARTEN (_M. foina_),
which generally lives in the neighborhood of human habitations, and
destroys poultry and eggs: the POLE CAT (_Putorius fœtidus_), which
lives in the same localities and has the same injurious habits as the
house marten: the small WEASEL (_P. vulgaris_), is reddish brown on its
upper parts, but on its lower parts whitish, and is over seven inches
long. It is a useful animal, as it feeds chiefly on rats, mice, and
badgers; it is also fond of eggs, which it carries under its chin: and
the ERMINE (_P. ermineus_), the fur of which is of a dazzling white
color in the winter, and is the most valued of all furs.

=Mink= (_Putorius_), a name applied to several carnivores in the same
genus as weasel, polecat, ferret, and ermine, and with essentially
similar characteristics. The body measures from twelve to eighteen
inches in length, not including the bushy tail. The color of the
valuable fur is chestnut-brown. The Siberian vison (_P. sibericus_), the
European vison (_P. lutreola_), and the American mink (_P. vison_) are
very nearly related. They all live by rivers and lakes, feeding chiefly
on fishes, frogs, mussels, and the like; though not refusing any small
mammals which come in their way.

=Mole= (_Talpa Europea_).--The mole is one of the most interesting of
the smaller animals. It inhabits meadows, fields, gardens, and forests
where it finds its food. It lives in the earth, and digs out its “runs,”
at the same time throwing up mole-hills. The mole feeds on grubs,
caterpillars, chrysalises, maggots, crickets, lizards, snakes, frogs,
mice, and rats, and does not even spare its own kindred. The formation
of its body, which is about six inches long, enables it to seize these
different kinds of prey with ease; for it is cylindrical and wedge-like
in shape, with a long, flexible snout, and very large fore paws,
furnished with five strong nails. Its head is placed deep between the
shoulders--no neck is visible; its eyes are very small, and covered with
hair; and there are no exterior ears. Its hind paws are longer but
weaker than the fore limbs, and its tail is short. Its fur consists of
short, velvety hair.

The mole nearly always lives a solitary life. It is very quarrelsome and
rapacious. The weasel, fox, marten, hedgehog, owl, buzzard, falcon,
raven, the viper, and man all threaten its life. Against these enemies
it is, however, well protected by its dark fur, by the keenness of its
senses of hearing and smell, and by its rapid movements, and the
ingenious architecture of its burrow. The latter is a real fortress.

[Illustration: =CURIOUS STRUCTURE OF A MOLE HILL=]

It consists: (1) Of the chief structure, which is about two feet deep,
below the roots of trees or ruined walls. This consists again of an
almost spherical sitting-room (_a_), about four inches square, which is
stuffed with grass and hay, from which leads a descending passage (_b_).
Round the sitting-room there are two circular galleries (_c_), the upper
one of which is connected with the sitting-room. (2) Of a number of runs
(_d_), which are twelve to sixteen inches long, and radiate in all
directions; they are connected with each other by cross passages. (3) Of
the chief passage, into which all the runs open in the form of arches,
and which leads to the hunting grounds. (4) Of the hunting passages,
which run in all directions.

In this burrow from four to six young ones are born between the middle
of April and June. The mother nurses them with the greatest tenderness,
carrying them away in her mouth whenever danger threatens. But as soon
as they are able to take care of themselves the parents drive them out
of their home, and begin to lead a solitary life again. The mole is a
very useful animal, because it destroys so many injurious insects.
Although it does some harm by means of its mining operations, it is,
nevertheless, more useful than destructive, and ought, therefore, not to
be destroyed unless absolutely necessary.

=Mongoose.=--A small carnivorous animal of India, noted as a destroyer
of snakes, and accordingly encouraged. It does not hesitate to attack
the most venomous serpents, killing them by agility and having no
protection against their poison except its hair and ability to dodge the
blows. The mongoose and its near relative, the ichneumon of northern
Africa, are gray and a little larger than a rat. All make interesting
pets.

=Ocelot= (_Felis pardalis_) is a species, with several varieties, which
is confined to the New World, and ranges from Arkansas in the north to
Patagonia. These animals are inhabitants of forests, and very expert in
climbing trees. Their prey consists in great part of birds. They are
beautifully marked and colored. The coloration varies considerably, but
the ground tint is always a rich red or tawny color; the head, neck, and
legs being also variously spotted or barred with dark brown or black.

=Otter= (_Lutra vulgaris_).--On the upper parts, the fur of the otter is
dark brown, while on the lower parts it is lighter brown. Its body is
about thirty inches long, and its tail eight inches; between its toes
there are web membranes. The otter is rather a water than a land animal.
On land it is clumsy and uneasy in its movements, but in the water quick
and persevering. It hunts fish, and its sharp eyes greatly assist it in
this hunt. It is very seldom seen, as it is very shy and constantly
hiding, mostly committing its depredations during the night. Otter
hunting is, therefore, difficult; but in winter, when the snow has just
fallen, and the water has been frozen over, the spots may be found where
the fish otter enters the water. There it can be killed with a spear.

=Puma, Cougar or Mountain Lion= (_Felis concolor_).--Generally
distributed in North and South America, but rare in those parts which
have been long settled. It is sometimes called the American “lion,”
“panther” (painter), or “catamount.” The fur is thick and close, dark
yellowish red above, lighter on the sides, and reddish white on the
belly; the muzzle, chin, throat, breast, and insides of the legs are
more or less white. Young pumas have dark brown spots in three rows on
the back, and scattered markings elsewhere. The long tail is covered
with thick fur, and is slightly coiled. They are agile in their
movements, and can leap and spring well, but swim only under compulsion.
Many kinds of mammals fall victims to the pumas, and they are the more
disastrous to flocks and herds because of their habit of killing many
more than they devour.

=Raccoon= (_Procyon lotor_).--The fur of the raccoon is a
yellowish-grey-black; its body is about twenty inches long, and its tail
ten inches. It inhabits North America, and feeds on fruit, birds’ eggs,
etc. It has received its name because it is in the habit of rinsing dry
and blood-stained food before eating it, rubbing it between its fore
paws. The eagerness with which it is hunted is best illustrated by the
fact that every year about half a million of its furs are brought into
the market. The flesh of the raccoon is eaten, and its hair is used for
paint brushes.

=Sable= (_Martes zibellina_), a species of Marten. The feet are covered
with fur, even on the soles, and the tail is rather more bushy than in
the martens. The length, exclusive of the tail, is about eighteen
inches. The fur is brown, grayish yellow on the throat, and small,
grayish-yellow spots are scattered on the sides of the neck. The whole
fur is extremely lustrous, and hence of the very highest value. The
sable is a native of Siberia, widely distributed over that country, and
found in its coldest regions, at least wherever forests extend. It is a
very wary animal, and not easily captured. It makes its nest in a hollow
tree, or sometimes, it is said, by burrowing in the ground, and lines it
with moss, leaves, and grass.

=Shrew= (_Soricidæ_), a family of insectivorous animals closely
resembling, in general form and appearance, the true mice and dormice,
but in reality widely differing from and not to be confused with those
rodents. The shrews have the head small, muzzle long and pointed, eyes
small but well developed, external ears usually small; body mouse-like,
covered with hair; limbs short, nearly equal in size, the feet not
adapted for digging; tail nearly naked and scaly. Along the sides of the
body, or at the root of the tail, are peculiar glands, which secrete a
fluid of a very strong odor. The shrews are very widely distributed,
being found over North America and the whole of the eastern hemisphere
except Australia.

The DWARF-SHREW (_S. pygmæus_) is the size of a cockchafer; it is the
smallest of the mammalia, and is so voracious that when hungry it
attacks and kills its own kind.

=Tiger= (_Felis tigris_).--The tiger is the largest and most dangerous
of all the animals of prey. It varies from a yellowish brown to a rust
red in color. It has neither a mane nor a tuft to its tail. Its length
amounts in all to about eight feet, of which thirty-two inches belong to
the tail. It inhabits chiefly the southeastern part of Asia. The tiger
displays neither courage nor pride; but cowardice, cruelty, and malice,
with no trace of majesty. Its strength and rapidity are astonishing.
Tigers, when driven by hunger, even enter the villages, and often force
the inhabitants to retire altogether. They are especially fond of human
flesh. When lying in ambush, their eyes sparkle through the darkness.
Horses scent them from long distances; and fear of this terrible foe
almost paralyzes them.

=Wolf= (_Canis lupus_).--The fur of this animal is yellowish grey with
blackish spots; in its lower parts its color is lighter. It is the size
of a shepherd’s dog. Its whole appearance is unprepossessing; its body
is lean and long; its expression malicious; its ears erect. When it
cannot obtain its favorite food, game or sheep, it feeds on mice, frogs,
and carrion. It sometimes attacks even horses, attempting by a bold jump
to seize them by the throat and pull them down. It knows how to avoid
their kicks, and also how to secure itself against the horns of oxen. It
is ordinarily a coward, like the hyena; but when hungry fears nothing.
It carries away sheep under the very eyes of the shepherd, and even
forces its way into stables. It is cunning and sly, and knows how to
make use of the best opportunities. It is as strong as it is tenacious
of life; with a sheep in its mouth it runs off at a trot; sometimes a
dozen bullets are not sufficient to kill it.

The wolf was formerly spread over all Europe. At the present time it is
still found in great numbers in Hungary, Galicia, Russia, and
Scandinavia, in the Alps and Pyrenees, the Ardennes and Bosges, and in
the northern parts of America, Africa, and Asia, also in central Asia.
It sometimes becomes rabid.

PRAIRIE WOLF, or Coyote (_Canis latrans_) has now been extirpated over
large tracts in Kansas, Nebraska, etc., but it may still be found where
the common wolf has disappeared, owing to its smaller size and less
dangerous character.


GNAWING ANIMALS, OR RODENTS

  The rodents are for the most part small animals, but their lack of
  size is made up by their great numbers. They have in the upper as
  well as in the lower jaw two chisel-like incisors, and from two to
  six molar teeth. The latter are separated from the incisors by a
  great gap. In the hares there are two little tack-like teeth behind
  the incisors. The incisors wear away on the inside more than on the
  outside, so that they are always very sharp.

  The rodents feed chiefly on plants. Some of them collect food for
  the winter; others sleep during the whole of that period. They
  inhabit all parts of the globe, but are more numerous in North
  America than anywhere else.

=Beaver= (_Castor fiber_).--The true beaver is now found in only a few
places in northern parts of Europe and Asia; but in North America a
variety of this animal, the American beaver (_Castor Canadensis_),
abounds in great numbers. It is now much hunted, as was formerly the
European variety, and the number of beaver furs sold in the markets
every year can be counted by thousands.

On the upper parts the fur is dark chestnut brown, while on the lower
parts it is lighter; its tail is almost bare, scaly, and twelve inches
long; the length of its whole body is thirty-two inches.

Beavers build lodges which contain many compartments, close to rivers
and lakes. These lodges consist of branches, tree-trunks, and mud, and
are divided into many different compartments. Such habitations are built
in pairs, one above the other, and lead into the water. As tools they
use their fore feet and their sharp teeth, by means of which they fell
stems of the thickness of twelve inches. They are shy, and do not leave
their homes before darkness in search of food, which consists of tender
barks and other vegetable matter. For the winter they collect large
stores of provisions. As the beavers are awkward on land, they try to
save themselves by jumping quickly into the water when pursued. They are
then in their own element, and are good swimmers and divers. They are
caught by means of nets and traps, which are placed close to their
lodges. Their soft furs are valuable. Though the subject of numerous
stories, the sagacity of the beaver is much exaggerated.

=Chinchilla= (_C. lanigera_), a South American rodent, well known by its
soft, gray fur. Two related animals form, along with the true
chinchilla, a small family in the porcupine section of the Rodent order.
All the three are somewhat squirrel-like animals, but have long hind
legs, bushy tail, very soft fur, and complete collar bones. The
chinchilla proper has a body about one foot long, and the tail measures
fully six inches. They are extremely active animals, and climb among the
rocks with the greatest agility. They are killed in thousands for the
sake of their fur.

=Dormouse= (_Muscardinus avellanarius_) is a pretty little animal, about
three inches in length, not including the bushy tail, which is almost as
long as the body. The general color is a beautiful tawny yellow, but
there is white on throat and breast. It is widely distributed and is
especially fond of hazel-copses. It feeds on nuts, seeds, berries, buds,
etc., grows very fat in autumn, sleeps intermittently through the winter
in a round grassy nest a little above the ground. The loir or fat
dormouse (_Myoxusglis_) is about twice the size of the common dormouse,
and has the hairs of the tail in two rows, as in squirrels. It is
ashen-gray, sometimes brownish above and white below. The favorite
haunts are in oak and beech woods.

=Hare= (_Lepus timidus_).--Hares and rabbits are of various colors, some
brown, some grey, while others are whitish; their ears are long; behind
the two front teeth, in the upper jaw, are two little tack-like teeth;
the small tail is black and white, and the body about sixteen inches
long. The name “hare” is given to the large forms, or types and “rabbit”
to the smaller. The hare is found in Europe and Western Asia. It is very
timid, and a nocturnal rather than a diurnal animal; but in a quiet
neighborhood it is also seen during the day. It does not leave the
district in which it was born unless it is forced to do so.

Hares multiply very rapidly, for they bring forth two to five young four
or five times a year, for which they construct a kind of nest. The old
animals choose a somewhat hollowed-out spot as their habitation, where
they are protected against the storms. As they are very fond of
cultivated plants, such as clover, carrots, turnips, young corn, and the
bark of young trees (especially of fruit trees), they do much damage in
fields and woods.

The RABBIT (_Lepus cuniculus_) is widely distributed in North America,
and there are numerous varieties. The Jack-rabbit of the west is the
largest. The original home of these sprightly little animals was Spain
and North Africa.

=Lemmings= (_Muodes lummus_).--These voracious little animals live in
the far north of Europe, and sometimes make migrations in vast numbers,
swimming across rivers and lakes, passing through towns and villages,
and climbing over mountains and rocks. Troops of birds of prey fly above
them, and they are followed by bears, foxes, martens, and weasels, so
that their migratory flocks often disappear as rapidly as they make
their appearance. They are about the size of a rat. The snowy lemming
turns white in winter.

=Marmot= (_Arctomys marmota_).--The upper parts of the marmot are
brownish black, its sides yellowish grey, while its lower parts are
reddish brown. It attains a length of sixteen inches, and is found in
both Europe and America. In North America, they are popularly termed
woodchuck or groundhogs. The marmots live together in social troops in
rocky caverns and feed on plants. In the autumn the marmots move into
their winter quarters. There they sleep through the whole winter,
huddled together in parties of three, five, and more, and apparently
lifeless. In this state they can be rolled about like balls without
being awakened until Spring, when they are usually hailed as weather
prophets. Marmots are easily tamed, and can be trained to perform many
tricks.

=Mice= are the best known of the rodents, which only too often do a
great deal of harm by their predatory habits. Of these the domestic
mouse (_Mus musculus_), a swift and pretty little animal, which is very
much attached to our larder provisions. Even the elephant, the largest
among animals, fears this tiny rodent.

The domestic rat (_Mus rattus_) became known in Europe in the twelfth
century, and probably emigrated from Asia. The brown rats did not appear
in Europe until the eighteenth century. They are stronger than the
domestic rats, which they drive away or devour. Their food generally
consists in kitchen refuse of all sorts. If driven by hunger they even
eat their own kind.

=Porcupine= (_Hystrix cristata_).--This is quite a remarkable animal. It
attains the size of a badger, and inhabits South Europe, Africa, and
North America. Like the hedgehog, it is provided with a peculiar muscle,
which enables it to erect a coat of spines whenever danger threatens,
and it is thus protected against foxes and jackals, which often share
the porcupine’s habitation, and would very much like to devour their
fellow-lodger. In European porcupines, the spines or quills attain a
length of from ten to twelve inches. Our American species has quills
about three inches in length. The fore feet are supplied with sharp
claws, which are very necessary to the animal for digging out its
burrow. During the day the porcupines remain hidden in their burrows,
but at night they go out in search of food.

=Prairie Dog.=--This small rodent animal of the squirrel family is found
on the plains east of the rocky mountains. It resembles the marmot in
appearance, and has well-developed claws on all the toes of the
fore-feet; shallow cheek-pouches. The best known species is about one
foot in length, and has a tail of about four inches. On the upper
surface it is reddish-brown, variegated with gray. These animals live
together in great societies on those portions of the prairies where the
buffalo grass grows luxuriantly. Here they excavate burrows in the
ground in contiguity to each other, and, when the little creatures are
out, quite a busy scene is presented. The name is given on account of a
resemblance between its cry and the bark of a small dog.

=Rabbit.= See Hare.

=Rat.= See Mice.

=Squirrel= (_Sciurus vulgaris_).--In the summer the squirrel is brownish
red on the upper parts and white on the lower parts; in the winter,
brown red and light grey mixed. The black, white, and spotted squirrels
are rare. The tail of the squirrel is bushy and arranged in two lines of
bristles; its ears are adorned with a tuft of hair. Squirrels prefer the
forests of trees with pointed leaves to those with broad leaves, and are
always in motion, being equally adept in climbing, running, and jumping
from tree to tree. They feed on nuts, acorns, seeds of fir trees, young
shoots, young birds, and birds’ eggs, and do a great deal of harm. They
collect large stores for the winter, which they hide in hollow trees.
Their nests are globular, and made of bark and leaves; they often build
on the top of an old magpie’s nest. Their greatest enemy is the tree
marten.


HOOFED ANIMALS (_Ungulata_)

  It is impossible to overestimate the importance of this order,
  because all the domestic animals which are used for food belong to
  it.

  The name Ungulata is derived from the Latin word _ungula_, which
  signifies a nail, claw, or hoof. The Ungulates, which are all
  vegetable feeders except the pig and the peccary, include the
  largest of all the mammals, save only the whale and the sea
  elephant.

=Antelope= (_Antilopidæ_).--The family of antelopes is a very large one,
and includes many important species. It belongs to the order of
Ruminants in which the horns consist of a horny sheath, surrounding a
bony process of the skull, and are permanent, not annually renewed. The
body is slender and deer-like, the feet small and elegant, the tail
short and tufted, the hair generally short, and the color often lively.
Some species, however, have comparatively long hair; and a few which
inhabit cold mountainous regions are clothed with wool mixed with longer
and coarser hair, as in the chamois of the Alps, Caucasus, etc.; the
Rocky Mountain goat of North America; and the chiru of the Himalayas.
The females of many species, as of deer, are destitute of horns; and if
they alone came under observation, it would be difficult to say to which
genus they belonged. The size is very various; the guevi, or pigmy
antelope of Africa (_Antilope pygmæa_), is only eight to nine inches
high at the shoulders, while the largest forms measure five or six feet.
Almost all the species of antelopes are peaceable, timid animals, and
are distinguished by agility and fleetness. most of them are gregarious.
Some inhabit plains; others are found only in the most inaccessible
mountainous regions; others still, dwell in jungles and deep forests.
Many, on the other hand, are water-loving forms, and frequent the banks
of rivers.

North America possesses two species, found only in the western parts of
the continent, the prong-horn (_Antilocapra_) and the Rocky Mountain
goat (_Aplocerus_), which depart considerably from the typical character
of the genus. The prong-horn sheds the horns annually like most species
of deer. Europe produces only the Alpine chamois and the saiga (_A.
saiga_), which inhabits the southern plains of Poland and Russia. Most
species are African, and take the place of the true deer in that
continent. The Springbok is goat-like in form and movement; the Gnu,
with a body resembling that of a horse, but with forward-directed,
hook-shaped horns; the Eland, or Cape Elk, with nearly straight
backward-directed spiral horns; and the Gazelle, of north Africa, with
nearly upright horns and noted for the luster of its eyes. In India is
the curious Chickara, the females of which are hornless, while the males
have four horns.

=Bison.=--The name applied to two species of ox. One of these, the
European bison, or aurochs, (_Bos bison_ or _Bison europæus_), is now
nearly extinct, being found only in the forests of Lithuania and the
Caucasus. The other, or American bison, improperly termed buffalo
(_Bison americanus_), is found only in the region lying north and south
between the Great Slave Lake and the Yellowstone River, and is rapidly
becoming extinct in the wild state, though formerly to be met with in
immense herds. The two species closely resemble each other, the American
bison, however, being for the most part smaller, and with shorter and
weaker hind-quarters. The bison is remarkable for the great hump or
projection over its fore-shoulders, at which point the adult male is
almost six feet in height; and for the long, shaggy rust-colored hair
over the head, neck, and forepart of the body. In summer, from the
shoulders backward, the surface is covered with a very short, fine hair,
smooth and soft as velvet. The tail is short and tufted at the end. The
American bison used to be much hunted for sport as well as for its flesh
and skin. Its flesh is rather coarser grained than that of the domestic
ox, but was considered by hunters and travelers as superior in
tenderness and flavor. The hump is highly celebrated for its richness
and delicacy. Their skins, especially that of the cow, dressed in the
Indian fashion, with the hair on, make admirable defenses against the
cold, and are known as _buffalo robes_; the wool has been manufactured
into hats, and a coarse cloth. The American bison has been found to
breed readily with the common ox, the issue being fertile among
themselves.

=Buffalo.= See Bison.

=Chamois= (_Capella rupicapra_).--This European representative of the
Antelope family attains the size of a goat. It is red in summer, and
dark brown in the winter, the lower portion of the body being lighter,
while a dark, brownish-black band reaches from the corner of the mouth
to the eyes. It has small, erect horns, which are curved backwards at
the tips. The chamois is found in herds, numbering from five to twenty,
in the Carpathian Mountains, the Pyrenees, and the Apennines; but most
frequently in the Alps of Bavaria and Styria. It feeds on the buds of
Alpine herbs and trees. When pursued it will leap down the most
precipitous cliffs. The peculiar flavor of the flesh of these animals,
especially of the young ones, is greatly appreciated by many persons.
Out of their skin, a leather is manufactured noted for its softness. The
horns are utilized for handles of various kinds.

=Deer= (_Cervidæ_) are animals of graceful form, combining much
compactness and strength with slenderness of limb and fleetness. They
use their horns for weapons of defense and offense; but in general they
trust to flight for their safety. They have a long neck, a small head,
which they carry high, large ears, and large, full eyes. Many have scent
glands, usually beneath the eyes, which serve as sexual attractions.
Deer are distinguished from all other ruminants by their branching horns
(antlers), which in most species exist in the male only; they are solid,
fall off annually, and are renewed with increase of size, and number of
branches, according to the kind, until the animal has reached old age.

Deer are found in almost all parts of the globe except Australia and the
south of Africa, their place in the latter region being supplied by
antelopes; the greater number inhabit the warmer temperate countries,
and they are chiefly found in wide plains and hills of moderate height.
The flesh (venison) of most kinds of deer is highly esteemed for the
table, and they have long been regarded as among the noblest objects of
the chase. Only one species, the reindeer, can be said to have been
fully domesticated.

ELK (_Cervus alces_).--This animal is the largest representative of the
genus of stags. It is the size of a horse, and its head is adorned with
large antlers. The elk inhabits the northern regions of Europe and
America. It is hunted for the sake of its excellent flesh, but the
hunting of this strong and swift animal is attended with many dangers.
It swims across the largest rivers. The Elk of Europe is called Moose in
America.

FALLOW DEER (_Cervus capreolus_).--Nearly everybody has seen this
graceful animal. It attains the size of a goat. The head of the male,
the roebuck, is adorned with small but strong antlers, which are shed
every year at the end of autumn. The fallow deer go about in troops, and
feed on grass, clover, corn, and fruit. Their young are called kids, and
the female, does. They are hunted for the sake of their flesh.

RED DEER (_Cervus elaphus_) is much larger than the fallow deer, and is
the grandest animal of the higher species of game. The male carries
large, branching antlers, which it loses in February of each year. The
antlers of the one-year-old stag are like a spear, in the second year
they are fork-shaped, and in those appearing later two more prongs are
added each year. The stag has a greyish-brown fur. During the day it
remains in the recesses of the forests; in the evening and night it
roams in herds in search of food, which consists of various grasses and
herbs, and the twigs and bark of trees. It runs with great swiftness
when scenting danger, and will wade, or swim rivers and lakes.

[Illustration: =OKAPI= (Page 202)]

[Illustration: =ZEBRA= (Page 203)]

=Gayal= (_Bibos frontalis_), a species of ox, which is found in the
mountains of Aracan, Chittagong, Tipura, and Sylhet. It is about the
size of the Indian buffalo, is dark brown, and has short curved horns.

=Gazelle= (_Gazella Dorcas_), is a species of antelope about the size of
a roebuck, but of lighter and more graceful form, with longer and more
slender limbs. It is of a light tawny color, the under parts white; a
broad brown band along each flank; the hair short and smooth. The face
is reddish fawn-color, with white and dark stripes. The horns of the old
males are nine or ten inches long, bending outward and then inward, like
the sides of a lyre, also backward at the base and forward at the tips,
tapering to a point, surrounded by thirteen or fourteen permanent rings,
the rings near the base being closest together and most perfect. The
ears are long, narrow, and pointed; the eyes very large, soft, and
black; there is a tuft of hair on each knee; the tail is short, with
black hairs on its upper surface only, and at its tip. The gazelle is a
native of the North of Africa, and of Syria, Arabia and Persia.

=Giraffe= (_Camelopardalis giraffa_).--This strange looking animal has
the head of the horse, the neck and hoof of the stag, the callous breast
of the camel, and the spotted skin of the panther. On its forehead it
has two horny excrescences. It attains a height of sixteen feet.

[Illustration: =GIRAFFE= (Page 201)]

The giraffe lives in the wooded plains of central Africa, feeds on the
leaves of trees, and is generally seen in small troops. Its rapidity is
extraordinary; not even the Arabian horse can overtake it. It is often
attacked by the lion, which lies in wait for it near the rivers and
springs, where it comes to drink.

=Gnu= (_Catoblepas_), genus of antelopes of which the best known species
has been often described as apparently made up of parts of different
animals, not only of the antelope and the ox or buffalo, but even of the
horse. This species (_C. Gnu_) is a native of South Africa; it has
disappeared from the more settled parts of Cape Colony, but is to be
seen in herds on the arid plains beyond these boundaries in company with
small troops of zebras, and with flocks of ostriches. The size of the
gnu is that of a large ass; the general color is yellowish-tawny. Both
sexes have horns. The limbs are slender, like those of deer and
antelopes. The gnu gallops with great speed. It has been usually
represented as a very fierce animal, and certainly shows much ability
to defend itself with its horns, when unable to escape from danger by
flight; but when taken young it is easily tamed, and readily associates
with oxen, accompanying them to and from the field.

[Illustration]

=Ibex or Wild Goat= (_Capra ibex_).--Different species of the ibex
inhabit the mountain regions of Europe and Asia. It has a
greyish-yellow, long fur, and powerful horns bent obliquely backwards.
It frequently attains a weight of two hundred pounds. It is a true
mountain animal, and was formerly spread all over the Swiss and Tyrolese
Alps, but is at present found only in limited numbers.

=Markhor= (_Copra falconeri_), from Tibet, Cashmere, and Afghanistan, is
a strong, powerful goat, with corkscrew horns, much larger in the males,
which are also distinguished by a thick mane on the neck and breast.

=Musk-Ox= (_Ovibos moschatus_).--The Musk-ox, or Musk-Sheep, has its
home in central Asia and Arctic America. The male has in its upper jaw
two incisors in the shape of tusks, and in a gland of its abdomen the
well-known, strong-scented musk. In the forests of the Himalayas it is
found at elevations of upwards of eight thousand five hundred feet. A
full-grown animal weighs about four hundred and fifty pounds. They live
in herds, and feed on mosses, leaves and underbrush.

=Okapi= (_Ocapia_), a giraffe-like animal discovered by Sir H. H.
Johnston in the Semliki forest in central Africa. Its neck and legs are
shorter than in the giraffe, ears larger and broader. The general color
of the upper parts is a slightly purplish chocolate-brown; buttocks and
upper parts of fore and hind legs have wavy black stripes on a buff
ground. The living okapi is classed with the giraffe group.

=Sambur= (_Cervus aristotelis_), a species of stag abundant in the
forest-land of some parts of India, Burma, and China. It stands about
five feet high, is a powerful animal, and is much hunted. The color is
dark brown; the antlers are rounded, and belong to a type known as
Rusine.

=Tahr= (_Hemitragus jemlaicus_), a goat-like animal, differs from the
true goats, especially in the absence of a beard. The male is generally
from three to three and a half feet in height at the shoulder; the horns
seldom exceed fifteen inches in length. The doe is a smaller animal. The
coat is fawn brown in color, and is long on the neck, chest, and
shoulders. The home of the Tahr is chiefly in the elevated forest
regions of the Himalayas; and it frequents almost inaccessible spots.

=Vicuna= (_Auchenia vicugna_) is a species of the South American animals
allied to the camels. The vicuna lives wild, and frequents the most
desolate parts of the Cordillera, at great elevations, delighting in a
kind of grass, the yehu, which abounds there in moist places. The small
herds commonly include from six to fifteen females with one male. When
the females are quietly grazing, the male stands apart, and carefully
keeps guard, giving notice of danger by a kind of whistling sound, and a
quick movement of foot. The soft wool is much valued for weaving.

=Wild Goats.=--See Ibex, Markhor, Tahr.

[Illustration]

=Zebra= (_Equus zebra_).--The true zebra is a native of South Africa;
lives in troops, and is very swift and savage, and therefore difficult
to tame. Its general color is creamy white, marked with black
cross-stripes everywhere except the belly. The Quagga, its nearest
relative, has legs and entire hind-quarters unstriped. It is hunted by
the natives for the sake of its beautiful fur and its savory flesh and
is also a favorite food of the lion.


=PACHIDERMS= (_Pachydermata_) =OR THICK-SKINNED ANIMALS=

  The animals belonging to this division are mostly of immense size,
  and are very thick-skinned and scantily covered with hair; they are
  therefore called “Pachydermata.”

=Elephant= (_Elephas_).--There are two species of the Elephant: the
African elephant and the Indian Elephant (_Elephas Indicus_). The
elephant is the largest of the land animals. It has been known to live
from one hundred to four hundred years, and weighs from six thousand to
eight thousand pounds. Its height reaches ten feet, its length from
thirteen to sixteen feet. Its thick, wrinkled skin is covered with a few
bristles. The eyes are small, the ears large, and its nose is prolonged
into a long, flexible trunk. In the upper jaw of the male animal are two
tusks (or thrusting teeth), which are from three to six feet long, and
from thirty to seventy pounds in weight; these furnish valuable ivory.
The tail is long, and has at its end a tuft of coarse bristles. The
elephant is a native of central Africa.

The Indian elephant lives in herds of from thirty to two hundred, and is
fond of marshy districts. It feeds, in its wild state, on the leaves and
twigs of trees, and is a harmless, peaceable animal, so long as it is
not provoked. It does great harm to the plantations of rice, sugar, and
coffee whenever it forces its way through them. Its docility and
prudence are astonishing; its senses of smell and hearing are also
greatly developed.

The first elephants are mentioned in the history of Alexander the Great.
He brought three hundred of them from India to Babylon. At present they
are little used as domestic animals, although many are still kept for
that purpose in Ceylon and Burma. They are eagerly hunted for their
tusks. About ten thousand are said to be killed annually.

=Hippopotamus= (_Hippos amphibius_).--There is only one species of the
hippopotamus now living--that of Africa. It is nearly as tall as the
rhinoceros--viz., about five feet; but it exceeds twelve feet in length.
The eyes and ears are small, its neck short and thick, and its feet
clumsy. Its incisor teeth grow from twelve to eighteen inches long, and
weigh from two to six pounds. It is found in all lakes and rivers, and
its principal food is grass; sometimes it commits great ravages in the
plantations. It is by nature peaceful, but when provoked gets into a
violent rage. Some consider its flesh savory. Its skin, when cut into
strips, is manufactured into whips; its teeth are worked like ivory, and
are especially used for the manufacture of artificial teeth.

=Rhinoceros= (_Rhinoceros_).--The Indian rhinoceros and that of Java
have only one horn on the nose, while the African species has two. The
white rhinoceros of Africa is the largest, attaining to a length of over
twelve feet, and a height of nearly six feet; but the black rhinoceros
is best known. These awkward animals are enveloped in a wrinkled and
bare hide, which may be compared to a coat-of-mail. They live either
solitary or in small herds, in marsh and well-watered districts, and
feed on grass, leaves, and roots. They only attack an enemy when
provoked. Their horn is a terrible weapon. It is a bony excrescence,
extremely sharp-pointed, and is used for ploughing up hard ground, or
uprooting strong trees. When fighting with the elephant the rhinoceros
attempts to rip up its enemy’s abdomen.

=Tapir= (_Tapirus Americanus_).--This denizen of South America lies
concealed in the recesses of the forests during the day, but in the
evening and early morning it frequents the marshes and rivers, where it
wallows in the mud with its young. It feeds on the branches of trees,
but also ravages the fields. All are bulky beasts, recalling somewhat
the swine in appearance. They have the snout prolonged into a flexible
proboscis with the nostrils at the tip. Their flesh is said to be good.

=Wild Pig= (_Sus scrofa_) lives in herds in the well-watered forests of
central and southern Europe, in central and western Asia, and in north
Africa. The adult males are called boars, the females wild sows, and the
young shoats. They feed on the fruits of forest trees, roots, etc., and
do great damage in the fields by raking up the earth for long distances.
For this reason and also for the sake of their flesh they are hunted.


=TOOTHLESS ANIMALS= (_Edentata_)

  Some of the animals belonging to this division have no teeth at all,
  and all are without the front incisors. They are slow, stupid
  animals, and work only in the night-time. They are all inhabitants
  of Brazil with the exception of two species. Nearly all are provided
  with very long claws. They live in trees or in subterraneous
  passages.

=Ant-eater or Ant-bear= (_Myrmecophaga jubata_) attains a length of six
feet six inches, of which its long-haired, plumy tail takes twenty-eight
inches. The color of its hair is blackish brown; it can project its
worm-like tongue to a distance of sixteen inches. The Great Ant-eater is
a native of Brazil and Guiana, and much the largest of all the species.

The ant-eater inhabits the same regions as the sloth. It feeds on ants
and termites. Raking up the habitations of these insects with its sharp
claws, it inserts its proboscis, and begins to work with its viscous
(sticky) tongue, to which hundreds of ants remain sticking.

=Armadillo= (_Dasypus peba_).--A mammal peculiar to South America,
consisting of various species, belonging to a family intermediate
between the sloths and ant-eaters. They are covered with a hard bony
shell, divided into belts, composed of small separate plates like a coat
of mail, flexible everywhere except on the forehead, shoulders, and
haunches, where it is not movable. The belts are connected by a
membrane, which enables the animal to roll itself up like a hedgehog.
These animals burrow in the earth, where they lie during the daytime,
seldom going abroad except at night. They are of different sizes; the
largest, _Dasypus gigas_, being three feet in length without the tail,
and the smallest only ten inches. They subsist chiefly on fruits and
roots, sometimes on insects and flesh. They are inoffensive, and their
flesh is esteemed good food.

=Pangolin= (_Manis longicaudata_).--There are several species of these
scaly ant-eaters. They are found in Africa and Asia, and are covered
with dark brown scales, which are arranged one above the other like
tiles. When danger approaches the pangolin does not run away, but rolls
itself together into a ball like the hedge-hog.

=Sloth= (_Bradypus pallidus_).--The general color of the sloth is
reddish grey, its abdomen lighter. It is about sixteen inches in length,
and has three long claws on each foot.

It inhabits the thickets of the virgin forests of Brazil, passing its
life in laziness upon the tops of trees, the leaves of which form its
food. During the day it hangs down asleep from a bough, and is then only
discovered with difficulty. In the same position it creeps along the
boughs, and does not leave the tree until the latter is stripped of all
its leaves and fruits. When it descends to the ground it is very
helpless, and can neither walk nor stand. It gives the best proof of its
skill when climbing, hanging down from a bough by means of one of its
feet, while it seizes the fruits with the other. It sometimes pierces
the large snakes of Brazil with its long claws, so that they die from
loss of blood. Its attachment to its young is very touching and the
mother carries them on her back from bough to bough.


=POUCHED ANIMALS= (_Marsupialia_)

  The marsupials have in the abdomen a pouch, a sort of bag or purse,
  in which they carry about their young. In some species the hind legs
  are developed to an extraordinary degree, whereby they are enabled
  to jump great distances. Their original home is Australia; but
  several species are also found in America. They feed partly on
  plants, partly on animal matter.

=Kangaroo= (_Macropus giganteus_).--The fur of the kangaroo is greyish
brown, somewhat lighter on the sides, while the lower parts are whitish.
Its body is six feet long, and its tail nearly three feet. It inhabits
Australia, and is found chiefly in New South Wales and Tasmania. It is
the largest quadruped of that part of the globe. The front of its body
is extremely slim in proportion to its hind quarters, and its hind legs
are five times longer than the front ones. The kangaroo is a peaceful,
shy, grazing animal. When startled it tries to get away from its
pursuers by immense bounds. Its swiftness is so great that, at least
across flat country, the fastest dog cannot equal it. But when it is
brought to bay it will defend itself most pertinaciously with its sharp
claws, and with powerful strokes of its tail. It will seize even large
dogs with its fore feet, and tear open their breasts and abdomens, often
carrying them to neighboring water to drown them. The flesh of the
kangaroo is eaten; its hair makes a good fur.

=Koala= (_Phascolarctus cinereus_), a marsupial, restricted to eastern
Australia. The toes of the fore-feet are in two opposable groups, of
two or three, a characteristic not found in any other quadruped, but
well adapted to grasping the branches of trees, on which the koala often
hangs with its back undermost, like the sloth. There is scarcely any
rudiment of a tail.

=Opossum= (_Didelphys virginiana_).--The American opossum is perhaps the
best known and certainly not the least interesting of the pouched
animals. It abounds in the warmer parts of North America, extending
considerably north of Virginia. In form it is robust and in size about
that of an ordinary cat. The color of its fine wholly fur ranges from
white to black, and includes numerous varieties of intermixture. They
have a long tail, which is almost destitute of hair, and is very useful
from its prehensile nature, enabling the animal not only to hang by it,
but also to climb and descend trees. They are sly and live chiefly in
trees, lying up in the daytime, and at night roaming in search of their
food, which consists of insects, small reptiles, birds’ eggs, etc.
Caught red-handed in one of its marauding excursions, or captured under
any other circumstances, the slightest blow causes it immediately to
feign death, even to the extent of a protruding tongue and film-covered
eyes. It may be battered almost beyond recognition and will lie where it
has been flung without so much as the flicker of an eyelid. The moment,
however, that its captor takes attention from it, the presumably dead
animal regains its feet and effects its escape. “Possuming” is a slang
term that has come into use to denote the acme of human artfulness and
deceit.

A wonderfully pretty species of opossum which lives in Surinam is
scarcely larger than a good-sized mouse, the body measuring only six
inches from the nose to the root of the tail. It has scarcely a vestige
of pouch, and so, robbed of this advantage, it carries its young on its
back, curling its tail over, so as to allow the little ones to twist
their tails around it. With her progeny thus secured from falling the
mother can pursue her way in comfort. Even some of the larger opossums
adopt this method of carrying their young.


BATS AND OTHER FLYING MAMMALS

  A Bat is provided with true wings, with which it is able not merely
  to propel itself through the air for a longer or a shorter distance,
  but to fly like a bird by beating the air with its anterior members.
  The Colugo, in common with the Flying Squirrel and the Flying
  Phalanger, has the skin of the flanks extended in a manner capable
  of sustaining the animals, very much in the manner of a parachute,
  in an extended leap through the air. But bats possess the power of
  true flight. They move through the air with ease, and in pursuit of
  their insect-prey wheel and double and circle about with a
  nimbleness that the human eye can only follow with difficulty.

  The bats are strange looking animals, being half mouse, half bird;
  their fore limbs are very long, and between these and the hind
  limbs, and also generally extending to the tail, there is a delicate
  membrane, which enables them to fly. Their eyes are small; their
  large ears erect; their teeth sharp. The flight of the bats is
  swift and noiseless, but not enduring. They could not, like the
  migratory birds, fly off in the autumn towards warmer countries.
  Therefore in the winter they retire into clefts and crannies, where
  they suspend themselves by the claws of their hind feet, and sleep
  until the rays of the spring sun warm their benumbed limbs. Our
  native bats feed upon insects, and are consequently useful. In the
  warm summer evenings they can be seen flitting around the blossoming
  trees in order to catch the honey-sucking moths. They do not build
  any nest for their young, but the latter cling between the folds of
  the wings of the parent animal, and are thus carried about by her on
  her excursions.

  The best known of the foreign kinds are the vampire bat of South
  America and the colugo bat. In the flying lemur, or colugo, the
  hairy fold of skin begins behind the throat, includes fore and hind
  limbs as far as the claws, and extends along the tail to the tip.
  The animal has been observed to swoop over a distance of seventy
  yards. The flying lemurs are about twenty inches in length, are
  natives of the Indian Archipelago, inhabit lofty trees in dense
  forests, and feed chiefly on leaves and fruits, though said at times
  to eat insects, eggs, and even small birds. They are nocturnal in
  their habits, and very inoffensive, scarcely attempting to bite even
  when seized. Their voice resembles the low cackling of a goose.


THE SEALS (_Pinnipedia_)

  In the seals the five toes of the limbs have become palmate, being
  joined together by a web; the hind feet have a backward, horizontal
  direction. Their food consists of small marine animals and plants.

=Seal= (_Phoca vitulina_).--The habitat of the common seal is spread
over a large area, but it is chiefly found in the northern seas. It is
nearly six feet long, and its fur is yellowish grey, sprinkled above
with dark-brown spots. It has no exterior ear. To the inhabitants of the
north the seal is a most useful animal; its flesh and fat form their
chief food, with its oil they illuminate the long winter nights, its
sinews they use as thread, from its bones they make various domestic
implements, and with its fur they cover their tents and sledges. Seals
are gentle animals, and when tamed exhibit great attachment to man. When
wounded they snap savagely in all directions. Seal-hunting forms one of
the most important branches of commerce among seafaring nations. Over a
thousand vessels leave America every year to take part in seal-hunting;
and as one vessel will sometimes capture nearly two thousand seals, some
idea may be obtained of the immense number of these animals which are
slain annually.

=Walrus= (_Trichechus rosmarus_).--This animal is from eighteen to
twenty-two feet long, and weighs from two thousand to three thousand
pounds. It is easily recognized by the long tusks in its upper jaw,
which attain a length of eighteen to twenty-four inches.

The walrus lives in the northern Polar seas, where it is sometimes met
with in herds of a thousand to two thousand head. They either swim about
in the water or lie basking in the sun upon ice-floes. When they are
about to sleep one remains awake as sentinel. They attract whole herds
to their assistance by their terrific roaring, which can be heard for
several miles; in all directions their black heads, with red, dilated
eyes, and gleaming tusks, emerge from the water. The walrus is hunted
for its tusks, skin and oil.

=ANIMALS OTHER THAN BIRDS THAT HAVE LEARNED TO FLY=

[Illustration: =FLYING-FOX WITH OUTSPREAD WINGS. ITS ANCESTORS ONCE
WALKED THE EARTH LIKE OTHER MAMMALS=]

[Illustration: =SQUIRREL-LIKE PHALANGER=]

[Illustration: =A FLYING FROG=

It glides through air by means of the membranes uniting the toes, but is
not capable of sustained flight.]

[Illustration: =COMMON BAT=

The bat is the only animal, outside of the birds, that can really fly in
the true sense.]

=Sea Lion= (_Otaria stelleri_).--The home of the Sea Lion is Bering Sea,
and as far South as the Kurile Islands on the one side of the north
Pacific and California on the other. In the latter case a rookery of sea
lions is strictly preserved by the American Government, or probably long
ere this the animal would have been exterminated in those waters, as it
has been in many other regions after a century and a half of constant
persecution.

The male sea lion, of eleven or twelve feet in length and a thousand
pounds in weight, is yellowish-brown in color with shaded darker
patches. There is a distinct mane upon the neck, which, with its
upright posture, combines to give the creature its supposed leonine
appearance. The males are fierce in aspect, and if hard pressed will
turn and show fight. Old animals bellow like bulls; the younger ones
bleat like sheep. They bolt their fish without mastication. The female
is only about half the dimensions of the male, and is considerably
lighter in color. The animal is useful only for its hide, flesh, and
fat.


THE WHALES (_Cetacea_)

  Under the general name of Cetacea, _i.e._, the Whales, are classed
  together a wonderful group of marine Mammalia, which includes not
  only the true whales, but also the Dolphin, Narwhal, Porpoise, and
  Grampus.

  Notwithstanding their marked resemblance to fishes, the Cetacea
  possess the most indubitable mammalian character.

  In the cetacea the bodies are elongated, fish-like, devoid of hair,
  and run out into a powerful caudal fin. The fore limbs are in the
  form of fins; there are no hind limbs. The cetacea are marine
  animals, and their food consists wholly of water animals and plants.

  The whale is an astonishing animal, and in order that it may subsist
  a number of apparently contradictory conditions must be reconciled.
  It is a warm-blooded mammal, and yet spends its life wholly in cold
  water. In order to dive to great depths it must be able to make its
  body heavier than a corresponding bulk of water, and conversely at
  will make it lighter in order to reach the surface. Though breathing
  atmospheric air through nostrils, the animal can exist at a greater
  depth than where the pressure of the water would force its particles
  into solid oak, and yet no water can reach the whales’ lungs. It
  must be able to exist without breathing at all for at least the
  space of an hour. With the bones, ears, and eyes of a mammal it has
  to move, hear, and see as though it were a fish.

  The “spouting” or “blowing” of the whale is simply an operation of
  purifying its blood. When the animal comes to the surface, it first
  expels the air in its lungs as it takes its first deep breath.

=Dolphin= (_Delphinus delphis_).--The dolphin is grey or greenish black
on its upper parts, and white beneath. It generally attains a length of
six feet, and lives in herds in all the northern seas. Hundreds of these
swift animals are often seen around vessels, and amuse the passengers by
their playful gambols. They feed chiefly on fish.

=Greenland Whale= (_Balæna mysticetus_).--This whale is greyish black on
its upper parts, and white beneath. It is from forty-eight to
seventy-two feet long, and weighs upwards of twenty thousand pounds. It
is the largest of all living animals; a boat with six persons could
enter its jaws. Its tongue is nine feet broad, eighteen feet long, and
weighs about eight hundred pounds.

The whale inhabits the northern parts of the Atlantic and Pacific. It
has been hunted for the sake of its blubber since the ninth century. A
whale forty-eight feet long, and fourteen thousand pounds in weight,
will furnish six thousand pounds of blubber, from which four thousand
eight hundred pounds of oil will be obtained; there will also be over
three thousand pounds of whalebone, which lies in the upper jaw in the
place of teeth.

=Narwhal,= or =Sea Unicorn= (_Monodon monoceros_), allied to the
dolphins and porpoises. The male has one--almost invariably the left--of
the teeth or tusks in the upper jaw extraordinarily developed into a
spirally furrowed horn of pure ivory from six to ten feet long. This is
the longest tooth found in the Mammalia. The adult animal is from ten to
sixteen feet long. It has a grey back, mottled with black, the under
parts being much lighter, but also spotted. It has a blunt, short head,
no dorsal fin and very small flippers, but is very active and a rapid
swimmer. It is peculiar to the Arctic Ocean, though it occasionally
strays as far south as the British seas. The oil is valuable and the
flesh edible. The ivory is very fine, and in the castle of Rosenborg at
Copenhagen is a throne of the kings of Denmark made of this substance.

=Porpoise= (_Phocæna communis_).--The porpoise, five, six, or seven feet
in length, is common in the North Atlantic. Often off the British coasts
a shoal of porpoises may be seen frolicking quite near to the shore.
Passengers on board ocean-going liners are always interested in watching
the sportive “black pigs,” as sailors call them, race along the side of
the ship. The animals are captured chiefly for their oil, and the skin
can be converted into useful leather.

=Rorqual= (_Balænoptera musculus_).--The common Rorqual is a typical
species of the “finners,” as sailors term them; the generic name means
“Finned Whale,” in reference to the small back fin that lies near the
region of the tail. It attains an enormous size; one caught in the North
Sea was ninety-five feet in length, twenty-two feet in width, and
weighed over two hundred and fifty tons. Rorquals are the most widely
distributed of all the larger Cetaceans; they are found nearly
everywhere outside the Antarctic regions.

WHALE FISHERIES.--With the older method of whale-fishing the chief
products were oil and whalebone. Recently the industry has been
revolutionized, principally by Norwegians, and practically every part of
the animal is used. For the new method a suitable island is selected, a
cutting-up station constructed, and all whales killed are towed to the
station and there drawn upon land to be dealt with. The modern
whaling-vessel is a small and powerful steamer with a heavy harpoon gun
mounted in the bows. The harpoon is a special kind of barbed spear. No
boats are used, the steamer following the whales when sighted. By
dealing with the carcase on shore all parts are now used, including the
bone, blubber (or fat), the soft parts after the oil has been expressed
being prepared as fertilizers. The flesh is asserted to be palatable and
may ultimately be sold for food.

[Illustration: =WHITE AMERICAN EGRETS IN A SOUTH FLORIDA CYPRESS FOREST=

These are perhaps the most beautiful of the heron family and are much
persecuted by the plumage hunters for the sake of the spray-like plumes
which grow on their backs in the breeding season.]


_THE BIRDS_

The birds have a hard, bony skeleton, and red, warm blood; they breathe
by means of lungs, and lay eggs with hard shells. Their bodies are
covered with feathers, their fore limbs are changed into wings.


HOW BIRDS COMPARE WITH MAMMALS

In some ways birds are the highest of the vertebrate animals. They
represent the climax of that passage from water to land which the
backboned series illustrates. Their skeleton is more modified from the
general type than that of mammals; their arrangements for locomotion,
breathing, and nutrition are certainly not less perfect; their body
temperature, higher than that of any other animals, is an index to the
intense activity of their general life; their habitual and adaptive
intelligence is familiarly great, while in range of emotion and sense
impressions they must be allowed the palm. It is, in fact, only when we
emphasize the development of the nervous system and the closeness of
connection between mother and offspring, that the mammals are seen to
have a right to their pre-eminence over birds.


THE VOICE OF BIRDS

With few exceptions, birds have a vocal organ, and are able to produce
more or less variable sounds. The organ is, however, wanting in the
running birds, such as the ostrich, and in the American vultures. The
sounds produced are almost as varied as the different kinds of birds,
and an expert has little difficulty in identifying a great number of
forms by their distinctive noises. It is among the so-called perchers,
songsters, or Insessores, that we find song really developed and that
for the most part in the males, and in highest degree at breeding-time.


HOW BIRDS ARE CLOTHED

The _integument_ differs markedly from that of other animals in being
clad with feathers. Three distinct kinds of feathers are at once
distinguishable--(_a_) the small hair-like downy rudimentary
_filoplumes_; (_b_) the numerous smaller contour or covering _plumes_;
and (_c_) the large strong quill-feathers or _pennæ_ on wings and tail.
The ordinary feather consists of a quill at the base of a shaft up the
center, and of the vane borne on the sides of the shaft. The vane
consists of parallel barbs, which are linked together by small barbules.
On the bare legs of many birds the feathers are replaced by horny
scales, and the horny structures forming the beak and terminating the
toes are very familiar.


THE BIRDS OF PREY

  The birds of prey have a hooked, curved beak, at the base of which
  are the nostrils, surrounded by cere skin. They live chiefly upon
  warm-blooded animals, which they seize with their claws and tear in
  pieces with their beak. There are more than five hundred varieties,
  which are separated into day and night birds of prey.

  Eagles, falcons, hawks, harriers, buzzards, and the like are adapted
  for the pursuit of prey not only by possession of strong, hooked
  beaks, powerful talons, and keen powers of vision, but also by the
  swiftness of their flight. Many of them--for example, falcons--are
  able to poise themselves, apparently motionless, in the air till
  some such prey as a young rabbit or small bird is discovered, and
  then swoop down upon the victim with almost incredible rapidity.

=Condor= (_Sarcorhamphus condor_).--Largest of vultures, averaging nine
feet wing expanse, lives among the peaks of the Andes but descends for
food. Its feet are not adapted for grasping, and it cannot truly perch
nor carry objects when flying; it sleeps soundly, can be lassoed at
night and kills small quadrupeds, besides feeding on carrion. The condor
lays two white eggs four inches long, on bare rock, hatched in seven
weeks. The young are brown and a year old before they can fly. The male
is black with white ruff, has wing bars and tip of bill; wattles are
present on the head and breast. The female lacks comb, wattles, and has
less white. The young do not acquire full plumage for six years. The
condor depends more on sight than smell in finding food.

=Eagle= (_Aquila_) is a name given to many birds of prey in the Falcon
family. The golden eagle, the white-headed eagle, and the sea-eagles are
characteristic examples. The falcon family includes over three hundred
predacious birds, feeding for the most part on living animals, hunting
by day, and living usually on exposed rocky places. The bill is
powerful, but rather short, high at the root, and slightly curved; the
partition between the nostrils is complete; the upper margin of the
eye-socket projects; the head and neck are feathered; the soles of the
feet bear large callosities.

Representatives of this noble genus are found in all parts of the world
except the neotropical and Australian regions.

The GOLDEN EAGLE is a large and magnificent bird. The predominant color
is dark, tawny brown, but the back of the head and neck are more tawny
and look golden in the sunlight. The young birds have tails of a
brighter color. The adult female measures about three feet in length;
the male is rather less both in length of body and wing. The golden
eagles have their homes in remote rocky regions, but often wander far in
search of booty. They prey upon numerous mammals and birds, but are
rarely willing to run any great risks in so doing. The nest, usually
upon a rocky ledge, is large and roughly made. There are most commonly
two eggs. Though a strong and majestic bird, it cannot be credited with
much bravery. The occasional cry is loud and shrill, but with some
hoarseness. The species is widely distributed in Europe, Asia and North
America.

The crested eagles are found in parts of both hemispheres, and are in
some species distinguished by tufts of feathers on the back of the head.
The harrier-eagle is an Old-World bird represented in Europe, north
Africa, and western Asia. The fishing eagle or fish-hawk is an almost
cosmopolitan bird, with markedly piscivorous diet. The bald eagle has
the tarsus feathered only halfway to toes; with white head and tail
after third year. Its length is about 36 inches. The bald eagle is the
emblem of the United States, feeds on fish, sometimes secured by robbing
the osprey and sometimes found as carrion.

EAGLES AS EMBLEMS.--In the arms of the present German empire an eagle
(with one head) sustains on its breast a shield containing the arms of
Prussia. Austria has preserved the double-headed eagle of the earlier
German empire. Russia assumed in 1472 the double-headed eagle under Ivan
III. to signify that the czar sprang from the Greek emperors, who had
borne it as a symbol since the partition of the Roman empire. A white
crowned eagle in a red field was the shield of the kingdom of Poland.
The arms adopted by the United States consist of a dark-brown eagle with
outspread wings, having in one of its talons a bundle of arrows, in the
other an olive branch, bearing on its breast a shield whose upper part
is blue and under part silver, and crossed by six red vertical bars. In
its beak it holds a band with the inscription _E. pluribus unum_,
surmounted by thirteen stars, the original number of states.

=Falcons= (_Falco_) are birds of medium or small size, having short,
strong beak, with a sharp hook at tip and a strong tooth on each side of
upper mandible; legs short and strong, middle toe long, claws much
curved and sharp, tail short and stiff, wings long and pointed. There
are about fifty species, some known as hawks. True falcons, in hunting
prey rise high in air above and swoop down. Hawks chase the prey near
the ground. The most common falcon is dark-bluish above and white below
with bars; the young are brownish above and streaked below. The largest
falcon is found in the Scandinavian Mountains. Among small falcons are
the sparrow-hawk of the United States and the kestrel of Europe. They
feed on mice and insects. Most falcons prey upon birds, attacking some
even larger than themselves. They, at one time, were trained for hunting
the heron, sparrow, etc., in the sport known as falconry.

=Hawks= have the upper mandible not toothed, and the wings short,
rounded, and concave below. They do not easily soar or glide.

HENHAWKS comprise chiefly the rough-legged hawk and the red-shouldered
hawk. The first rarely, and the second never, takes chickens; they prey
rather on noxious insects, mice, etc. The sharp-shinned hawk, length
twelve inches, and Cooper’s hawk, eighteen inches, are rufous on breast
and dusky above, with dark bars on the tail. These useful buzzards last
mentioned should be protected.

GOSHAWKS (_Astur palumbarius_) is found in almost all parts of Europe.
It generally inhabits thick woods in the neighborhood of fields and
meadows, and builds its nest on the topmost boughs of a lofty tree.

[Illustration: The ostrich is a strong runner and a swift racer. It has
been known to equal the speed of a train going at the rate of sixty
miles an hour. Though frequently used for driving, it is not easily
managed.]

[Illustration]

This unsociable bird is as swift and wild as it is shy and cunning. It
can be easily recognized at a distance by its long tail and short wings.
When hunting for prey it flies, as a rule, along the edges of woods and
thickets, and is active almost the whole of the day. Flying, resting,
swimming, or running, it seizes its prey with equal dexterity. Its great
swiftness and adroitness render the goshawk a formidable opponent. It
appears suddenly among the unsuspecting birds, and, before they can
escape, one lies bleeding under the claws of the bold robber. It follows
its prey into inhabited houses, and sometimes flies through the windows.

The goshawk carries off poultry, and also steals game. It also destroys
a great number of our most useful insect-devouring birds.

SPARROW HAWK (_Nisus communis_) resembles the goshawk both in form and
habits, and is a true copy of its bigger cousin.

=Osprey= or FISHING HAWK (_Haliætus albicilla_) is often mistaken for
the golden eagle. The latter, however, can be easily recognized by its
feathered legs. The osprey is widely distributed in the United States
along the Atlantic coast, and is found all over Europe. It has its nest
on the summits of inaccessible rocks and cliffs along the coasts, or in
the top of a high tree, and rarely among the reeds. The osprey is a lazy
but obstinate and dangerous robber, attacking all animals which it is
able to overcome. Like the bald eagle, it catches fish; but it also
feeds upon carrion.

=Owls= (_Strigidæ_) include more than one hundred species, all of which
belong to two families. The Java owl, which ranges from the eastern
Himalayas to Burma, Ceylon, Java and Borneo in itself constitutes the
second of these families. They have large eyes, looking forward,
encircled by stiff feathers, and with vertical pupil. Most are nocturnal
and see poorly by day, but the Hawk Owl, and Snowy Owl of arctic
regions, feed by day. Their food consists of rodents, insects, birds,
vermin, and fish. The Great Horned Owl (_Bubo virginianus_) attains a
weight of eight pounds, and attacks poultry. Owls hear well; some have a
well developed feathered external ear. The long ears by which the horned
owl is known, refers to the horns of feathers, developed above the eyes.
Owls fly noiselessly, owing to their soft plumage. The feet are usually
feathered; the outer toe is reversible, and in the Fishing Owl the toes
are osprey-like. The female is the larger. The size ranges from six
inches in the Pygmy Owl of the tropical forests, to thirty inches in the
Great Grey Owl of the northern regions. Reddish brown is predominant,
but dark and light colors may be exhibited by a single brood. The eggs
are spherical and pure white. Some species breed before the snow has
gone, and their eggs hatch a few at a time. The Snowy Little Owl of
Europe, is the symbol of learning. The Burrowing Owl lives in the
burrows of prairie dogs in America, on whose young it feeds, in part
while rattle-snakes associate with both as a common enemy.

[Illustration: The Peacock excels all other birds in the beauty of its
plumage, the colors of which are usually both gorgeous and varied. The
above bird is pure white, and very rarely seen in the United States.]

[Illustration]

The =White= or BARN OWL (_Strix flammea_) always lives in the
neighborhood of man, building its nest in sheds, church-towers, old
ruins, and also in pigeon-houses. It sleeps during the day. At night it
flies through the gardens and fields, catching all kinds of mice,
insects, and young birds. The nest is carelessly built, and in the
spring contains from six to nine white, oval eggs.

=Vultures= (_Vulturinæ_) are large carrion-eating birds of prey. Those
of the Old World differ from those in the New in several particulars;
thus, the hind toe of the former is on the level with the other toes;
the partition between the nostrils is not perforated as in American
vultures; and they carry food to their young in their claws and not in
their beaks. The chief of the American vultures are the Condor, Turkey
Buzzard, Carrion-crow, or Black Vulture, and the King Vulture, which
haunts jungles from Mexico to Paraguay, and is white, with the long tail
and wing-feathers black, the head lemon and scarlet. Examples of the Old
World vultures are the Bearded Vulture or Lammergeyer (_Gypaetus
barbatus_), the largest bird of prey of Europe. It was formerly often
seen in the Alps and Pyrenees; but is now, at least in the Swiss and
Bavarian Alps, almost exterminated. It is a bold and dangerous robber,
not only waylaying hares and roes, but also sheep and chamois; children
even, have been attacked by this bird.

The Egyptian or White Vultures are known as Pharaoh’s Chickens. The
crested Black Vulture ranges from China through North Africa. It builds
large nests in trees on mountain-tops, where it rears a single young.
The Griffon is black, with white tail and wing feathers. Vultures find
their food by sight.


THE CLIMBING BIRDS

  The toes of the climbing birds are arranged opposite each other in
  pairs; one of the back toes is, in many of these birds, so flexible
  that it can be easily turned forward. The claws are long, strong,
  and hooked, thus these birds can easily hold on firmly, even in a
  perpendicular position. Most of them frequent the woods, and live
  upon insects and fruit.

=Cuckoo= (_Caculus canorus_) is as large as a pigeon. It has a
gently-curved, deeply-cleft beak, long, pointed wings, and
wedge-shaped, pointed tail. The outer toe can be directed forward as
well as backward. American cuckoos hatch their own eggs. The Old World
cuckoos are especially marked by the habit of leaving their eggs to be
hatched by other birds. The spotted cuckoo of northern Europe lays four
eggs in a nest, usually that of a crow. A small South African cuckoo,
size of a sparrow is brilliantly colored. Australia has the large
channel billed cuckoo, with its immense beak. The road-runner or
chapparal cock of the desert plateaus of western United States feeds
mainly on grasshoppers. In the West Indies and adjacent states is found
the Ani, with high bill, and peculiar in that several females unite in
building one nest, where all co-operate in hatching their eggs.

The cuckoo, with its never-wearied song, is the joyful harbinger of
spring, and is heard with delight by old and young. It lives chiefly
upon hairy caterpillars; and, as it is always feeding, we can justly
include the cuckoo among the useful birds.

=Parrots= (_Psittaci_) are near relatives of the cockatoos, paroquets,
macaws, lories, nestors, etc. The true parrots have the upper mandible
toothed, and longer than high, and a short, rounded tail. These birds
combine with the beauty of their plumage a nature of great docility, and
have the faculty of imitating the human voice in a degree not possessed
by other birds. They are found chiefly in Africa, from whence we get the
gray parrot, the best talker. South America, which is particularly rich
in species, furnishes the well-known green parrot; and North America is
the home of a single species, the Carolina parrot. The parrots are
forest birds, and are adepts at climbing, using for that purpose both
the feet and the bill. Their food consists of seeds and fruits. They
make their nests in holes, and lay white eggs, as is commonly the case
where the eggs are concealed.

The parrots may be called the monkeys among the birds; for, like the
monkeys, they seek their food while climbing, but are awkward and clumsy
when on the ground. Their imitative qualities and docility, their
obstinacy and slyness, and their disagreeable voice and gregarious
habits, all serve to remind us of the monkeys.

=Toucan= (_Rhamphastus toco_), a bird of the American tropics, is
related to the woodpeckers and parrots. It belongs to the most curious
of the animal forms, as its immense beak is treble the length of its
head. The tongue is horny, slender, and brush-like; the considerable
tail is hinged next the pelvis, so that it can be thrown over the back
when resting and where the bill lies also during sleep. Toucans are
omnivorous, but prefer fruit, live in flocks in forests, and nest in
hollow trees. There are over fifty species, in size from that of a robin
to a crow, and colored from green to black, variegated with red, yellow
and white. The largest is two feet long, with bill eight inches long and
three inches high.

=Woodpecker= (_Picidæ_) includes any of three hundred birds which have
climbing feet, stiff tail feathers and which bore into trees for grubs
on which they feed, though some of them are fond of fruit and other
vegetable food. Most of the species have barbed and pointed tongues with
which they spear the larvæ, but in some the tongue is smeared with a
sticky substance, secreted by glands in the throat. There are no
woodpeckers in Australia or Madagascar, but they occur in all other
parts of the world. The prevailing color of the plumage is green--dark
olive on the upper, pale green on the under parts; the crown and back of
the head are bright crimson.

Of the numerous American species the flickers, the South American
ground-flickers, which live chiefly on termites, and the great
ivory-billed woodpecker may be specially noted. The last-named species,
which inhabits the dense forests of the southern States, is one of the
handsomest of the group, and was once called the prince of woodpeckers.

The woodpeckers lead a solitary life. Their presence is generally known
by the noise they make while pecking; holding fast to a tree, they hack
at it with their long, sharp beaks, so that splinters and chips fly in
all directions. The woodpecker excavates a hole in the rotten tree, in
order therein to build its nest.


THE SINGING BIRDS

  Not all the birds belonging to this class are veritable songsters;
  but nearly all of them have in the throat an organ of song,
  consisting of five or six pairs of muscles, by means of which they
  can produce a variety of notes. They are mostly small, prettily
  colored birds, which chiefly inhabit the Temperate Zones, and make
  themselves very useful by devouring the insects, worms, and seeds of
  weeds in the fields, gardens, and woods. They delight us with their
  song; but their song is also the reason why some of them are kept in
  captivity.

=Birds of Paradise= (_Paradisea apoda_), though song birds of some
ability, are more particularly notable for their gorgeous plumage. They
are natives of New Guinea and Australia, and are very closely allied to
the crow family, both in their habits and voice. The Great Bird of
Paradise is the largest of the species, measuring about one and one-half
feet in length; the others are comparatively small. The adult males are
in beauty unsurpassed even by humming-birds. Tufts of bright feathers
spring from beneath the wings, from the tail, or from the head, back, or
shoulders. Trains, fans, and exquisitely delicate tress-like decorations
occur abundantly, and the gracefulness of the plumage is enhanced by the
brilliant color and metallic luster. The females are plain,
sober-colored birds, and it is only with maturity that the males acquire
that brilliancy of plumage which they exhibit to such advantage in their
courtships. The true birds of paradise feed on fruits and insects, and
are practically omnivorous. Their mode of life is more or less
gregarious. Their song consists of a series of loud, shrill notes.

=Blackbird= (_Turdus merula_), is a member of the thrush family. The
plumage of the male is quite black, and the beak yellow; the female is
dark brown above, and greyish brown on the under parts, with a brown
beak. It is shy, solitary, nests in March, and has two broods during the
season. The nest is plastered inside with mud; four or six blue eggs,
speckled with black, are laid. The bird feeds mainly on insects. It is a
mocking bird, but not so good a songster as the song-thrush. In
confinement it can be taught.

The American Crow-blackbird or Purple Grackle is restricted to the
region east of the Rockies, the Blue-headed Grackle is confined west of
the Mississippi, while the Rusty Grackle pervades the whole continent.

The Red-winged Blackbird breeds in Mexico and North America south of the
Barron Grounds; winters in southern half of United States and south to
Costa Rica.

The blackbird is frequently an inhabitant of the woods; but in the
winter it comes into the gardens of the villages and towns. It is very
fond of fruit, and thus often ravages the orchards and strawberry
gardens.

=Bobolink= (_Dolichonyx oryzivorus_), resembles a sparrow, but its tail
feathers are acute. Length seven inches. It breeds from Ohio northeast
to Nova Scotia, north to Manitoba, and northwest to British Columbia;
winters in South America.

Few species show such striking contrasts in the color of the sexes, and
few have songs more unique and whimsical. In its northern home the bird
is loved for its beauty and its rich melody; in the South it earns
deserved hatred by its destructiveness. Bobolinks reach the southeastern
coast of the United States the last half of April just as rice is
sprouting and at once begin to pull up and devour the sprouting kernels.
Soon they move on to their northern breeding grounds, where they feed
upon insects, weed seeds, and a little grain. When the young are well on
the wing, they gather in flocks with the parent birds and gradually move
southward, being then generally known as reed birds. They reach the rice
fields of the Carolinas about August 20, when the rice is in the milk.
Then until the birds depart for South America planters and birds fight
for the crop, and in spite of constant watchfulness and innumerable
devices for scaring the birds a loss of ten per cent of the rice is the
usual result.

=Canary= (_Fringilla_) is a beautiful but very common cage-bird, much
esteemed for its musical powers. It is native to the region about the
Canary Islands. Its color is grayish brown and dusky green, but the
numerous artificial breeds show varieties of yellow and black markings,
crests, etc. Naturally monogamous, the male sings best to win the love
of the female. She incubates the eggs, he feeds the young. Six eggs are
produced four times a year. Canaries cross readily with allied species.
They have been domesticated for nearly four centuries.

Distinct varieties have been produced by scientific selective breeding,
and these reproduce their distinctive characteristics, and “like breeds
like” so long as the varieties are not crossed. The hardiest are the
Norwich; the largest are Lancashire Coppies; the most costly and
delicate are Belgians. Lizards, London Fancies, Yorkshires, Scotch
Fancies, and Cinnamons practically complete the list.

=Catbird= (_Mimus Carolinensis_) is a species of Thrush common in
eastern United States, so called from its peculiar note. It is very
dark colored, about nine inches long, and nests in low bushes early in
May. It breeds throughout the United States west to New Mexico, Utah,
Oregon and Washington, and in southern Canada; winters from the Gulf
States to Panama. The bird has a fine song, unfortunately marred by
occasional cat calls. With habits similar to those of the mocking bird
and a song almost as varied, the catbird has never secured a similar
place in popular favor. Half of its food consists of fruit, and the
cultivated crops most often injured are cherries, strawberries,
raspberries, and blackberries. Beetles, ants, crickets, and grasshoppers
are the most important element of its animal food. The bird is known to
attack a few pests, as cutworms, leaf beetles, clover-root curculio, and
the periodical cicada, but the good it does in this way probably does
not pay for the fruit it steals.

=Chickadee= (_Penthestes atricapillus_).--The Chickadees are among the
most popular birds that we have, owing to their uniform good nature even
in the coldest weather, and their confiding disposition. They are common
about farms and even on the outskirts of large cities they will come to
feasts prepared for them on the window sill with their clear “phe-be,”
“chick-a-dee-dee-dee” or “dee-dee-dee,” and several scolding or
chuckling notes. They nest in hollow stumps at any elevation from the
ground but usually near the ground, and most often in birch stubs. Their
eggs are white, sparingly speckled with reddish brown. They range and
breed in the northern half of the United States and northward. The
Carolina Chickadee (_Parus carolinensis_) is smaller and with no white
edges to the wing feathers, and is found in southeastern United States,
breeding north to Virginia and Ohio.

=Crossbills= (_Loxia_) are the most highly developed members of the
Finch family, characterized by having the tips of the upper and lower
bills crossing so as to facilitate extraction of seeds. Males are
reddish, females brownish olive in general coloration. The crossbill
lives chiefly in the pine plantations, where it feeds for the most part
on the seeds of the pine, cleverly opening the cones with its pointed
beak. It hatches in all seasons of the year.

=Finch= (_Fringilla_) is a name applied to many birds but generally used
with some affix, as in the familiar names bullfinch, chaffinch, and
goldfinch. A finch is usually small, has a hard, conical beak, and
generally lives upon seeds. The distribution is almost world-wide,
excepting Australia. The buntings and the weaver-finches of the
Ethiopian and Australian regions are usually kept distinct.

Some, as Canary (see Canary) and Bullfinch make fine songsters in
confinement. The Chaffinch is the typical Finch of Europe. In America
the Purple Finch has a flush of red in male; the female is olive brown,
streaked below, the tail feathers soft and rounded; length without tail,
three and one-half inches. The Goldfinch has acute bill, yellow on bases
and edges of quills, male rich yellow, length three inches without tail;
also called Thistle-bird and Yellow-bird. The Lark-finch of the prairies
has tail three inches long, and is much streaked with black, white, and
chestnut. In the spring the males are usually seen on, or heard from,
tree tops in orchards or parks, giving forth their glad carols. They are
especially musical in spring when the snow is just leaving the ground
and the air is bracing.

The nest consists of strips of bark, twigs, rootlets and grasses, placed
at any height in evergreens or orchard trees. The eggs resemble,
somewhat, large specimens of those of the Chipping Sparrow. They are
three or four in number and are greenish blue with strong blackish
specks.

=Grosbeaks= are finches with beaks extraordinarily stout, forming a
continuous curve with the top of the head. The Cardinal Grosbeak is
known as the Winter Redbird. In eastern United States are also the Blue,
Rose-breasted, and Pine Grosbeaks, all beautifully colored and fine
singers. The Rose-breasted Grosbeak breeds from Kansas, Ohio, Georgia
(mountains), and New Jersey, north to southern Canada; winters from
Mexico to South America. This beautiful grosbeak is noted for its clear,
melodious notes, which are poured forth in generous measure. The
rosebreast sings even at midday during summer, when the intense heat has
silenced almost every other songster. Its beautiful plumage and sweet
song are not its sole claim on our favor, for few birds are more
beneficial to agriculture. The rosebreast eats some green peas and does
some damage to fruit. But this mischief is much more than balanced by
the destruction of insect pests. The bird is so fond of the Colorado
potato beetle that it has earned the name of “potato-bug bird.” It
vigorously attacks cucumber beetles, many of the scale insects, spring
and fall cankerworms, orchard and forest tent caterpillars, tussock,
gipsy, and brown-tail moths, plum curculio, army worm, and chinch bug.
In fact, not one of our birds has a better record.

=Jays= (_Cyanocitta_) are brightly colored, noisy birds, near relatives
of the crow and are represented by numerous species distributed
throughout the northern hemisphere. Probably the best known is the Blue
Jay, one of the most beautiful birds that we have, but, unfortunately,
one with a very bad reputation. Blue Jays often rob other birds of their
eggs and young as well as food and nesting material. They are very
active birds and are always engaged in gathering food, usually acorns or
other nuts, and hiding them away for future use.

These Green Jays are very beautiful, but, like all the other members of
the family, they are merciless in their treatment of smaller birds.
During the summer their diet consists of raw eggs with young birds “on
the side,” or vice versa; later they live upon nuts, berries, insects;
in fact, anything that is edible.

They are fairly common in the Lower Rio Grande Valley in southern Texas.

=Lark= (_Alauda arvensis_).--This familiar songster, is well known as
the symbol of poets and the victim of epicures. It is included among a
type of birds which comprizes over one hundred species, widely
distributed in Europe, Asia, Africa, with spreading stragglers in
Australia and North America. The plumage is usually sandy brown, the
color of the ground; the lower legs bear scales, behind and before; the
hind claw is very long and straight; the bill is strong and conical. The
skylark measures about seven inches in length; the males and females are
alike in plumage; the food consists of insects, worms, and seeds. It
nests in April, making a structure of dry grass in a hollow in the
ground, usually among growing grass or cereals. The eggs (three to five)
are dull gray, mottled with olive brown; two broods are usually reared
in the season.

The MEADOWLARKS (_Sturnella magna_) our familiar friends of the hillside
and meadow; their clear, fife-like whistle is often heard, while they
are perched on a fence-post or tree-top, as well as their sputtering
alarm note when they fly up before us as we cross the field. In North
America they range east of the Plains and north to southern Canada; and
winter from Massachusetts and Illinois southward.

The Western Meadowlark has the yellow on the throat extended on the
sides; its song is much more brilliant and varied than the eastern bird.
It is found from the Plains to the Pacific. The Florida Meadowlark is
smaller and darker than the common HORNED LARK (_Otocoris alpestris_).
This variety is only found in the United States in winter. During the
mating season they have a sweet song that is uttered on the wing, like
that of the Bobolink.

=Mockingbird= (_Mimus polyglottos_). This is the great vocalist of the
South, and by many is considered to be the most versatile singer in
America. It is found in gardens, pastures and open woods. All its habits
are similar to our Catbird, and like that species, it is given to
imitating the notes of other birds. Its song is an indescribable medley,
sometimes very sweet and pleasing, at others, harsh and unmusical. Its
general colors are gray and white.

Usually the nest is built in impenetrable thickets or hedges, or again
in more open situation in the garden; made of twigs and rootlets, lined
with black rootlets; the four or five eggs are bluish green with
blotches of reddish brown.

It ranges throughout the southern United States, breeding north to New
Jersey (and casually farther) and Ohio; and winters in the South
Atlantic and Gulf States. The Western Mockingbird is found in
southwestern United States, north to Oklahoma and California.

=Nightingale= (_Daulias luscinia_).--The common nightingale is well
known as the finest of songsters. It is rather larger than the
hedge-sparrow, with about the same proportionate length of wings and
tail. It is of a rich russet-brown color above, shading into reddish
chestnut on the tail-coverts and tail; the lower part grayish-white;
bill, legs, and feet brown. The sexes are alike in plumage. It is a
native of many parts of Europe and Asia, and of the north of Africa, and
is a bird of passage, extending its summer migrations on the continent
of Europe as far north as Sweden. It frequents thickets and hedges and
damp meadows near streams, and feeds very much on worms, beetles,
insects, ants’ eggs, caterpillars, and other insect larvæ. The male
bird sings by day as well as by night, but at night its song is most
noticeable and characteristic. The variety, loudness and richness of its
notes are equally extraordinary; and its long, quivering strains are
full of plaintiveness as well as of passionate ecstasy. The ancient
Romans paid more for a nightingale than they paid for a slave.

=Orioles= (_Oriolidæ_) are confined entirely to the Old World and are
characteristic of the Oriental and Ethiopian regions. The birds called
“Orioles” in the United States belong to an entirely different family,
the _Icteridae_. The members of the family are generally of a bright
yellow or golden color, which is well set off by the black of the wings.

Twenty-four species are enumerated, the best known being the GOLDEN
ORIOLE. The adult male is about nine inches long. Its general color is a
rich, golden yellow; the bill is dull orange-red; a black streak reaches
from its base to the eye; the iris is blood-red; the wings are black,
marked here and there with yellow, and a patch of yellow forms a
conspicuous wing-spot; the two middle feathers of the tail are black,
inclining to olive at the base, the very tips yellow, the base half of
the others black, the other half yellow; legs, feet and claws dark
brown. The female is less yellow than the male, and the under parts are
streaked with gray. In central and southern Europe it is common in
summer in certain localities; it is abundant in Persia, and ranges
through central Asia as far as to Irkutsk. It winters in South Africa.
Its food consists of insects and their larvæ, especially green
caterpillars, and fruits such as currants, cherries and mulberries. The
song of the male is short, loud, clear, and flutelike; he has also a
mewing call-note, and a harsh alarm-note. The nest is unlike that of any
other European bird; it is placed in, and suspended from, a fork in a
horizontal branch, sometimes of an oak, usually of a pine, in a shady
grove or thick wood, and is made of bark, wool and grass.

The BALTIMORE ORIOLES (_Icterus galbula_) range in color through orange,
black, yellow and gray. They are sociable birds and seem to like the
company of mankind, for their nests are, from choice, built as near as
possible to houses, often being where they can be reached from windows.
As they use a great deal of string in the construction of their nests,
children often get amusement by placing bright-colored pieces of yarn
where the birds will get them, and watch them weave them into their
homes. Their song is a clear, querulous, varied whistle or warble; the
call, a plaintive whistle. The Baltimore Oriole is found east of the
Rockies, breeding north to New Brunswick and Manitoba. They winter in
Central America.

=Robin= (_Planesticus migratorius_).--These well-known birds are very
abundant in the northern half of the United States, being found most
commonly about farms and dwellings in the country, and also in cities if
they are not persecuted too severely by English Sparrows.

The male has a black head and bright reddish brown breast; the female, a
gray head and much paler breast; the young, intermediate between the
two and with a reddish brown breast spotted with black.

The song of the Robin is a loud, cheery carol, “cheerily-cheerup,
cheerily-cheerup,” often long continued. The nest is a coarse but
substantial structure of mud and grass, placed on horizontal boughs or
in forks at any height, or in any odd place about dwellings; the four or
five eggs are bluish green. Robins range throughout eastern North
America, breeding from the middle of the United States northward. They
winter throughout the same region. The Southern Robin is a paler form
found in the Carolinas and Georgia.

=Sparrows= (_Fringillidæ_) are small plain-colored birds, with narrow
palates, small conical bills, and streaked plumage. The English Sparrow
(_Passer domesticus_) was introduced into United States in 1853, and has
since spread to a remarkable extent, in cities, driving off other birds.
The white-throated sparrow, an American form, is really a bunting. Other
American sparrows have little in common with the English Sparrow. All
American sparrows wear the characteristic brown streaked plumage of the
group, and include the small chestnut-capped chipping sparrow of
gardens, the song sparrow, the little active seashore sparrow, and the
large handsome fox sparrow.

SONG SPARROW (_Melospiza melodia_).--This is probably the best known,
most abundant and most widely distributed of all our birds. They are
quite hardy and many of them winter in the northern states, but the
majority go farther south, returning to their summer homes about the
first of March. They may be found anywhere where there are bushes, vines
or hedges, and very often about houses, even in large cities.

Their song is very pleasing and musical, strongly resembling brilliant
measures from that of the Canary.

The nest of grass is either on the ground or in bushes, and contains
three to five bluish-white eggs, profusely spotted with brown. The Song
Sparrow breeds from Virginia and Missouri north to southern Canada. It
winters from Massachusetts and Ohio southward. Many local races are
found west of the Rockies, but only one east of them. Dakota Song
Sparrow is found in the vicinity of Turtle Mountains, North Dakota; it
is lighter above and brighter below.

=Swallows= (_Hirundinidæ_) are birds with long pointed wings, small
feet, short, broad bill, and ten tail feathers. About one hundred
species are known, almost universal in distribution. They feed while
flying, catching insects. Some build nests in crevices, some dig holes
in banks, and others make mud nests plastered against walls. The Barn
Swallow of the United States, much like that of Europe, is lustrous
steel blue, pale chestnut below, tail deeply forked. It arrives early in
May and remains until late August. The American Chimney Swallow is a
Swift. The Purple Swallow, or Purple Martin is a North American species.
The general color, both of the upper and under parts, is shining
purplish blue; the wings and tail black. It is a universal favorite and
is hailed as the harbinger of spring. The Republican Swallow or
Cliff-swallow of North America, makes a nest of mud, in form somewhat
like a Florence flask, which it attaches to a rock or to the wall of a
house. Hundreds sometimes build their nests in close proximity.

=Thrasher= (_Toxostoma rufum_) an American mimic bird or mocking thrush,
is common in the eastern United States, mainly rust red above and
whitish below, the breast and sides marked with lines of elongated brown
spots. It is called also the Brown, Red, or Ferruginous Thrush, the
Corn-planter, and French or Sandy Mockingbird. The song of this Thrasher
is most musical and pleasing. It has a similarity to that of the
Catbird, but is rounder, fuller and has none of the grating qualities of
the song of that species. They apparently have a song of their own and
do not deign to copy that of others. They are one of the most useful and
desirable birds that we have. The SAGE THRASHER (_Oroscoptes montanus_)
is often known as the Mountain Mockingbird because of the brilliance of
its song, a very varied performance, long continued and mocking that of
many other species. They inhabit sage-brush regions and are partial to
the lower portions of the country, although frequently met in open
mountains. They are not shy and can readily be located by their voices.

They nest in bushes, especially the sage and cactus, and range through
the sage-brush regions of western United States from the Plains to the
Pacific.

=Thrush= (_Turdus_), belongs to a family including many of the most
familiar song-birds of Europe and America. The best-known American
Thrush is the Robin. (See Robin). The Wood-thrush has a most melodious
evening song, and is nearly as large as the Robin; the Hermit Thrush,
has an even more exquisite song, which, owing to the habits of the bird
is less frequently heard; Wilson’s Tawny Thrush has a strange, bell-like
song. Other American thrushes include the Olive-backed and the
Gray-cheeked varieties. The largest known British species is the Missel
Thrush, sometimes called the “Stormcock,” from its habit of singing
before or during wind or rain.

The SONG THRUSH (_Turdus musicus_) is smaller in size, and possesses
finer powers of song. It is olive grey on the upper parts, while the
under parts are a lighter grey, with dark fleckings. It is a true
inhabitant of the woods, and comes to us early in March, animating
nature, then just waking, with its musical song. The Song Thrush lives
upon insects, and also upon snails, which it strikes upon a stone in
order to break their shells.

=Warblers= (_Mniotiltidæ_).--Numerous species of warblers are found in
North America which appear to graduate into the Tanagers. They are birds
of brighter plumage than the Old-World Warblers, but resemble them in
their habits, and are also migrants. The BLACKBURNIAN WARBLER
(_Dendroica fusca_) is the most exquisite of the whole family; it is the
most eagerly sought bird by bird lovers, in the spring. Some years they
are very abundant, while in others few are seen, their routes of
migration evidently varying. They arrive about the time that apple
trees are in bloom, and are frequently seen among the blossoms,
dashing after insects. Their song, a high-pitched lisping
“zwe-zwe-zwe-see-ee-ee,” ending in a thin, wiry tone, almost a hiss, is
very distinct from the song of any other bird. They nest in coniferous
trees at any height from the ground. Shreds of bark, fine cedar twigs,
rootlets, etc., are used in constructing nests. The MAGNOLIA WARBLER
(_Dendroica magnolia_) is one of the prettiest of the Warblers and one
of the least timid. Birch woods are their favorites during migrations,
although a few of them will be found almost anywhere. They utter a
short, rapid warble.

=Wrens= (_Troglodytes_) have a slender, slightly curved and pointed
bill; the wings are very short and rounded; the tail short, and carried
erect; the legs slender, and rather long. Their plumage is generally
dull. Some fifteen species are recognized in North America, of which the
most familiar and widely distributed is the HOUSE-WREN (_Troglodytes
ædon_). These are bold, sociable and confiding birds, seemingly to
prefer men’s society, building their nests in bird boxes that are
erected for them, or in the most unexpected situations about buildings.
They are one of the most beneficial birds that can be attracted to one’s
yard, feeding wholly upon insects. Their songs are loud, clear and
bubbling over with enthusiasm.

Wrens breed north to Maine and Manitoba and winter along the Gulf Coast.
The Western House Wren is found from the Plains to the Pacific coast
ranges.


=THE WADING BIRDS= (_Struthiones_)

  In this class of birds, the beak is generally slender, the legs long
  and stilt-like. The struthiones live in marshy spots, and on the
  banks of rivers. They feed upon the reptiles and insects found in
  water and marshy districts, and upon plants. Most of the wading
  birds are migratory.

=Adjutant= (_Leptoptilus argala_), is a bird, common during summer in
India. Generally stork-like in appearance, it stands about five feet
high, and measures fourteen or fifteen feet from tip to tip of extended
wings. The four-sided pointed bill is very large; the head and neck are
almost bare; and a sausage-like pouch, sometimes sixteen inches long,
and apparently connected with respiration, hangs down from the base of
the neck. While feeding largely on carcases and offal about the towns,
it also fishes for living food, and sometimes devours birds and small
mammals. The loose under-tail feathers are sometimes used for decorative
purposes.

=Bittern= (_Botaurus_).--The American species makes a rude nest of
sticks, reeds, etc., in its marshy haunts, and lays four or five
greenish-brown eggs. The bird is sluggish, and its flight is neither
swift nor long sustained. When assailed, it fights desperately with bill
and claws; and it is dangerous to approach it incautiously when wounded,
as it strikes with its long sharp bill, if possible, at the eye. It is
common in many parts of North America, migrating according to the
season. The crown of the head is reddish brown, and the colors and
markings of the plumage differ considerably from those of the common
bittern.

=Crane= (_Grallatores cinerea_).--This family of birds differs from
herons, storks, etc., in having the hind-toe placed higher on the leg
than the front ones, and in certain characters of bill and skull. The
members are also less addicted to marshy places, and feed not only on
animal, but, to a considerable extent, on vegetable food. The cranes are
all large birds, long-legged, long-necked, long-billed, and of powerful
wing. Some of them perform great migrations, and fly at a great height
in the air. The young cranes are helpless and require to be fed. Only
two eggs are laid. The crane, when standing, is about four feet in
height; the prevailing color is ash-gray; the head bears bristly
feathers, and has a naked crown, reddish in the male; the bill, which is
longer than the head, is reddish at the root, dark green at the apex;
the feet are blackish; the tail is short and straight. They are very
stately birds, though their habit of bowing and dancing is often
grotesque. They feed on roots, seeds, etc., as well as on worms,
insects, reptiles and even some of the smallest quadrupeds. The flesh is
much esteemed.

The Whooping Crane (_G. americana_) is considerably larger than the
common crane, which it otherwise much resembles except in color; its
plumage, in its adult state, is pure white, the tips of the wings black.
It spends the winter in the southern parts of North America. In summer
it migrates far north.

=Heron= (_Ardea_) a large bird covered with long, loose down, with large
wings, and a hard horny bill longer than the head, compressed from side
to side, and united to the skull by firm, broad bones.

In the Heron genus--which includes the species commonly known as
Egrets--the plumage is beautiful, but seldom exhibits very gay colors;
white, brown, black, and slate, finely blended, generally predominating.
The body is small in proportion to the length of the neck and the limbs.
Herons are very voracious, feeding mostly on fish and other aquatic
animals; but they also often prey on snakes, frogs, rats, and mice, and
the young of other birds.

The Common Heron (_Ardea cinerea_) measures about three feet from the
point of the bill to the tip of the tail. It is of a delicate gray color
on the upper parts, the quill-feathers are black, the tail of a deep
slate color, and the long plume is glossy dark. It generally builds its
nest on a high tree; and as many as eighty nests have been counted on a
single oak. America has many species of herons, most numerous in its
warmer parts.

A common species of the temperate parts is the green heron (_A.
virescens_), whose flesh is much esteemed. Other important species are
the Great Blue Heron (_A. herodias_), the Great White or Florida Heron
(_A. occidentalis_), the Great White Egret (_A. egretta_), and the
Little White Egret (_A. candidissima_).

The Peacock Heron (_A. helias_) of South America, a small heron of
exquisitely graceful shape and mien, with plumage variegated with
colored spots and bars, is a favorite pet bird of the Brazilians.

=Ibis= (_Ibidoideæ_).--These birds are related to the spoonbills, and,
more remotely, to the storks and herons. The bill is long, slender,
curved, thick at the base, the point rather obtuse, the upper mandible
deeply grooved throughout its length. The face and generally the greater
part of the head, and sometimes even the neck, are destitute of
feathers, at least in adult birds. The plumage is mainly white, with
black feathers and plumes on the wings. The neck is long. The legs are
rather long, naked above the joint, with three partially united toes in
front, and one behind; the wings are moderately long; the tail is very
short.

The Sacred or Egyptian Ibis, is an African bird, two feet six inches in
length, although the body is little larger than that of a common fowl.
The ancient Egyptians worshiped it as the emblem of purity, and used to
embalm it.

The Glossy Ibis is a smaller species, also African, but migrating
northward into continental Europe, and occasionally seen in Britain. It
is also a North American bird. Its habits resemble those of the Sacred
Ibis. Its color is black, varied with reddish brown, and exhibiting fine
purple and green reflections. It has no loose pendent feathers.

The White Ibis, a species with pure white plumage, once abounded on the
coasts of Florida, but has been killed off by feather hunters, so that
it is rare except in the remote tropics.

The Scarlet Ibis is a tropical American species, remarkable for its
brilliant plumage, which is scarlet, with a few patches of glossy black.

The Straw-necked Ibis is a large Australian bird of fine plumage,
remarkable for stiff, naked, yellow feather-shafts on the neck and
throat.

=Plovers.=--Wading shore birds sometimes also known as Sandpipers. Their
bills are long for probing in the mud. The wings are long and pointed.
The most peculiar species lives in New Zealand: its bill is sharply bent
either to the right or left, near the end, enabling it to secure food
from beneath stones.

North America has a number of species of plovers, such as the Kildeer
Plover, abundant on the great western prairies, and not unfrequent in
the Atlantic states. It utters, when approached by man, a querulous or
plaintive cry.

UPLAND PLOVER (_Bartramia longicauda_) is the only plainly colored
shorebird which occurs east of the plains and inhabits exclusively dry
fields and hillsides. It breeds from Oregon, Utah, Oklahoma, Indiana,
and Virginia, north to Alaska; winters in South America. It is the most
terrestrial of our waders, is shy and wary, but has the one weakness of
not fearing men on horseback or in a vehicle. Since the bird is highly
prized as a table delicacy, it has been hunted to the verge of
extermination. Ninety-seven per cent of the food of this species
consists of animal forms, chiefly of injurious and neutral species. It
injures no crop, but consumes a host of the worst enemies of
agriculture.

=Stork= (_Ciconia alba_).--The storks are usually divided into the True
Storks and the American “Wood Ibises” (_Tantalus_). There are about a
dozen species. They belong chiefly to the Old World. The most familiar
representative of the family is the Common Stork or White Stork
(_Ciconia alba_), a native of the greater part of the Old World, a
migratory. bird, its range extending even to the northern parts of
Scandinavia. It is about three and one-half feet in length. The head,
neck, and whole body are pure white; the wings partly black; the bill
and legs red. The neck is long, and generally carried in an arched form;
the feathers of the breast are long and pendulous, and the bird often
has its bill half hidden among them. The flight is very powerful and
high in the air; the gait slow and measured. In flight the head is
thrown back and the legs extended. The stork sleeps standing on one leg,
with the neck folded, and the head turned backward on the shoulder. It
frequents marshy places, feeding on eels and other fishes, frogs,
lizards, snakes, slugs, young birds, small mammals, and insects. It
makes a rude nest of sticks, reeds, etc., on the tops of tall trees, or
of ruins, spires, or houses. There are four or five eggs, white tinged
with buff; and the old nest is re-occupied next year.

=Woodcock= (_Scolopax_).--Their nest is formed simply by lining a
sheltered hollow with dead leaves, and three or four yellowish eggs with
brown markings are laid in March or early in April. The young birds are
sometimes carried by the mother from place to place, and the manner of
carrying has given rise to much discussion. The woodcock feeds in the
early morning and at dusk on worms, beetles, small crustaceans, etc.,
the quantity of food consumed being very large. The adult bird measures
about fourteen inches, and weighs less than one pound.

The American Woodcock (_S. minor_) is a smaller bird than the European
species, and it also is in much request for table use. It is eleven
inches in length, and is found east of the Mississippi and south of the
Canadian forests.


=THE SWIMMING BIRDS= (_Natatores_)

  The beak is of a medium length; the front toes are, as a rule,
  joined together by a membrane, to aid the birds in swimming. The
  natatores live upon all still and flowing bodies of water, and feed
  upon the water reptiles and insects, rarely upon the water plants;
  and they are esteemed for their flesh, eggs, and feathers.

=Albatross= (_Diomedea_).--The Common or Wandering Albatross (_D.
exulans_) is the largest of web-footed birds, measuring four feet in
length, and from ten up to as much as seventeen feet in spread of wings.
It weighs fifteen to twenty pounds, or even more. The wings are,
however, narrow in proportion to their length. It often approaches very
near to vessels, and is one of the objects of interest which present
themselves to voyagers far away from land, particularly when it is seen
sweeping the surface of the ocean in pursuit of fish and garbage. It
seems rather to float and glide in the air, than to fly like other
birds, for, except when it is rising from the water, the motion of its
long wings is scarcely perceptible. It is affirmed by some to sail by
setting its wings like sails, and to make headway against the wind
without flapping. The albatross has great powers of sustained flight. It
often follows a ship for a considerable time, and it has been calculated
that it may fly seven hundred and twenty nautical miles in a day.

The plumage is soft and abundant, mostly white, dusky on the upper
parts, with some of the feathers of the back and wings black. The bill
is of a delicate pink, inclining to yellow at the tip.

The albatross is extremely voracious; it feeds on fish, cuttle-fish,
jelly-fish, etc., but has no objection to the flesh of a dead whale, or
to any kind of carrion. When food is abundant it gorges itself like the
vultures, and then sits motionless upon the water, so that it may
sometimes be taken with the hand. Its hoarse cry has been compared to
that of the pelican, but is sometimes more suggestive of the braying of
an ass. The single egg is four or five inches long, of a white color,
spotted at the larger end. The nestling is white, the young somewhat
brownish and of slow growth.

There are seven species. One of these, the Sooty Albatross (_D.
fuliginosa_), chiefly found within the Antarctic circle, is called by
sailors the Quaker Bird, on account of the prevailing brown color of its
plumage.

=Flamingo= (_Phœnicopterus ruber_), a shore bird of Mediterranean, East
Indian, and West Indian regions is essentially a greatly modified Goose.
Its legs and neck are very long and its bill abruptly bent downward. It
feeds with top of head down, sifting the mud, but retaining the small
worms, crustaceans, molluscs, fishes, etc., on which the birds subsist.

The flamingoes are birds of powerful flight, and fly like geese in
strings or wedge-shaped flocks. They also swim in deep water, but the
legs are too long to be well adapted for this purpose. They are habitual
waders, and the webbed membrane of the feet helps to support them on
soft, muddy bottoms. Hundreds feed and nest together, and, being large
and richly colored, form a brilliant assembly, their exquisite pink
plumage sometimes making a striking contrast against a background of
dark-green mangroves.

The nests are mounds of mud, from eight to fifteen inches in height,
gradually raised year after year, and built at distances of three to
four feet apart. The nesting occurs about the end of May, the hatching
about a month later. There is usually only one egg.

=Grebes= (_Podilymbus_).--The grebes are much sought after for their
plumage, but their shyness and their great agility in diving and
swimming under water render them extremely difficult to shoot. One
species known throughout all America is the Dabchick (_Podilymbus
podiceps_). Several of the American species have tufts of feathers
called “horns” on the head--a feature of the large European Crested
Grebe.

The Western Grebe is the largest American species, being from two to two
and one-half feet in length. The Horned Grebe and the Eared Grebe are
common in America.

=Gulls= (_Laridæ_) are water fowl, mostly marine. In color they are
white to pearl gray, with dark upper parts; those with black heads lose
this color in winter. The feet and bills are red or yellow, the sexes
alike, but the young are more dusky than the adults. The Mackerel Gull
has the habit of robbing the Oyster Catcher (_Hæmatopus_) of the food
secured. Ross’s Gull breeds in the unknown regions about the North Pole.
This bird has red feet, black bill, and a narrow, black collar.

=Pelican= (_Pelecanus onocrotalus_) is a native of southeast Europe,
Asia and Africa. It is the largest of all swimming birds, and is found
on the lakes and rivers of the continents mentioned. There are a number
of species, chiefly tropical. The birds have a tail of twenty-four soft
feathers, and a long bill, beneath the mandible of which is a
distensible pouch for carrying fish. The Pelican of North America goes
north into temperate regions in summer, at its breeding time.

=Penguin.=--The most remarkable peculiarity of these birds is the
flattened wing, which is clad with flat, scale-like feathers; the whole
limb, unfit for flight, is admirably suited for swimming. The feathers
of the penguin--instead of being disposed in feather-tracts, separated
by intervals (_apteria_) upon which no feathers grow, as is the case
with all other birds, not excepting even the ostrich and cassowary--form
a continuous covering to the body. The penguins are entirely confined to
the Antarctic and to the south temperate regions--Patagonia, Cape of
Good Hope, Australia and New Zealand. In some situations they are
extremely abundant, and make their nests in a common area. The nest is
little more than a hole in the sand in which the female deposits a
single egg. The stupidity of these birds is perhaps due to the
inaccessibility of the rocks and shores where so great a number live and
breed; having been comparatively little interfered with by man, they
show no terror at the sight of him. The plumage of the neck is valued by
furriers for collars and tippets; and large numbers of “Johnnies,” as
the sailors call them, are slaughtered annually.

=Swans=--See Domesticated Animals.


=THE RUNNING BIRDS= (_Cursores_)

  This group is characterized by a considerable sized body, long neck,
  flat beak, powerful legs and strong, two or three-toed running feet.
  The bones are heavy; the wings are stunted, and useless for flying;
  and the plumage is scanty on the head, neck, legs and abdomen.

=Cassowary= (_Casuarius_).--A bird of ostrich affinities, living in New
Guinea, and other Malay Islands, and Northern Australia. They have
rudimentary wings, live in dense forests, head protected by horny
helmet, have blue, red and yellow wattles, three-toed feet, the inner
toe with powerful claw, used as weapon, eat large quantities of
miscellaneous articles, including indigestible ones; and can be tamed.
Their cry is a loud croak. Their eggs, five in number, are laid in
August and September, in nests on ground, covered in brush. The young
are brownish, but gradually become blacker. The helmet is not full-grown
until the fifth year.

=Emu= (_Dromæus_) is closely akin to the cassowary family. There are two
species, both Australian--the Common Emu and the Spotted Emu. They
differ from the cassowaries in several marked features--e.g., the head
and neck are feathered except on cheeks and throat, there is no
“helmet,” nor are there wattles on the neck, the bill is broad, and the
claws of the three toes are almost of equal length. The emu is a large
bird, standing about six feet in height. The plumage is like that of the
cassowary; the color is predominantly dull brown, darker on the head,
neck and middle line of the back, lighter beneath. The naked parts of
head and neck are grayish blue, the bill and feet brownish. The young
are striped with black. The wings are of course rudimentary, but the
legs serve the bird well both in running and kicking. Timid and peaceful
in character, the emu trusts to its speed for safety. It is valued on
account of its beef-like flesh, abundant oil, and edible eggs, but is
unfortunately being destroyed with too great carelessness.

=Ostrich.=--See Domesticated Animals.

=Rhea=, also called Nandu and American Ostrich is a South American bird,
which form a somewhat isolated group, though nearer to the ostrich than
to any other bird. They are incapable of flight, but the wings are
rather better developed than in the ostrich. As in the ostrich and the
apteryx, the feathers have no aftershaft, and the color of the eggs is
white. The male bird incubates. Three species have been described.


=GAME BIRDS= (_Gallinæ_)

  The members of this order are ground-birds, with strong,
  blunt-clawed feet adapted for scratching up the ground in search of
  food. The beak is nearly always shorter than the head, and has
  projecting edges; the wings are generally short, and rounded off;
  the legs are armored with callosities. All these birds build their
  nests on the ground, and their young are nest fledglings, leaving
  the nest on the same day. A number of our domesticated fowl belong
  to this group.

=Bobwhite= (_Colinus virginianus_) is known everywhere by the clear
whistle that suggests its name. It is loved by every dweller in the
country and is better known to more hunters in the United States than
any other game bird. It is no less appreciated on the table than in the
field, and in many states has unquestionably been hunted too closely.
Half the food of this quail consists of weed seeds, almost a fourth of
grain, and about a tenth of wild fruits. Although thus eating grain, the
bird gets most of it from stubble. It feeds freely upon Colorado potato
beetles, chinch bugs, cucumber beetles, wireworms, billbugs, clover-leaf
weevils, cotton-boll weevils army worms, bollworms, cutworms, and Rocky
Mountain locusts.

=Chicken or Fowl.=--See Domesticated Animals.

=Grouse= is a name applied to many game-birds, including quail and
partridges. They are well known to be large, plump, somewhat heavy
birds, usually short-tailed, and with beautifully variegated plumage,
which must often be protective. The largest American grouse, however, is
the Cock of the Plains or Sage Cock. The RUFFED GROUSE (_Bonasa
umbellus_) is distinguished from other grouse by the broad black band
near tip of tail. It is found in the northern two-thirds of the United
States and in the forested parts of Canada. The Ruffed Grouse is famed
as the finest game bird of the northern woods. It is usually wild and
wary and well understands the attacks of hunters. Wild fruits, mast, and
browse make up the bulk of the vegetable food of this species; and it is
very fond of hazelnuts, beechnuts, chestnuts, and acorns and eats
practically all kinds of wild berries and other fruits.

=Guinea=--See Domesticated Animals.

=Partridges= (_Tetraonidæ_).--The most common of the Old World is the
Gray Partridge. The Snow Pheasants of the heights of the Himalayas may
exceed six pounds in weight. The Gray Partridge of India is not
palatable as food, but, being very pugnacious, is kept for fighting; the
male has two spurs on each foot. There are upward of fifty species of
American partridges, among which are the Mountain Quail of California,
the Bobwhite (which see), while the Ruffed Grouse is called Partridge in
the North and Pheasant in the South. It is shy, forest-loving; the male
makes a drumming sound by vibrating its wings. Its tarsus is feathered
half way, the head crested, and plumage variegated.

=Peacock.=--See Domesticated Animals.

=Pheasants= (_Phasianidæ_).--About forty species of pheasants inhabit
southeastern Asia. They are brilliantly colored and have long tails and
crests. The males generally are pugnacious; the male of the Blood
Pheasant, dwelling on the heights of the Himalayas, has four or five
spurs on each foot.

The pheasant exhibits a remarkable readiness to hybridize with other
like birds. The Ring-necked Pheasant is a native of the forests of India
and China. It is distinguished by a white ring almost surrounding the
neck, and is of smaller size than the common pheasant, somewhat
different in markings, and has a shorter tail. It is the common pheasant
of the Celestial Empire. Among other species of pheasant may be
mentioned Diard’s pheasant, a native of Japan; Soemmering’s Pheasant,
also from Japan, one of the most beautiful pheasants known, but
terribly pugnacious; and Reeve’s Pheasant, a native of the north of
China, in which white is the prevailing color, and the tail is of
extraordinary length.

Of somewhat different type are the Golden Pheasant and the Silver
Pheasant, both natives of China. The Golden Pheasant is one of the most
splendid of the tribe. It has a fine crest, and a ruff of orange and
black, capable of being erected at pleasure. The tail is very long. The
Silver Pheasant is one of the largest and most powerful of the tribe.
The Impeyan Pheasant is a native of the East Indies, and known as the
“bird of gold.”

=Ptarmigan= (_Lagopus_), a bird nearly allied to the true grouse,
differs chiefly in having the toes as well as the legs thickly clothed
with short feathers. They are natives of the northern parts of the
world, of elevated or of arctic regions. With the exception of the Red
Grouse, the species change color on the approach of winter, assuming a
white or nearly white plumage. All are esteemed as food.

The Common Ptarmigan is now resident in the Lofoden Island, in
Scandinavia, on the Ural and the Altai ranges, etc., and also on the
Alps and the Pyrenees. The winter plumage is pure white, except a black
band above the eyes of the male, and some black on the under feathers of
the tail. In both sexes the wings are always white, but have dark shafts
to their quills. In summer the males are predominantly grayish brown
above, with blackish head, shoulders, and breast, with white belly, with
black tail-feathers tipped with white. In the female a tawny color
predominates. In autumn, again the plumage is different, with numerous
streaks of slate gray on the upper parts. The white winter plumage is
doubtless protective amid the snow, and may be the result of the cold;
the summer plumage is not less harmonious with the surroundings.

=Turkey.=--See Domesticated Animals.

=Quail.=--See Partridges and Bobwhite.


_THE REPTILES_ (_Reptilia_)

LIZARDS, CHAMELEONS, SNAKES, CROCODILES, TORTOISES AND TURTLES

  The reptiles are vertebrates which are supplied with a horny or bony
  skin; they have red, cold blood, breathe by means of lungs, and
  generally lay eggs; many of them have no feet. When limbs are
  present, however, they do not raise the body far off the ground, for
  the elbows and knees are turned outward. Some reptiles pass the
  winter in sleep.


=TORTOISES AND TURTLES= (_Chelonia_)

  These animals have a wide body, which is enclosed between the arched
  shell of the back and the flat shell of the stomach. There are land,
  sea, and river tortoises. In some the head and legs can be retracted
  inside the shell. Over the outside of the case are horny plates
  which, in the hawkbill turtle are of value, as they afford the
  tortoise shell used for combs, etc. Turtles never have teeth, the
  edges of the jaws being covered with horny material. Most of the
  species are carnivorous. The largest species are the marine
  leather-backs of the tropics, which occasionally drift north to New
  England, and the giant species occurring on the Galapagos Islands,
  off the west coast of South America, and on some islands in the
  Indian Ocean.

=Land Tortoises= have a high arched shell under which the head and feet
can be retracted. The feet have separate toes, and are adapted for
walking. They are strictly herbivorous. Examples of this family are the
large and strong Gopher-tortoises of the Carolinas, which burrow in the
earth, the massive Amazon Tortoise, used for food by the natives, the
Galapagos Tortoise, and the small Garden Tortoise.

=Mud Tortoise= (_Emys lutaria_) is frequently seen in Italy and the
south of France. It inhabits lakes and slow-flowing waters, and feeds
upon small fish, spawn, frogs, water insects, etc. It lays its eggs in
a hole, which it digs in the bank. Its flesh is edible. Small specimens
are frequently kept in aquariums, and fed with meat, bread, lettuce
leaves, etc.

=Sea Turtles= have flat shells between which the flipper-like feet and
huge head cannot be retracted. There are no nails or separate toes, and
the fore feet are much the larger. The Green Turtle (_Chelone midas_) is
much esteemed as food, with its eggs. It lives in or near the Gulf
Stream, feeds on the roots of eelgrass, comes ashore at night, during
May, and lays nearly one hundred eggs, which hatch in six weeks; the
laying is usually repeated several times every two weeks, near the first
nest. This Turtle may attain a weight of over eight hundred pounds. The
Logger-head Turtle, so-called from its huge head and neck, ranges from
Brazil to Massachusetts, attains a weight half that of the Green Turtle,
and feeds on fish, crustacea, conchs, etc.

The Hawk’s Bill (_Eretmochelys_) has pointed plates that supply the
“tortoise shell” of commerce. A large specimen may yield as much as
eight pounds of the “shell.” The beautiful mottled color and
semi-transparent characters of this material are well known. Its
manufacture is carried on in the East, a fine tortoise-shell being
exported from Celebes to China.

=Snapping Turtle= is a large voracious turtle, common in North America
along stagnant waters and along the southern Mississippi where it
sometimes reaches the weight of thirty pounds. It lives on fishes,
frogs, and shells, and occasionally water-fowl. It has great strength of
jaw and snaps when it bites. When fattened, its flesh is often esteemed
as a delicacy. It is sometimes known as the Alligator-terrapin or
Alligator Turtle.

=Terrapin= is the popular name of many species of fresh-water and
tidal-water tortoises, native to tropical and the warmer temperate
countries. About twenty fresh-water species are found in the United
States. But the terrapin _par excellence_ is the Diamond-back Salt-water
Terrapin, highly prized as a delicacy for the table. It is caught in
salt marshes along the coast from New England to Texas, the finest being
those of the Massachusetts and the northern coasts.

[Illustration: Crocodiles are cruel, but in one way they serve us, by
eating the dead bodies of animals which float down the rivers. But for
the crocodiles these bodies might poison the water. Here we see the
crocodile and the little bird called the ziczac, which picks the food
from between the crocodile’s teeth.]


=CROCODILES AND ALLIGATORS= (_Crocodilia_)

  These inhabitants of the rivers and estuaries of tropical regions
  are somewhat lizard-like in appearance, but in structure they are in
  many ways much more specialized. They have a scaly, tough skin on
  the back, four powerful feet, and a long tail. They live chiefly in
  the water, and only go to the banks to bask in the sun. The jaws are
  armed with powerful interlocking teeth, which constitute a deadly
  trap. The valvular nostrils are so situated that the animal can
  drift along with most of its body submerged, and at the same time
  breathe quite easily.

=Alligator= (_Alligator mississippiensis_) is found in the southern
states of North America. It is as voracious as it is bloodthirsty.
Should it perceive an unfortunate mammal drinking or browsing on the
edge of the bank, it sinks below the surface, and rapidly swims toward
the victim by strokes of its powerful, flattened tail. Then comes a
sudden snap, aided, perhaps, by a lash of the tail; should the attempt
prove successful, the prey is held under water till it is drowned, if
too large to be forthwith swallowed. No bullet will pierce the hide on
its back. It deposits its eggs in a kind of nest, which it builds with
grass and mud on the banks, and defends with great fierceness. It
deposits about one hundred eggs in this nest. The alligator is captured
in various ways, but there is danger in hunting it.

=Crocodile= (_Procœlia_) is found in both hemispheres, but especially in
Africa; they swarm on the Upper Nile. The crocodile of the Nile is a
well-known species, not now found farther north than Thebes, but
occurring abundantly farther south and east. Some two or three score of
eggs, with delicate, rough, limy shells, about the size of those of
geese, are laid in sandy cavities in the bank. The crocodile is now
hunted for the perfume of its musk-glands, and also for its skin and
fat.

[Illustration: The alligators have a covering of horny plates, and
terrible jaws and teeth. These teeth are frequently renewed, new ones
forming in place of those worn out. Alligators are, in this respect,
more fortunate than human beings. In America alligators are protected
part of the year, because they kill things which damage the crops.]


=LIZARDS= (_Lacertilia_)

  These may perhaps be described as the most average of existing
  reptiles, and have a very wide distribution. Examination of a lizard
  or its skeleton enables us to grasp very clearly some of the average
  characters of reptiles, such as the sprawling limbs and long tail.
  Some of the tropical lizards are of very considerable size,
  attaining a length of as much as six feet, as in the iguanas of
  America, some of which are esteemed as food. These are among the
  climbing members of the order, other examples being the geckoes and
  chameleons, both of which are animals of small size.

=Chameleons= are proverbial for the way in which they rapidly change
color if placed among fresh surroundings, so as to harmonize with them.
This variable general coloration is protective, because it makes the
chameleon invisible to its foes, and also aggressive, as the insect prey
of the little lizard are thereby lulled into a sense of false security.
The digits are bound together into two groups, and a tongs-like grasping
organ of great efficiency is thus constituted. The chameleon is also
notable for the relatively enormous distance to which it can suddenly
shoot out its sticky club-shaped tongue, for the purpose of seizing
insects or other small creatures.

=Flying Dragon= (_Draco volans_) is found on trees in the island of
Java. It generally frequents the trees along the banks of great rivers,
in the leaves of which are numerous insects, upon which the flying
dragon feeds. As it is as green as the leaves of the trees, it can only
be recognized by an experienced eye. It is hunted for its delicate
flesh, and also for the eggs, which are found deposited, often fifteen
to twenty at a time, in a hollow in the ground.

=Gecko= (_Hemidadylus maculatus_) is a native of the East Indies and
China. At dawn these reptiles creep out of their holes, and with dilated
eyes look around for prey. As soon as they catch sight of it, the clumsy
creatures spring upon it from a distance of four to six inches, with all
the violence and rapidity of an animal of prey. Sucking pads on the feet
of the gecko enable it to cling firmly to the most slippery surface, and
to crawl about without slipping; its claws, which are sharp and
retractile, are also useful to this reptile.

=Iguana= (_Iguana tuberculata_) is found in the East Indies and in South
America. It lives in trees along the banks of rivers, feeding upon the
insects. Its usual color is dark olive green. Its flesh is considered a
delicacy, being tender and very much like that of a chicken. The eggs,
of which the female deposits from four to six dozen at a time, are also
eaten.


=SNAKES OR SERPENTS=

  have elongated bodies, covered with plates or scales, and no feet.
  Many kinds have no poisonous fangs in the upper jaw. Serpents
  reproduce their species from eggs, and feed upon living animals;
  those found in colder regions sleep through the winter.


HOW THE SNAKE TRAVELS

The vertebrae are very numerous. With the exception of the most anterior
(atlas), all bear ribs, which are very freely movable and are the
snake’s main organs of locomotion. Snakes are capable of moving with
great swiftness. The body undulates from side to side--not up and
down--in a wriggling or writhing fashion. The extremely flexible
backbone permits of this, but to guard against dislocation the vertebrae
are connected by extra locking-joints, which only permit a certain
amount of play. It is, however, comparatively easy to break the back of
a snake by a sharp blow with a stick or whip.


MOUTH AND SENSE ORGANS OF SNAKES

Snakes are typically carnivorous, and many of them are furnished with
powerful poison fangs. The tongue is forked, can be rapidly protruded
and retracted, and is an efficient sense organ. Upon it and the
well-developed nostrils the snakes largely depend, for neither sight nor
hearing is very acute. There are no eyelids, the eyes being covered over
by a transparent convex scale. The whole skin is covered with scales,
which are folds of the epidermis, continuous with one another. In
consequence, when the snake casts its coat--which occurs several times
in the year--it casts it in one piece, this being a complete replica of
the snake.


THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION

The heart is four-chambered, as in mammals and birds, and not
three-chambered, as in other reptiles and amphibia. The pure and impure
blood do not, therefore, mix inside the heart; but as such blending
takes place outside, owing to imperfect separation of the great vessels,
the net result is much the same as in the lizards.


HOW SNAKES SECRETE POISONS

In venomous serpents some of the glands opening into the mouth secrete a
poisonous fluid, which is introduced into the blood of a bitten victim.
The largest amount of specialization is found among the vipers, where
the teeth are reduced to a pair of hollow “fangs” in the front of the
upper jaw, and there are two large poison-glands, one on either side of
the head, giving it a characteristic resemblance to the ace of spades.
In a state of rest, when the mouth is shut, the poison-fangs are pressed
against the roof of the mouth, with their tips directed backwards. But
when the snake opens its mouth and “strikes,” the fangs are rotated
forward so that their sharp tips can be brought into action. The poison
flows into the upper end of the tooth-canal and, in vipers, enters the
wound by a small hole on the side of the tip. Were it at the end a
blockage might result. We have, in fact, an anticipation of the device
used in the construction of the needles employed with hypodermic
syringe.


WHY SNAKES ARE COLORED

Snakes, like lizards, are very commonly colored in such a way that they
may harmonize with their surroundings. A good many poisonous forms, on
the other hand, advertise their dangerous properties by brilliant hues
and striking patterns. Such “warning coloration” is seen, for example,
in the coral snakes of tropical America, which are marked with broad red
rings, alternating with others of whitish tint, shading into black at
the front and back of each ring. These coral snakes serve as models
which certain harmless forms unconsciously mimic, thus securing a
certain amount of immunity from attack by sailing under false colors.


SOME SNAKES THAT WARN

In the American rattlesnakes, at each periodical casting of the skin or
slough, a little knob remains at the end of the tail. A series of these
loosely united together make up the “rattle,” used for the production of
warning sounds. The “hissing” of a snake has the same purpose. Venomous
snakes also commonly assume a warning attitude, raising the front part
of the body from the ground and, in some cases, as illustrated by the
cobra, inflating a kind of hood--in this particular instance bringing a
black, spectacle-shaped mark into prominence.

But in these and other animals it must not be supposed that the
“warning” is for the benefit of the prey, but may be taken as a hint to
aggressive birds and mammals that discretion is the better part of
valor. The success of this device is shown by the terror with which all
monkeys regard serpents.


THE ART OF SNAKE CHARMING

This art has been practised from very ancient times in Africa and the
East, and often remains from generation to generation the profession of
a family. It is sometimes practised for alleged useful purposes, since
the “charmers” are often employed to clear a house of its unwelcome
snake visitors. For the most part, however, it is, like conjuring, a
form of popular amusement. In India it is practised by several distinct
classes of men, who vary in the methods and success of their art. The
charmers usually take good care to play with snakes whose fangs or even
poison-glands have been carefully removed, or even to use those which
are not venomous at all. The frequent use of a musical pipe, and the way
in which the snakes seem to respond to the sounds, are facts interesting
to naturalists, who believe that at least many snakes are very deaf. The
charmers sometimes manifest a fearlessly confident dexterity in handling
intact venomous snakes.


THE WISDOM OF THE SERPENT

In correlation with the presence of a well-developed brain, snakes may
be regarded as the most intelligent of reptiles, though the idea of
their “wisdom” probably took origin in their stealthy ways, and the
curious “fascinating” powers already mentioned. They are among the
numerous animals that have been the objects of superstitious worship.


AMERICAN AND OTHER SNAKES

The group of North American snakes include a large number of Colubrine
snakes and about a score of pit-vipers or rattlesnakes. Among the
Colubrine forms are the water-snakes, the black snakes and coachwhip
snakes of the genus Coluber, the pine-snakes, the king-snakes, the
ring-necked snakes and so on. Besides the rattlesnakes proper, there are
the related copperheads and mocassins. Outside these two families there
are the boa-like and venomous coral-snakes, and the harlequin snake.

There are no snakes in Ireland, nor are they represented in most oceanic
islands such as New Zealand and Iceland. The pythons and boas are
distinctly tropical snakes: the pythons in Africa, India, Malaya,
Australia; the boas in tropical America. Among the most important
venomous snakes of India are the following: the cobra, the Hamadryas,
the Krait, the Sankni, and the sea-snakes.


_AMPHIBIANS_ (_Amphibia_)

FROGS, NEWTS, SALAMANDERS AND TOADS

  The amphibians hold a middle position between the reptiles and
  fishes. The name, Amphibia, means “double-lifed” or living on both
  land and water. The larvæ, after leaving the eggs, live in the water
  like fishes; they gradually accustom themselves to live in the air,
  and when their metamorphosis is complete they breathe by means of
  lungs.

  They have red, cold blood, and are enveloped in a smooth, often
  slippery, skin. Some have tails, like the newt and salamander, and
  others are tailless, like the frog and toad.

=Frog= (_Rana temporaria_) is familiar all over America, and is found in
the early spring in all our ponds, ditches, and lakes, in which also
large quantities of frog’s eggs can be seen. When fully developed, frogs
have a short, tailless body, a large head, and four legs, the toes being
frequently joined together by a membrane.

They deposit their eggs (_a_) in the water, either in masses or in
strings. The larvæ (called tadpoles) have a long, flattened tail (_c_);
they have no legs, and breathe through gills (_b_), and are therefore
very different from the fully developed frog. The gills gradually
disappear, and lungs are developed; the fore legs make their appearance,
the hind pair developing first (_d_ and _e_); the tail gradually
diminishes, and finally disappears (_f_). The change, is then complete,
and the young frog leaves the water to begin its life upon land. The
common frog leaves the water immediately after spawning, and makes
itself very useful by destroying numerous injurious insects and snails.

In this country the commoner species of frogs embrace the BULL FROG (_R.
catesbiana_), which is the largest, sometimes being eight inches long.
Its sonorous bass notes are familiar to the ear, and to the eye it
presents a greenish appearance, brightest on the head; with faint spots
on the back and blotches on the legs. It occurs from Kansas eastwards,
and its hind-legs fried are considered a delicacy.

The SPRING FROG (_R. clamatans_) is widespread, about three inches in
length, green and black spotted above and white below.

The common GREEN FROG (_R. virescens_) has irregular black blotches, and
is paler beneath. Both average about three inches in length.

[Illustration: =DEVELOPMENT OF THE FROG--FROM THE EGG TO THE FULL-GROWN
ANIMAL= (See Page 223).]

The PICKEREL FROG (_R. palustris_) is light brown in color, with two
rows of large oblong blotches of dark brown on the back and spots
elsewhere. It is smaller in size and less aquatic than most other kinds.

The WOOD-FROG or TREE-FROG (_R. sylvatica_) is more closely related in
structure to the toads than to the frogs proper. The tree-frogs show
various interesting adaptations to their arboreal life. The last joint
of each toe bears a claw, on which is supported a disc or sucker by
means of which the animals can cling to a perfectly perpendicular
surface. Most of them also exhibit in a greater or less degree the power
of color-change, where the color varies from a dark brown to a
lichen-like gray or a brilliant green.

=Newts= are separated from the lizards on account of their changes while
young. Like the frogs, they are first tadpoles, and do not assume their
perfect shape until six weeks after their exclusion from the eggs. The
common Newt is a beautiful inhabitant of the ponds, ditches, and still
waters.

The male newt is distinguished by a beautiful crimson tipped wavy crest
of loose skin, that extends along the whole course of the back and tail,
and which, together with the rich orange-colored belly, makes it a most
beautiful creature. The female has a singular habit of laying her eggs
upon long leaves of water-plants, and actually tying them in the leaf by
a regular knot.

=Salamander= (_Salamandra maculata_) is a nocturnal animal, and found in
woods and hedges under decayed leaves and similar matter. Their bodies
are longer and similar to the lizard. Most of the species lay eggs,
usually in the water. From these the gilled young hatch out. They are
carnivorous or insectivorous. In the adult stage, some are aquatic, but
more live on the earth burrowing beneath the soil or under stones,
seeking their prey at night. None are poisonous, except that they have
glands in the skin which secrete an acrid juice. Our largest species is
the mud puppy (_Necturus_) of the Mississippi basin; the largest living
species is the giant salamander of Japan, three feet in length.

=Toad= (_Bufo_).--Toads are distinguished from frogs by the absence of
teeth, by the roughness of the skin, by peculiarities in the breastbone,
and by the shorter hind-legs.

The common toad is a shy, nocturnal animal, hiding during the day in
dark, damp places, crawling about at night in search of insects, grubs,
slugs, worms, and the like. Its appearance is familiar--a dirty
brownish-gray color, a warty skin, a flat head, swollen parotid glands
above the ears, bright jewel-like eyes with a transverse pupil, slightly
webbed toes. They are heavier and clumsier than frogs, and cannot leap
nearly so far. During the winter they live in the mud or in holes. In
spring they pair, and the females lay in the water-pools their numerous
eggs in strings about three or four feet in length. The tadpoles are
smaller and darker than those of frogs, and do not accomplish their
transformation into toads until autumn.

Toads are widely distributed over most parts of the continents, but are
most abundant in tropical regions. The common toad of North America
ranges everywhere east of the Rocky Mountains. In the Southern States
another very similar species is numerous, and other species are found in
the West. The largest toad of tropical America measures eight inches in
length.

The LAUGHING TOAD (_Bombinator igneus_) is the smallest of the toads,
with a yellow spotted belly.

[Illustration: =THE ARCHER FISH=

is one of the strangest of all fishes in its habits. It shoots down
flies and other small creatures from the bank by means of a series of
well-aimed “bullets” of water, which it ejects in rapid succession.]


_THE FISHES_ (_Pisces_)

  The fishes are the last class of the vertebrated animals, and have
  cold, red blood. The elongated body generally tapers off to the
  tail; the head and neck are large; the limbs are called fins, and
  are such as to make efficient paddles. They are usually one or more
  fins in the middle line of the back and one or two in a
  corresponding position beneath the tail (anal fins); while the tip
  of the tail is terminated by a caudal fin, the chief organ of
  swimming. All of the fins are supported by a skeleton of rays,
  either horny or spinous in character.

  There are but two chambers to the heart, and the occurrence of a
  swim bladder, an organ for regulating or recognition of the depth of
  the water in which the fish is, is very frequent. Externally fish
  have a defensive armor of scales or bony plates embedded in the
  skin. They breathe throughout life by means of gills, which are
  delicate folds or filaments connected with openings (gill slits) in
  the sides of the throat. The fishes live in water, and reproduce
  their species by eggs.

  There are several great groups of fishes, distinguished by the
  presence of a cartilage or bony skeleton, by having the gill slits
  free or under a gill cover, by characteristics of the skull,
  presence or absence of air bladder, and by peculiarities of the
  digestive tract and nervous system.

  (1) The bony, or true fishes (_Teleostei_), which include all the
  most familiar freshwater and marine forms; (2) the Cartilaginous
  fishes (_Elasmobranchii_), including sharks, dog-fish, bays and
  skates; (3) the heavily-armored fishes (_Ganoidei_), like the
  sturgeons and bony pike; and (4) the double-breathers (_Dipnoi_), of
  rare occurrence.


=THE BONY FISHES= (_Teleostei_)

  These have a bony skeleton, and a well-defined vertebra, or
  backbone; their bodies are mostly covered with scales.

=Alewife= (_Alosa tyrannus_), a fish of the same genus with the Shad,
which, at the beginning of summer, appears in great numbers on the east
coast of North America, and enters the rivers to spawn. It appears in
Chesapeake Bay in March, on the coasts of New York and New England in
April, and on those of the British provinces about May 1. It abounds in
the bay of Fundy, but is more rare in the gulf of St. Lawrence; and the
bay of Miramichi appears to be its northern limit. Its length is not
more than twelve inches. The alewife is called spring herring in some
places, and gaspereau by the French Canadians.

=Bass= (_Labrax_) is a member of the perch family. The shape is
salmon-like. The color is without the zebra-like bars of the perch, and
shades off from dusky blue above to silvery white beneath.

The Striped Bass or Rock-fish of the United States (_L. lineatus_) very
nearly resembles the common bass, but attains a larger size. It is one
of the most important of American food fishes, and sometimes weighs
fifty pounds. It is caught from July to September. The name Stone Bass
is given to various forms. A Yellow Bass is found in the Lower
Mississippi valley, and the Fresh-water Bass is an imported fish found
in the streams of eastern New York and the other middle states.

=Bluefish= (_Temnodon or Pomatomus saltator_).--A fish common on the
eastern coasts of America, allied to the mackerel. The only known
species is abundant on the east coast of North America. The upper parts
are of a bluish color, the lower parts whitish, a large black spot at
the base of the pectoral fins. The mouth is crowded with teeth, the jaws
are furnished with large ones. The bluefish preys on other fishes, such
as the menhaden and mackerel, the shoals of which it pursues. It
sometimes attains a length of three, or even five feet, and a weight of
fourteen pounds. It is often caught by trolling, as it bites readily at
an object drawn swiftly through the water. It is much esteemed for the
table.

=Bullhead.=--In the United States the name is given to some species of
catfish or horned pout; in England to a smaller fish, allied to our
miller’s thumb, but belonging to a different group from the catfish.

=Carp.= See page 256.

=Cod= (_Gadus_), a genus of bony fishes in the soft-rayed order. This is
probably the most important food fish and is taken in enormous numbers
on the coasts of Europe and of eastern North America. It occurs in the
northern Pacific as well. It feeds upon other fishes as well as on
shellfish, and large specimens weigh over one hundred pounds. Allied to
the cod are the haddock, pollack, hake and cusk.

=Eel= (_Anguilla vulgaris_) has elongated form, and has become
proverbial on account of its slipperiness and tenacity of life. In the
rivers and lakes only female fish are found; the males keep to the open
sea. The former go down to the sea in the autumn; but in the following
spring the young female fish swim up the rivers in immense numbers,
while the young males remain in the sea. During the day the eel conceals
itself in the mud, but at night it exhibits its voracious qualities by
swallowing numerous fish, water insects, crabs, mussels, and worms. Its
firm, delicate flesh is much esteemed.

=Flounder= (_Pleuronectes flesus_), a common species of flat-fish, of
wide distribution in shallow waters in north temperate countries. It is
the Scotch “fluke,” and the Swedish “flundra,” and differs but a little
from the plaice and dab, two of the commonest neighbor-species. Like
other flat-fishes, the flounder is asymmetrical, and swims or rests on
one side, almost always the left, the eye of which is in early youth,
brought round to the upturned surface. It measures about one foot in
length, and about a third as much between the dorsal and the ventral
edge, without including the fringing fins.

Of the two dozen related species, the plaice, the dab, the smear-dab,
and the craig-fluke are the commonest.

=Flying-fish.=--Various fishes which have the power of sustaining
themselves for a time in the air by means of their large pectoral fins.
Generally, however, the name is limited to the species of the genus
_Exocoetus_, which belongs to the family of mackerel-pikes. These can
pass through the air to a considerable distance, sometimes as much as
two hundred yards, to escape from the attacks of other fishes,
especially the dolphin. They are most common between the tropics.

=Goldfish.= See page 256.

=Haddock= (_Gadus æglefinus_) is a fish of the same genus as the cod,
and much resembling it in general appearance; but distinguished by a
notched tail and a white line along the side. In habits the two are much
alike, being voracious, eating anything edible, but largely clams and
the like.

=Halibut= (_Hippoglossus vulgaris_), the largest of all the flat-fish
and in form more elongated than the flounder or the turbot. The halibut,
though esteemed for the table, is not to be compared in quality with the
turbot; its flesh is white and firm, dry and of little flavor. It
attains a great size; specimens have been caught weighing at least five
hundred pounds, and one caught in Iceland was little short of twenty
feet long.

=Herring= (_Clupea harengus_) belongs to the order of bony fishes and is
spread over the whole North Atlantic. It is of great economic
importance, and occurs in large schools, swimming through the sea with
open mouths, scooping up the minute life for food. Immense numbers are
taken both here and abroad, the annual catch for Europe and America
being estimated at a billion and a half pounds. The young are also taken
in vast quantities and are preserved as American sardines. With us most
of the adults are smoked and dried.

=Mackerel= (_Scomber_), a genus of fishes which also includes the tunny,
bonito, and sucking fishes. It is an important food fish occurring in
the North Atlantic and characterized by its slender shape, the series of
little finlets on the tail and the deeply notched caudal or tail fin. It
is taken both by hooks and by seines. Some are eaten in the fresh
condition and some are salted. It goes in large schools. Allied is the
Spanish mackerel of our southern waters and the large horse mackerel
which is more common in the Mediterranean, where it is called the tunny.

=Perch= (_Perca_).--Spiny-finned fishes, well represented by the
Fresh-water Perch (_P. fluviatilis_), which is widely distributed in
lakes, ponds, and rivers in Europe, Northern Asia, North America and
Britain. It is of a greenish-brown color above and golden yellow on the
under parts, with six or seven indistinct dark bands on the back. In
length it measures about eighteen inches, and its height is about a
third of this. It sometimes weighs from three to five pounds, and a
prize of nine pounds has been recorded.

=Porgy.=--A food fish on the eastern coast from Cape Cod south, known
also as scup. It should not be confounded with the pogy or menhaden,
one of the herrings, which is taken extensively for oil.

=Pollack= (_Gadus pollachius_), a fish, belonging to the cod genus. It
is about the size of the coal-fish, is active in habit, and is
frequently caught. The lower jaw projects beyond the upper, and there is
no barbel. It has commercial value in the English Channel and off the
coasts of Newfoundland. Allied species, which promise a valuable future,
abound from Puget Sound to Alaska on the Pacific coast.

=Salmon= (_Salmo_), a genus of well-known fish which inhabits both salt
and fresh waters, and ranks among the food-fishes. It generally attains
a length of from three to four feet, and an average weight of from
twelve to thirty pounds, but these limits are frequently exceeded. The
adult fish is a steel-blue on the back and head, becoming lighter on the
sides and belly.

It usually continues in the shallows of its native stream for two years
after hatching, and during this period it attains a length of eight
inches. When the season of its migration arrives, the fins have become
darker and the fish has assumed a silvery hue. It is now known as a
_smolt_ or _salmon fry_. The smolts now congregate into shoals and
proceed seaward. On reaching the estuary they remain in its brakish
water for a short time and then make for the open sea. Leaving its
native river as a fish weighing, it may be, not more than two ounces,
the smolt, after three months’ absence, may return to fresh water as a
_grilse_, weighing four or five pounds. In the grilse stage, the fish is
capable of depositing eggs. After spawning in the fresh water the grilse
again seeks the sea in the autumn, and when its second stay in the ocean
is over it returns after a few months’ absence as the adult salmon,
weighing from eight to ten pounds. The salmon returns as a rule to the
river in which it passed its earlier existence. The fertility of the
fish is enormous.

Salmon are caught by the rod, and by means of nets, the fishings being
regulated by law. There are important fisheries in some European and
North American rivers. In Europe the fish is found between the latitudes
of forty-five and seventy-five degrees, in North America in
corresponding latitudes. The flesh when fresh is of a bright orange
color, and is of highest flavor when taken from the sea-feeding fish. In
the waters of northwestern America are several salmon belonging to a
distinct genus, including the quinnat or king-salmon, blue-back salmon
or redfish, silver salmon, dog salmon, and humpback salmon. The quinnat
has an average weight of twenty-two pounds, but sometimes reaches one
hundred pounds. Both it and the blue-back salmon are caught in immense
numbers in the Columbia, Sacramento, and Frazer rivers (especially in
spring), and are preserved by canning.

=Sardine, or Pilchard= (_Clupea pilchardus_) is an important fish
closely related to the herring and sprat. In size it grows from ten to
fourteen inches; in color it is bluish-green above, whitish underneath
and on its sides. It is entirely marine in habit, and its eggs float on
the surface of the sea, unlike those of the herring, which are attached
to objects at the bottom. The young, before it has attained maturity, is
known as the sardine, and as such forms a valuable fishery; the
full-grown pilchard is used as an article of diet as well as for bait.
The method of capture is usually by drift-net. It is most abundant off
the coasts of Portugal, and in the English Channel and the
Mediterranean.

=Shad= is a migratory fish of great food value. It ascends all of the
rivers of the eastern coast of the United States every spring to lay its
eggs. It is closely related to the herring, but is much larger, and were
it not so full of bones it would stand very near the head of food
fishes.

=Smelt= (_Osmerus_) is a genus of the Salmon family, characterized by
strong fang-like teeth, and by rather large scales, which readily fall
off. The form is very trout-like, but rather more slender; the tail is
larger in proportion, and more forked. The back is whitish, tinged with
green; the upper part of the sides shows bluish tints, the lower part of
the sides and the belly are of a bright silvery color. The smelt has a
peculiar, cucumber-like smell, and a delicious flavor, on account of
which it is highly esteemed for the table.

=Sole= (_Solea_) is a fish oval in shape, the outline of the snout being
semi-circular, and projecting somewhat beyond the mouth. The Common Sole
(_S. vulgaris_) is a fish of high value in European markets. It lives in
European seas from the Mediterranean to the north of Denmark, and is
rarely caught on the American side of the Atlantic Ocean, although
numerous closely allied kinds abound.

=Sword-fish= (_Xiphiidae_) are abundantly represented in tropical and
subtropical seas. They are among the largest bony fishes, sometimes
measuring twelve to fifteen feet in length. The sword, which may be over
three feet long, is formed from a compressed prolongation of the upper
jaw, and is often strong enough to stab whales fatally, or less
advantageously to pierce the bottom of a ship or the planks of a boat.
Sword-fish are said to attack whales and other cetacea, and also boats
and canoes, and even large vessels.

=Trout=, a name applied to various members of the Salmon family. The
Common or Brown Trout (_Salmo fario_) varies greatly in appearance, not
only with individuals but at different seasons, and this variability has
led some authorities to distinguish a number of subspecies.

At midsummer an adult trout is usually brownish or olive in color, with
pure white on the belly and gold on the flanks, while the back varies
from olive or pale brown to nearly black. The dorsal fin and sides are
spotted with black and often also with scarlet. The scales are circular,
thin and minute. When the spawning season begins in autumn all the color
disappears and the body becomes slimy to the touch. The head of the male
is larger than that of the female, and the lower jaw bears a
cartilaginous knob. It feeds on a large variety of food, different kinds
appealing in turn. It is by cunning imitations of some prevailing fly
that the fisherman makes his most cherished captures.

The artificial hatching of trout is now carried on extensively, and
lakes and streams can be stocked or replenished with fish if they are
not too polluted.

The Bull Trout or Sea Trout (_S. eriox_) most resembles the salmon in
appearance and habits, though thicker in proportion to its length, and
with larger and more numerous dark spots on the gill-covers and scales.

The Salmon or White Trout (_S. trutta_) is a more elegant fish, and its
flesh is much more delicate in flavor. The habits of both are similar.

The Rainbow Trout (_Salmo irideus_) of America has been introduced into
many parts of the world; in New Zealand, especially in Lake Taupo, it
attains the greatest size, many tons being caught yearly.

=Whitefish= (_Coregonus clupeiformis_), the common whitefish, is the
largest of all the American lake whitefish. It is very highly esteemed
for food, ranking, indeed, as one of the finest table fishes. Its range
extends from Lake Champlain to the Arctic Circle.


=CARTILAGINOUS FISHES= (_Elasmobranchii_)

  These fishes have a cartilaginous, pliant, undeveloped skeleton, and
  are not covered with true scales. They include rays, sawfish,
  sharks, skates and others.

=Ray,= a popular name applied to many of the flat cartilaginous fishes:
Thornbacks, Electric Rays, Sting-rays, Eagle-rays are representative.
They lead a somewhat sedentary life at the bottom of the sea, moving
sluggishly by undulations of the pectoral fins which form a large part
of the flat body. Many attain a large size, sometimes measuring six feet
across.

=Sawfish= (_Pristis_) are distinguished by the prolongation of the snout
into a formidable weapon bordered on each side by sharp teeth. Some
species are found off the southern coasts of North America and in the
Gulf of Mexico, and in the Mediterranean and many other seas. With its
saw, which is sometimes six feet in length, the sawfish slashes or rips
up its prey, and its assault is often fatal to large whales.

=Sharks= are a group of very simple fishes, which have only a cartilage
skeleton, no bone being developed anywhere in them. They have the gill
openings on the side of the neck separate, and in all of the common
species the mouth is on the lower side of the head instead of at the
tip, as in ordinary fishes. The tail has unequal lobes, the upper lobe
being much the larger. There are always four paired fins and one or more
on the back. The size of the sharks varies from the smaller dogfish,
about two feet long, to the great basking shark, some forty feet in
length. Most of these species are very voracious, but the tales of
man-eating are often exaggerated, although occasionally they may occur.
Some of the largest species feed exclusively on shellfish. The flesh of
several species is good to eat, but they are mostly neglected in
America. The livers are very rich in oil, which commands a good price
for use in dressing leather. In some species the skin has small spines
and was formerly used (it was called shagreen) instead of sandpaper.
Skin with larger plates is sometimes used in the manufacture of
pocketbooks, etc.

=Skates= (_Raia batis_).--A group of fishes, closely related to the
sharks, but having the body flattened from above downward, and with the
anterior fins so united to the side of the head and the body that it has
a rhomboid appearance and the tail seems like an inconsiderable
appendage. The mouth and the gill openings are on the under surface. The
animals are bottom feeders, living on clams and mussels, buried in the
mud. In Europe some of the smaller species are used for food. Another
has a large electric battery on either side of the head, capable of
giving very strong shocks. This is called the torpedo.


=ARMORED FISH= (_Ganoidei_)

  These include, among others, the Bony Pike and the Sturgeons.

=Bony Pike or Garfish.=--A remarkable genus of fishes inhabiting North
American lakes and rivers, and one of the few living forms that now
represent the order of ganoid fishes so largely developed in previous
geological epochs. The body is covered with smooth, enameled scales, so
hard that it is impossible to pierce them with a spear. The common
garfish attains a length of five feet, and is easily distinguished by
the great length of its jaws.

=Sturgeon= (_Acipenser_).--These large, sluggish fishes, some reach a
length of over ten feet, and live on worms, crustacea, and mollusks. The
body is long and narrow with five rows of bony shields. There are many
species of sturgeon, all confined to the northern hemisphere. They live
in the sea and great lakes, and ascend the great rivers. All supply
valuable commodities, for which they are regularly captured on a large
scale. These commodities are their flesh, which is palatable and
wholesome, their roe (caviare), and their air-bladders, from which
isinglass is made.

The most important sturgeon-fishery in Europe is that of the Volga and
the Caspian Sea. The flesh of the fish is salted, and caviare and
isinglass made on a large scale from the roes and air-bladder.

THE STERLET (_A. ruthenus_) is a much smaller species, which is common
in the Black and Caspian Seas, and ascends the Danube as far as Vienna.
It is one of the principal objects of the sturgeon fishery on the Volga.

In America sturgeon flesh is eaten fresh, and caviare is made both in
Georgia and in San Francisco; but there is no great fishery in any
particular district, and the manufacture of isinglass does not receive
much attention. The sturgeon of the great lakes (_A. rubicundus_) and
the Shovel-nose of the Mississippi valley are the chief American
species.


=LUNG-FISHES OR DOUBLE-BREATHERS=

  (_Dipnoi_) are at present represented by three fresh-water types,
  the insignificant remnant of a group that was once dominant in the
  sea, and would have become entirely extinct if some of its members
  had not taken to live in the waters of the land. These types are the
  eel-shaped mud-fishes of West Africa (_Protopterus_) and South
  America (_Lepidosiren_), and a Queensland form (_Ceratodus_). In all
  these the swim-bladder has been converted into a regular lung, which
  returns purified blood to the heart. The African form lives in
  streams which are liable to dry up, and were it not for the
  possession of a kind of lung capable of breathing air, it would
  perish during the dry season, whereas it remains embedded in the mud
  in a torpid state till the rains return.

  The Queensland lung-fish lives under somewhat different conditions,
  for its native rivers do not entirely dry up, but are reduced to a
  series of deep holes connected by mere trickles of water. These
  holes become so foul from decaying vegetation and dead fish that the
  possession of a lung is a vital matter, and if the _ceratodus_ were
  not able to come to the surface and breathe air it would probably
  succumb.


_THE MOLLUSCS_ (_Molluska_)

=SNAILS, CUTTLEFISHES, SQUIDS, OCTOPUS, TUSK SHELLS, BIVALVE MOLLUSCS,
OYSTERS=

  THE MOLLUSCS have no limbs. The body is surrounded by a membraneous
  sac, from the secretions of which in many species a chalky shell is
  formed. The organs of circulation, digestion, and respiration are
  well developed. The under side of the body is thickened into a
  fleshy “foot,” by which locomotion is effected, and there is a
  well-marked head.

  The Molluscs are divided into five classes: (1) Snails and Slugs
  (_Gastropoda_). (2) Cuttlefishes (_Cephalopoda_); (3) Tusk Shells
  (_Scaphopoda_); (4) Bivalves (_Lamellibranchia_); (5) Mail Shells
  (_Protomollusca_).

=Argonaut= (_Argonauta_) belongs to the two-gilled cuttle-fishes, and
are distinguished by the females possessing a single-chambered external
shell not organically connected with the body of the animal. The males
have no shell and are of much smaller size than the females. The shell
is fragile, translucent, and boat-like in shape; it serves as the
receptacle of the eggs of the female, which sits in it with the
respiratory tube or “funnel” turned toward the carina or “keel.” This
famed mollusk swims only by ejecting water from its funnel, and it can
crawl in a reversed position, carrying its shell over its back like a
snail. The argonaut, or _paper-nautilus_, must be carefully
distinguished from the _pearly-nautilus_ or nautilus proper.

=Cuttlefish.=--One of the mollusks in which there are ten arms around
the mouth. The internal shell is calcified and is used as a supply of
lime for cage birds. They have also an ink bag, the secretion of which
furnishes the pigment sepia. Cuttle-fish are an important article of
food in southern Europe.

=Octopus.=--A mollusk with a rounded body, and a small head bearing a
pair of well-developed eyes, the mouth surrounded by eight long arms,
each arm bearing numbers of suckers by which the animals hold their
prey. Inside the mouth is a pair of jaws, shaped much like those of a
parrot. Most of the species are small, possibly averaging a weight of
five pounds, but some on the Pacific coast spread nearly twenty-eight
feet. The octopus is eaten extensively in the Mediterranean countries.

=Oyster.=--Possibly the most valuable of all of the mollusks. There are
various species in all parts of the world, but the best is the American
species, which now occurs from Cape Cod to the Gulf of Mexico. Formerly
it extended to the coast of Maine, and even now there are scattered beds
in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The oyster grows in shallow water,
fastening its shell to some rock or shell, and in this way large beds
are formed. They are also planted; that is, the young are taken and
placed in favorable situations for rapid growth.

The oyster contains but comparatively little nourishment, though eaten
extensively. The European oyster is smaller than ours and has a coppery
taste.

Allied to the true oysters are the PEARL OYSTERS, especially abundant
around Ceylon. These have the interior of the shell lined with
mother-of-pearl, and when foreign particles get between body and shell
they are covered with the same substance, thus forming the pearls used
for adornment. These oysters are obtained by diving; the animal matter
is allowed to rot, leaving the pearls behind. The shell is also of
value, furnishing material for knife handles, buttons, etc., though most
of our pearl buttons are now made from the shells of fresh-water mussels
from the Mississippi valley.

=Scallop= (_Pecten_), a well-known bivalve, one of those with a single
muscle closing the shell. The valves are fan-shaped, the left often more
or less flat, the right more markedly arched; both are marked with
sinuous radiating ridges, to which the name pecten (_Lat._ “a comb”)
refers. The hinge-line is without teeth, and is extended laterally in
two ears. The small finger-shaped foot is usually marked with bright
orange or red color. The scallops are widely distributed in all seas, at
depths of three to forty fathoms.

=Snails.=--A common name used for any mollusk with a coiled shell. In
the narrower meaning it includes only those forms which occur on land.
These land-dwelling forms have a slight shell, into which the whole body
can be retracted. They feed exclusively on vegetation, which they rasp
by means of a long ribbon, just inside the mouth, the surface of which
is covered with thousands of minute teeth, so that the whole is a
flexible file. The animal creeps about on a broad sole, and has four
tentacles on the head, one pair of them bearing the simple eyes at the
tip. Snails do considerable damage where they are numerous. One species
is eaten by many in Europe, especially in France and Italy. Over ten
thousand species are known.

The shells of sea snails are often of great beauty, and large sums have
been given by collectors for specimens of unusual elegance or rarity,
fifty pounds having been paid for a single example of a species of cone
shell (_Conus_). The helmet shells (_Cassis_) are made up of differently
colored layers, and on account of their beauty have been largely
employed for the carving of cameos.

=Squid.=--A mollusk nearly related to the cuttlefish. It has a
barrel-shaped body, with a head in front bearing ten pairs of tapering
tentacles, each with numerous suckers. On the side of the head is a
well-developed eye. Squid live largely on small fishes which they catch
with the tentacles, biting them with a pair of parrot-like jaws. They
are largely used as bait in fishing, and to a limited extent as food.
The average length is a foot or two, but in the seas around Newfoundland
and Japan giants are occasionally found with bodies a dozen feet in
length and tentacles adding thirty feet to this.

=Tusk Shells= are a small group of burrowing marine forms, in which the
body is covered by a long, curved shell resembling a tusk in shape.
There is a small hole at its tip, through which the water which has been
used in breathing makes its exit. An imperfectly developed head and a
rasping organ are present, and burrowing is effected by a long foot with
a three-lobed end. The food consists of small organisms, which are
apparently secured by the agency of a bunch of filaments with thickened
sticky tips that can be protruded from the mouth of the shell. In some
respects these animals are intermediate in structure between typical sea
snails and bivalve molluscs.


_JOINTED-LIMBED ANIMALS_ (_Arthropoda_)

=CRABS AND LOBSTERS, SCORPIONS AND SPIDERS, INSECTS AND GRASSHOPPERS=

  This great division of the animal kingdom includes far more numerous
  species than any other, and is abundantly represented in both salt
  and fresh water, on the land and in the air. It consequently
  includes both _air-breathers_ and _gill-breathers_: the former,
  typical land insects; and the latter, chiefly crustaceous.


=CRABS AND THEIR ALLIES= (_Crustacea_)

  The Crustaceans breathe by means of gills, and their bodies consist
  of rings. They have two pairs of feelers and two pairs of jaws, to
  which are mostly joined one or more pairs of jaw feet. All the
  remaining rings of the body may have a pair of limbs each. The head
  bears two pairs of feelers. Crustaceans commonly hatch out as
  free-swimming larvæ, like the adult in form.

  This large class of jointed-limbed animals includes lobsters,
  prawns, shrimps, crabs, and other familiar forms, the great bulk of
  which are aquatic, though the wood-lice have become adapted to a
  life on land.

[Illustration: =A GROUP OF CRUSTACEANS=

=1. Common Lobster. 2. Thornback Crab. 3. Land Crab. 4. Hermit Crab. 5.
Barnacle. 6. Scorpion. 7. Antarctic Trilobite.=]

=Crab.=--In this class of Crustaceans the abdomen is small and folded
under the anterior part of the body. Over two thousand species are
known, differing greatly in size, shape, and in other respects. The
great majority are marine, but there are a few which spend their entire
life on land, only going to the water once a year to lay their eggs. The
largest is the great spider crab of Japan, whose legs may stretch out a
dozen feet. One species on the Atlantic coast is taken at molting time
in great numbers and forms the favorite soft-shell crab of the table.
The hermit crabs have the abdomen soft, and to protect this vulnerable
part, they insert it in the shell of some dead snail, and carry this
about with them wherever they go.

=Barnacle.=--A family of marine crustaceous animals enveloped by a
mantle and shell, composed of five principal valves and several smaller
pieces, joined together by a membrane attached to their circumference.
They are furnished with a long, flexible, fleshy stalk, provided with
muscles, by which they attach themselves to ships’ bottoms, submerged
timber, etc. They feed on small marine animals, brought within their
reach by the water and secured by their tentacula. Some of the larger
species are edible.

=Crayfish.=--Small, fresh-water crustaceans, which resemble the lobsters
in appearance. They usually live in burrows in the banks or bottoms of
streams and feed on decaying animal matter. In Europe they form a
considerable element in the food supply and are bred in ponds. A large
number of species occur in the United States, and are always to be found
in the larger markets.

=Lobster.=--The most important of the crustaceans. One species occurs on
our east coast, another on the coast of northern Europe. The body is
divided into two regions, the anterior bearing, besides the parts used
in taking food, a pair of large pincers and four pairs of walking feet.
At the front of the head are two pairs of feelers, which are sensory,
and a pair of eyes on the ends of short stalks. The lobsters are fond of
decaying fish and are among the scavengers of the sea. They are caught
in large traps, called lobster pots, made out of lath and baited with
decaying fish. The annual catch on the New England coast is estimated at
about thirty million pounds, the average weight of a lobster being
between two and three pounds. Farther south on our east coast, in
California and the Mediterranean a different animal is called lobster.

=Prawn.=--Crustaceans nearly allied to shrimps and lobsters, but not
exclusively marine. They vary in size from a couple of inches to over a
foot in some tropical forms. Many of them are semi-transparent, and
exhibit very fine colors. On the approach of night they change to a
beautiful blue, but the meaning of this “sunset” coloration is not fully
understood. Some of the deep-sea prawns are blind; others possess
enormous eyes, and many emit a phosphorescent light. They may be caught
in putting nets or in osier baskets, like those used for trapping
lobsters. They are esteemed for eating even more highly than the
shrimp.

=Shrimps.=--Small crustaceans allied to the lobster, most of them
inhabitants of the sea. In many countries they form an important part of
the diet, but with us they are little used with the exception of one or
two southern species which are used as a basis for shrimp salad. Shrimps
are very abundant off our coast and could be made an important fishery.


=SCORPIONS AND SPIDERS=

  In this class of insects the head and thorax are joined together in
  one mass, on which they have two pairs of jaws, and four pairs of
  legs.

=Scorpions.=--These spider-like animals have four pairs of legs and a
pair of large pincers, as well as a small pair on the anterior half of
the body; while the hinder portion consists of at first a broad region,
followed by a narrower one, the whole terminated with a sting, with
which a poison gland is connected. The animal strikes by bending the end
of this tail over the back. Its sting is very painful, but rarely if
ever is it fatal. Scorpions occur as far north as Nebraska, but are more
common in the tropics. They bring forth living young and care for their
brood for a while.

=Spiders= have jointed bodies and legs. The bodies are divided into two
regions, the anterior of these bearing four pairs of legs and two
smaller pairs of appendages. The most anterior of these are the poison
claws. They have a poison gland in the base, while the end of the claw
tapers to a point. The front of the head has from six to eight simple
eyes. The hinder half of the body, the abdomen, is without appendages,
save for two or three pairs of very small projections, the spinnerets.
Each of these has numbers of openings at the tip, through which a fluid
is forced at will. This hardens immediately it comes in contact with the
air and furnishes the silk of which the spider’s web is woven. Fine as
it is, this silk is really a cable, being made of numbers of finer
threads, one for each opening in the spinnerets. They use the silk for
making webs, for cocoons for the eggs, nests, and in some cases for
parachutes for flying. Each species makes its own type of web.

Spiders breathe by means of sacks--so-called lungs--on the lower side of
the abdomen.

Our common house spider is the same as that of Europe; the largest
species we see is the one found occasionally in banana bunches.

The TARANTULA has the greatest reputation from the unfounded belief that
its bite causes madness which can be cured only by music. So far as is
known there is only one species which can cause serious effects by
biting man, and even these cases are not sufficiently authenticated.

The BIRD CATCHING SPIDER is a gigantic spider native to Surinam and
elsewhere. It preys upon insects and small birds, which it hunts for and
pounces upon. It is about two inches long, very hairy, and almost black;
its feet when spread out occupy a surface of nearly a foot in diameter.

HUNTER-SPIDERS. A great many of this species construct no webs, but use
their silk merely for lining their dwellings--which are commonly
underground--or the construction of protective investments for the eggs.
Such forms simply stalk their prey, seizing the victims, when near
enough, by a sudden spring. One such type is the tarantula spider
described above.

WATER SPIDERS are found in ponds and ditches in this country. They hunt
down small crustaceans but do not construct a web. For the protection of
the eggs a thimble-shaped nest is woven, moored by threads to stems or
leaves, and smeared externally with liquid silk to make it watertight.
The nest is filled with air brought down from the surface of the pond in
successive bubbles adhering to the hairy body of the spider.


=THE INSECTS= (_Insecta_)

  This ubiquitous class includes more species than all the other
  groups of land animals put together. The bodies consist of a series
  of rings, divided into three sections: the head, the thorax, and the
  abdomen. There is an external covering that serves as a protection.
  The head possesses a pair of antennæ, two large compound eyes (and
  sometimes several simple eyes as well), and three pairs of jaws,
  differing greatly in character according to the habits. The thorax
  bears three pairs of legs, and in most cases two pairs of wings,
  while the abdomen is entirely or practically limbless. The air-tubes
  make up an exceedingly complex system, and open to the exterior by a
  limited number of air-holes.

  All insects undergo a series of changes (metamorphoses). From the
  egg first comes the larva (caterpillar, maggot); from the larva
  after several changes of the outer skin, the pupa is developed; from
  which, after a longer or shorter period of repose, the perfect
  insect emerges. In some, such as the dragon flies, the whole course
  of metamorphosis, or change, is not gone through; for in the dragon
  flies the larva which comes from the egg resembles the full-grown
  insect, only it is without wings; but later, without entering the
  pupa stage, it develops into the perfect insect. There are
  altogether about two hundred thousand various kinds of insects.

  The simplest way of classification is into the following nine
  orders, though specialists recognize a much larger number: (1)
  Wingless insects (_Aptera_); (2) Straight-winged Insects
  (_Orthoptera_); (3) Bugs (_Hemiptera_); (4) Fringe-winged Insects
  (_Thysanoptera_); (5) Net-winged Insects (_Neuroptera_); (6) Beetles
  (_Coleoptera_); (7) Moths and Butterflies (_Lepidoptera_); (8) Flies
  (_Diptera_); (9) Membrane-winged Insects (_Hymenoptera_).

=Beetles= (_Coleoptera_).--These include an enormous host of insects.
Their horny investment is particularly thick, and they possess strong
biting jaws, though these differ in some respects from those described
for the cockroach and its allies. The third pair, for instance are much
more intimately fused together into a lower lip. The fore wings are
modified into hard wing-covers, while the hind wings are membraneous, as
in straight-winged insects (cockroaches, grasshoppers, and the like).
But there is one marked difference between the two orders in regard to
these organs. The hind wings of the latter fold up along a set of
longitudinal pleats when they are tucked away under their covers, but in
a beetle they are relatively long, and require a transverse fold as
well.

The life history of beetles exhibits a well-marked metamorphosis. From
the egg a grub hatches out, which, after a time, passes into a
motionless pupa stage, and ultimately the investment of this splits open
so that the perfect insect may emerge.

Beetles vary in size from a mere point to the bulk of a man’s fist, the
largest, the elephant beetle of South America, being four inches long.
The so-called “black beetles” of kitchens and cellars are not properly
beetles at all, but cockroaches.

The most interesting are the following:

BOMBARDIER BEETLE (_Brachinus crepitans_). This insect is preyed upon by
larger beetles of its own family; but when chased, the bombardier ejects
an acid fluid from glands situated at the tip of its tail. This acid
immediately vaporizes on contact with the atmosphere, and looks like a
tiny puff of smoke, while at the same time a distinct report is heard,
reminding one of a miniature cannon. The discharge can be repeated
several times in rapid succession, and prove very serviceable in keeping
the enemy at bay until the little artilleryman is able to find shelter
beneath a stone, or in a crevice of the soil.

=Cantharis=, a genus of blister-beetles, represented by the Spanish fly
of Southern Europe. The insects are shaken with gloved hands from the
branches of trees (ash, privet, lilac, elder, etc.), the gathering in
the south of France taking place in May; they are usually killed in a
hot vinegar solution and carefully dried. To retain their medicinal
properties they must be kept in stoppered bottles. The blistering
principle, or cantharidine, is so powerful that those who gather the
insects are apt to suffer, and one-hundredth of a grain, placed on the
lip, will raise blisters.

=Firefly= (_Elater_).--Some fireflies give forth a steady light, and
these may be distinguished as fireflies proper from the glow-worms and
“lightning-bugs,” which flash light intermittently.

The most brilliant fireflies are a species most at home in tropical
America. One form--_Pyrophorus noctilucus_--common in the West Indies
and Brazil, attains a length of about one and one-half inches, and has a
dark, rusty-brown color. On the upper surface of the first rings of the
thorax are two yellowish oval spots, which are brilliantly luminous
during the nocturnal activity of the beetle, while on the first ring of
the abdomen a still brighter organ is situated. Even the eggs are
luminous, and excised portions placed in a damp chamber remain
functional for two or three days. The pounded debris of the insect is
also luminous. The luminous organs are special modifications of the
epidermic cells, which are disposed in two layers, of which the outer
alone is luminous, while the inner contains masses of waste products,
and is riddled by air tubes. The luminosity depends on a process of
oxidation; the oxygen is supplied by the tracheæ, and the brilliancy
varies with the breathing process of the insect. On the sleeping or
entirely passive insect a soft light may be observed; the real light is
only exhibited during active respiration, and may be exaggerated
experimentally by blowing in an extra supply of oxygen. Experiments seem
to show that the fireflies utilize their phosphorescence to guide their
steps.

=SOME PICTURED MARVELS OF INSECT LIFE=

[Illustration: =A MOTHER EARWIG PROTECTING HER FAMILY= (See page 237)]

[Illustration: =CONTEST BETWEEN TWO MALE STAG-BEETLES FOR A MATE= (See
Page 234)]

[Illustration: =THE SEVEN SPOTTED LADY-BUG= (See Page 234)]

[Illustration: =THE VICTORIOUS HERCULES BEETLE HAVING VANQUISHED HIS
RIVALS IN COURTSHIP CARRIES OFF HIS MATE IN THIS FASHION.= (See Page
234)]

[Illustration: =THE ENGLISH CRICKET= whose familiar chirp we have all
heard in the late autumn (See Page 237)]

[Illustration: =THE BOMBARDIER BEETLE= is an expert artilleryman, and
when pursued by an enemy is able successfully to resist the chase. (See
Page 232)]

=Glow-worms= (_Lampyrides_) are to be distinguished from the fireflies.
They are nocturnal in habit, and represented by about five hundred
species, widely distributed, especially in warm countries. America is
very rich in “lightning-bugs,” such as _Photuris pennsylvanicus_, and
other species.

The luminous organs consist, like those of the fireflies, of
fatty-looking cells round which there is a plentiful supply of tracheæ,
affording the necessary oxygen for the rapid production of
phosphorescence.

Professor Emery gives a most entertaining account of his observations on
the love-lights of _Luciola italica_, which he studied in the meadows
around Bologna, Italy. By catching females and imprisoning them in glass
tubes in the meadows he satisfied himself that sight, not smell, was all
important. When the females caught sight of the flashes of an
approaching male, in spite of their tantalizing situation, they allowed
their splendor to shine forth. The most noteworthy difference is that
the luminous rhythm of the male is more rapid and the flashes briefer,
while that of the female is more prolonged, at longer intervals, and
more tremulous. The attracted males dance round about the female, who,
after having captivated one suitor, proceeds to signal other rivals,
till she is finally surrounded by a circle of devotees.

=Ladybird or Ladybug= (_Coccinella_) is a pretty little beetle,
generally of a brilliant red or yellow color, with black, red, white or
yellow spots. The form is nearly hemispherical, the under-surface flat,
the thorax and head small, the antennæ and legs short. When handled they
emit a yellowish fluid, with a disagreeable smell. Adults and larvæ feed
chiefly on plant lice, and are thus most useful to hop-growers and other
agriculturists. Ladybirds occasionally occur in immense numbers, and
from ignorance of their usefulness have sometimes been regarded with
superstitious dread.

=Colorado Beetle= (_Chrysomela_) is a North American beetle which
commits fearful ravages among potatoes. It is an oval insect, of an
orange color, with black spots and lines. The antennæ are club-shaped.
The larvæ and adults live on the potato-plant, and have sometimes quite
destroyed the crop in certain parts of the United States. They pass the
winter underground, and emerge from their hiding-places in the beginning
of May. The female lays many hundreds of eggs in groups of twelve to
twenty on the under side of potato leaves. The larvæ, which emerge in
about a week, are reddish and afterwards orange. They grow up quickly
and produce a second generation, which may again produce a third in the
same summer. Their rate of multiplication is therefore very rapid. The
surest remedy in case of attack is said to be a preparation of arsenic
known as “Paris Green.”

=Scarabæus= (_Ateuchus sacer_), one of the dung-beetles well known for
the zeal with which they unite in rolling balls of dung to their holes.
The dung serves as food, and a beetle having secured a ball seems to
gnaw at it continuously--sometimes for a fortnight--until the supply is
exhausted. Sometimes an egg is laid in the ball, and the parents unite
in rolling this to a place of safety. There are numerous American
species.

By the Egyptians the scarabæus was venerated during its life, and often
embalmed after death. Entomologists have recognized four distinct
species sculptured on the Egyptian monuments, and gems of various kinds
of stones were often fashioned in their image.

=Stag-beetles= (_Lucanus_) are nearly allied to the scarabees. The males
are remarkable for the large size of their mandibles, the branching of
which has suggested stags’ antlers. The common stag-beetle is a large
formidable-looking insect, the males being fully two inches long, and
able to give a sharp bite with their strong mandibles. It flies about in
the evening in the middle of summer, chiefly frequenting oak-woods.

These insects habitually are well known to fight for possession of a
coveted mate. For this purpose the mandibles of the male are enormously
developed, and frequently there occurs a most amusing tussle, one beetle
striving to gain the side of his lady-love, the other balking him.
Eventually one suitor admits defeat by turning tail and making off,
while the victor marches in triumph to the fair cause of all the
trouble, and begins to court her.

The huge Hercules Beetle of South America has been seen to carry off his
mate bodily in this way. Other tropical beetles have specially developed
forelegs for grasping their spouse, should she prove coy and attempt
playfully to run away.

=Water-beetles= (_Ditiscus marginalis_) are carnivorous types which have
become adapted to life in freshwater, although the adults have not lost
the power of flight. In our native great water-beetle the large hind
legs are fringed with bristles, and serve as oars, while air can be
stored under the wing-covers. There is only a partial metamorphosis.

=Weevil= is a popular name for a large number of beetles, marked by a
beak or proboscis, generally used by both sexes as a boring organ. Among
ten thousand described species are the American species _Trichobaris
trinotata_, a small black weevil which destroys potatoes, and
_Conotrachelus nenuphar_, which lays its eggs in various fruits and is a
great pest, and the _Entimus imperialis_, the diamond-beetle with very
brilliant scales.

=Wire-worms= are the grubs of skip-jack or click beetles, perhaps the
most injurious of farm pests. They are called wire-worms “from their
likeness in toughness and shape to a piece of wire;” they are yellowish
in color, from one-quarter to one-half an inch in length, with three
pairs of legs, and a suctorial appendage below the tail. The eggs are
laid near the roots of plants, in the ground or in the axils of leaves;
the grub remains for several years (three to five) as such, burrowing in
the ground during the frost of winter, but at other times hardly ceasing
from voracious attacks on the roots and underground stems of all sorts
of crops. Dressing of lime, salt, nitrate of soda, etc., have been
recommended as remedies.

[Illustration: =THE LIFE HISTORY OF A BEAUTIFUL BUTTERFLY=

=ITS STORY IS VERY SIMILAR TO THAT OF THE SILKWORM=

In these photographs the transformations of a butterfly are shown: the
butterfly’s eggs (highly magnified) laid upon a leaf; the newly hatched
caterpillar; and a caterpillar which has finished its growth and has
spun a silken pad, to which as a chrysalis it may cling. The chrysalis
is also shown, and the newly emerged butterfly waiting for its wings to
expand fully and harden. All the figures are enlarged.]


=BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS= (_Lepidoptera_)

These are among the highest orders of insects. For beauty and variety of
coloration they are quite unrivaled, and their attractive appearance is
primarily due to the fact that the four wings are covered with
overlapping scales of different kinds. The mouth parts are specialized
to constitute a suctorial organ, which is made up of the second jaws,
while the first and third jaws are greatly reduced. Each second jaw has
become a half-tube, and the two are hooked together to make up a
proboscis, sometimes of great length, which can be separated into its
halves.


HOW BUTTERFLIES DEVELOP

The life-history exhibits a very typical and familiar metamorphosis.
From the egg, which is often very beautifully sculptured, a larva known
as a caterpillar hatches out, possessing not only the three pairs of
jointed legs characteristic of the class, but also a varying number of
unjointed pro-legs terminating in suckers. After feeding voraciously for
some time by means of its powerful biting first jaws, and undergoing a
number of moults, the caterpillar passes into the motionless pupa stage,
here called a chrysalis, which may or may not be invested in a
protective cocoon. The skin of the chrysalis ultimately splits, and the
perfect insect makes it way out.


HOW TO DISTINGUISH BUTTERFLIES FROM MOTHS

Butterflies are typically distinguished from moths by the club-shaped
thickenings at the ends of their antennæ, and by the fact that when
settling, the wings are folded together over the back. In moths the
antennæ may be of various form, but very rarely club-shaped, and the
rest-position of the wings is horizontal or sloping downward, while in
some instances they may be more or less wrapped round the body.


WHY BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS HAVE BEAUTIFUL COLORS

Some butterflies are dingy, others uniform, but in contrast to moths the
majority are beautifully colored. This is especially the case with
tropical forms. How the colors are variegated and contrasted in spots
and bands, how the hues are embellished by metallic shimmer, every one
knows; what exactly the color means is, however, still obscure. A few
general facts may be first noticed: (1) The color is in many cases
subject to variation--it cannot be said to be absolutely constant for a
species; (2) in some instances, at any rate, it is influenced by
external conditions, for different forms at different periods of the
year, is known in many kinds; (3) sometimes the color and markings,
especially of the under surface of the wings, are obviously of use for
the protection of the resting butterfly; (4) in some cases this
protective adaptation is so pronounced as to deserve to be called
mimicry; (5) in many cases the coloring is in direct connection with the
physical constitution of the species, and is usually most marked in the
males.


CHIEF CLASSES OF BUTTERFLIES

Of the families representing more than five thousand species, the chief
are the following:

(1) _Nymphalidæ_, the largest, containing between four and five thousand
species. They have a relatively simple type of coloration, and are
interesting because of their disposition to mimic other species. They
are distasteful to birds. They include the red admiral, the
tortoise-shells, the peacock, and so on, as well as the fritillaries and
the purple emperor. In it are also included the remarkable leaf
butterflies in which the under surface, in shape, color and markings,
closely resemble a dead leaf, while the upper surface is brightly
colored. On alighting only the under surface is visible.

(2) The _Erycinidæ_ is represented by the Duke of Burgundy fritillary.

(3) The _Lycænidæ_ include the “blues,” so commonly seen flitting near
the ground along muddy roads, so called from the color of the upper
surface, but many are also copper, white and yellow.

(4) The _Pieridæ_ include the white cabbage butterflies. They are
remarkable for the prevalence of white, yellow, and orange colors, and
for the fact that these tints are due to uric acid, or derivatives of
this substance, stored in the wings as a pigment.

(5) The _Papilionidæ_, or swallow-tails, contain perhaps the most
beautiful forms. The females are strikingly different from the males,
and though larger, do not display the same beauty of coloration. The
members of the family are widely distributed.

(6) The family _Hesperidæ_, or skippers, includes insects very different
from other butterflies, both in structure and habits. The adults have in
many cases a very rapid but jerky method of flight, and the larvæ in
their habits resemble moths rather than butterflies.

  =Moths= (_Heterocera_).--The antennæ of moths are bristly, gradually
  lessening from base to tip; when sitting the wings are turned down;
  and its flight is nocturnal. What the owl is among birds, the moth
  is among insects: it is a night-insect, carrying on its pursuits,
  and exercising all its activity amid the gloom of darkness. So
  numerous is the variety of moths, that there are upward of five
  hundred species.

  The giant OWL-MOTH of Brazil (_Thysania agrippina_) measures nearly
  a foot across from tip to tip of expanded wings, while the smallest
  are hardly visible to unaided eyes. The larvæ or caterpillars feed
  mostly on living plants, and in this connection are very familiar;
  others of these ravaging forms ruin clothes, furs, and the like.
  Almost the only directly useful form is the silk-moth.

  =Silkworm Moth.= See under Domesticated Animals.


=STRAIGHT-WINGED INSECTS= (_Orthoptera_)

  The fore wings are either parchment-like or membraneous; the hind
  wings always membraneous. The wings cover the body horizontally, and
  do not meet in a straight line or ridge, as they do in the beetles.
  This order of insects undergoes only a partial metamorphosis, being
  produced from eggs in a wingless condition. The Cicadas, however,
  are an exception, as they live in the ground frequently for years
  in the larva state. In this order are included the locust, cricket,
  grasshopper, cockroach, scale insect, plant-lice, and many kinds of
  bugs.

=Crickets= (_Gryllus_) are akin to grasshoppers. They have long feelers,
a rasping organ on the wing-covers of the males, wings closely folded
lengthwise, but often along with the wing-covers degenerate, great
powers of leaping, and a retiring, more or less subterranean habit of
life. Many of the species are wingless, and it is the males only which
make a chirping sound. They are widely distributed, and all are
herbivorous. The field cricket, house cricket and the common
mole-cricket, are well-known representatives of the family.

=Earwigs= (_Forficula_) have two pairs of wings, very dissimilar, the
anterior pair being short and horny, the posterior pair folded
longitudinally and transversely; the mouth parts are well developed and
suited for biting; the antennae are thread-like; there is no true
metamorphosis in the life-history. The common earwig is best known for
the pincer-like organ at the end of the abdomen.

Earwigs avoid the light, and do most of their work in the dark. They
feed, as gardeners well know, on petals and other parts of flowers, on
fruit, seeds and leaves, nor is animal debris refused. They are usually
and readily caught in artificial shelters provided for their
destruction.

The eggs of the common species are laid in spring, fifteen to twenty, in
some convenient cavity. These are carefully watched, and even after the
birth of the young earwigs, the mother still tends them as a hen does
her chicks.

=Grasshopper=, a name given to numerous insects forming the locust
family. They usually live among vegetation, in woods and thickets or in
the open field. Most of them feed on flies and caterpillars, in catching
which they use their powerful fore-legs, but many affect plants, and
some combine both diets.

In the grasshopper the head is placed vertically; the slender antennae
are longer than the body; there are hemispherical eyes, but rarely
eye-spots; wings and wing-covers are generally present. The right (and
occasionally also the left) wing-cover of the male bears a clear, round
membrane stretched on a ring, which produces the well-known “chirp” when
set in vibration.

The females have a long egg-positor. The eggs are laid by means of it
either in the earth or in some dry stem. From these, in spring, larvæ
are developed, which are virtually like the adults, but molt at least
six times before they become full-grown.

=Katydid=, a name applied to numerous American insects, nearly related
to grasshoppers. They frequent trees, shrubbery, and grass, and are well
concealed in the foliage by their green color. In their general habit,
_e. g._ in the song to which the syllables “kat-y-did” refer, and in the
egg-laying accomplished by the long egg-positors of the female, these
lively insects resemble grasshoppers.

=Locusts= (_Acrididae_) are large, ground-loving insects, of world-wide
distribution, famous for their voracious vegetarian appetite. In size
they vary from one-quarter inch to five inches in length. They have
strong hind-legs with great leaping powers, large heads with formidable
mouth-organs, shorter antennæ and robuster bodies than grasshoppers.
Both winged and wingless forms occur, the former with strong powers of
flight. The females have strong egg-positors by which they bore holes
for their eggs. The numerous eggs are laid in holes drilled in the
ground; the young when hatched generally resemble the parents except in
the absence of wings. From the first they are gregarious, and
excessively voracious except during their repeated molts; they devour
all green things, and even one another, and are often forced by stress
of hunger and excessive multiplication to migrate in great swarms.

Their ravages sometimes cause widespread famine and ruin. One of the
most famous and destructive forms is the Rocky Mountain Locust
(_Caloptenus spretus_); the most abundant migratory species of the East,
so often mentioned in the Scriptures, is _Pachytylus migratorius_.

[Illustration: On the left is shown a Leaf Insect which, having given up
the habit of flight, has yet retained its likeness to the leaves upon
which it feeds to protect itself from its enemies. On the right is shown
a grasshopper depositing her eggs in a nest under the ground. (See
above).]


=ANTS, BEES AND WASPS= (_Hymenoptera_)

These membrane-winged insects are the most intelligent of their kind.
They are readily recognized by the presence of four transparent wings
traversed by a comparatively small number of veins, the hinder ones
being much smaller than the others, to which they are in many instances
attached during flight by means of a row of minute hooks. The posterior
end of the body in the female is commonly provided with a piercing
apparatus, which may either serve for boring holes, in which eggs are
laid, in which case it is called an “ovipositor,” or may have been
modified into a poisoned sting, useful for offense and defense. The
black and yellow or black and red bands of wasps and bees are “warning
colors,” indicating their stinging powers.

The larvæ either resemble caterpillars or are pale, helpless maggots,
devoid of limbs, for the welfare of which more or less elaborate
provisions are made by the mother insect. Later on a pupa stage is
reached, from which the winged adult ultimately emerges. The highest
members of the order live in communities comprising several casts.

  =Ants= (_Formicidae_).--These familiar and intelligent diminutive
  creatures are perhaps the most interesting of all insects, owing to
  the extraordinary way in which they have become adapted to a great
  variety of modes of life. All are social, and a community typically
  consists of males, females, workers (of one or more kinds), and, it
  may be, soldiers. The first two are generally provided with wings,
  though those of the females are soon shed, but exceptions to this
  occur, and some species may have both winged and wingless
  individuals of one sex or the other. The first pair of jaws
  (mandibles) are well or even excessively developed, and possess
  unusually free powers of movement in accordance with the varied
  functions they have to perform. In many cases the females (including
  the workers) are provided with a sting.

  Ants hatch out as helpless, limbless larvæ, which have to be fed and
  carefully attended, either by the fertile females or the workers, as
  the case may be. Feeding is rather a curious affair, for the nurse
  possesses a sort of pouch (crop) connected with her gullet, and this
  is used as a store from which nutriment can be squeezed up into the
  mouth. Adults can feed one another in the same way, as also the
  little beetles and other insects which are often found as guests in
  their communities.


WANDERING ANTS OF THE TROPICS

These ants are of highly carnivorous habits, and move about in large
armies, devouring everything of animal nature that comes in their way.
The fact that they are blind, or practically so, does not seem to
interfere with their devastations. Some of the forms are common in the
hotter parts of South America, while others, the “driver” ants, are well
known in Africa, where criminals, it is said, are sometimes tied up in
their path, to perish miserably, if speedily.


SLAVE-HOLDING ANTS AND THEIR SLAVES

Some ants press weaker species of their kind into unmerited captivity.
In one familiar instance the relatively large oppressor (_Polyergus
rufescens_) is of reddish color and well endowed in the matter of jaws,
while the enslaved species (_Formica fusca_) is small and dark. Regular
slave raids are made from time to time, when, after stubborn resistance,
the pupæ and older larvæ of the weaker form are carried away to lead a
life of bondage, to which, indeed, they take very kindly. This kind of
social economy has indeed become an absolute necessity to the slavers,
which have quite lost the power of feeding their own young, while some
such species cannot feed themselves.

A most extraordinary state of things occurs in the case of a small kind
of ant (_Anergates_) which possesses no workers of its own, but lives
within the communities of another species (_Tetramorium cæspitosum_)
entirely made up of workers.

Some ants, such as the little black species (_lasius niger_) common in
gardens, use as part of their food a sweet fluid that exudes from plant
lice (_aphides_), and keep these insects as we keep kine. The captives
are fed, sheltered, and jealously guarded. Fenced enclosures are
constructed for them on plants in the vicinity of the nest, with which
they are connected by covered roads. During winter the fragile eggs of
the plant lice are taken underground and sedulously cared for.


THE HARVESTER ANTS OF EUROPE, NORTH AFRICA AND NORTH AMERICA

A number of ants are known that construct extensive underground
dwellings, in which they store seeds of various kinds. Some of the
American species (_Pogonomyrmex_) may be even said to winnow their
grain, for they carefully strip off the husks and deposit these on
rubbish-heaps outside the nest.

Some of the seed-storing ants almost deserve the name of maltsters on
account of the way they deal with their harvest. The human method of
making malt is to allow the barley grains to germinate to a certain
extent until the contained starch is converted into malt-sugar, when the
process is arrested by scalding. In similar fashion ants permit
germination to go on to a certain point, and then kill the seedlings by
biting away the little shoots and roots. In this way a supply of the
sweet food they love is secured.

Among the most interesting of ants are leaf-cutting forms (_Atta_)
native to tropical America. They are associated in huge communities
occupying complex underground dwellings, the sides of which are marked
by mounds that may measure as much as forty yards round. The chief food
consists of a kind of fungus (_Rozites gongylophora_), cultivated on
bits of leaf, and treated in such a way that little white elevations are
produced. It is these that the ants desire.

The chief duty of one set of workers is to collect the pieces of leaf
required. To facilitate their operations, roads, largely underground,
are constructed, which lead to suitable trees, and may be as much as
twenty yards long, or more. Curved pieces of leaf are bitten out and
carried back to the nest, where they are handed over to another set of
workers, by them to be reduced to smaller fragments and made into
mushroom beds.


WHERE AND HOW THE HOMES OF ANTS ARE BUILT

Ants live in dwellings of the most varied kind, many being underground.
In a large number of species ant-hills are constructed of various loose
materials, our common native wood-ant (_Formica rufa_) being a good
example of this. An Asiatic ant (_Oecophylla_) constructs a summer-house
of leaves in a curious fashion. The larva possesses silk-glands from
which a sticky fluid exudes, hardening quickly on exposure to the air.
Advantage of this is taken by the workers, for they hold larvæ in their
jaws, and employ them as living gum-bottles, while the leaf-edges to be
cemented are held in position by other workers.

Some South American ants construct hanging nests in trees, by which
protection against floods is secured. Other ants in the same part of the
world make curious homes which well deserve the name of “hanging
gardens,” for they are mainly constructed of living plants, some of
which have never been found in any other situation. The plants are
cultivated and tended by the ants with which they are associated. The
soldiers of certain ants (_Colobopsis_), which tunnel out homes in the
wood of trees, play the part of living front doors. Every entrance to
the nest is guarded by one of these hall-porters, its huge head not only
exactly filling the aperture, but closely resembling the adjacent bark
in appearance. If this curious door be touched by a bit of stick or a
feather, it remains shut, but is immediately opened when stroked by the
antennæ of a worker.


CURIOUS ANT GUESTS AND ASSOCIATES

Not only may ants of two or more kinds be associated together in the
same dwelling, but a nest may also be tenanted by peculiar species of
beetles (and other insects), spiders, mites, or other creatures. Many of
these, especially the beetles, are fed and cared for by the ants, some
of them for the sake of a substance which exudes from their bodies;
others, perhaps, to serve as pets. The beetle-grubs are looked after as
well as the adults; at least in the case of certain blind species.

On the other hand, certain ant-beetles not only steal food from the
ants, but also devour their young. There can be no doubt that these
curious associations are very ancient ones, for many species of beetles
are found nowhere else. A kind of bristle-tail that lives in ants’ nests
is a thief pure and simple. It has been seen to steal the drops of honey
being passed from the mouth of one worker to another, afterwards
retreating at full speed.

The common red ant (_Myrmica rubra_) shelters and feeds a curious kind
of blind mite, which lives on the bodies of its hosts. By stroking its
entertainers with its legs it makes known its need of nutriment, and
such requests are never refused. Not impossibly some return may be made
for these good offices.

One of the Indian ants (_Sima rufo-nigra_) lives on the bark of trees
with a species of wasp (_Rhinopsis ruficornis_) and a kind of spider
(_Salticus_), both of which closely resemble it in appearance. The three
associates appear to be good friends, while wasp and ant sometimes
engage in a friendly wrestle.

[Illustration: =AN ANT AT ITS MORNING TOILET=

A remarkable observation made by a student of insect life while
examining ants under the microscope.]


HOW ANTS COMMUNICATE WITH ONE ANOTHER

The complex life of an ants’ nest is a striking instance of order among
apparent disorder. Each of the innumerable individuals discharges its
special tasks without hesitation, unless unusual circumstances prove a
hindrance. It would seem, therefore, that there must be some means by
which any one can convey information to others. When two meet they
frequently stroke one another with their feelers, and this perhaps
serves the purpose of language.


THEIR REMARKABLE HABITS OF CLEANLINESS

Some wonderful facts are recorded concerning matters of personal
cleanliness among ants, and has shown incidentally that these insects
perform amazing feats of acrobatic skill without the least effort, and
quite as matters of course. For example, an ant will often hang from a
grass stem by the claws of one leg, while it combs its antennæ, cleanses
its five remaining feet, or bends its head upwards to lick its abdomen
and furbish the joints of its armor. Indeed, thanks partly to the
wonderful flexibility of its “waist,” and still more to the tenacity of
its muscles, an ant is able to assume and maintain almost any position
that the need or fancy of the moment may prompt.

Many stingless ants, when fighting, first bite their adversary with
their jaws, and then bringing the tip of the abdomen beneath the body,
squirt formic acid into the wound.

  =Bees.=--See Domesticated Animals.

  =Bumble-bees.=--These common bees are large, somewhat clumsy-looking
  insects which live in communities including workers or imperfect
  females as well as ordinary members of the two sexes. The nests are
  constructed in holes in the ground or other sheltered places, and
  the establishment of a community is due in the first instance to the
  labors of a queen in early summer. She makes a number of waxen
  cells, stores them with honey and pollen, and afterwards feeds the
  larvæ when they have devoured these provisions. From the first (and
  several other), batches of larvæ workers are chiefly produced, which
  undertake the constructive and nursing work, until at last the queen
  has nothing to do but lay eggs. Males and other queens are reared
  from some of the eggs laid in late summer and early autumn.

  =Wasps=, like bees, are either solitary or social, and it is only in
  the latter that workers exist. Solitary wasps construct small nests
  of clay and little stones, or else make burrows. They possess the
  curious habit of storing up immature--for example, caterpillars--or
  mature insects, or even spiders, for the benefit of their larvæ when
  these hatch out. The kind of victim depends upon the species of the
  wasp concerned, but in any case it is killed or paralysed by
  stinging.

  Social wasps somewhat resemble social bees in their habits, but
  their building material, instead of being wax, is a kind of paper
  made of chewed wood mixed up with saliva. In some instances the nest
  is suspended from a bush or tree, and is provided with a kind of
  overhanging roof by which rain is drained off.

  In our commonest species, an underground site is chosen, and a
  series of combs constructed from above downward, the whole being
  enclosed in several layers of wasp paper. Adjacent combs are held
  together by little pillars. The young are at first fed upon
  fruit-juice, nectar, and other vegetable matter, for which a more
  stimulating diet of chewed insects is afterwards substituted.

  The HORNET (_Vespa crabro_) is a social wasp which commonly nests in
  hollow trees or constructs elaborate nests out of wood fibers,
  suspended from boughs. The females have formidable retractile
  stings. The hornet is represented in the United States by the
  white-faced hornet (_V. maculata_), also a large species.


=FLIES= (_Diptera_)

There are some thirty or forty thousand species of flies known, while no
other order has so many individuals as this. This enormous assemblage of
insects, most of which are small or even minute, includes many species
that have earned an undesirable reputation as bloodsuckers and pests.
Except in fleas and a few others, such as sheep-ticks, there are two
membraneous front wings, the hinder pair serving as sensory structures.
The mouthparts of the female are very often piercing and sucking organs
of great efficiency, the first and second jaws being in the form of
slender lancets protected above and below by the upper and under lip
respectively.

But in other types, such as the house-fly (_Musca domestica_), the jaws
are modified into a proboscis used for sucking juices, and devoid of
powers of perforation.


THEIR UNCLEANLY AND DEATH-CARRYING HABITS

This fly lays its eggs in manure or other refuse, these hatching out,
passing through all their stages and emerging as perfect insects in a
few days. Their uncleanly habits make the house flies most efficient
agents in the carriage of different diseases, especially typhoid fever
and others which attack the digestive tract. Flies are therefore not
merely a nuisance to be deplored, but a positive danger to mankind.
Among other flies are the carrion flies, black flies, the gnats and the
mosquitoes, all troublesome to man, while others attack various plants.


THE LARGE VORACIOUS FLEAS

Of these the breeze-flies or gad-flies possess powerful piercing
mouth-parts, with which they torment both stock and human beings. A
well-known species is the long brown clegg (_Hæmatopota pluvialis_),
often met with in woods. In some tropical kinds the jaws are of enormous
length.

Robber-flies are voracious and insatiable forms which prey upon other
insects, even wasps and tiger-beetles being among their victims.

Hover-flies are swift and elegant insects which have already been
mentioned in connection with flowers. Some of them closely resemble bees
in appearance.

The dreaded tsetse fly (_Glossina morsitans_), so fatal to horses in
parts of South Africa, belongs here. Germs of the fly-sickness
(_Nagana_) are introduced into the blood of the victims, Tsetse flies of
other species are responsible for “sleeping sickness,” which makes parts
of tropical Africa uninhabitable.


THE PESTIFEROUS MOSQUITOS AND GNATS

These are particularly notable for the blood-sucking propensities of the
female. Some tropical mosquitoes disseminate the germs of such diseases
as malarial fever. Wholesale destruction of the early stages, by pouring
petroleum on the surface of the stagnant water in which they live, has
been employed with conspicuous success at Havana and in the Panama Canal
zone as a preventive measure against yellow fever and malaria.

Midges are very minute gnats, of which the aquatic larvæ are known as
blood-worms.


THE WINGLESS FLEAS AND OTHER PESTS

Fleas are wingless members of the order, and their agility fully
compensates for the loss of the power of flight. There are many species,
infesting different mammals and birds. The females of the tiny
sand-fleas, or chiggers (_Sarcopsylla penetrans_), of America deposit
their eggs in the feet of human beings (or other animals), and unless
the painful swellings thus brought about are carefully treated they are
apt to fester dangerously.

=STRANGE ANIMAL FORMS FOUND IN THE SEA=

[Illustration: =SEA CUCUMBERS= (See Page 242)]

[Illustration: =SURFACE OF STARFISH= (See Page 242)]

[Illustration: =SNAKE-STAR= (See Page 242)]

[Illustration: =JELLY-FISH= (Page 243)]

[Illustration: =HEART-SHAPED SEA URCHIN= (See Page 242)]

[Illustration: =SEA ANEMONE= (See Page 243)]

[Illustration: =SEA URCHIN= (See Page 242)]

[Illustration: =BRANCHING CORAL= (Page 243)]


_STARFISHES AND SEA-URCHINS_ (_Echinoderms_)

=HEDGEHOG SKINNED ANIMALS OF THE SEA. SEA-LILIES, STAR FISHES, BRITTLE
STARS, SEA URCHINS, AND SEA CUCUMBERS=

  Echinoderms, or hedgehog-skinned animals differ from all the forms
  so far considered in the nature of their symmetry. Instead of being
  two-sided, with a well-marked distinction between right and left and
  front and back (bilateral symmetry), they resemble a star or regular
  flower in shape. The skin is hardened by the deposition of salts of
  lime, and the body is often covered with spines, as more
  particularly in sea urchins.

  Five existing subdivisions are recognized: (1) Sea-lilies and
  feather-stars (_Crinoidea_); (2) Starfishes (_Asteroidea_); (3)
  Brittle Stars (_Ophiuroidea_); (4) Sea urchins (_Echinoidea_); and
  (5) Sea-cucumbers (_Holothuroidea_). All are marine.

=Sea Cucumbers= are sort of second cousins to the sea urchins and rather
more distantly related to the starfish. As the name indicates, they are
shaped like a cucumber, and hundreds of little feet on the side heighten
the resemblance, as they recall the spines on the vegetable. Inside they
have a coiled intestine, usually filled with mud and the contained
vegetable and other debris. With us no use is made of the animals, but
they are taken in great numbers in the South Seas, and sent to China,
where, as trepang, they form an ingredient in soups.

=Sea-lilies= are deep-sea animals, once numerous and flourishing, but
now comparatively rare, and only to be obtained by dredging in the
deeper parts of the ocean. They are fixed by a long, jointed stalk
bearing circlets of sensitive threads and terminating in a cup, in the
center of which the mouth is situated. Radiating from the edges of the
cup are five branching, feather-like arms, all of which are grooved
above, the grooves uniting, and finally converging to the mouth. They
are beset with cilia, and minute organisms are conducted inward along
them to serve as food.

=Sea Urchins= are radiated animals which are usually shaped like a
flattened sphere. They have a mouth, surrounded by five chisel-shaped
jaws at one pole, while the whole outer surface is covered with slender,
movable spines. Between the spines are numbers of slender, flexible,
tubular feet, which pull the body along, while the spines act more like
true feet. The animals feed mostly on seaweeds. They have no economic
value with us, but in Europe the eggs of some species are eaten, forming
part of the _frutti di mare_ of every Italian seaport.

=Starfishes.=--Starfishes are among the most familiar objects of the
seashore, and the commonest kinds, such as the five-finger (_Asterias
rubens_) and the comb-star (_Astropecten aurantiacus_) possess five
radiating arms. The mouth is in the center of the under side, and leads
into a capacious stomach, of which the first part can be protruded from
the body to surround such prey as mussels and oysters.

A starfish crawls slowly by means of numerous tube-feet, which are
lodged in five grooves radiating from the mouth, and make up a part of
the water-vascular system, so called because it is full of sea-water. At
the end of each arm is an unpaired tube-foot acting as a feeler, while
on its under side there is an orange-red eye-spot.

The water-vascular system assists in breathing. It was probably first
evolved in the interests of respiration, and this is its chief use in
the sea-lily. Some of the spines are formed of little, two-bladed
pincers, which clean the surface of the body.

Starfishes are remarkable for their powers of restoring lost parts. A
detached arm can grow a fresh disc and another four arms.


_ANIMALS THAT APPROACH THE SIMPLEST FORMS OF LIFE_

WORMS, LEECHES, SEA-ANEMONES, CORAL-POLYPS, JELLY-FISHES, SPONGES

  Several groups of the lower animals are collectively known as Worms,
  though most of these groups are but remotely related. Ringed worms
  are elongated creatures in which the body is made up of a
  considerable number of rings or segments, most of which are, on the
  whole, much alike. There is often a well-marked head, but no
  distinct thorax and abdomen, as in an insect or crayfish. Two
  subdivisions are recognized: (a) Bristle-worms (_Chætopoda_) and (b)
  Leeches (_Discophora_).

=Bristle-worms= include a host of marine worms, together with some that
live in fresh water, and also the earthworms. Their average characters
are best understood by examining one of the commonest shore-worms, known
as the sea-centipede (_Nereis_). Here the segments are very clearly
seen, and almost every one of them bears a pair of unjointed conical
foot-stumps, used for crawling.

Imbedded in the foot-stumps of the sea-centipede are bundles of strong
bristles, which give a hold on the underlying surface and prevent
slipping. The head-region is fairly distinct, and bears a number of
feelers of various kinds, as well as four simple eyes. Sea-centipedes
and many of their allies are highly carnivorous, and seize their prey by
means of a pair of horny jaws which can be protruded at will.

=Earthworms= are found in all parts of the world, though naturally they
do not thrive in arid tracts; and their effect upon the fertility and
drainage of the soil can hardly be calculated. Burrowing into the
ground, they cast up the earth they have swallowed, and so pursue a
constant and thorough system of ploughing. Though eyeless, they evade
the light and only come out of their burrows at dusk, often remaining,
even then, with their tails in the holes and their bodies working round
and round.

Darwin long since demonstrated, the earthworm is one of the farmers’
best friends. Its burrows drain and aerate the soil, while the earth
which has passed through its body is finely divided and constantly being
brought to the surface from lower levels.

Not far from the front end of an earthworm a thickening will be seen,
often erroneously supposed to be the result of injury. From it exudes a
fluid which hardens into the egg-cases.

=Leeches= live in the sea, fresh water, or even in damp, tropical
forests. The flattened body of the leech is divided by grooves into a
number of narrow parts, several of which go to make up a segment.
Foot-stumps and bristles are entirely absent, and progression is
effected by means of suckers, one at each end. They effect a looping
movement, but the animal can also swim by undulations of its body. The
freshwater leech is a bloodsucking parasite. The mouth is situated in
the middle of the front sucker, which serves to fix the animal to its
victim. Three saw-edged jaws are then brought into play, a three-rayed
cut being made, and a fluid poured out which prevents the blood from
clotting. Digestion is slow, and the food is stored in a large crop,
drawn out into numerous pairs of pouches. The head possesses eye-spots,
but no feelers.


=ANIMALS LIKE PLANTS= (_Cœlenterata_)

  of which sea-anemones, corals, and jelly-fishes are examples, are
  distinguished by the ray-like symmetry of starfishes and their kind,
  though here, as a rule, it is more perfect. In structure they are
  much simpler, than any of the animals so far considered. For such a
  creature is to all intents and purposes simply a stomach, the wall
  of which is made up of two layers of cells, one (_ectoderm_)
  external, and the other (_endoderm_) internal. In higher animals a
  third layer (_mesoderm_) is interposed.

=Sea Anemones= are common between tides and lower on all coasts. They
are cylindrical animals, with a mouth surrounded by tentacles at one
end. Inside there is a single cavity which serves as a stomach and whose
branches run to all parts of the body, thus distributing the food like a
blood vessel. The colors, especially in the tropics, are variable, and
often gorgeous.

=Coral-polyps= are closely related to sea-anemones, but differ from them
by secreting a hard, limy skeleton in the base of the body. They are
either simple or compound. The well-known mushroom coral may be taken as
an example of the former. Its skeleton is a shallow cup, exhibiting
numerous radiating plates. If we look at the upper surface of such a
coral in the living state we shall see a mouth surrounded by circlets of
tentacles, much as in a sea-anemone.

A compound coral consists of a number of individuals, relatively small
in size, connected together by a common flesh, and formed by the budding
or splitting of a single original polyp, the results of the process
remaining united.

Many corals branch, while others form compact masses, as in the kind
above described, and also in the brain coral, where the boundaries
between the individuals are not clearly marked.

Corals are widely distributed, some living even in cold latitudes, and
others on the floor of the deep sea. Coral reefs, however, made up of
the skeletons of such animals, are only found in the warmer parts of the
ocean, where the water is clear, particularly favorable conditions being
afforded by the Pacific and Indian Oceans. (See also Coral Reefs and
Islands).

=Jelly-fish= (_Medusæ_).--All agree in having a more or less bell or
umbrella shaped body, with a proboscis hanging down in the place of the
handle of the umbrella or the tongue of the bell. The mouth is at the
end of the handle and leads into a stomach which divides and sends out
branches, like the ribs of the umbrella, to the margin. The common name
is due to its gelatinous consistency. Most of the species start in life
as buds from attached animals, which later separate and henceforth lead
a free existence, swimming by opening and closing the bell.


=SPONGES= (_Porifera_)

  are animals of peculiar structure, which resemble zoophytes in many
  respects, but possess neither tentacles not thread-cells. Some are
  simple, but most of them are compound. A simple sponge may be
  compared to a cup or vase with a wall perforated by numerous small
  holes, through which currents of sea-water stream into the central
  cavity, to make their exit by the main opening. They are set up by
  ciliary action.

=Venus Flower-basket.=--In the majority of cases the skeleton of a
sponge is mostly or entirely made up of sharp needles of lime or flint,
which may be welded together, as in this form. Often the opening of the
vase is provided with a convex perforated covering. Another elegant form
is the Glassrope Sponge native to the Japanese seas. It is rooted in the
mud by a bundle of long, glassy spicules, which are slightly twisted.

Most sponges are marine, and, despite their fixed habit and apparent
helplessness, are pretty free from the attacks of most other creatures,
partly because of the innumerable sharp spicules they contain, and
partly because their taste and smell are unpleasant. These deterrent
qualities are often associated with bright warning colors, generally
red, yellow or orange.

Most of us little realize that the sponges we see or use daily are in
reality dead animals.

[Illustration: =CROSS-SECTION OF LIVING SPONGE=

=THE SPONGE IN ACTION=

The arrows show how the water enters by the small pores, to pass out by
the large openings. Food is thus brought to the cells which line the
channels. At the right the currents of water are seen passing from the
outer openings, as seen under a powerful microscope.]

[Illustration: =THE BORDER-LINE BETWEEN ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE=

On the left are represented highly magnified animal skeletons of a class
of Protozoa called Radiolarians. Most of them are under one-twenty-fifth
of an inch in size. Millions upon millions of these little shells are
found upon the floors of the ocean, and upon its shores. They are
marvels of form and color--so wonderful, indeed, that man with all his
skill cannot imitate them. When alive they consist of but a single cell,
and live in colonies with the plant forms, called algæ, pictured on the
right. The algæ are also single-celled, and of rare beauty of form, and
the strange association of the simplest of animal forms with the
simplest of _plant_ forms has up to the present time proved the supreme
enigma of science.]


_PROTOZOA OR SIMPLEST FORMS OF ANIMAL LIFE_

=ANIMALCULES, AMOEBA, RADIOLARIA, FLAGELLATES, CILIATES=


=ANIMALCULES= (_Protozoa_)

  In botany we find that the lowest plants are mostly of a microscopic
  size, and unicellular--that is, consisting of a single cell or
  structural unit, essentially a fragment of living matter
  (protoplasm), part of which is specialized into a nucleus. The
  lowest animals are also unicellular, and the popular term
  “animalcule”--a little animal--has reference to their diminutive
  size. One of the simplest known cases is afforded by the

=Amœba= (_Gr._ “change”), a name given to a number of the simplest
animals or protozoa. The simplest form which the observer will meet is a
naked lump of jelly-like protoplasm constantly flowing into new shapes.

=Ray Animalcules= (_Radiolaria_) are forms which resemble the members of
the last group in some respects, but are more complex in structure, with
shells composed of a latticework of flinty matter. These shells cover
large tracts of the floor of the deeper parts of the ocean (limy shells
dissolve before getting so far), and make up “radiolarian oozes,” such
as Barbadoes earth.

=Flagellates= are immensely numerous animalcules with a body of definite
shape covered by a membrane. Swimming is effected by a slender thread of
flagellum (Latin for whiplash) of living substance, which executes
whip-like movements. They are common in ponds and ditches, where it
often makes up a green scum. A mouth is situated at the base of the
flagellum, and at this end there is also a red eye-spot. Some
flagellates bear more than one flagellum, many are fixed, and the
colonial condition is common. The exceedingly minute animalcules which
swarm in putrid fluids and are vaguely known as “monads” belong to this
group.

=Ciliates= like flagellates, are invested in a firm membrane, and
therefore of definite form. Instead of flagella, they possess cilia,
short threads of living substance which are associated in large numbers,
and alternately bend and straighten in a rhythmic fashion, bringing
about locomotion in free species, or setting up currents in the water in
fixed ones.

Despite their apparent insignificance, certain animalcules, by virtue of
their almost imperishable skeletons, are among the most important
agencies which have built up the crust of the earth. The surface of the
sea is largely inhabited by Radiolarians and Foraminifera, the former
preponderating in cold, the latter in temperate and tropical waters. As
they die, their skeletons sink to the bottom and form mud or ooze, which
through time and pressure becomes consolidated into rock.

[Illustration: It is generally believed that sheep were the very first
of all domesticated animals. Doubtless because they supplied him with
food and clothing and by reason of their gentleness, they were selected
by man as his first animal associate.]


_DOMESTICATED ANIMALS_

  =DOMESTICATED MAMMALS:= Alpaca, Ass, Camel, Cat, Cattle, Dog,
  Elephant, Gayal, Goat, Guinea Pig, Horse, Llama, Rabbit, Reindeer,
  Sheep, Swine, Yak, Zebu. =DOMESTICATED FISH:= Carp, Goldfish.
  =DOMESTICATED BIRDS:= Canary, Chickens or Fowls, Duck, Guinea,
  Goose, Ostrich, Parrot, Peacock, Pigeon, Swan, Turkey. =DOMESTICATED
  INSECTS:= Bee, Cochineal, Silkworm Moth.

Domestic animals are those kept for the use or companionship of man.
When studied in their relation to the animal kingdom as a whole it is
readily seen that they belong to the highest groups of animals; but the
actual process of original domestication is unknown to us. It is also
very evident that the origin of some of the domesticated groups
themselves is very obscure. In general it may be said that only when a
distinct breed has been produced by human interference may we call the
result domestication.


CLASSES TO WHICH THE DOMESTIC ANIMALS BELONG

Among the highest class of animals--the Mammals--familiar illustrations
are dogs and cats, horses and asses, cattle, elephants, camels, and the
like. Birds include the domesticated pigeons, fowls, ducks, ostrich,
peacock, canary, and others. Among fishes, goldfish and carp belong to
the domestic class; while the honey bee and the silkworm moth belong to
the lowest domestic group--the insects.


WHERE ANIMALS WERE FIRST DOMESTICATED

The original home of fully three-fourths of our domestic animals was the
continent of Asia, where, also, the first home of man himself is placed.
It seems quite probable that nearly all of these animals were first held
as captives by the early peoples for food supply, and that their other
uses developed later. As the races spread to the continent of Europe and
thence over the habitable world, their animal servants spread with them,
and others were added, adapted to varying climatic and other conditions.
Our own continent--North America--has added only the turkey and the
cochineal insect, while South America has contributed the alpaca, llama,
and guinea-pig. No new domestic animals have been developed during the
last two thousand years; and the natural conclusion is that all must
have come into use at various stages from the very earliest period of
man down to the time of the Christian Era.


RESULTS OF DOMESTICATION ON ANIMALS

Many animals have been greatly changed in form, size and habits by
domestication, especially the dog, sheep, pig, donkey, pigeon and
chicken, so that a great variety of breeds and strains have been
developed. Many kinds of dogs are incapable of existence apart from
human care. The donkey does not run wild, and chickens are never found
at a great distance from human habitations. Others, though much varied
in form and size, are still capable of independent existence, such as
the horse, goat, ox, cat, and goose, but a group like the cheetah, water
buffalo, and swan are only partially domesticated, and little changed by
association with man.


DOMESTICATED MAMMALS

=Alpaca= (_Auchenia Paco_), an animal of the same genus with the llama,
belongs to the Camel family, is the half-domesticated form of the wild
vicuna. It is remarkable for the length and fineness of the wool, which
is of a silken texture, and of an uncommonly lustrous, almost metallic
appearance. The alpaca is smaller than the llama, and, in form, somewhat
resembles the sheep, but has a longer neck and more elegant head. It
carries its long neck erect; its motions are free and active, its
ordinary pace a rapid, bounding canter. The eyes are very large and
beautiful. The wool, if regularly shorn, is supposed to grow about six
or eight inches in a year; but if allowed to remain upon the animal for
several years, attains a much greater length, sometimes even thirty
inches, and not unfrequently twenty. Its color varies; it is often
yellowish brown; sometimes gray, or approaching to white; sometimes
almost black.

The alpaca is a native of the Andes, from the equator to Tierra del
Fuego, but is most frequent on the highest mountains of Peru and Chile,
almost on the borders of perpetual snow, congregating in flocks of one
or two hundred. The Peruvians keep vast flocks of them for the sake of
the silky luster and fineness of their wool, which furnishes material
for the best of fabrics.

The alpaca does not acclimatize in other regions of the world, and all
attempts to introduce and establish it as a wool-bearing animal in
Europe and the United States have failed.

=Ass= (_Equus asinus_), a species of the horse genus, supposed to have
sprung from the wild variety (_Asinus tæniopus_) found in Abyssinia. It
differs from the horse in having short hair at the root of the tail and
a long tuft at the end, in the absence of warts on the hind-legs, and in
the persistence of stripes, except in albinos. The upright mane, the
long ears, the cross stripe on the shoulders, and the dark bands on the
back are also characteristic. The domestication took place at an early
date, probably before that of the horse. It was brought to Mexico and
South America by the Spaniards.

In Arabia, Syria, Egypt, Spain, Kentucky, and elsewhere asses are well
cared for, and the breed has been considerably varied and improved. The
stupidity for which the animal has for long been proverbially reproached
seems largely the result of human influence.

The MULE is a hybrid bred between mare and male ass; while the hinny is
the rarer result of hybridism between horse and female ass. The mule is
much nearer in temper and appearance to the ass than to the horse; the
hinny in some points resembles the horse more, as it neighs, while the
mule brays like the ass. The ass is admirably adapted for a beast of
burden, being remarkable for endurance, hardiness, and docility under
kind treatment. It varies greatly in size, from dwarf forms only twenty
to thirty inches high in the West Indies to fine Spanish and American
breeds sixteen hands high.

The BURRO, used almost exclusively as a pack animal by miners and
prospectors in the mountain regions of the western states, is a small
form.

=Banteng= (_Bos sondaicus_), a species of ox, a native of Java and
Borneo, which, in color, shape, horns, and absence of dewlap, bears some
resemblance in appearance and ferocity to the gaur (_Bos gaurus_) of
India. It is black, with white legs; the hair is short and sleek; the
limbs slender; the muzzle sharp; the back rises into a high arch
immediately behind the neck.

=Camel= (_camelus_), called by the Arabs the “ship of the desert” is a
misshapen animal of the even-toed group. In this family, the upper lip
is hairy and deeply cleft; the neck is very long; the feet (with two
toes) are not enhoofed, but provided with callous soles; and the stomach
has three compartments. The family includes the camels proper and the
various forms of alpaca.

The camels are well known for their large size, for their dorsal humps,
for their callosities on knees, breast, etc., for the common sole
uniting the two toes. The ears are small and rounded; the short tail
bears a terminal switch; the hair is tangled and felted; a single young
one is born; and the diet is wholly vegetarian.

One species is usually spoken of as the DROMEDARY. It has a single hump
and a generally reddish-gray color. There are many breeds, and the
dromedary is the most agile of these. Apart from its use in transit and
transport, the flesh is eaten, the milk made into butter and cheese, the
hair woven into fabrics of various degrees of fineness, and the skin
tanned.

The other camel is known as the Bactrian, and is distinguished by its
slightly larger size, two dorsal humps, and somewhat finer brown or
reddish hair. This camel is bred in central Asia, and in its
adaptability to domestication, as well as in its natural adaptation to
desert life, is a most useful animal. Its frugal diet, its powers of
storing water and of going long without a fresh supply, and its great
strength are very familiar facts. A camel will eat almost any herbage or
green thing it comes across, even dried, leafless twigs. The hair of
the camel forms the woof and cotton the warp of the famous Persian
camel’s-hair cloth. Coarser camel’s wool or hair is imported for various
purposes.

The Bactrian camel can carry one thousand pounds weight or more, and the
dromedary proper can cover one hundred miles in a day. The ordinary jog
of a camel is about two and one-half miles an hour, but this can be kept
up for many days with little food and less drink. A swift dromedary may
go ten miles an hour. A thousand or more may journey in a caravan, and
the amount of food carried is surprisingly small. The hump must be in
good condition before starting. In the stomach-reservoirs a gallon and a
half of water can be stowed away. Like some other frugal animals, the
camel enjoys a long life of thirty or forty years.

In disposition the camel is peculiarly stolid, not to say stupid.
Whether domestication has been too much for it, there can be no doubt
that its “docility” is more the result of habitual nonchalance than any
outcome of intelligent subservience. It is usually very submissive,
except when habitually thwarted or ill-treated.

The camel is the most useful and important of all African domestic
animals; without it commerce would be impossible across some districts
which are nearly devoid of water and plants. In Australia, also, it has
become valuable for interior expeditions, and camel corps have been
formed by European troops in the Sudan, and are a permanent branch of
the Egyptian army.

[Illustration: =BLUE RUSSIAN=]

[Illustration: =ABYSSINIAN=]

[Illustration: =PERSIAN, OR ANGORA= (above) =MALTESE KITTENS= (below)]


=Cat= (_Felis domestica_) is known to everybody. Its nearest relation is
the WILD CAT (_Felis catus_), but it is not a tamed descendant of this
wild cat but seems, like other domestic animals, to have come from the
East. It is usually, though not with absolute certainty, regarded as the
descendant of the Egyptian cat which was domesticated in Egypt thirteen
centuries B. C. From Egypt the domestic cat spread through Europe, and
was confined to those who could afford a high price for the pet.


THE VARIETIES OF CATS ARE DUE TO COLOR AND FUR

The varieties of domestic cat concern color and quality of fur, not
differences of form, as in the case of dogs. Thus we have (1) black cats
with clear yellow eyes, usually with a few white hairs, and with hints
of markings in the kittens; (2) white cats, sometimes with blue eyes,
and then generally deaf; (3) tabby cats, like the wild species, and
perhaps the result of crossing with the same; (4) gray cats, which are
rare, and differ from the tabby forms in having no black stripes, except
the common ones over the forelegs; (5) tortoise-shell, fawn-colored, and
mottled with black, usually females; and (6) sandy-colored, usually
males. The royal Siamese cat is fawn-colored, with blue eyes and small
head; the Carthusian or blue cat has long, dark, grayish-blue fur, with
black lips and soles; the Angora, or Persian cat is large, fine furred,
generally white, tending to yellow or gray, and possibly derived from an
Asiatic species. The Malay cat, in Pegu, Siam, and Burma, has a tail
only half the normal length; the Manx cat of the Isle of Man is tailless
and has longer hind-legs. A fine all-blue cat comes from Russia and
Iceland, and there are characteristic breeds from India, Abyssinia, and
other parts of the world.


CHARACTERISTICS AND HABITS OF CATS

The domestic cat is too well known to require description. It has been
known to attain a weight of twenty-three pounds and an age of eighteen
years. Though thoroughly domesticated, it retains many characteristics
of wildness, especially in its private hunting expeditions, nocturnal
wanderings, unsocial habits, and generally self-centered, not entirely
confident disposition. When turned out in the woods it usually adapts
itself readily. Domestication has had a different influence on cat and
on dog, and the former may be fairly said to have surrendered itself
less. Its sense of smell has probably degenerated, but is still very
sensitive to certain favorite odors. The great dilatability of the pupil
enables it to make the most of feeble light. The dry fur, freed from any
oily matter and readily injured by water, becomes highly electric by
friction, especially in dry or frosty weather.


CATS POSSESS UNUSUAL INTELLIGENCE

In cats the senses of sight, hearing, and touch are very highly
developed, and the intelligence is proportionately great. That they
exhibit great adroitness in catching their prey is well known, but the
climax is reached in certain recorded cases where a young bird was used
as a decoy for its parents, and where crumbs were scattered or scraped
from beneath the snow to attract sparrows. A remarkable case is recorded
of a cat which, being accidentally ignited by paraffin, ran one hundred
yards and plunged into a trough of water.


SUPERSTITIONS REGARDING CATS

Cats have been objects of superstition from the earliest ages. In Egypt
they were held in the highest reverence; temples were erected in their
honor; sacrifices and devotions were offered to them; and it was
customary for the family in whose house a cat died to shave their
eyebrows. The favorite shape of Satan was said to be that of a black
cat, and the animal was an object of dread instead of veneration. Many
people still prophesy rainy weather from a cat washing over its ears or
simply its face; and a cat-call on the housetop was formerly held to
signify death.


=Cattle, or Ox.=--All farm animals were once called cattle, belonging to
the bovine genus; nowadays this term applies only to beef and dairy
animals--meat cattle. Our improved breeds are descended from the wild ox
(_bos_) of Europe and Asia, and have attained their size and usefulness
by care, food, and selection. The uses of cattle are familiar. Their
flesh is part of the daily food of man--butter, cheese, and milk are on
every table; their hides go to make leather; their hair forms part of
plaster; their hoofs are used for glue; their bones for fertilizer,
ornaments and buttons, and many other purposes. Cattle are primarily
used, however, for meat and milk. This being the case, breeders have
quite naturally chosen their animals with one or another of these
purposes in mind. There have been developed consequently two classes of
breeders, those that excel as milk producers or butter cows, and those
that on being slaughtered dress out large quantities of the most
marketable meat.


TWO GENERAL TYPES OF CATTLE

The differences between these two leading classes is one of form, type
and quality, as the breeders say. A good dairy cow has a very soft,
mellow skin, and fine, silky hair. Her head is narrow and long, and the
distance between the eyes is noticed to be great. This indicates much
nerve force, an important quality of the heavy milkers. The neck of a
good dairy cow is long and thin. The shoulders are thin and lithe, and
narrow at the top. The back is open, angular, and tapering toward the
tail. The hips are wide apart and covered with little meat. The good cow
is also thin in the region of the thigh and flank, but very deep through
the stomach girth, as a result of the long, open ribs. The udder is
large, attached well forward on the abdomen, and high up behind. It
should be full but not fleshy. The lacteal or milk veins ought also to
be large, and extend considerably toward the front legs.


REPRESENTATIVE BREEDS OF MILK PRODUCERS

The Holstein-Friesians from Holland, Jerseys, Guernseys and Alderneys
from the English Channel islands, the Ayrshires from Scotland, Dutch
Belted, French Canadians, and Kerry cattle, the latter from Ireland, and
Brown Swiss from Switzerland, are all especially dairy cattle. The
Holstein-Friesians are large and noted for their heavy production of
milk and at the same time large carcasses, while, on the other hand, the
Jerseys, Guernseys and Alderneys are less in size and noted for the
richness of their milk rather than its great quantity. The Jersey shares
popular honors in the dairy world with the Holstein-Friesian.

AYRSHIRE.--Medium size, standard weight for cows 1000 pounds, bulls 1500
pounds or more. A little smoother than Jersey or Holstein but from
behind wedge shape is evident. Tips of ears notched, horns white with
black tips and curve outward and upward. Body large and deep, ribs well
sprung, hindquarters often heavy. Udder shows high development of form
and setting. Color variable though red, white and brown in patches. Mild
but active disposition. Dairy breed.

BROWN-SWISS.--Weight for cows 1200 pounds and bulls 1800 pounds. Colors
shade from light to dark chestnut brown. Light tuft of hair between
horns, on inside of ears, and a narrow line along back. Nose black,
mouth surrounded with meal-colored band. Horns with black tips, medium
size. Face dishing, large, full eye; ribs well sprung. Hoofs and tongue
black, udder large, extending well up in front and rear. Teats large,
well placed. Short legs. Dairy breed.

GUERNSEY.--Clean-cut, lean face, long, thin neck, backbone rising well
between shoulder blades, pelvis arching and wide, rump long, abdomen
large and deep, udder full in front, of large size and capacity. Teats
well apart, and of good even size. Hair a shade of fawn with white
markings, cream colored nose, horns amber, small, curved and not coarse.
Mature cows about 1050 pounds. Bulls 1200 to 1500 pounds. Dairy breed.

=SPLENDID HERDS AND FLOCKS ON AMERICAN FARMS=

[Illustration: =HOLSTEIN-FRIESIANS ON A MODERN DAIRY FARM IN IOWA=

This fine breed of dairy cattle probably excels all others for the
general purposes of the dairy-farm. As milk producers they outrank all
other breeds as they do also in size.]

[Illustration: =A FINE FLOCK RESTING BENEATH THE TREES OF MONTANA=]

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN.--Color black and white piebald. Head broad between
eyes, eyes large and bright, horns small, tapering toward tips, neck
long, chest moderately deep and low, barrel long and wedge shaped, large
abdomen, legs rather short and nearly straight and wide apart. Hair
fine, soft and furry. Udder very capacious, extending well forward in
front; teats well formed and wide apart. Dairy breed.

JERSEY.--Small head, muzzle black or dark in color surrounded by light
or mealy strip of light skin and hair. Eyes prominent, bright and wide
apart. Horns crumpled, small, often black tipped. Neck fine, clean and
small. Legs short, fine boned and small. Body well rounded, large and
deep. Skin mellow, loose, yellow, with short fine silky hair. Udder
large, not pendulous. Teats medium size, placed far apart. Back straight
from shoulder to tail. Movement light and graceful. Cows 800 to 1000
pounds, bulls 1200 to 1500 pounds. Dairy breeds.


REPRESENTATIVE BREEDS OF MEAT CATTLE

The beef cow presents a totally different appearance. She is square in
shape, full and broad over the back and loins, possessing depth and
quality particularly in these regions. The hips are evenly fleshed, the
legs full and thick, the under line parallel with the straight back. The
neck is full and short. The eye should be bright, the face short, the
bones of fine texture the skin soft and pliable, and the flesh mellow,
elastic to the touch, and rich in quality.

For meat the Short-horns (formerly called Durhams) and Herefords and
their grades predominate. They are both English breeds with horns. In
color the Short-horns are red and white or a mixture of these, while the
Herefords are red with white faces, briskets, bellies and feet. The
Aberdeen-Angus and Galloways are famous for their high qualities as beef
makers, and are both of Scotch origin, black and hornless.

ABERDEEN-ANGUS.--Black color, polled heads, rotund compact type,
smoothness of conformation, short legs, evenness of flesh when fat,
deep, full hindquarters. Beef breed.

GALLOWAY.--Low, blocky animal, with long, soft, shaggy coat of black
hair, hornless, well sprung in the ribs, resembling barrel in shape,
which is evenly covered with juicy, lean flesh. Head short and wide,
forehead broad, face clean, nostrils large. Eye large and prominent.
Neck short, clean. Shoulders broad, joining body smoothly. Hindquarters
long, wide, well filled. Rump straight, wide, carrying width of body out
uniformly, well filled with flesh. Thighs broad and thick. Legs short
and clean. Beef breed.

HEREFORD.--Color red and white. Head, including jaws and throat, white,
white under neck, down the breast, under belly, and on legs. Bush of
tail white, white strip on top of neck to top of shoulders, remainder of
body red. Head short, forehead broad, eyes full, horns rather strong and
of whitish yellow color, free from black tips, more or less drooping,
neck short and thick. Hide heavy and loose and covered with dense soft
coat of hair. Breast broad and full, free from loose dewlap. Shoulders
broad on top. Ribs well sprung and extending well backward. Rump bones
wide apart. Legs short, straight and set well apart. Line of back
straight and level. Quarters full and well rounded. Beef breed.

SHORTHORN.--Head wide between eyes, short from eyes to nostril. Horns
short, curved forward waxy white with dark tips. Neck short and fine.
Back straight, level and broad and deeply covered with flesh. Thighs
wide, deep and long, well filled down in the twist. Body deep, squarely
built. Flanks well let down, underline nearly straight. Legs medium
length. Colors pure red, pure white, a mixture of these colors, or roan.
Beef breed.

The breeds considered as chiefly serving the dual-purposes of milk and
beef-making are Red Polls and Devons, both English breeds, and some of
the Short-horn families having the milking characteristic best
developed.

RED POLLED.--Weight for bulls 1800 to 2000 pounds, cows 1300 to 1500
pounds. Color red. Nose flesh color. Switch of tail and udder white.
Head medium length, wide between eyes. Poll well defined and prominent,
neck of medium length, clean cut, straight from head to top of shoulder.
Chest broad and deep, back long, straight and level, hips wide and well
covered, legs short and straight. Udder full and flexible. Teats well
placed and wide apart. Hide loose, mellow, with full coat of soft hair.
Dual purpose breed.


CATTLE AS A FORM OF INDUSTRY

Cattle are the chief source of wealth in many regions. Just as the horse
is pre-eminent as a labor animal, the ox stands first as the food
producing animal in modern civilization. The aggregate value of cattle
products,--beef, milk, butter, cheese, hides, etc., far exceeds that of
any other animal.

The relative economy of milk and beef production is now more and more
commanding attention. The experiment stations have demonstrated that
good dairy cows produce human food in the form of milk much more
economically than food products can be obtained in the form of beef,
pork or mutton.


A REMARKABLE EXPERIMENT IN CATTLE VALUES

At one of the Stations, for example, the entire carcass of a steer and
the milk of an Holstein cow were analyzed.

The steer when killed weighed twelve hundred and fifty pounds. The cow
during the year gave eighteen thousand four hundred and five pounds of
milk. From the milk of the cow, and from the carcass of the steer, the
following number of pounds of human food substances were obtained. Of
protein five hundred and fifty-two pounds from the milk, and one hundred
and seventy-two pounds from the steer; of fat six hundred and eighteen
pounds from the milk and three hundred and thirty-three pounds from the
steer; of sugar nine hundred and twenty pounds from the milk and none
from the steer; of mineral matter one hundred and twenty-eight pounds
from the milk and forty-three pounds from the steer.

The steer’s body contained about fifty-six per cent of water, leaving
five hundred and forty-eight pounds of dry matter, which included not
only the edible, dry, lean meat and fat, but also every part of the
body--horns, hide, bones, internal organs, etc. In one year the cow
produced two thousand two hundred and eighteen pounds of dry matter,
every part of which was wholly digestible and suitable for human food.
In that time she produced enough protein to build the bodies of three
steers, fat enough for nearly two steers, and mineral matter enough for
the skeletons of three, besides nine hundred and twenty pounds of milk
sugar, as nutritious and useful for humans as the same weight of
cane-sugar like that bought at the store.


ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE DAIRY COW

These figures explain why dairy cows and not steers are kept on the
valuable lands. When the cheap lands disappear, and rough food commands
higher values, the beef cow will be raised as a luxury, and cattle will
make their contribution to the human race largely in the form of milk,
butter, and cheese. In the future more and more will the farmers of all
countries turn to the dairy cows.

[Illustration: =CHINESE POUCHONG=]

[Illustration: =ARABIAN GAZELLE HOUND=]

[Illustration: =SCOTCH COLLIE= (above)

=BIRD DOG OR POINTER= (middle)

=ENGLISH SETTER= (lower)]


=Dog= (_Canis familiaris_) is the most intelligent, affectionate, and
devoted of domestic animals; in use by all peoples, and accompanying man
throughout a wider range than any other animal, greatly exceeding the
cat, donkey, or horse in this respect. It is very docile; its memory and
its sense of localities and time are admirable. It is the constant
companion of man, the protector of his house and of his herds, his
helpmate in battle, a useful companion of the hunter, a draft animal, a
guide, a buffoon, a postman, a comedian, and a brother of charity at St.
Bernard. What creature can do more? Among its characteristic qualities,
its faithfulness and gratitude are most prominent. No animal is attached
to man in the same degree.

The domestication of the dog dates to primitive man, and far precedes
the dawn of history, many important varieties being portrayed in the
earliest sculptures. Most varieties have become so modified by
domestication that they are unable to sustain themselves apart from man.


DIFFERENT BREEDS OF DOGS

Dogs vary widely in color, form and size; in adaptation to climate from
the hairless forms of the tropics to the heavily fur-coated Eskimo
breeds; and in size from tiny lapdogs no larger than kittens to great
Danes standing three feet high at the shoulder. There are some two
hundred varieties which have resulted from the intercrossing of about
six leading types, namely: wolf-like dogs, greyhounds, spaniels, hounds,
mastiffs, and terriers.

Among sporting dogs, the bloodhound stands pre-eminent for its majesty
of appearance and beauty of color, and is distinguished for the keenness
of its scenting powers. The head of the bloodhound is long and narrow,
and “peaked” on the top of the skull. There is much loose skin about the
head, and the eye is sunken, showing the red skin beneath it.

The greyhound is remarkable for its fleetness of foot. In addition to
its beauty and elegance, it is of a very affectionate disposition.
Pointers and setters are much used by sportsmen in the field, and are
possessed of keen scent and cunning. The retriever, which is useful for
domestic as well as sporting purposes, is sagacious, good-tempered, and
intelligent. An English retriever, whether smooth or curly coated,
should be black or black and tan, or black with tabby or brindled legs.
Among the terriers, or vermin killers, the best-known varieties are the
fox terrier, the Skye terrier, and the Irish and Airedale terriers.

Spaniels are the oldest and the most useful generally of all breeds of
sporting dogs; earnest, untiring workmen in the fields, and faithful,
loving, and gentle companions when the day’s work is done. They are also
very beautiful, and universal favorites. The leading varieties are the
black spaniel, the lurcher, the Clumber, the Sussex, and the Norfolk
spaniels, and the Irish and English water spaniels.

Among other sporting dogs are the dachshund, which is crooked-legged,
jealous, and affectionate; the basset-hound, the beagle, the
otter-hound, the harrier, and the foxhound.

Among the large house dogs which are treasured as companions the most
notable are the St. Bernard, the Newfoundland, and the mastiff. The St.
Bernard is an extremely large and powerful fellow, a perfect giant among
dogs, with a beautiful head and speaking countenance, in which sagacity
is blended with nobility; and a body of great symmetry.

The Newfoundland, which is a capital swimmer, is a very large, jet-black
dog, with a large and massive head, with a long, straight coat and bushy
tail, and a face extremely expressive, and eyes that beam with
intelligence.

The mastiff is a large dog, with a majestic-looking head, and is either
fawn or brindle. The collie is a good companion, and a valuable sheep
dog. The Dalmatian, which is white with black spots, is well known as a
coach dog.

Among pet dogs, we have the fondled King Charles spaniel; the poodle,
which is a good performer of tricks; the active little pug; and the
watchful Pomeranian.


DOGS IN FOLKLORE AND MYTHOLOGY

Dogs still play an important part in folklore everywhere, whether as
revenants whose intention is merely to warn or foretell, or as hell
hounds of purely malignant nature. They are represented as quick to
detect the presence of invisible spirits, and, in connection with this
aptitude for seeing into the spirit world, they are often the outward
objects through which devils and demons make their appearance, and they
have often been associated with such masters of unhallowed arts as the
great Cornelius Agrippa.

The Wild Huntsman with his train of hounds is one of the most widespread
superstitions in Europe, and in the dim mythological histories of the
early world we find many dogs of supernatural strength and courage who
give material aid to the heroes in their exploits.

The American Indian, as is well known, believed in the immortality of
the dog, and always looked forward to being reunited with this faithful
companion in the Happy Hunting-ground beyond the grave.


=Elephant.=--Though the Indian Elephant has been, and still is, used as
a beast of burden, it has never reached a completely domesticated state.
See further under Pachiderms.


=Gayal.=--Frequently domesticated, though more often found wild.


=Goat= (_Capra hircus_), “the peasant’s cow,” is found in all parts of
the globe as a domestic animal. It has a beard on its chin, and carries
sharp-edged horns, which incline towards its back. The common domestic
goat is a variety of the wild goat (_C. hircus_) which inhabits the
Taurus and other mountains of southwestern Asia. Compared with its
ancestor, the domesticated form is somewhat reduced both in general size
and as regards its horns. The domestication must have taken place at a
very remote period, and spread from the East, probably through Egypt,
westwards.

A great number of breeds now exist. A most important variety, formed
into a breed by artificial selection, is the Angora goat, where almost
the whole body is enveloped in that long, silky, white hair which is so
valuable. The Angora goat has been introduced into the United States,
Cape Colony, and Australia. The Cashmere goat, from Tibet and Bokhara,
is almost equally valuable, furnishing the white to brown hair used in
making Cashmere textiles, especially the famous Cashmere shawls. It has
been successfully acclimatized in France. The Rocky mountain goat is
about the size of an ordinary sheep, and its general appearance is not
unlike that of a sheep of the merino breed, its long, straight hair
hanging down in an abundant white fleece.

Frequently goats are found wild in mountainous countries, scrambling
among rocks and bushes; are extremely sure-footed, and display great
strength and agility in leaping. These include the Markhor, the Alpine
ibex, or Steinbock, and the Izard.

Goats are very valuable for flesh, milk, wool, and skins, particularly
in warm, dry regions. The greater part of the world’s goats are grown in
southern Europe, northern Africa, and Syria. Goat’s leather is employed
for innumerable uses, some of the chief of which are glove making,
shoemaking, and bookbinding. In the United States goats have never
attained much importance as farm animals. They have been established in
the Pacific States, however, notably in Oregon, and in Iowa and
Missouri.


=Guinea-pig.=--Frequently domesticated as pets, but more often a game
animal in the forest regions of South America.


=Horse= (_Equus_) is one of the noblest and most useful of animals. The
horse proper is characterized by the tail with long hairs from its base;
the long and flowing mane; a bare callosity on the inner surface of the
hind as well as of the fore legs; and by the head and ears being smaller
and the limbs longer than in the ass and other related species.


ORIGINAL HOME AND ANCESTORS OF THE HORSE

The native country of the horse seems to have been central Asia. It
became early domesticated in Egypt, and is mentioned throughout the
Bible. The Greeks and Romans had some covering to secure their horses’
hoofs from injury. In the ninth century, horses were only shod in time
of frost. Shoeing was introduced into England by William I., 1066. It is
believed that the original breed of horses is extinct, and that the
half-wild herds existing in many places have descended from animals once
in captivity. Thus, when the horse was first introduced by the Spaniards
in 1537, at Buenos Ayres, there were no wild horses in America. But
individuals escaping ran wild, and, by 1580, their descendants had
spread over the continent as far as the Straits of Magellan. More fossil
horses have been found in the new than in the old world. The horse may
have descended from a striped ancestor, stripes still sometimes
remaining, especially in duns and mouse-duns.


THE VARIOUS BREEDS OF HORSES

Like other domestic animals the horse has run into various breeds. The
most celebrated is the Arab horse. Great attention is given in America
to the breeding of horses, and American horses have won races both in
England and on the Continent.

While the increasing use of automobiles by farmers and others may have a
more or less depressing effect upon the demand for some classes of
horses, no machine can successfully supersede the horse in more than a
part of his many uses in business, sport and pleasure. There is a
prevailing tendency toward heavier horses for farm work, and draft work
in cities as well.

Of the draft breeds the Percherons, of French origin, are regarded with
high favor, while the Clydesdales, from Scotland, have a well merited if
not equal popularity. The English Shire and Belgian horses are also
excellent types of the drafters. Cleveland Bays, one of the oldest and
most popular of the English Coach breeds, are quite appropriately termed
“the general utility horse,” while the admirers of the German and French
Coachers, as yet comparatively few in numbers in the United States,
regard them as unexcelled for similar purposes. Hackneys are
pre-eminently adapted to drawing any sort of vehicle at a rapid pace on
the road, and French Coachers are in demand for large, stylish,
high-stepping carriage teams and single drivers.

Thoroughbreds are probably the oldest and best established of all the
breeds of Europe and America. They are distinctly of British production,
and especially noted for endurance and speed on the race course. The
term Thoroughbred, when applied to horses, is used to designate one
particular breed, the running or race horse. Standard bred classes
include the trotter and his immediate fellow, the pacer. They are
American productions of modern times, the outgrowth of the commercial
tendencies of Americans, coupled with their ardent love for tests of
speed, and fast, level-headed roadsters for light business and pleasure
driving, used single or in pairs. The chief families of trotters are
Hambletonians, the Mambrinos, the Clays, the Morgans, the Bashaws and
the Pilots, all, except the Morgans, more or less related, and tracing
their ancestry, directly or indirectly, to an imported English
Thoroughbred sire, foaled in 1780, and known as Messenger.

Other breeds of horses, but of extremely small numbers, in America are
the Suffolk Punch, for draft; Orloff trotters, and Shetland, Welsh and
Exmoor ponies.

Of the smaller breeds of horses, the Shetland Pony is best known. Only
seven or eight hands high (a hand equals four inches), they are as
docile as they are hardy. Their coats are shaggy, and in winter become
so matted as to protect the animals from the severe weather experienced
in their northern home. Notwithstanding their small size, they are
wonderfully strong, and are capable of exertion without fatigue.


THE NOBLE CHARACTER OF THE HORSE

The horse is not only a fiery racer, but displays all the noble
characteristics of fidelity, gratitude, attachment, and compassion. It
also exhibits a talent for understanding, has an almost unfailing
memory, and a very rare docility. With patience and kind treatment the
horse can be trained to go through quite complicated feats of memory and
perception. That it possesses also an accurate sense of time is clear
from the facility with which it can be taught to walk, trot, and dance
to music, or take part in concerted evolutions. It is very timid and
cautious and suspicious of every new sight or sound; while in respect of
moral qualities it is scarcely too much to say that horses are as
diverse as men.


CHIEF CHARACTERISTICS OF LEADING DRAFT HORSES

BELGIAN DRAFT.--Short body set on short legs. Tendons of legs large.
Head good size. Eyes small, neck short, thick and well crested.
Shoulders heavily muscled. Chest deep and wide, good barrel. Back short,
broad and inclined to sag. Loins wide, short and very thick. Flank low
and full. Hindquarters short, very wide, muscular. Lower thighs very
wide, well muscled. Hocks round and meaty. Colors, chestnut, roan, brown
and bay.

CLYDESDALE.--Weight 1700 to 2000 pounds for stallions, 1500 to 1800
pounds for mares. Height sixteen to sixteen and one-half hands. Colors,
bay, brown, black or chestnut, with white markings on face and legs.
Head intelligent. Shoulders good, which gives a free, easy, long stride.
High withers. Arm well muscled. Feathering on leg is fine, silky and
long. Quarters and croup muscular. Springy, strong pastern. Front action
free and snappy.

HACKNEY.--Considerable substance, very smooth, gracefully curved
outlines, rather short legs, head well proportioned, full, bright eyes,
well developed neck, shoulders long and sloping, well muscled. Body deep
and round-ribbed. Muscular loins and quarters, strong hocks, excellent
action. Colors brown, bay or chestnut, with white markings. Height
fifteen and two-tenths to sixteen hands.

PERCHERON.--Height fifteen and one-quarter to sixteen and one-half
hands. Weight 1500 to 2000 pounds. Colors, gray and black. Active
temperament, intelligent head, deep body, wide, muscular croup,
clean-cut legs, joints clean and hard; legs show abundance of quality.
Good action.

SHIRE.--Conformation low, broad and stout. Heavy in build, slow in
movement. Large girth, deep and strongly coupled with broad back,
quarters heavily muscled, legs strong, feet large. Feathering on legs
below knees and hocks. Weight 2200 pounds. Height 17 hands. Colors
brown, bay or black with white markings on face and legs.

SUFFOLK PUNCH.--Low-set, short legs, deep body, muscular, durable feet.
Head clean cut, with full forehead and Roman nose, neck full, with
strong crest, chest deep and wide. Barrel deep, round-ribbed, and well
let down on hind flank. Legs and hindquarters muscular. Height sixteen
and one-half hands. Weight 2000 pounds. Color chestnut.


CHARACTERISTICS OF LEADING SADDLE AND DRIVING HORSES

AMERICAN SADDLE HORSE.--Head rather small and clean cut. Eyes wide
apart, full, clear and prominent. Ears pointed. Long, upright neck,
sloping shoulders. Deep chest, short, strong back. Barrel ribbed well
back. Strong coupling, quarters level, strongly muscled. Pasterns long
and sloping. Bones of leg broad and flat, strong tendons. Height about
fifteen hands, two inches. Weight about 1000 pounds.

FRENCH COACH.--Height sixteen hands. Weight 1000 to 1400 pounds. Rather
upstanding. Smooth and symmetrical, fine quality, clean cut, intelligent
head, long, graceful neck, closely ribbed body, muscular quarters. Legs
well set and fine. High, free knee action, regular uplifting hock
action. Colors bay, brown or black.

GERMAN COACH.--Colors bay, brown or black. Height sixteen to sixteen and
one-half hands. Weight 1350 to 1450 pounds. Deep, round body, well
proportioned, close ribs, neck long and high set on shoulders, neat
head, intelligent face. Back short and strong, smooth at coupling, plump
rounded quarters, strongly muscled limbs, strong hock, good feet.

SHETLAND PONY.--Height ten hands two inches. Weight 325 to 375 pounds.
Compact build, deep body, heavy muscular quarters, short legs, short
broad back, deep full chest, muscular neck, small head and ears,
prominent eyes, docile disposition. Colors brown, black and bay. Long
shaggy coats, heavy, long mane.

STANDARD-BRED TROTTER.--Head well proportioned, clean cut, neck long and
muscular, crested in stallions. Shoulders well muscled, chest low,
foreleg long from elbow to knee, short from knee to fetlock. Pasterns
sloping, feet moderate in size, oily in appearance. Back and loin well
muscled, hind quarters and croup well muscled and smooth. No fixed
colors. Height sixteen hands. Weight for mares 900 pounds, stallions
1150 pounds.

THOROUGHBRED.--Very deep, narrow chest, long legs. Refinement and clear
definition of feature. Large nostrils, full, clear eyes, broad forehead,
neck long and straight, sloping shoulder, muscular hindquarters, sharp
withers, well marked superficial blood vessels, silky skin and hair.
Colors bay, brown or chestnut, more or less white in face and limbs.
Height fifteen to sixteen hands. Weight 900 to 1050 pounds.

WELSH PONY.--Good shoulders, strong back, neat head, best of legs and
feet. Height twelve to thirteen hands. Colors bay or brown, gray or
black. Great strength and endurance.


=Llama= (_Auchenia lama_), a most useful South American domesticated
variety of the guanaco whose herds roam with the rheas on the plains of
Patagonia, or climb on the Cordilleras. As a beast of burden the llama
was in general use at the time of the Spanish conquest, and its
sure-footedness and power of foraging for itself make it most valuable
for transport in the rough and steep mining regions of the Andes. In
many places, however, mules have to some extent replaced the llamas. The
males carry a hundredweight about twelve miles in a day. The females,
which are kept for breeding, are smaller and less strong than the
males. The animal is larger and stouter than the allied species, the
alpaca, stands about three feet high at the shoulders, and keeps its
head raised.

The reader of the story of “Robinson Crusoe” will remember that a llama,
with its two young ones, were his first household companions.


=Rabbit.=--See page 198, under Hare.


=Reindeer= (_Rangifer tarandus_) is the only representative of the
genus. It is a native of the northern parts of Europe, Asia and America,
and was introduced into Iceland in 1770. It is by far the most valuable
of the deer, for not only are the flesh and skin of much use, but the
animal has long been domesticated in Scandinavia, especially among the
Laplanders.

The wild reindeer of Lapland is almost equal in size to the stag, but
there are great differences of size in different districts, the largest
size being generally attained in the polar regions. The reindeer is
strong, somewhat heavily built, but yet very swift. The hair is longer
in winter, and is gray or brownish in color. The legs are short and
thick, and the broad main hoofs spread out as the animal speeds over the
snow. Besides the main hoofs, there are two accessory lateral hoofs. The
head is carried horizontally, not erect as in other deer. The antlers
are large and are unique in being possessed by both sexes. Moreover,
they begin to appear at an early stage in life, within a few weeks after
birth, and at the same time in both sexes, whereas in the other deer, in
which only the males have antlers, they do not appear before nine months
or more after birth.

In summer the Lapland reindeer feeds chiefly on the shoots of willow and
birch, while in the winter it depends mainly on lichens such as the
so-called reindeer moss.

In their natural life the reindeer are gregarious. They migrate from the
mountains to the lowlands in winter, and return again in spring, a
change in part dependent on the food-supply. It constitutes the chief
part of the Lapp’s wealth, and some possess tame herds of two thousand
or more, which feed chiefly in the mountainous regions in summer and in
the lower grounds in winter. The animal can maintain a speed of nine or
ten miles an hour for a long time, and can easily draw a weight of two
hundred pounds besides the sledge. The reindeer also yields excellent
milk. In Siberia a large domestic reindeer is used for riding.

The CARIBOU, or American reindeer, is found in the northern parts of
Canada, but is not domesticated.


=Sheep= (_Ovis aries_).--The common sheep was probably the first animal
domesticated by man in western Asia--the first home of the human race
and their propagation, care and improvement have always played a large
part in the best husbandry of all lands. Domestication and selective
breeding have greatly modified the sheep as to bodily size, length and
quality of wool, presence and character of horns, and in the case of the
so-called fat-tailed sheep, the tail has become enormously developed.

Sheep were introduced into Florida by the Spanish in 1565; into Virginia
in 1609; into Massachusetts in 1624; into New York in 1625; into New
Jersey and Delaware by the Swedes in 1634; into Pennsylvania in 1684;
and into California by the Spanish missions from Mexico in 1773.

The flesh of sheep is both a staple and a delicacy, and from their wool
has been fashioned clothing to meet a wider range of requirements for
bodily comfort than any other fiber, animal or vegetable, has afforded.
Their skins are a large factor in manufacture, arts and commerce.

The common classification of sheep is according to the characteristics
of their fleeces, as “fine wools,” “long wools” and “medium wools.” The
American Merino, the Delaine Merino, and Rambouillet belong to the first
named class, or fine wools; the Leicester, Lincoln and Cotswold, to the
long wools; and the Southdown, Tunis, Dorset, Shropshire, Cheviot,
Suffolk, Hampshire and Oxford, to the medium wools. The fine wool breeds
are reared chiefly for wool, while the others are kept for both wool and
mutton. Nearly all the breeds in the United States, except the Merino,
were imported from Great Britain. Wyoming, Montana, New Mexico and Idaho
are foremost in sheep and wool-growing, and theirs, with those of Utah
and Oregon, make nearly half of the total production in the United
States.

The good-nature, gentleness, and patience of sheep have become
proverbial; it is therefore not to be wondered at that they are the pets
of children, and that the playful gambols and antics of the lambs amuse
young and old alike.


CHARACTERISTICS OF REPRESENTATIVE WOOL BREEDS

LEICESTER.--Hornless, large size, rectangular form of body on clean
legs, bare faces or carrying a very scant topknot. Head long, tapering
toward muzzle, face wedge-shaped, covered with fine white hairs, eyes
large and prominent, neck strong and moderately short. Breast deep,
broad and full. Back broad and well fleshed. Legs of moderate length.
Fleece fine, uniform, curly, with bright luster.

LINCOLN.--Large size with heavy fleece of long wavy or curly wool and
moderate tuft of wool on face. Color white, head large, without horns,
body deep, back wide and straight. Legs broad and set well apart. Weight
for rams 250 pounds, ewes 200 pounds.

MERINO.--Distinguished by its very fine wool, usually delicately
crimped. Wool generally short and dense. Grows to tips of ears and hoofs
of feet. Form, when shorn, angular, shoulders narrow, back not usually
so straight or strong as English breeds, legs less straight and neck
more slender. Ram usually has horns. Very enduring and resistant. The
American merino has three to five heavy folds on neck, and folds on arm
and sides and across hips. Fleece covers entire sheep except tip of nose
and hoofs. Eyes hidden by wool. Outside of fleece a dirty brown, but
inside white. Ewes 80 to 100 pounds, rams 100 to 175 pounds. Delaine
merinos have smoother bodies than the American, and fewer folds and
wrinkles. Mature ewes 100 to 150 pounds, rams 140 to 200 pounds.
Rambouillet merinos have large bodies, usually smooth and free from
wrinkles, except perhaps on neck. Fleece fine and white. Rams usually
have large spirally curved horns, ewes hornless. Legs long. Rams 175 to
185 pounds, ewes 140 to 160 pounds.


REPRESENTATIVE MUTTON PRODUCING BREEDS

CHEVIOT.--Medium size, hornless, face and legs white, body closely
covered with wool of soft fiber and pure white. Head bold and broad.
Fleece forms almost a ruff about face. Deep and large in breast, back
wide and straight. Short legs set well apart, hoofs black. Mature rams
200 pounds, ewes 150 pounds.

COTSWOLD.--Large, high-standing breed with heavy fleece of long white,
lustrous wool. Ample topknot often covering eyes. Bold, upright
carriage. Head moderately small, face white or mixed with gray, eyes
prominent, neck short, thick and strong, shoulders broad and full, back
broad, breast broad and well forward, quarters long and full, mutton
quite down to hock. Weight of ram 250 pounds, ewe 200 pounds.

DORSET-HORN.--Face and legs pure white, flesh-colored nose. Both sexes
have horns. Eyes prominent, neck short and symmetrical, shoulders broad
and full. Chest full and deep, quarters wide and full with mutton
extending down to hock. Fleece medium grade, of even quality, extending
over belly and well down on legs. Short, stout legs. Weight for rams 200
pounds, ewes 160 pounds.

HAMPSHIRE DOWN.--Black face, head large, well covered with wool on
forehead and cheeks, nostrils wide. Ears large and drooping, eyes
prominent and lustrous, legs well under outside of body, straight,
almost black. Chest deep and full with breast prominent and full, back
straight, quarters long and deep in thigh. Ewes prolific and heavy
milkers. Weight for rams 250 pounds, ewes 185 to 195 pounds.

OXFORD DOWN.--Largest of down breeds. Nearly straight on underline. Long
and coarse fleece. Very stately appearance. Color of face and legs
brown, which is often flecked with gray. Ewes very prolific and heavy
milkers. Not hardy under American climatic conditions. Rams 250 to 350
pounds, ewes 180 to 275 pounds.

SHROPSHIRE DOWN.--Dark brown face and legs. Broad head, short face,
thick muscular neck, body somewhat barrel shaped, except that it is
straight on back. Body, head and legs to knees covered with fleece of
even length and quality. Weight for rams 225 pounds, ewes 175 pounds.

SOUTH DOWN.--Smallest of down breeds, but the model in form. Short,
straight legs, wide apart; broad level back, thickly fleshed; long,
broad hips; neck short, thick at shoulder; head small, forehead full,
face short, eyes prominent, ears small. Face and legs uniform reddish
brown. Hindquarters carry down very heavy; breast broad and prominent.
Fleece compact, long and close wool, white and carrying some yolk. Best
weight for rams 200 pounds, ewes 150 pounds.

SUFFOLK DOWN.--Large, rangy sheep, black-faced, hornless, with long,
clean, black legs. Wool is of good quality and mutton is excellent. A
good feeder and very prolific.


=Swine, Pig or Hog= (_Sus_).--There are numerous varieties of the
domestic pig. Some have erect and some pendent ears, and those are most
esteemed which exhibit the greatest departure from the wild type,
notably in shorter and less powerful limbs, less muscular and more
rounded forms, wider ribs, and greater wealth of flesh.

The domestication of the pig is remotely ancient, having been
established among the Chinese for some thousands of years. It was
brought to America by the early colonists. However, it is only during
the last two hundred years that the pig has reached its present highly
modified state of domestication, and only during the last century has
selective breeding been carried on to secure rapid growth and much fat.

The Chinese breed is renowned for its fertility. Its head is short and
thick, ears erect, legs very short, chine high and broad, and jowl wide,
belly hanging very near to the ground. As a rule it carries a small
quantity of hair. The skin is usually dark, but the flesh is delicate
and white. The Neapolitan breed is entirely black, with little hair,
remarkably easy to fatten, but scarcely so robust in constitution or so
prolific as the Chinese pig.

Swine are most profitably reared where corn and grass most abound;
hence, they are found in America in largest numbers and highest
development, the United States not infrequently having upwards of fifty
per cent of the world’s supply. In America the industry centers in the
Mississippi valley, where Indian corn is grown in greatest abundance and
at least expense, particularly in the states of Iowa, Illinois, Texas,
Nebraska, Missouri, Indiana, Ohio and Kansas. These swine are mostly of
the four breeds of the large or “lard” type, viz.: Poland-Chinas, and
Berkshires, Duroc-Jerseys and Chester Whites, the Poland-Chinas
predominating.


DESCRIPTIONS OF REPRESENTATIVE BREEDS

BERKSHIRE.--Rather more than medium size. Snout of medium length, face
dished. Ears nearly erect, well carried. Jowl heavy. Neck short with
considerable crest. Shoulder, back and rump of good width. Body deep.
Ham thickly meated, strong constitution. Color black with a white mark
on face. White on each foot and on tip of tail.

CHESHIRE.--Medium size. Body has good length. Shoulders and hams well
developed. Face slightly dished. Ear small and erect. Bone fine and of
fair quality. Color white. Black spots often occur on skin.

CHESTER-WHITE.--Medium size, face straight or very slightly dished. Ear
droops and is somewhat loosely attached to head. Color white, hair in
many specimens wavy or curly. Neck wide, deep and short. Jowl smooth,
neat and firm. Shoulders broad, deep and full. Chest large, deep, full
in girth. Sides full, smooth, deep; ham broad, full, long, wide and
deep. Back broad on top, straight or slightly arched, legs short and
straight. Coat fine. Weight of boars two years old 500 pounds, sows 450
pounds.

DUROC-JERSEY.--Medium size, fine bone. Snout medium length, face
slightly dished, ear drooped, jowl heavy, body wide and deep set on
short legs. Ham heavily fleshed. Cherry red the popular color, but
yellowish red and chestnut are often seen. Weight of boars two years old
600 pounds, sows 500 pounds.

HAMPSHIRE or THIN-RIND SWINE.--Medium size, face straight, ear inclined
forward, but does not droop. Jowl light, as is also shoulder and ham.
Back of medium width. Legs of medium length and bone of good quality.
Color black extremities with a white belt four to twelve inches wide
encircling body and including fore-legs, which should also be white.
Weight, boars two years old 450 pounds, sows 400 pounds.

LARGE YORKSHIRE.--One of the largest breeds. Snout of medium length,
with little or no dish. Moderate dish in face. Jowl of good width and
muscular. Ears rather large, firmly attached, fringed with fine hair.
Shoulders and back of medium width. Side long. Ham lighter than that of
lard type with flesh carried well round inside of thigh. Legs medium
length. Bone fairly heavy, clean and flinty. Color, white.

POLAND-CHINA.--Medium size. Face slightly dished. Jowl full and heavy.
Ears fine, firmly attached; about one-third of ear droops. Neck short,
thick and heavily arched on top. Shoulder heavy. Side short. Back wide.
Ham very wide and deep. Legs short, bone fine. Black with six white
points on face, feet and tip of tail. Weight of boars two years old 600
pounds, sows 500 pounds.

TAMWORTH.--Should have golden-red hair on a flesh-colored skin, free
from black. Snout long and straight. Ear large. Jowl narrow and light.
Neck and shoulder are light; back and loin of medium width, side of good
length, moderately deep. Rather deficient in ham. Legs long and strong.


=Yak= (_Bos grunniens_), a species of ox found in Tibet, and
domesticated there. The wild yak of central Asia is the largest native
animal of Tibet, and is found only near the limits of perpetual snow.
The domesticated yak, which forms great part of the wealth of the
inhabitants of central Asia, is about the height of an American ox,
which it much resembles also in body, head, and legs; but it is covered
all over with a thick coat of long, silky hair, that of the lower parts
of the body being very long and hanging down almost to the ground. The
neck is short; the rump is low; the legs are short. Over the shoulders
there is a bunch of long hair; and the tail is covered with a prodigious
quantity of long, flowing hair. Its milk is very rich, and yields
excellent butter and curd.


=Zebu= (_Bos indicus_), an ox which exists only in a domesticated state
in Asia. It is characterized chiefly by its large hump, or sometimes two
humps, over the withers and by a greatly developed dewlap. Its color
varies from ashen grey to pure white, and white bulls, known as Brahmin
bulls, are held sacred by the Hindus and allowed to wander at will. They
vary greatly in size, and in India are used as beasts of burden and
draft.


DOMESTICATED FISH


=Carp= (_Cyprinus_), constitutes a group of fishes without spines in the
fins. The true carp originated in China and was introduced into Europe
three hundred years ago, and much later into America. The back is
blackish gray or brown, the sides yellowish brown, the belly yellow. The
usual length is between one and two feet, but large forms five feet long
or more have been caught.

The carp is mainly vegetarian, but also eats small animals, such as
larvæ and worms. The general habit is sluggish, except at the spawning
period in May and June. Their longevity is great; some are said to have
lived one hundred and fifty to two hundred years. The carp is an
important food fish, and is largely bred in the United States.


=Goldfish=, or GOLDEN CARP (_Carassius auratus_), a Chinese and Japanese
fresh-water fish nearly allied to the carp but lacking barbels. In its
warm native waters it is brownish, like its neighbor species, the
crucian carp (_C. carassius_) while in its more familiar domesticated
state it loses the black and brown pigment, becomes golden-yellow, or
passes more completely into albinism in those unpigmented forms known as
silver fish. The goldfish is naturalized in some rivers, and has had a
wide artificial distribution throughout the world.

[Illustration: =BUSY BIDDY AND HER BROOD OF NEW-BORN CHICKS=]


DOMESTICATED BIRDS


=Canary.=--See page 213.


=Chickens= (_Gallus domestica_), or Fowls, are widely distributed and
almost universally raised in every rural home. Immense poultry plants
have been built up in America in recent years, and the business
developed to proportions of a notably distinct industry. The
contributions of poultry to the nation’s wealth, mostly by the hands of
farmers’ wives, reaches an annual total of half a billion dollars or
more--an amount equal to the average value of the nation’s wheat crop.

Apart from the intrinsic merits of the individual breeds, and the better
understood methods of breeding and management, much progress has been
due to artificial methods of hatching and rearing the young fowls. The
incubator and the brooder make it possible to secure chicks at any
season of the year, and thus permits the development of special branches
of poultry raising, such as the production of broilers and soft
roasters.

There are numerous standard varieties of chickens recognized in the
United States, subdivided into four general classes, as follows: The
general-purpose breeds--the American class--Plymouth Rock, the
Wyandotte, and Dominique; the heavier, clumsier or meat breeds, such as
the Brahma, Cochin, and Langshan; the egg breeds, as the Leghorn,
Minorca, Andalusian, and Black Spanish; the ornamental breeds, as the
various Bantams, and others. Some other breeds on American farms are the
Rhode Island Red, Orpington, Houdan, Dorking and Hamburg.


LEADING BREEDS OF POULTRY DESCRIBED

BRAHMA.--Meat breed. Two varieties, light and dark. Show heavy leg and
toe feathering, thick, close plumage. General color of light Brahma,
white, with black tail and black center stripes in both hackle and
saddle feathers. In dark Brahma, wings of cock crossed by heavy black
bar, and entire breast, body, leg and toes black. Back, wings, body and
breast of female have a basis of gray on which are distinct dark
pencilings. Weight for dark cocks eleven pounds, hens eight and one-half
pounds; for light cocks twelve pounds, hens nine and one-half pounds.
Brown egg.

COCHIN.--Meat breed. Four varieties, buff, partridge, white, black.
Peculiarity is an appearance of massiveness and fluffiness. Heavy, short
feathering is piled high on back and extends wide at sides. Excessive
thigh and shank feathering. Combs single, low, close on head and evenly
serrated with five distinct points. Cocks weigh eleven pounds, hens
eight and one-half pounds. Brown egg.

DORKING.--General purpose, meat especially. Three varieties, colored,
white and silver-gray. Body long and deep. Carries abundance of flesh.
Skin white. Colored largest cocks weigh nine pounds and hens seven
pounds. White cocks weigh seven and one-half pounds, hens six pounds.
Silver-gray variety is between these two. All have a fifth toe. Eggs of
very light color.

HAMBURG.--Egg and fancy breed. Six varieties, golden spangled, silver
spangled, golden penciled, silver penciled, white and black. About size
of the Leghorn. White egg.

HOUDAN.--General breeding purposes. Color black and white evenly broken
in alternate splotches throughout entire plumage. Head ornaments of
crest and beard. White skin. Carry fifth toe on each foot. Cocks weigh
seven pounds, hens six pounds. White egg.

INDIAN.--Meat breed. Two varieties, Cornish and white. Beaks and shanks
yellow. Bird of strong proportions. Back and wings of cock mixture of
red and black, tail and breast black. Hen’s back, wings, breast and body
a rich bay penciled with black. Cocks weigh nine pounds, hens six and
one-half pounds. Tinted egg.

LEGHORN.--Egg production. Eight varieties, single-comb and rose-comb
brown, single-comb and rose-comb white, single-comb and rose-comb buff,
single-comb black and single-comb silver duck-wing. Characterized by
early maturity and great activity. Large combs on the top of head. White
egg.

MINORCA.--Egg breed. Three varieties, single-comb black, rose-comb
black, single-comb white. Long body, carried rather upright, deep at
breast with back tapering sharply toward tail, which is long and carried
rather low. Comb large. Ear lobes large and pure white. Cocks of
rose-comb weigh eight pounds, hens six and one-half pounds. Single-combs
weigh one pound heavier. White egg.

ORPINGTON.--General purpose. Three varieties, buff, black and white.
Long body, abundant plumage, white skin. Short, heavy shanks. Tendency
to feathering on shanks. Cock weighs ten pounds, hen eight pounds. Egg
tinted.

PLYMOUTH ROCK.--General purpose, for both meat and eggs. Three
varieties, the barred, white and buff. Back and body rather long, breast
broad and deep. Single combs, yellow shanks. Cocks weight nine and
one-half pounds and hens seven and one-half pounds. Brown egg.

RHODE ISLAND RED.--General purpose. Two varieties, single comb and
rose-comb. Tail color black. Rhode Island red has a red surface of body
plumage, with a red under color, free from slate.

Buckeye breed surface color is dark, rich garnet, and under color allows
a bar of slate-color next to surface. Body of both long. Rhode Island
Reds level. Buckeye body shows slight elevation in front. Weight of
Rhode Island red cocks eight and one-half pounds, hens six and one-half
pounds. Buckeye cocks nine pounds, hens six pounds. Brown egg.

WYANDOTTE.--General purpose, for both meat and eggs. Eight standard
varieties, white, buff, black, silver, golden, silver penciled,
partridge and Columbian. A bird of curves, back short and broad, body
deep and round, breast broad and deep, with a low-set keel. Shanks
short, strong and carried well apart. Colors silver, white, black, buff
and mixtures. Close-fitting rose combs. Abundant fluffy, close-fitting
plumage. Weight eight and one-half pounds for cocks, six and one-half
pounds for hens. Brown egg.


=Duck= (_Anas domestica_).--The various breeds of domestic duck are all
descended from the wild species. The prominent characteristics of the
family are familiar: the short webbed feet, with a small hind toe; the
netted scales in front of the lower leg; the bill, about as long as the
head, rounded at the tip, and bearing the nostrils towards the broad
root. They are aquatic birds, swimming with much agility, diving
comparatively little, preferring to grub in the shallows for
water-plants, worms, and small animals.

Duck raising is extensive in Europe both for flesh and eggs, which are
more generally used than in the United States. In eastern Asia, notably
in China, ducks are grown in enormous numbers. Duck raising has become
a profitable industry in the United States, particularly since the
introduction of the Pekin duck, which was introduced into the United
States from China in 1870.


THE CHIEF BREEDS RAISED IN THIS COUNTRY ARE THE FOLLOWING:

BLACK CAYUGA.--Largest solid black duck known. Mature pair weighs
fifteen pounds. Body of good length.

COLORED MUSCOVY.--Good size, black and white in color, black
predominating. Side of head and region around eyes are without feathers
and are carunculated or corrugated and scarlet. Builds her nest and
never scatters her eggs. Never quacks. Active on wing.

WHITE MUSCOVY.--Same as colored muscovy except that it is pure white.

INDIAN RUNNER.--Head long and flat, light fawn in color, cap and cheek
markings light fawn, bill straight, green with black bean at tip, eyes
hazel, neck white from head to beginning of breast markings, back, light
fawn or gray, breast light fawn, body light fawn, rear half white.
Shanks and feet orange-yellow. Carriage very erect. Small size.

PEKIN.--Largest white duck in existence. Specimens weigh as high as ten
or twelve pounds. Head and beak long and of good size, beak
orange-yellow, back, breast and body long, broad and deep, with deep
keel. Creamy white.

ROUEN.--Largest and most popular of all colored market varieties. Weight
nine pounds for drakes, eight pounds for ducks.

WHITE CRESTED.--Medium-sized white duck with large white crest or
topknot, about two-thirds the size of Pekin, which it resembles in color
and shape of body, except crest.


=Goose= (_Anser domesticus_).--The goose has been but slightly changed
from the parent wild stock by domestication. The feet are short and
completely webbed; the hind-toe is present; and the legs are placed
comparatively far forward, so that the movements on land are less
awkward than those of most ducks. Geese swim little, and never dive.

In general, geese spend much of their time on land, feeding on grass and
other herbage, berries, seeds, and other vegetable food. Although large
birds, and of bulky form, they have great powers of flight. They strike
with their wings in fighting, and there is a hard, callous knob or
tubercle at the bend of the wing, which in some species becomes a spur.

The domestic goose is regarded as deriving its origin from the common
wild goose, but all the species seem capable of domestication.

Geese are valuable for eggs, quills, feathers, and for food. In southern
Europe culture was formerly much more important, but it is still a great
industry in Holland and Germany. Livers from geese artificially
fattened, in districts near Strassburg, are made into the celebrated
delicacy known as _paté-de-foie-gras_. In the United States, goose
raising is of minor importance. They are most extensively grown in the
Southern States; Kentucky, Missouri, Texas, Tennessee, and Arkansas
leading in the order named.


THE CHIEF BREEDS RAISED ARE THE FOLLOWING:

AFRICAN.--Large head with pronounced black knot and heavy gray dewlap
under throat. Neck long, back broad and flat, breast full and round,
body large and upright, thighs short and plump. Shanks medium length and
dark orange color. Wings of good size, close fitting. General color
gray. Mature gander twenty pounds, goose eighteen pounds.

EMBDEN.--Color white. Square, compact body. Neck long and massive
appearing, large head. Medium-size orange colored bill. Back slightly
arched, breast round, deep and full. Shanks short, stout, deep, orange
color, thighs strong, wings large, tail short. Eyes bright blue. Mature
gander twenty pounds, goose eighteen pounds.

TOULOUSE.--Blue-gray in color, marked with brown. Head large but short,
bill short and stout, neck medium long, body compact, medium length,
deep, belly almost touching ground, back broad, slightly arched, breast
broad and deep, wings large, strong, close fitting, tail short. Adult
gander twenty pounds, goose eighteen pounds.

WHITE AND BROWN CHINESE.--Bodies plump and round, covered with coat of
soft feathers and fine down. Medium size, mature specimens weighing ten
to fourteen pounds. Long arch necks, with large round knob at base of
beak. Short erect body and carriage.


=Guinea Fowl= (_Numida_) belongs to a genus of African birds in the
pheasant family. The plumage is dark gray, with round spots of white,
generally larger on the back and under surface. Some species are adorned
on the head with a helmet or horny casque, while others have fleshy
wattles on the cheeks and a tuft or top-knot on the crown.

The best known is the common guinea fowl (_N. meleagris_), also
popularly known as “Comeback,” from its cry, with naked head, hard
callous casque, and slate-colored plumage, everywhere speckled with
round white spots of various sizes. The guinea fowl is now common in the
poultry-yards, although it is more adapted to warm than to cold
climates. The eggs are small, and have a thick, strong shell, but are
particularly esteemed. The flesh is somewhat like a pheasant’s, but
rather dry.


=Ostrich= (_Struthio_). A bird which was once included with the
cassowaries, emu, rhea and apteryx in a distinct order, but which is
probably better regarded as forming a separate family. Its nearest
allies appear to be the rheas of South America.

An adult male may reach a height of eight feet, the neck being about
three feet long. The special peculiarity is the reduction of the toes to
two, these corresponding to the third and fourth of the typical foot.
The foot and tarsus are both stout; the head is small, with large eyes,
and short, broad, and depressed beak; the wing and tail feathers are
large and soft, and have broad, equal vanes; while the long neck is
practically naked. The feathers are without an aftershaft.

The true ostrich is a native of Africa. All are flightless birds, and as
the wing muscles are reduced there is no keel on the breastbone. The
African ostrich has but two toes, the others three. The rheas and the
emus may be dismissed with mere mention, the rheas furnishing the
feathers used in feather dusters. The African ostriches furnish the
well-known plumes and are bred for the purpose, the export of feathers
from South Africa amounting to over five million dollars a year. There
are now ostrich farms in South America, California, Arizona and Florida.
The eggs are laid in the sand and in nature are incubated by the heat of
the sun. The plumes are cut (not pulled out) once a year.


=Parrot= (_Psittacus erithacus_) is a type of an important group of
birds, divided into numerous families including the love-birds, macaws,
cockatoos and porakeets. They are preeminently tropical birds, and
arboreal in habit; some species, however, range into colder
countries--_e. g._, Patagonia and New Zealand--and some, such as the
burrowing ground parrot of New Zealand, are not arboreal. They are fruit
and seed eating birds, with the exception of the kea, of New Zealand,
which has taken to a carnivorous diet.

As a rule, the parrots are brightly colored birds, being often, like
other forest-frequenting creatures, green; there are some species,
however, which are not brilliantly colored. There is occasionally a
difference of color in the two sexes, which is best marked in species
belonging to the genus _Eclectus_; in these the prevailing color of the
female is red, and of the male green.

Their power of imitating human speech is very remarkable, and equalled
by no other animal. The great age to which parrots will live has often
been exaggerated, but it is at any rate certain that some species will
survive for fifty years in confinement. They are highly regarded by
natives of central America as household pets, where they are also used
for food and the feathers for ornaments. The best talking birds lack the
brilliancy of plumage possessed by many other parrots. Their chief use
among civilized peoples is as an ornamental bird and household pet.


=Peacock= (_Pavo_) is allied to pheasants and other game-birds, and
includes at least two species--the Indian and Singhalese (_P.
cristatus_), and the Malayan (_P. muticus_), inhabiting Java,
Borneo, and similar regions. The birds roost in trees, and eat
omnivorously--worms, insects, small snakes, seeds, etc. At the pairing
season rival males display the well-known beauty of their tail-coverts
before their desired mates, and strut about after the fashion of many
game-birds. The usual cry is a shrill “p-a-o” and strange noises are
made by rattling the quills. The females lay, according to the climatic
conditions, from April to October; the eggs, of a brownish color, are
numerous (eight to ten), and are laid without a nest in some concealed
spot. At first both sexes are alike in plumage, but after a year or so
the males gradually acquire their gorgeous feathers, which are perfected
about the third year. The Javan peafowl is said to be even handsomer
than the familiar species. The flesh and eggs are of good quality though
inferior to the domestic fowl, though they are still extensively bred in
southeastern Asia for food. The range of the peacock in domestication
has been greatly extended in modern times, but its use is restricted to
ornamental purposes. The splendor of its plumage is unequaled by any
other large bird.


=Pigeon= (_Columba livia_), including some three hundred species, is
distributed in nearly all parts of the world. Most of the domesticated
varieties are derived from the rock dove. The mountain witch of Jamaica
is one of the most beautiful of birds. The largest member of the group
was the dodo, a native of the islands in the Indian ocean, which became
extinct before 1700, partly because it lacked the power of flight. It
was somewhat larger than a turkey, with the same external appearance.

In America, as in Europe there are enormous numbers of breeders who
devote themselves to what are known as “fancy pigeons,” by which term
are meant those bred for their special points or characteristics. Of
these there is a great and ever-increasing variety, many of which have
several distinct colors.

The most important of the domestic pigeons are the common pigeon, the
trumpeter, the ruff pigeon, the Jacobin, the Turkish pigeon, the carrier
pigeon, which, on account of its great power of remembering localities,
is used for carrying messages; the pouter, the tumbler, the turbit, the
fantail, and the oriental pigeon. The young pigeons are highly esteemed
for their delicate flavor.

The TURTLE DOVE (_Turtur auritus_) is frequently kept in captivity, as
it is the smallest and prettiest of all the family of pigeons.


=Swans= (_Cygnus_) are swimming birds, closely related to the ducks and
geese, with long and slender neck, bill about as long as the head, and
with a soft cere. Nine species are known. The American swan (_C.
americanus_) breeds in the northern parts of North America, but its
winter migrations extend only to North Carolina. The trumpeter swan (_C.
buccinator_) is another American species, breeding chiefly within the
Arctic Circle, but of which large flocks may be seen in winter as far
south as Texas. Australia produces a black swan (_C. atratus_),
discovered towards the end of the eighteenth century, rather smaller
than the common swan, the plumage deep black, except the primaries of
the wings, which are white. The eye is red. The black-necked swan (_C.
nigricollis_), perhaps the handsomest bird of the genus, is a South
American species, ranging from Chile to the Faulkland Islands.


=Turkey= (_Meleagris gallipavo_) or common turkey, is a native of North
America, where it exists in two forms. The typical form ranges from
southern Canada to Florida and eastern Texas, and westward to the edge
of the great Plains; farther south, it is replaced by another form (_M.
mexicana_), having the tail and its coverts tipped with buffy white, and
inhabiting the tablelands of Mexico, and extending north to the southern
border of the United States, and south to Vera Cruz. The finest tame
turkeys are those of the American bronze breed, which has been created
by crossing.

It is our largest domestic fowl, and much prized for food, though
neither its eggs nor feathers are used to an important extent.
Notwithstanding it is a stupid bird, ranking low in intelligence, the
turkey is easily domesticated and the tame birds readily intermingle
with the wild ones. While it needs considerable range and is inclined to
wander, and therefore is not suited to small farms, it is comparatively
easy to rear and stands second to the chicken in the United States,
ranking above geese and ducks both in number and value. Texas reports
the largest number, and is followed in order by Missouri, Illinois, Iowa
and Ohio.


THE FOLLOWING ARE MUCH PRIZED BREEDS:

BLACK.--Plumage pure black. Otherwise same as above.

BOURBON RED.--A kindred variety to the buff, having deep reddish-buff
plumage.

BRONZE.--Largest and hardiest of all varieties for the market. Adult
cock thirty-six pounds, hen twenty pounds.

BUFF.--Feathers a reddish buff, the wing flights being white.

NARRAGANSETT.--Plumage bronze and black with a mixture of white. Second
in size to bronze. Cock thirty pounds, hen eighteen pounds. General
color gray.

SLATE.--Plumage of a bluish slate shade. Cock twenty-seven pounds, hen
eighteen pounds.

WHITE HOLLAND.--Plumage pure white throughout; has pinkish white shanks.
Cocks twenty-eight pounds, hens eighteen pounds.

[Illustration: The Swan, on account of its graceful carriage, and beauty
of form, is not only a universal favorite with children and grown-ups
but has been the subject of much legend and poetry. It was sacred to
Apollo, and was the bird of the Muses; and was fabulously celebrated for
its melodious song, especially at the time of its death. From the latter
legend we derive the expression “swan-song” which means the last effort,
or production, or achievement of an individual.]


DOMESTICATED INSECTS


=Bee, Honey= (_Apis mellifica_).--Bees form a family of insects
belonging to the same order as the wasps and ants. Many kinds of bees
are social, that is to say, they live in communities. As in the case of
ants, various sets of members have come to discharge special functions,
and the result of this division of labor has been difference of form.

[Illustration: Her Majesty of the Hive--The worker bees attending on the
queen, all with their faces turned toward her. The queen is the large
bee in the center. No “swarm” is possible without the commanding
presence of an accompanying queen.]

[Illustration: As the Honey Bee visits flower after flower she collects
pollen as well as nectar. The pollen is largely picked up by the hairy
coat, then brushed off by the feet and pressed into the “pollen basket”
on the thigh of the hind leg.]


HOW A BEE HOUSEHOLD IS ORGANIZED

Thus the ordinary hive contains (1) a single queen-bee--the fertile
female and mother of the next brood, (2) the males or drones, and (3)
the vast majority of workers or imperfectly developed females, which
only exceptionally become fertile. The working bees constitute
essentially the bee community; they are recognized by their small size,
reddish-brown color, and, above all, by the palettes and brushes with
which the hind legs are furnished.

The males, or drones, are larger and more hairy than the working bees;
they emit a buzzing sound, have no palettes, and no sting. The female,
or queen, has a longer body than the workers, and the wings shorter in
proportion. The only part she has to play is that of laying eggs, and so
she has no palettes or brushes. Only one queen lives in each hive, of
which she is perfect sovereign, all the workers submissively obeying
her. The number of males is scarcely one-tenth that of the working bees,
and they live only about three months.


WHAT THE SWARMING OF BEES MEANS

At a certain time of the year the queen leaves the hive, accompanied by
the drones, and takes what is called her “nuptial flight” through the
air. About forty-eight hours after her return to the hive she begins
laying her eggs, at the rate of about two hundred a day. The eggs which
are destined to develop into workers are first laid, then those which
are to produce males, and lastly those which give birth to females. The
eggs are not long in being hatched, and the larvæ, or caterpillars,
which emerge from them are tended by the workers, and fed by them on a
peculiar paste, which is apparently a preparation of pollen. In five or
six days the larvæ pass into the condition of pupa, or chrysalis, and in
about seven or eight days after this the perfect insect is hatched.

A pound weight of bees contain about five thousand individuals, and
swarms are often found to weigh eight pounds, or even more. A populous
hive will thus contain from forty to fifty thousand bees. In spring,
however, the number is much smaller, amounting to only a few thousand.


THE STRUCTURE OF HONEY-BEES

Many of the points in the structure of the honey-bee fit it for the
performance of its complex activities. Upon the head there are two large
compound eyes, used for near vision, and three small simple eyes, by
which objects at a distance can be perceived. There is a well-developed
sense of color, and flowers which specially lay themselves out to
attract bees are mostly of blue or purple hue. Bees have also a keen
sense of smell, which not only attracts them to fragrant flowers, but
also helps them to detect the presence of nectar.


THE BEE’S WONDERFUL MOUTH AND LEGS

The mouth-parts of the bee are highly specialized. The powerful first
jaws are used in the construction of the comb, and for a great variety
of other purposes, while the second and third jaws are drawn out into a
long suctorial and licking apparatus. The basal part of this constitutes
a tube through which nectar or other sweet fluids can be sucked up,
while its terminal portion is a sort of tongue (_ligula_) that can be
inserted into the recesses of flowers. This is worked up and down so as
to bring nectar within the tubular part of the apparatus. The end of the
tongue is expanded into a sort of lappet for licking, and the sharp
blades of the second jaws can be used for piercing certain flowers, such
as orchids, which contain sweet sap. When not in action, the suctorial
parts of the mouth are folded up on the under side of the head, enabling
the first jaws to work freely.


HOW THE COAT IS GATHERED FOR THE HONEY-COMBS

There are marked differences between the three pairs of legs of a
worker-bee. The first are provided with combs, by which the delicate
antennæ are cleaned, while the third are chiefly remarkable for peculiar
pollen brushes on the feet, and a depression or “pollen basket” on the
outer side of the shin. The hairy feet brush pollen into the baskets,
and when of a dry nature a little honey is ejected from the mouth on to
the grains, so as to stick them together. Another peculiarity of the
third leg is the nature of the joint between shin and foot, which
constitutes a sort of pincers useful in manipulating wax.

The wax of which the cells of the honeycomb are constructed is supposed
to be secreted by an organ situated in the abdomen, or belly, of the
bee; but, in addition to wax, another substance much resembling it, but
not identical, called propolis, is elaborated from the juices of certain
plants, and employed to line the inner surface of the hive. The cells
are hexagonal in shape, that is, having six equal sides--the most
economical form as regards space--and are of two kinds, namely,
store-cells, which are filled with honey, as a reserve store of food,
and cradle-cells, in which the eggs are deposited.


WHERE THE HONEY COMES FROM

The honey of various regions is flavored by the flowers predominant in
the districts where it is gathered--heather, rosemary, lavender,
orange-flowers, white clover, bass-wood, lime-tree. In Scotland it is
not unusual to transport the hives in the flowering season to the
neighborhood of heathery tracts. The honey most famous in the ancient
world was that of Mt. Hybla in Sicily, and Mt. Hymettus in Attica.
Supplies are imported into Britain from various quarters; but it is to
the United States and Canada that we must turn for bee-farming on the
largest scale, and California, especially southern California, is the
paradise of beekeepers. Some bee-keepers have from two thousand to three
thousand hives; and as much as seven hundred pounds of honey has been
obtained from one hive. The most improved hives, honey-extractors,
artificial combs, and comb-foundations are in general use.


=Silk-worm= (_Bombyx mori_) lives on the Mulberry, and is bred for the
fibers of the cocoon. It originally came from southern Asia, but is now
extensively cultivated in China, Japan and southern Europe for the
purpose of obtaining its silk. The cultivation of the silkworm is
dependent almost entirely on the supply of these leaves.


HOW THE SILK WORM GROWS AND FEEDS

On the low, moist, alluvial soils of the East, slips of this tree are
planted in close and continuous lines, and six to eight weeks afterwards
they are six feet high, and the leaf-crop allows of six to ten broods
being produced in the course of six months. In Europe it is not unusual
for more than one brood to be produced, and the female lays her eggs
towards the end of the summer; but they do not hatch until the following
spring, when the leaves appear. In Asia, during the season, the eggs
hatch eight to ten days after laying. The caterpillar feeds
persistently, and rapidly grows; at the end of a month it moults, and
this happens four times in all before it starts to make its cocoon.

[Illustration: =THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SILKWORM=

The female moth deposits in July three to five hundred eggs, from which
the white caterpillars (a) emerge in the following spring, at the period
when the white mulberry tree blooms, upon the leaves of which they feed.
The caterpillars change their skins four times and are full grown in
about a month. They now spin a cocoon (c), which is generally completed
in three and a half days, and five days later they change into pupæ (b).
The pupal stage lasts from fourteen to nineteen days. The cocoons
furnish the silk, and the pupæ are generally killed on the tenth day by
heat.]


HOW THE DELICATE SILK FILAMENT IS PRODUCED

The silk is produced from spinnerets, two apertures in the head, the two
filaments joining as they appear to form a very strong thread from five
hundred to one thousand yards long. This the caterpillar wraps round its
body until it is completely covered, and then it passes into the
chrysalis state. Unless the grey moth is wanted for egg-laying, the
chrysalis is killed by putting the cocoon in a hot oven, for if allowed
to appear it cuts through some of the more valuable parts of the silk.


WINDING THE SILK FROM THE COCOONS

The next process is to wind as much as possible off the cocoons into
hanks. In Europe and in some Oriental towns this is done with improved
machinery in factories called filatures. It is usually begun when the
cocoons are fresh. Each operator has before her a basin of hot water,
the temperature of which is regulated by a steam-pipe or a fire, and
overhead is a reel turning slowly. After removing the outside flossy
covering, the operator places the cocoons in the basin, with the result
that the hot water softens the natural gum that is in the silk, and
allows it to be wound off. The filaments are passed through several
glass eyes, and crossed, and thus become glued together into a thread
which is called “singles,” and when further prepared is known as “thrown
silk.” The singles are reeled into large hanks being called a “moss,”
and each bundle a “book.”

In this form, Asiatic silk is imported into Europe and the United
States. The quantity of such silk obtained from one cocoon is very
small--seldom up to a thousand yards, generally not more than five
hundred yards. The remainder of the cocoon is either too flossy or too
entangled to be wound. This waste portion forms the material from which
spun silk is prepared. Five to six hundred cocoons weigh two pounds, and
twenty pounds of cocoons yield two pounds of spun silk. The eggs of the
silkworm were first brought to Europe by two Christian monks in 555 A.
D., who took them in hollow sticks to Constantinople, whence the
cultivation of the silkworm rapidly spread to other parts.


SCIENTIFIC TERMS CONCERNING ANIMALS

=Abdomen= (_ăb-dō´mĕn_).--In mammals, that portion of the body-cavity
which is separated from the thorax or chest by the diaphragm. In insects
the third or last portion.

=Ametabolic= (_ȧ-mĕt´a-bŏl´ĭk_).--Referring to insects and other animals
which do not undergo a metamorphosis, or change of form.

=Amoeba= (_ȧ-mē´bȧ_).--One of the Protozoa that is continually changing
its shape.

=Amorphous= (_ȧmŏr´fŭs_).--Without a definite figure; shapeless;
especially applicable to sponges.

=Amphibia= (_ăm-fĭb´ĭ-ȧ_).--A class of vertebrates, breathing in water
while young and in air when mature. The term amphibious is applied to
fishes, molluscs, etc., that are capable of changing the nature of their
respiration at will.

=Annelida= (_ăn-nĕl´ĭ-dȧ_).--Articulate animals whose bodies possess no
jointed members, as the leech, and worm tribe.

=Annulate= (_ăn´ū̇-lā̇t_).--Animals whose bodies are composed of a
series of ring-shaped divisions.

=Anthropoid= (ăn-thrō̇-poid).--The highest order of apes.

=Apterous= (_ăp´tĕr-ŭs_).--Destitute of wings.

=Arachnida= (_ȧ-răk´nĭ-dȧ_).--Articulate animals with legs, but without
wings, including spiders, mites, scorpions, etc.

=Arthropoda= (_är-thrŏp´o-dȧ_).--Articulated animals with jointed feet,
as crabs, insects, etc.

=Asexual= (_ȧ-sĕks´ū-al_).--A term applied to animals, as Aphis, in
which the reproductive organs are imperfect, and the young are produced
by budding.

=Auricle= (_a̱´rĭ-k´l_).--The cavity of the heart which receives the
blood and transmits it to the ventricle.

=Bacteria= (_băk-tē´rĭ-ȧ_).--Microscopic vegetable organism, belonging
to the class Algæ, usually in the form of a jointed, rod-like filament,
and found in putrefying organic infusions. Bacteria are destitute of
chlorophyll, and are the smallest of microscopic organisms. They are
very widely diffused in nature, and multiply with marvelous rapidity.
Certain species are active agents in fermentation, while others appear
to be the cause of certain infectious diseases.

=Batrachia= (_bȧ-trā´kĭ-ȧ_).--Applied to frogs, toads, and salamanders.

=Bimana= (_bĭm´ȧ-nȧ_).--Two-handed animals whose posterior extremities
are used only to keep them in an erect position, and for the purpose of
locomotion. They comprise the varieties of man.

=Blastoderm= (_blăs´tō-derm_).--The outer layer of the germ-cells of the
embryo.

=Carapace= (_kăr´ȧ-pās_).--A sort of shell which protects and encloses
the bodies of tortoises and some reptiles, etc.

=Carnivora= (_kär-nĭv´ō-rȧ_).--Group of mammals, including the lion,
tiger, wolf, bear, seal, etc. They feed upon flesh, though some of them,
as the bears, also eat vegetable food. The teeth are large and sharp,
suitable for cutting flesh, and the jaws powerful.

=Carnivorous= (_kär-niv´ō-rus_).--Eating or feeding on flesh. The term
is applied to animals which naturally seek flesh for food, as the tiger,
dog, etc.

=Cephalopoda= (_sĕf-a-lŏp´ō-dȧ_).--The highest class of Molluscs.

=Cetacea= (_sē-tā´shē-ȧ_).--The whales.

=Chiroptera= (_ki-rŏp´te-rȧ_).--The bats.

=Chrysalis= (_krĭs´ȧ-lĭs_).--The pupa state of an insect.

=Coelenterata= (_sē-lĕ´te-rā´tȧ_).--The group of Invertebrates,
comprising hydrozoa and actinozoa.

=Coleoptera= (_kol-e-op´ter-a_).--The beetles.

=Cilia= (_sĭl´ĭ-a_).--Hair-like organs of Infusoria. Microscopic
filaments attached to cells, usually within the body, and moving usually
rhythmically.

=Crustacea= (_krŭs-tā´shē-ȧ_).--Applied to lobsters, crabs, etc.

=Dipnoi= (_dĭp´nō-ī_ or _-noi_).--An order of fishes.

=Diptera= (_dĭp´tē-rā_).--Two-winged flies; an order of insects.

=Echinodermata= (_e-kī´nô-dẽr´mȧ-tȧ_).--Applied to the sea-urchin, a
subdivision of animals.

=Edentata= (_ē´dĕn-tā´tȧ_).--Those animals having imperfect dental
apparatus. Their digits, too, are generally sunk in large and crooked
claws.

=Elasmobranchii= (_ē-lăs´mō-brănk-ē_).--The sharks and rays.

=Fauna= (_faw´nä_).--The native animals of a certain locality.

=Flagellum= (_flâ-jēl´lŭm_).--A whip. The appendage of some Protozoa.

=Foraminifera= (_fô-răm´ĭ-nĭf´e-rȧ_).--Animals with perforated shells.

=Ganoid= (_gā´noid_ or _găn´oid_).--Applied to a certain class of fish.

=Gasteropoda= (_găs´te-rŏp´ô-dȧ_).--A class of Molluscs. Some of them
form shells, while others are destitute of them,--as the slug, snail,
etc.

=Grallatores= (_grăl´lȧ-tō´rēz_).--Wading-birds.

=Hibernation= (_hī-bẽr-nā´shŭn_).--The state of animals that sleep
throughout winter.

=Hymenoptera= (_hī-mē-nŏp´te-rȧ_).--An order of insects with two pairs
of membraneous wings.

=Ichthyology= (_ĭk-thĭ-ŏl´ō-jy_).--The science of fishes, or that part
of zoology which treats of fishes, their structure, habits, etc.

=Infusoria= (_ĭn´fû-sō´rĭ-ȧ_).--Minute animals that live in stagnant
water. A class of Protozoa.

=Insectivora= (_ĭn´sĕk-tĭv´ô-rȧ_).--Insect-eaters. They comprise the
shrew, mole, hedgehog, etc.

=Invertebrate= (_ĭn-vēr´te-brāt_).--Animals that have no vertebral
column, or bones properly so called.

=Larva= (_lär´vȧ_).--The second stage of the insect, a caterpillar,
grub, or maggot.

=Mandible= (_măn´dĭ-bl_).--The upper jaw of insects; the lower jaw of
vertebrates.

=Marsupial= (_Mär-su´pĭ-al_).--An order of mammals that carry their
young in a pouch, as the kangaroo.

=Mollusc= (_mŏl’lŭsk_).--Animals whose bodies are soft and pulpy.

=Monotremata= (_mon-ō-trē´ma-ta_).--An order of mammals having the
intestine and the ducts of the urinary and genital organs open into a
common orifice.

=Myriapoda= (_mĭr-ĭ-ŏp´ō-dȧ_).--A class of arthropoda. Articulate land
animals having many legs, as the centipede.

=Natatores= (_nā´tȧ-tō´rēz_).--An order of birds that swim.

=Neuroptera= (_nū-rŏp´tĕ-rȧ_).--An order of insects with four
membraneous wings, as dragon-flies.

=Nocturnal= (_nŏk-tûr´nal_).--Of the night. Nocturnal birds are birds
that fly abroad during the night only.

=Notochord= (_nō´tō̇-kôrd_).--A primitive backbone.

=Omnivorous= (_ŏm-nĭv´ō-rŭs_).--Living on both vegetables and flesh.

=Orthoptera= (_ôr-thŏp´tē̇-rȧ_).--An order of straight-winged insects,
as cockroaches, grasshoppers, etc.

=Oviparous= (_ō-vĭp´ȧ-rŭs_).--Applied to animals which produce eggs
instead of living young.

=Ovipositor= (_ō´vĭ-pŏz´ĭ-tẽr_).--In insects an organ by which eggs are
deposited in wood, etc.

=Pachydermata= (_păk´ĭ-dẽr-mȧ-tȧ_).--A group of hoofed mammals
distinguished for the thickness of their skins, including the elephant,
hippopotamus, rhinoceros, tapir, horse, and hog.

=Pelagic= (_pē-lăj´-ĭk_).--Living on the high seas, away from the coast;
in mid-ocean.

=Polyp= (_pŏl´ĭp_).--Separate coral animals.

=Protoplasm= (_prō´tō̇-plāz’m_).--The albuminous, elementary matter
forming cells and the body-substance of Protozoa.

=Protozoa= (_prō´tō-zō´ȧ_).--The lowest forms of animal life.

=Pupa= (_pū´pȧ_).--The third, or usually quiescent, chrysalis stage of
insects.

=Paleontology= (_pā-lē-ŏn-tŏl´ŏ-gy_).--The science of ancient beings or
creatures; applied to the science of the fossil remains of animals and
plants now extinct.

=Quadrumana= (_kwŏd-rōō´mȧ-nȧ_).--Monkeys.

=Quadruped= (_kwŏd´ru-pĕd_).--Four-footed animals.

=Radiates= (_rā´dĭ-āts_).--Animals having a central mouth, around which
the body forms a star-shaped figure.

=Ratitæ= (_rȧ-tī´tẽ_).--A division of birds with a keelless, raft or
punt-like sternum.

=Rhizopoda= (_ri-zŏp´ō̇-dȧ_).--The root-footed Protozoa.

=Rodentia= (_rō-dĕn´shĭ-ȧ_).--An order of animals which gnaw.

=Rotifera= (_rō-tĭf´ẽ-rȧ_).--An order of crustacea with a pair of
ciliated appendages in motion, resembling wheels.

=Ruminantia= (_roo-mĭ-nă´shĭ-ȧ_).--The cloven-footed quadrupeds. Those
that chew the cud. They have cloven feet, want incisors, and have a
stomach with four cavities.

=Taxidermy= (_tăks´ĭ-dĕr-my_).--The art of preparing and preserving
specimens of animals.

=Teleostei= (_tē´lẽ-ŏs´te-ī_ or _tĕl´e_).--An order including most of
the bony fishes.

=Thorax= (_thō´rāks_).--The chest of vertebrates, the middle portion of
insects, etc.

=Ungulata= (_ŭn-gū-lā-tȧ_).--The order of hoofed mammals.

=Vertebra= (_vĕr´tē-brȧ_).--One of the bones of the spinal column.

=Vertebrates= (_vẽr´te-brāts_).--Animals provided with vertebræ. One of
the grand divisions of the animal kingdom, comprising all animals that
have a backbone composed of bony or cartilaginous vertebræ, together
with those in which the backbone is represented by a simple undivided
notochord.

=Viviparous= (_vi-vĭp´ȧ-rŭs_).--Applied to animals which bring forth
their young alive.

=Zoophyte= (_zō´ō-fīt_).--Applied to the animals which resemble plants,
such as the sea-anemones, sponges, etc.



BOOK OF RACES AND PEOPLES


  HOW MAN DIFFERS FROM OTHER ANIMALS

  MAN AND THE HUMAN FAMILY

  MAN’S ORIGIN AND PRIMEVAL HOME

  OLDEST EXTANT REMAINS OF THE HUMAN RACE

  CHART OF MAN’S ADVANCEMENT THROUGH THE AGES:

    (1) DAWN STONE AGE

    (2) OLD STONE AGE

    (3) NEW STONE AGE

    (4) BRONZE AGE

    (5) EARLY IRON AGE

    (6) LATE IRON AGE

    (7) AGE OF LETTERS

  HOW THE RACES ARE CLASSIFIED

  PHYSICAL AND MENTAL RACE CHARACTERISTICS

  GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES

  DICTIONARY OF THE HISTORICAL RACE GROUPS

  COMPARATIVE CLASSIFICATION OF RACES AND PEOPLES

[Illustration: =RACE TYPES OF WOMANKIND THE WORLD OVER=

CHINESE

(Yellow)

JAPANESE

(Yellow)

SIAMESE

(Yellow)

BURMESE

(Yellow)

MAORI

(Brown)

SAMOAN

(Brown)

JAVANESE

(Brown)

SIBERIAN

(Yellow)

ARABIAN

(White)

EGYPTIAN

(White)

BERBER

(White)

NUBIAN

(Black)

INDIAN

(Red)

ESKIMO

(Red)

SUDANESE

(Black)

ZULU

(Black)]


BOOK OF RACES AND PEOPLES

  Man, though a member of the animal kingdom, is so superior and
  distinctive that he must be set entirely apart for special
  consideration. The branches of knowledge or science, concerning his
  nature, origin and development are of the highest importance to us
  because of their relation to our very selves as part of the great
  family of Mankind. Strictly speaking, there can be but one science
  of man--_Anthropology_--but the various parts of this _supreme_
  science have received various district names. (1) Man as an _animal_
  belongs to _Biology_ and _Zoology_; (2) his _structure_ and
  _functions_ belong to _Anatomy_ and _Physiology_; (3) his _mind_
  falls under _Psychology_; (4) the facts and theories as to his
  _speech_ and _language_ come under _Philology_; (5) the study of the
  various _races_, their origin, physical and mental differences,
  migrations, and geographical distribution, falls under _Ethnology_;
  and (6) _human culture_, or civilization, which includes government,
  social institutions, customs and usages, traditions, folklore,
  religion, etc., belong to _Sociology_. In a certain sense,
  Anthropology also includes _History_, which is the record of the
  _doings_ of _civilized_ man in the order in which they occurred; but
  this branch of knowledge is so vast in itself that it is usually
  assigned a province of its own.


MAN AND THE HUMAN FAMILY

In the colorless language of science, man is classed under the order
Primates (Lat., _primus_, first) and suborder Bimana (Lat., _bis_,
twice; _manus_, a hand) which means a two-handed animal. Although the
contrast between man and other animals is more distinct among the higher
members of the human species, it may be traced in all. It is less of
degree than of kind, and is rather intellectual and spiritual than
physical.

In size man is dwarfed by numerous animals; in strength he is no match
for some that do not attain his proportions. He is short-sighted
compared to the eagle; deaf compared to the hare; and almost without the
sense of smell compared to the wild dog or the vulture, who perceives
the faintest scent borne to it upon the breeze.


HOW MAN DIFFERS FROM OTHER ANIMALS

In adult life man is unique in his erect posture, and in the freedom of
his hands from any direct share in locomotion. His body is usually
naked, his canine teeth are not longer than their neighbors, his thumbs
are larger than those of monkeys, and his feet are distinguished by the
horizontal sole which rests flatly on the ground. His face is notably
more vertical than that of apes, lying below rather than in front of the
forepart of the brain-case; the jaws, the orbits, and the ridges above
them are relatively smaller; the nose-bones project more beyond the
upper jaw; and the chin is more prominent than in other Primates.


BRAIN-POWER THE SUPREME DIFFERENCE

Probably the most important difference between man and other members of
the same or any order, is the higher physical development of the brain.
Not only is the size greater in proportion to the rest of the body, but
it presents a more elaborate series of folds, or convolutions. When it
is understood that the physical processes corresponding to the highest
mental activities are located in the cortex, or rind of the brain, it is
seen that the extent and number of the convolutions, by increasing the
area of the cortex, must play a considerable part in determining the
intellectual effectiveness of the animal.

In addition to mere size of brain, may be noted the adaptability of his
hands to many uses, allowing a degree of skill impossible to other
animals. The senses, too, are so nicely balanced and accurately adjusted
as to enable him to obtain an intimate acquaintance with the properties
of the world around him, in a manner that will contribute to his
pleasure, and at the same time ensure his elevation and happiness. He
possesses the gift of language by which to denote his wants; the colors
of the earth and sea and sky gladden his eye; melody enchants his ear;
the sweet odors of flowers delight his nostrils; the fruits of summer
please his palate; the glorious sun and the spangled canopy of heaven
entrance him--and all lead him to the contemplation of the Deity, of
whose wondrous scheme he is himself the corner-stone.

When differences other than physical are considered, the superiority of
man is so great as to incline many to the opinion that he is a separate
creation on the ground of his mentality alone.

However great this superiority is, it does not appear that man possesses
any faculty or fairly fundamental mental process which is not possessed
in some degree by some lower animal or other. Memory, the powers of
abstraction, and of reasoning are possessed by certain animals, if only
in a very simple form.

He alone can produce fire; and this acquaintance with fire and the art
of cooking has also frequently been regarded as the most distinctive
characteristic of the human race. Clothing and decoration are also early
peculiarities of man. Alone among animals, he covers himself with the
skins of the beasts he has slain, and adorns himself with feathers,
shells, teeth, and bones. Yet from these simple beginnings all the arts
gradually developed.


MAN AND HIS DEAD

Man is one of the few animals to pay special attention to his dead.
Funeral rites differ much from place to place, and form a special
subject of anthropological study. Tumuli, pyramids, standing-stones, and
other forms of funeral monument have each their history and
implications. Especially does man almost everywhere believe in some sort
of survival of the individual after death, and in the existence within
himself of a soul or spirit which outlives its fleshly habitation. The
origin of religion is largely connected with these ideas of a future
life and a future world. Herbert Spencer traces it directly to the
theory of hosts and ancestor-worship; Dr. Tylor, to what he calls
animism, or the belief in souls universally pervading all natural
objects.

Man alone also wilfully indulges in intoxicating, stupefying, or
exciting substances, such as alcohol, tobacco, bhang, opium, hashish,
etc.


THE GREAT QUESTION OF MAN’S ORIGIN

As to man’s origin, two main views may be said at present to contest the
field. Has man sprung from a single or from several stocks? Do the races
of men constitute so many members of _one_ family, or are they _four_
or more unrelated groups? One answer, formerly the accepted one, is
based either upon the literal interpretation of Scripture or upon
natural theology, and regards him as a distinct creation, separate from
and superior to the remaining animals. The other, accepted by many
competent authorities, regards him as descended from a hairy ancestor,
more or less remotely allied to the anthropoid apes. This theory of his
antecedents has been elaborated in profuse detail by Charles Darwin,
whose _Descent of Man_ forms the great storehouse of information and
speculation on the question. In the beginning, according to the
evolutionary view, man was apparently homogeneous--a single species,
speaking a single primitive rude tongue (largely eked out by signs and
gesture-language), and not divided into distinct varieties. At an early
period, however, the species broke up into several races, now inhabiting
various parts of the world.


MAN’S PRIMEVAL HOME AND HIS EARLIEST KNOWN REMAINS

If man is therefore essentially one, he cannot have had more than one
primeval home. This human cradle, as it may be called, has been located
with some certainty in the Eastern Archipelago, and more particularly in
the island of Java, where in 1892 Dr. Eugene Dubois brought to light the
earliest known remains that can be described as distinctly human. From
the Pliocene (late Tertiary) beds of the Trinil district he recovered
some teeth, a skull, and a thigh-bone of a being whom he named the
_Pithecanthropus erectus_, thereby indicating an “Ape-man that could
walk.”

In this “first man,” as he has been designated, the erect position,
shown by the perfectly human thigh-bone, implies a perfectly prehensile
(grasping) hand, with opposable thumb, the chief instrument of human
progress, while the cranial capacity suggests vocal organs sufficiently
developed for the first rude utterances of articulate speech.


PROBABLY THE FIRST MIGRATIONS OF MAN

The Javanese man was thus already well equipped for his long migrations
round the globe. Armed with stone, wooden, bone, and other weapons that
lay at hand, and gifted with mental powers far beyond those of all other
animals, he was assured of success from the first. He certainly had no
knowledge of navigation; but that was not needed to cross inland seas,
open waters, and broad estuaries which, indeed, did not exist in
Pliocene and later times. The road was open across the Indian Ocean to
Madagascar and South Africa by the now submerged Indo-African Continent.
The Eastern Archipelago still formed part of the Asiatic mainland from
which it is separated even now by shallow waters, in many places
scarcely fifty fathoms deep. Eastwards the way was open to New Guinea,
and thence across Torres Strait to Australia and thence to the Islands
of the Pacific Ocean. In the northern hemisphere Europe could be reached
from Africa by three routes, one across the Strait of Gibraltar, another
between Tunis, Malta, Sicily and Italy, and a third from Cyrenaica
across the Ægean to Greece, and the British Isles from Europe via the
Strait of Dover and the shallow North Sea. Lastly, the New World was
accessible both from Asia across Bering Strait, and from Europe through
the Orkneys, the Shetlands, the Faroes, Iceland, and Greenland. Here
were, therefore, sufficient land connections for early man to have
gradually spread from his Javanese cradle to the uttermost confines of
the habitable globe.

[Illustration: =THE OLDEST EXTANT REMAINS OF THE HUMAN RACE=

=APE-MAN OF JAVA= (_Pithecanthropus erectus_)

as restored from the remains found by Dr. Dubois in Java in 1892. It is
estimated that he lived at least 500,000 years ago.

=PILTDOWN MAN=

of Sussex, England, whose antiquity is thought to be over 100,000 years.
This restored model indicates a marked progress in type and
intelligence.

=NEANDERTHAL MAN=

whose remains were found in central France. It is probably a type of a
hunting race existent more than 25,000 years ago.

=CRO-MAGNON MAN=

skeletons of which type were found in the grotto of Cro-Magnon, Vézère
valley, France, in 1868. Supposed antiquity, 12,000 years.]


WHEN THE WORLD WAS FIRST PEOPLED

Much trustworthy evidence has been collected to show that the whole
world had really been peopled during the period which roughly coincides
with what is known in geology as the Ice Age; that is, when a large part
of the northern and southern hemispheres was subject to invasions of
thick-ribbed ice advancing successively from both poles. The migrations
were most probably begun before the appearance of the first great
ice-wave, then arrested and resumed alternately between the glacial
intervals, and completed after the last glacial epoch, say, some two or
three hundred thousand years ago.

At that time the various wandering groups had already made considerable
progress both in physical and mental respects, as is seen in the
Neanderthal skull, which is the oldest yet found in Europe, standing
about midway between the Javanese ape-man and the present low races. All
were still very much alike, presenting a sort of generalized human type
which may be called Pleistocene man, a common undeveloped form, which
did not begin to specialize--that is, to evolve the existing varieties
until the several primitive groups had reached their respective homes as
disclosed at the dawn of history.


EVIDENCES OF MAN’S ADVANCEMENT IN PREHISTORIC AGES

From human remains, weapons, tools and other vestiges of human activity,
found in the more recent deposits on the earth’s surface, the presence
of man in these far off ages is made increasingly certain. The
Pleistocene or Quaternary epoch, as represented by these objects of
primitive culture, ranged over a vast period of time which has been
conveniently divided into two great epochs, the Paleolithic or Old
Stone, and the Neolithic or New Stone Age, these being so named from the
material chiefly used by primitive peoples in the manufacture of their
weapons and other implements. The distinction between the two periods,
which are not to be taken as chronological, since they overlap in many
places, is based essentially on the different treatment of the material,
which during the immeasurably longer Old Stone Age was at first merely
chipped, flaked, or otherwise rudely fashioned, but in the New more
carefully worked and polished.


MAN IN THE OLD STONE AGE

Evidence is, however, that it is not always possible to draw any clear
line between the Old and New Stone Ages. In one respect the former was
towards its close even in advance of the latter, and quite a
“Paleolithic School of Art” was developed during a long period of steady
progress in the sheltered Vézère valley, of South France. Here were
produced some of those remarkable stone, horn, and even ivory scrapers,
gravers, harpoons, ornaments and statuettes with carvings on the round,
and skilful etchings of seals, fishes, reindeer, harnessed horses,
mammoths, snakes, and man himself, which also occur in other districts.

In Tunisia many implements lie under a thick bed of Pleistocene
limestone deposited by a river which has since disappeared. The now
absolutely lifeless Libyan plateau is strewn with innumerable worked
flints, showing that early man inhabited this formerly fertile region
before it was reduced by the slowly changing climate to a waste of
sands. The same story of man’s great age is told by discoveries in
Burma, India, North and especially South America, and now also in Great
Britain.


MAN IN THE NEW STONE AGE

Outstanding features of the New Stone Age are the Swiss and other
lake-dwellings, the Danish peat-beds with their varied contents, the
shell-mounds occurring on the seaboard in many parts of the world.

In the more civilized regions, such as Egypt, Babylonia, parts of Asia
Minor, and the Ægean lands, the Stone Ages were at an early date
followed by a period vaguely designated as “prehistoric,” during which
stone as the material of human implements was gradually replaced by the
metals, first copper, then various copper alloys (arsenic, sulphur,
nickel, cobalt, zinc, and especially tin) generally called bronze,
lastly iron.

[Illustration: 1 to 29.--Implements of the Stone Age. 30 to
48.--Implements of the Bronze and Early Iron Ages. 49 to 60.--Implements
of the Late Iron Age.]

Thus were constituted the so-called Metal Ages, during which, however,
overlappings were everywhere so frequent that in many localities it is
quite impossible to draw any well-marked dividing lines between the
successive metal periods. Indeed a direct transition from Stone to Iron
may be suspected in some places, and in any case the pure copper period
appears to have nowhere been of long duration except in America, where
there was no iron and little bronze.


THE AGE OF LETTERS OR PICTOGRAPHS

Besides the metals, letters also, or at least pictorial writings such as
the old rock carvings of Upper Egypt, were introduced in the Prehistoric
Age, which comprises that transitional period dim memories of which
lingered on far into historic times. It was an age of popular myths,
folklore, demi-gods, heroes, traditions of real events, and even
philosophic theories on man and his surroundings, which supplied ready
to hand the copious materials afterwards worked up by the early poets,
founders of new religions, and later lawgivers.

So also in China the early historians still remembered the still earlier
“Age of the Three Rulers,” when people lived in caves, ate wild fruits
and uncooked food, drank the blood of animals, and wore the skins of
wild beasts (our Old Stone Age). Later they became less rude, learned to
obtain fire by friction, and built themselves habitations of wood and
foliage (our New Stone Age).

Of strictly historic times the most characteristic feature is the
general use of letters, most fruitful of human inventions, since by its
means everything worth preserving was perpetuated, and all useful
knowledge thus tended to become accumulative. Writing systems, as we
understand them, were not suddenly introduced, but gradually evolved
from pictures representing things and ideas to conventional signs or
symbols which first represent words, as in the Chinese script and our
ciphers, and then articulate sounds, as in our alphabet. Between the two
extremes--the pictograph and the letter--there are various intermediate
forms, such as the rebus and the full syllable, and these transitional
forms are largely preserved both in the Egyptian and Babylonian systems,
which thus help to show how the pure phonetic symbols were finally
reached. That was probably six thousand years ago, since we find various
ancient scripts widely diffused over the Greek Archipelago (Crete,
Cyprus, Asia Minor) in very early times. The hieroglyphic and cuneiform
systems whence they originated were very much older, since the rock
inscriptions of Upper Egypt are prior to all historic records, while the
Mesopotamian city of Nippur already possessed half-pictorial,
half-phonetic documents some six thousand years before the New Era.

[Illustration: This is an inscription in hieroglyphic writing found at
Meidum, Egypt. It records the life events of King Rahotep and his Queen
Nefert.]

[Illustration: Here is an Egyptian pictograph representing the Nubians
bearing gifts to the King of Egypt.]

=DEVELOPMENT OF THE HUMAN RACE THROUGH THE AGES=

This chart falls within the =Cenozoic= (_sē´no-zō´ik_), or “Recent
life,” Period of the Earth and should be compared with it. Estimated Age
of the Cenozoic Period, 3,000,000 years.

  +---------------------+------------------------------------+------------+
  | =Geological Epochs  |    =Successive Upward Stages in     |=Estimated |
  |   of the Earth=     |  the Development of Civilized Man=  |Time and   |
  |                     |                                     |Duration of|
  |                     |                                     |Periods=   |
  +----------+----------+----------+--------------------------+-----------+
  |=Quater-  |=Recent=  |=Historic |=Age of Letters= or       |800 B.C. to|
  |nary=     |or        |Period.=  |Pictorial Writing         |Present    |
  |(_Kwä-ter´|Alluvial  |--Rise of |This period offers an un- |Time.      |
  |na-rĭ_) or|Epoch;    |Civiliza- |broken record of events   |           |
  |“Fourth”  |called by |tion      |from the first dated monu-|           |
  |Sedimen-  |Geologists|through   |ments and documents down  |           |
  |tary      |=Holocene=|the       |to the present day. With  |           |
  |System of |(_ho´lo-  |gradual   |the discoveries of archæ- |           |
  |the Earth.|sen_)     |organiza- |ologists in Babylonia,    |           |
  |Age of    |          |tion of   |Egypt, Southern Arabia,   |           |
  |Man.      |          |mankind   |and the Ægean lands, the  |           |
  |          |          |into so-  |beginnings of historic    |           |
  |          |          |cial      |times are constantly re-  |           |
  |          |          |groups and|ceding farther into the   |           |
  |          |          |nations,  |background, and to the    |           |
  |          |          |for the   |Mesopotamian city of      |           |
  |          |          |protection|Nippur is already ascribed|           |
  |          |          |of life,  |an antiquity of about     |           |
  |          |          |liberty   |eight thousand years.     |           |
  |          |          |and prop- +--------------------------+-----------+
  |          |          |erty and  |=Late Iron Age=           |In Europe, |
  |          |          |the ad-   |In this age man begins to |500 B.C. to|
  |          |          |vancement |bestir himself towards    |Roman      |
  |          |          |of the    |discovery and invention.  |times.     |
  |          |          |arts,     |He organizes into tribes, |           |
  |          |          |sciences  |makes laws, records obser-|           |
  |          |          |and       |vations--in fact, develops|           |
  |          |          |religion. |into nations such as mani-|           |
  |          |          |          |fest themselves on the    |           |
  |          |          |          |earliest monuments of     |           |
  |          |          |          |Egypt and Babylonia. In   |           |
  |          |          |          |Europe it is characterized|           |
  |          |          |          |by forms of implements,   |           |
  |          |          |          |weapons, personal orna-   |           |
  |          |          |          |ments, and pottery, and   |           |
  |          |          |          |also by systems of decora-|           |
  |          |          |          |tive design, which are    |           |
  |          |          |          |altogether different from |           |
  |          |          |          |those of the Bronze Age.  |           |
  |          |          |          +--------------------------+-----------+
  |          |          |          |=Early Iron Age=, or Hall-|In Europe, |
  |          |          |          |statt Period The earliest |1000 to 500|
  |          |          |          |evidence of this age was  |B.C.       |
  |          |          |          |found near Hallstatt, in  |In Orient  |
  |          |          |          |Upper Austria, in a famous|1800 to    |
  |          |          |          |Celtic burial-ground. The |1000 B.C.  |
  |          |          |          |excavations here yielded  |           |
  |          |          |          |swords, daggers, javelins,|           |
  |          |          |          |spears, helmets, axes,    |           |
  |          |          |          |shields, and various forms|           |
  |          |          |          |of jewelry, also amber and|           |
  |          |          |          |glass beads; silver was   |           |
  |          |          |          |apparently not known. Most|           |
  |          |          |          |of the weapons were of    |           |
  |          |          |          |iron, only a few being of |           |
  |          |          |          |bronze.                   |           |
  |          |          |          +--------------------------+-----------+
  |          |          |          |=Bronze Age=              |In Europe, |
  |          |          |          |Here flint is cast aside, |2000 to    |
  |          |          |          |and gold as an ornament   |1000 B.C.  |
  |          |          |          |begins to attract him.    |In Orient  |
  |          |          |          |This was the stage reached|4000 to    |
  |          |          |          |by the Aztecs and the     |1800 B.C.  |
  |          |          |          |aborigines of Peru when   |           |
  |          |          |          |discovered by Europeans in|           |
  |          |          |          |the early sixteenth cen-  |           |
  |          |          |          |tury. The implements and  |           |
  |          |          |          |weapons include knives,   |           |
  |          |          |          |saws, sickles, awls,      |           |
  |          |          |          |gouges, hammers, anvils,  |           |
  |          |          |          |axes, swords, daggers,    |           |
  |          |          |          |spears, arrows, shields.  |           |
  |          |          |          |The forms of each class   |           |
  |          |          |          |differ in different areas,|           |
  |          |          |          |and vary with advancing   |           |
  |          |          |          |time. The workmanship is  |           |
  |          |          |          |always of a very high     |           |
  |          |          |          |order, the shapes grace-  |           |
  |          |          |          |ful, and the finish fine. |           |
  |          +----------+          +--------------------------+-----------+
  |          |=Pleisto- |          |=New Stone Age= or Neo-   |In Europe, |
  |          |cene=     |          |lithic (Gr., _neos_, new; |about      |
  |          |(_plis´to-|          |_lithos_, stone)          |12,000 to  |
  |          |sēn_) or  |          |The Neolithic implements  |3000 B.C.  |
  |          |Glacial   |          |occur in river-terraces,  |=Cro-      |
  |          |Epoch     |          |alluvial deposits, lake   |Magnon, and|
  |          |          |          |dwellings and caves. The  |Grimaldi   |
  |          |          |          |weapons and tools were    |Races=     |
  |          |          |          |made of highly polished   |(about     |
  |          |          |          |stone. With the relics of |10,000     |
  |          |          |          |Neolithic man are found   |B.C.)      |
  |          |          |          |remains of the Irish elk, |           |
  |          |          |          |the reindeer, beaver,     |           |
  |          |          |          |brown bear, etc. Besides  |           |
  |          |          |          |these were the remains of |           |
  |          |          |          |domesticated forms such as|           |
  |          |          |          |the cat, horse, sheep,    |           |
  |          |          |          |dog, and goat. The tribes |           |
  |          |          |          |were acquainted with agri-|           |
  |          |          |          |culture, and were advanced|           |
  |          |          |          |in the arts of weaving and|           |
  |          |          |          |pottery-making.           |           |
  |          |          +----------+--------------------------+-----------+
  |          |          |=Pre-his- |=Old Stone Age= or Paleo- |In Europe, |
  |          |          |toric Pe- |lithic (Gr., _palaios_,   |about      |
  |          |          |riod.=--  |ancient; _lithos_, stone) |125,000 to |
  |          |          |Dawn of   |The men of this age were  |12,000 B.C.|
  |          |          |mind, in- |hunters, and the remains  |=Neander-  |
  |          |          |dustry and|of successive hunting     |thal Man=  |
  |          |          |art. This |races have been found in  |(about     |
  |          |          |period    |the deposits of caves,    |25,000     |
  |          |          |merged im-|river gravels, and other  |B.C.)      |
  |          |          |percepti- |sediments. They used rude |=Piltdown  |
  |          |          |bly into  |hatchets and other imple- |Man= (about|
  |          |          |the more  |ments of rough, unpolished|110,000    |
  |          |          |strictly  |stone which occur in asso-|B.C.)      |
  |          |          |historic  |ciation with relics of    |           |
  |          |          |period    |northern (mammoth, rein-  |           |
  |          |          |when let- |deer, cave-bear) and      |           |
  |          |          |ters were |southern mammalia (lion,  |           |
  |          |          |intro-    |leopard, hippopotamus).   |           |
  |          |          |duced.    |The walls of their caves  |           |
  |          |          |          |are covered with rough    |           |
  |          |          |          |sketches of animals be-   |           |
  |          |          |          |longing to that period.   |           |
  |          |          |          |The men who inhabited the |           |
  |          |          |          |caves of Europe in Paleo- |           |
  |          |          |          |lithic time were very si- |           |
  |          |          |          |milar to the modern       |           |
  |          |          |          |Eskimo.                   |           |
  |          |          |          +--------------------------+-----------+
  |          |          |          |=Dawn Stone Age=, or      |About      |
  |          |          |          |Eolithic                  |525,000 to |
  |          |          |          |Primitive man existed even|125,000    |
  |          |          |          |earlier than paleolithic  |B.C.       |
  |          |          |          |man. It is certain that,  |=Heidelberg|
  |          |          |          |in order that man possess |Man= (about|
  |          |          |          |the necessary skill ex-   |250,000    |
  |          |          |          |hibited in the flint      |B.C.)      |
  |          |          |          |implements, he must have  |=Pithecan- |
  |          |          |          |passed through a previous |thropus=   |
  |          |          |          |and necessarily less      |(about     |
  |          |          |          |skillful stage. Evidences |475,000    |
  |          |          |          |of this period have been  |B.C.)      |
  |          |          |          |claimed to exist in the   |           |
  |          |          |          |Plateau-gravels of Kent,  |           |
  |          |          |          |Belgium and Egypt.        |           |
  +----------+----------+----------+--------------------------+-----------+
  |=Tertiary=|=Pliocene=|Period of the probable appearance of |...        |
  |(_ter-shi-|(_plī´ō-  |the Human Races.                     |           |
  |a-ri_), or|sēn_), or |                                     |           |
  |“third.”  |“more     |                                     |           |
  |Age of    |recent.”  |                                     |           |
  |mammals.  +----------+-------------------------------------+-----------+
  |          |=Miocene= |Gradual formation of man-like types. |...        |
  |          |(_mī´ō-   |                                     |           |
  |          |sēn_), or |                                     |           |
  |          |“less     |                                     |           |
  |          |recent.”  |                                     |           |
  +----------+----------+-------------------------------------+-----------+

From the pictorial and plastic remains recovered from these two earliest
seats of the higher cultures it is now placed beyond doubt that all the
great divisions of the human family had at that time already been fully
developed. Even in the New Stone Age, the present European type had been
thoroughly established, as shown by the remains of the “Cro-Magnon
Race,” so called from the cave of that name in Perigord, France, where
the first specimens were discovered. In Egypt, where a well-developed
social and political organization may be traced back to the seventh
century B. C., Professor Petrie discovered in 1897 the portrait statue
of a prince of the fifth dynasty (3700 B. C.) showing regular Caucasic
features. Still older is the portrait of the Babylonian King Sargon
(3800 B. C.), also with handsome features which might be either Semitic
or even Aryan. Thus the Caucasic, that is, the highest human type, had
already been not only evolved but spread over a wide area (Europe,
Egypt, Mesopotamia) some thousands of years before the New Era. The
other chief types (Mongol, Negro, and even Negrito) are also clearly
portrayed on early Egyptian monuments, so that all the primary groups
had already reached maturity probably before the close of the Old Stone
Age.

[Illustration: Early picture writing of the Chippewa (Ojibwa) Indians.]

But these primary groups did not remain stationary in their several
original homes; on the contrary they have been subject to great and
continual fluctuations throughout historic times. Armed with a general
knowledge of letters and other cultural appliances, the higher races
soon took a foremost place in the general progress of mankind, and
gradually acquired a marked ascendency, not only over the less cultured
peoples, but to a great extent over the forces of nature herself. With
the development of navigation, and improved methods of locomotion,
inland seas, barren wastes, and mountain ranges ceased to present
insurmountable obstacles to their movements, which have never been
completely arrested, and are still going on.


HOW THE RACES ARE CLASSIFIED

On the basis of bodily characteristics, including form, color and
features, modern ethnologists have divided mankind into four primary
groups, or families: the Caucasian, Mongolian (or Tartar), Negro and
American; or, according to color, the _white_, _yellow_, _black_ and
_red_ races. It must not be supposed that these types were sharply
marked off from one another; indeed, there must have been a great range
of varieties then, as now, due to the conditions under which man lived,
as well as to actual race mixtures.

It is probable, however, that all these primary groups had reached
definite characteristics before the close of the Stone Age.

The term Caucasian is taken from the mountain-range between the Black
and Caspian seas, near which region the finest physical specimens of man
have always been found. Mongolian is derived from the wandering races
that inhabited the plateaus of central Asia. Negro is the Spanish word
for “black.” American is applied to the red, or copper-colored, race
found in this continent when it was discovered.

The sub-joined table brings into parallel columns the chief
distinguishing characteristics of the races:

=PHYSICAL AND MENTAL CHARACTERS OF THE PRIMARY HUMAN GROUPS=

  +----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
  |  =Points | =Caucasian=, | =Mongolian=, |   =Negro=,   |  =American=, |
  |    of    |   or White   |  or Yellow   |   or Black   |    or Red    |
  | Contrast=|              |              |              |              |
  +----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
  |=Hair=    |Rather long,  |Coarse, lank, |Short, jet    |Very long,    |
  |          |straight, wavy|dull black,   |black, wooly, |coarse, black,|
  |          |and curly,    |round in      |flat in trans-|lank, nearly  |
  |          |black, all    |transverse    |verse section.|round in      |
  |          |shades of     |section.      |              |section.      |
  |          |brown, red,   |              |              |              |
  |          |flaxen.       |              |              |              |
  +----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
  |=Skin=    |White, florid,|Dirty yellow- |Very dark     |Coppery,      |
  |          |pale, swarthy,|ish and brown |brown or      |yellowish,    |
  |          |brown and even|(Malays.)     |blackish.     |various shades|
  |          |blackish; al- |              |              |of brown.     |
  |          |together very |              |              |              |
  |          |variable.     |              |              |              |
  +----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
  |=Skull=   |Two distinct  |Short; index  |Long; index   |Very variable;|
  |          |types; long,  |84 to 90.     |72.           |ranging from  |
  |          |74, and short,|              |              |70 to over 90.|
  |          |80 to 90.     |              |              |              |
  +----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
  |=Cheek-   |Small, incon- |High prominent|Small, some-  |Moderately    |
  |bone=     |spicuous but  |laterally.    |what          |prominent.    |
  |          |high in some  |              |retreating.   |              |
  |          |places.       |              |              |              |
  +----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
  |=Nose=    |Large,        |Very small,   |Flat, small,  |Large, arched,|
  |          |straight or   |snub, but     |very broad at |rather narrow.|
  |          |arched        |variable.     |base.         |              |
  |          |(hooked, aqui-|              |              |              |
  |          |line), narrow.|              |              |              |
  +----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
  |=Eyes=    |Blue, gray,   |Small, black, |Large, round, |Small, round, |
  |          |black, brown, |oblique; ver- |black,        |straight,     |
  |          |moderately    |tical fold of |prominent,    |black sunken. |
  |          |large, and    |skin over     |yellowish     |              |
  |          |always        |inner canthus.|cornea.       |              |
  |          |straight.     |              |              |              |
  +----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
  |=Stature= |Variable; 5   |Undersized; 5 |Above the     |Above the     |
  |          |ft. 4 in. to 6|ft. 4 in., but|mean; 5 ft. 10|mean; 5 ft. 8 |
  |          |ft.           |very variable.|in; Negrito   |in. to over 6 |
  |          |              |              |often under 4 |ft., but      |
  |          |              |              |ft.           |variable.     |
  +----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
  |=Speech=  |Mainly in-    |Agglutinating,|Agglutinating;|Polysynthetic |
  |          |flecting; in  |with post-    |of various and|almost ex-    |
  |          |the Caucasus  |fixes; iso-   |postfix types.|clusively.    |
  |          |agglutinating.|lating, with  |              |              |
  |          |              |tones.        |              |              |
  +----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
  |=Tempera- |Serious,      |Sluggish,     |Sensuous, in- |Moody, taci-  |
  |ment=     |steadfast,    |somewhat      |dolent, im-   |turn, wary,   |
  |          |solid in the  |sullen with   |provident,    |impassive in  |
  |          |north; fiery, |little initia-|fitful,       |presence of   |
  |          |impulsive,    |tive but great|passing easily|strangers;    |
  |          |south; active,|endurance,    |from comedy to|science and   |
  |          |enterprising, |generally     |tragedy,      |letters       |
  |          |imaginative   |frugal and    |little sense  |slightly, art |
  |          |everywhere;   |thrifty; moral|of dignity,   |moderately    |
  |          |science, art, |standard low; |hence easily  |developed.    |
  |          |nd letters    |little        |enslaved;     |              |
  |          |highly        |science; art  |slight mental |              |
  |          |developed.    |and letters   |development   |              |
  |          |              |moderately    |after puberty.|              |
  |          |              |developed.    |              |              |
  +----------+--------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE RACES OF MANKIND


DISTRIBUTION OF THE CAUCASIAN OR WHITE DIVISION OF MANKIND

ORIGINAL HOME.--North Africa between Sahara and the Mediterranean.

EARLY EXPANSION.--To Europe, the Eurasian Steppes between the
Carpathians and the Pamir, Asia Minor, Syria and Palestine, Arabia,
Mesopotamia, Iran, or Persia, India, Northeast Asia, Southeast Asia,
Malaysia, Polynesia.

LATER EXPANSIONS.--The Caucasian race has now spread, through
colonization, over the whole world, but its proper region is Europe,
western Asia, and the northern strip of Africa Nine-tenths of the people
of Europe belong to the Caucasian family, the other tenth consisting of
the Turks, the Magyars (in Hungary), the Finns, the Laplanders, and the
tribe called Samoieds in the extreme northeast of European Russia. In
Asia, the Caucasians include the Arabs, the Persians, the Afghans, and
the Hindus. In Africa, the Caucasians are spread over the whole north,
from the Mediterranean to the south of the Sahara Desert, and to the
farthest border of Abyssinia as well as to the greater portion of South
Africa. In North and South America three-fourths of the people are now
Caucasian. In Australia and New Zealand the Caucasian colonists have
almost extinguished the native races.

RELIGION.--The Caucasian race now supports various forms of Christianity
in Europe, America, and their Colonies; Buddhism in India; Mohammedanism
in Central Asia, Siberia, Turkey, Arabia, North Africa, Irania, India,
Malaysia. Originally nature-worship was more pronounced than the cult of
ancestor-worship. The Egyptians did not worship but embalmed the dead.
The chief gods of the Semites were those of the sun and moon; and those
of the Aryans were Dyaus, Indra, Zeus, Jupiter, Apollo, Saturn, etc.,
all personified elements of the upper regions which later became the
basis of extensive systems of mythology. Later these forces were
symbolized in wood or stone, which led to idolatry--that is, the worship
of the image itself, which still persists among the uneducated in some
parts of Christendom. The belief in magic, demons, witchcraft, omens,
ghosts and allied superstitions was also very prevalent.

Out of the general polytheism were slowly evolved various shades of
monotheism, whence arose the historical religions of the West, such as
Judaism, Christianity and Mohammedanism, while crass polytheism
persisted in the East--Brahmanism in India, degraded forms of Buddhism
in Ceylon and elsewhere. Intermediate between monotheism and polytheism
was the Persian religion, which refers light and all good to Ormuzd and
his host of angels, night and all evil to Ahriman and his host of
demons. Although already denounced by Isaiah, whose Jehovah is the one
source of all things, this twofold principle no doubt found its way into
the early Christian teachings.


DISTRIBUTION OF THE MONGOLIC OR YELLOW DIVISION

ORIGINAL DOMAIN.--Probably the Tibetan tableland.

EARLY EXPANSION.--Mongolia, Siberia, China, Indo-China, Malaysia,
Mesopotamia (?). The earlier Mongolians were extremely migratory, but
the more settled tribes developed into the later Japanese, Chinese.
Burmese, Siamese, and other peoples in the southeast and east of Asia;
and the native tribes of the Siberian plains. The wandering tribes
developed into the Turks, Magyars (Hungarians), Finns, Laplanders, and
Samoeids, of Europe, and the Esquimaux of America.

RELIGION.--Animism in the widest sense is the dominant note of Mongolian
religions. The worship of spirits extended both to the disembodied human
soul (ancestor-worship, which is now perhaps the most prevalent form)
and to the innumerable spirits, bad and good, which people earth, air,
water, the celestial and underground regions. Although nominal
Buddhists, the Chinese, Indo-Chinese, and Mongols live in terror of
malevolent spirits, and the Annamese scrupulously observe “Roast-pig
Day,” as they call their All-Souls Day, by littering the graves of the
dead with scraps of victuals. Among the Siberians this spirit-cult takes
the form of Shamanism, in which the Shaman (wizard or medicine man) is
the “paid medium” of communication between his dupes and the invisible
good or evil genii. In Tibet demonology still survives beneath the
official Lamaism; the Eastern Siberians are Bear-worshipers; and the
Polynesians have deified both the living and dead members of their
dynasties.

The historical religions are largely a question of race, the Mongols
proper, Manchus, Koreans, Japanese, Chinese, Indo-Chinese, and Tibetans
being at least nominal Buddhists. The Turks, Tartars, and most Malays
are Mohammedans; and the Finns, Lapps, and Magyars now Christians. Other
so-called state religions--Confucianism and Taoism in China, Shintoism
and Bushidoism in Japan are other ethical codes fostered and upheld for
political purposes.


DISTRIBUTION OF THE NEGRO, OR BLACK RACE

ORIGINAL DOMAIN.--The Eastern, or Oceanic, Section had its home in
Malaysia, Andamans, Philippines, New Guinea, Melanesia, Australia,
Tasmania; with no later expansion. The Western, or African, Section
lived in Africa south of the Sahara.

LATER EXPANSION.--Subsequently the Africans spread, either voluntarily
or were taken as slaves to Madagascar, north Africa, southern United
States, West Indies, and Latin America.

_Religion._--Spirit-worship very prevalent among native Negro races, and
totemism in Australia. The Melanesian system is distinctly animistic,
distinguishing between pure spirits, that is, supernatural beings that
never were in a human body, and ghosts--that is, men’s disembodied
spirits revisiting their former abodes. There are prayer, sacrifice,
divination, omens, death and burial rites, a Hades too, with trees and
houses, as on earth, also a ghostly ruler, but no supreme being. There
is little or nothing of all this in Australia or New Guinea, where the
religious sentiment is so little developed that many close observers
have failed to detect it.

Among African tribes, though religion is animistic, ancestor-worship
seems much more prevalent than nature-worship. There is no supreme being
anywhere. The chief deities are _Munkulunkulu_, with many variants along
the eastern seaboard, and _Nzambi_, also with many variants on the west
side, both intermingling in the interior. Witchcraft, omens, and ordeals
are very prevalent; pure fetishism and human sacrifices prevail in Upper
Guinea, in Uganda and other parts.


DISTRIBUTION OF THE AMERICAN, OR RED DIVISION

_Original Domain._--The New World. The chief sub-divisions were as
follows:

(1) NORTH AMERICAN: _Eskimo_, _Athabascan_ (Chippewaian, Taculli, Hupa,
Apache, Navajo); _Algonquian_ (Cree, Chippewa, Mohican, Delaware,
Shawnee, Cheyenne, Illinois, etc.); _Iroquoian_ (Erie, Huron, Mohawk,
Tuscarora, Cherokee, etc.); _Siouan_ (Dakota, Assinaboin, Missouri,
Iowa, Winnebago, Mandan, Tutelo, Catawba); _Muskhogean_ (Seminole,
Choktaw, Creek, Chickasaw, Alibamu, Apalachi); _Salish_; _Shoshone_;
_Pawnee_; _Pueblo_ (Zuñi, Hopi, Tegua).

(2) CENTRAL AMERICAN: _Opata-Pima_ (Yuma, Cora, Tarahumara, Tepeguana);
_Nahuan_ (Aztec, Huichol, Pipil, Niquiran); _Maya-Quiché_ (Huaxtec,
Maya, Lacandon, Quiché, Pocoman, Zendal, Chol, Zotzil, Cachiquel, Mamé);
_Zapotec_; _Mixtec_ (Mixé); _Lencan_ (Chontal, Wulwa, Rama, Guatusa);
_Bribri_; _Cuna_.

(3) SOUTH AMERICAN: _Chibcha_; _Choco_; _Quichua_ (Inca, Chanca);
_Aymara_ (Colla, Calchaqui); _Antisuyu_; _Jivaro_; _Zaparo_; _Pano_;
_Ticuna_; _Chuncho_; _Carib_ (Macusi, Akawai, Bakairi, Arecuna);
_Arawak_; (Atorai, Wapisiana, Naypure, Parexi); _Warrau_; _Chiquito_;
_Bororo_; _Botocudo_; _Tupi-Guarani_ (Chiriguana, Caribuna, Goajira,
Omogua, Mundrucu); _Payagua_; _Mataco_; _Toba_; _Araucan_; _Puelche_,
_Tehuelche_ (Patagonian); _Fuegian_ (Ona, Yahgan, Alakaluf.)

PRESENT RESTRICTED DOMAIN.--The Arctic seaboard, Greenland, Alaska;
numerous reservations and some unsettled parts of the United States and
Canada; most tribes of Mexico, Central and South America are partly
intermingled with the whites and blacks and still partly in the tribal
state. By far the greater part of the native tribes never progressed
beyond the savage state, except in the United States and Canada, where
during the past quarter century, and particularly during the last
decade, the Indians have rapidly advanced in civilization.

RELIGION.--Shamanism was widely diffused among the North America
aborigines. But still more prevalent is the cult of the aërial gods, who
support the four quarters of the heavens, and of animals (bear, wolf,
raven, jaguar) which has given rise to strange wehrwolf superstitions,
and to totemistic systems similar to those of the Australian natives.

Solar worship prevailed in Peru, while the cultured peoples of Mexico
(Aztecs, Mayas, Zapotecs and others) had developed a complete pantheon
of ferocious deities, such as _Tezcatlipoca_, _Quetzalcoatl_ and
_Tlaloc_, whose thirst for human blood was insatiable. Thus arose an
established order of priests, who sacrificed human victims on solemn
occasions, and presided over other sanguinary rites often accompanied by
unutterable horrors. Aztec women cast their infants into the Mexican
lagoons to propitiate the Rain-god _Tlaloc_.

Some modern races, like the Zuñis, have an elaborate and highly mystical
ritual, to the exhibitions of which none but the initiated are
admissible. The snake-dance of the Moquis of Arizona is a most curious
ceremonial and attracts many visitors. The ritual of the Roman Catholic
Church has strong attractions for the Indian; and the less elaborate
service of the Episcopalians has in several instances helped to win over
to Christianity tribes which had long rejected the teachings of
missionaries of other denominations.


THE CAUCASIAN THE REAL HISTORIC RACE

Of all these races the only one whose history is important for us is the
Caucasian or white race, to which we ourselves belong. This race is
“historical” because it displays the most highly civilized type of
mankind,--that type whose progress and achievements are the true
province of history.


THREE DIVISIONS OF THE CAUCASIAN RACE

This grand stock--the Caucasian race--has been classified into three
main branches,--(1) the Aryan or Indo-European; (2) the Semitic; (3) the
Hamitic.

The Hamitic branch is named from Ham, the son of Noah, and ancestor of
some of its peoples, most notable of which was the ancient empire in
Egypt. Accounts of their conquests, under great dynasties of kings, have
come down to us in hieroglyphic inscriptions. The Egyptians became
highly civilized at a very early time, and exerted a marked influence on
the civilization of succeeding ages.

The Semitic branch is so called from Shem, also a son of Noah, described
in the Bible as ancestor of some of the nations which it includes. Its
chief historical representatives are the Hebrews, Phœnicians, Assyrians,
Arabs, and Babylonians. The early Semitic race conquered Chaldea, united
Sumer and Accad, and have similarly left us records of their early
civilization in cuneiform inscriptions and tablets. It is distinguished
in religious history, because from it originated the three faiths whose
main doctrine is that there is but one God; namely, the Jewish, the
Christian, and the Mohammedan. Apart from this, and with the special
exception of the ancient Phœnicians and Carthaginians, the Semitic
nations have not been generally distinguished for progress and
enterprise, but have mainly kept to their old home between the
Mediterranean, the river Tigris, and the Red Sea.


THE SUPREMACY OF THE ARYANS IN HISTORY

The leading part in the history of the world has been, and is still,
played by the Aryan nations. The Caucasian presents us with the highest
type among the five families of man; the Aryan branch of the Caucasian
family presents us with the noblest pattern of that highest type.

The Aryan branch includes nearly all the present and past nations of
Europe, the Greeks, Latins, Teutons or Germans, Celts and Slavonians; as
well as three Asiatic peoples,--the Hindus, the Persians, and the
Afghans and the modern Americans. It is the Aryans that have been the
parents of new nations, and that have reached the highest point of
intellectual development, as shown in their political freedom, and in
their science, literature, and art.

The term Aryan is derived either from one ancient word implying that
they were “cultivators of the soil,” or from another meaning “worthy,
noble.” There was a time when these ancestors of the Celts, the Germans,
the Slavonians, the Greeks and Italians, the Persians, the Hindus, and
of nearly all the European nations, were living together, separate from
the ancestors of the Semitic race. Their earliest known home was the
high tableland of central Asia, north and northwest of the Himalaya
Mountains, near the sources of the Oxus and Jaxartes rivers.

Through pressure of numbers, and spurred on by their own enterprising
nature, these Aryan peoples for ages moved mainly westward, from their
ancestral seats. A branch went southward across the Himalayas, and
peopled Hindustan, Persia, and the intervening lands; another branch at
different times and long intervals moved westward into Europe.

The Celts were the first European emigrants and spread themselves over a
great part of the continent; as a distinct people they are now only
found in parts of the British Isles and France. Later came the Italic
(_Latin_) tribes who possessed the peninsula now known as Italy; the
Hellenic (or _Grecian_) tribes, who occupied the peninsula of Greece;
the Teutonic tribes, who replaced the Celts in central Europe, and
finally also occupied Denmark and the Scandinavian peninsula (Sweden and
Norway). The last of the Aryans were the Slavonians, now spread over
Russia, Poland, and Bohemia, and the Lithuanians, settled on the Baltic
coast, partly in Prussia, partly in Russia. Thus was Europe gradually
overspread by successive waves of Aryan settlement.


ARYAN CIVILIZATION BEFORE THE MIGRATION

The study of the early Aryan languages tells us what progress had been
made by this race, before the time arrived for starting south and west,
to possess the Western world. Whatever words are alike in these Aryan
tongues must be the names of implements, or institutions, or ideas, used
or conceived before the first wave of migration made its way. We thus
learn that, at that far distant time, the Aryans had houses, plowed the
earth, and ground their corn in mills. The family life was
settled--basis as it is of all society and law--and had risen far above
the savage state. The Aryans had sheep, cattle, horses, dogs, goats, and
bees; drank a beverage made of honey; could work in copper, silver,
gold; fought with the sword and bow; and had the beginnings of kingly
rule which subsequently became the central element of the state.


DICTIONARY OF THE HISTORICAL RACE GROUPS

=Albanian= (_al-bā´ni-an_).--The native and aboriginal race or people of
Albania, unlike most of the so-called European “races,” is a distinct
race physically and not merely in language. It resembles most the Celtic
race, but the type is taller: the northern Albanians, like the
Montenegrins, rival the Scotch and the Norwegians in stature.

The Albanians are today a mixed race, as is every European people. They
are brave, but turbulent in spirit--warriors rather than workers. Even
their own tribes are at enmity among themselves and tribal and family
feuds are common. It is the most backward in cultivation of all; and
therefore not surprising that the rate of illiteracy is one of the
highest in Europe.

In religion the Albanians are about equally divided among the
Mohammedan, the Catholic, and the Greek faiths.

The Albanians go under many different names. Skipetar and Arnaut are
equivalents of Albanian. All mean “highlander.” Until about the
fifteenth century they were called Illyrians, or Macedonians. From them
came the name of the ancient Roman province of Illyricum, embracing
Epirus and parts of Macedonia. All the Slavs of the Balkan Peninsula
made their settlements during the middle ages. The Albanians, or
Illyrians proper, previously occupied the entire country north to the
Danube.

=Arabian= (_a-rā´bi-än_).--One of the three great groups of the Semitic
branch of the Caucasian race. The Arabians are related to the Hebrews
and include Arabs proper and the wandering Bedouin tribes of the desert.
They have long since spread out from the country that bears their name
and settled in distant portions of Africa and Asia, as well as
penetrated into Europe. They have given their language, through the
Koran, to the vaster populations of Mohammedan faith. They are not to be
confounded with the Turks who are Mongolian, Tartar, in origin and
speech, rather than Caucasian. Neither are they closely related to the
Syrians who are Christians and Aryans, not Semites; nor even to the
Berbers and the modern Moors of north Africa, who are Hamitic rather
than Semitic in origin. Yet Syrians and Moors alike have long used the
Arabic tongue.

=Armenian= (_är-mē´ni-an_) or =Haik=.--The Aryan race, or people of
Armenia, in Asiatic Turkey. In language they are more European than are
the Magyars, the Finns, or the Basques of Europe. The nearest relatives
of the Armenic tongue are the Persian, the Hindu, and the Gypsy. In
religion the Armenians differ from all the above-named peoples excepting
the Syrians in that they are Christian. They boast a church as old as
that of Rome.

Only a fraction of the Armenians are found in their own country,
Armenia; perhaps one-eighth. Over 1,000,000 live in Russia; 400,000 in
European Turkey; 100,000 in Persia; about 15,000 in or near Hungary; and
6000 in India and Africa. About half their number still live in
different parts of the Turkish dominions. Large numbers have migrated
because of the persecutions of the Turks and Kurds directed against
them.

=Assyrians= (_a-sir´i-äns_).--The Assyrian is an ancient language
extinct for at least two thousand years. No people today can claim pure
physical descent from this stock. The arid region occupied by the early
Assyrian empire has been swept by one civilization after another. Their
ancient Hamitic speech was largely replaced by that of conquering Medes
and Persians and, later, of Mohammedan hosts. It finally disappeared
after the Babylonians and Chaldeans, who used a Semitic tongue replaced
the Assyrians in Mesopotamia. Turkish, Persian, Kurdish, and Arabian
blood has been added to the ancestral stock of the modern Assyrians.
Reclus says: “The Assyrians and Chaldeans were either exterminated or
else absorbed in the victorious races, forfeiting name, speech, and the
very consciousness of their race.”

=Babylonians= (_bab-i-lō´ni-äns_).--Babylonia has always been a land of
mixed races and tongues. The earliest of the inscriptions has revealed
that the first population was a people belonging to the Mongolian
family. The linguistic connection was afterwards confirmed by the
discovery by de Sarzec of statues of these primitive inhabitants which
present an undoubted Tartar type of features. The skull is that of the
Mongolian race with high cheek-bones, curly black hair, the eyes oblique
and bright; the type being ethnically related to the Elamites of Susiana
and the first Medean stock to which we find this early race
linguistically related.

These people were not aboriginal to the plains of Chaldea, but came, as
their traditions indicate, from the mountains to the northeast, and
brought with them the already fairly advanced elements of civilization
which they planted in Chaldea. At a very early period in the history of
Babylonia the Semites appear as an element in the population, their type
being clearly indicated in the sculptures connecting them with the
Hebrew and northern Arabs, while the same relationship is linguistically
established. From time to time, by war or commerce, other elements were
introduced into the population, until almost every nation finds its
representative in the “mixed crowd of nations” inhabiting the plains of
Chaldea.

The Semites, having once obtained a footing in Babylonia, soon
assimilated themselves to the more advanced culture of their
Sumero-Accadian masters. They borrowed the cuneiform mode of writing,
the religion, mythology, and much of the science of that inventive
people, and so rapidly increased in numbers and power, that as early as
about 3800 B. C. we find a dynasty of Semitic kings under Sargon of
Accad and his son Naram-Sin, ruling in northern Babylonia.

=THE WANDERING ARAB LOVES THE DESERT SANDS=

[Illustration: Warlike by nature, here we see him scouting the silent
wastes with his ever faithful companion in peace or war--restless as the
shifting sands.]

[Illustration: The desert oasis is his place of assembly for recreation
or trade. In the above picture we have a view of a desert market held
far remote from any city but at the junction of several caravan
routes.]

=Basques= (_bȧskz_).--A race inhabiting the Basque provinces and other
parts of Spain in the neighborhood of the Pyrenees, and part of the
adjacent territory in France. They were formerly Iberian as to language,
the sole non-Aryan language of western Europe. But few now live in the
old province of southwestern France, Gascony, formerly called
“Vasconia,” after them; about 500,000 still remain in northwestern
Spain. They are a fragment, perhaps the only distinct remnant, of the
pre-Aryan race of Europe. Recent researches connect them, not with the
Mongolian Finns as formerly, but with the Hamitic (Caucasian) Berbers of
northern Africa. They are not now easily distinguished in physical
appearance from their Spanish or French neighbors, although many still
speak the strange Basque tongue. The latter is not inflected, like most
European (Aryan) languages, but agglutinative, like the typical
languages of northern Asia.

=Berbers= (_bér´bérz_).--A race of people constituting, with the
Cushites, the Hamitic family, which is found scattered over North Africa
and the Sahara, from the Red Sea to the Atlantic. The complexion of the
Berbers varies from white to dark brown; their features remind one of
the Egyptian type; their stature is medium. They have occupied their
present habitat since the dawn of history. Never have their indomitable
tribes become entirely subject to a foreign master, or lost their racial
and linguistic characteristics, in spite of Punic, Roman, Germanic,
Arabic, and Saracen conquests. In the mountains they are agricultural;
in the Sahara, nomadic. For centuries they have been the middlemen
between the Mediterranean coast and the Negro states of the Sudan. In
religion the Berbers are nominally Mohammedan. A few tribes have adopted
the Arabic, and so have a few Arabs adopted Berber dialects. The Berber
languages are often called Libyan. They number at least 7,000,000 in
Morocco and Algeria and 500,000 in Tunis and Tripoli.

=Bulgarians= (_bul-gā´ri-anz_).--The people of Bulgaria are supposed to
be Finnic (Mongolian) in origin, are also the most numerous people in
European Turkey. The Bulgarians and their neighbors on the north, the
Roumanians, are among the rare races that are physically of one stock
and linguistically of another. Both possess adopted languages. While the
Bulgarians appear to be Asiatics by origin who have adopted a Slavic
speech, the Roumanians are Slavs who have adopted a Latin language.
While the Bulgarians adopted the language of the Slavs, whom they
conquered and organized politically, they were themselves swallowed up
in the Slavic population. They lost not only their ancient language but
their physical type. While they are the most truly Asiatic in origin of
all the Slavs, they are Europeanized in appearance and character. In
some respects their life is more civilized and settled than that of some
of the Slavs farther west, as in Montenegro and Dalmatia. They are not
only less warriors in spirit than these, but are more settled as
agriculturists. Yet they seem to feel that they do not belong to the
civilization of Europe, properly speaking, for they say of one who
visits the countries farther west that he “goes to Europe.”

There would appear to be little doubt that the Bulgars came through
southern Russia to their present home in the time of the early
migrations of the middle ages. Some records locate them in the second
century on the river Volga, from which they appear to have taken their
name. In fact, a country called “Greater Bulgaria” was known there as
late as the tenth century. If the common supposition be correct, the
Bulgarians are most nearly related in origin to the Magyars of Hungary
and the Finns of northern Russia. After these they are nearest of kin to
the Turks, who have long lived among them as rulers. But Turks and Finns
alike are but branches of the great Ural-Altaic family, which had its
origin in northern Asia, probably in Mongolia.

=Carthaginians.=--See Phœnicians.

[Illustration: This group of present day Bulgarian college girls shows
that a striking transformation has been wrought by European influences
upon a people of Mongolian origin centuries ago.]

=Celts=, or =Kelts= (_kelts_).--The peoples which speak languages akin
to those of Wales, Ireland, the Highlands of Scotland, and Britanny, and
constitute a branch or principal division of the Indo-European
families. Formerly these peoples occupied, partly or wholly, France,
Spain, northern Italy, the western parts of Germany, and the British
Islands. Of the remaining Celtic languages and peoples there are two
chief divisions, viz., the GAELIC, comprising the Highlanders of
Scotland, the Irish, and the Manx, and the CYMRIC, comprising the Welsh
and Bretons.

Irish, because of its more extensive literature and greater antiquity,
is considered to be the chief branch of the Gaelic group. Modern Erse or
Scotch is thought to be a more recent dialect of Irish. Manx is the
dialect spoken by a small number of persons in the Isle of Man. Welsh is
the best preserved of the Cymric group. It has a literature nearly if
not quite as rich as that of Irish, and is spoken by a larger population
than any other Celtic language found in the British Isles. Low Breton,
or Armorican, is the speech found in Lower Brittany, in France. It is
spoken by nearly two-thirds as many persons as are all other Celtic
dialects combined.

This “Celtic” race seems to have had its main center of dissemination in
the highlands of the Alps of midwestern Europe. While all
Celtic-speaking peoples are mixed races, those of the British Isles are
distinctly long-headed and tall, in fact, are among the tallest of all
Europe. It is almost impossible to give the population of the Celtic
race--that is, of those whose ancestral language was Celtic--since most
of its members now speak English or French only.

=Chaldean.=--See Babylonian.

=Chinese= (_chī-nēs´_ or _-nēz´_).--The race or people inhabiting China
proper. Linguistically, one of the Sinitic groups of the Mongolian or
Asiatic race. The name Chinese is also applied, erroneously from an
ethnical standpoint, to all the natives of the Chinese Empire, including
China proper; that is, to the entire Sibiric group. These are, on the
northeast the Manchus, on the north the Mongols, on the west the tribes
of Turkestan and of Thibet. The name does not properly apply to the
other Sinitic peoples--the Cochin-Chinese and the Annamese of the French
colonies and the Burmese of the British colonies, all of whom border on
China on the south and southwest. The people of Manchuria and of
Mongolia are not so nearly related linguistically to the Chinese as they
are to the Japanese. All these “Sibiric” peoples have agglutinative
languages, while the Chinese is monosyllabic, being more nearly related
to the languages stretching from Thibet southeast to the Malay
Peninsula.

The Chinese physical type is well known--yellowish in color, with
slanting eyes, high cheek bones, black hair, and a flat face. The eye is
more properly described as having the “Mongolic fold” at the inner
angle. This mark is found to some extent in all Mongolian peoples, in
the Japanese, and now and then in individuals of the European branches
of this race in Russia and Austria-Hungary.

=Egyptian= (_ē-jipt´ē-ăn_).--The ancient race or people of Egypt, best
represented to-day by the Copts or Fellahs, although those are generally
of mixed stock. In a political sense, any native of Egypt.

The origin of the Egyptians is still a matter of dispute. It is quite
probable that they were Hamitic and belonged to the Berber type. They
have no real negroid trace about them, though probably there is a strain
from intermarrying; thus it is likely that they may have been a
fair-skinned indigenous race, mixed also with people of Asiatic origin,
and a certain amount of negro blood. The earliest types, as pictured by
themselves on monuments, show men of fine build with no trace of the
negroid type; the males are painted red-brown and the females a light
yellowish tint.

The fellah (Arabic for ploughman) forms the bulk of the peasantry. They
are chiefly Mohammedan in faith, though the Copts, also natives of
Egypt, have kept their Christian belief.

[Illustration: The Egyptian features are as unchangeable as the pyramids
themselves. On the right is the sculptured likeness of Queen Tiy of four
thousand years ago; on the left of an Egyptian girl of the present day.]

The fellah is a hard-working and industrious person, of big build, with
a fine, oval face, smooth black hair (the head is usually shaved), and
well formed features. The women are often of great beauty, both in form
and figure, though they lose their youth early. The Copts are racially
the purest descendants of the ancient Egyptians. The coloring of the
fellah varies from a fair yellowish shade in Lower Egypt to a deeper
tone in Middle Egypt, and in Upper Egypt the majority are a deep bronze.
The Arab portion of the population are of two classes: the Arabic
speaking tribes who come from the deserts, and the Hamitic tribes who
speak a language of their own. The Nubians are chiefly mixed with Arab
blood. The foreigners are mainly Greeks, Turks, Italians, British,
French, Syrians, Levantines, and Persians.

=Etrurians= (_ē-tru´ri-anz_), or =Etruscans= (_ē-trus´-kanz_).--The
ancient inhabitants of Etruria, the modern Tuscany. The Etrurians are
the most mysterious people of antiquity. According to ancient tradition,
they came from Lydia in prehistoric times, and colonized Latium. Certain
details of their costumes and customs appear to be identical with those
of Lydia, and the legend is probably based upon fact.

The Etruscans were proverbially a religious people. Their tombs bear
witness to a belief in a future life, and a dread of the malignant power
of their deities.

=Greeks.=--The ancient Greeks belonged to Aryan or Indo-European race.
They entered Greece from the North, and as they moved south in separate
tribes, the foremost tribes were impelled forward by the pressure of
those behind. Even when the whole of the peninsula had been for some
time filled and fully occupied, a fresh wave of immigrants swept over
the whole country, disturbing everything. Such a wave was the “Return of
the Heraclidæ,” or the Dorian Invasion. The result was to drive
emigrants on to and over the isles of Greece, and to plant Greek cities
and Greek culture on the coasts of Asia Minor. At later times Sicily,
the Black Sea, Libya, etc., were dotted with Greek colonies, the ancient
Greeks were pre-eminent in philosophy and science, leaders in the
civilization of their own day, and laid the foundations of modern
civilization.

The modern Greek race or people is that which has descended, with
considerable foreign admixture, from the ancient Greeks. While the stock
has changed much, physically and otherwise, the modern language is more
nearly like the ancient Greek than Italian, for instance, is like the
ancient Latin.

The Greek race of today is intensely proud of its language and its
history, and naturally wishes to be considered as genuinely Hellenic.
The official title of the country is now the “Kingdom of Hellas,” and
any citizen, however mixed in race, styles himself a Hellene. The people
are wide-awake on political questions, are avid readers of newspapers,
and, like the Greek of older times, eager to learn some new thing.
Generally speaking, in customs, superstitions, and folklore, the modern
race is a continuation of the ancient.

It may not be commonly known that the greater part of the Greeks live
outside of Greece, probably twice as numerous as those in Greece. Ripley
says that they form a third of the total population of the Balkan
States. On the other hand, von Hellwald says that of the population of
Greece itself only about 1,300,000 are truly Greek in race.

=Gypsies= (_jip´sēz_).--A peculiar wandering race which appeared in
eastern Europe in the fourteenth century and is now found in every
country of Europe, as well as in parts of Asia, Africa, and America. The
Gypsies are distinguishable from the peoples among whom they rove by
their bodily appearance and by their language. Their forms are generally
light, lithe, and agile; skin of a tawny color; eyes large, black and
brilliant; hair long, coal black, and often ringleted; mouth well
shaped; and teeth very white. Ethnologists generally concur in regarding
the Gypsies as descendants of some obscure Hindu tribe. They pursue
various nomadic occupations, being tinkers, basket-makers,
fortune-tellers, dealers in horses, etc.; are often expert musicians;
and are credited with thievish propensities. They appear to be destitute
of any system of religion, but traces of various forms of paganism are
found in their language and customs.

The Gypsy calls himself “Rom,” whence comes Romany as a name for the
language. Special names are applied to Gypsies in the different
countries where they are found. Some of these relate to the supposed
origin of this singular people, as Gypsy or Egyptian in the British
Isles, Bohémien in France, Gitano (Egyptian) in Spain, and Tatare in
Scandinavia. In some countries they are known, by a term of contempt, as
Heiden (heathen) in Holland, Harami (robbers) in Egypt, and Tinklers in
Scotland, but in most parts of Europe a local form of the word Zingani
is used to designate them, as Zigeuner in Germany, Cygany in Hungary,
and Zingari in Spain.

Intermarriage with other peoples is becoming more frequent. Through loss
of language, the assumption of a sedentary life, and intermarriage,
Gypsies are decreasing in numbers and seem everywhere doomed to
extinction by absorption.

Of the total population of Gypsies in the world, three-fourths are in
Europe. There are 200,000 in Roumania, 100,000 each in Hungary and the
Balkan Peninsula, 50,000 each in Spain, Russia and Servia, and 50,000 in
Germany and Italy combined. The number in the British Isles is variously
estimated at from 5,000 to 20,000. There are thought to be 100,000 in
Asia and 25,000 in Africa. Only a few thousand are found in the
Americas.

=Hebrews= (_hē´bruz_), =Jewish= or =Israelite=.--The race or people that
originally spoke the Hebrew language. They were primarily of Semitic
origin, and according to tradition, descended from Heber, the
great-grandson of Shem, in the line of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. They
are scattered throughout Europe, especially in Russia, yet preserve
their own individuality to a marked degree. Linguistically, the nearest
relatives of the ancient Hebrew are the Syriac, Assyrian, and Arabic
languages. While the Hebrew is not so nearly a dead language as the
related Syrian, Aramaic, or the ancient Assyrian, its use in most Jewish
communities is confined mainly to religious exercises. The Jews have
adopted the languages of the peoples with whom they have long been
associated. More speak Yiddish, called in Europe “Judeo-German,” than
any other language, since the largest modern population of Jews borders
on eastern Germany and has been longest under German influence.

Physically the Hebrew is a mixed race. In every country, however, they
are found to approach in type the people among whom they have long
resided. The two chief divisions of the Jewish people are the northern
type, and the Spanish or southern type. The latter are now found mainly
in the countries southeast of Austria. They consider themselves to be of
purer race than the northern Jews and in some countries refuse to
intermarry or worship with the latter. Their features are more truly
Semitic.

The social solidarity of the Jews is chiefly a product of religion and
tradition. Taking all factors into account, and especially their type of
civilization, the Jews of today are more truly European than Asiatic or
Semitic.

The Jews are endowed with the most varied qualities, as shown by the
whole course of their checkered history. Originally pure nomads, the
Israelites became excellent husbandmen after the settlement in Canaan,
and since then they have given proof of the highest capacity for poetry,
letters, erudition of all kinds, philosophy, finance, music, and
diplomacy. The reputation of the medieval Arabs as restorers of learning
is largely due to their wise tolerance of the enlightened Jewish
communities in their midst.

[Illustration: This remarkable Cliff Palace of Chapin’s Mesa, Colorado,
is believed to have been constructed either by the Pueblo Indians or
their immediate predecessors. Originally it was a city in itself, being
prepared for siege, drought, and famine, besides the necessities of
every-day life.]

In late years the persecutions, especially in Russia and Roumania, have
caused a fresh exodus, and flourishing agricultural settlements have
been founded in Argentina and Palestine.

Jewish immigrants usually, however, settle in the cities. New York City,
for example, has the largest Jewish population of any city in the world,
now estimated by some at about 1,000,000, or nearly one-fourth of the
total population. About 50,000 more are added annually. Among large
cities, Warsaw and Odessa have a still larger ratio of Jewish
population, namely, one-third. In London, on the contrary, only
one-fiftieth of the population is Hebrew. The Jewish population of the
entire United States is less than 2,000,000.

=Hindus= (_hin´duz_), or =Hindoos=.--The native race in India descended
from the Aryan conquerors. Their purest representatives belong to the
two great historic castes of Brahmans and Rajputs. Many of the non-Aryan
inhabitants of India have been largely Hinduized. More loosely the name
includes also the non-Aryan inhabitants of India.

It is not generally realized how great a number of races and tribes
there are in India, many of them extremely low in civilization and
approaching the Negro in physical characteristics. Such are some of the
Dravidas and Mundas, who occupy all of southern India. In greatest
contrast with these are the Aryan Hindus of the north, more closely
related in language, if not in physical appearance, to the northern
Europeans than are the Turks, Magyars, and various peoples of eastern
Russia.

Hindi and Hindustani are the most widely spread modern languages or
group of dialects of India. Hindustani is generally understood to be the
polite speech of all India, and especially of Hindustan. Hindi, in the
wider sense of the term, is spoken by 97,000,000 of people, mainly of
northern India. The darker non-Aryans and Mongolians alone of India
nearly equal the population of the United States. There are one hundred
and forty-seven peoples or tribes speaking different languages.

=Indians= (_in´di-anz_).--The aboriginal inhabitants of North America
were so named on the supposition that the lands discovered by the early
navigators were parts of India. This erroneous name has continued in use
ever since, notwithstanding attempts at its correction. The Indians were
not nomadic until after the arrival of Europeans, who drove many tribes
from their established seats to those occupied by other tribes. From the
same Europeans they procured the horse and firearms, both of which were
necessary to a nomadic life under the existing conditions.

Explorers and early settlers gave fanciful names to many of the groups
of Indians which they encountered. Efforts to reproduce native tribal
names (unpronounceable in foreign tongues) in the traveler’s own
language, resulted in many different names for the same tribes. Several
thousand names for Indian tribes or groups are found in the English and
European writings of the last three hundred years.

Recent ethnological study tends to recognize possibly two marked types
of North American Indians, (1) those facing the Pacific and the Asiatic
Continent with its broad-headed Mongolic races; and (2) those found
chiefly on the Eastern Slope, looking toward Africa and Europe. They
incline to the view, also, that the race is not traceable to a “_single_
origin, but that immigrants came by many routes from many regions.”
While a similarity in the new environment tended to bring the fragments
of the old populations into similarity of physical type, likenesses in
language, are accepted as the sound basis for classification of Indian
tribes and groups.

Major J. W. Powell, in 1891, recognized “fifty-eight linguistic
families,” and mapped the geographic distribution of these great stocks
over the continent. The Pacific coast has a multiplicity of small
linguistic families; while the more populous central and eastern parts
have comparatively fewer linguistic stocks. Dr. McGee, in 1896 estimated
the number of Indian tribes belonging to various linguistic families at
782--the largest number of these, tribes of little importance,
numerically or historically. Some of the principal linguistic families
are:

1. THE ALGONQUIAN (including thirty-six tribes) originally distributed
along the Atlantic Coast from Newfoundland and Nova Scotia as far south
as North Carolina, and throughout the middle portion of the continent
from Tennessee, northward throughout the main part of Canada. Among them
were the tribes found in New England and Virginia by the earliest
settlers from Europe,--the Abnaki, Delawares, Narragansetts, Pequots,
Powhatans, Mohegans, Ottawas, Illinois, Objibwa (Chippewa), Cheyennes,
Siksika and Arapaoes, with the now largely civilized and dispersed
Potawatomi.

2. THE ATHABASCAN (fifty-three tribes) chiefly found now in Northwestern
Canada, but including also the large Southwestern tribe of about 30,000
Navahoes, in Arizona and New Mexico; the Apaches and the Mescaleros,
with a few small tribal groups on the coast of central and northern
California.

3. THE IROQUOIAN (thirteen tribes) among which were the famous “Five
Nations” of New York, including the Cayugas, Oneidas, Senecas,
Onondagas, Tuscaroras, Mohawks, the numerous Cherokees, and the Hurons,
nearly annihilated in 1650 by the Iroquois.

=TWO INSTRUCTIVE VIEWS OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN=

[Illustration: The former free and open life of the plains is now
supplemented with the refinements and even luxuries of modern American
life. Rich in lands, and protected by the guardianship of the American
government, the future of the Indian is unusually safe-guarded.]

[Illustration: The Indian farmer is under the instruction of upward of
five hundred skilled specialists who demonstrate the art of profitable
farming. His lands equal in area all New England and New York, and their
value is placed at six hundred million dollars.]

4. THE SIOUAN (sixty-eight tribes) including the great Dakota (Sioux)
tribes, with their numerous sub-divisions; the Omahas, Poncas, Osages,
the Winnebagos, Iowas, Crows; and the Catawbas in Carolina, who perhaps
mark the original eastern habitat from which Siouan tribes moved
northwest.

5. THE SHOSHONEAN (twelve tribes) including the Comanches, Utes, Hopis,
and Shoshone.

6. THE MUSKHOGEAN (nine tribes) including the Creeks, Choctaws,
Chickasaws, and Seminoles.

7. THE ESKIMAUAN family (seventy tribes) scattered through Greenland and
the Arctic Coast and islands of Central and North America and Alaska.

8. THE PUEBLO, including the Zuñi, Hopi and Tegna.

On the continent of North America, north of Mexico, three or four
hundred years ago, there were probably about 1,150,000 Indians. Of
these, perhaps 850,000 were on territory now that of the United States
proper; 220,000 in British America; 72,000 in Alaska; and 10,000 in
Greenland. Numerous and prolonged intertribal wars, ravages of
tuberculosis, and fevers, are known to have swept off entire populations
of large districts, before contact with Whites had greatly accelerated
the death-rate of the American Indians. Smallpox, introduced by the
Whites, has nearly extinguished entire tribes, time after time. Whiskey,
and attendant dissipation, sexual diseases brought in by Whites, and the
lowered vitality which results from changed conditions of life, with
tuberculosis, rendered much more deadly in the conditions of life forced
upon Indians by the Whites, had largely reduced the Indian population
before 1800, and have steadily tended toward the extermination of
Indians since that date, although intermarriages and enrolment of
mixed-bloods have kept up the numbers on tribal rolls.

The most interesting groups of Indians in Central and South America have
been the (a) Aztecs, (b) Pipils, making the _Nahuatlan_ group; and the
(a) Mayas, (b) Quichés, (c) Pocomans, making the _Huastecan_ group.

THE AZTECS were the dominant race in Mexico prior to their conquest by
Spaniards. Although the name is usually extended to all the
semi-civilized tribes of Nahuatlan (_Aztlan_, “heron clan”) stock, it
properly belongs only to a small group of seven related clans. The
principal tribe had its capital at Tenochtitlan, now the city of Mexico.
They developed a form of astronomy which was mainly astrological, and
could take accurate observations, not only of lunations, but also of the
periods of Venus. They divided the solar year into eighteen months of
twenty days each and named each day by consecutive hieroglyphics. Their
writing system was mainly pictorial. The Aztec monuments, however, or
pyramids surmounted by temples, were not to be compared with those of
Yucatan, while the finest in Mexico itself (Teotihuacan, Colula,
Papantla) were the work of their Toltec predecessors.

Possessed of a high degree of culture, the Aztecs were also notorious
for their cruelty and the barbarous character of their religious rites.
Some of their descendants, comparatively pure in blood and retaining the
ancient language, are still to be found in the neighborhood of the city
of Mexico.

INCAS (_ing´käz_).--The reigning and aristocratic order in ancient Peru
from the thirteenth to the sixteenth century. They were originally a
tribe or family of the Quichés who inhabited certain valleys near Cuzco
and first became dominant under Manco Capac about 1240. Their own
traditions described Manco Capac as a child of the Sun. From him
descended the twelve other historical sovereigns of Peru, the last
reigning one being Huascar, though the lineage was preserved long after.
These sovereigns (the Incas in a restricted sense) always married their
own sisters, and the throne was inherited, in general, by the oldest son
proceeding from this marriage. Children by their other wives could not,
by custom or law, receive the crown, though this rule was broken when
Atahualpa inherited a part of the empire in 1523. The rule of the Incas
was absolute, but very mild. They had attained to a high state of
civilization before the arrival of the Spaniards. They cultivated many
of the arts, and had some knowledge of astronomy. They had domesticated
the llamas and alpacas, had brought under cultivation maize, potatoes
and other edible roots, understood mining and the working of metals, and
excelled as masons, weavers, potters, and farmers. They brought the
science of government to a high pitch of perfection. The Incas composed
songs and dramas; and as soldiers their skill and prowess enabled them
to conquer and consolidate a vast empire. Three centuries of oppression
under Spanish rule have deteriorated the character of the Inca Indian,
but he is still industrious and honest, and retains some of the virtues
of his ancestors.

=Israelites.=--See Hebrews.

=Japanese.=--The Japanese and Koreans form the easternmost group of the
great Sibiric branch, which, with the Sinitic branch (Chinese, etc.,)
constitutes the Mongolian race. The Japanese and Koreans stand much
nearer than the Chinese to the Finns, Lapps, Magyars, and Turks of
Europe, who are the westernmost descendants of the Mongolian race. The
languages of all these peoples belong to the agglutinative family, while
Chinese is monosyllabic.

Although many people may mistake a Japanese face for Chinese, the
Mongolian traits are much less pronounced. The skin is much less yellow,
the eyes less oblique. The hair, however, is true Mongolian, black and
round in section, and the nose is small. These physical differences no
doubt indicate that the Japanese are of mixed origin. In the south there
is probably a later Malay admixture. In some respects their early
culture resembles that of the Philippines of today.

Then there is an undoubted white strain in Japan. The Ainos, the
earliest inhabitants of Japan, are one of the most truly Caucasian-like
people in appearance in eastern Asia. They have dwindled away to less
than 20,000 under the pressure of the Mongolian invasion from the
mainland, but they have left their impress upon the Japanese race. The
“fine” type of the aristocracy, the Japanese ideal, as distinct from the
“coarse” type recognized by students of the Japanese of today, is
perhaps due to the Aino.

The race, as a whole, is physically under-developed, the men being
small, and harsh in feature, while the women lose their good looks after
the first bloom of youth is over. The girls, with their rosy cheeks,
fascinating manners, and exquisitely tasteful dress, are, however,
particularly attractive, and the children are bright and comely, being
allowed full liberty to enjoy themselves--indeed Japan is the paradise
of children.

The Japanese have many excellent qualities, they are kindly, courteous,
law-abiding, cleanly in their habits, frugal, and possessed of a high
sense of personal honor which makes sordidness unknown. This is
associated, moreover, with an ardent patriotic spirit, quite removed
from factiousness. On the other hand the people are deficient in moral
earnestness and courage, which leads to corruption in social life and
institutions.

[Illustration: The people of Japan are noted for their love of things
beautiful. The above scene is a typical picture of an exquisite garden,
presided over by several picturesquely gowned Japanese girls.]

The town costume of the Japanese gentleman consists of a loose silk robe
extending from the neck to the ankles, but gathered in at the waist,
round which is fastened a girdle of brocaded silk. Over this is worn a
loose, wide-sleeved jacket, decorated with the wearer’s armorial device.
White cotton socks, cleft at the great toes, and wooden pattens complete
the attire. European costume has been prescribed by government as the
official dress, and the empress and her suite have recently adopted
foreign costume, being followed to a certain extent by the fashionable
ladies of the capital. Hats are not generally worn, except by those who
follow European fashions or in the heat of summer.

The women wear a loose robe, overlapping in front and fastened with a
broad heavy girdle of silk (_obi_), often of great value. In winter a
succession of these robes are worn, one over the other. The formerly
universal chignon coiffure of the women, stiff with pomatum, which was
done up by the hair-dresser once or twice a week, is rapidly yielding to
the simpler Grecian knot.

MODE OF LIVING.--Japanese houses are slight constructions of wood. In
the northern districts at least two sides of the house are closed in
with walls of mud plastered on wicker-work. The floors are covered with
thick soft straw mats, measuring six by three feet, and the
accommodation of the houses is reckoned by the number of these mats. On
them the inmates sit, eat and sleep, the bed-clothes--heavily padded
quilts--being kept during the day in adjoining closets. Rice is the
staple food of the people, but in the poorer mountainous regions millet
often takes its place. Fish, seaweed, and beans in all forms are served
with the rice, especially in the soups, which likewise contain bean
curd, eggs, and vegetables. Chestnuts and hazel-nuts are also largely
eaten, and the walnut is made into a sweetmeat. _Shōyu_ (soy), a sauce
made of beans and wheat, is the universal condiment. Fowls are now
pretty widely used for the table, and pork and beef, as well as bread,
are increasingly eaten.

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS.--The social position of women is more favorable
than in most non-Christian countries, but still leaves much to be
desired. Marriages are arranged through an intermediary, and both sexes
marry at an early age. As the continuance of families is a point of
great importance, adoption is largely resorted to in order to prevent
families dying out. Great respect is paid to the dead, and posthumous
names are conferred after death, some of the most celebrated names in
Japanese history being posthumous titles. Heavy sums are lavished on
funerals.

[Illustration: The Jinrikisha (_jin-rik´i-shaw_) or two-wheeled carriage
generally in use in Japan.]

Until lately the only vehicles in Japan were two kinds of palanquin; but
in all the more level districts these have now been superseded by the
_jinrikĭsha_ (man-power-carriage), a sort of two-wheeled perambulator
drawn by a man who runs between the shafts. In many of the more
mountainous regions the roads are impracticable even for the
_jinrikĭsha_.

The Japanese are essentially a pleasure-loving people, and spend
comparatively large sums upon amusements. The theater, though formerly
despised by the _samurai_ class, who refused to enter its doors, forms
one of the chief national resorts. The time of greatest festivity is the
New Year, now held contemporaneously with our own, when pinetrees are
planted before the doors, the houses are gay with decoration, and
presents are lavishly made. The favorite game at this season is
_oyobane_, a kind of battledore and shuttlecock. January is the kite
season; the smaller kites are of various fantastic shapes, while the
larger and more powerful ones are usually rectangular. Wrestling,
juggling, and archery are favorite sports.

RELIGIONS OF JAPAN.--There are two prevailing religions in
Japan--_Shintoism_ (The way of the gods), the indigenous faith; and
Buddhism, introduced from China in 552.

The characteristics of Shintoism in its pure form are the absence of an
ethical and doctrinal code, of idol-worship, of priestcraft, and of any
teachings concerning a future state, and the deification of heroes,
emperors, and great men, together with the worship of certain forces and
objects in nature.

Of Buddhists there are no fewer than thirty-five sects. The monks have
assumed the functions of priests, and Japanese Buddhist worship presents
striking resemblances to that of the Roman Catholic Church.
Notwithstanding the increased patronage recently bestowed upon Shintoism
by the government, Buddhism is still the dominant religion among the
people.

Japan is a land of temples, but many are now falling into decay, while
others are turned into schoolhouses. Every grove has its shrine and
_torii_, a structure in wood or stone, consisting of two upright pillars
joined at the top by two transverse beams or slabs; metal torii are also
not unknown. The Buddhist monasteries in the Japanese middle ages were
undoubtedly wonderful centers of civilization, and the priests for long
commanded reverence by their self-denial.

=Latins=, or =Latini= (_la-tī´ni_), or =Romans=.--The ancient Latins
inhabited Latium, on the west coast of central Italy, before the
existence of Rome. It would seem that they had branched off from the
Aryan stem next after the Celts, and upon entering Italy soon united
with the primitive Liguirians, later forming a confederation or league
of which Alba Longa became the head.

Out of the Latins, Etruscans (which see) and Sabines (another primal
stock), the Roman people were originally formed, each speaking a most
marked variety of the original Italic mother-tongue. The principal
element was _Latin_, as the language shows. The next in importance was
the _Sabine_, and the third, in order both of time and of influence, was
the _Etruscan_. But with the spread of the Roman arms (the Romans were
Latins), all were absorbed by the Latin variety, which still lives in
its modern progeny--Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Langue d’Oc (South
France), Langue d’Oïl (North or Standard French), Roumanian, Walloon of
Belgium, Rumansch or Ladin and Vaudois of Switzerland. Thus half of
Europe has been Latinized, while the different nationalities still
retain their distinctive physical and mental characters.

=Malays= (_mālāz´_).--Blumenbach, the father of ethnology, regarded the
Malays as one of the five grand divisions of mankind; but the weight of
modern authorities is in favor of considering them as a branch of the
Mongolian race. They are distinguished in color by a variety of shades
of brown, and are native to the Malay Archipelago and Peninsula and the
Island of Madagascar, with perhaps a few related remnants of tribes in
Indo-China. The Malay Archipelago includes the Philippines, but not New
Guinea on the east. Within this archipelago there is no other native
race with the exception of the small groups of pigmy Negroes called
Negritos distantly related to the Papuan of New Guinea, if not to the
Australian.

All the languages spoken by the Malay race belong to the great
Malayo-Polynesian family of languages, which are found everywhere among
Polynesians; that is, as far east as the waters of South America and
northward to include the Hawaiian Islands. The term Malay is also
applied in a narrower sense to that part of the Malay race called the
“true Malay” or “_Orang Malaya_,” that is, the section speaking the
standard Malay tongue and which lived originally in and about the Malay
Peninsula.

While linguistically the Malays are radically distinct from the
Mongolians, physically they approach them more nearly than any other
great race. The lighter brown color found in some sections approaches
the yellow of the Chinese, and the slanting eye or “Mongol fold” of the
upper lid is frequently found where no intermixture can be assumed. The
appearance of the face and head is also somewhat similar in these races.
In temperament and native civilization, however, the Malay is quite
distinct. He has primitive, cruel instincts more like those of the
American Indian. He has nowhere accepted the Mongolian type of
civilization so much as the Caucasian type. The Filipinos are far in
advance of any other Malay people in the latter respect, although the
earlier Malayan civilization was most highly developed in Java. Buddhism
has here been replaced by Mohammedanism, which has extended even into
the southern Philippines.

The question of their origin has been much discussed, some fixing the
cradle of the race on the Asiatic mainland, others in Sumatra.

The Malay intellect is of a low order, and the race has never developed
a native culture, their civilization being entirely due to foreign
influences, chiefly Hindu and Arab.

=Mongolian= (_mon-gō´li-än_).--The second in Blumenbach’s classification
of the races of mankind. The chief characteristics are broad cheekbones,
low, retreating forehead, short and broad nose, and yellowish
complexion. It included the Chinese, Japanese, Turks, Tartars,
Indo-Chinese, Lapps, etc. The Mongolian and the Caucasian are the two
largest races, or divisions, of mankind,--the latter being somewhat the
larger because it includes the greater part of the population of India.

[Illustration: Finish girl of to-day--a descendent of Mongolian
ancestors who settled in Europe centuries ago.]

Just as the Caucasian race extends into southwestern and southern Asia,
so the Mongolian race extends far into Europe, embracing not only the
Lapps of Scandinavia, the Finns, Cossacks, and many other peoples of
Russia, and the Turks of southern Europe, but even the Magyars of
Hungary, the most advanced of all the Europeans of Mongolian origin. The
main western branches of the Mongolians, although Europeanized in blood
as well as in culture, still possess a Mongolian speech.

Brinton divides the Mongolian race into two great branches, the Sinitic
and the Sibiric.

The word “Sinitic” is derived from the late Latin _Sina_, China. It
comprises that branch of the Mongolian race of which the Chinese,
Indo-Chinese, and Tibetan groups are the chief representatives.

The Sibiric branch of the Mongolian race comprises the Japanese,
Arctic, Tungusic, Finnic, Tataric, and Mongolic groups, and therefore
all the Mongolian peoples which have invaded Europe, such as the Finns,
Lapps, Magyars, and Osmanlis or Turks.

=Moor= is a term applied to very different peoples of northwestern
Africa. In Roman history it is applied to inhabitants of Mauretania
(Morocco and Algeria), who were in part Phoenician colonists. In Spanish
history the “Moors” and “Moriscos” were mainly Berbers rather than, as
commonly supposed, Arabs. Today the word is wrongly applied to the Riffs
of Morocco and to the town dwellers of Algeria and Tunis. The latter
call themselves generally “Arabs,” although often in part of Berber
blood. The Moors, in a stricter racial sense, are the mixed Trarza and
other tribes on the western coast, from Morocco to the Senegal, mainly
of nomadic habits. They are of mixed Berber, Arab, and often Negro
blood. Many speak Arabic.

=Negro.=--The only negroes to whom practically all ethnologists are
willing to apply the term are those inhabiting the central and western
third of Africa, excluding even the Bantus, who occupy practically all
Africa south of the Equator. The Bantus, well typified by the Zulu
subdivision, are lighter in color than the true negroes, never sooty
black, but of a reddish-brown. From the negroes proper of the Sudan have
descended most American negroes.

To some extent the northern Negro stock has become intermixed with the
African Caucasian, especially about the Upper Nile, in Abyssinia, and in
Gallaland and Somaliland farther east. Keane’s theory is that the
Australians and Africans represent the earliest offshoots of the
precursors of man who inhabited the continent now submerged in the
Indian Ocean. In line with this theory is the claim that the Veddahs and
Dravidians of India are still more divergent branches toward the north
which have become more affected by Caucasian or, perhaps, Mongolian
elements.

The Papuans and Nigritos of Australasia, having all or most of the
characteristics of the African negroes, are classed with them.

There is a bewildering confusion in the terms used to indicate the
different mixtures of white and dark races in America. Thus, all natives
of Cuba, whether colored or white, are called “creoles,” as this word is
loosely used in the United States; but creole, as more strictly defined,
applies only to those who are native-born but of pure European descent.
This is the use of the word in Mexico. In Brazil and Peru, on the
contrary, it is applied to those possessing colored blood in some
proportion; in Brazil to Negroes of pure descent; and in Peru to the
issue of whites and mestizos. “Mestizo” is the Spanish word applied to
half-breeds (white and Indian.)

SLAVE TRAFFIC IN AMERICA.--The importation of Negroes into America has
been going on steadily since the early years of the sixteenth century,
when it was begun by the Spaniards, even the good Las Casas recommending
it in the interest of the native Indians. Both Queen Elizabeth and King
James I. issued patents to English slave-trading companies operating
between the coast of Guinea and the American colonies. Britain, by the
Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, engaged to carry out the contract of the old
French Guinea Company, and to import into the New World one hundred and
thirty thousand slaves in the course of the next thirty years, and is
said to have more than made good the engagement.

In the United States the traffic was open and active until the passage
of the Act of 1794 prohibiting the importation of slaves into any of the
federal ports. Long after this it continued to be a brisk business in
the West Indies and South America. As late as 1840 there were
seventy-five ships plying constantly between Brazilian ports and the
African coast, bringing cargoes of three or four hundred slaves at each
trip. The principal points at which the slaves were obtained were along
the coast of Guinea, especially on what was known as the Slave Coast,
between the rivers Lagos and Assinie, where were the crowded marts of
Waidah and Anamaboe, and again along the Angola coast. In these two
regions the traders encountered two quite different branches of the
African race, and their human wares in America show that they were
derived from different sources. Along the Guinea coast, whence most of
the slaves brought to the United States were derived, the population
belongs to the true negro type.

In Brazil and other parts of South America the preponderance of
importations was from the negroid stock of the equator, whose dialects
and physical traits are allied to those of the Kaffirs and Zulus of the
east coast (Bantus). The slaves in all parts, however, being from mixed
stocks, their descendants do not present any well-marked peculiarities
inside those of the race. As a rule, they are in strength equal to the
whites, and in endurance of exposure and labor under a tropical sun are
superior to all other immigrants.

It is usually held that the negro is not naturally industrious; but this
seems to some extent answered by the severe field labor of many tribes,
both men and women, in their native continent, and by the official
reports of the United States government showing a greater acreage of
land under cultivation in the former slave states and a larger crop of
cotton than before the Civil War. When under the control of a strong
social organization, and with obvious motives for industry and economy
before his eyes, the American negro is both industrious and provident,
and the instances are numerous where members of the race have
accumulated fortunes of respectable size. Their vitality appears on the
whole to be about the same as the whites, except in the more northern
states, where it is unquestionably much less. In New England and Canada
negroes gradually but surely perish.

NEGRO CHARACTERISTICS.--The negro is a tireless talker and story-teller.
Many of them reveal a high stage of the art of story-telling, as the
Georgia tales collected from the southern states by various writers
attest. Many of them belong to the class of “beast-fables,” similar to
some which have been collected among the American Indians and the
natives of the African continent, and such as were favorite staples of
amusement in Europe during the middle ages.

One of the principal figures is the rabbit--the “brer rabbit” of the
“Uncle Remus” tales. He figures conspicuously not only in the southern
United States, but in the West Indies and on the Amazons, and in the
folklore of the Venezuelan negroes.

Along with story-telling, singing and music are favorite diversions of
the colored population. This tendency is a direct inheritance from their
African ancestry, as throughout that continent the natives are
passionately fond of these diversions. In Central America the negroes
still employ the _marimba_, a native African instrument with wooden keys
placed over jars or gourds, the keys being struck with a stick. In the
United States the violin, the fife, and the guitar are used, but the
favorite is the banjo, an instrument of African derivation, modified
from the guitars with grass strings still in use on the Guinea coast.
With these simple means they produce music of pleasant though not
artistic character. In individual instances (as Blind Tom, born in
Georgia in 1849) members of the race have attained remarkable skill on
the piano and organ, rendering the most difficult compositions with
spirit. No negro composer, however, has attained wide celebrity. Their
songs are numerous, many of them of a religious character, others
turning on the incidents of daily life. They are generally defective in
prosody and without merit, being often little more than words strung
together to carry an air.

=Persians= (_per´shanz_).--The natives or inhabitants of ancient or of
modern Persia. The Persian race or people is quite different from the
Persian nationality. The latter includes several very different peoples,
as will presently be seen. Linguistically the Persian is the chief race
of Persia speaking an Iranic language, that is, one of the Aryan tongues
most nearly related to the Hindi. Physically, the race is of mixed
Caucasian stock. It is almost entirely composed of Tajiks. The small
section known as “Parsis” or, incorrectly, “Fire worshipers,” have for
the most part emigrated to India. The Armenians are so closely related
to the Persians as to be put with them by some into the Iranic branch.
The Kurds, the Beluchis, and the Afghans also belong to the latter.

Of the 9,500,000 estimated population of Persia about two-thirds are
true Persian or “Tajik.” The other third is also Caucasian for the most
part, including Kurds (400,000), Armenians (150,000), and other Iranians
(820,000), and the non-Aryan Arabs (350,000). There are 550,000 Turks
and 300,000 Mongols in the Empire. The only Christians are the Armenians
and a small group of 25,000 “Chaldeans,” “Assyrians,” or “Nestorians,”
really eastern Syrians, about Lake Urmia, on the northwestern border.

In intellect, if not in civilization the Persian is perhaps more nearly
a European than is the pure Turk. He is more alert and accessible to
innovation. Yet he is rather brilliant and poetical than solid in
temperament. Like the Hindu he is more eager to secure the semblance
than the substance of modern civilization.

[Illustration: =MODERN RUSSIAN POLICE OFFICER=]

=Slavs= (_slȧvz_).--Peoples widely spread in eastern, southeastern, and
central Europe. The Russian and Polish are its leading tongues. The
Slavs are divided into two sections--the southeastern and the western.
The former section comprises the Russians, Bulgarians, Serbo-Croatians,
and Slovenes; the latter, the Poles, Bohemians, Moravians, Slovaks,
Wends, etc.

[Illustration: =RUSSIAN POSTMAN=]

Physically, and perhaps temperamentally, the Slavs approach the Asiatic,
or particularly the Tartar, more closely than do the peoples of western
Europe. In language they are as truly Aryan as ourselves. Of course,
languages do not fuse by interbreeding; physical races do. There is some
truth in the old saying, “Scratch a Russian and you find a Tartar,”
especially if he come from southern Russia, where once lived the Mongol
conquerors of the Russians.

Yet the common conception of the Slav as dreamy and impractical does not
seem to fit with the greatness of the new nation which impresses the
imagination of the beholder more than any other in Europe. The fact is
that we do not know the Slav. Unfortunately the unlikeness of the
language to those of western Europe, perhaps even the unfamiliarity of
the alphabet used, has delayed the study of what must soon be regarded
as one of the great languages and literatures of civilization. Its
spread, like that of the Russian Empire, has been more rapid than that
of any other in the present century.

If the Slav be still backward in western ideas, appliances, and form of
government, it is nevertheless conceivable that the time is not far
distant when he will stand in the lead. The race is still young. Its
history is shorter than that of any other important people of Europe.

Turning to the physical characteristics of the Slavs, it is found that
there is not, properly speaking, a Slavic race. Deniker says that no
fewer than five European races are represented among the Slavs, besides
Turkic and Ugric or Mongolian elements. These are the fair, but
broad-headed and short races, in Poland and White Russia especially; the
dark, very broad-headed, and short peoples among the Little Russians of
the south, the Slovaks, and some Great Russians; and the taller, but
still dark and broad-headed races among the southwestern Slavs or
Serbo-Croatians and some Czechs and Ruthenians. In the northwest the
Russians have been modified by the blond or Teutonized Finns, in the
northeast by the dark Finns, and in the southeast by the Tartars; but
all such alike are broad-headed Mongolians in origin. With the exception
of these Asiatic remnants and the related Magyars and Turks, and the
Greeks, all of Europe east of Germany is filled with Slavs. They occupy
more than one-half of the continent of Europe, and their presence has
been a fertile source of political and governmental dissensions for many
centuries, particularly in the Balkan countries. Indeed the scourge of
war which has been ravaging all Europe, since 1914, is traceable in no
small degree to this admixture of racial elements.

[Illustration: Servian Slav woman showing the native costume worn by the
Servian women on feast days.]

[Illustration: Russian Slavs, in native costumes, from a southern
province on the Black Sea.]

=Teutonic.=--This great branch of the Aryan family of languages and
“races,” includes all those of northwestern Europe excepting the Celtic.
The Teutonic was the second Aryan swarm in Western Europe, that which
came after the Celts, and is the one with whose history we are more
concerned than with that of any other; for it is the branch of the Aryan
family to which we ourselves belong. The Teutons were the forefathers of
the Germans and the English, and of the Danes, Swedes, and Norwegians in
Northern Europe. They do not appear in history till a much later time
than the Celts, and then we find them lying immediately to the east of
the Celts, chiefly in the land which is now called Germany. From this
they spread themselves into many of the countries of Europe; but in most
cases they were absorbed into the earlier inhabitants, and learned, like
them, to speak the language of the Romans. The chief parts of Europe
where Teutonic languages are now spoken are Germany, England and
Scandinavia.

In Scandinavia we cannot doubt that the present Teutonic inhabitants
were the first Aryan settlers; for they found a Mongolian people there,
some of whom still remain, by the name of Lapps and Finns, in the
extreme north of Sweden and Norway and on the eastern coast of the
Baltic. But in most places the Teutons, as the second wave, came into
land where other Aryan settlers had been before them. Sometimes they may
have simply come in the wake of the Celts as they were pressing
westward; but, sometimes they found the Celts in the land and drove them
out, as was specially the case in Britain. Of the first coming of the
Teutons into Europe we can say nothing from written history, any more
than of the first coming of the Celts.

The Teutonic stock of nations, as they exist at the present day, is
divided into two principal branches: (1) The Scandinavian, embracing
Danes, Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders; and (2) the Germanic, which
includes, besides the German-speaking inhabitants of Germany proper and
Switzerland, also the population of the Netherlands (the Dutch), the
Flemings of Belgium, and the descendants of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes
in Great Britain, together with their offspring in North America,
Australia, and other British colonies--the English-speaking peoples of
the world. It is necessary in this case, as in all similar cases, to
guard against making language the sole test of race. In many parts of
Germany, where German now prevails, Slavic dialects were spoken down to
recent times, and in some places are not yet quite extinct. And in Great
Britain it is unreasonable to suppose that the Anglo-Saxon invaders
exterminated the native Celtic population, or even drove more than a
tithe of them into Wales and the Highlands.

THE TEUTONIC RACIAL GROUP

               {          {         {          {Icelandic.
               {          {W.       {Old       {W. Dalecarlian.
               {          {Branch.  {Norwegian.{Jämetlandish.
               {          {         {          {Faroic.
               {          {
               {          {         {          {Bornholm.
               {NORSE.    {         {Danish.   {Normanno-Jutish.
               {          {         {          {Dano-Jutish.
               {          {E.       {
               {          {Branch.  {          {E. Dalecarlian.
               {          {         {Swedish.  {Gothic.
               {          {         {          {Scanian.
               {
               {          {
               {          {                    {W. Fr. Groningen.
               {          {                    {E. Fr. Saterland.
               {          {          Frisic.   {N. Fr. Helgoland,
               {          {                    {Sylt, etc.
               {          {
               {          {                    {Old Saxon of the
  LOW GERMAN.  {          {                    {“Heliand.”
               {          {          Conti-    {Westphalian.
               {          {          nental    {Hanoverian.
               {          {          Saxon.    {Brunswick.
               {          {                    {Pomeranian, etc.
               {NIEDER-   {
               {DEUTSCH.  {         {Anglisc   {Northumbrian.
               {          {         {(North-   {Lowland Scotch.
               {          {         {ern).     {Shetland, etc.
               {          {         {
               {          {Anglo-   {          {Lincoln.
               {          {Saxon    {Midland.  {Yorkshire.
               {          {(En-     {          {Derby, etc.
               {          {glish).  {
               {          {         {          {Cornish.
               {          {         {Saxon     {Somerset.
               {          {         {(South-   {Dorset.
               {          {         {ern).     {Kent, etc.

               {          {Salic Frankish (extinct).
               {          {
               {          {         {Rhenish.
               {          {Riparian {E. Frankish.
               {          {Frankish.{Hessian.
               {MITTEL-   {
               {DEUTSCH.  {         {Upper Saxon.
               {          {Thuring- {Erzgebirge.
               {          {ian.     {Transylvanian.
               {          {         {Meissen.
               {
               {          {                    {Bernese.
  HIGH GERMAN. {          {Bur-      Swiss.    {Hazli.
               {          {gundian.            {Appenzell.
               {          {
               {          {         {Neuhochdeutsch
               {          {         {(literary standard).
               {OBER-     {Alemanno-{Alsatian.
               {DEUTSCH.  {Suabian. {Wurtemberg.
               {          {         {Baden.
               {          {
               {          {         {Tyrolese.{Styrian.
               {          {Bavarian.{Austrian.{Carinthian.
               {          {         {         {Zips, etc.

[Illustration: =GROUP OF OLD SCHOOL TURKISH GENTLEMEN OF CONSTANTINOPLE=

The modern Turk is very far from being of purely Mongolian stock. In
truth the mixed blood of practically all the peoples of southeastern
Europe and western Asia courses in his veins.]

=Turks= (_tèrks_) or =Ottomans=, the race now dominant in Turkey, lived
originally in central Asia. They belong to the Sibiric or Tartar
division of the Mongolian race, and reached Europe, probably in
straggling bands, before the Christian Era (See Mongolian). To the same
race division belong the European Finns, Lapps, Hungarians, Bulgarians,
and Basques. Physically and in culture the Turks have become
Europeanized, though to a less degree than the related Finns and
Magyars. Instead of becoming blond, as the Finns, they have approached
the brunette type of southern Europe, probably in part through their
frequent intermarriages with the Circassian and other Mohammedan peoples
of the Caucasus. In fact, today they are not so much Turkish by blood as
Arabian, Circassian, Persian, Armenian, Greek, and Slavic. They prefer
to be considered as Arabo-Persian in culture rather than as Turkish. In
religion they are almost universally Mohammedan.

The Turks are in the minority in their own country, especially in the
European part of Turkey, where the Turks, Greeks, Albanians, and “Slavs”
(Bulgarians and Servians) are to be found in nearly equal parts. The
first three named have been estimated to constitute seventy per cent of
the population. No census of Turkey has ever been taken. The following
estimates are compiled from various sources. The entire Ottoman Empire,
excluding states practically independent, has a population of about
24,000,000. Of these 10,000,000 are Turks. In European Turkey, 1,500,000
out of a population of 6,000,000 are Turks. Here they are without doubt
decreasing in numbers. In Macedonia the Turks number about 500,000 out
of a population of 2,200,000. Of the latter number, however, only about
1,300,000 are Christians. In the capital itself, Constantinople, the
Turks constitute only about one-half of the population of 1,200,000. In
Turkey in Asia, on the other hand, the Turkish race is in the majority.
The Mohammedans number perhaps 10,000,000 in a total population of
13,000,000 in Asiatic Turkey and Armenia. There are about 500,000 Turks
in Bulgaria out of a total population of 4,000,000. The Mohammedan
population of Bosnia and Herzegovina--550,000 out of a total of
1,600,000--is mainly Slavic rather than Turkish.

=COMPARATIVE CLASSIFICATION OF RACES AND PEOPLES=

Showing also the latest estimated population of the various subdivisions
throughout the world, together with a view of the numerous races
entering into the population of the United States.

  +----------+---------+-----------+--------------+-------------+-----------+
  |  =Race=  | =Stock= |  =Group=  | =Peoples and | =Estimated  |  =Races   |
  |          |         |           |    Tribes=   |   Total     |Represented|
  |          |         |           |              | Population= |   in the  |
  |          |         |           |              |             |   United  |
  |          |         |           |              |             |  States=  |
  +----------+---------+-----------+--------------+-------------+-----------+
  |          |{        |{Egyptians |{Copts        |   800,000   |}      500 |
  |          |{        |{          |{Fellaheen    |  5,000,000()|}          |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{Berbers      |  7,500,000  |       ... |
  |          |{        |{          |{(modern)     |             |           |
  |          |{Hamitic |{Lybians   |{_Etruscans_  |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{_Assyrians_  |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{(early)      |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{_Hittites_   |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{East      | Somalis      |  1,000,000  |       ... |
  |          |{        |{Africans  |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |           |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{Arabians  |{Arabs        |} 5,000,000  |       500 |
  |          |{        |{          |{Bedouins     |}            |           |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{Abyssini- | Ethiopians   |  9,000,000  |       ... |
  |          |{        |{ans       |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{Semitic |{          |{_Assyrians_  |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{(later)      |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{_Babylonians_|             |           |
  |          |{        |{Chaldean  |{Hebrews      | 11,000,000  | 2,050,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{Arameans     |  2,000,000  |    50,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{(Syrians)    |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{_Samaritans_ |             |           |
  |          |{        |           |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{Hindus       |225,000,000  |    10,000 |
  |          |{        |{Iranic, or|{_Medes_      |             |           |
  |          |{        |{Persic    |{Persians     |  6,500,000  |       300 |
  |          |{        |{          |{Gypsies      |    800,000  |     4,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{Armenic   | Armenians    |  4,000,000  |    30,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{_Britons_    |}Celtic popu-|Scotch:    |
  |          |{        |{          |{Scotch (part)|}lation of   |   660,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{Irish (part) |}Europe,     |Irish:     |
  |          |{        |{Celtic    |{Welsh        |} 3,200,000; | 4,600,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{_Gauls_      |}of the      |Welsh:     |
  |=Caucasian|{        |{          |{_Picts_      |}world,      |   250,000 |
  |  Race=   |{        |{          |{             |} 9,200,000  |           |
  | (White)  |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{_Latins_     |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{(Romans)     |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{Italians     | 38,000,000  | 2,100,000 |
  |          |{        |{Italic    |{(part)       |             |           |
  |          |{Aryan   |{          |{Roumanians   | 10,000,000  |    90,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{Spanish      | 50,000,000  | 1,375,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{Portuguese   |  5,000,000  |   115,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{French       | 45,000,000  |   300,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{Hellenic  | Greeks       |  6,000,000  |   110,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{Illyric   |Albanian      |  1,500,000  |     3,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{Scandinavian | 13,000,000  |       ... |
  |          |{        |{          |{  Danish     |  2,800,000  |   450,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{  Norwegian  |  3,000,000  | 1,010,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{  Swedish    |  5,500,000  | 1,450,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{German       | 85,000,000  | 8,300,000 |
  |          |{        |{Teutonic  |{Dutch        |  6,300,000  |   300,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{English      |126,000,000  | 2,250,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{(part)       |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{Flemish      |  4,000,000  |   100,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{Swiss (part) |  2,300,000  |   300,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{Austrians    | 10,000,000  | 2,000,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{(part)       |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{Lettic    | Lithuanians  |  4,000,000  |   225,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{Russians     | 84,000,000  |   100,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{Polish       | 17,000,000  | 1,725,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{Czech:       |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{  Bohemian   |  4,000,000  |}  550,000 |
  |          |{        |{Slavonic  |{  Moravian   |  2,000,000  |}          |
  |          |{        |{          |{Serbs, Croa- | 10,000,000  |   125,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{tians (Servia, Montenegro, Bosnia,     |
  |          |{        |{          |{Croatia, Slavonia, Dalmatia, Herzego-  |
  |          |{        |{          |{vina)                                  |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{Caucasic  |{Georgians    |  1,200,000  |       ... |
  |          |{        |{          |{Circassians  |    500,000  |       ... |
  |          |         |           |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{Finns        |  6,000,000  |   200,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{Lapps        |     30,000  |       ... |
  |          |{        |{Finnic    |{Magyar       |  8,500,000  |   700,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{(Hungarian)  |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{Bulgarian    |  5,000,000  |    25,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{Turks        | 10,000,000  |   125,000 |
  |          |{Sibiric |{Tartaric  |{Cossacks     |  4,000,000  |       ... |
  |          |{        |{          |{Kalmucks     |    200,000  |       500 |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{Iberian   | Basques (in  |    800,000  |       ... |
  |          |{        |{          | Spain)       |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{Japanese  |{Japanese     | 48,000,000  |    75,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{Korean       | 10,000,000  |       ... |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |=Mongolian|{        |           |{Chinese      |305,000,000  |    75,000 |
  |  Race=   |{Sinitic | Chinese   |{Indo-Chinese | 35,000,000  |       ... |
  | (Yellow  |{        |           |{  Siamese    |  1,600,000  |       ... |
  |and Brown)|{        |           |{  Burmese    | 10,000,000  |       ... |
  |          |{        |           |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{New Zealand  |     45,000  |       ... |
  |          |{        |{          |{(Maoris)     |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{Philippines  |  7,600,000  | 7,600,000 |
  |          |{        |{Polynesian|{(part)       |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{Hawaiians    |     40,000  |    40,000 |
  |          |{        |{          |{(part)       |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{Samoans      |     40,000  |}      500 |
  |          |{Malay   |{          |{Javanese     | 25,000,000  |}          |
  |          |{        |{          |              |             |           |
  |          |{        |{          |{Dravidians   | 65,000,000  |}          |
  |          |{        |{          |{Madagascar   |  2,000,000  |}          |
  |          |{        |{East      |{(part)       |             |}   10,000 |
  |          |{        |{Indian    |{Sumatra      |  3,000,000  |}          |
  |          |{        |{          |{(part)       |             |}          |
  |          |{        |{          |{Borneo (part)|  1,500,000  |}          |
  +----------+---------+-----------+--------------+-------------+-----------+
  |          |{Tribes and peoples whose real homes|{(1)         |           |
  |  =Negro  |{are (1) Central and Southern       |{180,000,000 |       ... |
  |   Race=  |{Africa; (2) Malay Peninsula, Anda- |{(2)         |           |
  | (Black)  |{mans, parts of the Eastern Archi-  |{  5,000,000 |       ... |
  |          |{pelago and Philippines, New Guinea,|{(3)         |           |
  |          |{Australia; (3)America              |{ 25,000,000 | 9,850,000 |
  +----------+------------------------------------+-------------+-----------+
  |=American |{Tribes comprising: (1) North Ameri-|(1)  500,000 |   270,000 |
  |    or    |{can Indians; (2) South American In-|(2)6,000,000 |       ... |
  | Indians= |{dians; (3) Central American Indi-  |(3)7,500,000 |       ... |
  |  (Red)   |{ans; (4) Patagonians; (5) Eskimo   |(4)  190,000 |       ... |
  |          |                                    |(5)   40,000 |       ... |
  +----------+------------------------------------+-------------+-----------+

N.B.--Races in _italic_ are either now non-existent or have merged with
later peoples thus forming mixed races.

[Illustration: =NAPOLEON AT THE BURNING OF MOSCOW IN 1812=

The disastrous Russian campaign of Napoleon in 1812, which resulted in
the destruction of the city of Moscow by its own inhabitants to prevent
it from falling into the hands of the French, was the virtual turning
point in European history. From that time Napoleon’s star declined, and
Europe was reconstituted a few years later practically as it is today.]



  THE BOOK OF NATIONS

  _Geographical, Historical, Descriptive_


  EXTINCT NATIONS OF THE PAST

  CHIEF HISTORICAL PEOPLES: EGYPTIANS -- BABYLONIANS -- ASSYRIANS --
  HEBREWS -- PHŒNICIANS -- MEDES AND PERSIANS -- HINDUS -- GREEKS --
  ROMANS

  PROGRESS OF HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY AND DISCOVERY,
  B.C. 3800 TO THE PRESENT, WITH 16 MAPS

  THE WORLD’S GREATEST EXPLORERS, B.C. 1400 TO 1917 A.D.

  COMPARATIVE OUTLINE HISTORY OF ANCIENT NATIONS,
  B.C. 5000 TO 843 A.D.

  DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT:

    THE SPELL OF EGYPT: ANCIENT AND MODERN

    THE BABYLONIAN-ASSYRIAN EMPIRES

    THE HEBREWS AND THE HOLY LAND

    THE PHŒNICIANS: FIRST NATION OF COLONIZERS

    THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE

    THE GREEKS: GLORY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD

    ROME: MISTRESS OF THE WORLD

    THE SARACEN EMPIRE: ITS FANATICISM, ART AND LEARNING

    THE GERMANIC EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE


  LIVING NATIONS OF TO-DAY

  COMPARATIVE OUTLINE HISTORY OF MODERN NATIONS

  TRANSITION PERIOD FROM THE ANCIENT TO THE MODERN

  GEOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE GREAT POWERS: GREAT
  BRITAIN -- FRANCE -- GERMANY -- ITALY -- AUSTRIA-HUNGARY -- RUSSIA
  -- UNITED STATES -- JAPAN

  THE LESSER MODERN NATIONS: IN EUROPE, Spain and Portugal --
  Scandinavia (Norway, Sweden, Denmark) -- The Netherlands --
  Switzerland -- The Balkan States (Bulgaria, Roumania, Turkey,
  Greece, Servia); IN ASIA, China, Persia, Turkey; IN AMERICA, Brazil
  -- Argentina -- Chile -- Mexico -- Canada

  DICTIONARY OF HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT, including
  Great Wars, Great Battles, Dynasties, Rulers, Historic and Literary
  Shrines, Allusions, etc.

  HISTORICAL CHARTS AND TABLES, MAPS AND PLANS

[Illustration: =HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE WORLD=

=Showing its Territorial Growth Due to Successive Discoveries=

The Known World about 3800 B. C.]

[Illustration: MYCENEAN GREECE AND THE ORIENT ABOUT 1450 B. C.]


THE BOOK OF NATIONS

  We shall perhaps gain the best idea of the gradual expansion of the
  world to-day if we go back to the earliest times of which we have
  any definite historical records, and from that as a starting point,
  picture to ourselves the world at important epochs as it was divided
  among the more civilized nations. In spite of revolutions and the
  rise and fall of nations, the course of history has been continuous.
  The periods of history are not separated by gaps or breaks, but
  really merge gradually one into another. Bearing this in mind, the
  general history of the world may be viewed in two great
  divisions--ancient and modern. _Ancient history_ begins with the
  dawn of civilization, and traces the progress of mankind among those
  nations which have now ceased to exist--or at least have ceased to
  contribute anything to the world’s progress. _Modern history_, on
  the other hand, deals with the origin and growth of those nations
  which still exist and are working out the problems and ideals
  peculiar to their own national life.


THE ANCIENT EXTINCT NATIONS

  In the Oriental world we see the beginnings of civilized life--the
  first successful efforts of man to subdue the earth and to utilize
  the resources of nature; the beginnings of science and of a
  well-defined written language; the first evidences of architectural
  skill in the construction of great buildings; and the first marked
  tendency in the direction of great empires and of centralized
  governments. The chief nations may be summarized as follows:

EGYPTIANS.--One of the earliest civilized nations--the great
representative of the Hamitic race--developed apart--were not a
conquering or aggressive people--wonderful builders in the massive
style--made great progress in mechanical arts, and some advances in
science--government a monarchy restricted in authority by law, custom,
and powerful priesthood--religion a nature-worship--popular worship the
adoration of animals--an artistic, industrious and peculiar
nation--always wonderful and interesting to foreigners---did not greatly
influence others.

BABYLONIANS.--As ancient a race in civilization as the
Egyptians--partially of Tartar race, mainly Semitic--made great progress
at an early date in science--reached a high pitch of power and
civilization--known to us, in great measure, from ruins with
inscriptions in cuneiform writing--invented permanent system of weights
and measures--great in astronomy--the Chaldæan priests developed into a
caste of learned men, continuing (in the later Babylonian and Persian
empires) long after extinction of their own nation as an independent
power.

ASSYRIANS.--A Semitic people--warlike and conquering race--great in
architecture and sculpture--very wealthy and luxurious--empire extended
over Asia Minor (east of river Halys), Syria, Phœnicia, Palestine, most
of Egypt, Media, and countries on Tigris and Euphrates to Persian
Gulf--artistic workers in glass, metals, gems--rule despotic over
loosely connected nations.

BABYLONIANS (Later kingdom).--A Semitic people--as a political power
ruled for only eighty-seven years, 625-538 B.C., from end of Assyrian
power to conquest by Persians under Cyrus--were a commercial and
luxurious race--city of Babylon emporium for trade between eastern Asia
and western Asia, Egypt and Europe--great in manufactures of woven
stuffs and gem-engraving.

HEBREWS.--A pure Semitic race--little influence on political history of
antiquity--distinguished by their worship of one God, and for the
Scriptures transmitted to future ages--a great monarchy under David and
Solomon, then declined--a non-artistic, unscientific nation in ancient
history.

PHŒNICIANS.--A pure Semitic people--greatest commercial and colonizing
race of early times--distinguished as transmitters of civilization from
East to West--never formed one great independent state--several
independent cities, sometimes in alliance, sometimes hostile--Tyre and
Sidon famous for dyes, glass-making, embroideries, brass-work, weaving
of cloth in linen and cotton, ship-building, mining--developers of
alphabet still used by modern nations--religion a sensual worship--a
crafty, money-making people--Carthage was the greatest of all the
Phœnician colonies.

MEDES AND PERSIANS.--Pure Aryans in race--warlike people, great in
cavalry and as archers--Median monarchy ended 558 B.C., then Persian
monarchy arose--Persians a lively, brave, poetical people, simple in
life at first, after their great conquests degenerated into luxury--more
like Europeans in civilization than any other Asiatics--were the great
ruling power in Asia from time of Cyrus to conquest by Alexander the
Great (558-331 B.C.)--first Asiatics that tried to conquer in
Europe--signally failed--empire extended over all western Asia, and over
Egypt--religion recognized two principles, a good and a bad spirit--had
taste in architecture--no literature of importance.

HINDUS.--Until recent times almost isolated from the western
world--unwarlike, dreamy specimens of Aryan stock--early advance in
civilization--a rich and remarkable religious and poetical literature in
Sanscrit, one of the oldest of the Indo-European tongues--first known in
real history on invasion by Alexander the Great, 327 B.C.--progress
greatly checked by rigid system of castes--government of native princes
thoroughly despotic--no free aspirations or political instincts in the
people--popular religion grossly superstitious--Brahminism (a
philosophic deism), creed of the educated, along with Mohammedanism,
introduced by conquest in thirteenth century A.D.--skilled at an early
period in mathematics, manufactures, architecture--a tasteful,
intelligent, but unpractical, non-historical people.

[Illustration: =THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE AND THE REGION ABOUT THE EASTERN
MEDITERRANEAN, 750-625 B. C.=]

  GREEKS.--In the Greek world we see a finer type of humanity: a
  versatile intellect, expressed in exalted works of philosophy and
  literature; a refined æsthetic taste embodied in the most beautiful
  specimens of architecture and sculpture; and a strong love of
  freedom, shown in the development of democratic institutions.

  ROMANS.--In the Roman world we see a more practical genius and a
  more vigorous manhood; a great capacity for military and political
  organization; a broad sense of civil justice, expressed in an
  enduring system of law; a wide cosmopolitan spirit, capable of
  appropriating the ideas of other peoples--in short, a civilization
  which expressed the highest unity and broadest culture of the
  ancient world.


HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY AND DISCOVERY

No intelligent knowledge of the historical nations is possible without a
corresponding knowledge of their geography. The first and most important
question that geography answers for us is _where_. Historical Geography
answers both _where_ and _when_? _Where_ is Rome located? _Where_ and
_when_ did the Babylonian Empire exist?

_History_ not only answers the questions _when_ and _who_ but, in
addition, gives us a consecutive account of the doings of civilized
mankind in their progress toward the most valued and elevating of social
and political blessings. It deals rather with the life of _nations_ than
with _races_ of men; and its special function is to sketch the career
and describe the conditions of those great nations whose ideas and
institutions, or whose achievements in politics, war, literature, art
and science, were remarkable in their own epoch, or, by influencing
other nations, helped to make the civilized world what it is now.


WHERE THE FIRST CIVILIZATIONS BEGAN

The first scenes in the drama of human history are laid in two
remarkable river valleys--the one formed by the Euphrates and the Tigris
in western Asia, and the other formed by the river Nile in northeastern
Africa. The Euphrates and the Tigris poured their waters into the
Persian Gulf, the Nile flowed north into the Mediterranean Sea. Both
these valleys were possessed of a rich, alluvial soil, that favored the
early development of industrial life among their dwellers. Along the
lower courses of the Asiatic rivers were the Babylonians, and later, by
conquest, the Chaldeans. In the upper reaches were the Assyrians. On the
banks of the Nile were the Egyptians. Such, according to our present
knowledge, is the first historic zone in which the real history of the
civilized world began.

In the basins of the Tigris and the Euphrates were several distinct
territories: Armenia, or the mountainous region between Asia Minor and
the Caspian Sea; Assyria proper, between the Tigris and the Zagros
Mountains; Babylonia, the great plain between the lower courses of the
Tigris and of the Euphrates, and extending westward to the Syrian
Desert; Chaldæa (in the narrower sense, as a province of the Babylonian
Empire), west of the Euphrates, at the head of the Persian Gulf;
Mesopotamia, between the middle courses of the Tigris and the Euphrates;
_Elam_ or Susiana, east of the Tigris, and at the head of the Persian
Gulf.


THE REGION WEST OF THE EUPHRATES

West of the Euphrates we have the peninsula of Asia Minor which later
contained the important Lydian nation, and many Greek colonies connected
with later history; Syria, on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean
Sea, divided into three distinct parts,--Syria proper; Phœnicia, or the
strip of coast between Mount Lebanon and the sea; and Palestine, south
of Phœnicia; the peninsula of Arabia, extending southeastward, and
having little to do with ancient history.


THE HISTORIC PLATEAU OF IRAN

East of the Zagros Mountains lay Media and Persia proper,--Media,
northeastward, towards the Caspian Sea; and Persia, on the tableland of
Iran stretching southward to the Persian Gulf. The latter absorbed the
great monarchies of Babylonia and Assyria in the sixth century B. C.,
and extended almost from the Indus to the Mediterranean, Ægean, Euxine,
and Caspian Seas, when it had reached the summit of its power.


THE FAR DISTANT ORIENT

Farthest to the east was ancient China, drained by two great rivers, the
Hoang and the Yangtze. Its remote situation and the barriers on the west
formed by the spurs of the Himalayas, combined to make this land the
most isolated of the civilized lands of the Old World.

To the west of China lies India, also drained by two great rivers, the
Indus and the Ganges, which rise among the slopes of the Himalayas and
flow in different directions to the sea. These two countries--China and
India--stood nearly alone in ancient times, separated from the peoples
of western Asia by the wide, dry plateau of Iran, and hence these
countries did not exercise a great influence upon the ancient world, or
come into historical view until much later.

[Illustration: THE KNOWN WORLD--ABOUT B.C. 450.]

[Illustration: ABOUT B.C. 325]

[Illustration: ABOUT A.D. 300]


EGYPT WAS A GIFT TO MANKIND FROM THE NILE

The Nile is one of the longest rivers of the world; rising in the
distant lakes of central Africa, it pursues a course of about four
thousand miles on its way to the sea. But the part of the valley
occupied by the Egyptian people extended only about six hundred miles
from the mouth of the river--to the rapids called the “first cataract,”
on the borders of Ethiopia. The valley is inclosed on either side by low
ranges of mountains, which furnish stone suitable for building; and it
should be noticed that this abundant supply of stone gave to the
Egyptians a great advantage over the Babylonians, who were obliged to
use the less durable materials, clay and brick, for building.

The valley of the Nile is only about seven or eight miles in
width--except at the delta, where it spreads out into an open plain. Not
only has this valley been cut by the Nile, but its fertility was
anciently due to the annual overflow of the river, for the climate is
dry and rain rarely falls. This river was also the great highway of
Egypt, affording a ready means of communication from one part of the
country to another. The fertile soil of Egypt was especially suitable
for the raising of vegetables and grain. Rice, oats, barley, and wheat
grew there in great abundance, so that the country became the granary of
the ancient world.


THE DIVISIONS OF UPPER AND LOWER EGYPT

Egypt may be divided into two principal parts. (1) The lower, or
northern, part includes the extended plain about the delta, where the
soil is most fertile, and where the earliest civilization was developed.
It was here that the first empire was established, with its center at
Memphis. (2) The upper, or southern, part includes the remainder of the
valley as far as the “first cataract.” This formed a second area of
civilization, with its center at Thebes. In either direction from these
two centers the banks of the Nile became dotted with a multitude of
towns and villages, each one of which was a seat of industry and art.


THE MOST HISTORIC SEA IN THE WORLD

But the most important center of ancient civilization was the
Mediterranean Sea. This body of water formed the world’s greatest
highway, and was possessed successively by the Phœnicians, the Greeks,
and the Romans, who made it an important factor in the development of a
wider world commerce and a higher world culture.

=Known World about B. C. 450.=--About this period the decadence of the
great Persian Empire had already begun. Greece was becoming a strong
power, and had flourishing colonies all round the Mediterranean and
Black Seas, at Syracuse in Sicily, on the southern shores of Italy, at
Massilia (the present Marseilles), on the coast of Spain, at Cyrene in
North Africa, at Cypress, at Byzantium (Constantinople), and at many
points between these.

Carthage had already risen from its condition of a colony to that of a
great independent state, which held practically all the north African
coast. The Carthaginians had come in contact with the Greeks in Sicily,
and in their first trial of strength the Carthaginian army under
Hamilcar had been defeated. Rome had been founded for perhaps three
hundred years. Already the Romans had taken the lead in Latium, and the
Republic was in constant warfare with its neighbors on all sides--the
southern Etruscans, the Volscians, and the Æqui.

Thus the great events of this period were clustered round the
Mediterranean shores. As yet the unknown peoples of the west and north
beyond these were vaguely called the Hyperboreans by the Greeks, “the
dwellers behind the north wind;” and eastward, beyond Persia and the
Indies, Herodotus could only mark “unknown deserts” on his map.

=World About B. C. 325.=--This little map represents the short-lived
Macedonian empire of Alexander, at the date of his return to Persia,
when his power was at its height. To his victorious career the world
owed a vast increase of geographical knowledge; all eastern Asia had
been unveiled, and the road to India, with its boundless wealth, was
disclosed to Europeans.

Westward also, about Alexander’s time, the geography of the Greeks was
greatly extended by Pytheas, a bold navigator of the Greek colony of
Massilia (Marseilles), who, from Gadiera (Cadiz), coasted Iberia and the
country of the Celts (France), and reached Britain. He followed the
southern and eastern shores of the islands, and, after six days’ sail
from the Orcades (Orkney Islands), discovered Thule, a land of fogs in
the north, which has been variously identified as the Shetland Islands,
the Norwegian coast, or even Iceland.

In Italy the Romans were continuing their struggles with the neighboring
nations. The whole of southern Etruria had yielded to their supremacy,
and was kept in check by Roman garrisons; while towards the south, at
this time, a terrible conflict was in progress with the heroic Samnite
highlanders. Of Sicily the Carthaginians held the western, the Greek
colonists the eastern half, a brief lull having taken place in the
fierce wars which had been waging between these powers for the
possession of the island, during which the prosperity of the great
fortified city and seaport of Syracuse was rapidly reviving.

=World About A. D. 300.=--Almost six hundred years has elapsed, and the
Great Roman Empire is already in its decline. A special map of the Roman
Empire at its height will be found later on. This little map represents
the empire in the time of Constantine.

Under Constantine the Great two great changes took place--the
introduction of Christianity as the religion of the State, and the
transference of the seat of government from Rome to Byzantium (A. D.
330), which was re-named after the emperor, Constantinople.

Persia at this time, under the Sassanian dynasty, attained a height of
prosperity and power such as it had never before reached, and against it
even the veteran Roman legions could gain no lasting laurels.

[Illustration: ABOUT A.D. 500]

[Illustration: ABOUT A.D. 800]

[Illustration: ABOUT A.D. 1000]

In China authentic history begins with the Chow dynasty (1122-255 B. C.)
when Confucius and Mincius flourished (600 B. C). In the next (Tsin)
dynasty Shih Hwang Ti (221-209 B. C.) reduced the independent petty
states, and built the Great Wall as a protection against the barbarous
Hiong-non (Huns) or Tartars of the north. Shortly after the beginning of
the Christian era the Chinese seem to have begun intercourse with the
Parthians and to have known the Roman Empire as Ta-tsin; and about the
time of Constantine’s establishment of his new capital the Chinese
emperor’s court was fixed at Nanking, the southern capital.

The increase of geographical knowledge during the period in which Rome
was spreading out its power in all directions could not fail to be very
considerable. Already in the latter part of the first century B. C., a
general survey of the Roman Empire had been begun by the collection and
arrangement of the itineraries of the roads to places in the empire. One
of these traces the main roads of all the region stretching from Britain
to the mouth of the Ganges in India.

=World About A. D. 500.=--For more than two centuries prior to this map,
the whole of northern Europe, had begun to pour forth wave after wave of
barbarian hordes, against the Roman Empire. By the invasions of the
tribes of Goths, Franks, Vandals, etc., the western emperors lost their
power outside of Italy, and the empire itself ceases to exist in 476,
when it is nominally joined to the Eastern Empire. The Vandals had
established their rule along north Africa; the Visigoths ruled in Spain;
the Ostrogothic monarchy of Theodoric the Great extended over Italy,
France, and all the countries round the Alps as far as the middle
Danube; and the Franks, under Clovis, had possession of the whole of
Gaul between the Loire and Somme.

Persia, still under the energetic Sassanian dynasty, not only maintained
its integrity as an empire, but had begun to repel the Roman or
Byzantine power in Asia, and had added part of Armenia. Westward,
however, the arms of the Byzantine Empire were triumphant, the reign of
the Emperor Justinian having been rendered famous by the expedition of
his great general Belisarius to Africa, where, after a campaign of two
years, he completely overthrew the Vandals and led their king captive to
Constantinople. In a second war, Belisarius wrested all southern Italy
from the Ostrogoths, pursuing them northward to Rome and Ravenna, and
thus began the re-conquest of the peninsula, which was completed by his
successor, the imperial general Narses, after which the Ostrogoths
disappear as a distinct nation.

At this time, under Khosru, the greatest of the great monarchs of the
Sassanian dynasty, the Persian Empire stretched from the Red Sea to the
Indus, and from Arabia far into central Asia.

=World About A. D. 800.=--The end of this century finds three great
empires in Europe and eastern Asia: the Mohammedan or Saracenic Empire,
the Eastern or Byzantine Empire, and the Frankish Empire of Charlemagne.
The Mohammedan Empire had spread itself out to central Asia and to
Spain, and had already passed the zenith of its greatness. The dynasty
of the Ommiades of Damascus had given place to that of the Abassides in
the east, though a branch from it had set up an independent Califate at
Cordova, in Spain. The Abbaside Haroun-al-Rashid, whose praises are sung
by eastern poets, had his capital at Bagdad, on the Tigris, a city which
had been founded by his predecessor in 762.

Charlemagne had consolidated and extended the Frankish Empire, received
the ambassadors sent from the court of Bagdad to salute him, and had
been crowned by the Pope at Rome. Irene, the mother of the Byzantine
emperor, Constantine VI., had conceived the bold plan of uniting the
east and west of Europe in one great empire, by marrying the Frankish
emperor, a scheme which was frustrated by her overthrow and her
banishment to the Isle Lesbos in the Ægean Sea (802).

Britain, so far as occupied by the Angles and Saxons, was divided into
seven (or eight) little kingdoms, known as the Saxon Heptarchy.

=World About A. D. 1000.=--Germany, or the Eastern Franks, becomes at
this time the greatest power in Europe, uniting to itself Upper Italy
and Lotharingia.

France, or the Western Franks, early in this century is invaded by the
Norsemen or Normans,--bold seafaring adventurers from Denmark and other
northern lands, from whom the name Normandy is derived. The kingdom of
France, however, began in 987.

The Saracen Empire was divided at the beginning of this century into no
less than seven independent califates, of which the most distinguished
was that of the Fatimites. The Saracenic civilization in Spain is now at
its height. By the end of the century the power of the Saracens in the
East is of but little account politically.

The Magyars, or Hungarians, before the end of the century have
established a strong kingdom in the southeast of Europe; and to the
north the Slavonic states of Poland and Bohemia are planted.

Denmark, Norway, and Sweden are powerful kingdoms by the close of this
century and England, now one kingdom, is engaged in struggles with the
Danes.

The hardy Scandinavian seamen had pushed back the clouds of ignorance
over the vast region of the north Atlantic, and had reached the shores
of the American continent nearly five centuries before Columbus. About
the year 994 an expedition under Leif, son of Erik the Red, set sail for
this new country. The regions discovered were named Helluland
(Slateland), supposed to be Labrador; Markland, or Woodland, probably
Southern Labrador; and Vinland, a country named from the wild vine
growing there, which some identify with Newfoundland, while others
transfer it to the New England coast, opposite the island of Martha’s
Vineyard.

=World About A. D. 1300.=--Before the middle of the thirteenth century
the vast Mongol Empire, under Ghengis Khan, had stretched out from China
to Poland and Hungary, over all Asia except India and Asia Minor--an
empire which far surpassed in extent any that had yet been known on the
surface of the globe.

[Illustration: ABOUT A.D. 1300]

[Illustration: ABOUT A.D. 1500]

The great Mongol expansion forced the removal of the Ottoman Turks, who
retreated from the steppes east of the Caspian to the mountains of
Armenia. Othman or Osman, a chief of the tribe, on the destruction of
the Seljuk power, obtained possession of Bithynia, attacked the Asiatic
portion of the sinking Byzantine empire with success and founded there
(1299) the subsequently great empire of the Ottoman or Osmanli Turks, as
they are named from him.

In the course of his conquest Genghiz Khan had carried off multitudes of
western Asiatics as slaves. Twelve thousand of these, mostly Turks and
Circassians, were bought by the Sultan of Egypt (a successor of
Saladin), who formed them into a body of troops. From being servants
these well-armed slaves rose to be masters in Egypt, and placed one of
their own number in the sultanate (1254), thus founding the Mameluke (or
slave) dynasty in Egypt, which lasted for nearly three centuries,
bringing the country again into great prosperity and power.

Thus, about the year 1300 the once great Mohammedan Empire had been
restricted to its original seat, and to the western region of north
Africa, all else having fallen into the hands of the Turks. The Calif of
Bagdad had taken refuge under the protection of the Mamelukes of Egypt,
retaining his spiritual power only; the Ommiade califate in Spain had
long fallen.

The English, under Edward I., had incorporated Wales after ten years’
contest; Scotland was fighting for independence, led by Wallace and
Bruce; and long wars engaged England and France, leading finally to a
great increase in French territory and power. Denmark, Sweden and Norway
were separate states. In central Europe, Poland and Hungary had been
brought to the verge of ruin by the Mongol invasions, which had swept
away for the time the divided principalities of Russia. In the south,
the old Greek Empire was fast sinking through the assaults on it by the
Turks.

The German Empire in this century both loses and gains territory,
without material change.

Italy is still divided into independent commonwealths, which more and
more fall under the power of princely families or tyrants.

In the Spanish Peninsula there are few geographical changes in this
century, but Spain is steadily consolidating into a great power.

The Venetian, Marco Polo, the greatest of medieval travelers, passed
seventeen years in exploring the kingdoms of Asia, and opened up to
accurate knowledge not only the vast region of the central Asiatic
continent, but also the disclosure of the existence of Japan, which he
called Zipangu. While Venice opened up new paths to commerce towards the
east, Genoa looked westward, sought to open up a new road to India by
sailing through the Strait of Gibraltar and round the southern extremity
of Africa. It was Genoese who first, in modern times, ventured upon the
Atlantic; discovered the Canaries, Madeira, and the Azores; and who
first felt their way along the west coast of Africa.

=World About A. D. 1500.=--Previous to this century the nations with
which we have been concerned has been restricted to Europe, a little of
western Asia, and a small part of northern Africa. An immense
enlargement of these bounds now suddenly occurs in consequence of the
application of the compass to navigation. From this time dates the
period of greatest maritime enterprise and discoveries.

The Portuguese took the lead in bold projects of adventure by sea. The
Cape of Good Hope was discovered and doubled by Bartholomew Diaz in
1487, and in 1498 the feat of reaching India by water was accomplished
by Vasco da Gama, who, rounding the Cape of Good Hope, reached Calicut
in Malabar.

The general excitement about maritime discovery among the Portuguese
suggested to Columbus the bold plan of reaching India, not by way of
Africa, but by steering to the west across the Atlantic. The result of
his voyage was the final discovery of the American continents. India he
did not reach, but discovered instead, the island of Guanahani or San
Salvador, in 1492, the main continent being discovered a few years later
(June 24, 1497) by John Caboto, or Cabot, a Venetian sailor.

In the far east China had recovered its independence under the Ming
dynasty, and its supremacy was acknowledged over Mongolia and eastern
Turkestan, though the states of Tonquin and Cochin China, in the
southern peninsula beyond India, had assumed a political independence.
Western Asia had been reconquered by Timur, or Tamerlane, of western
Turkestan. The Ottoman Turks had extended their European territory to
its widest limit over the ruins of the Greek Empire; and Russia had
become a united kingdom under Ivan the Great, and threw off the Tartar
yoke.

In western Europe, the Swiss mountaineers had secured their
independence. France was recovering from the calamities inflicted on it
by the English, who had all but lost their hold on the land. In the
south the reaction of Christendom against Mohammedanism had begun. The
Christian kingdoms of Spain and Portugal had driven back the Moors
across the Straits into Africa, and had consolidated their strength over
the whole Peninsula. The Moors in turn settled along the north African
coast. Morocco at this time had been formed into a monarchy, and enjoyed
great prosperity.

=World About A. D. 1600.=--Spain is the chief power at this time.
Besides vast continental dominions in the New World, its European
possessions comprised the whole of the Spanish Peninsula, the
Netherlands and other lands of the House of Austria, the Sicilies,
Sardinia, and Milan. But, by the revolt of the United Provinces of the
Netherlands, Spain loses a considerable portion of her territory before
the end of the century.

[Illustration: ABOUT A.D. 1600]

[Illustration: ABOUT A.D. 1700]

The German Empire continues, but more as a dignity than as an
independent power. The emperors are uniformly chosen from the princes of
the House of Austria, which now by its hereditary possession becomes one
of the chief powers of Europe. In the person of the Emperor Charles V.,
who united the crown of Spain with the sovereignty of Austria, the
imperial power reached its greatest extent.

France is engaged in wars civil and religious and foreign, but without
much change of territory, except in America, where some colonies were
established. England makes some attempts at colonization in America
during this century, but the real settlements begin in the next.

Italy, during this period, is a battle-field of contention among the
rival princes of Europe. The peninsula was made up of principalities and
commonwealths, some of which were independent, but the most of which,
during the greater part of this century, were under the dominant
influence of Austria and of Spain. The northern provinces of the
Netherlands throw off the yoke of Spain, and are united in a federal
commonwealth. The union of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden ceases in the
early part of this century, by the independence of Sweden, which now
plays an important part in European history. Poland is an important
state in this century, with extensive possessions.

The Turkish or Ottoman Empire is largely extended in this century by the
annexation of Syria, Egypt, a great part of the northern coast of
Africa, and the conquest of a large part of Hungary.

In Asia the Chinese Empire remained unshaken; Persia had again become an
independent empire; the Mohammedan Moguls had begun to reign in northern
India; the once great Tartar empire had been reduced to the states east
of the Caspian. In the north, Russia was spreading eastward over Asia,
and had come in contact with the Ottoman Empire, now expanding to its
greatest extent in the South, and with Sweden in the northwest. The
great Reformation had passed over Europe, separating its Catholic states
of the south from the Protestants of the north, and giving rise to
fierce wars and many political changes. Maritime discovery and adventure
and commerce were being eagerly extended by the nations of western
Europe. Four times the world had been circumnavigated--by the Portuguese
Magellan, by the English Drake and Cavendish, and lastly by the Dutchman
Van Noort. Spain had extended her conquests to Mexico, Peru, and Chile,
which were now ruled by Spanish viceroys. The Portuguese had established
themselves firmly on the African shores; their possessions and
settlements in the East Indies included the Malabar coast of India,
Ceylon and Malacca; and their traffic reached to all the islands of the
Asiatic archipelago, to China and Japan.

The English and Dutch, after vainly seeking an independent highway to
the northeast or northwest through the ice-fields of the Arctic region,
had become formidable rivals of the Spaniards and Portuguese in their
own lines, both in the West Indies and round the Cape of Good Hope to
the eastward.

=World About A. D. 1700.=--In Europe, France under Louis XIV., now
becomes the leading power, and makes great accessions of territory.
England also becomes one of the important nations, and, besides being
engaged in civil and foreign wars, was planting colonies in America and
in India. Austria had increased her power in Italy and Hungary. The
Spanish monarchy is broken up, and Spain sinks to an inferior position.
Prussia has risen into prominence under the great elector, Frederick
William. The United Provinces held a high place and had been engaged in
a long struggle with France. Italy had fallen to a low condition. Savoy
was slowly gaining in power, and Venice was engaged in wars with the
Turks. Sweden was at the height of its power and possessions. Russia is
rapidly rising, and Poland is declining. The Turks press forward into
Austria, from which they are driven out, and make some important
conquests in other parts; but their power is on the decline.

In Asia, this was the period at which the Mohammedan Empire in India was
raised to its highest point of splendor and greatness by Shah Jehan, the
“King of the World,” and by his son, the famous Aurungzeb, the crafty
and ambitious “reviver of religion.” It was during these reigns that the
English began to gain a hold on India.

Outside of Europe it cannot fail to be observed how completely the
spread of knowledge on the outer borders of the known world was
controlled by events which took place in western Europe. Chief of these
was the gradual crippling and decay of the maritime supremacy of Spain
and Portugal, and the rise of that of the Dutch and British into
strength. Maritime enterprise had passed to Holland, England, and
France.

In America the British dominion was extended by the formation of the
Hudson Bay Company. In 1690 this fur company had built several forts and
factories on the coasts, whence from time to time their operations
extended inland.

The French also, after La Salle first descended (1682) the great river,
Mississippi, “the father of waters,” invaded Spanish claims by settling
in Louisiana, about the mouth of the great river, in 1699.

=World About A. D. 1800.=--In Europe France holds about the same
position till near the close of the century, when the Revolution breaks
out, and the republic makes large accessions of territory in the
Austrian Netherlands, Savoy, Piedmont, and the islands of the
Mediterranean. Through the very enormity of the excesses of the
revolutionary period, the form of government soon gave way to a new
constitution, known as the Directory, under which Napoleon Bonaparte
came to the front as the central figure in the affairs of Europe. During
these last years of the century the French Republic was engaged in
constant wars with the various coalitions formed against it by the other
powers. In the year 1799 the Directory came to an end, and the supreme
control was vested in the hands of Napoleon, who was made First Consul.

[Illustration: ABOUT A.D. 1800]

[Illustration: ABOUT 1915]

Great Britain is engaged in foreign wars, and has lost a large part of
her American colonies, which win their independence in 1783. The British
dominion in India is greatly extended during this period. The scattered
settlements of British merchants and of the East India Company, now
became firmly established by the military achievements of Clive. The
French and native troops were overthrown, and one after another the
provinces of India were brought under English control. Spain rises very
considerably in importance. The United Provinces become in the last
years of the seventeenth century a dependency of France. The Turkish
dominion, though with occasional successes, is on the decline. Prussia
becomes an important European state under Frederick the Great. Austria
is engaged in frequent wars, with somewhat diminishing power. The German
Empire, though still in existence, is more a dignity than a power, its
functions being wielded chiefly by the great kingdoms of Austria and
Prussia. Russia, under Peter the Great, rises to a front rank among the
states of Europe and makes large gains of territory.

In the latter part of the seventeenth century Poland disappears from the
map of Europe, the territory being divided between Russia, Prussia, and
Austria; and in 1795 Poland, as a kingdom, ceased to exist.

In America, the United States of America come into being as an
independent nation in 1783.

France, at the beginning of the nineteenth century under Napoleon I.,
was the chief power in Europe. The battle of Waterloo finally overthrew
the empire of Napoleon, and brought to an end the succession of wars
which had lasted with little interruption for twenty-three years. By the
terms of peace agreed upon by the Allies, the conquests of France were
given up, and the boundaries of the European states re-established.

From the starting-point of this re-arrangement of the map of Europe we
may now follow rapidly the subsequent changes of territory in each of
the leading states of Europe which have given them the limits they
occupy at the present day.

England rises to the front rank of European states, by her part in the
Napoleonic wars. In the nineteenth century she made some small
acquisitions of territory in Europe, and greatly extended her colonial
empire.

The marked feature of the political movements in Europe in the last
quarter of the nineteenth century was the tendency to consolidate the
petty and weak states, into which a great part of the Continent had been
broken up, into strong central governments. This tendency is shown
specially in the confederation of the smaller German states under the
leadership of Prussia, and the formation of the present German Empire
which has become the first military power in Europe. The old German
Empire came to an end in 1806. In Italy the same tendency has shown
itself in the establishment of the new kingdom of Italy, with Rome for
its capital.

Austria was entirely separated from Germany, and united into one state
with Hungary. Russia has become one of the greatest European powers.
Denmark lost considerable territory, taken from her by Prussia. The new
kingdom of Belgium has been formed. Spain loses Mexico and the republics
of Central America. Greece secured its independence, and became a
kingdom. The power of Turkey is still declining.

In America, the United States were greatly increased by the addition of
new States and Territories. The attempt at secession of the southern
States in 1861 proved abortive; and the restored Union, freed from the
disturbing element of slavery, advanced in wealth, power, and the arts
of peace, at a rate of progress never equalled in past history.

Mexico, which had belonged to Spain, revolted and became an independent
republic.

In Asia, Japan renounced its former isolation, opened her ports to
foreign trade, and changes of almost startling rapidity were adopted in
the country. The whole political constitution of the empire was
remodeled; and Japan took rank with the great powers of the world.

The continent of South America was apportioned among the various
present-day countries; Africa has been colonized and divided among the
European powers; and the commonwealths of Canada, Australia and New
Zealand have taken a foremost place among the colonies of Great Britain.

=World About A. D. 1915.=--In the realm of geographical discovery the
supreme events were the attainment of the North Pole by Admiral Peary,
and that of the South Pole by Captain Roald Amundsen.

The geographical changes resulting from the great European War are noted
in connection with the nations and colonies directly affected.


THE WORLD’S GREATEST EXPLORERS

  =Explanation of Abbreviations.=--Arab., _Arabian_; Brit., _British_;
  Carthag., _Carthaginian_; Dan., _Danish_; Dut., _Dutch_; Egypt.,
  _Egyptian_; Eng., _English_; Fr., _French_; Gen., _Genoese_; Ger.,
  _German_; Ital., _Italian_; Norw., _Norwegian_; Port., _Portuguese_;
  Rus., _Russian_; Scot., _Scotch_; Span., _Spanish_: Swed.,
  _Swedish_; U. S., _United States_; Ven., _Venetian_.

B.C.1400-1250.--Egyptians make invasions of Habesh, Arabia, Phœnicia,
Syria.

B.C.1350(?).--Greeks undertake Argonautic expedition to Colchis.

B.C.1000.--Phœnicians voyage to Ophir, Gades, Britain.

B.C.750.--Greeks extend colonies in the Mediterranean and Pontus
Euxinus.

B.C.700.--Samians discover Spain (Tartessus) for the Greeks.

B.C.600.--Phœnicians circumnavigate Africa by order of Necho.

B.C.--Himilco (Carthag.) visits Atlantic coast of Europe, Sargasso Sea.
Said to have visited Britain.

B.C.500.--Anaximander (of Miletus) makes the first maps.

B.C.500.--Hecatæus (of Miletus) writes the first geography.

B.C.470.--Hanno (Carthag.) coasts west Africa as far as Cape Palmas.

B.C.330.--Pytheas of Massilia sails to Thule, North Sea, Scandinavia.

B.C.330.--Nearchus (Macedon.) sails from the Indus to Red Sea.

B.C.329-325.--Alexander the Great makes expedition to Iran, Turan and
India.

B.C.290.--Egyptians navigate the east coast of Africa.

B.C.218.--Hannibal crosses the Alps.

B.C.120 (_about_).--Eudoxus of Cyzicus attempts circumnavigation of
Africa.

B.C.61-58.--Romans, under Julius Cæsar in Gaul, Germany, and Britain.

B.C.30 (since).--Romans extend their geographical knowledge and commerce
as far as central Asia.

B.C.20--Strabo (Greek) describes Roman Empire and first mentions Thule
and Ireland.

B.C.15.--Tiberius discovers the Lake of Constance; Drusus, the Brenner
Pass.

A.D.84.--Roman general, Agricola, circumnavigates Britain.

150.--Claudius Ptolemy (Egypt.) constructs his geography and atlas.

518-21.--Hoei-sing (Chinese) visits Pamirs and Punjab.

671-95.--I-tsing (Chinese) visits Java, Sumatra and India.

861.--Norsemen discover the Faroe Islands. North Cape of Europe rounded.

865.--Naddod (Norse) discovers Iceland. Visited by Irish monks about
795.

876.--Gunnbjörn (Norse) reaches Greenland coast. Rediscovered by Erik
the Red (983).

985.--Erik the Red (Norse) colonizes Greenland.

1000(?).--Lief Erikson (son of Erik the Red) discovers Newfoundland
(Helluland), Nova Scotia (Markland), and coast of New England
(Vinland)[?].

1154.--Edrisi (Sicily), geographer to King of Sicily, produces his
geography.

1200 (_about_)--Arabian trading merchants discover Siberia.

1253.--Ruysbroek reaches Karakorum, the ancient seat of the Mongol
Empire.

1271-95.--Marco Polo (Venet.) travels in central Asia, China, India,
Persia.

1290.--Genoese reach the Canaries, Azores, etc.

1325-52.--Ibn Batuta (Arab.) travels through the whole Mohammedan world,
northern Africa, eastern Africa, southern Russia, Arabia, India and
China.

1327.--Sir John Mandeville (Eng.) travels in India.

1415-60.--Prince Henry (Port.) gives an impetus to Portuguese voyages of
discovery.

1419-20.--J. Gonzales and Martin Vaz (Port.) discover Porto Santo and
Madeira.

1442.--Nuno Tristao (Port.) reaches Cape Verde, etc.

1460(?).--Cintra and Costa (Port.) sail to coast of Guinea.

1474.--Toscanelli (Ital.) sends Columbus his map showing the western
route to Cathay (China).

1485.--Diego Cam (Port.) reaches the mouth of the Congo river.

1487.--Bartholomew Diaz (Port.) rounds Cape of Good Hope.

1492-98.--Columbus (Gen.) discovers America, West Indies, Trinidad,
Cuba, etc.

1497-98.--John Cabot (Anglo-Ven.) sails along eastern coast of America
from Labrador as far as Florida.

1498.--Vasco da Gama (Port.) finds route to India by Cape of Good Hope.

1499.--Amerigo Vespucci (Ital.) discovers Venezuela, and that America
was not “part of Asia.”

1499.--Pinzon (Span.) discovers mouth of Amazon river and Cape St.
Roque.

1500.--G. Cortereal (Port.) reaches entrance of Hudson Strait, called by
him Strait of Anian.

1500.--Alvarez Cabral (Port.) coasts Brazil (named by him Ilha da Vera
Cruz, being southern part of Bahia State).

1502.--Columbus (Gen.) reaches central America on his fourth voyage.

1512.--Ponce de Leon (Span.) reaches Florida.

1513.--Portuguese reach the Moluccas.

1513.--Balboa (Span.) crosses Isthmus of Panama and discovers Pacific
Ocean.

1516.--Solis (Span.) reaches La Plata.

1517.--Sebastian Cabot (Eng.) discovers Hudson Strait.

1519-21.--Cortez (Span.).--conquers Mexico.

1519-21.--Magellan (Span.) first to circumnavigate the globe. Passes
through the Strait of Magellan, crosses the Pacific, and discovers the
Philippines.

1534.--Pizarro (Span.) completes the conquest of Peru.

1535.--Diego d’Almagro (Span.) conquers Chili.

1535-42.--Jacques Cartier (Fr.) finds Gulf of St. Lawrence. Ascends
river to Hochelaga (Montreal).

1539.--Francesco de Ulloa (Span.) explores Gulf of California.

1540 (about).--French continent of Australia seen by French sailors.

1541.--Pizarro and Orellana (Span.) discover Amazon river.

1542.--Antonio de Mota first reaches Japan.

1542.--Ruy Lopez de Villalobos (Span.) discovers Pelew Islands, and
takes possession of Philippine Islands for Spain.

1542.--Pinto (Port.)--visits Japan,

1553.--Sir H. Willoughby (Eng.) reaches Nova Zembla.

1576.--Frobisher (Eng.) coasts Labrador and Baffin Land.

1577-80.--Sir F. Drake (Eng.) made second circumnavigation of the globe,
and first saw Cape Horn. Explored western coast of North America nearly
as far as Vancouver Archipelago.

1587.--J. Davis (Eng.) finds Davis Strait.

1596.--Barentz and Heemskerk (Dut.) discover Spitzbergen, Bear Islands,
etc.

1598.--Mendaña (Span.) discovers Marquesas Islands.

1606.--Quiros (Span.) reaches Tahiti (Sagittaria), and other South Sea
Islands.

1606.--Torres (Span.) discovers Torres Strait. Dutch reach Australia.

1608.--Champlain (Fr.) discovers Lake Ontario.

1610.--H. Hudson (Eng.) reaches Hudson Bay and makes discoveries in
North America.

1614-17.--Spillbergen (Dut.) circumnavigated the globe.

1616.--W. Baffin (Eng.) enters Baffin Bay.

1616.--La Maire and Schouten (Dut.) round Cape Horn.

1616.--Dirk Hartog (Dut.) sails up west coast of Australia.

1618.--G. Thompson (Eng.) sails up Gambia.

1642.--Abel Tasman (Dut.) discovers Van Diemen’s Land (Tasmania) and New
Zealand.

1643.--Vries (Dut.) explores eastern coast of Japan, Saghalien, and
Kurile Island.

1645.--Deshnev (Cossack) rounds east cape of Asia from the Kolyma to the
Anadyr.

1660.--French discover the lake region of the St. Lawrence.

1673.--Marquette and Joliet (Fr.) explore the Mississippi from the
north.

1725-43.--Russians explore the coasts of Siberia.

1728 and 1741.--Bering (Dan.) and Tishirikov (Rus.) explore Bering
Strait and the northwestern coast of America.

1768-79.--Capt. Cook (Eng.) voyages round the world. Surveys the Society
Islands, Sandwich Islands, eastern coast of Australia, Cook Strait in
New Zealand, Antarctic Ocean, northwestern coast of America, etc.

1770.--James Bruce (Scot.) discovers sources of the Blue Nile.

1770.--Liakhov (Rus.) discovers New Siberian Islands.

1785-88.--La Perouse (Fr.) explores north of Japan, Saghalien, etc.

1789.--A. Mackenzie (Scot.) explore the Mackenzie river.

1792.--Vancouver (Eng.) visits Vancouver Island, discovered by Perez,
1774. Exploration of the northwestern coast of America.

1795-1806.--Mungo Park (Scot.) journeys to and explores the Niger
districts.

1799-1804.--Alex, von Humboldt (Ger.) makes explorations in South
America and writes “Cosmos.”

1801-1804.--Flinders (Eng.) explores southern coasts of Australia.

1803-6.--Krusenstern (Rus.) surveys in Sea of Japan and Sea of Okhotsk,
Saghalien, etc.

1804-6.--Lewis and Clark make extensive explorations in northwestern
United States from the Mississippi to the Columbia river.

1805-9.--Salt (Eng.) makes visit to Abyssinia.

1807-8.--Klaproth (Ger.) makes exploration of the Caucasus.

1819.--Long (U.S.) makes exploration of Rocky Mountains.

1819.--Wm. Smith (Eng.) explores South Orkney Islands and South
Shetlands. Visited by Weddell in 1822.

1823.--Wrangel (Rus.) discovers Wrangel Land.

1823.--Denham and Clapperton (Eng.) discover Lake Chad.

1825-26.--A. G. Laing (Scot.) reached Timbuktu from Tripoli, Africa.

1827-8.--René Caillie (Fr.) made journey from Kakandy to Timbuktu and
Morocco, Africa.

1830-32.--Biscoe (Eng.) discovers Enderby Land and Graham Land.

1831.--Sir J. C. Ross (Eng.) finds magnetic North Pole.

1832.--Laird and Oldfield (Scot.) explore the Niger and Benué rivers.

1835.--Sir F. Schomburgk (Ger.) makes explorations in Guiana, South
America.

1837.--Wood (Eng.) discovers sources of the Oxus.

1840.--Trümmer discovers remains of ancient Nineveh.

1841.--Sir James C. Ross (Eng.) discovers Victoria Land, with volcanoes
Erebus and Terror.

1841-73.--D. Livingstone (Scot.) spends thirty years’ travel in central
South Africa.

1845.--Sir John Franklin (Eng.) sails on his last voyage never to
return.

1848.--Rebmann and Krapf (Ger.) discover Mt. Kilima-njaro. Sighted Mt.
Kenia.

1849-55.--Richardson and Barth (Eng.-Ger.) explore western Sudan and
Sahara.

1850.--Sir R. M’Clure (Irish) discovers Northwest Passage.

1852-4, 1861.--Sir C. R. Markham (Eng.) makes explorations in Peru.

1856-59.--Du Chaillu (Fr.) explores basin of Ogowé river, west Africa.

1858.--Sir R. Burton (Scot.) discovers Lake Tanganyika.

1858.--Speke and Grant (Brit.) discover Victoria Nyanza.

1860.--Sir S. Baker (Eng.) explores Upper Nile. Discovers Albert Nyanza,
1864.

1867-72.--Richthofen (Ger.) makes extensive explorations in China.

1869.--G. Nachtigal (Ger.) makes explorations in Lake Chad region and
central Sudan, Africa.

1870-1886.--Prejevalsky (Rus.) journeys in Mongolia, Tibet, etc.

1872.--Payer and Weyprecht (Austrian) explore Franz Josef Land.

1872-76.--“Challenger” Expedition (Brit.) explores the depths of the
oceans.

1874-75.--Lieut. Cameron (Eng.) crosses equatorial Africa.

1876-90.--H. M. Stanley (Eng.) explores Congo Basin; Mt. Ruwenzori;
Forests on the Aruwimi, etc. Africa.

1878-79.--Nordenskjold (Swed.) finds northeast passage.

1878-89.--Thomson (Scot.) journeys through Masai Land, British South
Africa, Sokoto, Morocco, etc.

1878-85.--Major Serpa Pinto (Port.) twice crosses Africa.

1878-92.--Emin Pasha (Ger.) travels and surveys in Equatorial Africa.

1879.--Moustier and Zweifel (Swiss) find sources of the Niger.

1881-85.--Greely (U. S.) discovers Grinnell Land and northwestern coast
of Greenland.

1885.--Wiesmann (Ger.) journeys across Africa from west coast, Congo
Basin.

1886.--Peary (U. S.) explores North Greenland.

1887.--Capt. Younghusband (Eng.) travels from Pekin to Kashmir.

1893-96.--Nansen (Norw.) reached his “Farthest North” in lat. 86° 13′
6′′ N.

1897.--Jackson (Scot.) makes surveys and explorations in Franz Josef
Land.

1893-97.--Sven Hedin (Swed.) makes explorations in north central Asia.

1895-96.--Pr. Henri d’Orléans travels in Tonkin and China.

1897.--Andrée (Swed.) attempts to cross over the North Pole in a
balloon, with fatal results.

1898-99.--De Gerlache (Belgian) attempts to reach the South Pole with
the “Belgica,” first ship to winter within Antarctic circle.

1899.--Major Gibbons makes explorations in Congo and Zambezi headwaters.

1900.--Borchgrevink (Brit. Ex.) reached lat. 78° 50′ S. via Victoria
Land.

1900.--Duke of Abruzzi (Ital.) reached lat. 86° 33′ N. via Franz Josef
Land.

1900-02.--Sven Hedin (Swed.) made important journey in central Asia.

1908.--F. A. Cook (U. S.) claims to have reached the North Pole, April
21.

1909.--R. E. Peary (U. S.) reached the North Pole, April 6.

1911.--Roald Amundsen (Norw.) reached the South Pole, December 14.

1912.--Capt. Scott (Eng.) reached the South Pole, but perished before
returning.


COMPARATIVE HISTORY OF NATIONS

Showing their Origin, Chief Events, Changes or Extinction, from the
Earliest Period to the Present


I. [1]FROM EARLIEST HISTORIC RECORDS TO THE TIME OF ABRAHAM, X-2250 B.
C.

  [1] All dates down to the First Olympiad, 776 B. C., are almost
  wholly conjectural. Dates here given, however, are from the latest
  and best authorities.

  The earliest history of mankind, so far as we now know, begins with
  the peoples known as Semites. Northern Arabia is generally accepted
  as their primitive home. Issuing thence, they conquered or settled
  Babylonia and Egypt, and through amalgamations with the native races
  (of which we know very little), became the earliest historic
  Babylonians, Assyrians, and Egyptians. Historians sometimes assume
  that the native races were Mongolians, traces of which still persist
  in China, Thibet, Finland, The Caucasus, and perhaps, among the
  American Indians.

  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |=B. C.=|       =Greeks=      |       =Egypt=       |  =Border Peoples=   |
  |       |     (Cretans and    |  (_Heb._ Misraim)   | (Between Egypt and  |
  |       |       Mycenæan)     |                     |     Babylonia)      |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |                     |  =I. Prehistoric    |                     |
  |       |                     |       Period=       |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |=5000= |5000. Extensive ex-  |5000. Egyptian re-   |A variety of tribes  |
  |       |cavations in Crete   |cords name the Gods  |and peoples dwelt on |
  |       |reveal a prehistoric |as the earliest      |the ill-defined bor- |
  |       |civilization before  |rulers and Kings,    |ders of Egypt and    |
  |       |the Bronze Age.      |who were decendents  |Babylonia. We come to|
  |       |                     |of gods, succeeded   |know their names     |
  |       |                     |them. Actual history |later through their  |
  |       |                     |begins by revealing, |attacks upon the     |
  |       |                     |in the Nile valley,  |various states. These|
  |       |                     |a number of dis-     |tribes and other     |
  |       |                     |tricts or nomes held |migratory peoples    |
  |       |                     |together chiefly by  |from the older       |
  |       |                     |a religious bond.    |Semitic centers      |
  |       |                     |                     |became the founders  |
  |       |                     |4241. Earliest fixed |of the Syrian states |
  |       |                     |date marking the in- |and Asia Minor.      |
  |       |                     |troduction of the    |                     |
  |       |                     |calendar.            |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |=4000= |                     |4000. Pre-dynastic   |4000. =Lugalzaggisi= |
  |       |3800-3600. Pre-      |kingdoms flourish in |of Uruk, first great |
  |       |dynastic kings Ka-ap |Upper and Lower      |conqueror made expe- |
  |       |and Ro are placed    |Egypt.               |ditions to the Medi- |
  |       |within these dates   |                     |terranean and north  |
  |       |according to recent  |   =II. The Old      |of Mesopotamia.      |
  |       |interpretations of   |      Kingdom=       |                     |
  |       |tombs and vases.     |(Includes Dynasties  |                     |
  |       |                     |      1 to 10)       |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |3400. Accession of   |                     |
  |       |                     |MENES and beginning  |                     |
  |       |                     |of dynasties. Under  |                     |
  |       |                     |Menes the kindgoms   |                     |
  |       |                     |were unified.        |                     |
  |       |                     |Tombs erected at     |                     |
  |       |                     |Abydos by successive |                     |
  |       |                     |kings; wars with     |                     |
  |       |   =I. Prehistoric   |Libyans and others;  |                     |
  |       |       Period=       |mining in Sinai.     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |=3000= |3000-2500. Rising    |                     |                     |
  |       |civilization on      |2900-2750. Fourth    |                     |
  |       |coasts and islands of|dynasty is most im-  |2700. The Phœnicians |
  |       |the Aegean Sea and in|portant. Kings memo- |settle on the Sidoni-|
  |       |Crete.               |rialized by Pyramids |on coast and build   |
  |       |                     |at Gizeh and Abu     |Aradus (Arvad); later|
  |       |                     |Roash. Capital pro-  |Tyre and Byblos.     |
  |       |                     |bably at Memphis.    |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |2590-2570. Primitive |                     |
  |       |                     |sea-voyages made to  |                     |
  |       |                     |Palestine. Government|                     |
  |       |                     |centralized at       |                     |
  |       |                     |Memphis. Landed      |                     |
  |       |                     |nobles in evidence.  |                     |
  |=2500= |2500. The cities of  |                     |2500. Semitic        |
  |       |Mycenæ and Tiryns    |2445-2160. Kings re- |(Amoritic) migrations|
  |       |already founded.     |sided at Heracleo-   |into Syria and       |
  |       |                     |polis; numerous      |Palestine, about     |
  |       |                     |struggles with Thebes|Jerusalem.           |
  |       |                     |to which seat of     |                     |
  |       |                     |government was final-|                     |
  |       |                     |ly removed.          |                     |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+

  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |=B. C.=|     =Babylonia=     |  =Border Peoples=   |
  |       |   (_Heb._ Shinar)   | (East of Babylonia) |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       | =I. Sumerian Period=|                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  | =5000=|5000. Government in  |Out of these tribes  |
  |       |Babylonia had reached|developed the        |
  |       |the form known as the|Elamites, Medes,     |
  |       |city state. The      |Persians, and Hindus.|
  |       |southern group of    |                     |
  |       |cities (known collec-|                     |
  |       |tively as Sumer) com-|                     |
  |       |prised Eridu, Lagash |                     |
  |       |(Shirpurlo), Ur,     |                     |
  |       |Larsa, Uruk (Erech)  |                     |
  |       |and Isin: the north- |                     |
  |       |ern group (known as  |                     |
  |       |Accad or Akkad) com- |                     |
  |       |prised Agade (Accad),|                     |
  |       |Sippar, Nippur,      |                     |
  |       |Kutha, and later     |                     |
  |       |Babylon.             |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  | =4000=|4000. =Lugalzaggisi= |                     |
  |       |of Uruk, first great |                     |
  |       |conqueror made expe- |                     |
  |       |ditions to the Medi- |                     |
  |       |terranean and north  |                     |
  |       |of Mesopotamia.      |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |  =II. Semitic or    |                     |
  |       |  Chaldean Period=   |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |3800. SARGON I. be-  |                     |
  |       |gins to rule. He and |                     |
  |       |his son Naram-Sin,   |                     |
  |       |ings of Agade, extend|                     |
  |       |their conquests to   |                     |
  |       |Armenia, Elam, Arabia|                     |
  |       |and the Mediterra-   |                     |
  |       |nean.                |                     |
  |       |_These reigns were an|                     |
  |       |early “Golden Age” of|                     |
  |       |Babylonia._          |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |3750. Naram-Sin built|                     |
  |       |temple of Sun-god at |                     |
  |       |Sippur. Fusion of    |                     |
  |       |Sumerians and Semites|                     |
  |       |follows his reign.   |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  | =3000=|3000. The Kings of   |3000. Assyria        |
  |       |Ur. Under this dynas-|(Asshur) founded by a|
  |       |ty Ur became the seat|colony from          |
  |       |of government.       |Babylonia. Niniveh   |
  |       |Temples were built in|also in existence.   |
  |       |both North and South.|                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |2800. GUDEA, priest- |                     |
  |       |king, or governor of |                     |
  |       |Lagash (Shirpurla or |                     |
  |       |Tello) became the    |                     |
  |       |chief ruler. Built a |                     |
  |       |palace, temples and  |                     |
  |       |statues of bronze.   |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |2600-2400. Dynasties |                     |
  |       |of Isin and Larsa,   |                     |
  |       |respectively. This   |                     |
  |       |was a period of      |                     |
  |       |strife among the     |                     |
  |       |various centers.     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  | =2500=|                     |                     |
  |       |2400. First Babylo-  |2400. Chedorlaomer,  |
  |       |nian dynasty. The    |king of Elam, invades|
  |       |South lost its polit-|South Babylonia.     |
  |       |ical power and the   |                     |
  |       |city of Babylon be-  |                     |
  |       |came for the first   |                     |
  |       |time the seat of     |                     |
  |       |government.          |                     |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+


II. FROM THE AGE OF ABRAHAM TO THE RISE OF ASSYRIA, 2250-1100, B.C.

  GREAT EVENTS OF PERIOD. Abraham becomes first great leader of the
  Hebrews. Egyptian revolt from the Shepherd Kings. New Egyptian
  empire. Rise of Assyria--originally settled by emigrants from
  Babylonia. Wars with Babylonia. Sidon, a Phœnician city, at its
  zenith. Phœnician colonies established round the Mediterranean.
  Advanced civilization in Crete. Exodus of the Hebrews from Egypt
  under Moses. Hittites rise to great power, contending equally with
  Egypt and Assyria.

  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |=B. C.=|      =Greeks=       |       =Egypt=       |    =Hebrews and     |
  |       |                     |                     |     Phœnicia=       |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |                     |                     | =I. Patriarchal Age=|
  |       |                     |                     |     (2250-1200)     |
  | =2500=|                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |2250. Rise and       |2250. Period of      |
  |       |                     |triumph of Thebes.   |ABRAHAM, patriarch of|
  |       |                     |                     |the Hebrews, who left|
  |       |                     |                     |Ur, wandered north to|
  |       |                     |=III. Middle Kingdom=|Horan and finally    |
  |       |                     | (Includes Dynasties |entered Canaan       |
  |       |                     |      11 to 17)      |(Palestine).         |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  | =2000=|2000-1000. Achæans   |2000-1788. This pe-  |2000. Semitic emi-   |
  |       |and Greeks settle in |riod reached its     |grants enter Phœni-  |
  |       |Greece proper, and   |highest development  |cia.                 |
  |       |Ionians in Asia      |in the Twelfth dynas-|                     |
  |       |Minor.               |ty, which was Theban.|                     |
  |       |                     |Obelisks, public     |                     |
  |       |                     |works, regulation of |                     |
  |       |                     |Nile, Lake Mœris, and|                     |
  |       |                     |the Labyrinth belong |                     |
  |       |                     |to this period.      |                     |
  |       |1800-1600. “Golden   |                     |1800. Hiksos         |
  |       |Age” of Cretan ci-   |1788-1580. The       |(Hittites?) consoli- |
  |       |vilization. Great    |HYKSOS, or Shepherd  |date Syrian power at |
  |       |palace at Knossos    |Kings, conquer Egypt |Kadesh and over-run  |
  |       |completed.           |and rule about 100   |Egypt.               |
  |       |                     |years. The invaders  |                     |
  |       |                     |introduce the horse  |                     |
  |       |                     |into Egypt. Period of|                     |
  |       |                     |comparative obscuri- |                     |
  |       |                     |ty.                  |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |  =IV. The Egyptian  |                     |
  |       |                     |  Empire= (Includes  |                     |
  |       |                     |   Dynasties 18-20)  |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1580. After the ex-  |                     |
  |       |                     |pulsion of the       |1550. Phœnicia made  |
  |       |                     |Hyksos, Egypt was    |tributary to Egypt.  |
  |       |                     |organized as a mili- |                     |
  |       |                     |tary state. Syria was|                     |
  |       |                     |conquered and made   |                     |
  |       |                     |tribute by 1500.     |                     |
  | =1500=|                     |                     |1500-1220. Palestine |
  |       |                     |1479-1447. Thutmose  |under Egyptian       |
  |       |                     |III. rules at Thebes |domination.          |
  |       |                     |and the Empire in-   |                     |
  |       |                     |creased rapidly in   |                     |
  |       |                     |power and extent.    |                     |
  |       |                     |Egyptian fleet was   |                     |
  |       |                     |developed, temple at |                     |
  |       |                     |Karnak erected.      |                     |
  | =1400=|1400. Probable Myce- |                     |                     |
  |       |næan invasion des-   |1414-1383. AMENHOTEP |                     |
  |       |troyed Cretan civili-|III., Great king,    |                     |
  |       |zation.              |called the “Magnifi- |                     |
  |       |1400-1300. Bloom of  |cent.” Built temple  |                     |
  |       |the Agean and Myce-  |at Luxor and else-   |                     |
  |       |næan civilization.   |where. Tel-el-Amarna |                     |
  |       |                     |Letters with Syria   |                     |
  |       |                     |and Babylon.         |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1383-1365. AMENHOTEP |                     |
  |       |                     |IV. Very important   |1350. JOSEPH in      |
  |       |                     |reign. Official re-  |Egypt. Hebrews settle|
  |       |                     |ligion changed from  |in Goshen.           |
  |       |                     |polytheism to mono-  |                     |
  |       |                     |theism; chief seat of|                     |
  |       |                     |worship removed from |                     |
  |       |                     |Thebes to Tel-el-    |                     |
  |       |                     |Amarna. Syria lost.  |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1326-1300. SETI I.   |                     |
  |       |                     |Restorer of ancient  |                     |
  |       |                     |monuments; great     |                     |
  |       |                     |temple at Abydos;    |                     |
  |       |                     |began great hall at  |                     |
  |       |                     |Karnak; tomb in Val- |                     |
  |       |                     |ley of Kings.        |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  | =1300=|                     |1300-1234. RAMESES   |1300. Period of      |
  |       |                     |II., the Great. Sub- |Sidon’s greatest     |
  |       |                     |dues Syria at Kadesh;|power.               |
  |       |                     |built temples at Abu |                     |
  |       |                     |and Simbel; built    |                     |
  |       |                     |Pithom and Raamses.  |                     |
  |       |                     |Supposed Pharaoh of  |                     |
  |       |                     |the Israelite oppres-|                     |
  |       |                     |sion.                |1250. Oppression of  |
  |       |                     |                     |the Israelites.      |
  |       |                     |1234-1214. Merneptah |                     |
  |       |                     |drove out foreign in-|                     |
  |       |                     |vaders. Supposed     |                     |
  |       |                     |Pharaoh of the       |1220. Exodus of the  |
  |       |                     |Exodus.              |Israelites under     |
  |       |                     |                     |MOSES.               |
  |       |                     |1202-1171. RAMESES   |                     |
  | =1200=|1200. Dorian invasion|III., greatest king  |                     |
  |       |ended the grand pre- |in twentieth dynasty.|                     |
  |       |historic age of      |Built temples at     |                     |
  |       |Greece.              |Karnak and Medinet   |                     |
  |       |                     |Habu. Great naval    |                     |
  |       |1193-1184. TROJAN    |battle at Pelusium.  |                     |
  |       |WAR.                 |                     | =II. Period of the  |
  |       |                     |  =V. Decay of the   | Judges= (1160-1020) |
  |       |                     |  Empire= (1150-525) |                     |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+

  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |=B. C.=| =Babylonia-Assyria= |   =Border Peoples=  |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       | =III. Early Babylo- |                     |
  |       |     nian Empire=    |                     |
  |       |     (2250-1750)     |                     |
  | =2500=|                     |                     |
  |       |2250. HAMMURABI      |                     |
  |       |(Amraphel?), great   |                     |
  |       |ruler and lawgiver,  |                     |
  |       |united the whole of  |                     |
  |       |Babylonia. His code  |                     |
  |       |of laws one of the   |                     |
  |       |most important of    |                     |
  |       |Oriental discoveries.|                     |
  |       |Under him Babylon    |                     |
  |       |reached high degree  |                     |
  |       |of culture.          |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |2100. Second Babylo- |                     |
  | =2000=|nian dynasty: lasted |                     |
  |       |about 300 years.     |1800-1500. Assyria   |
  |       |                     |ruled by patesis or  |
  |       | =IV. Kassite Period=|governors.           |
  |       |     (1750-1150)     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |1750. Third, or      |1750. The Kassites, a|
  |       |Kassite, dynasty of  |mountain people north|
  |       |foreign kings in     |of Elam, subdue      |
  |       |power for nearly 600 |Babylonia.           |
  | =1500=|years.               |An Elamite dynasty   |
  |       |                     |with its capital at  |
  | =1400=|1400. BURNABURIASH,  |Susa, gave rise to   |
  |       |greatest of Kassite  |the Persian nation   |
  |       |kings, established   |(1750-836).          |
  |       |political relations  |                     |
  |       |with Egypt. Settled  |1350. Great expansion|
  |       |boundary with As-    |of Assyria; capital  |
  |       |syria. See Tel-el-   |removed from Asshur  |
  |       |Amarna Letters.      |to Kalkhi (Ninevah). |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |   =V. Period of     |                     |
  |       | Decline= (1300-745) |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  | =1300=|1300. Kassites ab-   |                     |
  |       |sorbed into the Se-  |                     |
  |       |mitic population of  |1275. Continuous     |
  |       |Babylonia.           |struggle between As- |
  |       |                     |syria and Babylonia. |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |1250-1210. Decline of|1250. King of Assyria|
  |       |Babylonian power and |conquers Babylon and |
  |       |rise of Assyria.     |rules seven years.   |
  |       |                     +---------------------+
  | =1200=|                                           |
  |       |1100. Babylon subjected by TIGLATH PILESER |
  |       |I. of Assyria. Great expansion of Assyrian |
  |       |empire.                                    |
  +-------+-------------------------------------------+


III. FROM THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE TO THE TIME OF XERXES
THE GREAT, 1100-485 B. C.

  GREAT EVENTS OF PERIOD. 1100-1000: Heroic age of Greece; Hebrews
  reach their highest point of national power. Beginning of the
  Medo-Persian nations. Celts disperse over western Europe and into
  British Isles. 1000-900: Homeric age. Celts already in Britain, with
  bronze in use. Phœnician trade extended from Senegal to India.
  900-800: Decline of Phœnician cities. 800-700: Ethiopian supremacy
  in Egypt. Assyrian conquests continue; Tiglath-Pileser III.; Sargon;
  Babylonia rises to height of its power. 700-600: Zenith and fall of
  Nineveh, and Assyrian empire. Media rises to power. Perhaps last
  migrations from the Aryan center--Teutonic and Slav races. 600-500:
  Zenith and fall of Babylon. Long reign of Nebuchadnezzar; he ravages
  Egypt. The seventy years’ captivity of Judah. Rise of Persia.
  Founding of the Roman republic. Establishment of democracy in
  Athens.

  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |=B. C.=|        =Rome=       |       =Greeks=      |       =Egypt=       |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |                     |  =II. Formation of  |                     |
  |       |                     |    Greek States=    |                     |
  |       |                     |      (1100-500)     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  | =1100=|1100. The Etruscans  |1100-950. Great mi-  |                     |
  |       |already in central   |grations in Greece of|1091. At beginning of|
  |       |Italy.               |Dorians and Thessa-  |the twenty-first dy- |
  |       |                     |lians. Ionic colonies|nasty two lines of   |
  |       |                     |founded in Asia      |kings: one at Thebes |
  |       |                     |Minor.               |and another at Tanis.|
  |       |                     |                     |Power of Tanis       |
  |       |                     |1068. Codrus, last   |established and great|
  |       |                     |king of Athens. Be-  |wall built.          |
  |       |                     |ginning of rule of   |                     |
  |       |                     |archons.             |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  | =1000=|                     |1000. Period of      |   _A very complex   |
  |       |                     |_HOMER_. Poems of    | and obscure period._|
  |       |                     |Homer reflect the    |                     |
  |       |                     |Mycenæan and Aegean  |987-952. Pasebkhanu  |
  |       |                     |period of the Greeks.|II. King Solomon     |
  |       |                     |                     |married one of his   |
  |       |                     |                     |daughters.           |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |952. Sheshanq        |
  |       |                     |                     |(Shishak of the      |
  |       |                     |                     |Bible), married to   |
  |       |                     |                     |sister of the wife of|
  |       |                     |                     |King Solomon. Great  |
  |       |                     |                     |conquests in Syria.  |
  |       |                     |                     |Capture of Jerusalem.|
  | =900= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |820. Legislation of  |                     |
  |       |                     |LYCURGUS founded the |                     |
  |       |                     |stability of Sparta. |                     |
  | =800= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |780. Rise of indepen-|
  |       |                     |776. FIRST OLYMPIAD, |dent kingdom in      |
  |       |                     |or first year the    |Nubia.               |
  |       |                     |Olympian victor was  |                     |
  |       |                     |recorded.            |                     |
  |       | =I. Mythical Period |                     |                     |
  |       |    of the Kings=    |                     |                     |
  |       |      (753-510)      |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |753-716. Romulus.    |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |753. ROME founded.   |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |750. Sabines incorpo-|750-550. Colonizing  |                     |
  |       |rated with Romans.   |period of the Greeks.|                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |743-724. FIRST MES-  |                     |
  |       |                     |SENIAN WAR between   |                     |
  |       |                     |Messenia and Sparta. | =VI. Nubian Period= |
  |       |                     |                     |      (722-654)      |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |722. Egypt lost      |
  |       |                     |                     |Palestine to Assyria.|
  |       |715-673. Numa Pompi- |                     |                     |
  |       |lius. Traditional    |                     |707. Shabako, the    |
  |       |founder of religious |                     |Nubian, gains all    |
  |       |institutions.        |                     |Egypt, incites revolt|
  |       |                     |                     |in Syria and Pales-  |
  |       |                     |                     |tine against Sargon. |
  |       |                     |                     |Later is defeated by |
  |       |                     |                     |Sennacherib.         |
  | =700= |700-200. Etruscan    |                     |                     |
  |       |influence very       |                     |                     |
  |       |strong.              |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |673-641. Tullus      |                     |                     |
  |       |Hostilius. Alba Longa|                     |670-660. Assyrian    |
  |       |destroyed.           |                     |supremacy. Nubians   |
  |       |                     |                     |expelled by Ashur-   |
  |       |                     |                     |bani-pal but hold    |
  |       |                     |                     |Thebes until 654.    |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |653-610. PSAMETIK I. |
  |       |                     |645-628. SECOND      |re-united Egypt. In  |
  |       |641-616. Ancus       |MESSENIAN WAR. Sparta|alliance with Gyges, |
  |       |Marcius. Capture of  |victorious.          |King of Lydia, made  |
  |       |Ostia. War with      |                     |Egypt independent of |
  |       |Latins.              |625. Corinth at its  |Assyria. Built a mag-|
  |       |                     |zenith. PERIANDER,   |nificent palace at   |
  |       |                     |tyrant.              |Sais, the new        |
  |       |                     |                     |capital. _Revival of |
  |       |                     |621. LAWS OF DRACO at|art, religion and    |
  |       |616-578. Tarquinius  |Athens.              |literature._         |
  |       |Priscus. Treaty with |                     |                     |
  |       |Latins. Temple of    |                     |610-595. NEKU II. In-|
  |       |Jupiter on the       |                     |vades Syria, but is  |
  |       |capitol.             |                     |vanquished at        |
  |       |_Important advance in|                     |Carchemish by        |
  |       |power and civiliza-  |                     |Nebuchadnezzar II. of|
  |       |tion._               |                     |Babylonia.           |
  | =600= |                     |600-590. FIRST SACRED|                     |
  |       |                     |WAR.                 |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |594. SOLON, archon of|                     |
  |       |578-534. Servius     |Athens.              |                     |
  |       |Tulius. Rome con-    |_Laws and reforms._  |570-526. AAHMES II.  |
  |       |solidated. Rise of   |                     |Encouraged Greek     |
  |       |patricians and       |560-527. PISISTRATUS,|settlement. Magnifi- |
  |       |plebians.            |tyrant of Athens.    |cent buildings at    |
  |       |                     |Ionia and Greek      |Naucratis and Sais.  |
  |       |                     |cities of Asia con-  |                     |
  |       |                     |quered by Cyrus of   |                     |
  |       |                     |Persia.              |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |534-510. Tarquinius  |=The Rise of Athens.=|                     |
  |       |Superbus. End of the |                     |525. Psametik III.   |
  |       |Kings. Rome a Re-    |                     |defeated by Cambyses |
  |       |public with two      |                     |at Pelusium. Egypt a |
  |       |Consuls.             |                     |Persian province.    |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |520. Capture of      |
  |       |                     |                     |Thebes (Luxor) and   |
  |       |                     |                     |transplantation of   |
  |       |                     |                     |6000 Egyptians to    |
  |       |                     |                     |Susiana.             |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |The Persian kings    |
  |       | =II. The Republic to|                     |exact a large tri-   |
  |       | the Beginning of the|                     |bute. The fisheries  |
  |       |     Punic Wars=     |                     |of Lake Mœris, etc.  |
  |       |      (510-264)      |510. Athenian demo-  |                     |
  |       |                     |cracy fully          |                     |
  |       |Struggle between     |established.         |                     |
  |       |patricians and       |                     |                     |
  |       |plebians and develop-|                     |                     |
  |       |ment of Roman con-   |                     |                     |
  |       |solidation.          |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |508. First commercial|                     |                     |
  |       |treaty with Carthage.|                     |                     |
  | =500= |                     | =III. Persian Wars= |                     |
  |       |                     |       (500-449)     |                     |
  |       |498. First Dictator. |See under Persia.    |                     |
  |       |First struggle, on   |                     |                     |
  |       |account of the op-   |                     |                     |
  |       |pression of the      |                     |                     |
  |       |debtors.             |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |493. Tribunes of the |                     |                     |
  |       |people.              |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |491. Comitia Tributa,|                     |                     |
  |       |in which the people  |490. =Marathon.= The |                     |
  |       |have the prepon-     |Athenians under      |                     |
  |       |derance.             |Miltiades defeated   |                     |
  |       |                     |the Persians under   |                     |
  |       |                     |Datis. Free govern-  |                     |
  |       |Second struggle,     |ment and Greek       |                     |
  |       |respecting the       |civilization saved.  |                     |
  |       |division of lands.   |_Athens mistress of  |                     |
  |       |                     |the sea._            |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |489. Miltiades       |                     |
  |       |486. First Agrarian  |attacks Poros and    |486. Revolts, but is |
  |       |law.                 |fails. His condem-   |again subdued by     |
  |       |Continual wars       |nation and death     |Xerxes.              |
  |       |against the neigh-   |follow.              |The tribute in-      |
  |       |boring states.       |                     |creased.             |
  |       |                     |485. Gelo, master of |                     |
  |       |                     |Syracuse.            |                     |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+

  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |=B. C.=|  =Phœnicia-Lydia    |=China, Japan, India=|
  |       |      Phrygia=       |                     |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+
  | =1100=|1100. Tyre attains   |                     |
  |       |first rank among     |China: 1123-255. Chow|
  |       |Phœnician seacoast   |dynasty. Feudal      |
  |       |towns.               |system developed.    |
  | =1000=|                     |                     |
  |       |970. King Hiram sent |                     |
  |       |material for Solo-   |                     |
  |       |mon’s Temple.        |                     |
  | =900= |                     |                     |
  |       |846. CARTHAGE founded|                     |
  |       |by Elissa (Dido).    |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  | =800= |800. Phrygia an inde-|India: 800. Bramanic |
  |       |pendent monarchy.    |period of Vedic      |
  |       |                     |literature.          |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |China: 780-700.      |
  |       |728. Midas of Phrygia|Constant struggles   |
  |       |foments rebellion    |between central power|
  |       |against rule of      |and feudal states.   |
  |       |Sargon in Northern   |                     |
  |       |Syria.               |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |727. Tyre captured by|                     |
  |       |Assyria. Phœnician   |                     |
  |       |decline begins.      |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  | =700= |700. Cimmerian in-   |                     |
  |       |vasion shortly       |                     |
  |       |destroys Phrygian    |                     |
  |       |Kingdom.             |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |689. GYGES, first    |                     |
  |       |important King of    |Japan: 660-585. Jimmu|
  |       |Lydia.               |Tenno, first Mikado. |
  |       |                     |Largely legendary.   |
  |       |636. Last Assyrian   |                     |
  |       |governor of Phœnicia.|                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |610. Alyattes, King  |                     |
  |       |of Lydia, battles    |                     |
  |       |with Cyaxares of     |                     |
  |       |Media. Erected mag-  |                     |
  |       |nificent buildings at|                     |
  |       |Sardis.              |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  | =600= |                     |                     |
  |       |586-573. Tyre be-    |                     |
  |       |sieged by            |                     |
  |       |Nebuchadnezzar.      |                     |
  |       |Phœnicia a Persian   |                     |
  |       |province (538).      |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |568. CRŒSUS, son of  |                     |
  |       |Alyattes, subdued all|                     |
  |       |the Grecian cities of|                     |
  |       |the coast.           |                     |
  |       |                     |China: 551.          |
  |       |546. SARDIS CAPTURED |_CONFUCIUS_ born.    |
  |       |and Lydia absorbed   |Greatest figure in   |
  |       |into Persian Empire. |Chinese history.     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |538. Phœnicia became |This great Chinese   |
  |       |a Persian province.  |                     |
  |       |                     |philosopher, intro-  |
  |       |530. CARTHAGE becomes|                     |
  |       |independent.         |duces a new religion,|
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |Phœnicia: through its|opposed to that of   |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |influence the whole  |Fohi, and boldly     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |country is allowed to|inveighs against the |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |carry on its trade as|vice and immorality  |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |usual, under the     |of the times.        |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |authority and protec-|                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |tion of the king of  |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |Persia.              |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |508. Carthage makes  |                     |
  |       |its first commercial |                     |
  |       |treaty with Rome.    |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  | =500= |500. Carthage trades |                     |
  |       |with the Greeks.     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |Carthage effects an  |                     |
  |       |alliance with the    |                     |
  |       |Persians against     |                     |
  |       |Sicily.              |                     |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+

  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |=B. C.=|      =Hebrews=      | =Babylonia-Assyria= |      =Persians=     |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |                     |  =VI. The Assyrian  |                     |
  |       |                     |       Empire.=      |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  | =1100=|                     |1100-930. History of |1100. Formation of a |
  |       |1040. SAMUEL, last of|Babylon of little    |powerful empire in   |
  |       |the “Judges.”        |importance until 600 |Bactria. Deeds of    |
  |       |                     |B. C. Assyria the    |kings celebrated in  |
  |       |                     |great power of West- |the Shahnameh of     |
  |       |                     |ern Asia till the    |Firdusi.             |
  |       |                     |rise of the New Baby-|                     |
  |       |                     |lonian Empire after  |                     |
  |       |   =III. Period of   |the destruction of   |                     |
  |       |      Monarchy=      |Nineveh in 607 B. C. |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1020. SAUL, king.    |                     |                     |
  |       |Jerusalem, the       |                     |                     |
  |       |capital of all       |                     |                     |
  |       |Israel.              |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  | =1000=|1000. DAVID, king.   |                     |1000. Period of      |
  |       |                     |                     |_ZOROASTER_ and      |
  |       |977-937. SOLOMON,    |                     |Zoroastrianism, was  |
  |       |king. Began building |930-640. _Brilliant  |chief of the Magi, a |
  |       |the temple about 973.|epoch of Assyria. A  |priestly tribe of    |
  |       |Married a daughter of|period of conquest,  |Media.               |
  |       |King Pasebkhanu II.  |expansion, archi-    |                     |
  |       |of Egypt.            |tecture, sculpture   |                     |
  |       |                     |and literary activi- |                     |
  |       |    =IV. Divided     |ty._                 |                     |
  |       |      Monarchy=      |                     |                     |
  |       |        (937)        |                     |                     |
  |       |  Judah and Israel   |                     |                     |
  | =900= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |886-858. Ashur-Nasir-|                     |
  |       |                     |Pal. One of the      |                     |
  |       |                     |greatest Assyrian    |                     |
  |       |                     |kings. Extended the  |                     |
  |       |                     |empire. Moved the    |                     |
  |       |                     |government to Calah  |                     |
  |       |                     |(Nimrod) from Ashur. |                     |
  |       |                     |Built a great palace |                     |
  |       |                     |there.               |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |858-823. Shalmaneser |                     |
  |       |                     |II. Ceaseless wars   |                     |
  |       |                     |made him master of   |                     |
  |       |                     |Western Asia. First  |                     |
  |       |                     |contact with Israeli-|                     |
  |       |                     |tes. Jehu, King of   |                     |
  |       |                     |Israel, among those  |                     |
  |       |                     |who sent tribute.    |                     |
  |       |                     |Built palace at Calah| =I. Ancient Persian |
  |       |                     |(Nimrod). Protector- |        Period=      |
  |       |                     |ate over Babylon.    |       (836-640)     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |810-781. Ramari-     |                     |
  |       |                     |nirrari IV. captured |                     |
  |       |                     |Damascus. Married    |                     |
  |       |                     |Babylonian princess  |                     |
  |       |                     |Semiramis.           |                     |
  | =800= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |745-727. Tiglath-    |                     |
  |       |                     |Pileser II. (Identi- |740. Western Iran    |
  |       |735-715. Ahaz became |cal with the king Pul|(Media and Persia)   |
  |       |tributary to Assyria.|of the Bible) made   |subject to Assyria.  |
  |       |ISAIAH denounced the |Babylonia subject to |                     |
  |       |alliance.            |Assyria.             |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |728. END OF OLD      |                     |
  |       |                     |BABYLONIAN EMPIRE.   |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |727-722. Shalmaneser |                     |
  |       |                     |IV. suppressed the   |                     |
  |       |                     |revolt of the Phœni| |                     |
  |       |                     |cian cities and the  |                     |
  |       |                     |kingdom of Israel.   |                     |
  |       |             +-------+                     |                     |
  |       |             :722-705. SARGON II. conquered|                     |
  |       |715-686.     :Samaria and destroyed the    |                     |
  |       |Hezekiah. Be-:Kingdom of Israel. He re-    |                     |
  |       |gan religious:ceived tribute from Arabia,  |                     |
  |       |and social   :Egypt, and Cyprus; suppressed|                     |
  |       |reforms.     :revolts in Armenia, Media and|                     |
  |       |             :Babylonia, and united the    |                     |
  |       |             :latter with Assyria.         |                     |
  |       |             :                             |                     |
  |       |             :705. SENNACHERIB. Invaded    |                     |
  | =700= |             :Judah. Palace at Nineveh and |700-600. Scythians   |
  |       |             :library.                     |sweep over Media,    |
  |       |             :Assyrian art most flourishing|Persia and Assyria.  |
  |       |             :from Ninth to end of Seventh |                     |
  |       |             :Century.                     |                     |
  |       |             :                             |                     |
  |       |681. ESARHADDON. Wars with Phœnicia, Cilicia, Edom, Medes, and   |
  |       |Arabs. Conquest of Lower Egypt.                                  |
  |       |             :                             |                     |
  |       |             :668. ASHUR-BANI-PAL          |  =II. Period of the |
  |       |             :(Sardanapalus). Expelled     |    Median Empire.=  |
  |       |             :Nubians from Egypt and es-   |                     |
  |       |             :tablished his supremacy for a|655-633. Phraortes   |
  |       |             :time. Best period of art.    |united Media.        |
  |       |             :Creation tablets and Deluge  |                     |
  |       |             :tablets. Gyges, King of      |640. Medes revolt    |
  |       |             :Lydia, killed during a       |from Assyria and es- |
  |       |             :revolt.                      |tablish the Median   |
  |       |             |                             |Empire (640-558).    |
  |       |             |                             |                     |
  |       |             |                             |633-593. CYAXERES,   |
  |       |             |626. Assyrian power declining|with Nabopolassor of |
  |       |             |at death of Ashur-bani-pal.  |Babylonia, capture   |
  |       |             |NABOPOLASSOR, Assyrian gover-|Nineveh and destroy  |
  |       |             |nor of Babylon, makes the    |the Assyrian Empire. |
  |       |             |latter independent, and wars |                     |
  |       |             |against Assyria.             |                     |
  |       |             |                             |                     |
  |       |             |610. Fall of Nineveh. END OF |                     |
  |       |             |ASSYRIAN EMPIRE, divided     |                     |
  |       |             |among Medes and Babylonians. |                     |
  |       |             |                             |                     |
  |       |608-597.     |608. =New Babylonian Empire.=|                     |
  |       |Jehoiakim.   |                             |                     |
  |       |JEREMIAH.    |604-551. NEBUCHADNEZZAR II.  |                     |
  |       |             |makes Babylonia the leading  |                     |
  |       |             |nation of the East. Conquered|                     |
  | =600= |             |Jerusalem (586) and subdued  |                     |
  |       |             |Tyre (585).                  |                     |
  |       |             |                 +-----------+                     |
  |       |             |_Splendid archi- |593-558. Astyoges, last King of  |
  |       |586. CAPTURE |tectural era at  |Medes. Cyrus revolted, deposed   |
  |       |OF JERUSALEM |Babylon._        |the king, became king of Persia  |
  |       |by Nebuchad- |                 |and master of the East.          |
  |       |nezzar,      |                 |                                 |
  |       |temple des-  |                 |   =II. Period of the Persian    |
  |       |troyed and   |                 |             Empire=             |
  |       |Jews made    |                 |            (558-330)            |
  |       |captive.     |                 |                                 |
  |       |             |                 |558-529. CYRUS, emperor. Con-    |
  |       |             |555. NABONIDUS,  |quered Crœsus, King of Lydia.    |
  |       |             |father of the    |                                 |
  |       |             |Biblical Belshaz-|                                 |
  |       |             |zar, great       |                                 |
  |       |             |builder and re-  |                                 |
  |       |             |storer of        |                                 |
  |       |             |temples.         |                                 |
  |       |             |                                                   |
  |       |             |539-538. War of Cyrus against the Babylonians.     |
  |       |538-332.     |Babylon captured. The Babylonian Empire incorpo-   |
  |       |Palestine    |rated with the Persian.                            |
  |       |under Persian|                                                   |
  |       |dominion.    |529-522. CAMBYSES conquered Egypt by his victory at|
  |       |             |Pelusium.                                          |
  |       |             |                                                   |
  |       |             |521-485. DARIUS son of Hystaspes was made king.    |
  |       |520-516.     |                                                   |
  |       |Temple re-   |_Darius has special interest because he was first  |
  |       |built at     |to extend Persian authority into Europe, and thus  |
  |       |Jerusalem.   |paved the way for the subsequent invasion of       |
  |       |             |Greece._                                           |
  |       |             |                                                   |
  |       |             |518. Revolt of Babylon, and destruction of that    |
  |       |             |city after a twenty months’ siege. Indian campaign,|
  |       |             |in which the countries north of the Indus become   |
  |       |             |subject to Persia. Indus the boundary of the       |
  |       |             |empire.                                            |
  |       |             |                                                   |
  |       |             |513. (?). Unsuccessful expedition of Darius against|
  |       |             |the Scythians with a land force of 700,000 men.    |
  |       |             |Macedonia and Thrace tributary.                    |
  |       |             |                                                   |
  | =500= |             |500-494. The Ionian colonies rebel, and are        |
  |       |             |assisted by the Athenians, which gives rise to the |
  |       |             |Perso-Grecian wars and the national hatred between |
  |       |             |the two countries.                                 |
  |       |             |                                                   |
  |       |             |499. Sardis burnt by the Ionians. =Grecian wars=   |
  |       |             |follow.                                            |
  |       |According to |                                                   |
  |       |Philo, the   |494. The Greeks and their allies defeated in naval |
  |       |history of   |engagement at the island of Lade.                  |
  |       |Judith and   |                                                   |
  |       |Holofernes   |493-490. War of Darius against the European Greeks.|
  |       |falls under  |Revolt among the Egpyptians.                       |
  |       |the reign of |                                                   |
  |       |Artaxerxes.  |492. First expedition, under Mardonius, unsuccess- |
  |       |             |ful.                                               |
  |       |Under the    |                                                   |
  |       |same king    |490. Second expedition, defeated at Marathon by    |
  |       |lived Esther |Miltiades.                                         |
  |       |and Haman.   |                                                   |
  |       |             |486. Egypt revolts and is not reduced to subjection|
  |       |             |until 484.                                         |
  |       |             |                                                   |
  |       |             |485. Death of Darius. He was succeeded by his son  |
  |       |             |XERXES.                                            |
  +-------+-------------+---------------------------------------------------+


IV. FROM THE ACCESSION OF XERXES THE GREAT TO THE PERIOD OF THE PUNIC
WARS, 485-264, B. C.

  GREAT EVENTS OF THE PERIOD. 500-400: Zenith of Persia; and glorious
  century of Greece. Struggles of Patricians and Plebeians at Rome.
  400-300: Decline and fall of Persia before Alexander the Great;
  Greek language and Greek civilization extended all through the
  Levant. Roman wars with the Samnites. Internal quarrels of the
  Romans diminish. 300-200: Semi-Greek Kingdoms built on the ruins of
  the Persian Empire; in Egypt the Ptolemies; in Syria, the Antiochi.
  Many Jews at Alexandria.

  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |=B. C.=|     =Carthage=      |        =Rome=       | =China-Japan-India= |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |Carthage became in-  |                     |                     |
  |       |dependent of Phœnicia|                     |                     |
  |       |in 530.              |481-475. Wars with   |                     |
  |       |                     |Veii.                |478. China: Death of |
  |       |480. Carthaginians   |                     |Confucius. China dis-|
  |       |invaded Sicily; de-  |                     |tracted by internal  |
  |       |feated at Himera by  |                     |wars.                |
  |       |Gela.                |                     |                     |
  | =475= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |471. First Publilian |                     |                     |
  |       |Laws.                |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |451-449. The Decem-  |                     |                     |
  |       |virate.              |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  | =450= |                     |450. The Twelve      |450. India: Brick and|
  |       |                     |Tables.              |stone buildings in   |
  |       |                     |                     |existence.           |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |448. Valerian and    |                     |
  |       |                     |Horatian Laws.       |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |445. Canuleian Laws. |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |444. Consular        |                     |
  |       |                     |Tribunes.            |                     |
  | =425= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |410. HANNIBAL        |                     |                     |
  |       |and Hamilcar invade  |                     |                     |
  |       |Sicily.              |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |405. Treaty between  |                     |                     |
  |       |Carthage and Syra-   |                     |                     |
  |       |cuse. Landed aristoc-|                     |                     |
  |       |racy created at      |                     |                     |
  |       |Carthage.            |                     |                     |
  | =400= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |390. GAUL’S INVASION |                     |
  |       |                     |OF ITALY. Rome       |                     |
  |       |                     |burned.              |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |377-367. Licinian    |                     |
  | =375= |                     |Laws.                |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |372. China: MENCIUS  |
  |       |                     |366. First Plebeian  |born.                |
  |       |360. Carthaginians   |Consul.              |                     |
  | =350= |form settlements in  |                     |                     |
  |       |Spain.               |348. Treaty of com-  |                     |
  |       |                     |merce with Carthage. |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |343. Greek cities of |343-341. FIRST       |                     |
  |       |Sicily freed from    |SAMNITE WAR.         |                     |
  |       |Carthage.            |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |340-338. Great Latin |                     |
  |       |                     |War.                 |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |326-304. SECOND      |326. India:          |
  |       |                     |SAMNITE WAR.         |Alexander’s invasion.|
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  | =325= |_Carthage rises in   |                     |325-315. India:      |
  |       |wealth and political |321. The Samnites de-|MAURYA DYNASTY, most |
  |       |importance._         |feat the Romans at   |brilliant of old     |
  |       |                     |the Caudine Forks and|Hindu dynasties.     |
  |       |317. Carthage and    |send them under the  |                     |
  |       |Syracuse at war.     |yoke.                |312-306. India:      |
  |       |                     |                     |Seleucus attempts to |
  |       |310. Agathocles in-  |                     |recover provinces of |
  |       |vades Carthaginian   |309. Fabius Maximus  |Alexander.           |
  |       |territory in Africa. |defeats the Etrurians|                     |
  |       |                     |at the Vadimonian    |                     |
  |       |                     |Lake.                |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |307. The Carthagini- |                     |
  |       |306. Peace with      |ans defeat Agathocles|                     |
  | =300= |Syracuse.            |and besiege Syracuse.|300. India: Brahmanic|
  |       |                     |                     |system of caste      |
  |       |                     |298-290. THIRD       |instituted.          |
  |       |                     |SAMNITE WAR.         |                     |
  |       |                     |_These wars pave the |                     |
  |       |                     |way to the subjuga-  |                     |
  |       |                     |tion of Italy, and   |                     |
  |       |                     |the future greatness |                     |
  |       |                     |of Rome._            |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |286. LAW OF          |                     |
  |       |                     |HORTENSIUS, by which |                     |
  |       |                     |the decrees of the   |                     |
  |       |                     |Plebs are made abso- |                     |
  |       |                     |lute in the state.   |                     |
  |       |                     |The end of the long  |                     |
  |       |                     |struggle between     |                     |
  |       |                     |Patricians and       |                     |
  |       |                     |Plebeians.           |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |282-272. ROMAN WAR   |                     |
  |       |                     |WITH TARENTUM.       |                     |
  |       |                     |Tarentum seeks the   |                     |
  |       |                     |aid of PYRRHUS, king |                     |
  |       |                     |of Epirus.           |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |278. Pyrrhus lands in|                     |
  |       |                     |Sicily, and makes    |                     |
  | =275= |                     |himself master of all|                     |
  |       |                     |the Carthaginian     |270. India: ASOKA    |
  |       |                     |towns.               |descendant of        |
  |       |                     |                     |Chandragupta, reigns |
  |       |                     |266. Roman subjuga-  |in Magadha; he is a  |
  |       |                     |tion of Italy is     |friend of Buddhism.  |
  |       |                     |completed.           |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |264-241. FIRST PUNIC WAR. Contest over     |                     |
  |       |Sicily.                                    |                     |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+

  +-------+-----------------------------------------------------------------+
  |=B. C.=|                          =The Greeks=                           |
  +-------+-----------------------------------------------------------------+
  |       |                                            _ÆSCHYLUS_ (525-456).|
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |481-480. Third expedition of the Persians against Greece, under  |
  |       |Xerxes.                                                          |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |480. Battle of the Greeks under Leonidas, at Thermopylæ. Naval   |
  |       |battle of Salamis saved Athens.                                  |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |479. Fourth expedition of the Persians against Greece. Greek     |
  |       |victories at Platæa and Mycale. Persian army destroyed.          |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |                                           _SOPHOCLES_ (495-406).|
  | =475= |                                                                 |
  |       |465. Battle of the Eurymedon.                                    |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |464-456. THIRD MESSENIAN WAR.                                    |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |457-445. War of the Spartans and Bœotians against Athens.        |
  | =450= |                                                                 |
  |       |449. Battle of Salamis in Cyprus.                                |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |                                           _HERODOTUS_ (484-408).|
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |                                           _EURIPIDES_ (480-406).|
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |445. End of Persian war. Thirty years’ peace between Athens and  |
  |       |Sparta.                                                          |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |            =IV. Age of Pericles and Greek Luxury=               |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |                                            _PERICLES_ (499-429).|
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |444-429. Athens under the administration of Pericles, reached the|
  |       |zenith of its greatness.                                         |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |                                         _PHIDIAS_ (fl. 448-440).|
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |431-404. PELOPONNESIAN WAR--between Athens and Sparta.           |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |                                            _SOCRATES_ (469-399).|
  | =425= |                                                                 |
  |       |421. ALCIBIADES in power at Athens.                              |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |                                          _THUCYDIDES_ (471-402).|
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |415-413. Expedition of the Athenians against =Syracuse=. Greek   |
  |       |defeat. Decline of Athenian power.                               |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |405. LYSANDER of Sparta destroyed Athenian fleet.                |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |             =The Spartan Supremacy= (405-371).                  |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |404. Surrender of Athens and end of Peloponnesian War. Sparta    |
  |       |supreme in Greece.                                               |
  | =400= |                                                                 |
  |       |399-394. War between the Spartans and Persians. Fall of Spartan  |
  |       |power in Asia.                                                   |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |                                               _PLATO_ (429-347).|
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |379-362. War between Thebes and Sparta. Thebes freed.            |
  | =375= |                                                                 |
  |       |359. Rise of the Macedonian power. PHILIP OF MACEDON.            |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |                                         _DEMOSTHENES_ (382-347).|
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |357-355. The Social War.                                         |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |355-346. Second Sacred War against the Phocians, who seized      |
  |       |Delphi.                                                          |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |                                           _ARISTOTLE_ (384-322).|
  | =350= |                                                                 |
  |       |                 =V. The Macedonian Period=                      |
  |       |                          (338-146)                              |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |339-338. THIRD SACRED WAR. Macedonians against Athens and Greece.|
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |338. Macedonia supreme under PHILIP II.                          |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |336. Philip assassinated.                                        |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |336-323. ALEXANDER THE GREAT, King of Macedonia. Great extension |
  |       |of power.                                                        |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |334-328. WARS OF ALEXANDER IN ASIA.                              |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |334. Battle at Granicus.                                         |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |333. Founded Alexandria in Egypt. Occupied Babylon, subdued      |
  |       |Persia and Darius III. Invaded India in 327.                     |
  |       +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
  |       |       =The Immense Greek Empire of Alexander The Great=         |
  |       +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
  | =325= |                                                                 :
  |       |323. Death of Alexander at Babylon. His empire split up among his:
  |       |generals after his death. Perdiccas became regent in Asia for    :
  |       |Alexander’s half brother and his posthumous son. Antipater and   :
  |       |Craterus shared the regency of the west. The other generals re-  :
  |       |ceived lieutenancies: Ptolemæus, Egypt; Antigonus, Pamphylia,    :
  |       |Phrygia and Lycia; Eumenes, Alexander’s secretary, Paphlygonia   :
  |       |and Cappadocia; and Cassander, Caria; Leonnatus, Phrygia on the  :
  |       |Hellespont.                                                      :
  |       |                                                                 :
  |       |323-301. WARS OF ALEXANDER’S SUCCESSORS FOR HIS ASIATIC          :
  |       |DOMINIONS. The first partition of the empire was made 322, but   :
  |       |twenty-two years elapsed before peace was concluded between the  :
  |       |contending claimants.                                            :
  |       |                                                                 :
  |       |_KINGDOMS AND STATES which arose upon the DIVISION OF THE        :
  |       |MACEDONIAN EMPIRE AT THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT._          :
  |       |                                                                 :
  |       | /-----------------\   /-----------------\   /-----------------\ :
  |       |     =Macedonia=            =Greece=              =Thrace=       :
  |       +---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |323. Perdiccas ap-   :323-322. Lamian War; :323. LYSIMACHUS is   :
  |       |pointed regent; slain:Phocian at head of   :appointed governor of:
  |       |321.                 :affairs. Death of    :Thrace.              :
  |       |                     :Demosthenes.         :                     :
  |       |                     :                     :                     :
  |       |                     :321. Antipater,      :                     :
  |       |319. Polysperchon    :regent of the empire.:                     :
  |       |succeeds Antipater,  :                     :                     :
  |       |and proclaims liberty:317. Phocion put to  :                     :
  |       |to the Grecian       :death by the Athe-   :                     :
  |       |cities.              :nians.               :                     :
  |       |                     :Demetrius Phalereus  :                     :
  |       |                     :governs Athens.      :                     :
  |       |                     :                     :                     :
  |       |                     :315. Cassander re-   :                     :
  |       |                     :builds Thebes.       :                     :
  |       |                     :                     :307. Lysimachus      :
  |       |                     :303. Demetrius       :seizes the throne.   :
  |       |                     :Poliorcetes, general :                     :
  |       |302. CASSANDER, king :of the Grecian       :302. Invades Asia.   :
  |       |of Macedonia.        :states, opposes      :                     :
  |       |                     :Cassander.           :                     :
  |       |                     :                     :                     :
  |       |301. AFTER THE BATTLE OF IPSUS ALEXANDER’S EMPIRE WAS AGAIN      |
  |       |DIVIDED INTO FOUR CHIEF PARTS.                                   |
  |       +--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
  |       |           =Macedonia=          |        =Greek States=          |
  | =300= +--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
  |       |296. Death of Cassander. Quar-  |                                |
  |       |rels of his two sons, Antipater |                                |
  |       |and Alexander.                  |                                |
  |       |                                |                                |
  |       |287. Demetrius expelled by      |287. Athens revolts from        |
  |       |Pyrrhus. Lysimachus drives      |Demetrius.                      |
  |       |Pyrrhus out of Macedonia.       |                                |
  |       |                                |                                |
  |       |283. Death of Demetrius.        |                                |
  |       |                                |281. Lysimachus defeated and    |
  |       |                                |slain by Seleucus.              |
  |       |                                |                                |
  |       |                                |281. The ACHÆAN LEAGUE created. |
  |       |280. Sosthenes ascends the      |Lysimachus defeated and slain by|
  |       |throne and liberates his        |Seleucus in the battle of       |
  |       |country; but falls, 278.        |Korupedion.                     |
  |       |                                |                                |
  |       |277. ANTIGONUS GONATAS, King of |                                |
  | =275= |Macedonia, descendant of one of |                                |
  |       |Alexander’s generals, master of |274. Pyrrhus invades Macedonia, |
  |       |all Greece except Sparta.       |defeats Antigonas, and is pro-  |
  |       |                                |claimed king.                   |
  |       |                                |                                |
  |       |                                |272. Pyrrhus besieges Sparta and|
  |       |                                |Argos--is slain, and Antigonus  |
  |       |                                |is restored.                    |
  |       |                                |266. The Chremonidean War.      |
  |       |                                |Athens and Sparta allied in     |
  |       |                                |revolt against Macedonia.       |
  +-------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+

  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |=B. C.=|       =Egypt=       |      =Hebrews=      :      =Persia=       |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |485. Xerxes quelled a|                     :485-465. XERXES I.   |
  |       |revolt.              |                     :                     |
  |       |                     |                     :480. Xerxes invaded  |
  |       |                     |                     :Greece, Thermopylæ,  |
  |       |                     |                     :Salamis. Elaborate   |
  |       |                     |                     :great palace at      |
  |       |                     |                     :Persepolis. Hypostyle|
  |       |                     |                     :Hall, fine bull-     |
  |       |                     |                     :capitals, good bas-  |
  |       |                     |                     :reliefs with invoca- |
  |       |                     |                     :tions to Ahura Mazda.|
  |       |                     |                     :Propylæa, winged     |
  |       |                     |                     :human-headed bulls.  |
  |       |                     |                     :Hanging draperies.   |
  |       |                     |                     :Xerxes and his eldest|
  |       |                     |                     :son murdered.        |
  |       |                     |                     :                     |
  |       |                     |                     :479. Persians ex-    |
  |       |                     |                     :pelled from Greece.  |
  | =475= |                     |                     :                     |
  |       |                     |                     :465-424. Artaxerxes  |
  |       |                     |                     :I. succeeded to the  |
  |       |                     |                     :throne.              |
  |       |                     |                     :                     |
  |       |                     |                     :462-455. Second      |
  |       |                     |458(?). Ezra.        :revolt of the        |
  |       |455(?). Herodotus in |                     :Egyptians.           |
  | =450= |Egypt.               |                     :                     |
  |       |                     |444. NEHEMIAH, gover-:                     |
  |       |                     |nor of Jerusalem. Re-:                     |
  | =425= |                     |builds the city      :                     |
  |       |                     |walls.               :424. Xerxes II.      |
  |       |                     |                     :murdered by his      |
  |       |                     |                     :brother Sogdianus    |
  |       |                     |                     :same year.           |
  |       |                     |                     :                     |
  |       |                     |                     :423. Darius II.      |
  |       |                     |415. Death of        :                     |
  |       |                     |Nehemiah. High       :412. Sparta recog-   |
  |       |                     |priests rule under   :nized Persian rule in|
  |       |                     |Persian authority.   :Asia minor.          |
  |       |                     |                     :                     |
  |       |                     |                     :405. Egypt declared  |
  |       |                     |                     :its independence.    |
  |       |                     |                     :                     |
  |       |404. Egypt indepen-  |                     :404. ARTAXERXES II.  |
  |       |dent of Persia for   |                     :Revolt of his younger|
  |       |short period.        |                     :brother Cyrus, aided |
  |       |                     |                     :by Greeks.           |
  |       |                     |                     :                     |
  |       |                     |                     :401. Cyrus defeated  |
  |       |                     |                     :at Cunaxa and slain. |
  |       |                     |                     :“Retreat of the Ten  |
  |       |                     |                     :Thousand.”           |
  | =400= |                     |                     :                     |
  |       |                     |                     :398. Artaxerxes II.  |
  |       |                     |                     :War with Greece.     |
  |       |                     |                     :Egypt and Cyprus     |
  |       |                     |                     :assisted Greece.     |
  |       |                     |                     :                     |
  |       |                     |                     :394. Persian fleet   |
  |       |                     |                     :defeated the Spartans|
  |       |                     |                     :at Cnidus.           |
  | =375= |                     |                     :                     |
  |       |                     |370. Persian satrap  :370-363. Renewed re- |
  |       |                     |suppressed civil war.:volts in Asia Minor. |
  |       |361. Treaty with     |                     :Egypt joined the     |
  |       |Sparta vs. Persians. |                     :rebels and invaded   |
  |       |                     |                     :Syria.               |
  |       |359-342. Persian in- |                     :                     |
  |       |vasions of Egypt.    |                     :358. Artaxerxes III. |
  |       |Nectanebo II. last   |                     :seized the throne.   |
  | =350= |native king.         |350. Temple destroyed:Persians defeated in |
  |       |                     |by Persians. Many    :Egypt.               |
  |       |                     |Jews deported.       :                     |
  |       |                     |                     :340. CONQUEST OF     |
  |       |                     |                     :EGYPT.               |
  |       |                     |                     :                     |
  |       |                     |                     :337. MITHRIDATES I.  |
  |       |                     |                     :of Pontus became in- |
  |       |                     |                     :dependent of Persia. |
  |       |                     |                     :                     |
  |       |                     |                     :335. Darius III.     |
  |       +---------------------+---------------------+ascended the throne. |
  |       :334-323. Alexander   :                     :334-332. Alexander   |
  |       :the Great overthrows :333. Palestine under :the Great defeated   |
  |       :Persians, and is     :Alexander the Great. :Darius at Granicus   |
  |       :master of Egypt.     :Remained under Greek :and Issus.           |
  |       :Greek domination.    :domination to 198    +---------------------+
  |       :Alexandria founded.  :B. C.                :                     |
  |       :                     :                     :331. Battle of       |
  |       :EUCLID (Alexandria). :                     :=Arbela=. The        |
  |       :(fl. 325).           :                     :Persians defeated by |
  |       :                     :                     :the Macedonians and  |
  |       :                     :                     :Greeks under         |
  |       :                     :                     :Alexander the Great. |
  |       :                     :                     :END OF THE PERSIAN   |
  |       :                     :                     :EMPIRE.              |
  |       +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
  |       |       =The Immense Greek Empire of Alexander The Great=         |
  |       +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
  | =325= |                                                                 |
  |       |323. Death of Alexander at Babylon. His empire split up among his|
  |       |generals after his death. Perdiccas became regent in Asia for    |
  |       |Alexander’s half brother and his posthumous son. Antipater and   |
  |       |Craterus shared the regency of the west. The other generals re-  |
  |       |ceived lieutenancies: Ptolemæus, Egypt; Antigonus, Pamphylia,    |
  |       |Phrygia and Lycia; Eumenes, Alexander’s secretary, Paphlygonia   |
  |       |and Cappadocia; and Cassander, Caria; Leonnatus, Phrygia on the  |
  |       |Hellespont.                                                      |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |323-301. WARS OF ALEXANDER’S SUCCESSORS FOR HIS ASIATIC          |
  |       |DOMINIONS. The first partition of the empire was made 322, but   |
  |       |twenty-two years elapsed before peace was concluded between the  |
  |       |contending claimants.                                            |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |_KINGDOMS AND STATES which arose upon the DIVISION OF THE        |
  |       |MACEDONIAN EMPIRE AT THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT._          |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       | /------------\   /------------\  /--------------\ /-----------\ |
  |       |     =Egypt=       =Palestine=    =Phrygia, Lycia,    =Syria=    |
  |       |                                     Pamphylia=                  |
  +-------+----------------+----------------+---------------+---------------+
  |       :323. Ptolemy I. :323. Annexed    :               :               |
  |       :Soter, the son  :with Phœnicia to:               :321. The King- |
  |       :of Lagus.       :Syria.          :               :dom of the     |
  |       :                :                :               :Seleucidæ      |
  |       :320. Ptolemy    :                :320. Phrygia,  :founded by     |
  |       :makes himself   :                :Lycia, Pamphy- :SELEUCUS       |
  |       :master of Cyprus:                :lia fell to the:NICATOR, who   |
  |       :and Syria.      :                :share of Anti- :received Baby- |
  |       :                :                :gonus, who de- :lon as his     |
  |       :                :                :feats Eumenes  :province.      |
  |       :                :                :and makes him- :               |
  |       :                :                :self master of :               |
  |       :                :                :all Asia Minor.:               |
  |       :                :                :               :               |
  |       :                :                :315. Formation :               |
  |       :                :312. Capture of :of a league    :312. Syria     |
  |       :                :Jerusalem by    :against Anti-  :ruled by       |
  |       :                :Ptolemy. Colony :gonus by       :Seleucus       |
  |       :                :of Jews in      :Ptolemy, Cas-  :Nicator; he    |
  |       :                :Alexandria.     :sander,        :takes Babylon. |
  |       :                :                :Seleucus, and  :Era of the     |
  |       :                :311-301. Subject:Lysimachus.    :Seleucidæ.     |
  |       :305. Ptolemy    :to Antigonus.   :               :               |
  |       :assumes the     :                :               :               |
  |       :regal title of  :301. Again under:301. Battle of :301. After the |
  |       :Egypt.          :Egypt.          :Ipsus. Anti-   :battle of      |
  |       :                :                :gonus killed.  :Ipsus, Seleucus|
  |       :Alexandria be-  :                :               :gains the pro- |
  |       :gins a great    :                :               :vinces of      |
  |       :period.         :                :               :Syria, Cappado-|
  |       :                :                :               :cia, Mesopota- |
  |       :                :                :               :mia, and       |
  |       :                :                :               :Armenia.       |
  |       :                :                :               :               |
  |       |301. AFTER THE BATTLE OF IPSUS ALEXANDER’S EMPIRE WAS AGAIN      |
  |       |DIVIDED INTO FOUR CHIEF PARTS.                                   |
  |       +----------------+----------------+-------------------------------+
  |       |    =Egypt=     :   =Palestine=  |      =Seleucid Kingdom=       |
  |       +----------------+----------------+-------------------------------+
  | =300= :The empire of   :300. Canon of   |                               |
  |       :the Ptolemies   :Old Testament,  |299. Seleucus built or improved|
  |       :extended over   :under Simon the |a great number of cities in-   |
  |       :Egypt, Libya,   :Just.           |cluding Antioch, Seleucia,     |
  |       :Cyrene, Arabia  :                |Apamea, and Laodicea.          |
  |       :Pettræa, Judæa, :                |                               |
  |       :Phœnicia, Damas-:                |                               |
  |       :cus, and Cyprus.:                |                               |
  |       :Golden age of   :                |                               |
  |       :the Ptolemies.  :                |287. Seleucus defeats Demetrius|
  |       :                :284. The        |Poliorcetes and keeps him      |
  |       :283-247. PTOLEMY:_Septuagint_    |prisoner.                      |
  |       :II. Philadel-   :translation of  |                               |
  |       :phus, the most  :the _Old Testa- |280. Antiochus I. succeeds     |
  |       :magnificent of  :ment_, begun at |Seleucus.                      |
  |       :the Egyptian    :Alexandria, by  |                               |
  |       :kings, is asso- :order of Ptolemy|278-250. Nicomedes I.          |
  |       :ciated by his   :Philadelphus.   |                               |
  |       :father in the   :                |277. Gauls (Galatia) invaded   |
  |       :kingdom.        :                |Asia Minor.                    |
  |       :Canal of        :                |                               |
  |       :Arsinoë.        :                |                               |
  |       :Obelisk.        :                |                               |
  |       :                :                |                               |
  |       :273. Ambassadors:                |                               |
  |       :sent to Rome.   :                |                               |
  |       :                :                |                               |
  |       :272. Roman      :                |                               |
  |       :embassy sent to :                |                               |
  |       :Egypt.          :                |                               |
  +-------+----------------+----------------+-------------------------------+


V. FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE PUNIC OR CARTHAGINIAN WARS TO THE FOUNDING
OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE, 264-30, B. C.

  GREAT EVENTS OF PERIOD. 300-200: Rome mistress of Italy; then,
  victorious over Carthage, extends her influence to Greece and Spain.
  Peasant proprietors replaced by slaves in Italy. 200-100: Greece,
  Macedonia, Carthage, and Spain under Roman rule; decline of the
  Roman Oligarchy; the Gracchi begin the democratic revolution which
  ends in the empire. Eastern luxury introduced among the Romans.
  100-1: The Romans govern all the countries around the Mediterranean.
  Roman Oligarchy is followed by establishment of the empire.

  +-------+---------------+-----------------+----------------+----------------+
  |=B. C.=|   =Carthage=  |      =Rome=     |   =Macedonia=  | =Greek States= |
  +-------+---------------+-----------------+----------------+----------------+
  |       |               |=III. Epoch of   |                |                |
  |       |               |the Punic Wars,  |                |                |
  |       |               |and Beginning of |                |                |
  |       |               |the Universal    |                |                |
  |       |               |Rule of Rome=    |                |                |
  |       |               |(264-146)        |                |                |
  |       |               |                 |                |                |
  |       |264-241. FIRST PUNIC WAR. Cartha-|                |                |
  |       |ginians  led by Hamilcar, father |262. Antigonus  |                |
  |       |of Hannibal.                     |took Athens. End|                |
  |       |               |                 |of its indepen- |                |
  |       |               |260. First Roman |dence and poli- |                |
  |       |256. Regulus   |fleet built.     |tical impor-    |                |
  |       |invades Africa |Victory at sea.  |tance.          |255. Antigonus  |
  |       |and is defeated|                 |                |liberates       |
  |       |by Xanthippus, |SCIPIO AFRICANUS.|                |Athens.         |
  |       |a Spartan      |                 |                |Athens joins the|
  |       |general.       |     _ARCHIMEDES_|                |Achæan League.  |
  |       |               |       (287-212).|                |                |
  | =250= |               |                 |                |                |
  |       |241. Peace with Carthage. The    |                |                |
  |       |ceded parts of Sicily formed the |                |                |
  |       |first Roman province there.      |                |                |
  |       |               |                 |                |                |
  |       |               |241. The Roman   |                |                |
  |       |238. HAMILCAR  |fleet under      |                |                |
  |       |begins estab-  |Catulus defeats  |227. War between|                |
  |       |lishment of    |the Carthaginians|Cleomenes, King |                |
  |       |Carthaginian   |off the Ægatian  |of Sparta, and  |                |
  |       |power in Spain.|Islands.         |the Ætolian     |                |
  |       |               |                 |league.         |                |
  |       |       HANNIBAL|                 |                |                |
  |       |     (247-183).|                 |226. Athens     |                |
  | =225= |               |                 |freed from Mace-|                |
  |       |               |224. The Romans  |donia allied    |                |
  |       |221. Hannibal  |first cross the  |with Rome.      |                |
  |       |succeeds       |Po.              |                |                |
  |       |Asdrubal in the|                 |                |                |
  |       |command.       |219. Hannibal    |                |                |
  |       |               |takes Saguntum   |                |                |
  |       |               |and crosses the  |                |                |
  |       |               |Alps.            |                |                |
  |       |               |                 |                |                |
  |       |218-201. SECOND PUNIC WAR.       |                |                |
  |       |Hannibal crossed the Alps.       |                |                |
  |       |               |                 |                |                |
  |       |               |217. Romans de   |                |                |
  |       |               |feated at Lake   |                |                |
  |       |               |Trasimeno.       |                |                |
  |       |               |                 |                |                |
  |       |               |216. Romans at   |                |                |
  |       |               |Cannæ totally de-|                |                |
  |       |               |feated by Hanni- |                |                |
  |       |               |bal. Fabius      |                |                |
  |       |               |Maximus,         |                |                |
  |       |               |Dictator.        |                |                |
  |       |               |                 |                |                |
  |       |               |215. Treaty be-  |                |                |
  |       |               |tween Hannibal   |                |                |
  |       |               |and Philip V. of |                |                |
  |       |               |Macedonia.       |                |                |
  |       |               |                 |                |                |
  |       |               |214-205. FIRST   |                |                |
  |       |               |WAR WITH         |                |                |
  |       |               |MACEDONIA.       |                |                |
  |       |               |                 |                |                |
  |       |               |212. Syracuse    |                |                |
  |       |               |taken by Marcel- |                |                |
  |       |               |lus. Archimedes  |                |                |
  |       |               |killed.          |                |                |
  |       |               |                 |                |                |
  |       |               |211. Capua taken |211. Alliance of|211. The Æto-   |
  |       |               |by the Romans.   |Rome, the Æto-  |lians secure the|
  |       |               |                 |lians, Spartans,|alliance of Rome|
  |       |               |209. Publius     |Eleans and      |against the     |
  |       |               |Scipio takes New |Illyria.        |Achæans and the |
  |       |               |Carthage.        |                |Macedonians.    |
  |       |               |                 |                |                |
  |       |               |207. Nero and    |                |207. Battle of  |
  |       |               |Livy defeat      |                |Mantinea: Philo-|
  |       |               |Hasdrubal at the |                |pœmen, the      |
  |       |               |=Metaurus=--     |                |general of the  |
  |       |               |Hasdrubal killed.|                |Achæan League,  |
  |       |               |Here it was de-  |                |defeats the     |
  |       |               |cided that the   |                |Spartans.       |
  |       |               |civilization of  |                |                |
  |       |               |the world was to |                |                |
  |       |               |be Roman rather  |                |                |
  |       |               |than Carthagi-   |                |                |
  |       |               |nian.            |                |                |
  |       |               |                 |                |                |
  |       |               |206. The Cartha- |                |                |
  |       |204. Scipio    |ginians defeated |204. General    |                |
  |       |carries the war|in the battle of |peace.          |                |
  |       |into Africa.   |Ilipa and driven |                |                |
  |       |               |out of Spain.    |203. Philip     |                |
  |       |               |                 |wages war       |                |
  |       |202. Flight of Hannibal. Carthage|against Attalus |                |
  |       |conquered. Battle of Zama. End of|and the         |                |
  |       |Punic War.                       |Rhodians.       |                |
  |       |               |                 |                |                |
  | =200= |               |                 |200-197. SECOND |                |
  |       |               |                 |MACEDONIAN WAR. |198. The Achæans|
  |       |               |                 |                |and Spartans    |
  |       |               |                 |197. Philip V.  |join the Romans |
  |       |               |                 |defeated at     |against Macedo- |
  |       |               |                 |Cynoscephalæ by |nia.            |
  |       |               |                 |the Romans under|                |
  |       |               |                 |Flamininus.     |                |
  |       |               |                 |                |                |
  |       |196. Hannibal  |                 |196. Macedonian |                |
  |       |joins Anti-    |195. Cato in     |Greece declared |                |
  |       |ochus, whom he |Spain.           |free by the     |                |
  |       |urges to carry |                 |Romans.         |                |
  |       |on war against |                 |                |                |
  |       |the Romans.    |                 |                |                |
  |       |               |                 |                |                |
  |       |193. Masinissa,|                 |                |                |
  |       |King of Numi-  |192-190. War with|                |                |
  |       |dia, harasses  |Antiochus of     |                |                |
  |       |the Carthagini-|Syria, who is    |                |                |
  |       |ans, and in-   |totally defeated |                |                |
  |       |jures their    |at Magnesia by   |                |                |
  |       |commerce.      |Scipio Asiaticus.|                |                |
  |       |               |                 |                |                |
  |       |               |_Rome the Arbi-  |                |189. The Ætolian|
  |       |_The dangers   |tress of Nations,|                |League crushed  |
  |       |which threaten |from the Atlantic|                |by the Romans.  |
  |       |Carthage are   |to the           |                |                |
  |       |much increased |Euphrates._      |                |188. Philopœmen |
  |       |by the rising  |                 |                |abrogates the   |
  |       |jealousy of    |                 |                |laws of Lycurgus|
  |       |Rome, the      |                 |                |in Sparta.      |
  |       |daring hostili-|                 |                |                |
  |       |ties of Masi-  |                 |                |183. Philopœmen |
  |       |nissa, and the |                 |181. Demetrius  |is taken prison-|
  |       |factious spirit|                 |is put to death |er and put to   |
  |       |of her own     |                 |by his father.  |death by the    |
  |       |citizens._     |                 |                |Messenians. _De-|
  |       |               |                 |179. Death of   |cline of the    |
  |       |               |177. Istria sub- |Philip.         |Achæan League._ |
  | =175= |               |dued.            |                |                |
  |       |               |                 |                |172. The Romans |
  |       |               |171-168. THIRD   |                |effect the dis- |
  |       |               |MACEDONIAN WAR.  |                |solution of the |
  |       |               |                 |                |Bœotian con-    |
  |       |               |168. Decisive    |                |federacy.       |
  |       |               |battle of        |                |                |
  |       |               |=Pydna=, and     |                |                |
  |       |               |overthrow of the |                |                |
  |       |               |kingdom of       |                |                |
  |       |               |Macedon.         |                |                |
  |       |               |                 |                |                |
  |       |               |_The Romans      |                |                |
  |       |               |aspire to univer-|                |                |
  |       |               |sal empire. In-  |                |                |
  |       |               |creased patronage|                |                |
  |       |               |of literature and|                |                |
  |       |               |the arts. Grecian|                |                |
  |       |               |system of educa- |                |                |
  |       |               |tion adopted at  |                |                |
  |       |               |Rome._           |                |                |
  |       |               |                 |                |                |
  |       |               |155-150. SPANISH |                |155. Embassy of |
  |       |152. Masinis-  |WAR. The Roman   |                |Diogenes,       |
  |       |sa’s party ex- |arms unsuccessful|                |Carniades, and  |
  |       |pelled from    |in Spain.        |                |Critolaus to    |
  |       |Carthage, which|                 |                |Rome.           |
  |       |leads to a war.|                 |                |                |
  |       |Masinissa de-  |                 |                |                |
  |       |feats the Car- |                 |                |                |
  |       |thaginians.    |                 |                |                |
  |       |_Carthage at   |                 |                |                |
  |       |this time con- |                 |                |                |
  |       |tained 700,000 |                 |                |                |
  |       |inhabitants._  |                 |                |                |
  | =150= |               |                 |                |150. Dissensions|
  |       |149-146. THIRD PUNIC WAR.        |                |between the     |
  |       |               |149-8. FOURTH    |                |Spartans and    |
  |       |               |MACEDONIAN WAR.  |148. Macedon    |Achæans.        |
  |       |               |_Cato’s continual|reduced to a    |                |
  |       |146. P. Scipio |harangue “Delenda|_Roman          |146. Fall of    |
  |       |Æmilianus takes|est Carthage.”_  |province_.      |Corinth. _Roman |
  |       |and destroys   |                 |                |province of     |
  |       |Carthage.      |                 |                |Achæa._         |
  |       |               |                 +----------------+----------------+
  |       |_A Roman pro-  |                                                   |
  |       |vince._        |                                                   |
  |       +---------------+                                                   |
  |       |                =IV. Epoch of the Civil Wars=                      |
  |       |                Down to the Absolute Rule of Octavian, After the   |
  |       |                Battle of Actium.                                  |
  |       |                                                                   |
  |       |  AFFAIRS IN THE WEST :   AFFAIRS AND CIVIL  : AFFAIRS IN THE EAST |
  |       |                      :      WARS IN ROME    :                     |
  |       |                      :                      :                     |
  |       |146-140. War with     :                      :                     |
  |       |Viriathus, the gallant:A struggle arises be- :                     |
  |       |leader of the Lusita- :tween the aristocracy :                     |
  |       |ni, who maintains a   :(the nobiles and      :                     |
  |       |six years’ war with   :optimates, or rich    :                     |
  |       |Rome.                 :families of senators  :                     |
  |       |                      :and magistrates) and  :                     |
  |       |145. Æmilianus is sent:the plebs, or common  :                     |
  |       |against Viriathus.    :people.               :                     |
  |       |                      :                      :                     |
  |       |143-133. NUMANTINE WAR:                      :                     |
  |       |of ten years.         :                      :                     |
  |       |                      :                      :                     |
  |       |140. Viriathus is     :                      :                     |
  |       |treacherously mur-    :133-121. CIVIL        :133. Pergamus be-    |
  |       |dered, and Lusitania  :TROUBLES UNDER THE    :queathed to Rome by  |
  |       |becomes a Roman pro-  :GRACCHI.              :Attalus III.         |
  |       |vince.                :                      :                     |
  |       |                      :130. The Tribunes ob- :                     |
  |       |128. Flaccus reduces  :tain a seat and the   :                     |
  |       |the Transalpine       :right of voting in the:                     |
  |       |Ligurians.            :senate.               :                     |
  |       |_Increase of Roman    :                      :                     |
  |       |power in Transalpine  :                      :                     |
  |       |Gaul._                :                      :                     |
  | =125= |                      :                      :                     |
  |       |                      :123. Tribunate of     :                     |
  |       |122. Aix, the first   :CAIUS GRACCHUS. Re-   :                     |
  |       |Roman colony in Gaul. :newal of the Agrarian :                     |
  |       |                      :Law.                  :                     |
  |       |_Gaul a Roman pro-    :                      :                     |
  |       |vince._               :121. General struggle :                     |
  |       |                      :in the city. C.       :118. Death of        |
  |       |                      :Gracchus and 3000     :Micipsa, King of     |
  |       |                      :citizens killed.      :Numidia, and assassi-|
  |       |                      :_Triumph of the       :nation of Hiempsal by|
  |       |                      :aristocracy._         :Jugurtha.            |
  |       |                      :                      :                     |
  |       |113-101. CIMBRIAN WAR.:                      :                     |
  |       |The Cimbrians and     :                      :111-106. JUGURTHINE  |
  |       |Teutones migrate along:                      :WAR. Mummius and     |
  |       |the Danube to the     :                      :Metellus take part in|
  |       |boundaries of Illyria.:                      :it; and Marius ends  |
  |       |                      :                      :it by the capture of |
  |       |                      :                      :Jugurtha, 106.       |
  | =100= |                      :                      :                     |
  |       |                      :                      :96. Cyrene bequeathed|
  |       |                      :                      :to the Romans by     |
  |       |                      :                      :Apion.               |
  |       |                      :                      :                     |
  |       |                      :                      :92. Sulla settles the|
  |       |91-88. MARSIAN OR SOCIAL WAR which costs the :affairs of Asia      |
  |       |lives of 300,000 men; and ends in the conces-:Minor.               |
  |       |sion of the rights and privileges of Roman   :                     |
  |       |citizenship to the Italian states.           :                     |
  |       |                      :                      :                     |
  |       |                      :88-82. FIRST ROMAN    :88-63. WARS WITH     |
  |       |83-72. Sertorius, the :CIVIL WAR OF MARIUS   :MITHRIDATES THE      |
  |       |opponent of Sulla,    :AND SULLA. Sulla ob-  :GREAT, KING OF       |
  |       |goes into Spain, be-  :tains the command     :PONTUS.              |
  |       |comes general of the  :against Mithridates.  :                     |
  |       |Lusitani.             :Marius by an alliance :                     |
  |       |                      :with Sulpicius and the:                     |
  |       |                      :people. Sulla is      :                     |
  |       |                      :created perpetual     :                     |
  |       |                      :dictator.             :                     |
  |       |                      :                      :                     |
  |       |                      :    _CICERO_ (106-43).:                     |
  |       |                      :                      :                     |
  |       |                      :79-78. Abdication and :                     |
  |       |78. War with Rome.    :death of Sulla.       :                     |
  |       |                      :_Rising splendor of   :                     |
  |       |                      :Rome. Marble theater  :                     |
  |       |                      :of Saurus for 80,000  :                     |
  |       |                      :spectators. Magnifi-  :                     |
  |       |                      :cent houses of the    :                     |
  |       |                      :Roman nobles. Library :                     |
  |       |                      :of Lucullus._         :                     |
  |       |                      :                      :74. Bithynia be-     |
  |       |                      :73-71. WAR WITH SPAR- :queathed to Rome by  |
  |       |72. The Helvetii and  :TACUS the gladiator,  :King Nicomedes III.  |
  |       |other tribes, under   :at the head of 70,000 :                     |
  |       |Ariovistus, advance   :slaves in Italy. Con- :66. Pompey in Asia,  |
  |       |into Gaul, but are    :cluded by Crassus and :about the Caucasus,  |
  |       |defeated by JULIUS    :Pompey.               :65, in Syria, 64.    |
  |       |CÆSAR, 58.            :                      :Settles the affairs  |
  |       |                      :65-62. Catiline’s con-:of Asia, 63.         |
  |       |                      :spiracy suppressed by :                     |
  |       |                      :the vigilance of      :                     |
  |       |                      :Cicero.               :                     |
  |       |                      :                      :                     |
  |       |                      :60. FIRST TRIUMVIRATE::                     |
  |       |                      :Cæsar, Pompey and     :                     |
  |       |                      :Crassus.              :                     |
  |       |58-51. GALLIC WAR.    :                      :                     |
  |       |Cæsar’s eight cam-    :                      :                     |
  |       |paigns in Gaul--he    :                      :                     |
  |       |arrests the invasion  :                      :                     |
  |       |of the Helvetii and   :                      :                     |
  |       |expels the Germans.   :                      :                     |
  |       |                      :                      :                     |
  |       |55. First invasion of :                      :                     |
  |       |Britain, and expedi-  :                      :                     |
  |       |tion into Germany.    :                      :                     |
  |       |                      :                      :                     |
  |       |54. Second invasion of:                      :54-53. Parthian War, |
  |       |Britain.              :                      :in which Crassus is  |
  |       |                      :                      :slain.               |
  |       |54-53. Cæsar crosses  :                      :                     |
  |       |the Rhine, but is un- :                      :                     |
  |       |successful in his     :                      :                     |
  |       |attack upon the       :                      :                     |
  |       |Germans.              :                      :                     |
  |  =50= |                      :                      :                     |
  |       |49-31. SECOND ROMAN CIVIL WAR between Cæsar  :                     |
  |       |and Pompey: Cæsar crosses the Rubicon with   :                     |
  |       |6,000 men, and in sixty days makes himself   :                     |
  |       |master of Italy. Cæsar marches into Spain,   :                     |
  |       |and forces Pompey’s troops to surrender.     :                     |
  |       |                      :                      :                     |
  |       |                      :48. Cæsar gains the   :                     |
  |       |                      :decisive victory of   :                     |
  |       |                      :=Pharsalla= over      :                     |
  |       |                      :Pompey, who flees into:                     |
  |       |                      :Egypt and is there    :                     |
  |       |                      :slain.                :                     |
  |       |                      :                      :                     |
  |       |                      :     _VIRGIL_ (70-19).:                     |
  |       |                      :                      :                     |
  |       |                      :47. Cæsar in Asia. War with Pharnaces, King |
  |       |                      :of Bosporus, (“veni, vidi, vici.”)          |
  |       |                      :                      :                     |
  |       |                      :46. AFRICAN WAR: defeat of Scipio and Juba  |
  |       |                      :at Thapsus. Cato kills himself at Utica.    |
  |       |                      :Cæsar returns to Rome. Dictator for ten     |
  |       |                      :years.                                      |
  |       |                      :                      :                     |
  |       |45. War in Spain: defeat of Pompey’s two sons:                     |
  |       |at Munda--Cæsar returns to Rome--Perpetual   :                     |
  |       |dictator, and Consul for ten years.          :                     |
  |       |                      :                      :                     |
  |       |                      :44. Plans an expedi-  :                     |
  |       |                      :tion against the      :                     |
  |       |                      :Parthians, but is     :                     |
  |       |                      :assassinated in the   :                     |
  |       |                      :senate house by       :                     |
  |       |                      :Brutus, Cassius, and  :                     |
  |       |                      :other conspirators, on:                     |
  |       |                      :the ides of March.    :                     |
  |       |                      :Antony and Octavianus :                     |
  |       |                      :(Cæsar’s heir) obtain :                     |
  |       |                      :the upper hand in     :                     |
  |       |                      :Rome.                 :                     |
  |       |                      :                      :                     |
  |       |                      :SECOND TRIUMVIRATE:   :                     |
  |       |                      :Antony, Octavianus,   :                     |
  |       |                      :and Lepidus.          :                     |
  |       |                      :                      :                     |
  |       |                      :42. Civil war of the  :                     |
  |       |                      :triumvirate against   :                     |
  |       |                      :the republicans--     :                     |
  |       |                      :Philippi--death of    :                     |
  |       |                      :Brutus and Cassius.   :                     |
  |       |                      :                      :                     |
  |       |                      :41-30. Quarrels of the:                     |
  |       |                      :Oligarchy.            :                     |
  |       |                      :                      :                     |
  |       |                      :36. Defeat and death  :36. Marcus Antonius  |
  |       |                      :of Pompey.            :invades Parthia but  |
  |       |                      :                      :is compelled to re-  |
  |       |                      :                      :treat with loss.     |
  |       |                      :                      :                     |
  |       |                      :                      :34. Antony subdues   |
  |       |                      :33-30. Civil war be-  :Armenia.             |
  |       |                      :tween Octavianus and  :                     |
  |       |                      :Antony.               :                     |
  |       |                      :                      :                     |
  |       |                      :31. Defeat of Antony at Actium. Cæsar gains |
  |       |                      :his fleet and army--death of Antony.        |
  |       |                      :                                            |
  |       |                      :OCTAVIANUS CÆSAR sole master of the repub-  |
  |       |                      :lic.                                        |
  |       |                      :                                            |
  |       |30. PERIOD OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE BEGINS. HISTORY OF THE EMPIRE IS NOW|
  |       |PRACTICALLY THAT OF THE CIVILIZED WORLD, DIVIDED INTO LATIN, GREEK |
  |       |AND ORIENTAL PROVINCES.                                            |
  +-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+

  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |=B. C.=|  =Seleucid Empire=  |     =Palestine=     :       =Egypt=       |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |261. Revolt of       |                     :                     |
  | =250= |Parthians from       |         The         :                     |
  |       |Seleucid rule.       |                     :247-30. Ptolemy III.,|
  |       |Parthian kingdom     |        Jews         :Euergetes. Extended  |
  |       |formed.              |                     :his empire by con-   |
  | =225= |                     |      remained       :quests in Mesopota-  |
  |       |223. ANTIOCHUS III., |                     :mia, Babylonia,      |
  |       |the Great, ruled     |       subject       :Persia, Susiana, and |
  |       |Syria, Phœnicia to   |                     :Media, and extends   |
  |       |Egypt.               |         to          :his influence as far |
  |       |                     |                     :as Thrace and Mace-  |
  |       |217. Antiochus III.  |        Egypt        :donia.               |
  |       |defeated by Ptolemy  |                     :                     |
  |       |Philopater in the    |        down         :                     |
  |       |battle of Raphia.    |                     :                     |
  |       |                     |         to          :                     |
  |       |212-206. Campaigns in|                     :                     |
  |       |Upper Asia against   |        B. C.        :205. Ptolemy V.,     |
  |       |the Parthians and    |                     :Epiphanes. Lost most |
  |       |Bactrians.           |         203,        :of the cities of     |
  |       |                     |                     :Palestine and Phœni- |
  |       |                     |         in          :cia to Antiochus and |
  |       |                     |                     :he cities of the     |
  |       |                     |     comparative     :Hellespont to Philip |
  |       |                     |                     :V. of Macedon. Egypt |
  |       |                     |        peace.       :assisted by Rome.    |
  |       |                     |                     :                     |
  |       |                     :203. Judæa submits to:                     |
  |       |                     :Antiochus the Great. |_Roman influence pre-|
  |       |                     :                     |vails from this time_|
  | =200= |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |198. Antiochus de-   :198. The Jews assist |                     |
  |       |feats the Egyptians  :Antiochus in ex-     |                     |
  |       |under Scopas in a    :pelling Scopas and   |                     |
  |       |great battle in      :the Egyptian troops  |                     |
  |       |Palestine.           :from Jerusalem; final|                     |
  |       |                     :establishment of the |                     |
  |       |195. Hannibal flees  :Syrian power in      |                     |
  |       |to Antiochus III.    :Palestine.           |193. Ptolemy marries |
  |       |                     :                     |the daughter of      |
  |       |192. Syria at war    :                     |Antiochus the Great. |
  |       |with Rome.           :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |190. Scipio Asiaticus:                     |                     |
  |       |defeats Antiochus    :                     |                     |
  |       |III. at Magnesia and :                     |                     |
  |       |compels him to cede  :                     |                     |
  |       |all of Asia Minor    :                     |                     |
  |       |excepting Cilicia.   :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |189. ARMENIA revolts :                     |                     |
  |       |from the Seleucid    :                     |                     |
  |       |rule and establishes :                     |                     |
  |       |its independence.    :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |187. Antiochus III.  :                     |187. Ptolemy renews  |
  |       |killed; succeeded by :                     |his alliance with the|
  |       |Seleucus IV.         :                     |Achæans.             |
  |       |Philopator.          :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :                     |181-146. Ptolemy VI. |
  | =175= |175-164. Antiochus   :175. Deposition of   |(Philometor).        |
  |       |IV. Epiphanes.       :the high priest      |                     |
  |       |Universally hated and:Onias.               |                     |
  |       |despised.            :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |171. Invades Egypt,  :                     |171-168. War with    |
  |       |and gains a victory  :                     |Antiochus Epiphanes. |
  |       |at Pelusium.         :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |170. Another victory.:170. Tyranny of      |                     |
  |       |Subjugation of Egypt :Antiochus.           |                     |
  |       |as far as Alexandria.:                     |                     |
  |       |                     |167. Revolt of       |                     |
  |       |                     |Mattathias, which    |                     |
  |       |                     |proves remarkably    |                     |
  |       |                     |successful.          |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |166-161. Judas       |                     |
  |       |164. Dies on his way |Maccabæus.           |164. Partition of the|
  |       |to Babylon. Loss of  |                     |kingdom. Physcon     |
  |       |Babylonia, Persia,   |                     |receives Cyrene and  |
  |       |and all the countries|                     |Libya.               |
  |       |between the Euphrates|                     |                     |
  |       |and Indus.           |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |161-150. Demetrius I.|161-142. Jonathan    |                     |
  |       |Soter.               |joins the party of   |                     |
  |       |                     |Alexander Bala, and  |                     |
  |       |153-152. Alexander   |becomes the leading  |                     |
  |       |Bala. Occupies       |man in Judæa.        |                     |
  |       |Ptolemais.           |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |_Continued struggle  |                     |
  | =150= |150. Demetrius killed|of the Jews, in de-  |                     |
  |       |in battle.           |fence of their civil |                     |
  |       |                     |and religious rights |                     |
  |       |150-125. Demetrius   |to 130._             |                     |
  |       |II. Nicator. regains |                     |146-117. Ptolemy VII.|
  |       |his father’s kingdom |                     |(Euergetes II.), a   |
  |       |by the aid of Ptolemy|                     |cruel and odious     |
  |       |Philometor.          |                     |tyrant.              |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |143. Embassy of      |
  |       |137-128. Antiochus   |                     |Scipio Africanus to  |
  |       |VI. Sidetes, marries |                     |Alexandria.          |
  |       |Cleopatra.           |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |130. John Hyrcanus,  |130. The Alexandrines|
  |       |129. War with        |aided by the Parthi- |rebel. The king flees|
  |       |Parthia, in which    |ans, asserts his     |to Cyprus.           |
  |       |Antiochus is slain,  |entire independence. |                     |
  |       |126.                 |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |_The succeeding      |                     |                     |
  |       |history of the       |                     |                     |
  |       |Seleucidæ is a horrid|                     |                     |
  |       |picture of civil     |                     |                     |
  |       |wars, family feuds,  |                     |                     |
  |       |and deeds of         |                     |                     |
  |       |violence._           |                     |                     |
  | =125= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |117-81. Ptolemy VIII.|
  |       |111. Conclusion of   |                     |(Soter II.)          |
  |       |war by a partition of|110. Hyrcanus joins  |                     |
  |       |territory. Syria and |the Sadducees.       |Cleopatra and her    |
  |       |Phœnicia are the only|                     |younger son,         |
  |       |provinces that       |106. ALEXANDER       |Alexander, jointly   |
  |       |acknowledge the sway |JANNÆUS.             |reign in Egypt.      |
  |       |of the king of Syria.|                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |       SYRIA         |                     |                     |
  | =100= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |98-97. Jannæus be-   |                     |
  |       |83. Tigranes, King of|sieges and takes     |                     |
  |       |Armenia, is invited  |Gaza.                |82. Revolt and three |
  |       |by the Syrians to    |                     |years’ siege of      |
  |       |assume the crown.    |                     |Thebes, which is     |
  |       |                     |                     |captured and         |
  |       |69. He is expelled by|                     |destroyed.           |
  |       |Lucullus.            |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |65-62. Antiochus     |                     |                     |
  |       |Asiaticus is expelled|63. Judæa dependent  |This period of       |
  |       |by Pompey, who re-   |upon Romans.         |Egyptian history is  |
  |       |duces Syria to a     |                     |very obscure.        |
  |       |Roman province.      |                     |                     |
  |       +---------------------+---------------------+                     |
  |       :By the absorption of :                     |                     |
  |       :Syria, Rome comes    :                     |                     |
  |       :into touch with the  :                     |                     |
  |       :Parthian power.      :                     |                     |
  |       :                     :54. Crassus pillages |                     |
  |       :52. Parthians overrun:the Temple.          |                     |
  |  =50= :Syria and threaten   :                     |                     |
  |       :Antioch.             :48. Antipater, by the|48. ALEXANDRINE WAR. |
  |       :                     :influence of Julius  |Ptolemy perishes in  |
  |       :                     :Cæsar, he is ap-     |the contest, and the |
  |       :                     :pointed procurator of|crown falls to       |
  |       :                     :Judæa.               |CLEOPATRA, who reigns|
  |       :                     :                     |jointly with Ptolemy |
  |       :                     :                     |II.                  |
  |       :                     :                     |                     |
  |       :                     :                     |44. Cleopatra removes|
  |       :40. Parthians invade :                     |her brother by       |
  |       :Syria, take Antioch  :38. Herod, his second|poison.              |
  |       :and Sidon, plunder   :son, rises to power  |                     |
  |       :Jerusalem and advance:by the friendship of |                     |
  |       :as far as the Medi-  :Antony and is ap-    |                     |
  |       :terranean.           :pointed king.        |                     |
  |       :                     :                     |                     |
  |       :                     :37. He takes posses- |                     |
  |       :                     :sion of Jerusalem and|36. Cleopatra obtains|
  |       :                     :Judæa.               |from Antony grant of |
  |       :                     :                     |Phœnicia, Cyrene and |
  |       :                     :                     |Cyprus.              |
  |       :                     :                     |                     |
  |       :                     :                     |30. Dies by her own  |
  |       :                     :                     |hand.                |
  |       :                     :                     |                     |
  |       :                     :                     |_A Roman province._  |
  |       :                     :                     +---------------------+
  |       :30. PERIOD OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE BEGINS. HISTORY OF THE EMPIRE IS  |
  |       :NOW PRACTICALLY THAT OF THE CIVILIZED WORLD, DIVIDED INTO LATIN, |
  |       :GREEK AND ORIENTAL PROVINCES.                                    |
  +-------+-----------------------------------------------------------------+

  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |=B. C.=|      =Parthia=      |=China, India, Japan=|
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+
  | =250= |250-248. Arsaces I.  |                     |
  |       |founds the kingdom of|                     |
  | =225= |Parthia, having      |                     |
  |       |killed Agathocles,   |221-210. China: Chi- |
  |       |and expelled the     |Huang-Ti, first uni- |
  |       |Macedonians.         |versal emperor. GREAT|
  |       |                     |WALL BUILT.          |
  |       |216. Arsaces III.,   |                     |
  |       |King of Persia.      |206. China: The dy-  |
  |       |                     |nasty of Han founded;|
  |       |                     |it lasts until 221   |
  |       |                     |A. D. _One of the    |
  |       |                     |most brilliant       |
  |       |                     |periods in the       |
  |       |                     |history of China._   |
  | =200= |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |199-138. India: So-  |
  |       |196. Arsaces IV.,    |called “Greek Kings.”|
  |       |King of Parthia.     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |181-174. Arsaces V., |                     |
  |       |conquers the Mardians|                     |
  |       |on the Caspian.      |                     |
  | =175= |                     |                     |
  |       |174-136. Mithridates |                     |
  |       |I., raises Parthia to|166. China: Tartar   |
  |       |an exalted rank.     |invasion.            |
  | =150= |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |140. China: VOUTI,   |
  |       |138. The invasion of |Emperor, Great Ruler.|
  |       |Demetrius II. of     |Invasion of Huns.    |
  |       |Syria.               |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |128. Invasion of     |                     |
  |       |Antiochus. Parthian  |                     |
  |       |empire is hencefor-  |                     |
  |       |ward freed from the  |                     |
  |       |attacks of the Syrian|                     |
  |       |kings.               |                     |
  | =125= |                     |                     |
  |       |124-87. Mithridates  |                     |
  |       |II., restores tran-  |                     |
  |       |quillity to the East |                     |
  |       |after a long succes- |                     |
  |       |sion of bloody wars. |                     |
  |       |He meets with a      |                     |
  |       |powerful rival in    |                     |
  |       |Tigranes I., King of |                     |
  |       |Armenia.             |                     |
  | =100= |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |97-30. Japan: Sujin, |
  |       |92. First public     |Mikado. Important    |
  |       |transaction between  |reforms.             |
  |       |_Rome and Parthia_.  |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |68-60. Arsaces XII.  |                     |
  |       |contemporary with the|                     |
  |       |third Mithridatic    |                     |
  |       |War.                 |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |54. First war with   |                     |
  |       |Rome caused by the   |                     |
  |       |invasion of Crassus. |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |
  |       |52-51. The Parthians |                     |
  |       |invade Syria.        |                     |
  |  =50= |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |40. India: Trade with|
  |       |38. Arsaces XV.      |Greece, Rome, Egypt, |
  |       |                     |China, and the East. |
  |       |36. Defeats Antony.  |Period of Hindu      |
  |       |                     |power.               |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+


VI. FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE UNDER AUGUSTUS TO ITS
PERMANENT DIVISION, B. C. 30-395, A. D.

  GREAT EVENTS OF THE PERIOD: Rome mistress of the world. The Augustan
  Age. Golden Age of Roman literature. 1-100, A. D.: Christianity
  founded amid persecutions. Parthia a powerful state but unequal
  rival of Rome. 100-200: Zenith of Roman Empire. The good emperors.
  Persecutions of the Christians continue. 200-300: Emperors chosen by
  the army. Germanic tribes on Roman borders. Persecutions continue.
  300-400: Constantine moves the capital of the empire to
  Constantinople, and professes Christianity. Rise of Christian
  Monasticism. Great church disputes. Germanic incursions and
  settlements. The Roman Empire reaches its greatest territorial
  extent.

  +-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
  |=B. C.=|   =The Roman Empire--In Europe, Asia and Africa--Under Augustus   :
  |       |                          Cæsar, Emperor=                          :
  +-------+-------------------------------------------------------------------+
  |       |31-14. Cæsar Octavianus Augustus. The surname Augustus (the Illus- :
  |       |trious, the Sublime), which was given Octavianus by the Senate in  :
  |       |27 B. C., is the name by which he was known as sole ruler of the   :
  |       |Roman world.                                                       :
  |       |                                                                   :
  |       |   =Countries Subject to Roman   :        =Age of Augustus=        :
  |       |           Dominion=             :                                 :
  |       |                                 :                                 :
  |       |IN EUROPE:--_Spain_, _Gaul_,     :27-25. Expedition of Augustus    :
  |       |_Britain_, _Italy_, _Rhætia_,    :against the Cantabri and Astures.:
  |       |_Vindelicia_, _Noricum_,         :                                 :
  |  =25= |_Pannonia_, _Illyria_, _Greece_, :25. Expedition to Arabia, without:
  |       |_Macedonia_, _Thrace_, _Mœsia_,  :results, conducted by C. Ælius   :
  |       |_Dacia_.                         :Gallus, prefect of Egypt.        :
  |       |                                 :                                 :
  |       |IN ASIA:--_Asia Minor_, _Syria_, :22-21. Successful war against the:
  |       |_Phœnicia_, _Palestine_, _the    :Ethiopians, by Petronius, the    :
  |       |northern and eastern coasts of   :successor of Gallus in Egypt.    :
  |       |the Black Sea_, _Armenia_,       :                                 :
  |       |_Mesopotamia_, _Assyria_.        :20. Campaign of Augustus against :
  |       |                                 :the Parthians. Tigranes was re-  :
  |       |IN AFRICA:--_Egypt_, _and the    :instated in the kingdom of       :
  |       |whole of the northern coast_.    :Armenia.                         :
  |       |                                 :                                 :
  |       |Its distant territories were     :19. Subjugation of Spain com-    :
  |       |_Scandia_, _Sarmatia_, _India_,  :pleted.                          :
  |       |_Æthiopia_, and _Galatia_; Rome  :                                 :
  |       |itself being the common center of:15. Rhætia made a Roman province,:
  |       |the whole.                       :along with Vindelicia (now Augs- :
  |       |                                 :burg) and Noricum.               :
  |       +---------------------------------+                                 :
  |       |        =German Nations=         |12-9. Drusus undertook four cam- :
  |   =1  +---------------------------------+paigns in Germany proper.        :
  | A. D.=|                                 |                                 :
  |       |                                 |4-6. Campaigns of Tiberius in    :
  |       |6-9. Varus, in his camp on the   |Germany.                         :
  |       |Weser, governs Lower Germany as a|                                 :
  |       |Roman province.                  |7. Germanicus is sent into       :
  |       |                                 |Germany.                         :
  |       |9. Hermann, or Arminius defeats  |                                 :
  |       |Varus at =Winfield-Lippe=. Teu-  |                                 :
  |       |tonic independence established by|                                 :
  |       |the defeat of the Roman legions. |                                 :
  |       |The line drawn between the       |                                 :
  |       |Germanic and Latin races.        |                                 :
  |       |                                 |                                 :
  |       |14-17. Expedition of Germanicus. |14-37. Tiberius (Claudius Nero), :
  |       |                                 |step-son of Augustus.            :
  |  =25= |_The Romans from this time main- |                                 :
  |       |tain military power on the right |37-41. Caligula (properly, Gaius :
  |       |bank of the Rhine and from the   |Cæsar Germanicus), youngest son  :
  |       |Maine to the Danube._            |of Germanicus.                   :
  |       |                                 |                                 :
  |       |                                 |41-54. Claudius (Tiberius        :
  |       |                                 |Claudius Nero), son of Drusus,   :
  |       |                                 |influenced largely by 1, the     :
  |       |                                 |shameless Messalina; 2, the      :
  |       |                                 |ambitious Agrippina.             :
  |       |                                 |                                 :
  |       |                                 |43. Commencement of the conquest :
  |       |                                 |of Britain.                      :
  |       |                                 |                                 :
  |  =50= |50. Colony of Claudius. Agrippa  |                                 :
  |       |(Cologne) founded.               |54-68. Nero (Nero Claudius Cæsar :
  |       |                                 |Augustus Germanicus). Destroys   :
  |       |                                 |Britannicus and all the Julian   :
  |       |                                 |family.                          :
  |       |                                 |                                 :
  |       |                                 |59-62. Murders his wife and      :
  |       |                                 |mother.                          :
  |       |                                 |                                 :
  |       |                                 |64. Fire at Rome, followed,      :
  |       |                                 |                                 :
  |       |                                 |65. by the persecution of the    :
  |       |                                 |Christians.                      :
  |       |                                 |                                 :
  |       |                                 |68. Death of Nero, and extinction:
  |       |                                 |of the house of Cæsar.           :
  |       |                                 |                                 :
  |       |69-70. Revolt of the Batavians in|69-79. VESPASIANUS, (Titus       :
  |       |Belgian Gaul.                    |Flavius Vespasianus), one best of:
  |       |                                 |Roman princes. Eruption of       :
  |       |                                 |Vesuvius and destruction of      :
  |       |                                 |Herculaneum, Pompeii and Stabiæ. :
  |       |                                 |                                 :
  |       |                                 |86-107. DACIAN WARS.             :
  |       |                                 |                                 :
  |       |                                 |            _PLUTARCH_ (50?-120?):
  |       |                                 |                                 :
  |       |                                 |98-117. TRAJAN (Marcus Ulpius    :
  |       |                                 |Traianus). Excellent ruler and   :
  |       |                                 |general. Magnificent buildings in:
  |       |                                 |Rome (Forum Traianum) and        :
  |       |                                 |throughout the empire.           :
  | =100= |                                 |                                 :
  |       |                                 |101-103. Victorious over the     :
  |       |106. Dacia a Roman province. The |Dacians.                         :
  |       |country is filled with Roman     |                                 :
  |       |colonists. Origin of the Latin   |107. Reduction of part of Arabia.:
  |       |language in Hungary.             |                                 :
  |       |                                 |114-116. War with the Parthians, :
  |       |                                 |in which Rome is victorious.     :
  |       |                                 |Armenia and Mesopotamia Roman    :
  |       |                                 |provinces.                       :
  |       |                                 |                                 :
  |       |                                 |  PERIOD OF GREATEST EXTENT OF   :
  |       |                                 |          THE EMPIRE.            :
  |       |                                 |                                 :
  |       |                                 |117-138. Hadrian (Publius Ælius  :
  |       |                                 |Hadrianus) a lover of peace, an  :
  |       |                                 |excellent administrator, learned :
  |       |                                 |and vain.                        :
  |       |                                 |                                 :
  |       |                                 |117. Gives up the provinces of   :
  |       |                                 |Armenia, Mesopotamia and Assyria.:
  |       +---------------------------------+---------------------------------+
  |       |        =German Nations=         |  =The Roman Empire--In Europe,  :
  |       |                                 |        Asia and Africa=         :
  |       +---------------------------------+---------------------------------+
  |       |121. Roman wall from the Rhine to|121. Builds a wall across the    :
  |       |the Danube by Hadrian.           |north of England.                :
  | =125= |                                 |                                 :
  |       |                                 |131. Improves Roman juris-       :
  |       |                                 |prudence.                        :
  |       |                                 |                                 :
  |       |                                 |138-161. ANTONINUS PIUS, whose   :
  |       |140. =The Goths migrate south-   |reign was the happiest period of :
  |       |wards.=                          |the Roman empire.                :
  | =150= |                                 |                                 :
  |       |                                 |161-180. MARCUS AURELIUS, (Marcus:
  |       |                                 |Aurelius Antoninus), a wise and  :
  |       |                                 |active sovereign, highly         :
  |       |                                 |educated, a stoic philosopher.   :
  |       |                                 |                                 :
  |       |                                 |162-165. Verus successful against:
  |       |                                 |the Parthians.                   :
  |       |                                 |                                 :
  |       |                                 |166. The Marcomanni, with their  :
  |       |167-180. War of the league       |allies, penetrate as far as      :
  |       |against Rome.                    |Aquileia.                        :
  |       |                                 |                                 :
  |       |170. Invasion of Illyria as far  |                                 :
  | =175= |as Aquileia.                     |                                 :
  |       |                                 |178. The Marcomanni and their    :
  |       |                                 |allies renew the war with Rome,  :
  |       |                                 |and before the close of it M.    :
  |       |                                 |Aurelius dies, 180, at Sirmium.  :
  |       |                                 |                                 :
  |       |                                 |193-284. CIVIL WARS OF THE ROMAN :
  |       |                                 |EMPIRE.                          :
  |       |                                 |                                 :
  |       |                                 |  =Period of Military Despotism= :
  |       |                                 |                                 :
  |       +----------------+----------------+193-211. Septimius Severus. Im-  :
  |       |    =Franks=    :    =Goths=     |provements in the administration :
  |       +----------------+----------------+of justice through the jurist    :
  | =200= |The name of     :200. The Goths  |Papinianus.                      :
  |       |Franks, (or free:enter Dacia, and|                                 :
  |       |men), was given :after crossing  |208. Expedition to Britain       :
  |       |to a military   :the Danube      |against the Scots.               :
  |       |confederacy of  :attack the Roman|                                 :
  |       |the lower Rhine :provinces.      |211-217. CARACALLA, (Antoninus   :
  |       |and the Weser.  :                |Bassianus). By the Constitutio   :
  |       |                :                |Antoniana Roman citizenship was  :
  |       |                :                |conferred upon all the inhabi-   :
  |       |                :                |tants of the provinces. Systemat-:
  |       |                :                |ic plundering of the provinces,  :
  |       |                :                |unsuccessful wars against the    :
  |       |                :                |Goths in Dacia, cruel treatment  :
  |       |                :                |of the inhabitants of Alexandria.:
  |       |                :                |Plundering expedition against the:
  |       |                :                |Parthians.                       :
  |       |                :                |                                 :
  |       |                :                |222-235. SEVERUS ALEXANDER. Ex-  :
  | =225= |                :                |cellent ruler, advised by the    :
  |       |                :                |jurists Domitius Ulpianus and    :
  |       |                :                |Julius Paullus.                  :
  |       |                :236-237. They   |                                 :
  |       |238. They invade:invade lower    |                                 :
  |       |Gaul.           :Mœsia, and exact|248. Celebration of the thou-    :
  |       |                :tribute of the  |sandth anniversary of the founda-:
  |       |                :Romans.         |tion of Rome.                    :
  |       |                :                |                                 :
  | =250= |                :250. The Goths, |                                 :
  |       |                :under their     |                                 :
  |       |                :king, Ostro-    |                                 :
  |       |                :gotha, for the  |                                 :
  |       |                :first time force|                                 :
  |       |                :their way into  |                                 :
  |       |                :the Roman Empire|                                 :
  |       |                :by crossing the |                                 :
  |       |                :Danube.         |                                 :
  |       |                :                |                                 :
  |       |                :258-69. Four    |                                 :
  |       |                :great expedi-   |268-270. Claudius II. raised to  :
  |       |                :tions of the    |the throne by the soldiers.      :
  |       |                :Goths into Asia |                                 :
  |       |                :Minor and       |270-275. AURELIANUS. He concluded:
  |       |                :Greece.         |peace with the Goths by the sac- :
  |       |                :                |rifice of the province of Dacia. :
  |       |                :272. They are   |He defeated Zenobia in two       :
  |       |                :driven from     |battles, at Antiochia and at     :
  |       |                :Illyricum and   |Edessa, subdued Syria, besieged  :
  |       |                :Thrace, and de- |and destroyed Palmyra, captured  :
  |       |                :feated also on  |Zenobia, and reconquered Egypt,  :
  |       |                :the Danube.     |273. Aurelian called “Restorer of:
  |       |                :                |the universal Empire.”           :
  |       |                :274. They obtain|                                 :
  | =275= |                :Dacia from the  |275. Tacitus, Imperator. He de-  :
  |       |                :Romans.         |feated the Alani, who had invaded:
  |       |                :                |Asia Minor.                      :
  |       |                :The Goths, in   |                                 :
  |       |                :their progress  |276-282. Probus. Drove back the  :
  |       |277. Extraordi- :southward, are  |Franks, Burgundians, Alamanni and:
  |       |nary naval expe-:joined by count-|Vandals, entered Germany, and    :
  |       |dition of the   :less swarms of  |strengthened the wall between the:
  |       |Thracian Franks,:barbarians and  |Rhine and Danube.                :
  |       |in the Mediter- :thus overwhelm  |                                 :
  |       |ranean and      :the countries   |282-283. Carus succeeded. Con-   :
  |       |northern seas.  :they invade.    |quered the Sarmatians.           :
  |       |                :                |                                 :
  |       |                :                |284-305. Diocletianus proclaimed :
  |       |288. Maximian   :Gothic monarchy |imperator by the soldiers.       :
  |       |transplants a   :on the banks of |                                 :
  |       |part of them    :the lower Danube|      =Period of Absolute        :
  |       |into Gaul.      :and the northern|         Imperialism.=           :
  |       |                :coast of the    |                                 :
  |       |                :Black Sea.      |                                 :
  |       |                :                |                                 :
  |       |                :290. They con-  |                                 :
  |       |294. Repeated   :quer the        |                                 :
  |       |migrations.     :Burgundiones.   |                                 :
  | =300= |                :                |                                 :
  |       |306. Constantine:                |                                 :
  |       |defeats the     :                |308. Rebellion in Rome. Six      :
  |       |Franks, who had :                |emperors.                        :
  |       |invaded Gaul.   :                |                                 :
  |       |                :                |310-323. WARS OF CONSTANTINE THE :
  |       |                :                |GREAT.                           :
  |       |                :                |                                 :
  |       |                :                |323-337. CONSTANTINE, THE GREAT, :
  | =325= |                :                |sole ruler. Christianity recog-  :
  |       |                :                |nized by the State and favored at:
  |       |                :                |the expense of paganism.         :
  |       |                :                |                                 :
  |       |                :                |330. Seat of empire moved to     :
  |       |                :                |Constantinople.                  :
  |       |                :                |                                 :
  |       |                :                |337. On the death of Constantine :
  | =350  |                :350. Hermanric, |the Great, the empire was divided:
  |       |356-7. Franks   :King of the     |between his three sons: Constan- :
  |       |and Alemanni    :Ostrogoths,     |tine, Constans and Constantius.  :
  |       |pour into Gaul. :founds an exten-|                                 :
  |       |                :sive empire.    |361. JULIAN, called the Apostate.:
  |       |                :                |Disliked Christianity, and tried :
  |       |                :                |to restore paganism.             :
  |       |                :                |                                 :
  |       |                :                |364. Empire divided into East and:
  |       |365-371. Valen- :                |West with an emperor ruling in   :
  |       |tinian drives   :366. The Goths  |each.                            :
  |       |the Alemanni out:invade Thrace,  |                                 :
  |       |of Gaul.        :but are defeated|                |                :
  |       |                :by the generals |      WEST      |      EAST      :
  |       |                :of Valens. Upon |                |                :
  |       |                :the invasion of |364.            |364. Valens,    :
  |       |                :the Huns, the   |Valentinian I.  |killed by Goths.:
  |       |                :Ostrogoths sepa-|                                 :
  |       |                :rate from the   |                                 :
  |       |                :Visigoths.      |                                 :
  |       |                :                |                                 :
  | =375= |                :375. Death of   |375-493. INVASION OF ROMAN EMPIRE:
  |       |                :Hermanric and   |BY NORTHERN BARBARIANS.          :
  |       |                :fall of his     |                                 :
  |       |                :empire.         |375. Gratian and|                :
  |       |                :                |Valentinian II. |                :
  |       |                :376. The Visi-  |                |                :
  |       |                :goths pressed by|                |379. Theodosius :
  |       |                :the Huns, im-   |383. Valentinian|I. Became a     :
  |       |                :plore the pro-  |II.             |Christian; kept :
  |       |                :tection of      |                |back the Goths; :
  |       |                :Valens, and     |                |divided Armenia :
  |       |                :cross the Danube|                |between Rome and:
  |       |                :into Mœsia,     |                |Persia.         :
  |       |                :which he cedes  |                                 :
  |       |                :to them.        |394. The whole empire was, for   :
  |       |                :                |the last time, reunited under    :
  |       |                :                |                                 :
  |       |                :                |394-395. THEODOSIUS. After his   :
  |       |                :                |death the division of adminis-   :
  |       |                :                |tration into an eastern and west-:
  |       |                :                |ern section, which had existed   :
  |       |                :                |for a hundred years, became a    :
  |       |                :                |permanent division of the empire.:
  |       |                :                |                                 :
  |       |                :                |395. _DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE     :
  |       |                :                |BETWEEN THE SONS OF THEODOSIUS,  :
  |       |                :                |HONORIUS AND ARCADIUS._          :
  +-------+----------------+----------------+---------------------------------+

  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |=B. C.=:    =Roman Empire=   |      =Parthia=      |=China, Japan, India=|
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       :     =Palestine=     |                     |                     |
  |       +---------------------+                     |                     |
  |       :30. Augustus bestows |                     |30. Japan: Suinin, a |
  |       :increase of territory|                     |great civilizer.     |
  |       :on Herod.            |                     |                     |
  |       :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :29. Herod kills his  |                     |                     |
  |       :wife, Mariamne.      |                     |27. India: Andhra    |
  |       :                     |                     |kingdom very power-  |
  |  =25= :25. Herod begins ex- |25. Tiridates aspires|ful.                 |
  |       :tensive building     |to the sovereignty   |                     |
  |       :operations in Judea: |but is defeated and  |                     |
  |       :rebuilds Samaria, re-|takes refuge at the  |                     |
  |       :constructs temple at |court of Augustus.   |                     |
  |       :Jerusalem, 20-19.    |                     |                     |
  |       :                     |20. Phraates restores|                     |
  |       :                     |the standards taken  |                     |
  |       :                     |from Crassus.        |                     |
  |       :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :                     |18. Sends his sons as|                     |
  |       :4. Birth of =Jesus   |hostages to Rome.    |                     |
  |       :Christ=. Date now    |                     |                     |
  |       :generally accepted   |_Gradual decline of  |                     |
  |       :though not actually  |the Parthian         |                     |
  |       :certain.             |Kingdom._            |                     |
  |   =1  +---------------------+                     |                     |
  | A. D.=:   =The Christian    |                     |                     |
  |       :       Church=       |                     |                     |
  |       +---------------------+                     |                     |
  |       :6. Judea made a Roman|                     |                     |
  |       :province under a pro-|                     |21. India:           |
  |       :curator.             |                     |Gondophares, King of |
  |  =25= :                     |_Series of struggles |Kabul and Punjab.    |
  |       :26. Pontius Pilate   |for succession to the|                     |
  |       :becomes procurator of|throne for over one  |                     |
  |       :Judea.               |hundred years._      |                     |
  |       :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :28-29. Baptism of    |                     |                     |
  |       :Jesus Christ and be- |                     |                     |
  |       :ginning of His public|                     |                     |
  |       :work.                |                     |                     |
  |       :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :30. Crucifixion of   |                     |                     |
  |       :Jesus Christ.        |                     |                     |
  |       :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :35-36. ST. PAUL con- |                     |                     |
  |       :verted to Christiani-|                     |                     |
  |       :ty.                  |                     |                     |
  |       :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :42. ST. PETER, the   |                     |                     |
  |       :Apostle, after       |                     |                     |
  |       :filling the see of   |                     |                     |
  |       :Antioch seven years, |                     |                     |
  |       :goes to Rome.        |                     |                     |
  |       :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :49. Council of the   |                     |                     |
  |  =50= :Apostles at Jerusa-  |50. Vologeses I.     |                     |
  |       :lem.                 |                     |                     |
  |       :                     |52. War against Rome |                     |
  |       :56. Paul arrested in |for the possession of|                     |
  |       :Jerusalem.           |Armenia Minor.       |58. China: Ming-Ti   |
  |       :                     |                     |introduces Buddhism. |
  |       :59. Paul arrives in  |                     |                     |
  |       :Rome.                |                     |                     |
  |       :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :64. First traditional|                     |                     |
  |       :persecution of Chris-|65. Terminated at the|                     |
  |       :tians, by Nero.      |death of Tigranes,   |                     |
  |       :                     |when Tiridates ac-   |                     |
  |       :66. Outbreak of      |cepts the crown of   |                     |
  |       :Jewish war.          |Armenia from Nero.   |                     |
  |       :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :67. Pope Linus.      |                     |                     |
  |       :Vespasian despatched |                     |                     |
  |       :against the Jews.    |                     |                     |
  |       :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :70. The destruction  |                     |                     |
  |       :of Jerusalem by      |                     |71-130. Japan: Keiko |
  |       :Titus.               |                     |and Yamato-Dake make |
  |       :                     |                     |large conquests.     |
  |       :72. Conquest of Judea|                     |                     |
  |  =75= :completed.           |                     |                     |
  |       :                     |90. Death of         |                     |
  |       :95. Second traditio- |Vologeses. Arsaces   |                     |
  |       :nal persecution of   |XXIV. in alliance    |                     |
  |       :the Christians, by   |with the Romans, em- |                     |
  |       :Domitian.            |bellishes Ctesiphon. |                     |
  | =100= :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :                     |107. Chosroes        |                     |
  |       :                     |(Arsaces XXV.), im-  |109. China: Conquest |
  |       :112-113. Third tra-  |plicated in a war    |of Korea.            |
  |       :ditional persecution,|with Trajan on       |                     |
  |       :by Trajan.           |account of Armenia.  |                     |
  |       :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :                     |117. Chosroes re-    |                     |
  |       :  PERIOD OF GREATEST |stored.              |                     |
  |       :    EXTENT OF THE    |                     |                     |
  |       :       EMPIRE.       |121. Vologeses II.,  |                     |
  | =125= :                     |(Arsaces XXVI.)      |125. India: Nagar-   |
  |       :                     |                     |Juna, great apostle  |
  |       :145. Rise of the     |                     |of Buddhism.         |
  |       :Marcionites.         |149. Vologeses III., |                     |
  | =150= :                     |(Arsaces XXVII). Re- |                     |
  |       :154. Canon of Scrip- |newal of the war with|                     |
  |       :ture fixed about this|Rome.                |                     |
  |       :time. JUSTIN MARTYR  |                     |                     |
  |       :publishes his apology|                     |                     |
  |       :for the Christians.  |                     |                     |
  |       :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :155. Martyrdom of    |                     |                     |
  |       :Polycarp; appearance |                     |                     |
  |       :of Montanus.         |                     |                     |
  |       :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :165. Death of Justin |165. Casius destroys |                     |
  |       :Martyr.              |Seleucia.            |                     |
  | =175= :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :177. Fourth traditio-|                     |                     |
  |       :nal persecution, by  |                     |                     |
  |       :Marcus Aurelius--    |                     |                     |
  |       :Irenæus becomes      |                     |                     |
  |       :bishop of Lyons.     |                     |                     |
  |       :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :180. Age of Theo-    |                     |                     |
  |       :philus and Tatian.   |191. Vologeses IV.,  |                     |
  |       :                     |(Arsaces XXVIII.)    |                     |
  | =200= :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :                     |                     |201-269. Japan:      |
  |       :                     |207. Defeated by     |JINGU-KOGO, most     |
  |       :                     |Septimius Severus,   |famous of Japanese   |
  |       :                     |who sacks the chief  |female sovereigns.   |
  |       :                     |towns of Parthia.    |                     |
  |       :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :                     |216. Artabanus IV.,  |                     |
  |       :                     |(Arsaces XXX), the   |221-265. China: Epoch|
  |       :                     |last of the Arsacidæ.|of the “Three King-  |
  |       :                     +---------------------+doms.”               |
  |       :                     |      =Persia=       |                     |
  | =225= :                     +---------------------+                     |
  |       :                     |226-651. Dynasty of  |                     |
  |       :                     |the Sassanides.      |                     |
  |       :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :                     |226-240. Artaxerxes  |                     |
  |       :235. Origen. Sixth   |becomes the founder  |                     |
  |       :persecution of the   |of the new Persian   |                     |
  |       :Christians, under    |monarchy.            |                     |
  |       :Maximinus.           |                     |                     |
  |       :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :248. Cyprian becomes |                     |                     |
  |       :bishop of Carthage.  |                     |                     |
  |       :Monastic life origi- |                     |                     |
  |       :nates about this     |                     |                     |
  |       :time. Dispute between|                     |                     |
  |       :the churches of Rome |                     |                     |
  |       :and Africa about     |                     |                     |
  |       :baptism.             |                     |                     |
  | =250= :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :251. Seventh persecu-|                     |                     |
  |       :tion of the Christi- |                     |                     |
  |       :ans, under Decius.   |                     |                     |
  |       :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :257. Eighth persecu- |257. War against the |                     |
  |       :tion, under Valerian.|Romans: Sapor advan- |                     |
  |       :                     |ces as far as Cappa- |                     |
  |       :260. Paul, of        |docia. The Emperor   |                     |
  |       :Samosata, bishop of  |Valerian taken       |                     |
  |       :Antioch, denies the  |prisoner.            |                     |
  |       :divinity of Jesus    |                     |                     |
  |       :Christ.              |                     |                     |
  |       :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :270. MANES advocates |_The Sassanidæ,      |270-310. Japan: OJIN,|
  |       :his doctrines in     |claiming to be de-   |a great warrior.     |
  |       :Persia.              |scendants of the     |                     |
  |       :                     |ancient kings of     |                     |
  |       :274. Ninth persecu-  |Persia, form preten- |                     |
  | =275= :tion, under Aurelian.|sions to all the     |                     |
  |       :                     |Asiatic provinces of |                     |
  |       :                     |the Roman Empire._   |                     |
  |       :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :                     |292-301. Narses.     |                     |
  | =300= :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :                     |301-309. Hormisdas   |                     |
  |       :303. Tenth persecu-  |II., builds Ormus.   |                     |
  |       :tion of the Christi- |                     |                     |
  |       :ans, by Diocletian.  |305. Persecution of  |                     |
  |       :                     |the Christians       |                     |
  |       :                     |stopped by           |                     |
  |       :                     |Constantius Chlorus. |                     |
  |       :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :                     |309-380. Sapor II    |                     |
  |       :311. Pope Miltiades. |carries on a series  |                     |
  |       :Constantine issues   |of wars with Rome.   |313. Japan: Nintoku, |
  |       :Edict of Toleration. |                     |the Sage Emperor.    |
  |       :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :320. Strife of the   |                     |320. India:          |
  |       :Donatists in Africa. |                     |CHANDRAGUPTA, first  |
  |       :                     |                     |supreme emperor of   |
  | =325= :325. The Council of  |                     |India.               |
  |       :Nice, consisting of  |326. Persecution of  |_Brilliant Gupta     |
  |       :three hundred and    |the Christians.      |Period from 320 to   |
  |       :eighteen bishops, who|                     |480._                |
  |       :condemn Arianism.    |                     |                     |
  |       :ATHANASIUS, ARIUS,   |                     |                     |
  |       :flourish in the reign|                     |                     |
  |       :of Constantine.      |                     |                     |
  |       :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :337. Pope Julius I.  |337-363. War with    |                     |
  |       :                     |Rome. Sapor demands  |                     |
  |       :340. Christianity    |the restitution of   |                     |
  |       :propagated in Ethio- |all the provinces    |                     |
  |       :pia by Frumentius.-- |Persia had formerly  |                     |
  |       :Gothic version of    |possessed in Asia    |                     |
  |       :Bible by Wulfila     |Minor.               |                     |
  |       :(Ulfilas).           |                     |                     |
  | =350= :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :352. Pope Liberius.  |                     |                     |
  |       :Hilary of Poitiers.--|362-3. War with      |                     |
  |       :Cyril, Bishop of     |Julian, who is slain |                     |
  |       :Jerusalem.           |in repulsing the     |                     |
  |       :                     |Persians, on the     |                     |
  |       :363. Jovian. Restored|Tigris.              |                     |
  |       :Christianity.        |                     |                     |
  |       :                     |372-420. Peace with  |                     |
  | =375= :375. Ambrose of      |Rome.                |375. India:          |
  |       :Milan; Martin of     |                     |Chandragupta II. ex- |
  |       :Tours.               |380-383. ARTAXERXES  |tended the empire.   |
  |       :                     |II.                  |                     |
  |       :381. The second gene-|                     |                     |
  |       :ral council of       |383-388. Sapor III.  |                     |
  |       :Constantinople.      |Division of Armenia  |                     |
  |       :Gregory of Nazianzus |between Persia and   |                     |
  |       :made patriarch of    |Rome.                |                     |
  |       :Constantinople.      |                     |                     |
  |       :                     |                     |                     |
  |       :395. _DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE BETWEEN THE SONS OF THEODOSIUS,     |
  |       :HONORIUS AND ARCADIUS._                                          |
  +-------+-----------------------------------------------------------------+


VII. FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE MIDDLE AGES TO THE FORMATION OF THE
MOHAMMEDAN EMPIRE, 395-622 A. D.

  GREAT EVENTS OF PERIOD. Invasion of the Germanic Tribes. Middle Ages
  begin. Anglo-Invasion of Britain. 400-500: Fall of the Roman Empire.
  Beginning of new states. 500-600: Great disorders in the West.
  Beginnings of Feudalism; power of the clergy increases. In the East
  the great reign of Justinian. 600-700: Rise and wonderful spread of
  Mohammedanism from Arabia to Siude on the east, and Carthage on the
  west. Christianizing of Germany.

  +-------+---------------------+-------------------------------------------+
  |=A. D.=|      =Britain=      |    =Western Part of the Roman Empire=     |
  |       |                     |       =Spain=       |   =Gaul (Franks)=   |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |         =I.         |                     |                     |
  |       |    Roman Period=    |                     |                     |
  |       |  (B.C. 55-410 A.D.) |                     |                     |
  | =400= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |409. Gerontius, the  |                     |
  |       |410. The Roman troops|Roman governor, in-  |                     |
  |       |being gradually with-|vites the Vandals,   |412. Ataulphus, with |
  |       |drawn, the natives   |Alani and Suevi into |the Visigoths,       |
  |       |become independent.  |Spain.               |leaves Italy, con-   |
  |       |                     |                     |quers Narbonne and   |
  |       |                     |415. The empire of   |Toulouse.            |
  |       |                     |the Visigoths.       |                     |
  | =425= |_The Scots and Picts |                     |                     |
  |       |continually harass   |429. Empire of the   |                     |
  |       |the island, and the  |Vandals.             |448-456. Merovius    |
  |       |Franks and Saxons    |                     |powerfully assists in|
  |       |infest its coast._   |                     |the defeat of Attila,|
  |       |                     |                     |and thus gives his   |
  |       |   =II. Anglo-Saxon  |                     |name to the first    |
  |       |       Period=       |                     |race of French kings.|
  |       |      (449-1066)     |                     |                     |
  | =450= |                     |                     |450. Dynasty of the  |
  |       |                     |451. Invasion of     |=Merovingians.=      |
  |       |                     |ATTILA, with half a  |                     |
  |       |455-556. Saxon       |million Huns. The    |                     |
  |       |Octarchy.            |Huns under Attila,   |                     |
  |       |                     |called the “Scourge  |                     |
  |       |455. Hengist founds  |of God,” defeated by |455. The Britons     |
  |       |the kingdom of Kent. |the confederate      |settle in Bretagne.  |
  |       |                     |armies of Romans and |                     |
  |       |                     |Visigoths at         |457. Childeric con-  |
  |       |                     |=Chalons=.           |quers to the Loire,  |
  |       |                     |                     |including Paris.     |
  |       |                     |466-483. Gothic      |                     |
  | =475= |                     |Monarchy of Spain.   |                     |
  |       |                     +---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |                     |   _NEW NATIONS FORMED OUT OF THE ROMAN    |
  |       |                     |                   EMPIRE_                 |
  |       |                     +---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |                     |       =Spain=       |      =Franks=       |
  |       |                     +---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |                     |   =Kingdom of the   |   =Kingdom of the   |
  |       |                     |     Visigoths.=     |       Franks.=      |
  |       |                     +---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |                     |                     |481-511. CLOVIS the  |
  |       |                     |                     |true founder of the  |
  |       |                     |                     |French monarchy:     |
  |       |                     |                     |capital Paris.       |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |486. Defeats Syagrius|
  |       |                     |                     |at Soissons. END OF  |
  |       |                     |                     |THE ROMAN DOMINION.  |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |496. Conversion of   |
  | =500= |                     |                     |Clovis. He defeats   |
  |       |                     |508-522. Theodoric   |the Alamanni.        |
  |       |519. Kingdom of      |the Great, King of   |                     |
  |       |Wessex (West Saxons) |the Ostrogoths, rules|                     |
  |       |which ultimately     |the affairs of Spain |                     |
  |       |unites to itself the |--he preserves Nar-  |                     |
  |       |whole English        |bonne, wrested from  |                     |
  |       |monarchy.            |the Visigoths by     |                     |
  |       |                     |Clovis, to this em-  |                     |
  |       |                     |pire, but joins Arles|                     |
  |       |                     |and Provence to his  |                     |
  |       |                     |own.                 |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |522-531. Amalaric,   |                     |
  | =525= |                     |the first Gothic king|                     |
  |       |                     |who establishes his  |536. Witiges, King of|
  |       |                     |court in Spain:      |the Ostrogoths, sur- |
  |       |                     |capital, Seville.    |renders his posses-  |
  |       |                     |                     |sions in Gaul to the |
  |       |                     |                     |Franks.              |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |537. Witiges besieges|
  |       |                     |                     |Belisarius in Rome.  |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |540. Byzantine power |
  |       |                     |                     |established in Italy.|
  | =550= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |558-561. Clotaire    |
  |       |                     |                     |sole monarch.        |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |561. Chilperic I.    |
  |       |                     |                     |(the French Nero),   |
  |       |                     |                     |King of Neustria,    |
  |       |                     |                     |married the beautiful|
  |       |                     |                     |Fredegonda.          |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |561-575. Sigebert,   |
  |       |                     |                     |King of Austrasia,   |
  |       |                     |                     |wife Brunehilda.     |
  | =575= |575. East-Anglia, is |                     |                     |
  |       |formed into a king-  |                     |                     |
  |       |dom. The name of     |                     |                     |
  |       |_Angle-land_ was     |                     |                     |
  |       |given to a small part|                     |                     |
  |       |of the eastern coast,|                     |                     |
  |       |_East-Engla-land_.   |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |586. The kingdom of  |586-601. Recared good|                     |
  |       |Mercia was the last  |and prosperous reign |                     |
  |       |founded by the       |establishes the      |                     |
  |       |Angles.              |Catholic faith       |                     |
  |       |                     |throughout Spain--the|                     |
  |       |588-828. WARS OF THE |clergy obtain great  |                     |
  |       |HEPTARCHY.           |authority.           |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |590-616. Supremacy of|_The Latin language  |                     |
  |       |Ethelbert, King of   |supersedes the       |                     |
  |       |Kent.                |Gothic._             |                     |
  | =600= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |Ethelbert publishes  |                     |                     |
  |       |the first _Code of   |                     |                     |
  |       |Laws_ in Britain.    |                     |613-628. Clotaire    |
  |       |                     |                     |II., sole monarch,   |
  |       |                     |                     |grandson of Clovis,  |
  |       |                     |                     |his power extends    |
  |       |                     |                     |over all the Gauls to|
  |       |                     |                     |the Pyrenees--the    |
  |       |                     |                     |Saxons and Lombards  |
  |       |                     |                     |tributary: capital,  |
  |       |                     |                     |Paris.               |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+

  +-------+-----------------------------------------------------------------+
  |=A. D.=|               =Western Part of the Roman Empire=                |
  |       |      =Germans=      |       =Italy=       |       =Church=      |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |                     |395-423. Honorius,   |                     |
  |       |                     |Emperor. Capital     |                     |
  |       |                     |Rome, Ravenna imperi-|                     |
  |       |                     |al residence after   |                     |
  |       |                     |402.                 |                     |
  | =400= |                     |                     |400. CHRYSOSTOM,     |
  |       |                     |                     |patriarch of Con-    |
  |       |                     |                     |stantinople; _ST.    |
  |       |                     |                     |AUGUSTINE_.          |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |402. ALARIC invades  |402. Pope Innocent I.|
  |       |                     |Italy. Stilicho col- |                     |
  |       |                     |lects an army from   |                     |
  |       |                     |Gaul, Britain, etc., |                     |
  |       |                     |and defeats him at   |                     |
  |       |                     |Pollentia and Verona.|                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |408. Stilicho slain. |                     |
  |       |                     |Alaric’s third inva- |                     |
  |       |                     |sion.                |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |410. Alaric captures |                     |
  |       |                     |and sacks Rome.      |412. Cyril, Bishop of|
  |       |413. =Kingdom of the |                     |Alexandria.          |
  |       |Burgundians= founded |                     |                     |
  |       |by Gondicar.         |                     |416. The Pelagian    |
  |       |                     |                     |heresy condemned by  |
  |       |                     |                     |the African bishops. |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |422. Pope Celestine  |
  |       |                     |423-455. The greater |I.                   |
  | =425= |                     |part of Gaul and     |                     |
  |       |                     |Spain lost.          |432. St. Patrick     |
  |       |                     |                     |preaches the Gospel  |
  |       |                     |437. Pannonia,       |in Ireland.          |
  |       |                     |Dalmatia and Noricum,|                     |
  |       |                     |lost to the Greek    |440. Pope LEO I. the |
  |       |449. The Saxon in-   |Empire.              |Great, greatly ex-   |
  |       |vasion of England.   |                     |tends the power of   |
  |       |                     |                     |the bishop of Rome.  |
  | =450= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |451. The fourth gene-|
  |       |                     |452. Attila returns  |ral council at Chal- |
  |       |                     |from Gaul into Italy.|cedon, at which      |
  |       |                     |Pope Leo saves Rome. |Eutychianism and     |
  |       |                     |                     |Nestorianism are     |
  |       |                     |455-476. From the    |solemnly condemned.  |
  |       |                     |assassination of     |                     |
  |       |                     |Valentinian, ten     |                     |
  |       |                     |emperors rapidly     |                     |
  |       |                     |succeed.             |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |455. Genseric and the|                     |
  |       |456. The Alemanni    |Vandals plunder Rome.|                     |
  |       |follow the Burgun-   |                     |                     |
  |       |dians into Alsace.   |461. Ricimer, leader |                     |
  |       |The river Aar in     |of the Goths, reigns |                     |
  |       |Switzerland becomes  |under the name of    |                     |
  |       |the boundary between |Severus III.         |                     |
  |       |them.                |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |474. Ricimer sacks   |                     |
  |       |                     |Rome.                |                     |
  | =475= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |476. ODOACER, King of|                     |
  |       |                     |the Heruli, over-    |                     |
  |       |                     |throws the Western   |                     |
  |       |                     |Empire, and founds   |                     |
  |       |                     |the Kingdom of Italy.|                     |
  |       +---------------------+---------------------+                     |
  |       |   _NEW NATIONS FORMED OUT OF THE ROMAN    |                     |
  |       |                  EMPIRE_                  |                     |
  |       +---------------------+---------------------+482. The Emperor Zeno|
  |       |      =Germans=      |       =Italy=       |publishes the        |
  |       +---------------------+---------------------+_Henoticon_.         |
  |       |491-516. Gondebald,  |                     |                     |
  |       |King of Burgundy.    |                     |492. Pope Gelasius I.|
  |       |                     |493. Italy conquered |He advances bold     |
  |       |                     |by THEODORIC, King of|claims to authority. |
  |       |                     |the Ostrogoths.      |                     |
  |       |                     |Odoacer put to death.|                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |=493-555. Kingdom of |                     |
  |       |                     |the East Goths=      |496. Christianity in-|
  |       |                     |(Ostrogoths) in      |troduced among the   |
  |       |                     |Italy.               |Franks, whose king,  |
  |       |                     |                     |Clovis, accepts      |
  | =500= |                     |500. Edict of        |baptism.             |
  |       |506. Burgundy tribu- |Theodoric.           |                     |
  |       |tary to the Franks.  |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |508. Conquest of     |                     |
  |       |516. Sigismond.      |Arles and Provence.  |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |518. The accession of|
  |       |523. Godomar.        |                     |Justin marks the     |
  |       |                     |                     |downfall of the      |
  |       |                     |                     |Monophysites.        |
  | =525= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |527. Separation of   |
  |       |                     |                     |the Armenian from the|
  |       |                     |                     |Greek Church.        |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |529. The Order of    |
  |       |                     |                     |Benedictine Monks in-|
  |       |                     |                     |stituted at Monte    |
  |       |                     |                     |Cassino, near Naples.|
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |533-555. WARS OF JUSTINIAN AGAINST THE     |
  |       |                     |VANDALS AND OSTROGOTHS.                    |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |535-553. Unsuccessful|                     |
  |       |                     |war with Justinian,  |                     |
  |       |                     |the troops revolt and|                     |
  |       |                     |elect Vitiges, 536-  |                     |
  |       |                     |541.                 |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |536. Belisarius takes|                     |
  |       |                     |Rome.                |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |537. It endures a    |                     |
  |       |                     |long and disastrous  |                     |
  |       |                     |siege from Vitiges.  |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |541-552. Totila re-  |                     |
  |       |                     |establishes the      |544. In the Edict of |
  |       |                     |powers of the Ostro- |the Three Chapters,  |
  |       |                     |goths.               |Justinian largely re-|
  | =550= |                     |                     |pudiates the work of |
  |       |                     |552. Narses, the     |the Council of Chal- |
  |       |                     |general of Justinian,|cedon.               |
  |       |                     |invades Italy, over- |                     |
  |       |                     |throws the Gothic    |                     |
  |       |                     |monarchy.            |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |554. Italy under     |                     |
  |       |                     |Greek Exarchs.       |560. Pope John III.  |
  |       |                     |                     |The Tritheists main- |
  |       |                     |   =Kingdom of the   |tain the separate    |
  |       |                     |      Lombards=      |existence of the     |
  |       |                     |                     |persons of the       |
  |       |Many Germanic tribes,|568. Italy conquered |Trinity.             |
  |       |particularly the     |by the Lombards under|                     |
  |       |Bavarians and Saxons |Alboin. He later     |                     |
  |       |join the Lombards and|fixes his capital at |                     |
  |       |Avars in their inva- |Pavia.               |                     |
  |       |sion of Italy.       |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |568-752. The         |                     |
  |       |                     |Exarchate of Ravenna |                     |
  |       |                     |established.         |                     |
  | =575= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |580. The Latin       |                     |
  |       |                     |language ceases to be|590-604. GREGORY I.  |
  |       |                     |spoken in Italy,     |the Great.           |
  |       |                     |while it supersedes  |Canon of the mass    |
  |       |                     |Gothic in Spain.     |established.         |
  | =600= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |607-614. Boniface IV.|
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |_The Anglo-Saxons    |
  |       |                     |                     |embrace Christianity |
  |       |                     |                     |--as do also, during |
  |       |                     |                     |this century, the    |
  |       |                     |                     |Frieslanders, West-  |
  |       |                     |                     |phalians, Thuringi-  |
  |       |                     |                     |ans, Danes, Swedes,  |
  |       |                     |                     |Germans, and Franks._|
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+

  +-------+---------------------------------+----------------+----------------+
  |=A. D.=|       =Eastern Empire=          |     =Persia=   | =China, India, |
  |       |                                 |                |     Japan=     |
  +-------+---------------------------------+----------------+----------------+
  |       |395. Arcadius received the East- |                |                |
  |       |ern Empire, also called the      |399-420.        |                |
  |       |Byzantine or Grecian Empire.     |Isdegerdes      |                |
  |       |Capital Byzantium or             |favors the      |                |
  |       |Constantinople.                  |Christians.     |                |
  | =400= |                                 |                |                |
  |       |                                 |412. Conquers   |                |
  |       |414-53. Regency of PULCHERIA.    |Armenia.        |                |
  |       |                                 |                |                |
  |       |420-22. Persian War on account of|420-440. Varanes|420. China:     |
  |       |persecution of the Christians.   |V.              |Close of Isin   |
  | =425= |                                 |                |dynasty.        |
  |       |431-440. Armenia divided between |                |                |
  |       |the Persians and Romans.         |                |                |
  |       |                                 |                |                |
  |       |438. _Theodosian Code._          |                |                |
  |       |                                 |440-457. Varanes|                |
  |       |441. Invasion of the Huns; who   |VI., Legislator.|                |
  |       |ravage Europe to the walls of    |                |                |
  |       |Constantinople.                  |                |                |
  | =450= |                                 |                |                |
  |       |454. The Ostrogoths, after       |                |                |
  |       |Attila’s death, settle in        |                |                |
  |       |Pannonia and Mœsia.              |                |                |
  |       |                                 |                |                |
  |       |457-474. LEO THE GREAT. The first|457. Firoz, one |                |
  |       |emperor crowned by a patriarch of|of the most     |                |
  |       |the Greek Church.                |celebrated      |                |
  |       |                                 |princes of      |                |
  |       |474-491. ZENO.                   |Persia.         |                |
  |       |                                 |                |                |
  | =475= |475. The Ostrogoths. THEODORIC   |                |                |
  |       |brought up as a hostage at       |                |480. India: End |
  |       |Constantinople, becomes chief of |                |of Gupta        |
  |       |the whole nation. He invades the |                |dynasty.        |
  |       |empire, ravages Thrace with great|                |                |
  |       |cruelty.                         |                |                |
  |       |                                 |                |                |
  |       |489-493. Theodoric’s expedition  |                |                |
  |       |from Thrace, etc., into Italy.   |                |                |
  |       |                                 |                |                |
  |       |493. The Kingdom of the Ostro-   |                |                |
  |       |goths.                           |                |                |
  | =500= |                                 |                |                |
  |       |502-505. War with Persia.        |                |                |
  |       |                                 |                |                |
  |       |507. Long walls built to protect |                |                |
  |       |Constantinople from the Bulga-   |                |                |
  |       |rians.                           |                |                |
  |       |                                 |                |                |
  |       |518-527. Justin. Proclus his     |                |                |
  |       |minister.                        |                |                |
  |       |                                 |                |                |
  |       |518-565. _Brilliant period of the|                |                |
  |       |Byzantine Empire._               |                |                |
  | =525= |                                 |                |                |
  |       |527. JUSTINIAN I. becomes        |                |                |
  |       |emperor; celebrated for his _code|                |                |
  |       |of laws_ and the victories of his|                |                |
  |       |generals, BELISARIUS and NARSES. |                |                |
  |       |                                 |                |                |
  |       |530. Belisarius defeats the      |                |                |
  |       |Persians at Daras.               |531-579.        |                |
  |       |                                 |Chosroës I.,    |                |
  |       |532. Suppresses the Nika riot in |“The Just,”     |                |
  |       |the Hippodrome of Constantinople.|greatest of the |                |
  |       |                                 |Sassanid kings. |                |
  |       |533-555. WARS OF JUSTINIAN       |War with        |                |
  |       |AGAINST THE VANDALS AND          |Justinian. In-  |                |
  |       |OSTROGOTHS.                      |vasion of Syria |                |
  |       |                                 |and capture of  |                |
  |       |533-534. Overthrows the Vandals  |Antioch.        |                |
  |       |in Africa.                       |Belisarius in   |                |
  |       |                                 |Syria.          |                |
  |       |535. Subdues Sicily.             |                |                |
  |       |536. Belisarius and Narses re-   |                |                |
  |       |cover Italy.                     |                |                |
  |       |                +----------------+                |                |
  |       |                |=Turks= settled |                |                |
  |       |                |in Asia ab. 545-|549-551. Siege  |                |
  | =550= |                |550             |of Petra.       |                |
  |       |                |                |                |552. Japan:     |
  |       |553. Narses de- |                |                |Buddhism intro- |
  |       |feats and kills |                |                |duced.          |
  |       |Totila and over-|                |                |                |
  |       |throws Gothic   |                |                |                |
  |       |kingdom in      |                |                |                |
  |       |Italy.          |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |565. Death of   |                |                |                |
  |       |Belisarius and  |569-582. The    |                |                |
  |       |Justinian.      |Turks send em-  |                |                |
  |       |Justin II be-   |bassies to the  |                |                |
  |       |comes emperor.  |Greek emperor-- |                |                |
  |       |                |treaty between  |                |                |
  |       |570-600. The    |them.           |                |                |
  |       |Avars invade the|                |                |                |
  |       |Eastern Empire, |                |                |                |
  |       |and spread over |                |                |                |
  |       |Hungary, Poland |                |                |                |
  |       |and Prussia.    |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |571-591. Wars   |                |                |                |
  |       |with Persia.    |                |                |                |
  | =575= |                |                |                |                |
  |       |578-582.        |                |                |                |
  |       |Tiberius II.    |                |579-590.        |                |
  |       |                |                |Hormisdas III.  |                |
  |       |582-602.        |                |                |                |
  |       |Maurice.        |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |The empire ex-  |                |                |                |
  |       |tended to the   |                |                |                |
  |       |Araxes, and al- |                |                |                |
  |       |most to the     |                |                |                |
  |       |Caspian.        |                |                |590-618. China: |
  |       |                |                |591-628.        |Dynasty of Suy. |
  |       |592. War with   |                |Chosroes II.    |                |
  |       |the Avars.      |                |                |593-600. Japan: |
  | =600= |                |600. Arabia be- |                |strong Chinese  |
  |       |603-628. War    |came the theater|603. Invades the|influences.     |
  |       |with Persia.    |of important    |Greek Empire--  |                |
  |       |                |events which    |conquers Syria, |                |
  |       |                |greatly influ-  |611; Palestine  |                |
  |       |                |enced the histo-|and Jerusalem,  |                |
  |       |                |ry of the East. |614; Egypt, 616 |                |
  |       |                |                |and Asia Minor  |                |
  |       |                |609. _MOHAMMED_ |except the      |                |
  |       |                |proclaims his   |coasts--overrun |                |
  |       |                |religion.       |Africa.         |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |_Splendid court |                |
  |       |                |                |of Persia._     |                |
  +-------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+


VIII. FROM THE BEGINNING OF MOHAMMEDAN POWER TO THE TREATY OF VERDUN,
622-843 A. D.

  GREAT EVENTS OF PERIOD. 700-800: Christianizing of Germany
  continues. Hostile caliphates of Bagdad and Cordova. Mohammedan
  advance in the West checked by Charlemagne, who nominally restores
  the Western Roman Empire. Norman ravages begin. 800-900: Norman
  ravages continue. Private wars. Charlemagne’s Empire falls to
  pieces.

  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |=A. D.=|      =Britain=      |       =Spain=       |=China, Japan, India=|
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |617-685. The Northum-|                     |                     |
  |       |brian Supremacy: Nor-|                     |618-907. China:      |
  |       |thumbria, Mercia, and|                     |Dynasty of Tang.     |
  |       |Wessex.              |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |617. Edwin embraces  |                     |                     |
  |       |Christianity and be- |623. The Greeks ex-  |                     |
  |       |comes powerful. Began|pelled from Spain.   |                     |
  |       |a basilica at York.  |                     |                     |
  | =625= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |633-655. Feuds among |                     |                     |
  |       |the Saxon Kings.     |638. Council of      |                     |
  |       |                     |Toledo; decree       |645. Japan: Rise of  |
  | =650= |                     |against the Jews.    |the famous Fuji Wasa |
  |       |656-675. Mercia,     |                     |family, influential  |
  |       |shakes off the yoke  |                     |for 400 years.       |
  |       |of Northumbria.      |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |_Northumbria de-     |                     |                     |
  | =675= |clines, but Wessex   |                     |                     |
  |       |and Mercia increase  |                     |                     |
  |       |in power._           |                     |                     |
  | =700= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |711. Tarik lands at  |                     |
  |       |                     |Gibraltar, gains a   |                     |
  |       |                     |decisive victory at  |                     |
  |       |                     |Xeres, 712, in which |                     |
  |       |                     |Rhoderic, the last of|                     |
  |       |                     |the Goths is killed. |                     |
  |       |                     |END OF GOTHIC        |                     |
  |       |                     |MONARCHY OF SPAIN.   |712. India: Abab     |
  |       |                     |                     |conquest begins.     |
  |       |                     |713-714. Tarik and   |                     |
  |       |                     |usa complete the con-|720. India: Parsees  |
  |       |                     |quest of Spain. The  |settle at Bombay.    |
  |       |                     |Christians maintain  |                     |
  |       |                     |themselves in the    |                     |
  |       |                     |Asturias and Navarre.|                     |
  | =725= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |739. Alfonso founds  |                     |
  |       |                     |the kingdom of Leon  |                     |
  |       |                     |which maintains its  |                     |
  |       |                     |independence till    |                     |
  |       |                     |1230.                |                     |
  | =750= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |755-794. Offa, King  |755-1031. =Caliphate |                     |
  |       |of Mercia, overthrows|at Cordova.=         |                     |
  |       |the armies of Sussex,|                     |                     |
  |       |Kent, Wessex and     |755-787. Abderrahman |                     |
  |       |founds the Abbey of  |having escaped from  |763-80. China: Inces-|
  |       |Bath and of St.      |Bagdad, wrests Spain |sant Tartar invasion.|
  | =775= |Albans.              |from the caliphate of|                     |
  |       |                     |the Abbassides--es-  |                     |
  |       |789. First landing of|tablishes a military |                     |
  |       |Northmen in Britain. |government.          |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |791-842. Alphonso    |                     |
  |       |                     |II., the Chaste, de- |794. Japan: Kioto be-|
  |       |                     |feats and expels the |comes the capital.   |
  |       |                     |Arabs, who invade his|                     |
  | =800= |                     |dominions, and from  |800-855. India: Rise |
  |       |802. Egbert, King of |this time may be     |of the Rajput states.|
  |       |Wessex.              |dated the real _inde-|                     |
  | =825= |                     |pendence of the      |                     |
  |       |827. Egbert becomes  |Christians_.         |                     |
  |       |king of all England. |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |837. Ethelwolf suc-  |                     |                     |
  |       |ceeds to the throne. |                     |840. Bhoga master of |
  |       |                     |842. Ramiro I., King |the country from     |
  |       |                     |of Orildo.           |Gwalior to the       |
  |       |                     |                     |Himalayas.           |
  |       |                     |844. Irruption of the|                     |
  |       |                     |sea kings.           |        Great        |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |        Stone        |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |        Temple       |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |          at         |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |        Ellora       |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |         about       |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |         this        |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |        period.      |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+

  +-------+-------------------------------------------+---------------------+
  |=A. D.=|              =Franks and Germans=         |  =Italy and Church= |
  +-------+-------------------------------------------+---------------------+
  |       |_The power of the mayors of the palaces in-|                     |
  | =625= |creases by their being appointed regents   |625-638. Honorius I. |
  |       |over the countries conquered by Clotaire._ |Much money spent in  |
  |       |                                           |building churches.   |
  |       |628-633. Dagobert I., King of all the      |                     |
  |       |Frankish realms.                           |_Africa and Asia,    |
  |       |                                           |with the churches of |
  |       |633. Death of Dagobert I., and long minori-|Jerusalem, Alexan-   |
  |       |ty rule of his sons.                       |dria, and Antioch,   |
  |       |                                           |lost to the Christian|
  |       |                                           |world by the progress|
  |       |                                           |of Mohammedanism._   |
  |       |                                           |                     |
  |       |636-687. Continued decline and final decay |636-652. Rotharis.   |
  |       |of the Merovingians.                       |                     |
  |       |                                           |_Legislation of      |
  |       |                                           |Rotharis and gradual |
  |       |                                           |formation of the     |
  |       |                                           |Italian language._   |
  |       |                                           |                     |
  |       |                                           |Invasion of the      |
  |       |                                           |Slavs, who are re-   |
  |       |                                           |pulsed.              |
  |       |                                           |                     |
  |       |                                           |649. POPE MARTIN I.  |
  | =650= |                                           |                     |
  |       |                                           |662. Grimoald, Duke  |
  |       |                                           |of Benevento, comes  |
  |       |                                           |to aid Gondebert, but|
  |       |                                           |kills him and seizes |
  |       |                                           |the crown.           |
  |       |                                           |                     |
  |       |                                           |664. Roman Christia- |
  |       |                                           |nity triumphs in     |
  |       |                                           |England at the       |
  |       |                                           |Council at Whitby.   |
  | =675= |                                           |                     |
  |       |                                           |680-681. The sixth   |
  |       |687-714. Pipin, Mayor of the Palace.       |general council at   |
  |       |                                           |Constantinople con-  |
  |       |The Alemani, Bavarians, Frisons, Thuringi- |demns the Monothe-   |
  |       |ans and Saxons, while France is occupied   |lites.               |
  |       |with the dissensions of the mayors of the  |                     |
  |       |palace, shake off the Frankish yoke.       |697. Venice begins to|
  |       |                                           |have its Doges.      |
  | =700= |                                           |                     |
  |       |                                           |710. Emperor         |
  |       |                                           |Justinian II. con-   |
  |       |                                           |firms the Roman See  |
  |       |                                           |in its privileges.   |
  |       |                                           |                     |
  |       |                                           |712. Constantine     |
  |       |                                           |opposes the emperor  |
  |       |                                           |Philippicus Bardanes |
  |       |                                           |in the question of   |
  |       |                                           |the Monothelite      |
  |       |                                           |heresy.              |
  |       |                                           |                     |
  |       |                                           |712-744. Luitbrand, a|
  |       |                                           |great and virtuous   |
  |       |                                           |prince. Luitbrand    |
  |       |                                           |takes advantage of   |
  |       |                                           |the civil broils in  |
  |       |                                           |Italy, captures      |
  |       |                                           |Ravenna and several  |
  |       |                                           |cities from the pope.|
  |       |                                           |                     |
  |       |715. Death of Pipin, succeeded after a long|715. Pope GREGORY II.|
  |       |struggle by his son.                       |engages in controver-|
  |       |                                           |sy with the Emperor  |
  |       |715-741. CHARLES MARTEL. Complete master of|Leo the Isaurian over|
  |       |the French monarchy.                       |image-worship.       |
  |       |                                           |                     |
  |       |720-729. The Arabs invade France, but are  |                     |
  |       |several times defeated and driven back by  |722. Boniface conse- |
  |       |Eudes, Duke of Aquitaine.                  |crated bishop of     |
  |       |                                           |Germany.             |
  | =725= |                                           |                     |
  |       |                                           |730. Gregory excommu-|
  |       |                                           |nicates the emperor. |
  |       |                                           |                     |
  |       |                                           |731. Pope GREGORY    |
  |       |732. Charles Martel gains the decisive     |III.                 |
  |       |victory of =Tours= which saves the liber-  |                     |
  |       |ties and religion of Europe.               |749-756. Aistulf.    |
  |       |                                           |                     |
  |       |        =Carlovingian Dynasty=             |                     |
  | =750= |                                           |                     |
  |       |751. With Pipin the Short (741-768),       |                     |
  |       |Charles Martel’s son, the Carolingians     |752. He defeats the  |
  |       |became kings of the Franks.                |Greek exarchs, and   |
  |       |                                           |demands a tribute    |
  |       |                                           |from Rome.           |
  |       |                                           |                     |
  |       |                 END OF THE GREEK EXARCHATE                      |
  |       |                                           |                     |
  |       |754-756. Pipin makes two expeditions into Italy and bestows the  |
  |       |exarchate upon the pope, thus laying the foundation of the       |
  |       |temporal power of the Papacy.                                    |
  |       |                                           |                     |
  |       |                                           |756. Commencement of |
  |       |                                           |the pope’s temporal  |
  |       |                                           |power under the aus- |
  |       |                                           |pices of Pipin, who  |
  |       |                                           |bestows on Stephen   |
  |       |                                           |the exarchate of     |
  |       |                                           |Ravenna. Didier, the |
  |       |                                           |last king, quarrels  |
  |       |                                           |with Pope Adrian,    |
  |       |                                           |772, at whose request|
  |       |                                           |Charlemagne crosses  |
  |       |                                           |the Great St. Bernard|
  |       |                                           |from Geneva, takes   |
  |       |                                           |Pavia, dethrones     |
  |       |                                           |Didier, and thus,    |
  |       |                                           |774, ENDS THE KINGDOM|
  |       |                                           |OF THE LOMBARDS which|
  |       |                                           |had lasted 206 years.|
  |       |                                           |                     |
  |       |768-814. CHARLEMAGNE, and Carloman, the    |768. Pope STEPHEN    |
  |       |former one of the greatest monarchs, be-   |III.                 |
  |       |comes sole ruler upon the death of         |                     |
  |       |Carloman, 771.                             |772. Pope HADRIAN I.,|
  | =775= |                                           |whom Charlemagne con-|
  |       |                                           |firms in possession  |
  |       |                                           |of Pipin’s donation. |
  |       |                                           |                     |
  |       |                                           |787. The seventh     |
  |       |                                           |general council at   |
  |       |                                           |Nice, in which the   |
  |       |                                           |doctrine of the      |
  |       |                                           |Iconoclasts was      |
  |       |                                           |condemned.           |
  |       |                                           |                     |
  |       |                                           |795. Pope LEO III.   |
  |       |                                           |Image-worship con-   |
  |       |                                           |demned by Synod of   |
  |       |                                           |Frankfort.           |
  |       |                                           +---------------------+
  | =800= |800. Charlemagne or Charles the Great crowned Emperor by Pope Leo|
  |       |III. The Holy Roman Empire founded. It included all France,      |
  |       |Germany, Spain to the Ebro, Italy to Benevento, several isles of |
  |       |the Mediterranean, and the greater portion of Pannonia.          |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |806. Charlemagne divides the empire between his three sons, two  |
  |       |of whom die, 810, 811.                                           |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |808. =Descent of the Normans or Northmen upon France.= Many      |
  |       |bishoprics founded--Great increase of monastic institutions.     |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |813. National assembly at Aix. Louis co-ruler. Charlemagne dies  |
  |       |there 814.                                                       |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |814-840. Louis, the Pious, crowned emperor at Rheims, 816, by    |
  |       |Pope Stephen IV.                                                 |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |817. Louis divides the empire between his three sons, and, 823, a|
  |       |fourth, Lothaire, is associated in the empire.                   |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |820. Second invasion of the Normans.                             |
  | =825= |                                                                 |
  |       |830. Rebellion of Louis’s three sons, and succession of quarrels |
  |       |between them till Louis’s death--Field of lies at Alsace, 833--  |
  |       |Louis is deposed, but soon restored.                             |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |841. Battle of Frontenai between Lothaire, Charles and Louis;    |
  |       |Louis is defeated.                                               |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |843. PARTITION OF THE CARLOVINGIAN EMPIRE AT VERDUN, _when       |
  |       |properly begins the history of France, Germany and Italy as      |
  |       |separate states_.                                                |
  |       |                                                                 |
  |       |The Treaty of Verdun was originally merely a family contract,    |
  |       |made without regard to national differences. In Louis’ kingdom,  |
  |       |however, the German element was in the majority; in that of      |
  |       |Charles the Romance element prevailed. Thus there developed, in  |
  |       |the course of the following centuries, from the East Frankish    |
  |       |element the German, from the West Frankish the French nationali- |
  |       |ty. The East Franks called their language, in contrast to the    |
  |       |Latin used by the educated clergy, the deutsche, i. e. the lan-  |
  |       |guage of the people, and gradually those who spoke Deutsche came |
  |       |to be called Deutsche, or German.                                |
  |       +---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |       =France=      |      =Germany=      |       =Italy=       |
  |       +---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |843-987. Carolingian |843-911. Carolingians|843-875. Carolingians|
  |       |Kings of France.     |in Germany.          |in Italy.843-855.    |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |843-877. Charles the |843-876. Louis the   |Lothaire, Emperor,   |
  |       |Bald obtains France; |German obtains       |obtains Italy and    |
  |       |boundaries: the      |Germany to the Rhine,|Lotharingia, or      |
  |       |Meuse, Saone, Rhone, |with Mayence, Spires |Lorraine.            |
  |       |Scheldt and Ebro.    |and Worms.           |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |_The power of the monarchs declines, and the nobles become inde- |
  |       |pendent. The empire by the almost universal system of division   |
  |       |and subdivision, is broken up into an immense number of feudal   |
  |       |states._                                                         |
  +-------+-----------------------------------------------------------------+

  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |=A. D.=|   =Eastern Empire=  |  =Saracen Empire=   |       =Persia=      |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |622-625. Successful  |622. The Hegira, or  |622. Invasion of     |
  |       |expeditions of       |Flight, of           |Heraclius.           |
  |       |Heraclius against the|_MOHAMMED_. He enters|                     |
  |       |Persians.            |Medina, and is ac-   |                     |
  |       |                     |knowledged as prophet|                     |
  |       |                     |and military sover-  |                     |
  |       |                     |eign.                |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |623-632. Conquers all|                     |
  | =625= |                     |Arabia.              |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |627. Victory of      |
  |       |                     |                     |Nineveh.             |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |628. Peace with      |                     |628. Conquest of     |
  |       |Persia.              |                     |Madain; Chosroes     |
  |       |                     |                     |flees; revolution; he|
  |       |                     |                     |is deposed and       |
  |       |                     |                     |murdered by _his     |
  |       |                     |                     |son_.                |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |632-1492. SARACEN OR MOHAMMEDAN WARS.                            |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |Peace with           |
  |       |                     |                     |Constantinople.      |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |632-634. Abu Bekr,   |632-651. Yezdejird,  |
  |       |                     |Mohammed’s father-in-|the last king.       |
  |       |                     |law, succeeds as     |                     |
  |       |                     |Caliph, and reigns   |                     |
  |       |                     |from the Euphrates   |                     |
  |       |                     |and Tigris to the    |                     |
  |       |                     |Mediterranean.       |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |633. The Greeks de-  |The Arabs attack     |
  |       |                     |feated in Syria by   |Persia and under     |
  |       |                     |the Arabs, under     |Othman, completely   |
  |       |                     |Khaled, who captures |subdue it.           |
  |       |                     |Damascus.            |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |634-644. Omar. Egypt |                     |
  |       |                     |and part of Syria    |                     |
  |       |                     |subdued.             |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |637. Captures        |637. Ctesiphon taken |
  |       |                     |Jerusalem. The       |and sacked by the    |
  |       |                     |Christians allowed   |Arabs.               |
  |       |                     |the exercise of their|                     |
  |       |                     |religion--paying     |                     |
  |       |                     |tribute. Omar founds |                     |
  |       |                     |a mosque at          |                     |
  |       |                     |Jerusalem, which     |                     |
  |       |                     |Moslems consider     |                     |
  |       |                     |nearly as sacred as  |                     |
  |       |                     |Mecca.               |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |640. The Slavs found |640. Alexandria      |                     |
  |       |the kingdom of Servia|captured by Amru, and|                     |
  |       |and Croatia.         |its library burned.  |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |641-668. Constans II.|                     |                     |
  |       |                     |644-655. Othman      |                     |
  |       |                     |builds a fleet.      |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |647. Amru captures   |                     |
  |       |                     |Mauritania and nearly|                     |
  |       |                     |all northern Africa. |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |648. Cyprus captured,|                     |
  |       |                     |and                  |                     |
  | =650= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |652. Persia passes   |
  |       |                     |                     |under the Saracens.  |
  |       |                     |653. Rhodes--complete+---------------------+
  |       |                     |destruction of the celebrated colossus.    |
  |       |                     |                                           |
  |       |                     |661-680. Moawiah makes Damascus his        |
  |       |668-685. Constantine |capital, forms a navy; invades Sicily;     |
  |       |IV. (Pogonatus.)     |besieges Constantinople.                   |
  |       |                     |                                           |
  |       |668-675. First siege |                                           |
  |       |of Constantinople by |                                           |
  |       |the Arabs--the Greek |                                           |
  |       |fire saves the city. |                                           |
  | =675= |                     |                                           |
  |       |680. Kingdom of the  |                                           |
  |       |Bulgarians founded   |                                           |
  |       |between the Danube   |                                           |
  |       |and the Balkan, lasts|                                           |
  |       |till 1018, when it is|                                           |
  |       |again a Greek pro-   |                                           |
  |       |vince.               |                                           |
  |       |                     |                                           |
  |       |685. Justinian II.   |                                           |
  |       |breaks the truce with|696. Armenia subdued, and                  |
  |       |the Saracens, is de- |                                           |
  |       |feated, and compelled|697-725. The provinces between the Black   |
  |       |to relinquish        |and Caspian Sea.                           |
  |       |Armenia.             |                                           |
  |       |                     |698. Carthage razed, and the north coast of|
  |       |                     |Africa completely subjugated.              |
  | =700= |                     |                                           |
  |       |                     |711. Battle of Xeres destroyed the kingdom |
  |       |                     |of the Visigoths in Spain.                 |
  |       |718-741. Leo III.,   |                                           |
  |       |the Isaurian.        |                                           |
  | =725= |                     |                                           |
  |       |726. Edict forbidding|                                           |
  |       |image worship.       |                                           |
  |       |                     |732. Saracens defeated by Charles Martel at|
  |       |                     |Tours.                                     |
  |       |                     |                                           |
  | =750= |                     |750. Savage civil wars among Saracens.     |
  |       |                     |=Caliphate of Bagdad under the Abbasides=  |
  |       |                     |(750-1258).                                |
  |       |                     |                                           |
  |       |                     |755. Saracen Empire divided. Abderrahman,  |
  |       |                     |escaped to Spain, and founded there the    |
  |       |                     |                                           |
  |       |756. The exarchate of|756. Caliphate of Cordova.                 |
  |       |Ravenna lost.        |                                           |
  |       |                     |                                           |
  |       |                     |762. Bagdad becomes the seat of Caliphs the|
  |       |                     |center of commerce, and rises to great     |
  |       |                     |opulence and splendor.                     |
  | =775= |                     |                                           |
  |       |                     |786. Haroun-al-Raschid, Caliph at Bagdad.  |
  |       |787. Irene restores  |The Empire broke into a number of separate |
  |       |the worship of       |States at his death.                       |
  |       |images.              |                                           |
  |       |                     |_Arab art flourishing, and Arab civiliza-  |
  |       |797-802. Irene reigns|tion at its zenith._                       |
  |       |alone, after killing |                                           |
  |       |her own son.         |                                           |
  | =800= |                     |                                           |
  |       |801. Negotiations    |                                           |
  |       |with Charlemagne     |                                           |
  |       |respecting a marriage|                                           |
  |       |with him and a union |                                           |
  |       |of the two empires.  |                                           |
  |       |                     |                                           |
  |       |802. Irene is deposed|                                           |
  |       |by Nicephorus, and   |                                           |
  |       |banished to Lesbos-- |                                           |
  |       |died 803.            |                                           |
  |       |                     |                                           |
  |       |802-811. Nicephorus. |                                           |
  |       |                     |                                           |
  |       |803-806. The Saracens defeat the Greeks, ravage Asia Minor,      |
  |       |capture Cyprus, and compel Nicephorus to pay a tribute.          |
  |       |                     |                                           |
  |       |811. Nicephorus is   |                                           |
  |       |defeated and killed  |                                           |
  |       |by Crunnus, King of  |                                           |
  |       |the Bulgarians.      |                                           |
  |       |                     |                                           |
  |       |813-820. Leo, the    |813-833. Mamun. The reign of this prince   |
  |       |Armenian.            |may be regarded as the Augustan period of  |
  |       |                     |Arabian literature.                        |
  |       |820-829. Michael II.,|                                           |
  |       |the Stammerer.       |Immediately after the reigns of Haroun-al- |
  |       |                     |Raschid and Mamun the power of the caliphs |
  |       |823. Crete lost to   |began to decline.                          |
  | =825= |the Arabs, and Sicily|                                           |
  |       |to the African       |827. Saracens landed in Sicily and gradual-|
  |       |Aglabites.           |ly conquered it.                           |
  |       |                     |                                           |
  |       |829-842. Theophilus. |                                           |
  |       |                     |833. El Motassem, Caliph. _Struggle with   |
  |       |837. Wars with the   |Byzantine Empire continued throughout the  |
  |       |Saracens.            |century. Mohammedan rule firmly established|
  |       |                     |in Egypt._                                 |
  |       |                     |                                           |
  |       |                     |840. Arabs sailed up the Tiber to Rome.    |
  |       |842. Empress Theodora|Sacked St. Peter’s and St. Paul’s.         |
  |       |restores image wor-  |                                           |
  |       |ship.                |            Though the political           |
  |       |                     |                                           |
  |       |                     |                power of the               |
  |       |                     |                                           |
  |       |                     |              Bagdad Caliphate             |
  |       |                     |                                           |
  |       |                     |                continued to               |
  |       |                     |                                           |
  |       |                     |               decline, during             |
  |       |                     |                                           |
  |       |                     |            the whole of the ninth         |
  |       |                     |                                           |
  |       |                     |              century the eastern          |
  |       |                     |                                           |
  |       |The empire, hard     |               capital continued           |
  |       |pressed by Arabs,    |                                           |
  |       |Bulgarians, and      |                   to be the               |
  |       |Magyars. The Emperors|                                           |
  |       |Nicephorus Phocas and|           chief center of learning,       |
  |       |John Zimisces, whom  |                                           |
  |       |Theophano, widow of  |            literature and culture         |
  |       |Romanus II. (died    |                                           |
  |       |962), placed on the  |                      in                   |
  |       |throne, partially re-|                                           |
  |       |conquered the pro-   |               striking contrast           |
  |       |vinces which the     |                                           |
  |       |Arabs and Bulgarians |                   with the                |
  |       |had torn from the    |                                           |
  |       |empire.              |                     west.                 |
  +-------+---------------------+-------------------------------------------+

  =NOTE: The comparative outline of the History of Nations is
  continued by Table IX.=


=EXTINCT NATIONS OF THE PAST=

[Illustration: =EGYPT’S STORY SCULPTURED IN ETERNAL ROCKS=

=THE SPHINX AND PYRAMIDS AT GIZEH=

This most mysterious of all Egyptian sculptures stands near the Second
Pyramid. The body of the Sphinx is one hundred and fifty feet long, its
paws are fifty feet and its height is seventy feet (See page 351).]

[Illustration: This wonderful temple at Abu-Simbel in Nubia is the most
northerly of a group of three, but is separated from the others by a
deep ravine. It was dedicated to the goddess Hathor, and built by
Rameses the Great in the side of a deep cliff. The portrait statues are
thirty-three feet in height and represent Aahmes and his queen
Nefertari.]

[Illustration: =ISRAEL IN EGYPT=--From a Painting by Sir Edward J.
Poynter

This picture portrays the hardships of the enslaved peoples in Pharaoh’s
time. Not only the Israelites but the Egyptians as well were forced into
service to build the great Pyramids to immortalize Egypt’s rulers.]


THE SPELL OF EGYPT: ANCIENT AND MODERN

For hoary antiquity, for the massive and sublime, for the quaintly
picturesque, Egypt stands unrivalled in the world,--the region where the
Pharaohs reigned, where Moses grew from birth to manhood, where Joseph
came forth from a dungeon to rule in wisdom at the king’s right hand,
and whence the chosen people of God went out into the wilderness towards
the promised land.


THE BEGINNINGS OF THE OLDEST CIVILIZATION

When the Egyptians first appear on the page of history they are already
possessed of a marvelously advanced civilization, extending back
thousands of years before the even remote period of the pyramid
builders. Long before the chosen people, the Hebrews, came into
possession of the promised land of Canaan, Egypt had kings, priests,
cities, armies; laws, temples, learning; arts and sciences and books.
Egypt is, beyond all other lands, the land of ruins, surpassing all in
gigantic and stately monumental remains, the result of immense human
labor.


HOMELAND OF THE EGYPTIANS

Egypt proper occupies little more than twelve thousand square miles.
Including the oases in the Libyan Desert, the region between the Nile
and the Red Sea, and El-Arish in Syria, but excluding the Sudan, the
area is about four hundred thousand square miles.

In ancient as in modern times Egypt was always divided into the Upper
and Lower, or the Southern and the Northern country; and at a very early
period it was further sub-divided into a number of _nomes_, or
departments, varying in different ages. It is practically confined to
the bed of the flooded Nile, a groove formed by its waters in the
desert; and the bordering desert and the southern provinces of Nubia,
Khartum and others, toward the equator form no part of the Egypt of
nature or of history, though from time to time they have been
politically joined to it. Without the Nile Egypt would never have
existed; and therefore a brief account of this wonderful river is very
important.


THE LIFE GIVING RIVER NILE

Though the longest river in Africa, the Nile has little historic
interest above Khartum, where the White Nile and Blue Nile unite their
waters. Below Khartum navigation is rendered extremely dangerous by the
cataracts which obstruct the bed of the river, the sixth occurring not
far north of Khartum, the first near Assuan, in Egypt. The Nile enters
the Mediterranean by a delta which separates into two main channels,
the Rosetta and the Damietta, which are intersected with canals. The
valley of Upper Egypt is narrow, and the fringe of mountains on either
side are of no great height, so that the landscape varies but little and
might appear to be monotonous but for the rich and wondrous coloring of
all the scenery, the vivid green of the fields, the rich red-brown of
the river, the bright yellow of the rocks, with overhead a deep blue sky
and brilliant sunshine. The river flows into Egypt proper north of the
second cataract, a little south of Wadi-Halfa. The Blue Nile joins the
river at Khartum; this stream brings down an immense quantity of red
mud. The cataracts are six in number.


THE NILE’S ANNUAL OVERFLOW

The important feature of the river is its annual inundation. At the end
of May the river is at its lowest level, it rises gradually in June and
continues rising until the middle of September; it then remains
stationary from two to three weeks, rising again until the end of
October; it is then at its highest level and begins gradually to fall,
until by May it is once more at its lowest. The river rises from
twenty-one to twenty-eight feet; when it did not reach this level the
crops failed, and when it exceeded it, the land was overflowed and ruin
faced the people. Nowhere in the world is there such a large population
depending solely on the produce of the soil.


THE RISE OF IRRIGATION BEGINS WITH THE NILE

As the climate is exceedingly dry, irrigation became as early as the
second dynasty (about 4514 B. C.) an object of national importance. All
through the ages can be marked the tireless persistence and mechanical
ingenuity employed in the problems of irrigation. During the nineteenth
century, Mehemet Ali Pasha began a gigantic system of canals and locks
and weirs. A French engineer of great ability, Mougel Bey, was employed
to carry out this difficult task; his great barrage across the Nile, at
the apex of the delta, is still a very impressive work; unfortunately
the system was a failure. Later British engineers undertook the
management of irrigation, and in 1902 the Nile dam, at the head of the
first cataract above Assuan, was completed. The dam is such a height
that the beautiful temples on the islet of Philæ are partially
submerged; and during several months of the year the ruins are no longer
visible.


EGYPTIAN LAKES, CLIMATE AND OASES

The chief lakes of Egypt, from west to east are Mareotis, Edku, Burlus,
and Menzala; these lie only a few miles from the coast and are shallow
and brackish. The seven famous natron lakes lie in a valley in the
desert, eighty miles from Cairo. In the province of the Fayum is the
Birket-el-Kerum, thirty miles long and five miles wide, forming the
remains of the ancient Lake Moeris, which Herodotus believed to have
been artificially constructed.

The climate is extremely dry. Egypt lies in an almost rainless area. The
days are warm and the nights are cool. January is the coolest month. On
the coast rain falls during the winter months, but snow is unknown. In
Sinai, snow occasionally falls during the winter, and heavy storms of
rain occur, which occasionally flood the rocky ravines. One interesting
feature of the climate is the continuous north wind, which blows
throughout the year, and the sailing boats are thus able to ascend the
Nile against the strong current. During the spring the Kamsin occurs, a
hot, dry south wind laden with sand, forming a yellow stifling fog
almost obscuring the sun; it lasts from one to three days.

There are five large oases or fertile places in the western
desert--Siwa, Baharia, Kharga, Dakla, and Farafra. These have been
occupied since 1600 B. C. Kharga possesses a temple of Ammon, built by
the Persian conqueror, Darius I., and also other interesting ruins of
the time of the Ptolemies. Siwa contains the oracle temple of Jupiter
Ammon, consulted by Alexander the Great. The town is built on the rocks
and has the appearance of a fortress.


ANCIENT POPULATION OF EGYPT

The population of the country must have been large at the earliest
period, as one hundred thousand men were employed in the construction of
the Great Pyramid alone during the fourth dynasty, nearly 3600 years B.
C. It has been placed at seven million under the Pharaohs, distributed
in eighteen hundred towns, which had increased to two thousand under
Amasis (525 B. C.), and upwards of three thousand under the Ptolemies.
In the reign of Nero it amounted to seven million eight hundred
thousand. In 1707 it was eleven million, one hundred and forty thousand
in Egypt proper, or, including Nubia and other dependencies nearly
twenty millions.

[Illustration: =TITANIC IRRIGATION DAMS OF MODERN EGYPT=

=THE BARRAGE AT ASSIOUT ACROSS THE NILE=

This dam, though not so large as that of Assuan, is still a gigantic
structure. It is over half a mile in length and its massive wall is
pierced by one hundred and ten bays or sluices, each over sixteen feet
in width.]

[Illustration: This is a view of the great dam at Assuan, across the
Nile in upper Egypt, showing the ruins of the beautiful Temple of Philæ
partially submerged. The Assuan dam was the largest in the world until
the completion of the Elephant Butte dam, New Mexico, in May, 1916.]


HOW WE KNOW THE HISTORY OF EGYPT

Until the last century, what we knew about ancient Egypt was mainly
obtained from Greek and Roman historians. At the present time our
knowledge of the “land of pyramids and priests” has been greatly
increased by the deciphering of the inscriptions on the monuments, and
by extended observation of the countless sculptures in which the olden
Egyptians have recorded their ways of life, their arts, arms, sciences,
religion and customs. In carving or in painting, the obelisks, the
temple walls, and temple columns, the inner walls of tombs, the coffins
of the dead, artistic objects--all are covered with the strange
characters known as hieroglyphics.


THE STORY OF THE HIEROGLYPHICS

This word, of Greek extraction, means “sacred carvings,” given to the
sculptures in the supposition that all such characters were of religious
import, and known only to the priests of ancient Egypt. The meaning of
the characters had been lost for hundreds of years, and the word
“hieroglyphics” had long become proverbial for mysteries and
undecipherable puzzles, when a keen-eyed Frenchman put into the hands of
scholars the clew to their translation.


DISCOVERY OF THE ROSETTA STONE

An artillery officer of Napoleon’s army in Egypt, named Bouchart,
discovered near Rosetta, in 1799, an oblong slab of stone engraved with
three inscriptions, one under the other. The upper one (half of which
was broken off) was in hieroglyphics, the lowest one was in Greek, and
the middle one was stated in the Greek to be in the written characters
of the country. The Greek inscription told scholars that all three
inscriptions expressed a decree of the Egyptian priests, sitting in
synod at Memphis, in honor of King Ptolemy V.

Hieroglyphs are representations on stone, wood, or papyrus, of objects
or parts of objects, including heavenly bodies, human beings in various
attitudes, parts of the human body, quadrupeds and parts of quadrupeds,
birds and parts of birds, fishes, reptiles, etc., geometric and
fantastic forms, amounting in all to about a thousand different symbols.

More than six hundred are ideographic (idea-writing); i. e., the
engraved or painted figure, either directly or figuratively conveys an
idea which we express by a word composed of alphabetic signs. Thus,
directly, the figure of a man means “man;” figuratively the same figure
means “power.”


PHONETIC HIEROGLYPHICS

About one hundred and thirty of the hieroglyphs are phonetic
(sound-conveying); i. e., represent words (which are nothing but sound
with a meaning attached thereto) of which the first letter is to be
taken as an alphabetic sign, and thus phonetic hieroglyphs answer the
same end as our letters of the alphabet. For example: in ideographic
writing, a bird, a mason, a nest, mean “birds build nests;” in phonetic
hieroglyphic the figures of a _b_ull, _i_mp, _r_ope, _d_oor and _s_hip
would give the word “birds,” and the words “build” and “nests” would be
expressed in the same round-about and clumsy fashion.


THE HISTORY OF EGYPT

From the old Greek writers and from records of the monuments we have a
fairly complete story of this wonderful country and people.


FIRST MONARCH OF THE OLD KINGDOM

The first king of Egypt, Menes, whose date is set at 3400 years before
Christ, is said to have founded the city of Memphis, near the site of
the modern Cairo, which became the capital of Egypt; Thebes, in Upper
(or Southern) Egypt, afterwards taking this position.

The building of the Great Pyramid at Gizeh, near Cairo, is ascribed to a
king named Cheops (_kē´ops_) by Herodotus, otherwise called Khufu
(_kōō´fōō_), according to the hieroglyphic royal name found inside the
structure. He is believed to have reigned about the twenty-eighth
century before Christ. Cheops was the second and most celebrated monarch
in the fourth of the dynasties which ruled at Memphis. The third king in
this list, Khafra (_khaf´rä_) also founded a pyramid, as did the fourth,
Menkaura (_men-kȧ-rä´_) or Nycerinus, a sovereign beloved and praised in
poetry for his goodness. His mummified remains are in the British
Museum. In the sixth dynasty was a female sovereign noted for her
beauty, named Nitocris, who built a pyramid and reigned at Memphis. The
monarchy then was for some time divided, the chief power being held by
the kings ruling at Thebes, in Upper Egypt, who developed great power,
and constructed many notable works.


THE INVASION AND RULE OF THE SHEPHERD-KINGS

About 1800 B. C. the Hyksos or Shepherd-kings, said to be of Arabian
race, conquered Lower Egypt, and then subdued the kingdom of Thebes,
ruling the whole land down to 1580 B. C. Probably to this period the
story of Joseph in Egypt belongs. The shepherd-kings were expelled with
the aid of the Ethiopians from the south, and then came the great period
of Egyptian history. During this time, Egypt was a great empire with
Thebes for its capital. Under Thutmose III., Amenhotep III. and IV., and
Seti I., Egypt rose to great heights of development and art.


GREAT EPOCH OF RAMESES II.

The greatest monarch of this, or perhaps of any, age of Egypt’s history
was Rameses the Great (called by the Greeks, Sesostris). To him have
been attributed many of the monuments and pictures which represent
triumphal processions and captives. Rameses the Great reigned for nearly
seventy years in the fourteenth century before Christ. Among his many
monuments two are chiefly remarkable, the Memnonium or palace-temple at
Thebes, and the great rock-cut temple of Abu-Simbel in Nubia. These
architectural works possess an interest more historical than that of the
pyramids. He is said to have subdued Ethiopia, carried his arms beyond
the Euphrates eastward, and among the Thracians in southeast Europe. The
monumental sculptures and paintings tell us of war-galleys of Egypt in
the Indian seas, and of Ethiopian tribute paid in ebony and ivory and
gold, in apes and birds of prey, and even in giraffes from inner Africa.
Other sculptures display the Egyptians fighting with success against
Asiatic foes. To this monarch was due a vast system of irrigation by
canals for conveying the waters of the Nile to every part of the
country.

The next sovereign of note was Sheshanq (_Shi´shak_), who, in the latter
part of the tenth century before Christ, took and plundered Jerusalem.
The empire continued to decline, and was entirely reduced by Esarhaddon
and Ashurbanipal, and became for a time tributary to the Assyrian
monarchs. In the early part of the reign of the king Psametik I.
(653-610 B. C.)


IMPORTANT REIGN OF PSAMETIK FOLLOWS AN AGE OF DECAY

We find Egypt in connection, for the first time in its history, with
foreign countries, otherwise than as conquering or conquered. Psametik
I. (653-610 B. C.) had in his pay a body of Greek mercenaries, and
sought to introduce the Greek language among his subjects. In jealousy
at this, the great military caste of Egypt emigrated into Ethiopia, and
left the king dependent on his foreign troops, with whom he successfully
warred in Syria and Phœnicia, and likewise succeeded in making Egypt
independent of Assyria.

Neku, son of Psametik (610-595 B. C.), was an enterprising prince, who
built fleets on the Red Sea and the Mediterranean, and strove to join
the Nile, by a canal, with the Red Sea. Africa was circumnavigated by
Phœnicians in his service, who sailed from the Arabian Gulf, and passed
round by the Straits of Gibraltar to the mouths of the Nile. He was the
king who defeated Josiah, king of Judah, sustaining afterward defeat
from Nebuchadnezzar II., king of Babylon, at Carchemish.

In 590 B. C., came Apries (the Pharaoh-Hophra of Scripture), who
conquered Sidon, and was an ally of Zedekiah, king of Judah, against
Nebuchadnezzar. After being repulsed with severe loss in an attack on
the Greek colony of Cyrene, west of Egypt, Apries was dethroned by
Aahmes II., who reigned from 570 to 526 B. C. His prosperous rule was
marked by a closer intercourse with the Greeks.


EGYPT IS CONQUERED BY PERSIA

Psametik III., son of Aahmes, inherited a quarrel of his father with
Cambyses, king of Persia, who invaded and conquered Egypt in 525 B. C.
For nearly two centuries afterwards the history of Egypt is marked,
disastrously, by constant struggles between the people and their Persian
conquerors, and, in a more favorable and interesting way, by the growing
intercourse between the land of the Nile and the Greeks. Greek
historians and philosophers--Herodotus and Anaxagoras and Plato--visited
the country, and took back stores of information on its wonders, its
culture, and its faith.


CONQUERED BY ALEXANDER THE GREAT AND PASSES UNDER GREEK RULE

In 332 B. C., Egypt was conquered by Alexander the Great; and its new
capital, the great Alexandria, destined to a lasting literary and
commercial renown, was founded. Subsequently it passed under Greek rule,
and the language of the government, and the administration and
philosophy, became essentially Greek. The court of the Ptolemies became
the center of learning and philosophy; and Ptolemy Philadelphus,
successful in his external wars, built the Museum, founded the library
of Alexandria. He purchased the most valuable manuscripts, engaged the
most celebrated professors, and had the Septuagint translation made of
the Hebrew Scriptures, and the Egyptian history of Manetho drawn up. His
successor, Euergetes, pushed the southern limits of his empire to Axum.
Philopator (221-204 B. C.) warred with Antiochus, persecuted the Jews,
and encouraged learning. Epphanes, (204-180 B. C.) encountered repeated
rebellions and was succeeded by Philometor (180-145 B. C.) and Euergetes
II. (145-116 B. C.), by Soter II. and Cleopatra till 106 B. C., and by
Alexander (87 B. C.), under whom Thebes rebelled; then by Cleopatra,
Berenice, Alexander II. (80 B. C.), and Neos Dionysus (51 B. C.) and
finally by the famous Cleopatra who maintained her power only through
her personal influence with Julius Cæsar and Mark Antony.


EGYPT BECOMES A ROMAN PROVINCE

On the defeat of Mark Antony by Augustus, B. C. 30, Egypt became a
province of Rome. It was still a Greek state, and Alexandria was the
chief seat of Greek learning and science. On the spread of Christianity
the old Egyptian doctrines lost their sway. Now arose in Alexandria the
Christian catechetical school, which produced Clemens and Origen. The
sects of Gnostics united astrology and magic with religion. The school
of Alexandrian Platonics produced Plotinus and Proclus. Monasteries were
built all over Egypt; Christian monks took the place of the pagan
hermits, and the Bible was translated into Coptic.


PASSES UNDER MOHAMMEDAN RULE

On the division of the great Roman Empire (A. D. 395), in the time of
Theodosius, into the Western and Eastern Empires, Egypt became a
province of the latter, and sank deeper and deeper in barbarism and
weakness. It was conquered in 640 A. D. by the Saracens under Caliph
Omar. As a province of the caliphs it was under the government of the
celebrated Abbasides--Haroun-al-Rashid and Al-Mamun--and that of the
heroic Sultan Saladin. The last dynasty was, however, overthrown by the
Mamelukes (1250); and the Mamelukes in their turn were conquered by the
Turks (1516-17). The Mamelukes made repeated attempts to cast off the
Turkish yoke, and had virtually done so by the end of the eighteenth
century, when the French conquered Egypt and held it till 1801, when
they were driven out by the British.


BECOMES A PAWN OF TURKEY, FRANCE AND ENGLAND

On the expulsion of the French a Turkish force under Mehemet Ali Bey
took possession of the country. Mehemet Ali was made pasha, and being a
man of great ability, administered the country vigorously and greatly
extended the Egyptian territories. At length he broke with the Porte,
and after gaining a decisive victory over the Ottoman troops in Syria in
1839 he was acknowledged by the sultan as viceroy of Egypt, with the
right of succession in his family.

By the Anglo-French agreement of 1904 France formally recognized the
predominant position of Great Britain, and agreed in no way to obstruct
British action in the government of Egypt. The European War of 1914-1916
has again thrown Egypt into the balance, and its political future seems
to be entirely a matter of the fortunes of war and diplomacy.


EGYPTIAN GOVERNMENT AND CIVILIZATION

  At an early period the form of government in Egypt became an
  hereditary monarchy, of a peculiar kind. The power of the king was
  restricted by rigid law and antique custom, and by the extraordinary
  influence of the priestly class. The soil was held by the priests,
  the warriors, and the king.

=Their Kings.=--The Egyptian monarchs appear to have used their
authority well and wisely; we rarely hear of insurrection or rebellion,
and many received divine honors after death for their beneficence and
regal virtues. The common title “Pharaoh” is derived from the Egyptian
word “Phra,” the sun.

=Social Castes.=--The body of the people were divided into castes, not
rigidly separated, as in India. The members of the different orders
might intermarry, and the children pass from one caste to another by
change of the hereditary occupation. The castes were: (1) priests; (2)
soldiers; (3) husbandmen; (4) artificers and tradesmen; (5) a
miscellaneous class of herdsmen, fishermen and servants. The priests and
warriors ranked far above the rest in dignity and privilege.

=The Priests.=--The hierarchy in Egypt was the highest order in power,
influence and wealth. To the priestly caste, however, many persons
belonged who were not engaged in religious offices. They were a
landowning class, and the solely learned class. In their possession were
all the literature and science of the country, and all employments
dependent, for their practice, on that knowledge. The priesthood thus
included the poets, historians, lawyers, physicians, and the magicians
who did wonders before Moses. They paid no taxes, had large landed
possessions, exercised immense influence over the minds of the people,
and put no slight check even on the king.

=Soldiers and Warriors.=--Egypt had an army of over four hundred
thousand men, mainly composed of a militia supported by a fixed portion
of land (six acres per man), free from all taxation. The chariots and
horses were famous: the foot-soldiers were variously armed with helmet,
spear, coat of mail, shield, battle-axe, club, javelin and dagger, for
close fighting in dense array; and with bows, arrows and slings for
skirmishing and conflict in open order. The soldier was allowed to
cultivate his own land when he was not under arms, but he could follow
no other occupation.

=The Lower Castes.=--The castes below the warriors and priests had no
political rights, and could not hold land; to-wit, The husbandmen who
tilled the soil paid rent in produce to the king or to the priests who
owned it; and the artisan class, which included masons and the usual
tradesmen, whose occupations are recorded upon the monuments. The
herdsmen were the lowest class, and of these the swineherds were treated
as outcasts, not permitted to enter the temples, or to marry, except
among themselves.


RELIGION OF THE EGYPTIANS

  In Egypt, life was the thing sacred. Hence all that had life, all
  that produced and all that ended life, was in a way divine. Hence
  death, too, was sacred. The Egyptian lived in the contemplation of
  death. His coffin was made in his lifetime; his ancestors were
  embalmed. The sovereign’s tomb was built to last for, not centuries,
  but thousands of years.

  The highest form of the religious belief of the Egyptians included
  the idea that the soul was immortal. In the religion of Egypt were
  united the worship of Nature, and of the spirit which underlies and
  animates Nature.

=The Egyptian Gods.=--Having depended on the Nile and the Sun for the
vegetation needed for their food, the people conceived human forms for
them, and for the prolific Earth, as deities; namely, Osiris as the Nile
and the Sun, and Isis as the Earth. These were the only divinities that
were worshiped throughout Egypt. In later times they came to be regarded
as divinities of the sun and the moon.

Another god, Anubis, worshiped in the form of a human being with the
head of a dog, is represented as an Egyptian Hermes.

Whatever higher religious ideas may have been held by learned priests,
the worship of the common people was chiefly adoration of animals. The
sacred bull, called Apis, was worshiped at Memphis with the highest
honors. All Egypt rejoiced on his annual birthday festival, and there
was a public mourning when he died. The dog, the hawk, the white ibis,
and the cat, were also specially revered. The sparrow-hawk, with human
head and outspread wings, denoted the soul flying through space, to
animate a new body. Thus we find mingled, in the religion of Egypt,
gross superstition in the masses of the people, along with the spiritual
conceptions of cultivated minds.

=The Future Life.=--In a papyrus-book, discovered in the royal tombs of
Thebes, called the Book of the Dead, we read in pictured writing of a
second life, and of a Hall of Judgment, where the god Osiris sits,
provided with a balance, a secretary, and forty-two attendant-judges. In
the balance the soul is weighed against a statue of divine justice,
placed in the other scale, which is guarded by the god Anubis. The
assistant-judges give separate decisions, after the person on trial has
pleaded his cause before them. The soul rejected as unworthy of the
Egyptian heaven was believed to be driven off to some dark realm, to
assume the form of a beast, in accordance with a low character and
sensual nature. An acquitted soul joined the throng of the blest.

=Embalming.=--The religion of the people was connected with the practice
of embalming the bodies of the dead. This art seems to have derived its
origin from the idea that the preservation of the body was necessary for
the return of the soul to the human form after it had completed its
cycle of existence of three or ten thousand years. The art appears as
old as 4000 B. C., at least, for the bodies of Cheops, Mycerinus, and
others of the age of the fourth dynasty, were embalmed.


EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE

  The chief feature of Egyptian architecture is its colossal, massive
  grandeur, from the use of enormous blocks of masonry, and from the
  vast extent of the buildings, which produce in the beholder an
  unequalled impression of sublimity and awe. The approaches to the
  palaces and temples were paved roads, lined with obelisks and
  sphinxes; and the temples and the palaces themselves surpassed in
  size, and in elaborate ornament of sculpture and of painting, all
  other works of man.

=The Pyramids.=--Of about forty pyramids now left standing in Middle
Egypt, the most remarkable are the group of nine at Gizeh, near the site
of ancient Memphis. The removal of the vast blocks of stone from distant
quarries, and their elevation to heights, which have sorely puzzled
modern engineers, were effected, not by the ingenuity of mechanical
contrivance, but by the lavish use of human labor. Thousands of men were
employed for months in moving single stones.

=The Temple Columns.=--Egyptian columns were formed by their architects
on the model of the palm-tree, whose feathery crown of foliage was ever
before their eyes, or of the full-blown or budding papyrus. We find
constantly in the mural decorations the figure of the famous
lotus-plant, or lily of the Nile, beheld by the Egyptians with
veneration, and used in sculpture and in painting as no mere ornament,
but as a religious symbol. This water-lily of Egypt was consecrated to
Isis and Osiris, and typified the creation of the world from water. It
also symbolized the rise of the Nile and the return of the sun in his
full power.


SCULPTURE AND PAINTING

  Egyptian sculpture displays size, simplicity, stiffness, and little
  of what modern art calls taste or beauty. Neither did the Egyptians
  become true artists of the pictorial class. They used simple colors
  of brilliant hue; but of light and shade only little was known; and
  of perspective, nothing.

  Their monuments prove, however, that they practiced the same
  mechanic arts, and used the same variety of tools, as the moderns.
  They were adepts at the finest work in every species of handicraft.
  We have here ample proof that the ancient Egyptians were a highly
  ingenious, artistic, tasteful, and industrious race.


CITIES AND HISTORIC MONUMENTS

  The land of Egypt, teeming with population, abounded in cities and
  towns. Of these the greatest were Thebes, in Upper Egypt, and
  Memphis, in Middle Egypt, whose site was near the modern Cairo.

=Abu-Simbel= (_ä´bōō-sim´bel_) on the Nile, in Lower Nubia is the site
of two very remarkable rockcut temples, among the most perfect and noble
specimens of Egyptian architecture. Here there is no exterior and
constructed part; the rock out of which they have been excavated rises
too near the river. Still the temples have their façade, as richly
decorated and as monumental in its character as those of the most
sumptuous edifices of Thebes.

The colossal statues here, instead of being isolated monoliths, are a
part of the façade itself, hewn out of the rock, though still forming
part of it. The façade of the smaller temple, that of Hathor, is
eighty-eight feet long and thirty-nine feet high. It has six colossal
figures, about thirty-two feet high, of which four represent Rameses,
and the other two his wife, Nefert-Ari. The façade of the great temple
is larger, being one hundred and twenty-six feet long and ninety-three
feet high.

Most striking are the four colossal figures of Rameses, two to the
right, two to the left of the door. These are the largest figures of
Egyptian sculpture, being sixty-six feet high. Everywhere are pictures
like those at Luxor and Karnak, representing the battles and triumphs of
Rameses.

=Abydos= (_a-bī´dos_), next to Thebes the most important city in the
ancient kingdom of Upper Egypt. Here was found, 1817, in a corridor of
the temple of Seti I. a very important tablet giving a succession of
sixty-five kings beginning with Menes, covering a period of about 2,200
years. A similar tablet containing eighteen names, found in the temple
of Rameses in 1818, was removed by the French consul-general, sent to
Paris, and finally purchased for the British Museum.

=Alexandria=, the third capital of Egypt, was founded by Alexander the
Great in the autumn of the year 332 B. C. It was situated originally on
the low tract of land which separates the lake Marcotis from the
Mediterranean, about fourteen miles west of the Canopic mouth of the
Nile. Before the city, in the Mediterranean, lay an island, upon which
stood the famous lighthouse, the Pharos, built in the time of Ptolemy
I. in the third century B. C, and said to have been four hundred feet
high. The island was connected with the mainland by a mole, thus forming
the two harbors.

The most magnificent quarter of the city, called the Brucheion,
contained the palaces of the Ptolemies, the Museum, for centuries the
focus of the intellectual life of the world, and the famous library; the
mausoleum of Alexander the Great and of the Ptolemies, the temple of
Poseidon, and the great theater.

To the south was the beautiful gymnasium. The Serapeum, or temple of
Serapis, stood in the Egyptian quarter.

Much of the space under the houses was occupied by vaulted subterranean
cisterns, which were capable of containing a sufficient quantity of
water to supply the whole population of the city for a year.

From the time of its foundation, Alexandria was the Greek capital of
Egypt. Its population in the time of its prosperity, amounted to about
three hundred thousand free citizens, and probably a larger number of
slaves. This population consisted mostly of Greeks, Jews and Egyptians,
together with settlers from all nations of the known world.

After the death of Alexander the Great, Alexandria became the residence
of the Ptolemies. They made it, next to Rome and Antioch, the most
magnificent city of antiquity, as well as the chief seat of Greek
learning and literature.

Alexandria had reached its greatest splendor when, on the death of
Cleopatra, the last of the Ptolemies, in 30 B. C, it came into the
possession of the Romans. Its glory was long unaffected, and it was the
emporium of the world’s commerce.

In the reign of Caracalla, however, it suffered severely. The strife
between Christianity and heathenism in the third century--powerfully
described in Kingsley’s Hypatia--gave rise to bloody contests in
Alexandria. The rise of Constantinople only served to hasten its fall.
The choice of Cairo as capital of the Egyptian caliphs hastened the now
rapid decay of the city; the discovery of America, and of the passage to
India by the Cape of Good Hope, very much diminished its trade; and
when, in 1517, the Turks took the place, the remains of its former
splendor wholly vanished.

Under Mehemet Ali, however, the tide turned, and the city recovered
rapidly. It is now again one of the most important commercial places on
the Mediterranean with a population of about three hundred and fifty
thousand. The Suez Canal diverted part of its trade; but this was more
than compensated by the general impetus given to Egyptian prosperity.

Of the few remaining objects of antiquity the most prominent is Pompey’s
Pillar, as it is erroneously called. Of the so-called Cleopatra’s
Needles--two obelisks of the sixteenth century B. C. which long stood
here--one was taken to England and erected on the Thames Embankment,
London, 1878; and the other, presented by the khedive to the United
States, was set up at New York in 1881.

=Assuan= or =Assouan= (_äs-swän_), the ancient Syene is the southernmost
city of Egypt proper, on the right bank of the Nile, and beside the
first or lowest cataract. It is noted for its granite, and was the place
of banishment of Juvenal, the Roman poet. Here also is the great Nile
irrigation system, begun in 1898, including a dam at Assuan and another
at Assiout (two hundred and fifty miles nearer Cairo). The Assuan dam,
finished in 1902 was designed to raise the level of the Nile for one
hundred and forty miles above the first cataract. Its total length is
one and one-quarter miles, the maximum height from the foundation about
one hundred and thirty feet and the total weight of masonry over one
million tons.

The difference of level of the water above and below is sixty-seven
feet, and navigation is provided for by a series of four locks, each two
hundred and sixty feet by thirty-two feet. The dam is pierced with one
hundred and eighty openings, twenty feet by six feet, capable of
discharging fifteen thousand tons of water per second. The reservoir,
when opened, held something over one thousand million tons of water.

In 1907 the level was raised by twenty-three feet, steps being taken to
preserve (as far as is consistent with partial submersion) the ruins of
the temples on the island of Philæ within the area of the dam. Barrages
at Zifteh and at Esneh help to regulate the flow.

=Cairo= (_kī´rō_).--The present capital of Egypt, is situated one mile
east of the Nile. It has important transit trade, and is the
starting-point for tours to neighboring pyramids, the sites of Memphis
and Heliopolis, and the upper Nile. Its chief suburb is Bulak. It was
founded by the Fatimite caliphs about 970, and made the capital. It was
taken by the Turks in 1517, was held by the French 1798-1801, and was
occupied by the British in 1882. It was the scene of the massacre of the
Mamelukes in 1811.

There are about four hundred Mosques, some having six minarets, and
adorned with beautiful granite columns, brought from Heliopolis and
Memphis. About twenty deserve notice as works of art. The largest mosque
is El Azhar, at the center of the city, regarded as a University for all
Islam. The next in size is that of Sultan Hasan, in the Roumeyleh
square, the finest structure in modern Egypt, and extremely light and
elegant. It is built in the form of a parallelogram, and has a deep
frieze running round all the wall, adorned with Gothic and Arabesque
sculpture.

Other noticeable Mosques are the Tomb-Mosque of Kait Bey, built about
1470, one of the finest pieces of architecture in Cairo; and the Mosque
of Amra, the oldest mosque in Egypt (founded 643 A. D.), and a
remarkable Mohammedan monument.

The Citadel, or fortified Palace, erected by Saladin in 1176, was the
only place of defence in the city; it fell into ruin, but was thoroughly
repaired by a late pasha. Formerly it included a magnificent hall,
Saladin’s Hall, environed with twelve columns of granite, of prodigious
height and thickness, brought from the ruins of Alexandria. These
supported an open dome, under which Saladin distributed justice to his
subjects.

The view embraces the city, and above thirty miles along the Nile,
including the ruins of Old Cairo, site of Memphis, great Pyramids,
Obelisk of Heliopolis, and Pyramids of Sakkara. The Khedive resides at
the Abdin and Kubbeh Palaces.

The street scenes of Cairo are of inexhaustible interest and amusement;
civilization and semi-barbarism constantly jostle, the garb of the east
perpetually comparing, in the season, with the toilettes of London,
Berlin and Paris; refinement and coarseness, culture and ignorance,
Mohammedanism, paganism, Christianity, every tint of skin, all
conceivable phases of existence, present themselves in the throng of a
Cairo street.

=Gizeh= or =Ghizeh= (_gē´ze_) is situated on the Nile about three miles
west-southwest of Cairo. The Gizeh group consists of the Great Pyramid,
the second and third pyramids, and eight small pyramids.

THE GREAT PYRAMIDS is the tomb of the Pharaoh Khufu (Cheops), of the
fourth dynasty. Its original height was four hundred and eighty-one feet
(present height, four hundred and fifty-one), and the original length of
the sides at the base, seven hundred and fifty-five. It is built of
solid masonry in large blocks, closely fitted, with use of mortar. The
exterior forms a series of steps, which were originally filled with
blocks of limestone accurately cut to form a smooth slope. The entrance,
originally concealed, is on the north side, forty-five feet above the
base and twenty-four feet to one side of the center. The passage slants
downward for three hundred and six feet; but the corridor, slanting
upward to the true sepulchral chambers, soon branches off from it. A
horizontal branch leads to the queen’s chamber, about eighteen feet
square, in the center of the pyramid, and the slanting corridor
continues in the Great Gallery, one hundred and fifty-one feet long,
twenty-eight feet high, and seven feet wide, to the vestibule of the
king’s chamber, which is thirty-four and one-half feet long, and
seventeen feet wide, and nineteen feet high, and one hundred and
forty-one feet above the base of the pyramid. It contains a plain, empty
sarcophagus.

[Illustration: =SECTIONAL VIEW OF THE GREAT PYRAMID OF CHEOPS OR KHUFU=

This cross-section clearly exhibits the known passages within the seven
million ton monument, which for six thousand years has stood to
commemorate Cheops (See page 350).]

THE SECOND PYRAMID, or pyramid of Chephren (Khafra), was originally four
hundred and seventy-two feet high and seven hundred and six feet in
base-measurement. It has two entrances, and interior passages and
chambers similar to those of the Great Pyramid. It retains at the top,
part of its smooth exterior casing.

THE THIRD PYRAMID, that of Menkaura, was two hundred and fifteen feet
high, and three hundred and forty-six feet to a side at the base. The
entrance-passages and sepulchral chambers are similar to those of the
other pyramids. All three were built by the fourth dynasty. Temples, now
ruined, stand before the eastern faces of the second and third pyramids.

SPHINX (_sfingks_).--This celebrated figure is a quarter of a mile
southeast of the Great Pyramid. According to present opinion, it is
older than any of the pyramids. It consists of an enormous figure of a
crouching sphinx of the usual Egyptian type, hewn from the natural rock,
with the flaws and cavities filled in with masonry. The body is one
hundred and forty feet long; the head measures about thirty feet from
the top of the forehead to the chin, and is fourteen feet wide. Except
the head and shoulders, the figure has for ages generally been buried in
the desert sand.

Between the paws were found an altar, a crouching lion with fragments of
others, and three large inscribed tablets, one, fourteen feet high,
against the Sphinx’s breast, and the two others extending from it on
each side, thus forming a sort of shrine. The Sphinx was a local
personification of the sun-god.

=Heliopolis= (_hē-li-op´ō-lis_) the City of the Sun, or On--the oldest,
perhaps, in this land of antiquities--was a sort of sacerdotal and
university town, where Herodotus sought the wisest men in Egypt. Here
Plato is said to have graduated. Here also lived Potiphar, who bought
Joseph the patriarch. It consisted for the most part of temples and
colleges; of which nothing now remains but a few isolated mounds, and
one extremely ancient Obelisk. At the village of Metariyeh is reputed to
be the place where the Virgin, St. Joseph and the infant Jesus stopped,
under a sycamore.

=Memphis= (_mĕm´fis_) after the fall of Thebes, became the capital of
Egypt, and kept its importance till the conquest by Cambyses. It was
built by Menes on the western bank of the Nile, south of Cairo. It
suffered from the Hyksos, and was captured by the Assyrians and stormed
by Cambyses. It continued to exist under the Roman Empire, but was
gradually abandoned and ruined after the Mohammedan conquest in the
seventh century A. D. The ruins of Sakkara are near it. The desert sands
have overwhelmed its famous avenue of sphinxes; and the great Pyramids
of Gizeh, and the colossal Sphinx, are the chief memorials of the past
in its vicinity.

Although various opinions have prevailed as to their use, the Pyramids
were really nothing more than the tombs of monarchs of Egypt who
flourished from the first to the twelfth dynasty. With the exception of
some very late pyramids in Nubia, none were constructed after the
twelfth dynasty; the later kings were buried at Abydos, Thebes, and
other places, in tombs of a totally different construction.

=Thebes= (_thēbz_) is the No or No Ammon of Scripture, and is situated
on the Nile opposite Karnak and Luxor. It was at the height of its
splendor, as capital of Egypt from about 1600 to 1100 B. C. Its vastness
is shown by the existing remains, known (from the names of modern
villages) as the ruins of Karnak, Luxor, etc. They consist of obelisks,
sphinxes, colossal statues, temples, and tombs cut in the rock,--mighty
monuments, with their countless sculptured details and inscriptions,
themselves the historians of the Egyptian Empire of three thousand years
ago. It was enriched by the spoils of Asia and the tributes of Ethiopia,
and its fame and reputation had reached the early Greeks. At the Persian
conquest in the sixth century B. C. Cambyses destroyed many of its
noblest monuments.

At the present day the glory of Thebes consists in its ancient temples.
Of these the best known are the El Kurna, the Rameseum and Medinet-Abu
temples, founded by Seti I., Rameses II., and Rameses III. respectively.
To Amenhotep III. are ascribed two temples on the west side of the city,
as also the well-known temple at Luxor.

LUXOR (_luk´sor_).--The present front of the latter temple was preceded,
at the end of a great dromos of sphinxes leading to Karnak, by two
beautiful obelisks of red granite, one of which still remains, and the
other stands in the Place de la Concorde, Paris.

Before the large double gateway of the court are two colossal seated
statues. The court is surrounded by a double range of columns. Beyond,
the avenue to the buildings of Amenhotep makes a sharp angle and meets
the gateway of the court, which is surrounded by a double colonnade. The
buildings behind the court contain a great number of chambers and an
isolated sanctuary, all profusely sculptured and colored.

KARNAK (_kär´nak_).--The temple here originally founded in the twelfth
dynasty, owes much of its magnificence to later kings. The Great Temple
extends to a length of about twelve hundred feet from west to east, and
is comparatively regular in plan. The double gateway of the great court
is about three hundred and seventy feet wide; the court is colonnaded at
the sides, and has an avenue of columns in the middle.

A second gateway follows, and opens on the famous hall, one hundred and
seventy by three hundred and twenty-nine feet, with central avenue of
twelve columns sixty-two feet high and eleven and one-half feet in
diameter, and one hundred and twenty-two columns forty-two and one-half
feet high at the sides. A narrow court follows, ornamented with figures
and containing two obelisks.

Behind this building is another large open court, at the back of which
stands the edifice of Thothmes III., an extensive building containing a
large hall and many comparatively small halls and chambers.

The mural sculptures are vast in quantity, and highly interesting in
character, particularly those which portray the racial characteristics
of various conquered Asiatic peoples.

=Suez= (_sōō-ez´_).--A seaport of Egypt, situated at the head of the
Gulf of Suez, is best known as the southern terminus of the Suez Canal.
It was the ancient Arsinoë and the terminus of an ancient canal built by
the Egyptian king, Rameses II., between the Nile delta and the Red Sea.
This, having been allowed to fill up and become disused, was reopened by
Darius I. of Persia. It was once more cleared and made serviceable for
the passage of boats by Arab conquerors of Egypt.

In 1841 the French diplomat Lesseps set himself to study the isthmus of
Suez thoroughly, and in 1854 he managed to enlist the interest of Said
Pasha, khedive of Egypt, in his scheme for connecting the Mediterranean
with the Red Sea.

Two years later the Porte granted its permission and the Universal
Company of the Maritime Suez Canal was formed, receiving important
concessions from the ruler of Egypt. The work was begun in 1859, and in
1869, the canal was duly opened for vessels. Between 1885 and 1889 the
canal was enlarged and improved, and altogether over one hundred million
dollars were spent in its construction. The total length is one hundred
miles; the width of the water-surface was at first one hundred and fifty
to three hundred feet, the width at the bottom seventy-two feet, and the
minimum depth twenty-six feet. At Port Said two strong breakwaters, six
thousand nine hundred and forty and six thousand and twenty feet long
respectively, were run out into the Mediterranean; at Suez another
substantial mole was constructed.

The making of the canal was facilitated by the existence of three or
four valleys or depressions (formerly lakes), which, when the water
reached them, became converted into lakes. Immediately south of Port
Said the canal crosses Lake Menzaleh (twenty-eight miles long); and
three more--Lake Ballah, Lake Timsah (five miles long), and the Bitter
Lakes (twenty-three miles) are traversed to the south of it. The highest
point or elevation that was cut through does not exceed fifty feet above
sea-level. At intervals of five or six miles sidings or side-basins are
provided to enable vessels to pass one another. By 1890 the canal had
been deepened to twenty-eight feet, and widened between Port Said and
the Bitter Lakes to one hundred and forty-four feet, and from the Bitter
Lakes to Suez to two hundred and thirteen feet.

In 1875 Lord Beaconsfield, Prime Minister of England bought for the
British Government the khedive’s shares--nearly half the canal
stock--for $20,500,000. They are now valued at about $150,000,000, and
bring in over $5,000,000 annual revenue.

From Suez there is a tourist route to Mount Sinai, near the coast, under
the range called Jebel-et-Tih past Elim, Pharaoh’s Quarries, and
Rephi-dim. The Sinai District comprises Mount Horeb, the Valley of
Jethro, Church of the Burning Bush, Chapel of Elijah, and other
historical sites. Thence it leads to Akabah, and up the deep pass of
Wady Moosa, to Mount Hor (or Petra), Zoar, and Mount Seir, Beersheba and
Hebron. (See Holy Land).

[Illustration: =GREAT ASSYRIAN MONARCH, ASHURBANIPAL, AS A LION HUNTER=

This famous conqueror was one of the most enlightened of Assyrian
rulers. He encouraged literature, and through his wise counsels the
annals of Babylonia and Assyria, written on clay tablets, have been
preserved for us in the library of his palace. From these we have
learned practically all we know of Babylonian-Assyrian history and
religion.]


BABYLONIA--ASSYRIA

In the very first ages of the world, Babylonia, with Egypt, led the way
as the pioneers of mankind in the arts of civilization. Alphabetic
writing, astronomy, history, chronology, architecture, plastic art,
sculpture, navigation, agriculture, textile industry, all had their
origin in one or other of these two countries.


GEOGRAPHY AND PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE REGION

The ancient kingdom of Babylonia was bounded on the east by Elam or
Susiana; on the south by the Persian Gulf; on the west by the deserts of
Arabia; and on the north by Assyria. It was watered by two streams, the
Tigris and the Euphrates, and it was intersected by a number of canals,
branching out from these great rivers, and dug in order to save the
country from the effects of the annual inundations.

From the head waters of the Tigris and Euphrates to the Persian Gulf is
a distance of about eight hundred miles. The land included between the
two rivers divides itself naturally into two parts.

The northern one of these, Assyria, is a great plain of limestone and
selenite, in area almost equal to England. The northern and western
portions of this plain are broken by mountains and are of a fertile
character, as is also that part of Assyria which lies east of the
Tigris.

The southern of the two principal parts, Babylonia, is of alluvial
character, and in ancient times was about equal in area to the combined
territory of Holland and Belgium or to the southern half of Louisiana,
the latter a region to which it has been likened in character. On the
east of the Tigris, the Babylonian plain stretches away for a distance
of some thirty to fifty miles, to the mountains of Elam. On the west it
merges into the Arabian desert, twenty or thirty miles from the
Euphrates, where the low hills check the overflow of the river.


EARLY DIVISIONS AND FAMOUS CITIES OF BABYLONIA

Babylonia appears to have been divided into the two large provinces of
Sumer or Shinar (South Babylonia), and Accad or north Babylonia. The
capital of this latter province was, like Babylon, built on both banks
of the Euphrates, the larger half being called Sippara of Samas, the
sungod (the modern Abu Habba), and the smaller half Accad or Agade. The
latter was afterwards named “Sippara of the moon-goddess.” The greater
part of Babylonia is now included in the modern Turkish province of
Bagdad.

Ancient Babylonia also contained a number of other large cities and
there was a succession of famous capitals: Babylon, of the Babylonian
Empire, and afterwards of the Persian; Seleucia, founded by Seleucus,
king of Syria, after the death of Alexander the Great; Ctesiphon,
capital of the Parthian Empire; in modern times, Bagdad.

  =Babylon=, on the Euphrates, is first mentioned in a tablet of 3800
  B. C. From 2250 B. C. it became the capital of Babylonia and the
  holy city of western Asia. The name Babylonia is the Greek form of
  Babel, meaning “The Gate of the God.” Its Persian name was Babirus.
  It was according to the accounts of Greek writers, the greatest city
  of antiquity.

  Nebuchadnezzar, who took more pride in the buildings constructed
  under his auspices than in his victorious campaigns, concentrated
  all his care upon the adorning and beautifying the city. To this end
  he completed the fortification of the city begun by his father
  Nabopolassar, consisting in a double inclosure of mighty walls which
  were strengthened by two hundred and fifty towers and pierced by one
  hundred gates of brass. The city itself was adorned with numerous
  temples, chief among them Esagila (“the high-towering house”),
  temple of the city and of the national god Merodach (Babylonian
  _Marduk_) with his spouse Zirpanit. In the neighborhood of it was
  the royal palace, the site of which was identified with the ruins of
  Al-Kasr. Sloping toward the river were the Hanging Gardens, one of
  the seven wonders, the location of which is in the northern mound of
  ruins, Babel.

  THE TOWER OF BABEL, which is supposed to be the temple of Nebo in
  Borsippa, not far from Babylon, represents the most imposing ruin of
  Babylonia. It is termed in the inscriptions _Ezida_ (“the eternal
  house”), an ancient sanctuary of Nebo, and was restored with great
  splendor by Nebuchadnezzar. It represents in its construction a sort
  of pyramid built in seven stages, whence it is sometimes called
  “temple of the seven spheres of heaven and earth,” and it is assumed
  that the narrative of the “Tower of Babel” which the builders
  intended to carry up to heaven, was connected with this temple.

  In the conquest of Cyrus, 538 B. C., the city of Babylon was spared.
  Darius Hystaspis razed its walls and towers. Xerxes (486-465 B. C.)
  despoiled the temples of their golden statues and treasures.
  Alexander the Great wished to restore the city, but was prevented by
  his early death. The decay of Babylon was hastened by the foundation
  in its neighborhood of Selencia, 300 B. C., which was built from the
  ruins of Babylon. The last who calls himself in an inscription “King
  of Babylon” was Antiochus the Great (223-187 B. C.)


EARLY HISTORY RIVALS THAT OF EGYPT

It is now evident, from the monuments and inscriptions which have been
obtained from the traditionally oldest cities, that the civilization of
the ancient people of Babylonia has an antiquity rivaling that of
ancient Egypt. The American discoveries at Nippur in 1888-90 carry back
Babylonian civilization to about 7000 B. C.

The early struggles for supremacy among the city states seem to have
been confined to the lower valley of the Tigris and Euphrates; but about
4000 B. C. a mighty conqueror, Lugalzaggisi of Uruk, made expeditions to
the Mediterranean and to the mountains at the north of Mesopotamia. He
styled himself “King of Uruk,” “King of the Totality.”

Very early, however, a Semitic invasion must have taken place, for the
date of two Semitic kings, namely, Sargon I. and Naram-Sin, of Accad, is
placed, according to the testimony of the later Babylonians themselves,
at about B. C. 3800 and 3750 respectively. Gudea, the priest-king, and a
famous builder, was the chief ruler about 2800 B. C.


GREAT PERIOD OF HAMMURABI

About B. C. 2250 Hammurabi sat upon the throne of Babylon, the name of
which now first appears in cuneiform records, although it may have been
founded centuries before. This great monarch, Hammurabi, has left
records of his enlightened efforts for the agricultural development of
the land, and a great law code, cut in the enduring rock, which carries
our knowledge of the history of law back a thousand years before the age
of Moses. As yet no inscription has been discovered giving the details
of his wars; but it is evident that he destroyed the Elamite power in
Babylonia, and his assumption of the ancient titles “King of Sumer and
Accad,” “King of the Four Quarters of the World,” seems to indicate that
his power extended far. In Larsa and Sippar he erected temples to the
sun-god, and at Babylon and Borsippa he enlarged those already standing.
His great canal running down through the heart of Babylonia made the
bordering territory fertile; and the granary built at Babylon stored the
increased crops of grain. It may be that Lugalzaggisi and Sargon I.
exceeded Hammurabi in the extent of their sway, but Hammurabi made
Babylon the center of culture for southwestern Asia during millenniums.

After him we know little of the history until Burnaburiash, a Hassite
king who was on the throne about 1400 B. C., exchanged letters with
Amenhotep III. of Egypt as recorded in the Tel-el-Amarna Letters.

About 1250 B. C. Babylonia was conquered by Assyria, and, though it soon
regained its independence and was again ruled by native kings, it
remained a politically subordinate power, and was repeatedly conquered
by its more powerful neighbor, until the fall of Nineveh, consequently
we must now consider Assyria, as the successor of the _first_ Babylonian
Empire, and go back a little into its history up to the time of Tiglath
Pileser I., the conqueror of old Babylon.

[Illustration: =THE TOWER OF BABEL RESTORED=

This model of the famous “tower that reached to Heaven” was constructed
by Sir Henry Rawlinson after years of study and exploration. The
drawing, by O. Schulz, is now in the United States National Museum at
Washington, D. C.]


II. THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE

Assyria proper, as heretofore stated, was a table-land, bounded on the
north by part of Armenia; on the east by that part of Media which lies
towards Mt. Zagros; on the south by Elam or Susiana and part of
Babylonia; and on the west by the river Tigris, or later by the
Chaboras, a branch of the Euphrates. The greater part of the ancient
kingdom of Assyria is now contained in the modern province of Kurdistan.
In size it may be compared to Great Britain.


DIVISIONS AND CITIES OF ASSYRIA

It was divided into seven provinces, and contained many great cities, of
which the chief after Nineveh, the capital, were Asshur, which alone
stood on the west bank of the Tigris, Calah, Dur-Sargon, Arbela,
Tarbisi. The ruins of many cities are grouped around Nineveh; while
lower down the Tigris is exhibited an almost unbroken line of ruins from
Tekrit to Bagdad.

  =Nineveh= was situated on the eastern bank of the upper Tigris
  opposite the modern Mosul, two hundred and thirty miles northwest of
  Bagdad. The ruins of the original capital, Asshur, now called Kalah
  Sherghat, are some sixty miles south. Nineveh, Calah (Nimrud), and
  Dur-Sargon (Khorsabad), ultimately supplanted it in importance. When
  Nineveh itself fell, the whole Assyrian empire--essentially a
  military power--perished with it. It was not until the excavations
  of Botta in 1842 and Layard in 1845 that the remains, first of
  Dur-Sargon, then of Nineveh itself, were revealed to the world.

  As a result of these excavations, the general outline of the city,
  the remains of four palaces and numerous sculptures, and thousands
  of tablets (principally from the so-called library of Ashurbanipal)
  were discovered. The greater part of these is now in the British
  museum. The city had a circumference of from seven to eight miles,
  the ruins of the walls showing a height in some parts of fifty feet.
  Shalmaneser I. built a palace at Nineveh and made it the city of his
  residence. Samsi-ramman III. decorated and restored the temple of
  Ishtar, famous for a special phase of the cult of the goddess. For a
  time Nineveh was neglected, but Sennacherib (705-681 B. C.), was a
  special patron of Nineveh. He surrounded it with a wall, replaced
  the small palace at the northeast wall by a large one, built another
  palace which he filled with cedar wood and adorned with colossal
  bulls and lions, and beautified the city with a park. Esarhaddon
  finished a temple, widened the streets, and beautified the city,
  forcing the kings whom he conquered to furnish materials for
  adorning the city and palaces. Nineveh succumbed to the combined
  attack of the Medes under Cyaxares and the Babylonians under
  Nabopolassar in 608 B. C.

In its times of prosperity, Assyria extended its borders on every side;
and the Greeks and Romans often included the whole of Syria and of the
regions watered by the Euphrates and the Tigris under the name.

Assyria and the neighboring provinces were celebrated for their great
fertility; they were the original home of wheat and barley, and the
date-palm grew there to perfection. The irrigation of the crops was
ensured by the annual overflow of the Tigris.


EARLY ASSYRIAN HISTORY SHOWN BY THE INSCRIPTIONS

The Assyrian kingdom first began to be powerful about 1350. Shalmaneser
I. had become so powerful that he invaded and captured Babylon about
1250 B. C. His descendant in the direct line of kings was
Tiglath-Pileser I., about 1100 B. C., the real founder of the first
Assyrian empire, whose reign forms the zenith of the early empire. He
spread the dominion of Assyria over all western Asia, from the frontiers
of Elam to the shores of the Mediterranean, and from the slopes of the
mountains of Armenia to the shores of the Persian Gulf. He captured
Babylon, Sippara, and reduced Babylonia to the position of a tributary
state. On the west he advanced as far as Khilikhi (Cilicia), defeated
the Hittites, captured their stronghold Carchemish, and received the
homage of the people of Arvad and the cities of northern Phœnicia.


SECOND IMPORTANT DYNASTY ESTABLISHED

In 960 B. C. a new dynasty was founded by Assur-dân II., whose son
Rimmon-nirari II., and great-grandson Asshur-nasirpal, by a long series
of cruel wars once again extended the power of Assyria. The extensive
trade carried on by Phœnician merchants in Assyria at this time is
largely illustrated by the Phœnician bronzes and ivories disinterred in
the palace of Asshur-nasirpal at Nimrud.

His son, Shalmaneser II., was successful in war against the monarch of
Babylon, Benhadad, king of Damascus, the rulers of Tyre and Sidon, and
Jehu, king of Israel. In 745 B. C., Tiglath-Pileser II. became king of
Assyria, made himself master of Babylon, and had great successes in war
against Syria and Armenia, extending the empire greatly.


REIGN OF SARGON THE ASSYRIAN

Sargon (722-705 B. C.) was engaged in war against Samaria, which he
captured, carrying the people into captivity; against King Sabako of
Egypt, whom he defeated; and the revolted Armenians, whom he thoroughly
subdued. He then turned against Merodach-Baladan, king of Babylonia, and
drove him from his throne, and, after extensive internal reforms, was
succeeded by his son, the famous Sennacherib.


ASSYRIA BEGINS PERIOD OF GREATEST SPLENDOR

This warlike monarch marched into Syria in 701 B. C., captured Sidon and
Askelon, defeated the forces of Hezekiah, king of Judah, with his
Egyptian and Ethiopian allies, and made Hezekiah pay tribute. In 700 B.
C. Sennacherib marched into Arabia, there defeated Tirhakah, king of
Egypt and Ethiopia, and then his army perished before Libnah, in the
south of Judah, by the catastrophe recorded in the Hebrew Scriptures.
Sennacherib was engaged, on his return to Assyria, in crushing
rebellions of the Babylonians, constructing canals and aqueducts, and
greatly adding to the size and splendor of Nineveh.

In 681 he was murdered by two of his sons, and another son, Esarhaddon,
became king in 680. Esarhaddon made successful expeditions into Syria,
Arabia, Egypt, and as far as the Caucasus Mountains, and after the
erection of splendid buildings at Nimrud and other cities, was succeeded
in 668 by his son Asshur-banipal (the origin of the Greek
“Sardanapalus”).


GREAT EXTENT OF THE EMPIRE AT ITS HEIGHT

The Assyrian Empire was at its height of power under the kings
Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, and Asshurbanipal. The states nominally subject
to the Assyrian king, paying tribute and homage, extended from the river
Halys, in Asia Minor, and the seaboard of Syria, on the west, to the
Persian Desert on the east; and from the Caspian and the Armenian
Mountains, on the north, to Arabia and the Persian Gulf, on the south;
and latterly included Egypt.


DECLINE AND FALL OF THE EMPIRE

Ashurbanipal inherited Egypt as part of his dominions, but his power was
not firmly established in that country until he led an expedition there,
and sacked the city of Thebes. He erected splendid buildings at Nineveh
and Babylon, and did much for literature and the arts; so that under him
there was a great development of luxury and splendor. He died in 625 B.
C.; and soon afterwards Babylonia, for the last time, and with success,
revolted. The Babylonians marched from the south against Nineveh, under
their governor Nabopolassar; and the now powerful Medes, from the north,
came against it under their king, Cyaxares. Nineveh was taken and given
to the flames, which have left behind them in the mounds the calcined
stone, charred wood, and statues split by the heat, that furnish silent
and convincing proof of the catastrophe. Thus, about 625 B. C., warlike,
splendid, proud Assyria fell, after which it became a Median province.


III. LATER BABYLONIAN EMPIRE

The founder of the later Babylonian Empire (625 B. C. and ending 538,
with its subjection to Persia) was Nabopolassar, who joined the Medes in
the destruction of the Assyrian power. Babylon then became an
independent kingdom, extending from the valley of the Lower Euphrates to
Mount Taurus, and partly over Syria, Phœnicia, and Palestine.


THE FAMOUS REIGN OF NEBUCHADNEZZAR

Nabopolassar was succeeded by his son, the famous Nebuchadnezzar (604 to
561 B. C.), who carried his arms with success against the cities of
Jerusalem and Tyre, and even into Egypt. The empire was at its height of
power and glory under him, and extended from the Euphrates to Egypt, and
from the deserts of Arabia on the south to the Armenian Mountains on the
north.

The carrying into captivity of the Jews by Nebuchadnezzar and the pride
of his heart,--his image of gold in the plain of Dura, his fiery
furnace, his strange madness, recovery, and repentance,--are well known
from the account in the Hebrew Scriptures by the prophet Daniel.

Nebuchadnezzar was succeeded by his son Evil-Merodach, the friend of
Jehoiachin, captive King of Judah. He was followed by Neriglassar, a
successful conspirator against his power and life; and he in turn, after
some years, was defeated and slain in battle against the Medes and
Persians. The assassination, after a few months, of the tyrant
Laborosoarchod brought the last Babylonian monarch, Nabonidus, to the
throne, in 555 B. C.


FALL OF BABYLON UNDER BELSHAZZAR

The Medes and Persians to the north had now become a formidable power,
and in 540 the Persian king, Cyrus, marched against Babylon, and under
its walls defeated Nabonidus, who fled to Borsippa, south of Babylon.
The capital was held by a son of Nabonidus, who had been made co-king
with his father,--Belshazzar. The revelries of this sovereign during the
siege, the handwriting on the wall, and his death the same night, are
given in the scriptural narrative of Daniel. The Babylonian Empire fell
in 538 B. C., and became a province of the Persian Empire. The site of
the great city of Babylon is now a marsh, formed by inundations of the
river, due to the destruction of the embankments and the choking up of
the canals.


IV. CIVILIZATION IN BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA

COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURES.--The Babylonians were a commercial and
luxurious people; the Assyrians were pre-eminently warlike. The position
of the great city of Babylon on the Lower Euphrates, near to the Persian
Gulf, made it a great emporium for the trade between India and eastern
Asia and western Asia, with the nearest parts of Africa and Europe. From
Ceylon came ivory, cinnamon and ebony; spices from the eastern islands;
myrrh and frankincense from Arabia; cotton, pearls, and valuable timber,
both for ship-building and ornament, from the islands in the Persian
Gulf. There was also a great caravan trade with northern India and
adjacent lands, whence came gold, dyes, jewels, and fine wool.

MANUFACTURES.--The wealth of Babylon became prodigious and proverbial,
and her commerce was, in large measure, due to ingenious and splendid
manufactures. Carpets, curtains, and fine muslins, skilfully woven and
brilliantly dyed, of elegant pattern and varied hue, were famous
wherever luxury was known. The Babylonian gems in the British Museum
display art of the highest order in cutting precious stones.

GOVERNMENT AND LEARNING.--The system of government was a pure despotism,
with viceroys ruling the provinces under the monarch, who dwelt in
luxurious seclusion from his people. The priests and learned men of
Babylon were mainly Chaldæans.

There were astronomers or, more properly, astrologers, in several of the
cities; and the towers, such as that of Babel, were probably both
temples and observatories. The clearness of the sky and the levelness of
the horizon on all sides favored the study of the stars, which was more
closely connected with religion than any form of science. The Chaldæans
worshipped the heavenly bodies. When Babylon was taken by Alexander the
Great, in 331 B. C., there was found in the city a series of
observations of the stars dating from 2234 B. C.

ARCHITECTURE AND ART.--Assyrian art must be considered great in
architecture and sculpture. The emblematic figures of the gods show
dignity and grandeur. The scenes from real life, of war, and of the
chase, are bold and vivid; and in succeeding ages marked progress is
shown in the acquirement of a more free, natural, life-like and varied
execution, though the artists never learned perspective and proportion.

The Assyrians constructed arches, tunnels, and aqueducts; were skilled
in engraving gems, and in the arts of enamelling and inlaying; made
porcelain, transparent and colored glass, and even lenses; ornaments of
bronze and ivory, bells, and golden bracelets and earrings of good
design and workmanship, were all produced. In mechanics, and for
measuring time, they used the pulley, the lever, the water-clock, and
the sun-dial.

IMPLEMENTS AND METHOD OF WARFARE.--The implements and methods used in
war, as the monuments show, included swords, spears, maces, and bows and
arrows, as weapons of offence; cavalry and chariots for charging;
movable towers and battering-rams for sieges; and circular intrenched
camps as quarters for a military force.

RELIGION.--In common with all Semites, the Babylonians were exceedingly
religious, and were consequently greatly in the power of their priests,
through whom tithes and offerings to their numerous gods were made.

Their earliest chief divinity was apparently the god _Ea_, lord of the
deep, possessor of unsearchable wisdom, and creator of all things. When,
however, Babylon became the chief of the city states of Babylonia,
_Merodach_, the god of that city, assumed the first place. He was a
reflection of the sun, or the light of day, and was worshiped as he who
constantly sought to do good to mankind. His chief title was _Bel_,
(Baal of the Bible) “the Lord”; and his vast temples were maintained by
the Babylonian kings with pride. The priests attached to this temple
were richly endowed, and the maintenance of the worship involved a great
outlay. The impression made by this temple and its worship on the Jews
during their captivity is reflected in the account of Bel and the Dragon
in the Old Testament.

The other gods of Babylonia would seem to have been the same as those of
Assyria, which borrowed its religion, as well as its other culture, from
Babylonia. _Asshur_ was the chief god, and is always named first in the
invocations of the kings. _Sin_ was the moon-god, _Shamash_ the sun-god,
_Anum_ the god of the sky, _Bel_ the god of the earth, and _Ea_ the god
of the abyss and of profound wisdom. _Rammanu_ (the Biblical Rimmon) was
the ruler of the weather, _Ishtar_ (the Biblical Ashtoreth) the goddess
of love, _Nebo_ the god of learning, and _Nergal_ the god of war and
hunting. The Assyrian temples always contained statues of the gods or
goddesses, and sometimes a particular statue was held in special
veneration, as the _Ihstar_ of Nineveh, or the Ihstar of Arbela; only
two statues of a god have been discovered in modern times, namely the
two limestone figures of Nebo, disinterred in a temple at Nimrud, and
dating from the eighth century B. C. With regard to public worship, we
know that constant sacrifices and libations were offered to the gods,
images were carried in procession, and a highly organized and richly
endowed priesthood existed. The building and maintenance of temples were
among the chief functions of the king, who himself boasted of the title
of high priest.

[Illustration: =JERUSALEM, THE HOLY CITY OF THE JEWS=]


THE HEBREWS AND THE HOLY LAND--PALESTINE

The history and characteristics of the Hebrews are fully dealt with in
the Old Testament, the important parts of which should be familiar to
everyone.

They were a pure Semitic race, akin to the Phœnicians, Chaldeans, and
Assyrians. The founder of the nation was Abraham, who, about the
twenty-third century before Christ, removed from the plains of
Mesopotamia to the land of Canaan, on the southeastern coast of the
Mediterranean Sea. This land has since been variously named Palestine,
Canaan, the Land of Israel, or the Holy Land, and was the scene of most
of the great events of the Bible. Just as the old name Canaan denoted
originally the low-lying country along the coast, so Palestine means
literally “Land of the Philistines,” and was not used of the inland
districts before the time of the Romans.


THE UNIQUE SITUATION AND IMPORTANCE OF THE HOLY LAND

The whole region is practically an isolated oasis, with a productive
climate due to proximity to the sea.

All communication between the Babylonians, the Chaldeans and the
Assyrians on the one hand, and the Egyptians on the other, was by the
way of Palestine. Thus the Holy Land was at the very center of the
ancient world. It is this position with its fundamental significance in
history which renders it unique among the lands of the earth. It has
always been the refuge of the drifting populations of Arabia. Never
sought for itself alone, except by the Crusaders, it has been over-run
constantly by invaders from the north seeking Egypt, or by the return
attack. Thus the Hittites, Ethiopians, Assyrians, Egyptians, Scythians,
Parthians, Persians, Seljuk Turks, and Mongols in turn devastated it.
Alexander passed through to Egypt in 322 B. C.; the wars of the
Seleucids and Ptolemies passed over it; Pompey in 65 B. C. brought it
under the Roman Empire; the Crusaders established themselves there from
1098 to 1187; Napoleon in 1799 abandoned his first ambition on its soil.
Yet its destiny was typified by the Arab conquest in 634 A. D.; there is
everything to attract the desert tribes, but nothing for others except
the religious sentiment of Christians.


HISTORY OF THE HEBREWS OR ISRAELITES

The ancestors of the Israelites were certain of the pastoral tribes
having their abode in the wild tracts to the south and east of
Palestine. Their nearest kinsmen were Edom, Ammon, and Moab. About 2200
B. C. they migrated under their tribal chief, Abraham, from Haran in
Mesopotamia into the land of Canaan. Here the tribes continued to lead a
pastoral life, and ultimately, in the time of Jacob, a famine in the
land of Canaan led to a fresh migration into Egypt. This movement is
especially associated with the name of Joseph.


ISRAELITES UNDER THE EGYPTIANS

Here they obtained leave from Pharaoh to dwell in the land of Goshen,
where their continued adherence to their own customs and pastoral life
led them to be accounted barbarians by the cultured Egyptians. In Egypt
a time of great oppression came upon the Hebrews, and they were
subjected to the harshest treatment and repressive measures, induced by
a fear lest they should ally themselves with Egypt’s foes. Then there
arose the figure of Moses, the great founder of both the religion and
the law of Israel.


THE EXODUS UNDER MOSES

Moses was the son-in-law of a priest of Midian, and at Horeb (i. e.
Sinai), the mountain of God, he heard the call of Yahweh (Jehovah), his
father’s God, to deliver Israel from the bondage of Egypt. He had much
difficulty in rousing the enthusiasm of those he was sent to save, but
ultimately the work was accomplished by means of the miracles wrought by
Yahweh on behalf of his people. Moses led the Israelites to Mount Sinai,
and here a covenant was solemnly made with Yahweh, and the new religion
of Israel was inaugurated, a religion that may rightly be called new,
because based upon a conception of the Deity, more spiritual than any
which had yet been conceived. From Sinai they passed to the work of
conquering Canaan for which they had set out. An attempt made at Kadesh
on the southern frontier was unsuccessful, and they returned to the
wilderness, for a time which according to the Biblical narrative made
the whole period forty years.


THEY ENTER THE LAND OF CANAAN

During this time Moses died, and it was under Joshua that the entry into
Palestine was finally made. The Canaanites were put down, but
intermarriage between Hebrews and Canaanites was frequent. Hence came
the ills of idolatry. The Israelites now settled down to an agricultural
and commercial life, entering in many cases into treaties of friendship
with their Canaanite neighbors. This weakened the bonds of union between
the various tribes and might well have led to the ultimate fusion of the
two races; but it was prevented by the rise from time to time of the
Judges, who roused the dying ardor of the tribes and led them to the
extermination of the enemies of Yahweh.


PERIOD OF THE JUDGES

Fifteen such heroes are named in the Book of Judges, from which book it
will be seen how various were the enemies with which they had to
contend. Their period shows a regular alternation of sin, punishment,
and salvation. After Joshua, comes a long period of falling away,
followed by the rise of Othniel who delivers Israel from the oppressions
of Cushan of Mesopotamia, into whose hands they had been given. On his
death, Israel again sins and is punished by Eglon, king of Moab. This
time salvation comes through Ehud, but his death is followed by another
relapse into idolatry, and so things continue. Among the rest of the
“Judges,” the most famous are Deborah the prophetess, and Barak, Gideon,
Jephthah, Samson, and the prophet Samuel.

During this period Israel does not come at all into contact with the
great kingdoms of the East. At the time of the Hebrew settlement in
Palestine, the country was under the suzerainty of the Pharaohs, but it
is probable that by this time the suzerainty was little more than a
name. The conflicts were rather with their own kinsmen, the Moabites,
Ammonites, and also the Midianites.


THE POWERFUL PHILISTINE TRIBES

The Philistines were among the most powerful opponents of Israel, and
the story of Samson relates particularly to them. It was while suffering
under defeat from this race that the Israelites cried for a king, not
only that by this centralization of authority more head might be made
against the invaders, but also that they might be like “all the other
nations.” Samuel the prophet, who was at that time their leader,
reluctantly consented to accede to their desires and chose as their king
Saul, the son of Kish.


HEBREW MONARCHY, UNDER SAUL, DAVID AND SOLOMON

The sole monarchy occupied three reigns, those of Saul, David, and
Solomon. Saul reigned for nearly forty years, and, after wars with the
neighboring Moabites, Edomites, Amalekites, and others, was defeated and
driven to suicide by the powerful Philistines.

Saul’s son-in-law, David, the son of Jesse, reigned also about forty
years, and, having conquered Jerusalem from the Jebusites (1048 B. C.)
made it the capital of his kingdom, the seat of the national government
and religion. David was a warlike monarch, and conquered the
Philistines, Moabites, Edomites, and Syrians, extending his power from
the Red Sea to the Euphrates.


THE MAGNIFICENT REIGN OF SOLOMON

His son, Solomon, succeeded him, and also reigned forty years (977-937
B. C.). Then the Hebrew nation attained the height of its power, and he
confirmed and extended the conquests of David. Solomon married a
daughter of a Pharaoh, king of Egypt, formed an alliance with Hiram,
king of Tyre, built the magnificent temple at Jerusalem, and made his
kingdom the supreme monarchy in western Asia.

An extensive commerce was carried on by land and sea. Solomon’s ships,
manned by Phœnician sailors, traded to the farthest parts of the
Mediterranean westward, and from ports on the Red Sea to southern
Arabia, Ethiopia, and perhaps India. From Egypt came horses, chariots,
and linen; ivory, gold, silver, peacocks and apes from Tarshish or
Tartessus, a district in the south of Spain; and gold, spices, and
jewels from Ophir, variously regarded as in southern Arabia, India, and
eastern Africa, south of the Red Sea. The corn, wine and oil of Judæa
were exchanged by Solomon for the cedars of Lebanon supplied by Hiram,
king of Tyre.


DECLINE AND DIVISION OF THE MONARCHY

On the death of Solomon, in 975 B. C., the temporal glory of the Hebrews
was eclipsed. Ten of the twelve tribes revolted against Solomon’s son
and successor, Rehoboam, and formed a separate kingdom of Israel, with
Samaria as capital; while the tribes of Judah and Benjamin made up the
kingdom of Judah, having Jerusalem for the chief city. The Syrian
possessions were lost; the Ammonites became independent; commerce
declined; idolatry crept in and grew; the prophets of God threatened and
warned in vain; gleams of success against neighboring nations were
mingled with defeat and disgrace suffered from the Edomites,
Philistines, and Syrians, until, in 740 B. C., Tiglath-pileser II., king
of Assyria, carried into captivity in Media the tribes east, and partly
west, of the Jordan.


FALL AND CAPTIVITY OF ISRAEL

In 721 B. C., Sargon, king of Assyria, took Samaria, and carried away
the people of Israel as captives beyond the Euphrates. The kingdom of
Israel thus came to an end after a duration of about two hundred and
fifty years.

In 713 B. C., Judah, under King Hezekiah, was attacked by Sennacherib,
king of Assyria, and relieved by the destruction of the Assyrian army. A
time of peace and prosperity followed, but in 677 the Assyrians again
invaded the country, and carried off King Manasseh to Babylon.


FALL OF JUDAH AND BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY

In 624 B. C., the good king Josiah repaired the temple and put down
idolatry, but was defeated and slain by the Egyptian king Pharaoh-Necho,
in 610. In 606 B. C., Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, took Jerusalem,
and made the king, Jehoiakim, tributary; on his revolt, Jerusalem was
again taken, and ten thousand captives of the higher class were carried
off to Babylon, with the treasures of the palace and temple. In 593 B.
C., the Jewish king Zedekiah revolted from Nebuchadnezzar, who now
determined to put an end to the rebellious nation. In 588 B. C.,
Jerusalem was taken and plundered; the walls were destroyed; the city
and temple burned, and nearly the whole nation was carried away as
prisoners to Babylon. For over fifty years the land lay desolate, and
the history of the Hebrew nation is transferred to the land where they
mourned in exile. Then were raised the voices of the prophets Jeremiah
and Ezekiel and Isaiah, in their definite predictions of the Messiah.

The history of the Jews during the Babylonish captivity.


RETURN OF THE HEBREWS TO JERUSALEM

In 537 B. C., Cyrus the Great became monarch of the Persian Empire. He
issued an edict in 536 B. C., by which the Jews were allowed to return
to Jerusalem and rebuild their temple. Nearly fifty thousand Jews,
chiefly of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin, went to the old home of
their race under the command of Zerubbabel and Jeshua, taking with them
many of the vessels of silver and gold carried away by Nebuchadnezzar.
Zerubbabel was appointed governor of the land, now a dependency of the
Persian Empire. In 519 B. C., the Persian king Darius Hystaspis
confirmed the edict of Cyrus, and in 515 the Temple was completed and
dedicated. The ten tribes disappeared at this time from history, such of
them as returned to their land having united themselves with the tribe
of Judah, and henceforth the Hebrews are called Jews and their country
Judea.


THE JEWS UNDER EZRA AND NEHEMIAH

In the reign of the Persian king Artaxerxes more of the Jews emigrated
from Babylonia to Judea under the command of Ezra, 458 B. C., and Ezra
was governor of the land until 445.

Nehemiah was governor (with an interval) from 445 to 420, and under him
the walls and towers of Jerusalem were rebuilt, and the city acquired
something of its ancient importance. With 420 B. C. the history of the
Jews ends, as far as the Scriptural narrative goes.


JUDEA BECOMES SUBJECT TO PERSIA

From 420 to 332, Judea continued subject to Persia, paying a yearly
tribute, and being governed by the high priest, under the Satrap of
Syria. In 332 B. C., Alexander the Great, then engaged in the conquest
of the Persian Empire, visited Jerusalem, and showed respect to the high
priest and the sacred rites of the Temple. In 330 the Persian Empire
fell under the arms of Alexander, who died at Babylon in 323 B. C. Judea
was taken possession of by Alexander’s general, Ptolemy Lagus, and from
300 to 202 B. C. was governed by the dynasty of the Ptolemies, ruling
Egypt, Petra and southern Syria. The government was administered by the
high priests under the Ptolemies, whose capital was at the new city of
Alexandria in Egypt. Now the Jews began to spread themselves over the
world, the Greek language became common in Judea, and the Septuagint (or
Greek version of the Hebrew Scriptures) was written during this and the
following century.

In 202 B. C., Antiochus the Great, king of Syria (including in its
empire Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Babylonia, etc.), conquered Judea from
Ptolemy V. Antiochus Epiphanes, one of the sons and successors of the
great Antiochus, drove the Jews to rebellion by persecution and
profanation of their Temple and religion.


STRUGGLE UNDER THE MACCABEES AND HYRCANUS

Under the great patriot and hero Judas Maccabeus, the Jews asserted
their religious freedom in 166 B. C. Antiochus Epiphanes died in 164,
and Maccabeus fought with success against the Idumeans, Syrians,
Phœnicians and others, who had formed a league for the destruction of
the Jews. In 163, Judas Maccabeus became governor of Judea under the
King of Syria, but fell in battle, in 161, while he was resisting an
invasion of his country by the troops of Demetrius Soter, new ruler of
the empire. His brother, Jonathan Maccabeus, ruled from 161 to 143 B.
C., amidst many troubles from Syria, and was succeeded by his brother,
Simon Maccabeus, who strengthened the land by fortifications, was
recognized by the Romans as high priest and ruler of Judea, and fell by
assassination in 136 B. C.

His son, John Hyrcanus, threw off at last the yoke of Syria, and made
himself master of all Judea, Galilee, and Samaria, reigning then in
peace till 106 B. C., when the line of the greater Maccabean princes
ended. A miserable time of civil wars and religious and political
faction followed.


THE CONQUEST BY ROME

These ended in the interference of Rome; and in 63 B. C. Pompey took
Jerusalem, after a siege of three months, and entered the “Holy of
holies” in the Temple, with a profanation before unheard of in Jewish
history. From this time the Jewish state was virtually subject to Rome,
and became, in the end, a part of the Roman province of Syria.

The turbulence of the Jews under Roman rule is well known, and a general
rebellion ended, after fearful bloodshed and misery, in the capture and
destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, A. D. 70. The history, as a separate
political body, of the Hebrews thus ends with the dispersion of their
remnant over the face of the civilized world.


GEOGRAPHY OF THE HOLY LAND

The area of the Holy Land is about eleven thousand square miles--nearly
as large as Belgium; its greatest length, from Beyrout to the southern
point of the Dead Sea, being one hundred and eighty miles, and its
greatest breadth, east to west, about sixty-five miles. It has a nearly
straight western coast-line, with but two indentations--the Bay of
Sidon, and the Bay of Acre. Though the Sinaitic Peninsula is not a
_geographical_ part of the Holy Land, its _history_ is really one with
it, and is so considered in this article.

Notwithstanding its narrow limits, Palestine presents a remarkable
variety of surface, scenery, and climate. The central portion consists
of an undulating tableland (the “hills” or “hill-country”), separated
from Lebanon on the north by the fertile Plain of Esdraelon (Jezreel).
It has a gentle slope towards the west, but descends abruptly to the
Jordan valley, the surface gradually rising, as it extends southward,
till it reaches its greatest elevation (about 3,300 feet) in the
neighborhood of Hebron, beyond which, near Beersheba, it sinks into the
Idumæan Desert. The northern part of this tract is more fertile than
that towards the south, the least productive district being the country
round Jerusalem; but even there, the vine is grown with success, and the
barren aspect of the plateau is relieved in many places by gardens of
olives and figs and luxuriant cornfields.

To the west of the central tableland and the Lebanon ranges, there runs
a strip of low seaboard, which expands into the plain of Philistia; to
the north is the Valley of Sharon, once the Garden of Palestine, but now
for the most part a marshy or sandy wilderness. The maritime plain is
intersected by deep gullies, traversed in some cases by perennial
streams. Oranges, lemons, citrons, bananas and melons grow luxuriantly,
especially in the gardens of Jaffa and Ascalon.

East of the central tableland is a deep fissure, increasing in width
from five to thirteen miles, down which flows the Jordan. Beyond Jordan
is another upland district, forming a prolongation of the Anti-Libanus
ranges, with an elevation of two to three thousand feet, succeeded on
the east by a plateau which stretches away to the Arabian Desert. This
region contains wide tracts of excellent pasture.

The highest point in Palestine is Jebel Jermuk (three thousand nine
hundred and thirty-four feet). The height of Carmel--a northwestern spur
of the uplands terminating in a promontory--one thousand seven hundred
and forty feet.

MOUNT NEBO, a summit of Abarim, Moab (two thousand six hundred and
forty-three feet), seven miles northeast of the Dead Sea, was the place
of the death of Moses.

MOUNT TABOR (_tā´bor_), a wooded mountain in Palestine, six miles east
of Nazareth, on the border of the plain of Esdraelon, according to a
tradition, was the scene of the Transfiguration; and in the monastic
ages it was peopled with hermits. Height, about one thousand eight
hundred feet.

MOUNT SINAI (_sī´nī_ or _sī-nā-ī_) and the SINAITIC (_sī-nȧ-it´ik_)
PENINSULA. This peninsula, which, since 1907, has been included within
the boundaries of Egypt, is situated between the Gulf of Suez and the
Gulf of Akaba. In the north of the peninsula is the desert Paran, a
desolate limestone plateau, bounded on the south by a tract of low
sandstone mountains, ravines, and valleys rich in minerals which had
been worked as early as 3000 B. C. Then rises the barren, rugged, and
majestic triangle of the Sinai Mountain (also called Horeb) on which,
tradition asserts, the Law was given to Moses.

From very early times it seems to have been regarded as a sacred
mountain, perhaps as dedicated to the Babylonian moon-god Sin. These
peaks are over six thousand feet high. At the base is a broad plain
where the Israelites may easily have encamped. In a valley on the
northeast of the same mountain, stands the famous convent of St.
Catharine, with its beautiful gardens, which was originally founded by
the Emperor Justinian (527-565). It became celebrated in recent years by
the discovery of the Codex Sinaiticus (the Greek version of the Old
Testament and the Greek New Testament), made in it by Tischendorf in
1844. There are two other valleys in the same vicinity, both of which
are comparatively fertile and well-watered. The rocks of this region are
steep and jagged and richly colored. They are composed of granite,
porphyry, diorite, and gneiss. A path of stone steps leads up from the
convent to the summit. Holy places marked by crosses cover the mountain.
Near the top of Jebel Musa stands a chapel dedicated to Elijah.

[Illustration: =MOUNT SINAI=

where the Laws of Moses were received. The site is disputed, but these
heights on the northwest cliffs of Jebel Mûsa seem to answer the
required conditions better than any other mountain on the Sinaitic
Peninsula. The law given from Sinai--“the book of the Covenant”--is
contained in Exodus xx. to xxiii. 19. Besides the Ten Commandments there
are rules for justice, equity and purity far transcending any known
ancient legislation.]


RIVERS, LAKES AND OTHER HISTORIC WATERS

The principal river of Palestine is the Jordan, which rises in
Anti-Libanus in several streams, that unite to flow through Lake Merom,
and then through the Sea of Tiberias, or Galilee, running due south into
the Dead Sea. Several other streams flow into the Dead Sea, of which the
best known is the Kedron, that rises near Jerusalem. A similar series of
small rivers flows through the coast plains into the Mediterranean, the
principal being the Kishon and Leontes.

THE JORDAN (meaning “the descender”).--The highest source of the Jordan
is seventeen hundred feet above sea-level on the west of Mt. Hermon,
near the village of Hasbeya. The most important feature in its course
between the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea is the rocky cleft known as
the Ghor, some sixty-five miles long and from three to twelve miles in
breadth, through which it passes. It then falls into the Dead Sea at a
point twelve hundred and ninety-two feet below the level of the
Mediterranean. The course of the Jordan is extremely tortuous, its total
length being about two hundred miles.

The upper reaches are much obstructed by growths of reeds and shrubs,
and though narrow it is deep, and can only be passed by the fords, of
which there are many, the most famous being that of Bethabaca, near
Jericho.

During its annual swelling it was miraculously crossed by the
Israelites, probably at the ford above mentioned. In its waters Naaman
was healed and an iron axehead made to swim. In it our Saviour was
baptized.

[Illustration: =SUPPOSED FORD OF BETHABACA, NEAR JERICHO, WHERE THE
CHILDREN OF ISRAEL CROSSED THE RIVER JORDAN ON THEIR WAY TO THE “LAND OF
PROMISE.”=]

GALILEE, SEA OF, called also in the New Testament the Lake of Gennesaret
and the Sea of Tiberias, is a large lake in the north of Palestine.
Lying six hundred and eighty-two feet below sea-level, it is thirteen
miles long by six broad, and more than eight hundred feet deep. It
occupies a great basin, and is of volcanic origin. Although the Jordan
runs into it red and turbid from the north, and many warm and brackish
springs also find their way thither, its waters are cool, clear and
sweet. In the time of Jesus the region round about the lake was the most
densely populated in Galilee.

DEAD SEA, scripturally called “Salt Sea,” “Sea of the Plains,” “Sea of
the Arabah,” is near the southern extremity of Palestine. Its length is
forty-six miles and its greatest breadth is nine and one-half (average
eight and one-half) miles. The long oval of the lake is unequally
divided by the El Lizan peninsula, of loose calcareous formation. North
of the peninsula the greatest depth is twelve hundred and seventy-eight
feet, south of that it is only three to twelve feet. It receives the
Jordan and six other rivers, but has no outlet, the surplus water being
carried off by evaporation. The water is intensely salt, with a specific
gravity one-sixth greater than water. Fish cannot live in the lake but
it has a healing reputation for lepers, and the inhabitants on the banks
are quite healthy. It is surrounded by high cliffs of bare limestone,
and masses of sulphur exposed by periodically occurring earthquakes lie
on its borders.


CHIEF TOWNS AND INDUSTRIES

  Modern Palestine forms part of the “pashalic” of Syria, under the
  Turkish Government, the chief towns of importance in modern times
  include: Jerusalem, with a population of about sixty thousand
  consisting of Moslems, Jews, and Christians; Damascus, with a
  population of two hundred thousand, has a trade in silk and cotton
  stuffs, jewelry, saddlery, and sword blades; Acre, a seaport, twelve
  thousand; Beyrout, one hundred and twenty thousand, considered to be
  the port of Damascus; Joppa, or Jaffa, a seaport, fifty-five
  thousand. The country is mainly agricultural, the crops consisting
  of wheat, barley, maize, vines and olives. The land is naturally
  fertile, but it suffered centuries of neglect.

JERUSALEM (signifying probably “abode of peace”), the “Holy City,”
central point of Hebrew worship and Christian tradition, was founded by
the ancient Canaanite inhabitants upon a spur of the limestone ridge
that forms the watershed of this part of Palestine. Standing at an
elevation of twenty-six hundred feet upon a plateau about half a mile
square and cutoff by the deep valleys of Gihon on the west, Hinnon on
the south, and Jehoshaphat east, the city held an almost impregnable
position, and was only wrested from the Jebusites by David, who made it
the base of his military and political enterprises. The modern city
proper is surrounded by a wall of hewn stones, two and one-half miles in
circumference, and probably built by the Sultan Solyman the Magnificent.
This wall is surmounted by thirty-eight towers and pierced by eight
gates. The inner city is divided into four quarters--the Armenian in the
southwest, the Jewish in the southeast, the Moslem in the northeast, and
the Christian in the northwest. Since 1858 extensions have been made
towards the north and west. In the older part the streets are narrow,
dull, and dirty. The Mosque of Omar, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre,
and the Jews’ Wailing Place, are among the more interesting places.

It has always been a sacred city. Its drama of events included the
reigns of David and Solomon; the sieges of Egyptian, Assyrian, and
Babylonian hosts; the Greek conquest; the heroism of the Maccabees; the
events of the Roman dominion; our Saviour’s appearance and crucifixion;
the siege of Titus and its destruction, A. D. 70; its rebuilding by
Hadrian, A. D. 120; the Crusades, and its capture by Godfrey of Bouillon
(first Christian King of Jerusalem), Richard Cœur de Lion, and its final
capture by the Ottoman Turks in 1516.

The later-built additions extend much beyond the walls of Our Lord’s
time, and beyond the reputed site of Calvary (He “suffered without the
Gate”), which is now in the middle of the city. Of the eight gates, one
is called St. Stephen’s, or Bâb Sitti Maryam (Lady Mary Gate), at the
end of the via Dolorosa, leading to Gethsemane, Mount of Olives (where
He beheld the city and wept over it), and Bethany. The Golden Gate,
which He entered on Palm Sunday, is walled up. The relics of the old
city are buried twenty to forty feet below the present site.

The Church of the Holy Sepulchre in the northwest quarter of the city is
so called because alleged to contain under its roof the very grave in
which the Saviour lay. This church, which was built by Helena, the
mother of Constantine the Great, is remarkable for the richness of its
decorations and the number of pilgrims by whom it is visited.

On Mount Moriah, Solomon is supposed to have built his famous temple,
where a rectangular walled space called the Harâm at present encloses
the Mosque of Omar and the El Aksa Mosque, once, perhaps, a Christian
church. Recent explorers believe that they found traces of Solomon’s
masonry here, and the foundations of the existing walls are more safely
identified with those of the sacred building as reconstructed by
Hadrian.

According to the Jews, Abraham sacrificed here, the intended offering of
Isaac was here, and Jacob anointed the rock. The Order of Knights
Templar was founded in this Mosque. Just outside the extreme northeast
corner of the Harâm, to be seen from the windows in north wall, down in
a ravine, is the Pool of Bethesda, rarely containing water, half filled
with rubbish.

North of the Harâm is a huge rocky platform, where the residence of the
Turkish governor marks the site of the Court of Pontius Pilate.

The Golgotha Chapels on Mount Calvary are off the south side of the east
end of the Church of the Crusaders. Steps lead up to them, their
elevation being fourteen and one-half feet above the main building. Just
beyond the top of the steps is a silver lined opening where the Cross
was inserted in the rock; at a distance of about five feet the spots of
the thieves’ crosses are indicated--some searches are satisfied that the
cross of the penitent thief would be the one to the north.

GETHSEMANE is at the base of Mount Olivet, and near it is the
traditional Grotto of the Agony, with the spot where Judas betrayed his
Master. This grotto is held in great veneration, and near it is the
Church of St. Salvatore, said to have been erected by the mother of
Constantine, containing the tombs of St. James, St. Ann, and St. Joseph.

THE VIA DOLOROSA, or Way of the Cross, possesses a number of places of
much interest, even if partly legendary. Among them the place where
Christ is said to have pronounced the words “Daughters of Jerusalem,
weep not for me.” Where the Virgin is said to have fainted on meeting
her Son. At a truncated column where Jesus fainted under the Cross, and
they called on Simon of Cyrene to help him. The house of Dives, and the
stone on which Lazarus sat. The Gate of Judgment, formerly marking the
limits of the town, and the Calvary itself, now inclosed within the
Church of the Holy Sepulchre.

MOUNT ZION (though used in the Scriptures as identical with Jerusalem)
is just outside the southwest corner of the city wall. There were
Christian churches erected here at very early dates over the spot where
the Holy Ghost descended upon the Apostles, but there followed so many
destructions, mutilations, and confusions, that little certainty
attaches to the cluster of buildings now standing. Here is reputed to be
the tomb of David, and the Room of the Last Supper, once part of a
Christian Church.

THE MOUNT OF OLIVES is a range of eminences and slight depressions on
the east side of Jerusalem, parallel with the hill of the Temple, but on
higher ground. Here is the Tomb of the Virgin within a subterranean
church, where she lay until her “assumption.” A few yards from the Tomb,
off the south side of the road, is the Garden of Gethsemane. The Chapel
of the Ascension marks the tradition of the Ascension of Christ from
this spot.

=Bethlehem= (_beth´lē-em_), (Heb., “house of bread”), is six miles south
of Jerusalem. It was the birthplace of David, the scene of Ruth’s story,
and, most important of all (according to Matthew, Luke and John), the
birthplace of Christ. The Church of St. Mary, at Bethlehem, is built
over the birthplace of Christ. The Chapel of the Nativity is in the
crypt of the church, under the great choir; here in the pavement is a
star and the words “Hic de Virgine Maria Jesus Christus natus est” (Here
Jesus Christ was born to the Virgin Mary); opposite the Chapel of the
Nativity is the Chapel of the Manger.

=Hebron= (_hē´bron_) is situated on a hill among the mountains of Judah,
about seven hours south of Jerusalem. It is one of the oldest existing
biblical towns and was the home and burial-place of the patriarchs.
Afterward it became an important city in the territory of Judah. David
resided here the first seven years of his reign. Later it was taken
possession of by the Idumeans, from whom Judas Maccabeus recaptured it.
Upon the traditional site of the burial-place of the patriarchs,
Machpelah, a magnificent mosque is erected.

=Cana of Galilee=, a decayed town near Nazareth, is celebrated in
Scripture as the scene of our Saviour’s first miracle, where He turned
water into wine. Near it is the Mount of Beatitudes, the supposed scene
of the Sermon on the Mount.

=Damascus= (_da-mas´kus_) formerly the capital and most important city
of Syria, is situated in a fertile valley east of the Anti-Lebanon, on
the edge of the desert. On account of its beautiful fertile
surroundings, its lofty position, and its richness in fresh water,
Damascus had been praised in antiquity and in modern times as the
“paradise of the earth,” “the eye of the desert,” and “the pearl of the
Orient.” Originally a Hittite city, it became the capital of Syria, and
a great part of the country was called by its name.

[Illustration: =MARKET PLACE IN THE VILLAGE OF BETHLEHEM. THE CHURCH OF
ST. MARY, NEARBY, IS BUILT OVER THE BIRTHPLACE OF OUR SAVIOUR, AND
CONTAINS THE CHAPEL OF THE NATIVITY=]

In the Old Testament the name of Damascus occurs as early as the history
of Abraham. After the time of David, Damascus often came into sharp
collision with Israel. In the New Testament Damascus is known especially
from the history of Paul.

Its chief modern glory is the Omayyad Mosque, and the ever changing
color and variety of the street traffic, the costumes and the animation
of the bazaars. The mosque was the subject of extravagant description by
Arabian writers. In 1069 fire destroyed part of the building, and again
in 1893 immense injury was done by fire; it has been restored, though it
has not its ancient magnificence.

=Jericho= (_jer´i-kō_), situated west of the Jordan and fourteen miles
east-northeast of Jerusalem, was destroyed by Joshua and rebuilt by
Ahab. It was the residence of Herod the Great; was destroyed by
Vespasian, rebuilt by Hadrian, and again destroyed by the Crusaders.

=Nazareth= (_naz´a-reth_) is celebrated as the dwelling-place of Jesus
during his childhood and early manhood. The Church of the Annunciation
here was founded by the empress Helena, but ruined in the middle ages,
and rebuilt later. It is well proportioned, and, while much of the
architecture is new, it preserves interesting memorials of the past. In
the crypt is the traditional place of the Annunciation.

=Petra= (_pē´trä_).--On the northwest edge of the Arabian desert, about
midway between the Gulf of Okabah and the Dead Sea, among desolate
mountains, stand the remains of the rock-hewn city of Petra, best
reached from Jerusalem. These ruins probably date from the time of Roman
rule in 105 A. D., though some of the magnificent monuments were built
by the Edomites who dwelt here before the Greeks and Romans.

This wonderful city is approached through a narrow gorge called the Sik,
a kind of gateway in the rocks, like the entrance to a Roman
amphitheatre.

Here one is confronted by a temple cut in the rock, with the most
exquisite Corinthian columns, and entering the doorway he finds himself
in the heart of the hill, surrounded by subterranean architecture of the
most elaborate beauty of form and workmanship. This is called the
Khaznet or Treasury of Pharaoh, which is rightly regarded as one of the
wonders of the East. It is attributed to the Emperor Hadrian, who
visited the place in A. D. 131, and erected here a temple to Isis. The
rock wall from which it is hewn is an exquisite rose-pink. It is in a
state of remarkable preservation. The imposing facade shows two rows
each of six majestic columns, one row above the other, with niches in
which are rock-hewn equestrian and other statues, the whole terminating
above in a miniature temple crowned by a huge urn, the entire height
being one hundred and two feet. Within is a bare lofty room and some
chambers. The urn is said to contain treasures of Pharaoh. Neither the
Coliseum at Rome, grand and interesting as it is, nor the ruins of the
Acropolis at Athens, nor the Pyramids, nor the mighty temples of the
Nile, present a more marvelous spectacle.

But this is only an introduction to the marvels behind. The gorge opens
out into a narrow valley, some three miles in circumference, everywhere
sunk deep beneath the enclosing mountains, and the walls of this valley
are filled with the remains of other rock-cut temples, tombs and
dwelling places. In one place are the remains of an open air theatre,
the workmanship of which is Greek. Some of the structures, cut in the
face of the rock, are several stories in height, while their
architectural details excite the wondering admiration of the beholder. A
stairway of many hundreds of steps leads to the largest of the ruins,
El Deir, or Convent. In design it somewhat resembles the Treasury of
Pharaoh.

[Illustration: THE TREASURY OF PHARAOH

REMARKABLE NATURAL ENTRANCE

=MARVELOUS ROCK-HEWN TEMPLES AT PETRA=--(See under Petra)]

The cliffs that enclose the valley are simply dotted all over with the
handiwork of artists of a bygone age. Here is a portion of a heathen
temple, there the remains of a palace, yonder a column, and beyond,
again, a stately portico or pediment. They stand at varying elevations.
Most of them are conspicuous, while others are hidden in the mountain
recesses. There are tombs by the hundred, and on the mountain tops many
places of sacrifice, where strange religious ceremonies were enacted.
They challenge admiration by the variety of styles they embody, and by
the exquisite hues of the sandstone from which they are hewn, varying
from the prevailing purplish-red of the mountains and cliffs to a
delicate pink and rose.

Until quite recently, this ancient city built out of rocks was seldom
visited and almost unknown. Now, however, by means of the new Damascus
to Mecca Railway, they are within easy reach. The journey from Jerusalem
to Maan may be made in less than a day. From the latter place the ruins
can be reached in six to eight hours by horseback.

=Palmyra= (_pal-mī´ra_), or =Tadmor= (_tad´môr_), a famous ancient city
situated on an oasis in the desert east of Syria, is said to have been
built by Solomon. After the decline of Petra in 105 A. D., Palmyra took
its place as the chief commercial center in northern Arabia. Its
merchant aristocracy reaped great advantage from the long-protracted
wars between Rome and Parthia by acknowledging the supremacy of Rome.
One of its chiefs, Odænathus, husband of the more famous Zenobia,
extended his power over most of the adjoining countries, from Egypt to
Asia Minor. Aurelian at length crushed in 272 the attempt of the
Palmyrenes to found an independent empire. After the Roman empire became
Christian, Palmyra was made a bishopric. When the Moslems conquered
Syria, Palmyra also submitted to them. From the fifteenth century it
began to sink into decay, along with the rest of the Orient. Magnificent
remains of the ancient city still exist, chief among them being the
great temple of the Sun (or Baal); the great colonnade, nearly one mile
long, and consisting originally of some fifteen hundred Corinthian
columns; and sepulchral towers, overlooking the city.

=Jaffa=, is a maritime city in Palestine, Syria, fifty-four miles by
rail northwest of Jerusalem, of which it was the port in King David’s
time. Extensive fruit and orange orchards surround the city. Its
fortifications were destroyed by Saladin in 1188, and, during the
Crusades, Richard the Lion-Hearted was confined here by sickness. In
1722 it was attacked by the Arabs, and in 1799 by Napoleon. The
principal exports are oranges, wheat, soap, hides, olive oil, wool, and
barley.


THE PHŒNICIANS

Phœnicia was a narrow strip of country on the southeastern coast of the
great inland sea of antiquity, lying chiefly between Mount Libanus
(Lebanon) and the Mediterranean shore, and extending for about one
hundred and twenty miles north of Mount Carmel. Here lay the cities Tyre
and Sidon, Byblus and Berytus, Tripolis and Ptolemais. The land was
fertile, and rich in timber trees and fruits, such as the pine, fir,
cypress, sycamore, and cedar; figs, olives, dates, pomegranates,
citrons, almonds. Here was material for trade abroad, and comfort and
prosperity at home, and the coast was so thickly studded with towns as
almost to make one continuous populated line.


HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT OF PHOENICIA

The history of Phœnicia is peculiarly a history of separate cities and
colonies, never united into one great independent state, though now and
then alliances existed between several cities in order to repel a common
danger. Each city of Phœnicia was governed by a king or petty chief,
under or with whom an aristocracy, and at times elective magistrates,
appear to have held sway. But the genius of the race cared little for
political development; they devoted themselves almost exclusively to
commercial pursuits.


THE GREAT CITIES OF SIDON AND TYRE

Sidon was probably the more ancient of the Phœnician cities. Its richly
embroidered robes are mentioned in the Homeric poems. It was the
greatest maritime city of the ancient world until its colony, Tyre,
surpassed it, and it seems to have been subject to Tyre in the time of
David and Solomon. About 700 B. C., it became independent again, but was
taken by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, about 600 B. C., and became
subject to Persia about 500 B. C. Under the Persian rule, it was a great
and populous city, and, coming into the hands of Alexander the Great in
333 B. C., helped him with a fleet in his siege of Tyre. Its history
ends with submission to Roman power, 63 B. C.

Tyre was a powerful city as early as 1200 B. C. The friendship of its
king, Hiram, with Solomon is well known from the Hebrew Scriptures; and
at this time the commerce of Tyre was foremost in the Mediterranean, and
its ships sailed into the Indian Ocean from the port of Elath on the Red
Sea. Tyre is celebrated for its obstinate resistance to enemies. Sargon,
king of Assyria, besieged the city in vain for five years (721-717 B.
C). Nebuchadnezzar took thirteen years (598-585 B. C.) to capture it
only partially, and it was taken by Alexander the Great after a seven
months’ siege, in 332 B. C. The old glory of Tyre departed with the
transfer of its chief trade to the newly created city of Alexandria,
though the indomitable energy of the Phœnicians again, in Roman times,
made it a great seat of trade.


PHOENICIAN MARINERS FOUND CARTHAGE

Phœnicia was at the height of prosperity from the eleventh to the sixth
centuries B. C. As a colonizing country it preceded the Greeks on the
shores and islands of the Mediterranean, and sent ships to regions that
the Greeks knew nothing of, save by report of the bold mariners of Tyre.
Until the rise of Alexandria about 300 B. C., the sea trade of Phœnicia
was rivaled only by that of Carthage, its own colony; and Phœnician
merchants still kept up their great land trade by caravans with Arabia,
central Asia and northern India, Scythia and the Caucasian countries.

By far the most renowned of all Phœnician colonies--famous in history
for Hannibal’s heroic hate of Rome and warlike skill--was Carthage, in
the center of the northern coast of Africa. The date of its foundation
is put about 850 B. C. At Utica and Tunis, to the north and south,
Phœnician settlements were already existing.


VAST EXTENT OF PHOENICIAN COMMERCE

  The trade of Tyre and her sister cities reached almost throughout
  the world as then known. They imported the spices--notably the myrrh
  and frankincense--of Arabia; the ivory, ebony, and cotton goods of
  India; linen yarn and corn from Egypt; wool and wine from Damascus;
  embroideries from Babylon and Nineveh; pottery, in the days of
  Grecian art, from Attica; horses and chariots from Armenia; copper
  from the shores of the Euxine Sea; lead from Spain; tin from
  Cornwall. Phœnicia exported not only these articles of food and use
  and luxury, but the rich purple dyes made from the murex (a kind of
  shell-fish) of its own coast, the famous hue of Tyre, with which
  were tinged the silken costly robes of the despots. From Sidon went
  the famous glass produced in part from fine white sand, found
  plenteously near Mount Carmel. There was gold from Ophir, and
  interchange of cedar, sent by Hiram, king of Tyre, for building
  Solomon’s Temple, in barter for the wheat and balm and oil of
  Israel’s fertile land.

  So important was the trade by caravans through Babylon with the
  interior of Asia that the great town Palmyra (or “Tadmor in the
  desert”) was founded or enlarged by Solomon to serve the traffic on
  its route through Syria to the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates.


THEIR ARTS OF CIVILIZATION INCLUDED OUR ALPHABET

  As a money-making race the Phœnicians were skilled in arts by which
  the grand aim of its life could be attained. Great as they were at
  the dyeing vat and loom, adepts in working brass and other metals,
  and in fabricating glass, they were also the best ship builders and
  the most famous miners of their time. Their greatest service to
  civilization seems rather to have been in appropriating, developing,
  and spreading the ideas of others, especially in forming an alphabet
  for the Western world.

  While the mythical story about Cadmus, taking his sixteen letters
  from Phœnicia into Greece, must be rejected, the European world owes
  to this race of traders the alphabetic symbols now in use. The
  gradual change of shape is easily traced in most of the signs as
  here given. The simple and ingenious device by which each sign
  stands for one elementary sound of human speech is largely due to
  the Phœnician people, as an improvement on the cumbrous
  hieroglyphics of Egypt. Of literature they have left nothing
  whatever recognized as really theirs.


THEIR CHARACTER AND RELIGION

  They had a name for craftiness in trade, and wealth led to worse
  than luxury,--to flagrant vice. Their religion was a kind of nature
  worship closely related to that of the Babylonians. They adored the
  sun and moon and five planets, the chief deities being the male
  Baal, and the female Ashtoreth or Astarte. At Tyre a deity was
  worshiped with the attributes of the Greek god Hercules. There was
  also the worship of Adonis, under the name of Thammuz, in the coast
  towns; and this included a commemoration of his death, a funeral
  festival, at which the women gave way to extravagant lamentations.
  It was Phœnician women that allured Solomon to their form of
  religion; it was a princess of Phœnicia, Jezebel, that brought Ahab,
  her husband, king of Israel, to ruin; that slew the prophets of God,
  and left a name proverbial of infamy in life, and for ignominious
  horror in her death. The work done by Phœnicia in the cause of human
  progress was chiefly important and interesting in material or
  practical things.


THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE

  With the Persian Empire we first enter on continuous history. A
  multiplicity of histories first met and commingled in that of
  Persia. The Persian Empire extended itself over the whole of western
  Asia, and into Europe and Africa; it drew together Bactria, Parthia,
  Media, Assyria, Syria, Palestine, Phœnicia, Asia Minor, Armenia,
  Thrace, Egypt, and the Cyrenaica. The voice of the Great King was
  law from the Indus on the east to the Ægean Sea and Syrian Gulf on
  the west, from the Danube and the Caucasus on the north to the
  Indian Ocean and the deserts of Arabia and Nubia on the south.

The empire of the Medes and Persians, commonly known as “the Persian
Empire,” absorbed all the territories of Western and Southwestern Asia
(except Arabia), as well as Egypt and a small portion of Europe. The
Medes and the Persians are treated of together, because of their
intimate connection in race and the fact that Media was conquered by and
included in Persia, as the latter empire rose into power and importance
in the western Asiatic world.


GEOGRAPHICAL SITUATION OF MEDIA AND PERSIA

The map shows the position of Media on the tableland south of the
Caspian Sea, east of Armenia and the Zagros Mountains, and north and
west of the mountains of Persia proper and the great rainless Persian
desert, or desert of Iran. The mountain ranges enclosed fertile valleys,
rich in corn and fruits; and the Zagros Mountains had on their pastures
splendid horses, which supplied the chargers of the king and nobles of
Persia.

Persis, or Persia proper, was a mountainous district between the desert
of Iran and the northeastern shore of the Persian Gulf. The country
contained, among its hills, fertile plains and valleys abounding in
corn, pasture and fruits.


ORIGIN AND CHARACTER OF THE MEDES

The close connection of the Medes, in origin and institutions, with the
Persians, is shown in the famous expression, “The law of the Medes and
Persians, which altereth not.” The people migrated into Media at an
early period, from the original abode of the Aryan race. By degrees they
overcame the Scythian races whom they found in possession of the land.
The Medes were a warlike race, strong in cavalry and archers. Their
language was a dialect of the Zend, the ancient tongue of Persia, and
their religion was the Magian.

Probably about 800 B. C. the Medes had established themselves in their
new home. About 710 B. C., Sargon, king of Assyria, conquered some part
of Media, and made settlements of Israelites taken captive by him from
the cities of Samaria; but the Assyrians could never conquer the Medes,
who at last grew into a powerful kingdom under native princes.


MEDIAN POWER FIRST ESTABLISHED BY CAYAXARES

The monarchy was founded by Cyaxares about 633 B. C. He extended the
Median Empire westward, by conquest, through Armenia to the river Halys
in Asia Minor. His great achievement was the capture of Nineveh, about
620 B. C., in alliance with the revolted Babylonians, and the consequent
overthrow of the Assyrian Empire. Cyaxares reigned forty years, and died
about 593 B. C.

He was succeeded by his son Astyages (_as-ty´a-jēz_), who reigned for
over thirty years,--a despot of quiet life and peaceful disposition. The
end of the Median monarchy came in 558 B. C., with his dethronement by
Cyrus of Persia.


ORIGIN AND CHARACTER OF THE PERSIANS

The Persians, in race, language, and religion, were closely connected
with the Medes. They appear first in human records as hardy and warlike
mountaineers, noble specimens of the great Aryan race,--simple in their
ways of life, noted for truthfulness, keen-witted, generous, and
quick-tempered. The language which they brought with them when they
migrated is known as the Zend, closely allied to the Sanscrit, and now
only existing in the sacred books of the Zendavesta, containing the
doctrine of Zoroaster (Persian name, Zarathustra), the founder of the
Magian religion.

The Persians were, in their early history, subject to the Medes, but
governed by their native princes. The Median supremacy passed to the
Persians with the dethronement of Astyages, king of Media, by Cyrus.


FOUNDING OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE BY CYRUS

Master of Media, Cyrus came next into collision with the great kingdom
of Lydia,[2] in Asia Minor. Crœsus was king of Lydia when Cyrus met his
attack and conquered him, in 546 B. C. The rising empire of Persia was
thus extended to the western seaboard of Asia Minor. The Greek colonies
on the coast next fell a prey to the arms of Cyrus, and in 538 B. C. he
captured Babylon, as we have seen, and added the provinces of the later
Babylonian Empire to the Persian. Before this he had conquered the
territory eastwards between Media and the Indus, and restored the Jews
from captivity. His power and life ended in his expedition against the
Scythian people, by whom he was defeated and killed, in 529 B. C. Cyrus,
the greatest as a king and the best as a man among all the Persian
monarchs, had spread the Persian sway from the Hellespont on the west to
the Indus on the east.

  [2] Lydia, with its capital at Sardis, and extending from the coast
  of the Ægean Sea eastward to the river Halys, was easily one of the
  most powerful monarchies of the second class in Asiatic history. The
  Lydians were a highly civilized, wealthy, and energetic people,
  great in agriculture, manufactures, commerce and the arts. In music
  and metallurgy their names are famous as inventors or improvers;
  they were proverbial in the ancient world for luxury and the softer
  vices that attend it.

He was succeeded by his son Cambyses who is distinguished by his
conquest of Egypt in 525. He died in 522, on his march from Egypt
against a Magian pretender to the throne. The usurper reigned for a few
months, and was then dethroned and slain in an insurrection headed by
Darius, son of Hystaspes, a noble, who succeeded to the throne.


THE GREAT REIGN OF DARIUS

Darius Hystaspis, or Darius I, reigned from 521 to 485 B. C., and was a
great and able monarch. He finished the work which Cyrus had begun, by
setting in order the affairs of the vast empire which Cyrus and Cambyses
had conquered.

[Illustration: =A PORTRAIT OF DARIUS THE GREAT=

Here “The Great King,” with state umbrella and attendants, as carved on
one of the door-jambs of the palace of Darius I. at Persepolis. The
original bears considerable traces of color.]

Darius is credited with the establishment of highroads and swift postal
communication between the provinces and the court. The kings of Persia
resided in the winter at Susa, a warm place in the plain east of the
Lower Tigris; in the summer at Ecbatana, in Media, by the mountains; and
Babylon was a third capital of occasional residence in winter. From
these different centers of power the Persian monarchs, according to
their measure of energy and resolution, controlled the conduct of the
satraps in every quarter of their widespread dominions.


ATTEMPT TO INVADE EUROPE, AND WAR WITH THE GREEKS

About 508 B. C. Darius invaded Scythia, and, crossing the Danube,
marched far into the territory which is now European Russia; but the
expedition ended in a retreat without encountering the enemy, and with
great loss of men from famine. On his return his generals subdued Thrace
and Macedonia, north of Greece, and added them to the Persian Empire.

His famous war with the Greeks arose out of the revolt of the Ionian
Greek cities in Asia Minor in 501, and the burning of the city of Sardis
by their Athenian allies. An expedition sent against Greece under the
general Mardonius, in 492 B. C., was defeated by the Thracians on land,
and frustrated by a storm in the Ægean Sea. In 490 a great armament was
sent by Darius under Datis and Artaphernes, and then was fought the
decisive battle of Marathon. Darius’s proposed and long-prepared revenge
upon the Greeks was baffled by a rebellion in Egypt; and he died in 485,
leaving the task to his son and successor, Xerxes.


REIGN OF XERXES THE GREAT

Xerxes reigned from 485-465 B. C., and he began with the suppression of
the Egyptian revolt in 484, devoting the next four years to preparations
against Greece. The grand effort made in 480 has been ever famous in
history for the magnitude of the host of men and ships employed, for the
heroism of the resistance on the one side, and the completeness of the
final disaster on the other, as will be seen in the history of Greece.
Xerxes returned to Sardis, after the destruction of his fleet at
Salamis, toward the end of the year 480. The defeat of his general
Mardonius at Platæa ended the war in Greece, and the Persians lost their
last foothold in Europe by the capture of Sestos on the Hellespont.


ARTAXERXES II. AND THE “RETREAT OF THE TEN THOUSAND GREEKS”

Artaxerxes II., reigned 405-359. At the beginning occurred the revolt of
his younger brother Cyrus, satrap in Western Asia, who marched against
Babylon, and fell in the battle of Cunaxa, 401 B. C. He was supported by
a body of Greek mercenaries, whose retiring march to the Black Sea over
the mountains of Kurdistan has been immortalized by Xenophon’s
description in his Anabasis, and is known as the “Retreat of the Ten
Thousand Greeks.” After many conflicts between the Persians and Greeks,
the peace of Antalcidas, concluded in 387 B. C., gave to the Persians
all the Greek cities in Asia Minor. The Persian Empire, however, was now
going to decay. Artaxerxes failed to recover revolted Egypt, and was
constantly at war with tributary princes and satraps. The want of
cohesion in the unwieldy, ill-assorted aggregate of “peoples, nations,
and languages,” was being severely felt.


DARIUS III. LAST OF THE PERSIAN EMPERORS

In 336 B. C., the last king of the Persian Empire, Darius III., surnamed
Codomannus, succeeded to power. With the great battle in the plains of
Gaugamela, in Assyria, known as the battle of Arbela, from a town fifty
miles distant, where Darius had his headquarters before the struggle,
the Persian Empire came to an end in October, 331 B. C. The defeat of
Darius was decisive; and in 330 he was murdered in Parthia by Bessus,
one of his satraps. Asiatic Aryans had succumbed at last to their
kinsmen of Europe, who, after repelling Oriental assaults upon the home
of a new civilization, had carried the arms of avenging ambition into
Asia, and struck a blow to the heart of the older system.


SCIENCE AND THE ARTS IN PERSIA

  In science, art, and learning, the Persians developed nothing that
  was new, except in architecture. In the conquest of the Assyrians,
  Babylonians, Phœnicians, and Egyptians, the Persian kings and nobles
  came into possession alike of the scientific acquirements and
  learning of those peoples, and of the products of their mechanical
  arts. The Persians were soldiers, and not craftsmen, and had no need
  to be producers, when they could be purchasers, of the carpets and
  muslins of Babylon and Sardis, the fine linen of Egypt, and the rich
  variety of wares that Phœnician commerce spread throughout the
  empire.

  ARCHITECTURE.--In architecture, they were at first pupils of the
  Assyrians and Babylonians. The splendid palaces and temples of
  Nineveh and Babylon had existed for centuries before the Persians
  were anything more than a hardy tribe of warriors, and it was only
  after the acquirement of imperial sway that they began to erect
  great and elegant buildings for themselves. When that time came, the
  Persians showed that they could produce, by adaptation of older
  models, an architectural style of their own. This style was one that
  comes between the sombre, massive grandeur of Assyrian and Egyptian
  edifices and the perfect symmetry and beauty of the achievements of
  Greek art.

  PALACES AND TOMBS, not temples, were the masterpieces of Persian
  building. The ruins of the city of Persepolis, in the province of
  Persis, are the most famous remains of Persian architecture. Here,
  on a terraced platform, stood vast and splendid palaces, the
  doorways adorned with beautiful bas-reliefs. The great double
  staircase leading up to the “Palace of Forty Pillars” is especially
  rich in sculptured human figures. The columns are beautiful in form,
  sixty feet in total height, with the shaft finely fluted, and the
  pedestal in the form of the cup and leaves of a pendent lotus.
  Throughout the ruins a love of ornament and display is visible. In
  the bas-reliefs are profuse decorations of fretwork fringes, borders
  of sculptured bulls and lions, and stone-work of carved roses.


PERSIAN CITIES

  =Babylon= has been already described.

  =Ecbatana=, formerly the capital of the Median Empire, was a very
  ancient city, surrounded by seven walls, each overtopping the one
  outside it, and surmounted by battlements painted in five different
  colors, the innermost two being overlaid with silver and with gold.
  The strong citadel inside all was the royal treasury.

  =Susa= was a square-built city unprotected by walls, but having
  strongly fortified citadel, containing a royal palace and treasury.
  The only remains of the place are extensive mounds, on which are
  found fragments of bricks and broken pottery with cuneiform
  inscriptions.

  =Persepolis= was one of the two burial-places of the Persian kings,
  and also a royal treasury. Darius I. and Xerxes greatly enlarged and
  adorned the city, which retained its splendor till it was partially
  burned by Alexander the Great. The tomb of Cyrus and a colossal
  bas-relief sculpture of the great founder of the monarchy, was at
  Murghab, northeast of Persepolis.

  =Sardis=, in western Asia Minor, once the capital of the Lydian
  monarchy, was an almost impregnable citadel, and the residence of
  the satrap of Lydia, and is often mentioned in connection with the
  Persian kings.


PERSIAN LIFE

  The splendor of Persian life at court and abroad is known to us from
  many sources. The sculptures of Persepolis show something of the
  state and ceremony attendant on a Persian king. In the Book of
  Esther we read of King Ahasuerus (Xerxes) entertaining all “the
  nobles and princes of the provinces” for “a hundred and fourscore
  days,” of his making a feast for seven days “in the court of the
  garden of the king’s palace” for all the people of Susa; of pillars
  of marble, silver curtain rings, beds of gold and silver, pavements
  of marble that was red, and blue, and white, and black; of drinking
  vessels of gold diverse in shape and size, and “royal wine in
  abundance, according to the state of the king”; of garments of
  purple and fine linen; and of the absolute power of a Persian despot
  in his caprices and his wrath, with his “seven chamberlains that
  served in his presence,” and with the lives of men and women of all
  ranks held in the hollow of his hand.

  THE MAGI.--The priests or Magi had great power, from the reverence
  of the people for them. The great objects of worship were the
  heavenly bodies. This national priesthood, like the Chaldeans in the
  Babylonian Empire, formed a caste to whom belonged all mental
  culture and legislation. The modern term “magic,” in its
  superstitious sense, is connected with their professions and
  practices.


THE GREEKS: GLORY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD

  The interest of the great story of ancient Greece is inexhaustible.
  Of all histories of which we know so much, this is the most
  abounding in consequences to us who now live. The Greeks are the
  most remarkable people who have yet existed. This high claim is
  justly made on the grounds of the power and efforts that were
  required for them to achieve what they did for themselves and for
  mankind. With the exception of Christianity, they were the
  originators of most of the great things of which the modern world
  can boast. The period from the permanent settlements in Greece until
  its final reduction to a Roman province covers about two thousand
  years.

The name Greece was almost unknown by the people whom we call Greeks,
and was never used by them for their own country. It has come to us from
the Romans, being really the name of a tribe in Epirus, northwest of
Greece, the part of the country first known to them.


THE LAND OF HELLAS AND THE HELLENES

The Greek writers and people called their land Hellas, the term meaning
all territory in which their own people, the Hellenes, were settled.
Hellas included not only the Greek peninsula, but many of the islands of
the Ægean Sea, and the coast settlements and colonies above referred to.
The peninsula, much indented by bays, was broken up into many small
divisions, connected by the sea. There were numerous mountains in
ridges, offshoots, and groups; there were plains, valleys and small
rivers. All was diversified. The position and conformation of the
country undoubtedly helped to render the Greeks the earliest civilized
people in Europe, both by developing, in a life of struggle with nature
on land and sea, their special and innate character, and by bringing
them into contact with the older civilizations, in Egypt and Phœnicia,
on the eastern shores of the Mediterranean. The mountains that divided
the country into small isolated districts had a great political
importance in giving rise to many separate and independent states, the
rivalries and conflicts of which favored the working-out of political
problems and the growth of political freedom.


GREAT DIVISIONS OF GREECE

Greece naturally divides itself into Northern, Central and Southern.
Northern Greece contained two principal countries, Thessalia and Epirus,
though the Greeks themselves did not regard the inhabitants of Epirus
(the Epirots) as being of real Hellenic race. It was only in later times
that Macedonia, north of Thessalia, was considered a part of Hellas.

Central Greece had nine separate states, the most important of which was
Attica, the peninsula jutting out southeastward, and renowned forever
through its possession of the city of Athens.

Southern Greece, or the Peloponnesus (meaning “island of Pelops,” a
mythical king), contained seven principal states, Laconia being the most
important, and sharing the fame of Attica because it contained the city
of Sparta.


THE FAMOUS GRECIAN ISLANDS

The largest of the islands on the coast was Eubœa, about ninety miles in
length, noted for good pasturage and corn. On the west coast was the
group known to modern geography as the “Ionian Isles.” To the south lay
Crete, one hundred and sixty miles in length, noted for the skill of its
archers. In the Ægean Sea were the two groups called the Cyclades and
Sporades. The Cyclades (or “circling isles,” the chief being Delos) are
clearly shown upon the map. The Sporades (or “scattered isles”) lay to
the east off the southwest coast of Asia Minor. Northward in the Ægean,
in mid-sea, or on the Asiatic coast, were Lemnos, Scyros, Lesbos, Chios
and Samos.


THE EFFECT OF GREEK COLONIZATION

The establishment of so many colonies in countries pre-eminently favored
by nature in productions and climate, and so situated as to prompt the
inhabitants to navigation and commerce, gave a great impulse to the
civilization of the Hellenic race, and may be regarded as the main cause
of its rapid progress.


HISTORY OF THE GREEKS


  I. THE PRE-HISTORIC PERIOD.--This period includes the mythical
  accounts of the origin of the Greeks, the Trojan war, the more
  certain story of the excavations, and the establishment of the
  peculiar Greek institutions under the so-called rule of the
  half-mythical kings. Down to the time of the Trojan war very
  considerable progress had already been made, and civilization among
  the Greeks had received its first important impulse. The oracles at
  Delphi and Dodona had been established; the mysteries at Eleusis;
  the four sacred games; the court of Areopagus at Athens; and the
  celebrated Amphictyonic Council. The arts and sciences likewise
  received considerable attention. Letters had been introduced by
  Cadmus. The accounts of the siege of Thebes and that of Troy show
  that progress had been made in the various arts pertaining to war,
  but the history of the period as a whole exhibits that singular
  mixture of barbarism with cultivation, of savage customs with
  chivalrous adventures, which marks what is called an _heroic age_.

According to the Greek historians, the earliest inhabitants of Hellas
were the so-called Pelasgians, but the information afforded by the
ancients on the subject is scant and vague.[3] For our knowledge of the
inhabitants and civilization of prehistoric Greece, we are therefore
dependent on the more certain witness of the excavations, which, in
recent years, have yielded very important results.

  [3] Many of the early myths and legends, as narrated by Homer and
  preserved by Hesiod (in his Theogony), were gathered into somewhat
  systematic form to explain the genealogy of the Hellenic tribes,
  their subdivisions, and the origin of the Greek cities. The
  foundation of Athens, for example, was ascribed to Cecrops, regarded
  by some as a native of Egypt; he is said to have introduced into
  Attica the arts of civilized life, and from him the Acropolis was
  first called Cecropia. Argos was believed to have been founded by
  another Egyptian, named Danaus, who fled to Greece with his fifty
  daughters, and who was elected by the people as their king, and from
  whom some of the Greeks received the name of Danaï. Thebes, in
  Bœotia, looked to Cadmus, a Phœnician, as its founder; he was
  believed to have brought into Greece the art of writing, and from
  him the citadel of Thebes received the name of Cadmea. The
  Peloponnesus was said to have been settled by, and to have received
  its name from Pelops, a man from Phrygia in Asia; he became the king
  of Mycenæ, and was the father of Atreus, and the grandfather of
  Agamemnon and Menelaus; chieftains in the Trojan war. Such
  traditions as these show that the early Greeks had some notion of
  their dependence upon the Eastern nations.

  LEGENDS OF EARLY NATIONAL EXPLOITS.--The legends are not only
  grouped about particular places and individual heroes, but have for
  their subjects national deeds, marked by courage and fortitude.

  One of these stories describes the so-called “Argonautic
  expedition”--an adventurous voyage of fifty heroes, who set sail
  from Bœotia under the leadership of Jason, in the ship Argo, for the
  purpose of recovering a “golden fleece” which had been carried away
  to Colchis, a far distant land on the shores of the Euxine.

  Another legend--the “Seven against Thebes”--narrates the tragic
  story of Œdipus, who unwittingly slew his own father and married his
  own mother and was banished from Thebes for his crimes, after having
  been made king; and whose sons quarreled for the vacant throne, one
  of them with the aid of other chieftains making war upon his native
  city.

  But the most famous of the legendary stories of Greece was that
  which described the Trojan war--the military expedition of the
  Greeks to Troy, in order to rescue Helen, who was the beautiful wife
  of Menelaus, king of Sparta, and who had been stolen away by Paris,
  son of the Trojan king. The details of this story--the wrath of
  Achilles, the battles of the Greeks and the Trojans, the destruction
  of Troy, and the return of the Grecian heroes--are the subject of
  the great epic poems ascribed to Homer. All these legends, whether
  derived from a foreign source, or produced upon native soil,
  received the impress of the Greek mind. They form one of the
  legacies from the prehistoric age, and reveal some of the features
  of the early Greek character.


THE MINOAN AGE

Excavations at Knossus in Crete have revealed to us the civilization of
the Minoan age of Greek history. This civilization is the oldest of
which we have knowledge. It flourished about 2000 B. C. Prehistoric
Knossus was a city of massive structure in which the fine arts
flourished and had reached a remarkably high stage of development
(specimens of Minoan pottery are of exceptional beauty and grace) and in
which the art of writing was known. This last fact is of great
importance, as until recently the art of writing in Greece was supposed
to be post-Homeric.


THE MYCENEAN AGE

The next age of Greek civilization on which archæology has concentrated
its searchlight is the Mycenean (fl. c. 1600-1100 B. C.). The Mycenean
civilization is revealed to us by excavations in the sites of Mycenæ,
Tiryns, etc. The characteristic features of these splendid cities is
their massiveness and solidity. Pausanias relates that tradition
attributed the building of Tiryns and Mycenæ to the Cyclopes (hence the
expression “Cyclopean walls” used to denote structures of this massive
type), thus testifying to the gigantic edifices of prehistoric times as
contrasted with the masonry of a later date. The jewelry, pottery and
weapons excavated from these ancient cities are of rare beauty. Iron was
practically unknown in the Mycenean age. Its use is more extensive in
the Homeric age, and therefore Homeric civilization is probably
post-Mycenean.


THE SO-CALLED DORIAN INVASION

But vast invasions swept over Greece, and a ruder civilization displaced
this early culture. In the latter half of the eleventh century B. C.,
the Dorians ravaged Greece. They were a coarser, hardier stock than the
peoples they conquered, but they brought to Greece a new vigor and a new
robustness, which when toned and harmonized by the finer influences of
the land, produced that civilization which is the world’s marvel for all
time.


  II. PERIOD OF MIGRATIONS AND FORMATION OF STATES.--The first
  governments of Greece were small monarchies, and they continued such
  until after the Trojan war. Soon after this we find the country
  involved in fatal civil wars, in which the people, under a number of
  petty chieftains hostile to each other, suffered extremely from
  calamity and oppression. These evils led to change in the form of
  government, and the substitution of the _popular_ instead of the
  _regal_ system. The same evils also probably contributed to the
  spirit of emigration, which so strikingly marks the period. During
  this period of colonization we notice the origin of the four
  principal dialects in the Greek language. In this period two of the
  Grecian states are chiefly conspicuous--Athens and Sparta, whose
  special effort was to provide themselves with a suitable political
  constitution, civil code and government.

These great migrations which swept over Greece created a congestion of
the population which was eventually relieved by widespread colonization
on the west coast of Asia Minor and in the neighboring islands of the
Ægean Sea. These colonies were settled by the three races, the Æolians,
Ionians and Dorians. The Æolians colonized the northwestern part, the
coast of Mysia, and the island of Lesbos. The Ionians settled in the
central part, on the coast of Lydia, and in the islands of Chios and
Samos. The Dorians occupied the southwest corner of Asia Minor (the
coast of Caria) and the adjacent islands. Of all these by far the most
important, wealthy and powerful were the Ionians.


OTHER GREEK COLONIES

The Greeks gradually spread themselves in settlements along the northern
coast of the Ægean Sea and the Propontis, in Macedonia and Thrace, so
that the whole Ægean became encircled with Greek colonies, and its
islands were covered with them. The tide of emigration flowed westward
also in great strength.

The coasts of Southern Italy were occupied by Dorians, Achæans, and
Ionians in settlements which grew to such importance that the region
took the name of Magna Græcia, or Greater Greece. The cities of
Tarentum, Croton and Sybaris became famous for their wealth, the latter
giving rise to the proverbial name for a luxurious liver.

On the southwestern coast of Italy was Rhegium, and farther north came
Pæstum, Cumæ, and Neapolis (Naples). In Sicily flourishing Greek
settlements abounded, the chief being Messana, Syracuse, Leontini,
Catana, Gela, Selinus, and Agrigentum. Farther west still a colony from
Phocæa, in Asia Minor, founded the city of Massilia, now Marseilles. On
the southern coast of the Mediterranean, westwards from Egypt, the Greek
colony of Cyrene became the chief town of a flourishing district called
Cyrenaica.

The establishment of the later of these colonies brings us down well
within authentic historical times, and the whole period of Greek
colonization extends from about 1100 to 600 B. C., the colonies being,
in many cases, offshoots of colonies previously established and risen to
wealth and over-population. In all these movements and settlements, the
enterprise and ability of the Greeks made them great commercial rivals
to, and successors of, the Phœnicians.


CONTRAST BETWEEN IONIANS AND DORIANS

The two leading races of Greece were the Ionians and the Dorians, and
they stand to each other in a strong contrast of character which largely
affected Greek political history. These prominent points of difference
run through the whole historical career of the two chief states,
_Ionian_ Athens and _Dorian_ Sparta, and were the cause of the strong
antagonism that we find so often in action between them. The Dorian was
distinguished by severity, bluntness, simplicity of life, conservative
ways, and oligarchic tendency in politics; the Ionian was equally marked
by vivacity, excitability, refinement, love of change, taste in the
arts, commercial enterprise, and attachment to democracy. The Dorian, in
the best times of his history, reverenced age, ancient usage, and
religion; the Ionian, at all periods of his career, loved enjoyment,
novelty and enterprise.


THE EARLY CAREER OF SPARTA

The Spartans, or the people of Lacedæmon, properly the southern half of
Laconia, first became the dominant nation in that part of Greece. Of
Spartan doings and fortunes we know almost nothing until the time of the
great Legislator Lycurgus, who is said to have organized, about 850 B.
C. the famous Spartan constitution. The probable account is that he
altered and reformed existing usages, and that the reverence of after
ages ascribed to him the promulgation and establishment of a full grown,
brand new set of institutions, which must have been, in many points, of
gradual growth.


THE FAMOUS LAWS OF LYCURGUS

The government was that of an aristocratic republic under the form of a
monarchy. There were two kings, whose powers were nominally those of
high priests, judges, and leaders in war, but in the two latter
capacities their functions were in time greatly restricted and almost
superseded. The chief legislative and judicial and much of the
executive, power lay with the Senate, or council of twenty-eight elders.
No citizen could be a member of this body until he had become sixty
years of age, and the office was held for life. The popular assembly,
open to every Spartan citizen over thirty years old, really handed over
its powers to a board of five commissioners, officers called Ephors
(“overseers”), whom it annually elected. These high officials had a
secret and irresponsible control over the executive power, both at home
and abroad; and in military enterprises, where the kings were the
nominal leaders, the two Ephors who accompanied the army exercised much
influence. The whole body of Spartan citizens was an aristocracy, and
among themselves entire political equality existed.


TRAINING OF THE SPARTAN CITIZEN

The object of the peculiar training of Spartan citizens, ascribed to
Lycurgus, was the maintenance of Spartan supremacy over the subject
population. It was necessary for safety that the small body of men,
surrounded by enemies in their own land, should be ready at all points,
against every attempt at opposition or rebellion, and against the
outside world as well.

As every man had to be a soldier, and the citizen existed only for the
state, the state took the Spartan citizen in hand at his birth, and
regulated him almost from the cradle to the grave. From the age of seven
the body was cultivated, and every means was used to give the instrument
the finest temper, in a physical sense, and to bring it to the sharpest
edge. Such training lasted till the sixtieth year of life, when the
Spartan became qualified by age, if not by wisdom, for election to the
Senate, or “assembly of old men,” above described.

The girls were trained in athletic exercises like those of the youths,
and everything was done to produce vigorous and stern women, prepared to
gladly see their sons die on the battle-field for Sparta.

The result of all was that the Spartans became a race of well-drilled
and intrepid warriors, but a state distinguished in the history of
Greece for the display of a domineering arrogance, a rapacity, and a
corruption, which contributed not a little to its downfall. However, the
Spartan institutions were very successful in giving the state security
at home and success in war abroad. Sparta was free from domestic
revolutions, and the spectacle it presented of constancy to fixed maxims
of policy gave it a great ascendancy over the Hellenic mind.


EARLY HISTORY OF ATHENS. THESEUS

The Athenians became by far the most famous, in political ascendancy and
in artistic and intellectual eminence, of all the Ionian race, to which
they belonged.

At first they were under kings like the other Hellenes; but about 1050
B. C. the title of king became changed to that of archon (“ruler”),
though the office was still held for life, and continued in the same
family. The archon was responsible for his acts to a general assembly of
the people, in which, however, the nobles had the chief influence; and
down to long after the time of the first Olympiad, Athens may be
regarded as an oligarchic republic, in which the supreme office, the
archonship, was confined to one family; and members of the chief court
of justice, called Areopagus (lit. “hill of Ares,” the place of its
assembly at Athens), were elected only from the noble houses.


IMPORTANCE OF THE OLYMPIADS IN GREEK CHRONOLOGY

We come, in the year 776 B. C., to the era when the chronology of
Grecian history becomes consecutive, and dates are reckoned by
Olympiads. These were the periods of four years each which elapsed
between the successive celebrations of the Olympic games in honor of the
Olympian Zeus (the chief Greek deity) in the plain of Olympia in Elis
(in Peloponnesus). The First Olympiad began at midsummer, 776 B. C., the
Second Olympiad at midsummer, 772 B. C., and so on--any event being
dated by a particular year of a specified Olympiad.


THE UNPOPULAR LAWS OF DRACO

Down to the year 621 B. C. the people were still without a substantial
share in the government, and popular discontent demanded a written
code. Consequently Draco, one of the archons, drew up laws, the severity
of which has become proverbial, and which were intended, by their rigor,
to check the growth of the democracy that was clamoring for a change.
The penalty of death was assigned to all offenses, great or small, to
enable the nobles to get rid of dangerous leaders of the people; but
such a system did not long continue.

Anarchy prevailed in Attica, owing to the various factions of the
oligarchs, the democrats, and a middle party (the moderates).


SOLON REFORMS THE LAWS

A wise reformer was found in Solon, chosen as an archon in 594 B. C.,
and invested by his fellow citizens, for the special purpose of
restoring tranquility, with unlimited power to change the laws. He was
already distinguished as a poet and as a general in the war of Athens
against her neighbor, Megara. His great object was to remove the
oppressive and excessive power of the aristocracy without introducing
pure democracy.

Solon began with the abolition of Draco’s code, but retained the penalty
of death for murder. His celebrated disburdening ordinance for the
relief of debtors won the complete confidence of the people. This had
the immediate effect of mitigating the oppressions caused by the old
laws of debt: in future neither the person, family, nor estate of the
debtor might be pledged in security for the loan. A further democratic
character was given at the outset to the constitution of Solon by the
division of the people into four classes, according to property, which
was now substituted for birth as a qualification for the higher offices
of state.

A council of state, or senate, called the Boule (council) was chosen
annually by lot, to prepare measures for submission to the popular
assembly, or Ecclesia, in which the citizens of the fourth or lowest
class (who could hold no state office) had the right of voting. The
Ecclesia included all classes of the citizens, who there legislated,
elected the magistrates, decided on peace or war, and other matters sent
down to it from the Boule.

For the courts of justice below the Areopagus, a body of six thousand
jurors was to be annually selected by lot from the popular assembly, and
the causes were tried by divisions of the whole body.

Solon was also the author of many laws which regulated private life and
rights, public amusements, slavery, marriage, and other matters. Among
his miscellaneous enactments may be noted that which legalized the
export of olive oil only, that which obliged the father to teach his son
a trade, that which penalized a citizen for remaining neutral on the
outbreak of civil strife, and that which empowered a man who died
childless to dispose of his property by will.


SOLON’S CONSTITUTION OVERTHROWN BY PISISTRATUS

During Solon’s absence on a tour of travel a renewal of factions
followed and their struggles ended in the seizure of power by
Pisistratus, in the year 560 B. C. He was one of the class of rulers
called “Tyrants” by the Greeks, who held power in Greek states during
this and the preceding century.

The Greek Tyrants were aristocratic adventurers who took advantage of
their position and of special circumstances to make themselves masters
of the government in their respective states.

It is to Pisistratus, however, that the world owes the preservation in
their present form of the poems of Homer, which he caused to be
collected and edited in a complete written text. He was succeeded by his
sons Hippias and Hipparchus, as joint rulers; but the severity of
Hippias (after the murder of Hipparchus) caused his expulsion by the
people, and the end of the despotism at Athens, 510 B. C.


ATHENS A PURE DEMOCRACY UNDER CLEISTHENES

The government at Athens now (507 B. C.) became a pure democracy, under
the auspices of Cleisthenes. At the head of the popular party he
effected important changes in the constitution. The public offices of
power were thrown open to all the citizens, the whole people was divided
into ten tribes or wards, and the senate (Boule) now consisted of five
hundred members, fifty from each ward or tribe.

POLITICAL OSTRACISM.--Cleisthenes introduced the ostracism (from
ostrakon, the oyster-shell, on which the vote was written), by which the
citizens could banish for ten years, by a majority of votes, any citizen
whose removal from the state might seem desirable. This device was
intended to secure a fair trial for the new constitution by checking
the power of individuals who might be dangerous to popular liberties,
and by putting a stop to quarrels between rival politicians.

Athens had at last secured a government of the thoroughly democratic
type, and from this time began to assume a new and ever-growing
importance in Greece, and was soon regarded as the chief of the Ionian
States. The people, through the Ecclesia, became thoroughly versed in
public affairs, and practically, as well as legally, supreme in the
state.


GROWTH AND IMPORTANCE OF SPARTA

As Athens had Draco and Solon as its great lawgivers, so Sparta found in
Lycurgus her lawgiver. His institutions gave a permanent cast to the
Spartan character, and were not abolished until the last ages of Greece.
The system of Lycurgus, meanwhile, had made Sparta a thoroughly military
state, and in two great wars (743-723 and 685-668 B. C.) it conquered
its neighbors on the west, the Messenians, reducing them to the
condition of the Helots, and appropriating their land. By this and by
successful war against its northern neighbors, the people of Argos,
Sparta acquired the supremacy and became the leading Dorian state of
Peloponnesus and of the Grecian world. These two great states of Greece,
Athens and Sparta, now were (about 500 B. C.) with the rest of Greece to
encounter Persia; and Europe, with united Greece for her champion and
representative, was to triumph over the older civilization and prowess
of Asia.


  III. PERIOD OF PERSIAN WARS AND MILITARY GLORY.--To this age the
  Greeks ever after looked back with pride, and from its history
  orators of every nation have drawn their favorite examples of valor
  and patriotism. The Persian invasion called forth the highest
  energies of the people, and gave an astonishing impulse to Grecian
  mind. The design of subjugating Greece originated in the ambition of
  Darius the Persian king, the second in succession from Cyrus the
  Great. He found a pretext and occasion for the attempt in a revolt
  of his Greek subjects in Asia Minor, in which Sardis, the capital of
  Lydia, was pillaged and burned. The war was carried on by three
  successive kings, Darius, Xerxes and Artaxerxes, but on neither of
  them did it confer any glory; while the battles of Marathon,
  Thermopylæ, Salamis, Mycale, and Platæa, secured immortal honor to
  the Greeks. A succession of splendid names adorns the history of
  Athens during this period. Miltiades, Themistocles, Aristides,
  Cimon, and Pericles, acted distinguished parts in the brilliant
  scene. Sparta also justly gloried in the self-sacrifice of Leonidas
  and his three hundred brave companions. The period of the Persian
  war was the age of the highest elevation of the national character
  of the Greeks. Before it, there existed little union comparatively
  between the different states, and it was not till Athens had alone
  and successfully resisted the strength of Persia at the battle of
  Marathon, that other states were aroused to effort against the
  common enemy. In the confederation which followed, Sparta was the
  nominal head, but the talents, which actually controlled the public
  affairs, were found in the statesmen of Athens. To Athens,
  therefore, the supremacy was necessarily transferred, and before the
  close of the war this state stood, as it were, the mistress of
  Greece.

Persia at this time was the chief power of the world, and, by the
conquest of the Lydian kingdom, had become master of the Greek cities on
the coast of Asia Minor. In 500 B. C. a general revolt of these Ionian
cities took place, and the Athenians sent a force of ships and soldiers
to help their kinsmen. The united Ionians and Athenians took and burned
Sardis, the capital of Lydia, in 499, but, after a six years’ struggle,
the power of Darius conquered the whole seaboard of Ionia, and left
Persia free to punish the Athenians for interfering between the great
Eastern empire and her revolted subjects. In 490 B. C. a great Persian
force, under Datis and Artaphernes, was sent across the Ægean, and the
fleet landed the Persian army near Marathon, on the east coast of
Attica, with a view to an advance upon Athens.


THE FAMOUS BATTLE OF MARATHON

The first and most important battle of the Persian War, and one of the
most momentous in history, was that of Marathon. At the plain of
Marathon, near Athens, a small Athenian force of about ten thousand men
(with the help of six hundred men from Platæa), under the famous general
Miltiades, routed a Persian army of perhaps one hundred and ten
thousand, in 490 B. C. This memorable battle, resulting as it did in the
defeat of the power which had conquered the greater part of the known
world, first taught the Greeks their own strength and gave Athens a
position in Greece which it had never yet held. The leading men in
Athens at this time were Themistocles and Aristides.

The death of Darius, in 485 B. C., prevented him from renewing the
Persian attack on Greek liberties, and the task was bequeathed to his
son Xerxes. The invasion of Greece by Xerxes took place ten years after
the battle of Marathon with an immense force by sea and land (two
million five hundred thousand men according to Herodotus).


STAND OF THE THREE HUNDRED AT THERMOPYLAE

Then was fought the memorable battle of Thermopylæ (gates of the hot
springs, from hot springs situated there), in which the Spartan Leonidas
with a mere handful of men held the whole Persian army at bay in the
narrow pass of Thermopylæ; but, a way around the pass being shown the
Persians by a treacherous Greek, they were able to attack Leonidas in
the rear. Part of the Greek forces retreated on learning of this
movement of the Persians, but Leonidas with three hundred Spartans and
seven hundred Thespians refused to retreat, and, advancing against the
overwhelming numbers of the enemy, sold their lives as dearly as
possible.

This little remnant of the Greeks, armed only with a few swords, stood a
butt for the arrows, the javelins, and the stones of the enemy, which at
length overwhelmed them. Where they fell they were afterwards buried.


GREEK VICTORY AT SALAMIS

Xerxes, having taken the pass of Thermopylæ, moved towards Athens, when
the inhabitants had fled, taking refuge in their ships, according to
their interpretation of a decree of the oracle that they must seek
safety in their “wooden walls.” The Persians burned Athens, and the fate
of Greece was then decided by the naval battle of Salamis (480 B. C.),
which resulted in a complete victory for the Greeks.

The battle of Salamis, with the battles of Platæa and Mycale, in the
next year, decided the war, and the Persians were driven out of Greece
forever, and finally, after several years, were driven wholly out of
Europe. The arbitrary rule of an irresponsible despot was overcome by
the spirit of voluntary obedience to law, the freedom of Greece was
maintained, and the future civilization of Europe was secured.


  IV. AGE OF PERICLES AND GREEK LUXURY.--This period includes the
  portion from the close of the Persian war to the Supremacy of
  Philip, B. C. 337. At the beginning of this period the general
  affairs of Greece were in a highly prosperous condition, and Athens
  was unrivaled in wealth and magnificence under the influence of
  Pericles. But a spirit of luxurious refinement soon took the place
  of the disinterested patriotism of the preceding age, and the
  manners of all classes became signally marked by corruption and
  licentiousness. The events of most prominent interest were: (1) the
  Peloponnesian war between Athens and Sparta; (2) the accusation of
  Socrates, disgraceful to the city and all concerned; (3) the
  expedition of Cyrus the Younger which involved the Greeks in another
  war with Persia; (4) the successive downfall of Athens, Sparta and
  Thebes, and the rise of Macedon.

The half-century following the battle of Salamis (480-430 B. C.) forms
the most brilliant period of Athenian history, and one of the greatest
eras in the history of the world.


ATHENS UNDER CIMON

After the fall of the great Athenian Themistocles,--who was banished by
ostracism in 469 B. C., at the instance of the aristocratic party,--the
rich, able, and popular Cimon, son of Miltiades, the victor at Marathon,
was at the head of affairs. In 466 B. C. he gained a great victory, by
land and sea, over the Persians, at the mouth of the river Eurymedon, in
Pamphylia, on the south coast of Asia Minor. A part of the value of the
plunder taken was devoted to the adornment of the city of Athens, which
Themistocles had rebuilt and fortified. Cimon spent large sums of his
own on the city, and under his direction the defenses of the famous
Acropolis (the citadel of Athens) were completed. In 461 B. C. the
democratic party at Athens banished Cimon by the ostracism, and the
illustrious Pericles, for some years his rival, came to the front.


PERICLES AND HIS GREAT ACHIEVEMENTS

Pericles began to be distinguished in Athenian politics about 470 B. C.
as leader of the democratic party.

In the constitution of Athens a wide scope was given for the development
of great political characters, because the system not only allowed the
display of a man’s powers, but summoned every man to use those powers
for the general welfare. At the same time, no member of the community
could obtain influence unless he had the means of satisfying the
intellect, taste, and judgment, as well as the excitable and volatile
feelings, of a highly cultivated people.

Such a man was Pericles. From the force of his personality, and his
majestic oratory, he was called “the Zeus of the human Pantheon of
Athens.” For over thirty years (461 to 429 B. C.) this great man swayed
the policy of Athens. Pericles was at once a statesman, a general, a man
of learning, and a patron of the fine arts. He recovered for Athens (445
B. C.) the revolted island of Eubœa; he was the friend of the famous
sculptor Phidias, and in his age the great dramatic compositions of
Sophocles were presented on the Athenian stage. To him Athens owed the
Parthenon, the Erechtheum, left unfinished at his death, the Propylæa,
the Odeum, and numberless other public and sacred edifices; he also
liberally encouraged music and the drama; and during his rule industry
and commerce were in so flourishing a condition that prosperity was
universal in Attica.


THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR

The supremacy over the other states of Greece which Athens attained
after the Persian War, and maintained during the Age of Pericles, with
her constant prosperity and unparalleled growth, raised up jealousy and
hatred against her, and during that brilliant period were sown the seeds
of a civil warfare which was destined to destroy the power and splendor
of Greece. After the death of Pericles, Athens had trusted to unworthy
demagogues, of whom the most notorious was Cleon.

The other leading state of Greece was Sparta, and there was a general
gravitation in the different cities to these two centers of Grecian
life, those in which democratic sentiments prevailed looking to Athens
for leadership, the rest (those in which the aristocratic or
oligarchical element prevailed) regarding themselves as the natural
allies of Sparta. The conflict between these two opposing principles,
democracy and oligarchy, broke out in 431 B. C., and is known as the
Peloponnesian War. Athens was the stronger by sea, Sparta by land.

[Illustration: Pinakotheka, or Museum of Pictures.

Propylæa, or Porch.

Nike Apteros.

Parthenon, or Temple of Athena Parthenos.

=THE ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS AS IT APPEARED DURING THE AGE OF PERICLES=

Pericles, with the sculptor Phidias, covered the Acropolis with a mass
of beautiful buildings, making it the glory of Athens, if not of the
whole ancient world. No finer structure has ever been known than the
Parthenon. It is to be seen on the highest point of the Acropolis, on
the right hand of the picture.]


CHIEF LEADERS IN THE WAR

The chief generals on the Athenian side were Demosthenes (not the great
orator of a later time) and Nicias; the Spartan chief was the famous
Brasidas, who had much success against the Athenian colonies on the
coast of Thrace. The brilliant Alcibiades began to display his powers as
a statesman at Athens. In 422 B. C. a battle near Amphipolis, on the
coast of Thrace, ended in the defeat of the Athenians, and the deaths of
Cleon and of Brasidas, the latter an irreparable loss to Sparta. In the
place of Cleon, the mild Nicias became one of the leading statesmen at
Athens, and his efforts resulted in a truce between Athens and Sparta,
in 421 B. C.


SECOND PERIOD OF WAR

Questions as to keeping the truce, and the mutual distrust and jealousy
between these states increased their antagonism. Athens, now mistress of
the sea, had the ambition, under the incitement of the great Alcibiades,
to acquire complete sway in the Mediterranean.

Perhaps the most important and decisive event of the war was an attack
made (415 B. C.) by Athens upon Syracuse in Sicily, when the Spartans
helped the Syracusans, and which resulted in the total failure of the
expedition (413 B. C.), and great damage to the power of Athens. The
Athenians had sent a more powerful armament against Sicily than had ever
before been turned out in the history of Greece. The consequences of the
defeat of this force were felt all over Greece, the enemies of Athens
were stimulated to much greater activity, and thought that the fate of
that city was sealed.


THIRD AND LAST PERIOD

Henceforward Athens could only fight for her life as an independent
state. In 412 B. C. many of her subject states revolted, including the
wealthy Miletus, on the coast of Asia Minor, and the islands of Chios
and Rhodes. Sparta formed an alliance with Persia, and used Eastern gold
to furnish ships and mercenaries against Athens. Alcibiades, having
quarreled with the Spartans, rejoined his country, and conducted her
war, in some of its closing years, with brilliant success. In 411 B. C.
a revolution took place in Athens which really swept away the democratic
constitution of Solon, and substituted an oligarchical faction in power.


DOWNFALL OF ATHENS

The war was chiefly carried on in Asia Minor, where Alcibiades and
others defeated the Spartans and their allies by land and sea; but in
405 B. C. the tide of success for Athens turned again, and the Athenian
fleet was captured by the Spartan admiral Lysander, at Ægospotami, in
the Hellespont, the Athenian galleys being seized, by surprise, on the
beach. In 404 B. C. Athens, blockaded by the Spartans both by land and
sea, surrendered to Lysander after a four months’ siege, and the war
ended in the downfall of Athens, and the formal abolition of the great
Athenian democracy.


RESULT OF PELOPONNESIAN WAR

Henceforward Athens was a subordinate power. Sparta was, for a time,
supreme; a Spartan garrison held the Acropolis; Alcibiades, who might
have restored Athens, was assassinated in Persia through the influence
of Lysander; and though, after a brief period of rule by the Thirty
Tyrants, set up by Lysander, a counter-revolution restored, in part, the
constitution of Solon, the political greatness of Athens had departed.

Even the disastrous Peloponnesian War, which lasted twenty-seven years,
did not destroy the impulse given to the Greek intellect during the
preceding age, and literature, oratory, and philosophy flourished.


SOCRATES AND THE SHAME OF ATHENS

Socrates, the great and good Athenian philosopher, lived (469-399 B. C.)
during a period covering much of the age of Pericles, and the whole time
of the Peloponnesian war. Though opposed to the oligarchical tyranny of
the Four Hundred and the Thirty, Socrates was even more adverse to the
unmixed democracy, with its election by lot and its payment for
political services. Accordingly, on the triumph of the demagogues, he
was in 399 B. C. accused of denying the gods and corrupting the young,
and being convicted by an overwhelming majority of the jury, was
sentenced to death. He passed thirty days before execution in the noble
discourses on the immortality of the soul, which are recorded in Plato’s
Phædo, drank the cup of hemlock, and died.


SUPREMACY OF SPARTA AND THEBES

Sparta was now at the head of Greece, and for thirty-four years (405-371
B. C.) wielded power over the Greek states. Her sway was harsh and
despotic.


RETREAT OF THE TEN THOUSAND

After the Peloponnesian War, some of the Greeks were hired by Cyrus, the
Persian prince, to help him in an attempt to wrest the Persian throne
from his brother Artaxerxes. The attempt failed, and the memorable
retreat (400 B. C.) homeward of the Greeks is famous as the “Retreat of
the Ten Thousand.”


THE RISE OF MACEDONIA

Macedonia, north of Thessaly, was not considered by the Hellenes as a
part of Hellas, and had no political importance till now. Yet the
peoples had elements in common, being Thracians and Illyrians, with a
large mixture of Dorian settlers among them.


KING PHILIP OF MACEDON

The line of Macedonian kings being of Hellenic descent, Greek
civilization had been cultivated by some of them.

Philip of Macedon was a prince of great ability, educated at Thebes
during the Theban supremacy, and trained in war by Epaminondas, on
whose tactics he founded his famous invention, the “Macedonian phalanx.”
His fame has been overshadowed by that of his illustrious son, but he
made Macedonia the leading power in Greece, and gave Alexander the basis
for his great achievements. He was a man of unscrupulous character,
determined will, prompt action, and patient purpose; and when he became
King of Macedon, in 359 B. C., he designed making his country supreme in
the Hellenic world, as Athens, Sparta and Thebes had successively been.


THE FIRST SACRED WAR

From 356 B. C. to 346 B. C. the Phocian or First Sacred War was waged
between the Thebans and the Phocians, with allies on each side, the
origin of the war being a dispute about a bit of ground devoted for
religious reasons to lying perpetually fallow. Philip of Macedon was
called in to settle matters, and thereby his ambition secured a firm
foothold in Greece. He possessed himself by force of the Athenian cities
Amphipolis, Pydna, Potidæa, and Olynthus, being vigorously opposed
throughout by the great Athenian orator and patriot Demosthenes, who
strove to rouse his countrymen against Philip’s dangerous encroachments,
in the famous speeches known as the Olynthiac and Philippic orations.


THE GREATEST PERIOD OF GREEK ORATORY

This was the most brilliant time of Greek oratory, which reached its
perfection in the contest between Æschines, who advocated the cause of
Macedonia, and Demosthenes, who opposed the designs of Philip. It was
also a period of great mental activity in the region of scientific
inquiry and speculative thought. Plato, whose birth fell in the
preceding century, founded the Academic school, which took its name from
the groves of Academus in the vicinity of Athens, where the philosopher
was accustomed to lecture. Aristotle (called the Stagyrite, from his
birthplace, Stagyra, in Macedonia) was the instructor of Alexander the
Great, and founded, at the Lyceum in Athens, what is known as the
Peripatetic school, from his habit of walking about while conversing
with his disciples.

After the battle of Chæronea, Philip, having made Greece subject to his
power, planned to unite all the forces of that country in an aggressive
war against the great power of Persia, but was murdered in 336 B. C.


  V. MACEDONIAN PERIOD AND EMPIRE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT.--This period
  extends from the supremacy of Philip, gained by the battle of
  Chæronea, to the capture of Corinth, 146 B. C. By the disastrous
  defeat at Chæronea the genuine fire of the Grecian spirit was
  extinguished, and the subsequent history exhibits little else than
  the steps by which the country was reduced to a dependent province.
  Alexander, who succeeded his father Philip, as king of Macedon, and
  autocrat of Greece, cast an imperishable glory on the first years of
  this period by his extensive conquests reaching from the Hellespont
  to the Granicus, to Issus, to Tyre, to the Nile, to the desert of
  Libya, to the Euphrates, and the Indus. For twenty years after
  Alexander’s death the vast empire he had formed was agitated by the
  quarrels among his generals. By the battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, B.
  C. 301, these contests were terminated, and the empire was then
  divided into practically four kingdoms. To the first of these the
  Grecian states belonged. Patriotic individuals sought to arouse
  their countrymen to cast off the Macedonian yoke; but jealousy
  between the states and the universal corruption of morals rendered
  their exertions fruitless. All that is really memorable in the
  affairs of Greeks at this later time, is found in the history of the
  Achæan league.

After the assassination of Philip, the task of subjugating the Persian
Empire was left for his son Alexander, who subsequently proved himself
one of the greatest commanders of any age. Alexander’s exploits were all
performed in the short rule of thirteen years (336-323 B. C.). Coming to
the throne of Macedon at the age of twenty, he put down rebellion in his
own kingdom, marched into Greece and overawed Thebes, which had been
intriguing against him, and in a congress of Greek states at Corinth he
was appointed to command the great expedition against Persia.


THE DESTRUCTION OF THEBES

In 335 B. C. he made a successful expedition against the Thracians,
Getæ, and Illyrians, and on his return found Thebes in revolt. He took
Thebes by storm; the inhabitants were all slain or sold as slaves; and
all the buildings, except the temples and the house which had been that
of Pindar the poet, were razed. This capital had defied Alexander, and
ceased to exist.


ALEXANDER’S INVASION OF PERSIA

In 334 B. C. Alexander crossed the Hellespont with an army of thirty
thousand foot-soldiers and five thousand cavalry, and first met the foe
at the river Granicus, in Mysia. The result was a Persian defeat, which
cleared the way through Asia Minor, and brought the Macedonians to the
borders of Syria. The second, a great battle (333 B. C.), was fought at
Issus, in the southeast of Cilicia. There Alexander met the King of
Persia himself, Darius III., and gained a complete victory over a vastly
superior force. Darius fled, leaving his wife and mother prisoners in
the conqueror’s hands, by whom they were treated with the greatest
courtesy and kindness.


SYRIAN AND EGYPTIAN CAMPAIGNS

The Persian resistance thus disposed of for a time, Alexander turned
southward, left behind him nothing unsubdued before his advance into the
interior of Asia, and made an easy conquest of the cities of Phœnicia,
except Tyre, which resisted obstinately for seven months, and was taken
in the summer of 332 B. C. After taking Gaza, Alexander marched into
Egypt, which received him gladly, from hatred of her Persian rulers.
Early in 331 B. C. the Macedonian king handed down his name to future
ages by founding, at the mouth of the western branch of the Nile, the
city of Alexandria, which was destined to become so famous for
commerce, wealth, literature, and learning.


ALEXANDER’S SECOND INVASION OF PERSIA

In the spring of 331 B. C. Alexander set out again for Persia, where
Darius had been gathering an immense force with which to make a last
struggle for the empire of the world. After traversing Phœnicia and
Northern Syria, Alexander crossed the Euphrates and Tigris, and came out
on the plain near the little village of Gaugamela, to the southeast of
the ruins of Nineveh. Then took place the great and decisive battle of
Arbela, with the Persians, October, 331 B. C.

After receiving the surrender of the other two capitals, Susa and
Persepolis, Alexander spent the year 330 B. C. in conquering the
northern provinces of the Persian Empire, between the Caspian Sea and
the Indus. In 329 B. C. he marched into Bactria, over the mountains now
called the Hindu Kush, caught and slew the traitor Bessus, who murdered
Darius, and advanced even beyond the river Jaxartes. In 328 he was
engaged in the conquest of Sogdiana, between the Oxus and Jaxartes, the
country of which the capital was Maracanda, the modern Samarcand.


HIS INVASION OF NORTHERN INDIA

In the spring of 327 B. C., Alexander marched through what is now
Afghanistan, crossed the Indus, and defeated an Indian king, Porus, on
the banks of the Hydaspes (the Jhelum). On his way to the Indus he
stormed the capital of an Indian tribe, now Mooltan, and was himself
severely wounded. In 326 he sailed in a fleet, built on the spot, down
the Indus, into the ocean; despatched a part of the army on board the
ships, under his admiral Nearchus, by sea coastwise into the Persian
Gulf, and marched himself with the rest through what is now Beluchistan,
reaching Susa early in 325 B. C.


ALEXANDER SETTLES IN BABYLON

During the rest which the troops took here, Alexander, many of his
generals, and many thousands of his soldiers, married Asiatic women,
and, with the same view of bringing Europe and Asia into one form of
civilization, great numbers of Asiatics were enrolled in the victorious
army, and trained in the European fashion. For the improvement of
commerce, the Tigris and Euphrates were cleared of obstructions. From
Susa, in the autumn of 325 B. C., Alexander visited Ecbatana (in Media)
and thence proceeded to Babylon, which he entered again in the spring of
324 B. C.

It was the intention of Alexander to make Babylon the capital of the
empire, as the best medium of communication between east and west; and
he is said to have meditated the conquests of Arabia, Carthage, Italy,
and of Western Europe. For commercial and agricultural purposes he
intended to explore the Caspian Sea, and to improve the irrigation of
the Babylonian plain. All his plans were made vain by his sudden death
by fever at Babylon, in the summer of 323 B. C.


ESTABLISHMENT OF VARIOUS GREEK KINGDOMS

Alexander the Great left no heir to his immense empire. In Bactria (the
modern Bokhara), Asia Minor, Armenia, Syria, Babylonia, and above all in
Egypt, Greek kingdoms were established as centers of science, art, and
learning, from which Greek light radiated into the world around them. In
Europe, besides that of Macedon, a kingdom of Thrace, stretching beyond
the Danube, another in Illyria, and another in Epirus, were under the
rule of Greek princes. To Alexander the world owed, among other great
cities built by him or his successors, Alexandria in Egypt, and Antioch
in Syria.


LASTING INFLUENCE OF GREEK THOUGHT IN ASIA

The Greek language became the tongue of all government and literature
throughout many countries where the people were not Greek by birth.
Throughout Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt the Hellenic character that was
thus imparted remained in full vigor down to the time of the Mohammedan
conquests; and the early growth and progress of Christianity were aided
by that diffusion of the Greek language and civilization.

Beyond the Euphrates, Grecian influences largely modified Hindu science
and philosophy and the later Persian literature. The intellectual
influence of ancient Greece, poured on the Eastern world by Alexander’s
victories, was brought back to bear on Mediæval Europe through the
Saracenic conquests. The learning and science of the Arabians,
communicated at that epoch to the western parts of Europe, were merely
the reproduction, in an altered form, of the Greek philosophy and the
Greek learning acquired by the Saracenic conquerors along with the
territory of the provinces which Alexander had subjugated, nearly a
thousand years before the armed disciples of Mohammed began their career
in the East.


ALEXANDER’S SUCCESSORS

On the death of Alexander, in 323 B. C., a struggle of more than twenty
years’ duration ensued among his principal generals and their
heirs--Perdiccas, Ptolemy, Antigonus, his son Demetrius Poliorcetes,
Cassander, Seleucus, and others. At last, in 301 B. C., a decisive
battle was fought at Ipsus, in Phrygia, between Antigonus (with his son
Demetrius) and a confederacy of his rivals. The result was to distribute
the provinces of Alexander’s empire in the following way: To Lysimachus,
nearly the whole of Asia Minor; Cassander, Greece and Macedon; Seleucus,
Syria and the East; Ptolemy had Egypt and Palestine. The two most
important kingdoms were that of the Ptolemies in Egypt, and that of the
Seleucids[4] in the East. (See further under Comparative Outlines, and
Egypt.)

  [4] The Syrian monarchy of the Seleucidæ began in 312 B. C. with
  Seleucus I. (surnamed Nicator), one of Alexander’s generals, and
  under him was extended over much of Asia Minor, including the whole
  of Syria from the Mediterranean to the Euphrates, and the territory
  eastwards from the Euphrates to the banks of the Oxus and the Indus.
  Seleucus I. was an able and energetic monarch, and sedulously
  carried out the plans of Alexander the Great. He died in 280 B. C.,
  having founded the city of Antioch in Syria as the capital of the
  kingdom. His successors, the dynasty known as the Seleucidæ (or
  “descendants of Seleucus”), ruled for about two centuries. The most
  notable of these monarchs were named Antiochus.

  The third of the name, Antiochus the Great (223 to 187 B. C.), was
  the monarch at whose court Hannibal, the great Carthaginian, took
  refuge. Antiochus invaded Greece in 192 B. C., and there the Romans
  defeated him both by land and sea, and compelled him to yield a
  large part of his dominions in Asia Minor. Much of the eastern
  territory had been lost before this time, as well as Phœnicia,
  Palestine, and Western Syria, conquered by Ptolemy Philopator, king
  of Egypt.

  Antiochus Epiphanes (175-164 B. C.) oppressed the Jews to introduce
  the worship of the Greek divinities. Against him the brave Maccabees
  rose in rebellion. The Syrian kingdom ended in 65 B. C., conquered
  by the Romans under Pompey.


LATER HISTORY OF MACEDONIA AND GREECE

The last period in the history of Greece presents us with long wars
among different successors of Alexander for the sovereignty of the Greek
states, and factions and intrigue rife in and between the different
communities. From time to time great and patriotic men arise, making a
struggle glorious but vain for the restoration of political freedom and
the spirit of the olden time. We find “leagues” and confederations
formed in order to resist the coming doom of political extinction.


THE FATAL LAMIAN WAR

A great effort to free Greece from the Macedonian supremacy was headed
by Athens in 323 B. C. The renowned Athenian orators Demosthenes and
Hyperides were its political heroes, opposed by Phocion, a man of pure
character, but who despaired of a successful rising against Antipater,
ruler of Macedonia before and after Alexander the Great’s death. Athens
was joined by most of the states in Central and Northern Greece; and the
war derives its name from Lamia in Thessaly, where Antipater, after
being defeated by the confederates, was besieged for some months. The
war ended in 322 B. C., by Antipater’s complete victory at the battle of
Crannon in Thessaly. Demosthenes ended his life by poison in the same
year; Hyperides was killed by Antipater’s orders; Phocion died by the
hemlock at Athens, in 317 B. C., on a charge of treason.


HEROIC EFFORTS OF DEMETRIUS

The distinguished Demetrius Poliorcetes (besieger of cities) was king of
Macedonia from 294 to 287 B. C. His life was passed in fighting with
varied success and he was driven from the throne at last by a
combination of enemies, including the famous Pyrrhus, king of Epirus.
Demetrius was a man of wonderful abilities and resources, deriving his
surname from the enormous machines which he constructed for the siege of
Rhodes, one of his warlike enterprises. He freed Athens for a time from
Macedonian domination before he became ruler of Macedon.

A famous personage was Pyrrhus, the warlike king of Epirus, the
territory in the northwest of Greece, inhabited by descendants of the
old Pelasgians and Illyrians. The first king of the whole country was
Alexander, the brother of Olympias, mother of Alexander the Great. He
ruled from 336 to 326 B. C.


THE WARRIOR PYRRHUS, KING OF EPIRUS

Pyrrhus (295 to 272 B. C.) is renowned as the greatest warrior of his
age. He had been driven by his subjects from Epirus, but, assisted with
a fleet and army by Ptolemy I. of Egypt, returned thither and began his
actual reign in 295 B. C. His first efforts were turned against
Macedonia; but, after much fighting, he lost his hold there, in 286 B.
C. It was in 280 B. C. that he began his great enterprise by crossing
over into Italy, to aid the Tarentines against the Romans. In his first
campaign he defeated the Romans in the battle of Heraclea in Lucania.
His skill was aided by a force of armored elephants, and by the
Macedonian formation of the phalanx, both novelties to the Romans. In
the second campaign (279 B. C.) Pyrrhus gained a second dearly bought
victory over the Romans at Asculum, in Apulia, yet with no decisive
result; in 278 B. C. he crossed into Sicily, to help the Greeks there
against the Carthaginians.


REPULSES AND DEATH OF PYRRHUS

At first he was very successful and defeated the Carthaginians, taking
the town of Eryx; but he failed in other operations, and returned to
Italy in 276 B. C., again to assist the Tarentines against the Romans.
In 275 B. C. his career in Italy was closed by a great defeat, inflicted
by the Romans at the battle of Beneventum, and Pyrrhus returned to
Epirus with the remnant of his army. In 273 B. C. he invaded Macedonia
with such success as to become king, and his restless spirit then drove
him to war in Peloponnesus. He was repulsed in an attack on Sparta, and,
after entering the city of Argos to assist one of its factions, was
knocked from his horse by a heavy tile hurled from a house-top by a
woman’s hand, and killed by the enemy’s soldiers. Thus died Pyrrhus, in
the forty-sixth year of his age, and the twenty-third of his reign,--a
man of the highest military skill, capable of great enterprises, but
without the steady resolution and the practical wisdom to bring them to
a successful issue.


GALLIC INVASION OF GREECE

The Gauls invaded Greece in 280 B. C. After penetrating through
Macedonia and Thessaly they were defeated under their leader Brennus
(namesake of the captor of Rome a century earlier), near Delphi in
Phocis. Some of the Gauls in this irruption made their way into Asia
Minor, and ultimately gave their name to the province Galatia, adopting
the Greek customs and religion, but keeping their own language.


THE CELEBRATED ACHAEAN LEAGUE

The Achæan League was founded, in its new form, in 280 B. C., consisting
of the towns in Achæa, and afterwards including Sicyon, Corinth,
Athens, and many other Greek cities, so that it became the chief
political power in Greece. In 245 B. C. Aratus (sometimes called the
“last of the Greeks”) became head of the league, and much extended its
influence by skillful diplomacy. Philopœmen, another distinguished man
of this period, general of the league in 208 B. C., and again in 201 and
192 B. C., was successful in battle against the Spartans when they
assailed the League, and in 188 B. C. took Sparta, leveled the
fortifications, and replaced the institutions of Lycurgus by the Achæan
laws.

Greece from this time forward was greatly distracted; Greek power, Greek
energy, Greek genius, might now be found indeed anywhere rather than in
Greece. The Achæan League from time to time made spasmodic efforts, but
Rome constantly interfered in Greek affairs. Domestic faction helped
Roman intrigues, and the battle of Pydna (in Macedonia), gained by the
Romans in 168 B. C. over Perseus, the last king of Macedon, formally
ended the dominion established by Phillip II., nearly two centuries
before. Macedonia was made a Roman province in 147 B. C.


GREECE BECOMES A ROMAN PROVINCE

The Achæan League had gradually languished and in 150 B. C. war with
Rome began, as a last effort on behalf of Greece. It ended in the defeat
of the forces of the League by the Roman general Mummius, and the
capture of Corinth (146 B. C.), which was plundered, and burned to the
ground; the Achæan League was formally dissolved, and Greece was made
into the Roman province Achaia, in 146 B. C. The city of Athens was
allowed to retain a kind of freedom, and became, along with Alexandria,
a university town of the civilized world, in which students of art,
philosophy and literature found the best models, the best instruction,
and the highest inspirations.


THE GREEKS UNDER FOREIGN RULE UNTIL 1832

Under the Romans Greece was at first treated fairly well, and much of
the old municipal life was left. Hellenic culture fascinated the
conquerors. Greek teachers poured into Rome, and Athens became the
university for wealthy Roman youths. Little by little, however, the
government became more oppressive. In the Mithradatic War the Greeks
rose in a revolt which led to a devastating march of Sulla across the
country and to the storming of Athens and the massacre of its
inhabitants. Greece was then exposed to the exactions of the Roman
officials on the one hand, and to the ravages of pirates on the other.
In 267 B. C. the Goths swept across the land, destroyed many towns, and
captured Athens, from which they were dislodged by the forces of the
historian Dexippus.

In internal affairs the tendency during the following centuries was to
more and more centralize rule on the part of the Romans. The Emperor
Hadrian attempted to improve the condition of the Greeks by giving them
rights equal to those of Roman citizens, by reforming the administration
of justice, and by paying attention to roads and buildings.
Constantine, the first Christian Emperor, took the important step of
changing the capital from Rome to Byzantium, which he solemnly dedicated
in 333 A. D. and called, after himself, Constantinople. The Emperor,
having been the political head of the pagan religion, naturally assumed
the same direction of the Christian faith, and, in the opposition of the
orthodox Church to the Arianism of the first Christian Emperors the
people found a vent for the national feeling which chafed against the
despotism of an alien court. Theodosius the Great (378-395) first
established Christianity as the religion of the state. His sons,
Arcadius and Honorius divided the Roman dominions between themselves,
and Constantinople became the capital only of the Eastern Empire. At
this time a great danger threatened Greece from Alaric, king of the West
Goths, who invaded Greece in 396 and occupied Athens. Though the city
and country were pillaged by the Goths, Alaric strictly protected the
honor of Greek women and religious edifices.


GREECE UNDER THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE

On the division of the Roman Empire, Greece fell of course to the
eastern or Byzantine half. In 1204 the Crusaders and Venetians captured
Constantinople, and divided the Empire--an act which has been taken as
the end of “the Byzantine Empire.” Baldwin, Count of Flanders, was
elected Emperor of Roumania, and reigned at Constantinople. Many new
states sprang out of the partition, and new empires were founded at
Nicæa, Trebizond, and Thessalonica. The feudal system was established in
Greece. Athens became a fief of Roumania, governed by dukes; a great
part of the Peloponnesus was kept first by Franks and then by
Neapolitans, as the Principality of Achæa. The Venetians obtained
possession of most of the islands.

Of all the confused and crowded events of these times probably the most
important, was the capture of Constantinople in 1261 by Michael
Palæologus, Emperor of Nicæa, but no attempt to hold Greece could long
endure in the face of the Ottoman Turks who soon began to threaten from
the East. In 1453 the Sultan Mohammed II. took Constantinople. The
Venetians finally surrendered all claim to most of their Greek
possessions by the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718.


UNDER TURKISH RULE DOWN TO THE WAR OF GREEK INDEPENDENCE

During the rule of the Turks the Greeks endured many hardships,
including a curious tribute of children, who were educated by
Mohammedans and trained for service in the corps of Janissaries. It was,
however, to the interest of the Sultans for the sake of their revenues
to encourage Greek commerce, and so there were wealthy classes with
culture enough to make a fruitful soil for the teaching of the French
Revolution. The spirit thus implanted led to the War of Greek
Independence in 1821--memorable for the generous sympathy of Byron, for
the long siege of Missolonghi, and for the accident which led to the
defeat of the Turkish fleet at Navarino in 1827 by English, French, and
Russian vessels.

From this period down to the present the history of Greece belongs to
the modern kingdom.

[Illustration: =ALARIC, KING OF THE WEST GOTHS, IN ATHENS=

_From the Painting by LUDWIG THIERSCH_

Though Alaric was a fierce warrior and ruthless in his attacks in both
Greece and Rome, he held the women and the religious temples of the
places overrun with the strictest sanctity. This was in strong contrast
with the social and political corruption of the time in both Greece and
Rome and did much justify this powerful conqueror of a decadent state.]


ROME: MISTRESS OF THE WORLD


IMPORTANCE OF ROMAN HISTORY

  The greatness of Roman history lies in the fact that it is, in a
  large sense, the history of the world from the time of Rome’s
  supremacy. Out of the Roman Empire arose the modern state system of
  Europe; and the Roman language, law and institutions are still, in
  changed forms, alive and active in the modern world. The influence
  of Christianity, and of Greek art and literature, have to a great
  extent been preserved and transmitted to us through Rome. Rome
  brought all the civilized peoples of the West, including Western
  Asia, under one dominion and one bondage; and the culture which was
  thus gathered up into one vast reservoir was given off in streams
  that, in due season, fertilized the mental soil of the rude and
  restless nations which succeeded the fallen empire.


GEOGRAPHICAL CENTER OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

The study of Roman history properly begins with the geography of Italy,
because it was in Italy that the Roman people had their origin, and it
was here that they began their great career. It was only when the Romans
had conquered and organized Italy that they were able to conquer and
govern the world.


FAVORABLE SITUATION OF THE ITALIAN PENINSULA

The position of the Italian peninsula was favorable to the growth of the
Roman power. It was situated almost in the center of the Mediterranean
Sea, on the shores of which had flourished the great nations of
antiquity--Egypt, Phœnicia, Carthage and Greece. By conquering Italy,
Rome thus obtained a commanding position among the nations of the
ancient world. As the peninsula projects southward into the
Mediterranean it bends toward the east, so that its southern coasts
afforded an easy access to the civilized peoples of Greece. The eastern
shores of the peninsula, washed by the Adriatic Sea, with few bays and
harbors, were not favorable to the early progress of the people; while
the western coasts, bordering upon the Tyrrhenian Sea, with their
numerous indentations afforded greater opportunities for commerce and a
civilized life.


THE MOUNTAINS AND RIVERS OF ITALY

There are two important mountain chains which belong to Italy, the Alps
and the Apennines. The Alps form a semicircular boundary on the north
and afford a formidable barrier against the neighboring countries of
Europe. Starting from the sea at its western extremity, this chain
stretches toward the north for about one hundred and fifty miles, when
it rises in the lofty peak of Mt. Blanc, fifteen thousand feet in
height; and then continues its course in an easterly direction for about
three hundred and thirty miles, approaching the head of the Adriatic
Sea, and disappearing along its coast. It is crossed by several passes,
through which foreign peoples have sometimes found their way into the
peninsula.

The Apennines, beginning at the western extremity of the Alps, extend
through the whole length of the peninsula, forming the backbone of
Italy.


IMPORTANT DIVISIONS OF THE PENINSULA

Central Italy comprised the northern part of the peninsula proper, that
is, the territory between the line just drawn from the Macra to the
Rubicon, and another line drawn from the Silarus on the west to the
Frento on the east. This territory contained six countries, namely,
three on the western coast,--Etruria, Latium (_la´shi-um_),
and Campania; and three on the eastern coast and along the
Apennines,--Umbria, Picenum, and what we call the Sabellian country,
which included many mountain tribes, chief among which were the Sabines
and the Samnites.

Southern Italy comprised the rest of the peninsula and contained four
countries, namely, two on the western coast, Lucania and Brutium,
extending into the toe of Italy; and two on the eastern coast, Apulia
and Calabria (or Iapygia), extending into the heel of Italy.


EARLY INHABITANTS OF SICILY

Sicily was inhabited in the west by a race of unknown origin called the
Sikanians: the Sikels, who gave their name to the island, were closely
connected in race with the Latins. Sicily was fought for by the
Carthaginians, and, Greek cities having been founded in Sicily, in the
end the island became almost wholly Greek in speech and usages.


THE GAULS OF NORTHERN ITALY

If the Greeks in the extreme south were the most civilized people of
Italy, the Gauls or Celts, in the extreme north, were the most
barbarous. Crossing the Alps from western Europe, they had pushed back
the Etruscans and occupied the plains of the Po; hence this region
received the name which it long held, Cisalpine Gaul. From this land the
Gauls made frequent incursions toward the south, and were for a long
time a terror to the other peoples of Italy.


HISTORY OF THE ROMANS


  I. MYTHICAL PERIOD.--The history of Rome extends through a space of
  more than twelve hundred years, which may be divided into _six_
  periods. The first period includes the time from the building of the
  city, B. C. 752, to the expulsion of Tarquin, B. C. 509. It may be
  called the period of the kings, or of _Regal Power_.

The Roman historians have left a particular account of this period,
beginning with the very founders of the city, Romulus and Remus, whose
descent is traced from Æneas the hero of Virgil. To review them briefly
here will be all that is necessary.

Æneas, fleeing from Troy after the fall of that city, came, in the
course of his wanderings and after many adventures, to the shores of
Italy. Settling here, he married the daughter of the king Latinus, and
after a fierce war with Turnus, his rival for the hand of Lavinia, he
established himself in Latium. The capital of that country, Alba Longa,
was founded by his son, Ascanius, and for three centuries the
descendants of Æneas ruled the country.

In the eighth century B. C., Amulius usurped the throne but failed to
kill his grand-nephews Romulus and Remus, who, by the fortuitous aid of
the gods, were rescued from death. Growing to manhood, they destroyed
the usurper and restored their grandfather, Numitor. Romulus then
founded the city of Rome in 753 B. C., populated it by means of inviting
all the discontented to come unto him, and gave them wives from the
Sabine tribes, which incident has passed into history as the Rape of the
Sabines. To this same incident in Roman mythology belongs the legend
connected with the Tarpeian Rock. Romulus finally was taken to the gods
by his father, Mars, and is henceforward worshiped by the Romans as the
god Quirinus.


THE GOOD KING NUMA

The reign of the second king, Numa, is remembered, on account of his
influence on the affairs of religion. He instituted many of the
religious ceremonies and several classes of priests, and was regarded as
the founder of the religious institutions of Rome.

During the reign of the third king, Tullus Hostilius, a war was carried
on with Alba Longa. The issue of this war was decided, so the story
goes, by a combat between the three Horatii, champions of the Romans,
and the three Curiatii, champions of Alba--resulting in the triumph of
the Romans and the submission of Alba to the Roman power.

The fourth king, Ancus Marcius, was a Sabine, the grandson of Numa. He
too was a man of peace, but was drawn into a war with several of the
Latin cities. Having subdued them, he transferred their inhabitants to
the Aventine hill.


LEGENDS OF THE LATER KINGS

The three later kings of Rome are represented as having been Etruscans.
The first of these was Tarquinius Priscus, who migrated to Rome from the
Etruscan city of Tarquinii. He strengthened his position as king by
adopting the royal insignia of the Etruscans--a crown of gold, a
scepter, an ivory chair, a purple toga, etc. He carried on war with the
Latins and Sabines, drained the city, laid out the forum, and dedicated
a temple to Jupiter on the Capitoline hill.

The next of the later kings was Servius Tullius, the son of a slave
woman of the king’s household. He united Rome and the Latin cities in a
league; reorganized the government, and erected a new wall inclosing the
seven hills.

Tarquin the Proud, the last king, was engaged in the siege of an enemy’s
city only sixteen miles from Rome, when his son committed the outrage
upon the person of Lucretia, which led to the banishment of the family
and the overthrow of the regal government.


  II. PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC, 510-264 B. C.--The second period extends
  from the expulsion of the kings to the beginning of the Punic wars.
  During this period the Plebeians were admitted to the offices of
  state, about 300 B. C. At the beginning of this period the
  government was a thorough aristocracy, but at the close of it has
  become a full democracy. It included about two hundred and fifty
  years, and may be designated the period of the Plebeian and
  Patrician contests, and the conquest of Italy.

When, at the close of the sixth century (509 B. C.), Rome ceased to be
under kingly rule, it became a republic. Instead of a king, two
magistrates called Consuls were elected every year. In other respects
the constitution remained as before. The first consuls were Brutus and
Collatinus.

As the city increased by immigration, and the admission of allies or
incorporation of subjects, two principal classes of the citizens
developed--the _Patricians_ and _Plebeians_. The Patricians were
probably those descended from the original citizens of the united Latin,
Sabine, and Etruscan town, and the Plebeians the descendants of those
afterwards admitted.

The internal history of Rome for several hundred years consists mainly
of the account of struggles between these two orders. The Patricians
alone were at first admissible to the great governing body, the Senate,
and they kept in their hands all the high offices of state, the higher
degrees of the priesthood, and the ownership of the public lands. The
two orders were not allowed to intermarry, and the Plebeians, though
they were free and personally independent (excepting compulsory service
in war) had no political rights.


CAUSES OF STRUGGLES BETWEEN PATRICIANS AND PLEBEIANS

The struggles between the Patricians and Plebeians began about 500 B. C.
The Plebeians fought the battles of Rome, and, in doing so, had to
neglect the tillage of the soil by which they lived. Hence came poverty,
made worse still by a severe law of debt, and by a high rate of interest
extorted by the Patricians, who advanced money. The taxation of the
state was paid solely by the Plebeians, as the Patricians had ceased to
pay their rent to the treasury for the public lands which they held. At
the same time, the Plebeians (which body included many men of birth and
wealth) were entirely excluded from public offices. Such a state of
things could only end in an outbreak, which occurred in 493 B. C.


FIRST WITHDRAWAL OF PLEBEIANS TO MONS SACER

The oppression of the debtors (who were imprisoned and flogged on
failure to pay) caused a withdrawal of the Plebeians in a body to Mons
Sacer (Holy Hill), outside the Roman territory, three miles from Rome.
Their purpose was to erect a new town, and dwell apart, with equal
rights. The Patricians, left helpless against foreign enemies, as usual
in such cases, made concessions when forced to terms. It was agreed that
two officials should be appointed (to offset the two consuls, who were
Patrician magistrates) for the defense of the commoners against the
cruel exercise of the law of debtor and creditor.


TRIBUNI PLEBIS

These new magistrates were called Tribuni Plebis (Tribunes of the
Commons), and the title became very famous. They acted as champions of
the subordinate class against all oppression, and pleaded in the
law-courts on their behalf. The person of a Tribune was sacred and
inviolable, and, in the exercise of his yearly office, he could forbid
the execution of the order of any official, or of any decree of the
senate; he could pardon offenses, and called to account all enemies of
the commons under his charge.


FIRST OF THE AGRARIAN LAWS

In 486 B. C. Spurius Cassius (afterward tried for treason and put to
death by the Patricians) carried the first of the famous Agrarian Laws,
for limiting the amount of public land held by the Patricians,
compelling them to pay tithe or rent for the land they held, and
dividing surplus lands among the Plebeians. The law was not enforced,
through the violence and injustice of the Patricians. The Plebeians
exercised some check from time to time, by the refusal to serve as
soldiers.


THE FAMOUS PUBLILIAN LAW

In 471 B. C. the Plebeians succeeded in carrying the famous Publilian
Law (proposed by the tribune Publilius Volero), that the tribunes should
in future be chosen only at the (popular) Comitia Tributa, instead of in
the (patrician) Comitia Centuriata. The Comitia Tributa also received
the right of deliberating and deciding upon all matters that were open
to discussion and settlement in the Comitia Centuriata. The struggle
continued, and the commons found it a great disadvantage that there was
no written law to control the chief Patrician magistrates (the consuls)
in their dealings with the Plebeians.


FIRST GREAT CODE OF ROMAN LAW

After violent opposition, and the increase of the number of tribunes to
ten, the Plebeians carried a law (about 452 B. C.) that ten
commissioners (Decemviri) should draw up a code to bind all classes of
Romans alike. The ultimate result was the compilation (and engraving on
thick sheets of brass) of the first and only code of law in the Roman
republic--the _Laws of the Twelve Tables_. These laws made the Comitia
Tributa into a really national legislature, embodying Patricians and
Plebeians alike. The Plebeians, however, were still kept out of a share
in the lands which they conquered in war, and a time of trouble came in
the usurpation and violence of the Decemviri.


SECOND WITHDRAWAL OF PLEBEIANS TO MONS SACER

In 448 B. C. the Plebs, for the second time, seceded to the Mons Sacer,
and the Decemviri were obliged to give way. Tribunes were re-appointed,
and the new consuls were Valerius and Horatius. By them, in the Comitia
Centuriata the great Valerian and Horatian Laws were passed, the first
great charter of Roman freedom, and the power of the Plebeians was much
increased. The Comitia Tributa was now on a level with the Comitia
Centuriata, so that a Plebis-citum, or decree of the people’s assembly,
had henceforth the same force as one passed by the Comitia Centuriata,
and became law for the whole nation. The struggle between the two
orders, Patricians and Plebeians, continued. In 445 B. C. the Lex
Canuleia, proposed by the tribune Canuleius, was passed, sanctioning
intermarriage between Patricians and Plebeians.


MILITARY TRIBUNES WITH CONSULAR POWER

The Patricians, foreseeing that the time would come when the Plebeians
must be admitted to the high offices of the state, divided the powers of
the consulship, and, in 444 B. C., caused the appointment of Military
Tribunes with consular power, officers who might be elected from either
order, as commanders of the army, while the civil powers of the consuls
were kept by the Patricians in their own hands. In 443 B. C. the office
of the Censors was established, with the proviso that they should be
appointed only from the Patricians, and only by their assembly, the
Comitia Curiata. In this the Patricians undoubtedly gained an accession
of power.


FURTHER STRUGGLES BETWEEN PATRICIANS AND PLEBEIANS

The power of the Plebeians grew by degrees through the exertion of the
prerogatives of the Tribunes, and about 400 B. C. the office of the
Military Tribunes became open to the Plebeians, and four out of the six
were chosen from that order. After the capture of Rome by the Gauls (390
B. C.), fresh troubles for the Plebeians arose. Their lands near Rome
had been laid waste, cattle killed, and implements of agriculture
destroyed. Heavy taxes were imposed to make up for the loss of public
treasure carried off by the Gauls, and soon the old trouble of debt
arose, and consequent oppression by the Patrician creditors.


EQUALITY AND FREEDOM ACHIEVED UNDER THE TRIBUNES LICINIUS AND SEXTIUS

The distress of the Commons increased until a great remedy was found by
two patriotic tribunes of the Plebs, Caius Licinius Stolo and Lucius
Sextius, the authors of the great Roman charter of equality and freedom.
These able, determined men, after a tremendous struggle, fought with
constitutional arms alone,--in which the Romans showed that respect for
law and authority which, in their best days, so honorably distinguished
them,--carried their point. The victory was won through the use of the
power of the tribunes to stop the whole machinery of government. Year
after year, for ten successive years, Licinius and Sextius were chosen
tribunes, and, while the Patricians gained over the eight other
tribunes, and prevented the popular bills being put to the vote in the
Comitia Tributa, the two tribunes prevented the election of the Consular
Tribunes (save in 371 B. C., for a war with the Latins), and other high
officials, and would have no troops levied at all.


TERMS OF THE LICINIAN LAWS

At last, in 366 B. C., the famous Licinian Laws were carried, to-wit:
(1) That the interest already paid by debtors should be deducted from
the capital of the debt, and the remainder paid off in three equal
annual instalments; (2) That no one should hold above five hundred
jugera (about two hundred and eighty acres) of the public land, the
surplus to be divided among the poorer Plebeians; (3) That the military
tribunate with consular power should be abolished, and the consulship
restored; but one Consul, at least, henceforward, should be a Plebeian.
Sextius was himself elected, in 366 B. C., as the first Plebeian consul.
All the other offices, dictatorship, censorship, prætorship, etc., were
soon thrown open to the Commons,--so that at last, after the long
struggle, perfect political equality was established.


FINAL ESTABLISHMENT OF DEMOCRACY

For a century and a half since the expulsion of the kings, Rome had been
a republic, but an aristocratic republic; it was now truly a government
of the people. From this time begins the golden age of Roman politics.
Civil concord, to which a temple was dedicated, brought with it a period
of civic virtue and heroic greatness.


THE CONQUEST OF ITALY

During this period, so harassed by internal contests, Rome was also
engaged in frequent wars. These wars were with (1) their immediate
relatives the Latins; with (2) their more distant relatives, the various
other Italian nationalities; with (3) the Greek settlements in Southern
Italy aided by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus; with (4) the Gauls in Northern
Italy.


MEANING OF THESE WARS

These Roman wars meant a great deal to the future of this remarkable
nation. Before Rome could play its grand part in the history of the
world’s civilization it was necessary, first of all, that it should
become a great _Nation_. A great nation needs an extensive stage on
which to play its part. Now the wars by which the Romans put down the
various small and obstructive nationalities of Italy were the clearing
of the stage, preliminary to the oncoming of that imperial figure, the
“Mistress of the World.”


WARS WITH THE SAMNITES IN SOUTHERN ITALY

The series of wars against Etruscans, Latins, Samnites, and Gauls,
sometimes singly and sometimes in combination, is usually known in Roman
history by the general designation of the “Latin wars” and the “Samnite
wars.” These wars filled the greater part of the half-century between
343 and 290 B. C.; and the Samnites were the leaders in this onset of
the nations on Rome, the issue of which was to determine whether Rome or
Samnium should govern Italy. The Romans were completely successful; and
extricating themselves by their valor from this confused conflict of
nations, the Romans found themselves masters of Central Italy (290 B.
C.),--Samnites, Latins, etc., all their subjects.


WAR WITH THE GREEK KING PYRRHUS

The “Samnite wars” were succeeded by a short but brisk war, designated
in Roman history “the war with Pyrrhus and the Greeks in Italy.” Pyrrhus
was an able and enterprising Greek prince whom the Greek towns of
Southern Italy--fearful of being overwhelmed by what they called the
“conquering barbarians of the Tiber”--had invited over from his native
country to help them as champion of a Greek city.

Pyrrhus came over with a force of twenty-five thousand troops and twenty
elephants. In the first battle (Pandosia, 280 B. C.) the Romans fought
stoutly, until what they conceived to be gigantic gray oxen (the
elephants) came thundering down upon them; so that the victory remained
with Pyrrhus. In the next contest also (Asculum, 279 B. C.) Pyrrhus was
successful; but the Romans made him pay so dearly for his triumph that
he is said to have exclaimed, “Another such victory and I am undone!”
Not having succeeded in his main object, Pyrrhus quitted Italy and went
to Sicily; but soon after he returned, renewed the contest with the
Romans, and was utterly overthrown at Beneventum, in 275 B.C.

The subjugation of Southern Italy--of all that part called Great
Greece--soon followed, and at the close of the year B. C. 266 Rome
reigned supreme over the length and breadth of the peninsula of Italy,
from the southern boundary of Cisalpine Gaul to the Sicilian Straits,
and from the Tyrrhenian, or Tuscan, Sea to the Adriatic.


NATURE OF THE ROMAN STATE UNDER THE REPUBLIC.

The real governing power in Rome was the Roman people,--_populus
Romanus_,--that is to say, the body of free inhabitants of the
thirty-three tribes or parishes north and south of the Tiber, which
constituted the Roman territory proper, together with a considerable
number of persons in other parts of Italy who, either from being
colonists of Roman descent or from having had Roman citizenship
conferred on them, had the privilege of going to Rome and voting at the
Comitia, or Assembly. The possessors of the suffrage thus formed a
comparatively small body of men, such as might be assembled with ease in
any public square or park, and these by their votes decided on the
affairs of the commonwealth, controlling thus the destinies of the whole
population of Italy, estimated at this time at above five million.

In addition to the _populus Romanus_ there were two other classes,--the
Italians and the Latins. The Italians, or _socii_, were the inhabitants
of the allied and dependent Italian states that had submitted to Rome.
These communities were almost all permitted to retain their own laws,
judges, municipal arrangements, etc.; but they did not possess the Roman
franchise, and hence had no share in the political affairs of the
republic. The Latins were those who belonged to cities having the “Latin
franchise,” as it was called, from its having first been given to the
cities of Latium when conquered. This did not give full Roman
citizenship, but made it easier to obtain it.


SUMMARY OF ROMAN GOVERNMENT

Rome wisely left self-government to all the dependent and allied states,
while she secured her sovereignty by three rights which she reserved to
herself: (1) She alone made peace or declared war; (2) She alone might
receive embassies; (3) She alone might coin money. Altogether it was an
admirable system, vastly superior to the loosely related Grecian
states. It was a system that made possible for the first time in the
world’s history a great, as well as a free, nation.

It is a striking fact that there was not yet even a dawning Roman
literature; in art, science, philosophy, Rome had done--absolutely
nothing. But, in fact, it was in the art of governing mankind that Roman
genius was to appear; and it was this that showed itself in these early
years,--it was their valor, their probity, their patriotism, their
political tact, and not speculation or literary culture, that
distinguished them.


CONSTRUCTION OF THE GREAT ROMAN ROADS

The famous Roman roads are to be found not only throughout Italy, where
they were constructed in various directions from the capital, but in
every land once conquered by Rome and stamped by her, as she stamped all
her conquests, with ineffaceable marks of her possession and her power.
These great roads were first made with the military purpose of providing
a way that should be solid at all seasons of the year, for the march of
legions and their heavy baggage through districts subdued by Roman arms.
They were wonderful pieces of determined practical engineering, and in
order to carry them straight to the points aimed at, marshes and hollows
were filled up, or spanned with viaducts; mountains were tunneled,
streams were bridged; no labor, time, or money was spared.


THE APPIAN WAY AND OTHER FAMOUS ROADS

The first and greatest of the Italian roads was the famous Appian Way
(_Via Appia_, called _Regina Viarum_, “Queen of Roads”), which was begun
by Appius Claudius, Censor in 312 B. C. The struggle with the Samnites
was at its height when this great causeway, built with large, square
stones on a raised platform, was made direct from the gates of Rome to
Capua, in Campania. The _Via Appia_ was afterwards extended, through
Samnium and Apulia, to Brundusium (on the lower Adriatic), the port of
embarkment for Greece. Parts of the original stonework are existing at
this day. Other great roads of Italy were the _Via Aurelia_--the great
coast-road northward, by Genua (Genoa), into Transalpine Gaul; the _Via
Flaminia_, through Umbria to Ariminum; and the _Via Æmilia_, from
Ariminum, through Cisalpine Gaul to Placentia.


  III. EPOCH OF THE PUNIC WARS, 264-146 B. C.--The third period in
  Roman history extends from the final triumph of the Plebeians to the
  capture of Carthage, B. C. 146. Rome had hitherto been distracted
  with intestine feuds and dissensions, and had extended her dominion
  over but a small extent of territory. The admission of Plebeians to
  all the high offices of trust and distinction promoted the
  consolidation and strength of the republic, and the career of
  conquest was soon begun.

We now see Rome engage in the greatest conflict of her history,--that
with the powerful maritime state, Carthage,--a struggle which, when it
was fully developed, became for Rome a fight for national existence, in
which her enemy was at the height of her power and resources, with Spain
and Africa at her back, and with the first general of the age to command
her armies.


RACES OPPOSED IN THE PUNIC WARS

The interest of the Punic wars (as they are called from the word
_Punicus_, the Latin equivalent of Phœnician, and, in a limited sense,
Carthaginian) is great and enduring. These wars were fought out to
determine which of the two races, the Indo-Germanic, or Aryan, or the
Semitic, should have the dominion of the world. On the one side--the
Aryan--was the genius for war, government, and legislation; on the
other--the Semitic--the spirit of industry, navigation and commerce. The
skill and valor, the determination and resource, displayed on both
sides, have caused these wars of Rome and Carthage to remain most
vividly impressed upon the memories of men.


CHARACTER OF THE CARTHAGINIAN STATE AND PEOPLE

Carthage had become, by the political and commercial energy of her
citizens, the leading Phœnician state, ruling over Utica, Hippo, Leptis,
and other cities of Phœnician origin in northern Africa. The
Carthaginians paid also great attention to agriculture, and the whole of
their territory was cultivated like a garden, supplying the population
with abundance of food. This fact, taken with the wealth derived from
her commerce, explains how it was that a city with no large extent of
territory was enabled to hold out so long against the utmost efforts of
Rome, and at one period to bring her, as it seemed, to the verge of
ruin.

The political constitution of Carthage was that of an oligarchical
republic, and her aristocracy is famed for the number of able men that
came from its ranks. On the other hand, she was weakened by being
dependent on mercenary troops in her wars, subject to revolts at home
among the native populations whom she oppressed, and hampered by the
factious spirit prevalent among her leading men.

She had a great commercial genius, but no gift for assimilating
conquered peoples, or for establishing an empire on a solid and enduring
basis, and therefore, in the end, she succumbed to Rome, whose aim it
was to bring the nations under one wide, enduring sway. The struggle of
Carthage against Rome became, in fact, the contest of a man of the
greatest abilities--Hannibal--against a nation of the utmost energy and
determination, and the nation, in the long run, won the day.


FIRST PUNIC WAR, 264-241 B. C.

The Carthaginians held Corsica, Sardinia, and various colonies in Spain
and possessions in Sicily. It was in Sicily that the cause of quarrel
between Rome and Carthage was found, and Rome picked the quarrel by
interference in a local matter at Messana. Hiero, king of Syracuse, as
we have seen, had come over to the Romans, who, after defeating the
Carthaginian army and taking Agrigentum (262 B. C.), determined to make
themselves masters of Sicily. For this a fleet was needed, and with
Roman energy they soon built one. Twice their squadrons were destroyed,
but in 260 B. C. the consul Duilius gained a great naval victory at
Mylæ, on the northeast coast of Sicily, and, from this time, Rome became
more and more nearly a match for Carthage on her element, the sea. The
Romans invaded Africa without success (255 B. C.), but were generally
victorious in Sicily.

In 247 B. C. the great Hamilcar Barca (father of Hannibal and Hasdrubal)
was appointed to the Carthaginian command in Sicily, and maintained
himself there with great patience and skill against all the Roman
efforts. But, in 241 B. C., the Roman commander Lutatius Catulus
utterly defeated the Carthaginian fleet off the Ægates Islands, on the
west coast of Sicily, and the Carthaginians then gave in. All Sicily,
except the territory of Rome’s faithful alley, Hiero of Syracuse, thus
became (241 B. C.) the first Roman province.


CONQUEST OF SARDINIA, CORSICA, AND CISALPINE GAUL

The Romans, with gross ill-faith and injustice, took advantage of a
revolt against Carthage by her mercenary troops to deprive her of
Sardinia and Corsica (238 B. C.), and Sardinia was made into a province.
Their next exploit was the conquest of Cisalpine Gaul, which was
completed 222 B. C., and the Roman hold upon the new territory was
confirmed by the establishment of military colonies at Placentia and
Cremona.


THE CARTHAGINIANS UNDER HAMILCAR IN SPAIN

Carthage had resolved upon revenge for past defeats and injuries from
Rome, and intrusted her cause to the great Hamilcar Barca. He sought to
create for his country a new empire in Spain, which might be used as a
base of operations against the foe for whom he had a deadly hate. From
237 to 229 B. C. (when he fell in battle) he was engaged in reducing a
large part of Spain to submission.

In 221 B. C. his son, the illustrious Hannibal, took the Spanish
command, and he soon brought on a new conflict with Rome by his capture
of her ally, the city of Saguntum, on the northeast coast of Spain.


HANNIBAL AND THE SECOND PUNIC WAR, 218-202 B. C.

The hero of the Second Punic War is Hannibal, one of the purest and
noblest characters in history. In 218 B. C. the Carthaginian general
crossed the Alps, after a five months’ march from Spain, and descended
with a storm of war upon the Romans. With a force of twenty thousand
foot and six thousand horse he encountered the consular armies, and
defeated them at the rivers Ticinus and Trebia (218 B. C.), in Cisalpine
Gaul, the Trasimene Lake in Etruria (217 B. C.), and most decisively,
and with immense slaughter, at Cannæ, in Apulia, in 216 B. C. For
fifteen years (218 to 202 B. C.) Hannibal maintained his ground in
Italy, defeating the Romans again and again, opposed by the cautious
Fabius Maximus and the daring Marcellus (the conqueror of Syracuse), but
unable to capture Rome, or to subdue Roman steadfastness and courage.


CAUSES OF HANNIBAL’S DEFEAT

The chief causes of the ultimate failure of Hannibal, besides the
doggedness of Rome’s resistance, were the faithfulness of many of Rome’s
allies, especially the Latins, in Italy, the success of Roman armies,
under Publius Scipio, in Spain (temporarily subdued 205 B. C.), and the
want of due support by Carthage to her great leader. The crisis came in
207 B. C., when Hannibal’s brother, Hasdrubal, crossed the Alps into
Italy with a powerful army which, joined with Hannibal’s in Southern
Italy, would probably have effected the conquest of Rome, now almost
exhausted. This was not to be. Hasdrubal was defeated, and slain by the
Romans at the decisive battle of the Metaurus (a river in Umbria), one
of the great critical contests of history. The junction of the forces
thus prevented, Rome was saved, and, in order to be rid of Hannibal, the
war was carried now into the enemy’s country.


DEFEAT OF HANNIBAL BY SCIPIO AFRICANUS AT ZAMA

Publius Scipio, so successful in Spain, crossed from Sicily to Africa in
204 B. C., and did so well for Rome that Hannibal was recalled. The
Second Punic War ended with the defeat of Hannibal by Scipio at Zama
(five days’ journey from Carthage), in 202 B. C. The conqueror gained
the surname of Africanus. Hannibal lost his army, but not his fame. Rome
was certain now to rule the world. The terms of peace with Carthage made
her for the time a mere dependency of Rome. All her foreign possessions
were given up; her fleet was reduced to ten ships; she was to make no
war without Rome’s permission; and an enormous war indemnity was
exacted.


SUBJUGATION OF MACEDON BY ROME

In 213 B. C. Rome attacked Philip V., king of Macedon, because he had
made a treaty with Carthage, and, after making an alliance with the
Ætolians, the Romans gained some successes over Philip in the First
Macedonian War, ending in 205. The Second Macedonian War (200-197 B. C.)
put an end to Macedon’s supremacy in Greece, by the victory of the
ex-consul Flamininus at Cynoscephalæ, in Thessaly, 197 B. C.


ROMAN ARMS ARE CARRIED INTO ASIA

Antiochus the Great, of Syria, who had irritated Rome by meddling in the
affairs of Greece, which he invaded in 192 B. C., was beaten by the
Roman armies in Greece and Asia Minor, and in 188 B. C. made peace on
terms that left Roman influence supreme in Asia Minor as far as Syria.


THE FINAL FATE OF HANNIBAL

The great Carthaginian, even after Zama, had not despaired of himself or
of his country. He set vigorously to work at internal reforms in
Carthage with a view to renewing the contest with Rome; but, being
thwarted by jealous and unpatriotic rivals, who also intrigued for his
surrender to the Romans, he fled to the court of Antiochus the Great, of
Syria, in 194 B. C. In rejecting her greatest man, Carthage had lost her
last chance of regaining any real power. Hannibal was driven from his
shelter with Antiochus by the Roman demand for his surrender, and took
refuge with Prusias, king of Bithynia, for some years; but Roman dread
of his abilities pursued him, and hopeless of escape, he poisoned
himself about 183 B. C., leaving Rome free at last to pursue her
victorious career.


ROMAN CONQUEST OF THE GREEK STATES

A Third Macedonian War, begun in 171 B. C., was waged by the Romans
against King Perseus, son of Philip V., and ended with a great Roman
victory at Pydna, in 168 B. C., and the extinction of Macedon as a
kingdom. After a revolt, called the Fourth Macedonian War, and a war
against the forces of the Achæan League, Corinth was taken by Mummius,
and Macedonia and Greece became Roman provinces (147 and 146 B. C.)


THIRD PUNIC WAR AND DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE

There was a powerful party in Rome (headed by the stern censor Porcius
Cato) who relentlessly insisted on the destruction of Carthage. Her
warlike neighbor, Masinissa, king of Numidia, was encouraged by the
Romans in harassing attacks, and in 149 B. C. Rome found a pretext for
war. Her forces could not be resisted, and Carthage offered a complete
submission, seeking the preservation of her commerce and her capital by
a surrender of arms, war-ships, and her internal independence.

When Rome insisted on the destruction of the city of Carthage itself,
and the removal of the inhabitants to inland abodes, the Carthaginians
took counsel of despair, and resolved to stand a siege within their
strong fortifications. Scipio Africanus Minor conducted the three years’
siege of the great commercial city and her citadel, and Roman
determination, as usual, carried its point. After fearful house-to-house
fighting the remnant of seven hundred thousand people surrendered; the
place was set on fire, and burned for seventeen days; the ruins were
leveled with the ground, and Carthage the proud city, alike with
Carthage the commercial state, ceased to exist, in 146 B. C., the year
of the final conquest of Greece. Part of the territory was given to
Masinissa of Numidia, Rome’s ally; part became the Roman province of
Africa.


GRANDEUR OF ROME AFTER HER FOREIGN CONQUESTS

At the beginning of the period of conquest (266-133 B. C.), the Roman
dominion was confined to the peninsula of Italy; at its close it
extended over the whole of southern Europe from the shores of the
Atlantic to the straits of Constantinople, over the chief Mediterranean
islands, and over a portion of North Africa, while farther east, in
Egypt, Asia Minor, and Syria, its influence was paramount. At the
beginning Rome was merely one of the “Great Powers” of the world as it
then was,--that is, she ranked with Carthage, Macedonia, and the kingdom
of the Seleucidæ; at its close she was clearly the sole Great Power
left.


THE ORIGIN OF PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT

The addition of the conquered countries resulted in a new feature of
Roman rule called Provincial government. Retaining their native habits,
religion, laws, etc., the inhabitants of every province were governed by
a military president, sent from Rome, with a staff of officials. The
provincials were required to pay taxes in money and kind; and these
taxes were farmed out by the censors to Roman citizens, who, under the
name of Publicans, settled in the various districts of the provinces.
Thus, like a network proceeding from a center, the political system of
the Romans pervaded the mass of millions of human beings inhabiting the
shores of the Mediterranean; and a vast population of various races and
languages were all bound together by the cohesive power of Roman rule.

[Illustration: =SPLENDORS OF A FESTAL DAY IN ANCIENT ROME=

=The Coliseum= (_kol-e-see´-um_), in the background, was dedicated by
Titus, A. D. 80, in a grand festival of 100 days, at which 5,000 beasts
were slaughtered in the games. The successive tiers of seats, receding
from the arena to the summit, gave room for 90,000 spectators.
Gladiatorial contests continued until abolished by Honorius, A. D.
405.]


ROME AT THE HEIGHT OF ITS GRANDEUR

The luster of the Roman power and glory of the Roman name were now at
their height. The eyes of all the world were now on Italy, the young
republic of the West. Into Rome all talents, all riches, flowed. What a
grand thing in those days to be a Roman citizen; so that, wherever one
walked,--in Spain, in Africa, even in once proud Athens, he was
followed, feasted, flattered! What a career was opened to those who
wished for wealth or aspired to fame! But in the very sunburst of Rome’s
glory, the germs of decay were ripening.

On the Romans themselves the effect of their foreign conquests were both
good and bad; but perhaps the evil outweighed the good.


ERA OF GREAT PUBLIC WORKS

The wealth poured into Rome by the conquest of Carthage, of Greece, and
the East, and the considerable revenue derived from the permanent
taxation of the provinces, enabled the Romans to carry out a great
system of public works. Throughout Italy splendid military roads which
remain to this day were built, the provinces were traversed by imperial
highways, and fine stone bridges were thrown across the Tiber. In Rome
splendid public buildings were erected, the city was sewered, the
streets were paved (174 B. C.), two new aqueducts (the Marcian, built in
144 B. C., at a cost of ten million dollars) were constructed; and it
may be noted that the Consul P. Scipio Nasica, in 159 B. C., set up in
Rome a public clepsydra, or water clock, the citizens having for six
centuries gone on without any accurate means of knowing the time by
night as well as day.


INFLUENCE OF GREEK CULTURE ON ROME

The effect on Rome of the conquest of Greece and the Hellenized East was
very marked. Greek rhetoricians, scholars, tragedians, musicians and
philosophers in large numbers took up their abode in Rome. The city
swarmed with Greek schoolmasters. Greek tutors and philosophers, who,
even if they were not slaves, were as a rule accounted as servants, were
now permanent inmates in the palaces of Rome; people speculated in them,
and there is a statement that the sum of two hundred thousand sesterces
(ten thousand dollars) was paid for a Greek literary slave of the first
class.


RISE OF NATIVE ROMAN LITERATURE

The stimulus of Greek literary culture led to native production, and in
the second century, B. C., we have the beginning of that Latin
literature which we still read. Though the great period of Roman letters
did not come till a century after this time (age of Augustus), yet there
arose a number of writers of no ordinary power. Among these should be
mentioned Ennius, the father of Roman poetry; Plautus, his contemporary,
a man of rich poetic genius; the elder Cato, the first prose writer of
note; and Terence, the most famous of the comic poets.

While the Romans were in some respects benefited by contact with the
superior though decaying culture of Greece, they also learned a great
deal that was debasing. They became effeminate, luxurious, and corrupt
in morals; marriage was not respected; the old Roman faith waned, and it
was said that two augurs could not meet in the street without laughing
in each other’s face.


GROWTH OF POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CORRUPTION

The political system of Rome now began to lead to a dreadful state of
public corruption. The Roman government was devised for the rule of a
city: all power was in the hands of the civic voters, and when there
came to be great prizes, in the way of great offices at home and abroad,
the voters began to find that their votes were worth something, and
unblushing bribery and corruption became common.

The demands of the large planters and merchants led to a great extension
of the slave-trade. All lands and all nations were laid under
contribution for slaves, but the places where they were chiefly captured
were Syria and the interior of Asia Minor. It is probable that at the
period at which we have now arrived (middle of the second century B. C.)
there were twelve million slaves against five million free inhabitants
in the Italian peninsula,--a most lamentable state of things!

In addition to the slaves, Italy became filled up with a motley
parasitic population from Asia and Africa and all the conquered
lands,--and the result of this intermixture soon appeared in a marked
degeneracy in the Roman race itself.


THE NEW ROMAN CONTRASTED WITH THE OLD

The decay of old Roman virtue became at the same time apparent in the
great increase of luxury. This displayed itself in houses, villas,
pleasure gardens, fish ponds, dress, food and drink. Extravagant
prices--as much as one hundred thousand sesterces (five thousand
dollars)--were paid for an exquisite cook. Costly foreign delicacies and
wines were affected, and the Romans in their banquets vied with one
another in displaying their hosts of slaves ministering to luxury, their
bands of musicians, their dancing girls, their purple hangings, their
carpets glittering with gold or pictorially embroidered, and their rich
silver plate.

In the midst of the system there were not wanting some noble patterns of
the old Roman type, among whom should be named Cato, who kept up a
constant protest all his life against the growing luxury of his
countrymen, and died declaring that they were a degenerate race. Such
men were, however, rare exceptions; and we shall hereafter see that the
evil system already operative in the second century went on increasing,
till finally, a century afterwards, it resulted in the total subversion
of the republic.

The picture just given of the state of Roman society in the last half of
the second century B. C. prepares us for the period of civil strife on
which we now enter.


  IV. EPOCH OF THE CIVIL WARS, 146-31 B. C.--The fourth period extends
  from the capture of Carthage and Corinth to the establishment of the
  Imperial Government by the battle of Actium, B. C. 31. During this
  whole time the Roman history is a continued tale of domestic
  disturbances. From the fall of Carthage to the battle of Actium, it
  presents but a melancholy picture, a blood-stained record of
  sedition, conspiracy, and civil war.

A number of causes had resulted in the growth of an aristocracy founded
purely on wealth; the old division of society into patricians and
plebeians had ceased, and there arose a still worse division into
classes,--the rich and the poor.


THE GRACCHI ESPOUSE THE CAUSE OF THE POOR

The cause of the poor against the rich was taken up by a noble young
tribune of the people named Tiberius Gracchus. Tiberius and his
afterwards distinguished younger brother Caius (the two being known in
history as the Gracchi) were sons of a noble Roman matron, Cornelia,
daughter of the great Scipio Africanus.

Tiberius Gracchus proposed a land-law (agrarian law), which would limit
the amount of public land that could be held by any one individual and
provided for the distribution of the rest in small homesteads. The
aristocracy immediately raised a storm, and induced another tribune to
veto the measure. Now, according to the Roman code, no proposal could
become law unless all the tribunes were unanimous. Gracchus then secured
a popular vote expelling his colleague from the tribuneship, and the
land-law was passed by the people, 133 B. C. In the meantime, however,
Gracchus’s year of office expired, and he came up for re-election. The
nobles resolved to prevent this by violence.


MURDER OF THE TRIBUNE, TIBERIUS GRACCHUS

Gracchus, learning this, bade his friends arm themselves with staves;
and when the people began to inquire the cause of this, he put his hand
to his head, intimating that his life was in danger. Some of his enemies
ran to the senate and reported that Tiberius openly demanded a crown. A
body of the aristocrats with their clients and dependents then rushed
among the unarmed crowd, and murdered Gracchus with three hundred of his
adherents,--133 B. C.

Tiberius Gracchus was dead, but his work remained; that is to say, the
measure which he had proposed was law, and the commissioners intrusted
with the task of allotting the lands prosecuted their labors for two or
three years. The nobles, however, obstructed the work as much as
possible, so that between them and the champions of the people there was
a continuous struggle.


THE STRUGGLES AND DEATH OF THE YOUNGER GRACCHUS

This struggle became still more fierce when Caius Gracchus, ten years
after the death of his brother, claimed and obtained the tribuneship,
and then took up that brother’s work. The agitation for the agrarian law
was renewed, an enactment was made for a monthly distribution of corn to
the city poor, and various other reforms were proposed by him. After
holding the tribuneship for two years, however, he lost the office
through the intrigues of his opponents. The nobles were determined to
crush Gracchus; accordingly, at one of the public assemblies they
attacked the partisans of the popular leader, and there ensued a bloody
combat (121 B. C.) in which three thousand of his adherents were slain.
Gracchus himself fled into a wood across the Tiber; but, being pursued,
he chose to die by the hands of a faithful slave rather than fall into
the power of his enemies.


RISE OF MARIUS AND SULLA

The ill-will between the nobles and the people continued just as bitter
after the death of Gracchus; and matters finally shaped themselves in
such a way that the nobles, or senatorial party, came to be represented
by a leader named Sulla, and the democracy, or Commons, by another,
called Marius. These men came to prominence in the course of two or
three wars in which Rome was engaged for twenty-five or thirty years
after the time of which we have been speaking; and finally they acquired
such power as to bring on a civil strife that deluged Italy with blood.

The wars just referred to were: the Jugurthine war (111-106 B. C.), the
war against the Cimbri (113-101 B. C.), and the Social war (90-89 B.
C.), with the details of which we need not concern ourselves; but the
fourth contest was of more moment, and needs notice here. This was the
Mithridatic war.


BOLD DESIGN OF MITHRIDATES AGAINST ROME

Mithridates, king of Pontus, a bold and able soldier, formed the design
of uniting the Asiatic states and Greece in a vast confederacy against
the Roman dominion. He began by causing about eighty thousand Romans who
dwelt in the cities of Asia Minor to be massacred in one day (88 B. C.).
He then invaded Greece.

The command in this important war was eagerly sought by both Marius and
Sulla. Sulla prevailed; he was elected consul and put in command.
Marius, being chagrined at this, succeeded in having the popular party
set aside Sulla. But the aristocratic general marched to Rome and
compelled Marius to flee into Africa. Sulla then set out for Greece, all
of which submitted to him, the army of Mithridates being defeated (86-84
B. C.)


HORRIBLE MASSACRES ATTEND THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN MARIUS AND SULLA

During the absence of Sulla, Marius returned to Italy. Entering Rome in
86 B. C., he filled the entire city with slaughter, and in particular he
caused the murder of the leading senators that had supported his rival.
Marius then caused himself to be proclaimed consul without going through
an election; but a fortnight later he died.

Notwithstanding the death of Marius, the Marian party still continued in
power. Sulla, hearing of their successes, hastily concluded a peace with
Mithridates, and hurried to Italy (83 B. C.). After a severe struggle,
Sulla utterly overthrew the Marians. The blood of massacre then flowed
a second time,--in a yet greater stream. Lists of proscribed persons,
embracing all who belonged to the people’s party, were published every
day, and the porch of Sulla’s house was full of heads.

Having put down all his enemies, Sulla caused himself to be proclaimed
dictator for an unlimited time (81 B. C.). He then proceeded to
re-organize the government wholly in the interest of the aristocratic
party; but to the great surprise of every one he three years afterward
resigned his power and retired to private life. Sulla died in 78 B. C.;
he was honored with a magnificent funeral, and a monument with the
following epitaph written by himself:

“I am Sulla the Fortunate, who in the course of my life have surpassed
both friends and enemies; the former by the good, the latter by the
evil, I have done them.”


RISE OF POMPEY THE GREAT

After the death of Sulla, the most prominent figure among all the men of
the aristocratic party was Cneius Pompey, who had distinguished himself
as a lieutenant of Sulla, and afterwards won renown by his management of
several important matters in which Rome was engaged--especially in the
suppression of a formidable revolution in Spain under a very able leader
named Sertorius (77-72 B. C.), and in stamping out a fire of revolt
kindled by Spartacus, the leader of a band of gladiators, who, joined by
a large force of discontented spirits, kept Italy in alarm for two or
three years (73-71 B. C.). These exploits made Pompey a popular
favorite, and in the year 70 B. C. he was rewarded by being made consul
along with a rich senator named Crassus.


HIS MILITARY EXPLOITS IN THE EAST

At the expiration of his year of office he retired to private life, but
was soon called upon to suppress a formidable combination of pirates who
infested the Mediterranean Sea and had their headquarters in Cilicia (in
Asia Minor). This task he accomplished in three months. These triumphs,
aided by his political influence, enabled Pompey to procure the command
in the war against Mithridates, who had renewed his scheme of conquering
the Eastern Roman provinces. He was given powers such as never had been
delegated to any Roman general. This war lasted for two years (66-64 B.
C.), and was marked by a series of brilliant triumphs for Pompey. He
utterly crushed Mithridates (who died by self-administered poison), as
well as his son-in-law Tigranes, subdued Phœnicia, made Syria a Roman
province, and took Jerusalem. Thus with the glory of having subjugated
and settled the East he returned to Rome (62 B. C.), where a magnificent
triumph awaited him.


FAMOUS STRUGGLES OF THE FOUR FACTIONS

Meanwhile there seem to have grown up, after the death of Sulla, four
factions in Rome: the “oligarchical faction,” consisting of the small
number of families the chiefs of which directed the senate, and in fact
governed the republic; the “aristocratic faction,” comprising the mass
of the senators anxious to obtain the power usurped by a few of their
colleagues; the “Marian party,” including all those whose families had
been prosecuted by Sulla, and who now began to rally, and aspire to
power; the “military faction,” embracing a crowd of old officers of
Sulla, who, having squandered the fortunes they had gained under him,
were eager for some revolution that might give them the opportunity to
improve their condition.


THE GREAT LEADERS OF THE FACTIONS--POMPEY, CICERO, CRASSUS, CAESAR AND
CATILINE

At the head of the oligarchical faction was Pompey; but during his
absence in Asia its representative was Marcus Tullius Cicero (born 106
B. C.), who had established his reputation as the first orator in Rome.
He had risen through various offices to the prætorship, and at the time
Pompey left for the East aspired to be consul. He did not himself belong
to a noble family, but still he made himself the champion of the
oligarchy. Though vain and boastful, he was a virtuous and patriotic
man.

The leader of the aristocratic faction was Crassus, formerly the
colleague of Pompey in the consulship, now his personal rival. He was a
man of no great ability, but his position and his immense wealth made
him influential. (After prodigious expenditures, he died worth ten
million dollars.)

The leader of the third, or Marian party, was a man six years younger
than Pompey or Cicero, who, distinguished in youth for his
accomplishments and his extravagance, rose in the year 65 B. C. to the
office of edile. This was Caius Julius Cæsar,--a man of pre-eminent
ability, one of the greatest that ever lived. He was the nephew of
Marius, and now stood forward as the leader of the Marian party. He was
of an old patrician family, and took up the cause of the people to serve
his own ends.


CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE

The leader of the military faction was Catiline, who had been one of the
ablest and most ferocious of Sulla’s officers. He had a large following
of debauched young patricians and ruined military men, who thought they
would better their fortunes by making Catiline consul. Cicero was his
rival, and, receiving the support of the senators, was elected. Enraged
at his defeat, Catiline formed a conspiracy of which the murder of
Cicero and the burning of Rome were parts. A woman betrayed the plot to
Cicero, who denounced Catiline with such fiery eloquence that he had to
flee from Rome. With a band of confederates he attempted to reach Gaul;
but he was overtaken in Etruria and slain, 62 B. C.


THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE: CAESAR, POMPEY AND CRASSUS

Cæsar and Pompey, now finding that they agreed in many of their views,
resolved to unite their forces. To cement their union more closely,
Cæsar gave his only daughter, Julia, in marriage to Pompey. For various
reasons it was found desirable to admit Crassus to their political
partnership, and thus was formed (60 B. C.) that famous coalition known
in Roman history as the “First Triumvirate.” The object of Cæsar and
Pompey was to thwart the senatorial party in every way, and wield all
the power themselves.

The formation of the triumvirate was followed by the election of Cæsar
to the consulship (59 B. C.); and when his year of office expired he
obtained for himself the government of Gaul for five years, and then for
another five. This was probably the great object of Cæsar’s desires. No
doubt he was already brooding over the design of making himself master
of Rome; and for this purpose he would need an army.

During the years 58-50 B. C. Cæsar made eight campaigns in Gaul, forming
the remarkable series of operations which he afterwards described with
such pointed style in his _Commentaries_.

The result of his eight years’ campaigning was that, in the spring of 50
B. C., Cæsar was able to take up his residence in Cisalpine Gaul,
leaving the three hundred tribes beyond the Alps, which he had conquered
by such bloody means, not only pacified, but even attached to himself
personally. His army, which included many Gauls and Germans, was so
devoted to him that it would have marched to the end of the world in his
service.


DOWNFALL OF CRASSUS AND RIVALRY OF CAESAR AND POMPEY

During Cæsar’s campaigns in Gaul (where his government was prolonged for
a second five-year term), Crassus disappeared from the triumvirate.
After holding the consulship with Pompey, in 55 B. C., he went as
proconsul to the province of Syria, in 54 B. C. His greed of wealth, and
desire for the military fame which he envied in Cæsar and Pompey,
brought him to ruin, by inducing him to attack the kingdom of
Parthia,[5] where he was soon afterward murdered. So that the
triumvirate became a duumvirate, or league of two men,--Cæsar and
Pompey.

  [5] Parthia had the rare distinction of being a country the prowess
  of whose warriors baffled the efforts of Rome for her subjection.
  The Parthian kingdom, southeast of the Caspian Sea, came into
  existence about 250 B. C., by revolt from the Seleucids, the
  monarchs of Syria, and became a powerful realm after the death of
  Alexander the Great. It included Parthia proper, Hyrcania, and
  afterwards (130 B. C.) Bactria, so that at last its dominions
  stretched from the Euphrates to the Indus, and from the river Oxus
  to the Indian Ocean. The Parthians adopted the Greek religion,
  manners, and customs, which had been introduced into that part of
  Asia by Alexander’s conquests.

  The renowned cavalry of Parthia seem to have been all-powerful only
  on their own soil, for their invasions of the Roman province of
  Syria in 39 and 38 B.C. were utterly defeated, while the invasion of
  Parthia by the great Roman general and triumvir, Mark Antony, in 36,
  was repulsed with loss of a great part of his army. In 20 B. C. the
  Parthian king Phraates restored, chiefly as a friendly concession,
  the standards and prisoners taken from Crassus and Antonius, and
  this is the event commemorated by the Roman poets of the day as
  equivalent to a submission by Parthia. Under the Roman emperors the
  Parthians sometimes courted and were sometimes at war with Rome, and
  were partially conquered for a time under Trajan. The Parthian kings
  encouraged Christianity. In A. D. 226 a revolt of the Persians put
  an end to the Parthian kingdom, revived the religion of Zoroaster,
  stopped the eastward progress of Christianity in Asia, and began
  modern history in Persia.

Now between these two men there had for some time been a growing
coldness. It was said that Cæsar was a man who could brook no equal, and
Pompey a man who could suffer no superior. A feeling of rivalry having
once arisen, naturally grew till Cæsar and Pompey became the bitterest
enemies. Pompey went over to the aristocratic party to which he had
originally belonged, and having been made sole consul for the year 52 B.
C., he began to exert his great influence against Cæsar. In this he was
supported by the nobles, who dreaded Cæsar’s immense power.


FINAL STRUGGLE BETWEEN CAESAR AND POMPEY

As the period of Cæsar’s command would expire in the year 49 B. C., he
had determined to obtain the consulship for the year 48 B. C., since
otherwise he would become a private citizen. Accordingly he demanded,
though absent, to be permitted to put himself in the lists for the
consulate. But it was proposed, through the influence of Pompey, that
Cæsar should lay down his command by the thirteenth of November, 50 B.
C. This was an unreasonable demand; for his term of government over Gaul
had another year to run, and if he had gone to Rome as a private citizen
to sue for the consulship, there can be no doubt that his life would
have been sacrificed. Cæsar, still anxious to keep the peace, offered,
at the beginning of the year 49 B. C., to lay down his command if Pompey
would do the same; but this the senate refused to accede to, and a
motion was passed that Cæsar should disband his army by a certain day,
and that if he did not do so, he should be regarded as an enemy of the
state.


THE CROSSING OF THE RUBICON

Cæsar promptly took his resolve: he would appeal to the arbitrament of
arms. He had the enthusiastic devotion of his soldiers, the great mass
of whom, being provincials or foreigners, cared very little for the
country whose name they bore. Accordingly, in January, 49 B. C., he
advanced from his headquarters at Ravenna to the little stream, the
Rubicon, which separated his own province and command from Italy. The
crossing of this river was in reality a declaration of war against the
republic; and it is related that, upon arriving at the Rubicon, Cæsar
long hesitated whether he should take this irrevocable step. After
pondering many hours he at length exclaimed, “The die is cast!” and
plunged into the river.

Pompey concluded not to attempt to defend Italy, but to retire upon the
East, where he would gather a great army and then return to overwhelm
the “usurper.” Accordingly he retreated to Greece.


CAESAR MASTER OF ITALY AND DICTATOR OF ROME

In sixty days Cæsar made himself master of all Italy. Then marching to
Rome he had himself appointed dictator and consul for the year 48 B. C.
He showed masterly statesmanship, and soon brought the general current
of opinion completely over to his side.


BATTLE OF PHARSALIA AND DEATH OF POMPEY

Meantime, Pompey had gathered a powerful army in Thessaly, and thither
Cæsar with his legions proceeded against him. The decisive battle
between the two mighty rivals was fought at Pharsalia, in 48 B. C. It
resulted in the utter defeat of Pompey; and as it left Cæsar the
foremost man in the Roman world, it must be regarded as one of the great
decisive battles of history.

Pompey, after his defeat, sought refuge in Egypt; but he was
assassinated by the orders of Ptolemy, when seeking to land on the coast
of that country. Cæsar, who followed in pursuit, did not hear of his
death until his arrival in Alexandria, where messengers from Ptolemy
brought him Pompey’s head. Cæsar, who was both a generous man and a
compassionate foe, turned with horror from the spectacle, and with tears
in his eyes gave orders that the head should be consumed with the
costliest spices.


CAESAR, CLEOPATRA AND THE CONQUEST OF THE EAST

At Alexandria Cæsar became enamored of Cleopatra, the young, beautiful,
and fascinating queen of Egypt. He even mixed himself up with a quarrel
that was going on between her and her younger brother Ptolemy, to whom,
according to the custom of the country, she was married, and with whom
she shared the throne. This intermeddling led Cæsar, who had but a small
force with him, into conflict with the troops of the king. A fierce
battle was fought in the city. Cæsar succeeded in firing the Egyptian
fleet; but unfortunately the flames extended to the celebrated Library
of the city of Alexandria, and the greater part of the magnificent
collection of manuscripts was burnt. Cæsar was finally successful:
Ptolemy was killed, and Cleopatra was made queen of Egypt. From
Alexandria Cæsar marched into Pontus to attack Pharnaces, son of
Mithridates, whom he subdued so quickly that he described the campaign
in the most laconic dispatch ever penned: _Veni, vidi, vici_,--“I came,
I saw, I conquered.”


CAESAR’S FINAL VICTORY AND TRIUMPHANT RETURN TO ROME

Pompey’s forces that escaped from Pharsalia had established themselves
in the Roman province of Africa. They were commanded by Scipio and Cato.
Cæsar having settled matters in the East, now proceeded against this
force, which he utterly destroyed at Thapsus, early in the year 46 B. C.
Scipio and Cato killed themselves. One more rally the Pompeians made in
Spain, but they were defeated by Cæsar in the decisive battle of Munda
(March, 45 B. C).

Cæsar returned to Rome after the battle of Thapsus, the master of the
Roman dominion. The republic went out when Cato fell upon his sword at
Utica; the monarchy came in with the triumphal entry of Cæsar into Rome
in the summer of 46 B. C. It is true Cæsar was not king (_rex_) in name,
but he was so in substance. His position as chief of the state was this:
he was invested with the dictatorship for ten years,--an arrangement
changed soon afterwards to perpetual dictator,--and was hailed with the
title of Imperator for life. The latter title, Imperator (meaning
commander), was one which belonged under the republic to the victorious
general; but it was a temporary title, always laid aside with the
surrender of military command. Cæsar was allowed to use it in a special
way and permanently, and in his case it had much the meaning of the term
Emperor,--a word which is simply Imperator cut short.


FEELINGS OF THE ROMANS TOWARD CAESAR

There can be no doubt that the Romans were well satisfied to be under
the rule of Cæsar. The republic was a mere name, for liberty had expired
when the Gracchi were murdered, and subsequent dissensions were merely
contests for power between different factions. Hence the Roman people,
weary of revolution, were quite content to find peace under the just
though absolute rule of one master.

It is important to recognize this as the real state of public feeling,
because we shall now have to see that Cæsar fell a victim to
assassination, and it might be thought that his overthrow was the
people’s revolt from monarchical rule. But it was the act of a small
knot of conspirators who, with the cry of “Liberty and the Republic” in
their mouths, did away with the Imperator to serve their own ends.


THE CONSPIRACY AGAINST CAESAR AND HIS ASSASSINATION

The chiefs of the conspiracy were Caius Cassius and Marcus Junius
Brutus. Both had received great favors from Cæsar; but they thought they
had not been honored enough, and they were intensely jealous of the
dictator’s greatness. These were joined by other malcontents, and the
plotters swelled their ranks by representing that Cæsar designed to
assume the diadem and the title of king; so that the conspiracy finally
included about sixty senators.

It is not certainly known whether or not Cæsar thought of taking the
name of king. It is known, however, that the consul, Mark Antony,
entered in the public acts, “that by the command of the people, he, as
consul, had offered the name of king to Cæsar, perpetual dictator; and
that Cæsar would not accept of it.”

The plot ripened into a determination to assassinate Cæsar, and the
conspirators fixed on the Ides (i. e. 15th) of March as the time of
putting the design into execution. Rumors of the plot got abroad, and
Cæsar was strongly urged not to attend the senate. But he disregarded
the warnings which were given him. As soon as Cæsar had taken his place,
he was surrounded by the senatorial conspirators, one of whom,
pretending to urge some request, seized his toga with both hands and
pulled it violently over his arms. Then Casca, who was behind, drew a
weapon and grazed his shoulder with an ill-directed stroke. Cæsar
disengaged one hand and snatched at the hilt, exclaiming, “Cursed Casca,
what means this?” “Help!” cried Casca, and at the same moment the
conspirators aimed each his dagger at the victim. Cæsar for an instant
defended himself; but when he perceived the steel flashing in the hand
of Brutus (Marcus Junius), he exclaimed “What! thou too, Brutus!” (_Et
tu Brute!_) and drawing his robe over his face he made no further
resistance. The assassins stabbed him through and through; and, pierced
with twenty-three wounds, Cæsar fell dead at the foot of the statue of
his great rival, Pompey.

Julius Cæsar was in his fifty-sixth year, when, on the fifteenth of
March, B. C. 44, he was stricken down.


EFFECT OF CAESAR’S DEATH AND THE ORATION OF ANTONY

It is said that “revolutions never go backwards.” Brutus and his
fellow-conspirators struck down Cæsar in the name of liberty; but the
blow that leveled the master of Rome did not bring back the
republic,--it only insured the appearance of new claimants for supreme
power, and consequently new civil wars.

On the occasion of Cæsar’s funeral the consul, Mark Antony, delivered an
oration over the dictator’s body, and to such a height did the feeling
of the Romans against the plotters rise, that Brutus and Cassius were
obliged to escape forthwith from the city to avoid destruction.

The condition of affairs left Mark Antony in some respect the
representative of Cæsarean principles; but a more direct claimant to the
succession appeared in Cæsar’s great-nephew, Caius Octavius, then a
youth nineteen years old. The dictator had adopted Octavius as his son;
so his name became Caius Julius Cæsar Octavianus. Octavius had all the
old soldiers on his side, and raised the standard of Cæsar’s vengeance.


TRIUMVIRATE OF ANTONY, OCTAVIUS AND LEPIDUS

At first Antony and Octavius were at strife; but finally they became
reconciled, and associating with them Lepidus, the “master of the
horse,” the three formed the Second Triumvirate (43 B. C.), and
concerted a plan to divide among themselves the supreme authority. In
order to do this it was necessary utterly to crush both their personal
enemies and the forces of the republic.

To accomplish the first object, they began a system of proscription more
ruthless and bloody than that of Marius and Sulla. It is recorded that
three hundred senators, two thousand knights, and many thousands of
citizens were sacrificed. The most illustrious of the victims was the
famous orator Cicero, whose severe invectives against Antony had
procured him the relentless hatred of the triumvir. The aged patriot,
while escaping from Rome in a litter, was assassinated.


BATTLE OF PHILIPPI AND DIVISION OF THE ROMAN WORLD

The second object was the destruction of the republican forces. Now
Brutus and Cassius, finding their position in Italy to be desperate, had
retired to the East, where in Thrace they gathered an army of about one
hundred thousand men. Antony and Octavius pursued them with a still
larger force, and the two armies met at Philippi. The republican army
was totally defeated (November, 42 B. C.); both Brutus and Cassius
killed themselves.

The victors now divided the Roman world among themselves,--Antony taking
the East, Octavius the West, and Lepidus the province of Africa. But
the Roman world was scarcely theirs before they began to quarrel over
it. The feeble Lepidus never possessed much influence, and was soon
robbed of his share. After this it was quite certain that a contest
between Antony and Octavius could not long be delayed, and each began to
intrigue against the other.


ANTONY’S TRAGIC ASSOCIATION WITH CLEOPATRA

Antony made the headquarters of his half of the Roman dominion at
Alexandria. Here he came under the fascinations of Cleopatra, and he
lost all regard to his character or his interests in her company. He
even went so far as to divorce his wife Octavia, the sister of Octavius,
and, having married the voluptuous Egyptian queen, he bestowed Roman
provinces on her.

This conduct was treasonable, and furnished Octavius with a decent
pretext for declaring war. The young Cæsar had been gaining great
popularity in Italy; he had consolidated his power and had his legions
in fine training. The fleets and armies of the rivals assembled at the
opposite sides of the Gulf of Ambracia. After considerable delay,
Antony, instigated by Cleopatra, who was present with her Egyptian
fleet, determined to decide the contest by a naval battle. The contest
took place off the promontory of Actium (on the west coast of Greece),
while the hostile armies, drawn up on the shore, were simple spectators.
In the midst of the conflict Cleopatra tacked about, and with the
Egyptian squadron of sixty sail drew out of the fight. Antony,
regardless of his honor, followed after her, and the pair fled to
Alexandria. Both the fleet and the force of Antony surrendered to
Octavius, 31 B. C.

Some months afterwards Octavius advanced to besiege Alexandria. Antony
attempted to defend it; but he was abandoned by his troops. Cleopatra
retired to a monument she had erected, and caused a report to be spread
of her death. Upon this news Antony attempted to commit suicide, and
inflicted on himself a mortal wound: hearing, however, in the midst of
his agonies, that Cleopatra still lived, he caused himself to be carried
to her monument, and expired in her presence (30 B. C.).


DEATH OF CLEOPATRA BY SUICIDE AND FALL OF EGYPT

The end of Cleopatra was even more tragic. The Egyptian queen seems at
first to have thought that she would be able to bewitch the young Cæsar;
but having in vain essayed her arts on the cold, calculating Octavius,
she, sooner than be led in chains to adorn the triumph of the victor,
and glut the eyes of the populace of Rome with the sight of the daughter
and last of the Ptolemies, preceding the chariot of the adopted son of
him who had done homage to her charms, gave herself voluntary death by
the bite of an asp, or the scratch of a poisoned needle. Egypt now
became a Roman province in 30 B. C., and Rome’s dominion in the
Mediterranean basin became formally, as it had long been virtually,
complete.

The Roman Empire, replacing the Roman Republic, founded by Julius Cæsar,
after the battle of Pharsalia, was consolidated by Octavianus in the
following year.


  V. PERIOD OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE TO CONSTANTINE, 31 B.C.-306 A.D.--The
  _fifth_ period begins with the establishment of the Imperial
  Government under Augustus Cæsar to the reign of Constantine, A.D.
  306. As Christianity was introduced into the world in this period,
  and was opposed until the end of it by the Roman government, it is
  often designated as the period of Pagan Emperors.

  The reign of Augustus, the name taken by the first Emperor Octavius,
  has become proverbial for an age flourishing in peace, literature,
  and the arts. It is distinguished, also, for the birth of Jesus
  Christ; as the next reign, that of Tiberius, is, for his crucifixion
  and death.--The four reigns succeeding, viz.: those of Tiberius,
  Caligula, Claudius, and Nero, are chiefly memorable for the tyranny
  of the Emperors, and the profligacy of their families and favorites.

  On the death of Nero, A.D. 69, follows a year of dissension and
  bloodshed, in which Galba, Otho, and Vitellius successively gained
  the empire and lost their lives.--The Flavian family, Vespasian and
  his two sons, Titus and Domitian, next in order receive the supreme
  power. Titus is celebrated as the final conqueror of the Jews, whose
  obstinacy provoked him to destroy the city of Jerusalem. Domitian,
  the last emperor of the family, provokes his own assassination, A.D.
  96.

  Passing the reigns of the feeble Nerva, the martial Trajan, and the
  peaceful Hadrian, we arrive at a brilliant age in the imperial
  history, the age of Antonines, extending from A.D. 138 to 180, a
  space of about forty years. Literature and the arts of peace revived
  under their benign influence.

  After the death of Marcus Aurelius, A.D. 180, there follows a whole
  century of disorder, profligacy, conspiracy and assassination. The
  army assumes the absolute disposal of the imperial crown, which is
  even sold at public auction to the highest bidder. Within the last
  fifty years of the time, nearly fifty emperors are successively
  proclaimed, and deposed or murdered.--In the year 284, Diocletian
  began to reign, and attempted a new system of administration.

  Ten special persecutions of Christians are recorded and described,
  the first under Nero, A.D. 64, and the last under Diocletian,
  commencing A.D. 303, and continuing ten years, unto A.D. 313. But,
  notwithstanding these repeated efforts to hinder the progress of
  Christianity, it was spread during this period throughout the whole
  Roman Empire.


ROME IN THE AUGUSTAN PERIOD

When Augustus Cæsar at the age of thirty-six became master of the Roman
world, there was no open establishment of a monarchical government. On
the contrary, most of the old republican forms were kept up; but they
were mere forms. The Senate still sat, but it did little more than vote
what Augustus wished; the people still met in their assemblies and
elected consuls and magistrates, but only such persons were elected as
had been proposed or recommended by the Emperor. Augustus, however,
assumed nothing of the outward pomp of a monarch: he was satisfied with
the substance of supreme rule.


THE THREE CIVILIZATIONS WITHIN THE EMPIRE

Within the circuit of the Roman dominion there were what we may call
three civilizations: the Latin, the Greek, and the Oriental. Latin
civilization took in the countries from the Atlantic Ocean to the
Adriatic; Greek civilization, from the Adriatic to Mount Taurus;
Oriental civilization, the lands beyond to the Euphrates.

THE LATIN.--The area of Latin civilization embraced the peninsula of
Italy (its native seat) and all western Europe, where the Romans
appeared not only as a conquering but also as a civilizing people. Thus
in the three provinces of Spain (Hispania), in the four provinces of
Transalpine Gaul (corresponding nearly with the modern France), as well
as in the North African provinces, especially Carthage (which was
restored by Cæsar as a Roman colony), the Latin language took firm root,
and the manners and customs, and indeed the whole civilization, of those
lands became Roman.

THE GREEK.--Greek civilization was spread over Greece and all those
parts of Europe and Asia that had been Hellenized by Grecian colonists
or by the Macedonian conquerors. In manners, customs, language, and
culture these lands remained Greek, while politically they were Roman.

THE ORIENTAL.--Oriental civilization was diffused over the Eastern
provinces, especially Egypt and Syria. These countries had, under the
rule of Alexander’s successors, become to some degree Hellenized; but
this influence was on the whole superficial. The peoples of those
Oriental lands had never given up their own languages or religious ideas
or ways of thinking. Now these peoples, it should be said, did not
become Latinized either,--they did not adopt the language and
civilization of Rome.


HOW ROME WAS GOVERNED UNDER THE EMPIRE

Within the limits of the Roman Empire under Augustus there may have been
in all one hundred millions of human beings. Not less than one-half were
in a condition of slavery; and of the rest, only that small proportion
who, under the envied name of Roman citizen (_civis Romanus_), inhabited
Italy, enjoyed political independence, or had the smallest share in the
government. The various lands and peoples were under Roman legates (half
of these appointed by Augustus and the other half by the Senate), who
held supreme military command. To the provinces were left, however,
their independent municipal constitutions and officers. In Rome and
Italy the public peace was preserved by the pretorian cohorts,--bodies
of soldiers of tried valor, to whom Augustus gave double pay. Throughout
the provinces the people were kept in check by the regular
troops,--numbering three hundred and fifty thousand men.


THE CAPITAL CITY OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE

Of this vast empire Rome was the metropolis, now a city of innumerable
streets and buildings, and containing, it is calculated, a population of
about two millions and a half. It was in this period that Rome became
truly a splendid city. Augustus was able to boast that “he found the
city brick and left it marble.”

ITS EXTENT AND CHIEF BUILDINGS.--In the days of its greatest prosperity
the circumference of Rome enclosed by walls was about twenty miles; but
there were also very extensive suburbs. The walls were pierced by thirty
gates. The most remarkable objects were the Coliseum, the Capitol with
its temples, the Senate-House, and the Forum.

The great circus, or Circus Maximus, a place reserved for public games,
races and shows, was one of the most magnificent structures of Rome. It
was capable of containing two hundred thousand spectators.

The Flavian Amphitheater, whose massive ruins are known as the Coliseum,
could seat from eighty to one hundred thousand persons. In the arena
were exhibited the fights of gladiators, in which the Romans took such
savage delight, together with races, combats of wild beasts, etc.
Theaters, public baths, etc., were erected by the emperors, who seemed
anxious to compensate the people for their loss of liberty by the
magnificence of their public shows and entertainments.

THE ANCIENT ROMAN FORUM.--In the valley between the Palatine and
Capitoline hills was the Forum, or place of public assembly, and the
great market. It was surrounded with temples, halls for the
administration of justice (called _basilicæ_), and public offices; it
was also adorned with statues erected in honor of eminent warriors and
statesmen, and with various trophies from conquered nations.

TEMPLE OF JANUS.--In the Forum was the celebrated Temple of Janus, built
entirely of bronze and dating back to the early kingly period. From some
early circumstance the custom was established of closing the gates of
this temple during peace; but so incessant were the wars of the Romans,
that during eight centuries the gates of the Temple of Janus were closed
only three times.

CAMPUS MARTIUS.--The elections of magistrates, reviews of troops, and
the census or registration of citizens, were held in the Campus Martius,
which was also the favorite exercise-ground of the young nobles. It was
surrounded by several splendid edifices; ornamental trees and shrubs
were planted in different parts, and porticoes erected under which the
citizens might continue their exercise in rainy weather. Nearby was the
celebrated Pantheon, or Temple of All the Gods (erected in the reign of
Augustus), the most perfect and splendid monument of ancient Rome that
has survived the ravages of time.

THE ROMAN AQUEDUCTS.--The Aqueducts were among the most remarkable Roman
structures. Pure streams were sought at a great distance, and conveyed
in these artificial channels, supported by arches, many of which were
more than a hundred feet high. Under the emperors, not fewer than twenty
of these stupendous and useful structures were raised; and they brought
such an abundant supply of water to the metropolis, that rivers seemed
to flow through the streets and sewers.

COMPARED WITH ATHENS.--Rome was inferior to Athens in architectural
beauty, but it far surpassed the Grecian city in works of public
utility. To enumerate all the notable edifices would be impossible here;
but the “Eternal City” in the zenith of its glory contained four hundred
and twenty temples, five regular theaters, two amphitheaters, and seven
circuses of vast extent. There were sixteen public baths, built of
marble, and furnished with every convenience that could be desired. From
the aqueducts a prodigious number of fountains was supplied, many of
which were remarkable for their architectural beauty. The palaces,
public halls, columns, porticoes, and obelisks were without number, and
to these must be added the triumphal arches erected by the later
emperors.


AS A CENTER OF LITERATURE

As the peace of the Roman world was maintained by the strong hand of
power, it was at this time that many of those arts that grow best during
seasons of national order and prosperity made their greatest progress.
Thus many of the best-known Latin writers lived at this time.

Augustus himself was a great patron of literary men and artists, and so
was his minister, Caius Cilinius Mæcenas. They honored and rewarded
eminent writers; and though we must not forget that many of the
distinguished men whose writings add luster to the “Augustan Age” had
grown up under the republic, still Augustus deserves credit for
fostering letters. Nothing will make up for the loss of political
freedom; but it is something that in Rome, when liberty was lost,
literature at least flourished.

Among the distinguished writers of this age or the times immediately
preceding it are the poets Virgil, Horace, Lucretina and Catullus; and
the historian, Sallust.


THE BIRTH OF CHRIST AND THE CHRISTIAN ERA

Under the rule of Augustus the greatest event of the world’s spiritual
history occurred in Bethlehem of Judæa--the birth of Jesus Christ. This
really took place in the year 4 B.C., but the erroneous calculation has,
for the sake of convenience, been allowed to stand, and the chronology
passes from B.C. to A.D., when Augustus had held sway, according to the
wrong reckoning, for twenty-seven years.


GREAT IMPORTANCE OF THE ROMAN DEFEAT BY THE GERMANS

The great secular fact of Rome’s history under Augustus Cæsar was the
destruction of the Roman general Varus and his legions in Germany by the
celebrated Arminius,--the great national hero Herman,--in whose honor a
colossal statue has been erected in the northwest of Germany, near the
scene of his patriotic and momentous achievement. He was the chief of
the Cherusci, a powerful tribe dwelling on both sides of the river
Visurgis (Weser), and closely akin to the Angles and Saxons who
conquered the island of Britain.

If Arminius had not done what he did against Rome, Germany might have
been thoroughly subdued; the Latin language might have extinguished the
Teutonic; the Teutonic tribes might have been overwhelmed; the Teutonic
influence over modern Europe, and as an element of the English race,
might never have been exerted, and Europe and the world would have had a
widely different development from that which they have actually
undergone.


LEGIONS OF VARUS VANQUISHED BY ARMINIUS

Arminius, as chief of the Cherusci, headed a confederacy of German
tribes to expel from northern Germany the invaders and partial
conquerors of the fatherland. The Roman governor, Quintilius Varus, and
his officers and troops, had provoked the German outbreak by their
licentious behavior, and the vengeance wreaked on the offenders was
complete in itself, and effectual for the preservation of German
freedom.

The German hero, when his plans were formed, tempted Varus and his three
legions, by a revolt of the tribes near the Weser and the Ems, to march
into the difficult country now called the Teutoburger Wald, a woody and
hilly region near the sources of the Lippe and the Ems. When the Roman
force was thoroughly entangled amidst the forests and hills, and had
been further imperiled by the rashness of the incompetent tyrant Varus
in the order of his march, then Arminius and the Germans fell on the
hated foe; the Roman column was broken, and its cavalry fled, but was
pursued and utterly destroyed.

Varus slew himself in despair. His infantry was overpowered and slain
almost to the last man. All the efforts of Rome thereafter never secured
her a permanent foothold on German soil. This great deliverance of
Germany, so full of chagrin to Augustus and so momentous in European
history, occurred in A.D. 9.

DEATH OF AUGUSTUS.--Augustus died in 14 A.D.; so that, counting from his
formal accession to title, 27 B.C., he ruled over the Roman dominion for
forty-one years.

The following table gives a list of the Roman Emperors, with the dates
of their reigns and other facts. Many of them were quite insignificant
in personality and in their influence upon history. The greater rulers
call for more extended notice in their proper historical place in the
Outline of Universal History, as well as in the Dictionary of
Biography.

=THE EMPERORS OF ROME=

  ---------------------------------------------+--------+-------+-------
     =Name, Lineage or Basis of Accession and  | =Period|=Birth=|=Death=
             Cause of Death=                   |of Rule=|       |
  ---------------------------------------------+--------+-------+-------
                    THE CÆSARS                 |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Octavianus Cæsar, “Augustus” (majesty).--A   |B.C. 27-|B.C.63 |A.D.19
  title conferred by the Senate; died August 19|A.D. 14 |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Tiberius (Claudius Nero).--Stepson of        |A.D. 14-|    42 |    37
  Augustus; murdered by a tribune              |37      |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Caius Caligula.--Youngest son of Germanicus, | 37- 41 |    12 |    41
  nephew of Tiberius; poisoned by his wife,    |        |       |
  Agrippina, to make way for                   |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Claudius I. (Tiberius Drusus).--Grandson of  | 41- 54 |    10 |    54
  Tiberius                                     |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Claudius Nero.--Son of Domitius Ahenobarbus; | 54- 68 |A.D.37 |    68
  deposed; kills himself                       |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Servius Sulpicius Galba.--Proclaimed Emperor;| 68- 69 |B.C. 3 |    69
  slain by the prætorians                      |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  M. Salvius Otho.--Proclaimed Emperor; stabbed| 69-    |A.D.32 |    69
  himself                                      |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Aulus Vitellius.--Proclaimed Emperor; deposed| 69- 69 |    15 |    69
  by Vespasian, and put to death               |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Titus Flavius Vespasian.--Proclaimed Emperor | 70- 79 |     9 |    79
                                               |        |       |
  Titus (Vespasian).--Son of Vespasian         | 79- 81 |    41 |    81
                                               |        |       |
  Titus Flavius Domitian.--Brother of Titus,   | 81- 96 |    51 |    96
  second son of Vespasian; last of the _twelve_|        |       |
  Cæsars                                       |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
              THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS           |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Cocceius Nerva.--Proclaimed Emperor          | 96- 98 |    32 |    98
                                               |        |       |
  Trajan (M. Ulpius Crinitus).--Adopted son of | 98-117 |    53 |   117
  Nerva                                        |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Hadrian (Publius Ælius).--Nephew of Trajan   |117-138 |    76 |   138
                                               |        |       |
  Antoninus Titus, surnamed Pius.--Adopted son |138-161 |    86 |   161
  of Hadrian                                   |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.--Nephew of        |161-180 |   121 |   180
  Antoninus Pius                               |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  THE PERIOD OF MILITARY DESPOTISM             |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Commodus (L. Aurelius Antoninus).--Son of    |180-193 |   161 |   192
  Marcus Aurelius; poisoned by his favorite    |        |       |
  mistress, Martia, December 31                |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Publius Helvius Pertinax.--Proclaimed        |193-    |   126 |   193
  Emperor; killed by prætorian band            |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Didius Julianus.--Proclaimed Emperor         |193-    |   ... |   193
                                               |        |       |
  Lucius Septimus Severus.--Proclaimed Emperor;|193-212?|   146 |   211
  died at York, in Britain                     |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  M. Aurelius Caracalla and Septimius Geta.--  |212-217 |   188 |   217
  Son of Septimius Severus; Caracalla murders  |        |       |
  Geta, 212; is slain by his successors        |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  M. Opilius Macrinus, prefect of the guards;  |217-218 |   164 |   218
  beheaded in a mutiny                         |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Heliogabalus (M. Aurelius Antoninus), a youth|218-222 |   205?|   222
  (Elagabalus).--First cousin of Caracalla; put|        |       |
  to death for enormities                      |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Alexander Severus.--Cousin of Heliogabalus,  |222-235 |   205 |   235
  by whom he was adopted; assassinated by      |        |       |
  soldiers corrupted by Maximinus              |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Caius Julius Verus Maximinus.--Elevated by   |235-238 |   173 |   238
  soldiers; assassinated in his tent           |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  M. Antonius Gordianus and his son; the latter|238-238 |   ... |  {238
  falling in battle with partisans of          |        |       |  {238
  Maximinus, the father strangled himself in   |        |       |
  despair, at Carthage, in his eightieth year. |        |       |
  --Appointed by the Senate                    |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Gordian II.--Grandson of Gordian I.;         |238-244 |   224 |   244
  assassinated by guards, instigated by Philip |        |       |
  the Arabian                                  |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Philip the Arabian.--Murdered Gordian and    |244-249 |   ... |   249
  usurped the throne; assassinated by his      |        |       |
  soldiers                                     |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Metius Decius.--Proclaimed Emperor by the    |249-251 |   ... |   251
  army; he perished in battle with Goths       |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Gallus Hostilius, and his son Volusianus.--  |251-254 |   ... |   254
  Elected Emperor by Senate and soldiers; both |        |       |
  slain by soldiers                            |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Æmilianus.--Elected Emperor by Senate and    |254-    |   208?|   254?
  soldiers; put to death after reign of four   |        |       |
  months                                       |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Valerian.--Elected Emperor by Senate and     |254-260 |   ... |   260
  soldiers; taken prisoner by Sapor, king of   |        |       |
  Persia, and flayed alive                     |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Gallienus                                    |260-268 |   ... |   268
                                               |        |       |
  Flavius Claudius                             |268-270 |   214 |   270
                                               |        |       |
  Aurelian.--Designated by Claudius;           |270-275 |   212 |   275
  assassinated by soldiers on march against    |        |       |
  Persia                                       |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Tacitus.--Elected by Senate and soldiers;    |275-276 |   200 |   276
  died at Tarsus, in Cilicia                   |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Florian.--Proclaimed Emperor; not recognized |276-276 |   ... |     ?
  by Senate                                    |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  M. Aurelius Probus.--Choice of the army;     |277-282 |   ... |   282
  assassinated by troops at Sirmium            |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  M. Aurelius Carus.--Elevated to throne by    |282-283 |   222 |   283
  soldiers; killed at Ctesiphon by lightning   |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Carinus--Elder son of Carus}                 |        |       |
  and                        }both assassinated|284-284 |   ... |   285
  Numerian.--Son of Carus    }                 |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Diocletian.--Proclaimed Emperor by the army} |        |{  245 |   313
  and                                        } |284-305 |{      |
  Maximian.--Made Cæsar by Diocletian        } |        |{  ... |   310
                                               |        |       |
  Constantius}                                 |        |{  250 |   306
  and        }Created Cæsar                    |305-306 |{      |
  Galerius   }                                 |        |{  ... |   311
                                               |        |       |
  Constantine the Great.--Eldest son of        |306-336 |   272 |   337
  Augustus Constantius Chlorus                 |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Constantius II.--Third son of Constantine the|336-361 |   317 |   361
  Great                                        |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Julian the Apostate.--Son of Julius          |361-363 |   331 |   363
  Constantius; mortally wounded in battle with |        |       |
  Persians                                     |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Jovian.--Elevated to the throne by the army  |363-364 |   332 |   364
                                               |        |       |
            ROMAN EMPERORS OF THE WEST         |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Valentinian I.--Proclaimed Emperor by the    |364-375 |   321 |   375
  army                                         |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Gratian.--Son of Valentinian I               |375-383 |   359 |   383
                                               |        |       |
  Maximus--Made Emperor by the legions in      |383?    |     ? |   398
  Britain                                      |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Valentinian II.--Son of Valentinian I        |383?-388|   371 |   392
                                               |        |       |
  Eugenius.--Proclaimed Emperor                |388-394 |   ... |   ...
                                               |        |       |
  Theodosius the Great.--Son of Theodosius, a  |394-395 |   346 |   395
  Roman general                                |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Honorius.--Second son of Theodosius          |395-423 |   384 |   423
                                               |        |       |
  Valentinian III.--Son of Constantius         |423-455 |   419 |   455
                                               |        |       |
  Maximus Petronius.--Proclaimed Emperor       |455-    |   395?|   455
                                               |        |       |
  Avitus.--Assumed the purple                  |455-457 |   ... |   457
                                               |        |       |
  Majorian or Majorien.--Elected by Ricimer    |457-461 |   ... |     ?
                                               |        |       |
  Severus.--Raised to imperial dignity by      |461-467 |   ... | 465-7?
  Ricimer                                      |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Anthemius.--Son-in-law of Emperor Marcian    |467-472 |   ... |     ?
                                               |        |       |
  Olybrius.--Made Emperor through influence of |472-473 |   ... |     ?
  Ricimer                                      |        |       |
                                               |        |       |
  Glycerus.--Proclaimed Emperor (or Genseric)  |473-    |   ... |     ?
                                               |        |       |
  Nepos.--Proclaimed Emperor by order of Leo X.|473-475 |   ... |   480
                                               |        |       |
  Romulus Augustulus.--Son of Orestes          |475-476 |   ... |   476
                                               |        |       |
  Augustus is deposed and banished by Odoácer, |        |       |
  who thus puts an end to the Western Empire of|        |       |
  Rome.                                        |        |       |
  ---------------------------------------------+--------+-------+-------

(See Chronology of the more important events under Rome in Comparative
Outlines of Universal History.)


  VI. FROM CONSTANTINE TO THE FALL OF ROME, 306-476 A.D.--The _sixth_
  period includes the remainder of Roman history, extending from the
  reign of Constantine to the Fall of Rome, when captured by the
  Heruli, A.D. 476. The reign of Constantine the Great imparts
  splendor to the commencement of this period. He embraced the
  Christian faith himself, and patronized it in the Empire, as did
  also most of his successors; on which account this may be called the
  period of the Christian Emperors.

One of the most important events of his reign, and one which had a great
influence on the subsequent affairs of Rome, was the removal of the
Government to a new seat. He selected Byzantium for his capital, and
removed there with his court, giving it the name of Constantinople,
which it still bears. He left his empire to five princes, three sons and
two nephews; the youngest son, Constantius, soon grasps the whole, A.D.
360. By the death of Constantius, his cousin Julian received the purple,
which he was already on his march from Gaul to seize by force. The reign
of Julian, styled the Apostate, is memorable for his artful and
persevering attempts to destroy the Christian religion, and his
unsuccessful efforts to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem, with the
express purpose of casting discredit on the predictions of the Bible.

From the death of Julian, A.D. 363, to the reign of Theodosius the
Great, A.D. 379, the history presents little that is important to be
noticed, except the jealousies between the eastern and western portions
of the Empire, which grew out of the removal of the court to
Constantinople. Theodosius was the last emperor who ruled over both. In
395 he died, leaving to his sons Arcadius and Honorius separately the
east and west. From this time the Eastern portion remained distinct, and
its history no longer belongs to that of Rome.

The western portion languishes under ten successive emperors, who are
scarcely able to defend themselves against the repeated attacks of
barbarian invaders. At length, under Augustulus, the eleventh from
Theodosius, Rome is taken by Odoácer, leader of the Heruli, and the
history of ancient Rome is terminated, A. D. 476.

The whole of the period from Constantine to Augustulus is marked by the
continued inroads of barbarous hordes from the north and the east. But
the greatest annoyance was suffered in the latter part of the time, from
three tribes, under three celebrated leaders; the Goths, under Alaric;
the Vandals, under Genseric; and the Huns, under Attila. The two former
actually carried their victorious arms to Rome itself (A.D. 410 and
455), and laid prostrate at their feet the haughty mistress of the
world; and the latter was persuaded to turn back his forces (A. D. 453)
only by ignoble concessions and immense gifts.

By A.D. 300 great changes had passed over the empire. Its population had
become largely barbarized; the armies contained great numbers of Goths,
Vandals, and Sarmathians (from territory now the west and south of
Russia). Germans were spread through the empire more than any other
nationality. The former distinction as to Roman citizenship having been
lost, the distinction between the “Roman legions” and the “allies” was
now effaced, and the last visible record of Rome’s conquest was
obliterated.


PERIOD OF CONSTANTINE THE GREAT

Diocletian’s resignation in A.D. 305 was followed by a period of
confusion and civil war, which ended in the establishment of Constantine
as sole emperor in A.D. 323. He was son of one of the co-emperors and
the Empress Helena. Constantine made an important change in the
government by separating the military power from the civil authority.
The influence of the _Legati_ (provincial viceroys) was thus reduced,
and the fact that the emperor alone held both the civil and military
power gave him a great predominance.


CONSTANTINE MAKES BYZANTIUM THE CAPITAL

In A.D. 324 Christianity was established by Constantine as the religion
of the State, and in 330 he made Byzantium the capital of the empire.
This city on the Thracian Bosporus, founded by Greek colonists in 658
B.C., had early become a great commercial center. After being held
successively by the Athenians, Lacedæmonians, and Macedonians, it came
into Roman possession, and the new or reconstructed city Byzantium was
afterwards called _Constantinópolis_ (“City of Constantine”) and
remained the capital of the Eastern Empire of Rome till A. D. 1453.


CONSTANTINE GIVES A NEW IMPETUS TO CHRISTIANITY

In religion, Constantine showed marks of his former Paganism even after
his conversion to Christianity. He was an able general and statesman,
whose real character has been obscured by historical excesses, both of
panegyric and of detraction, and around whose name, in connection with
Christianity, interesting and picturesque legends are associated, like
that of the apparition of the Cross and the words (in Greek), “By this
sign, conquer.” He died in 337, leaving the empire to confusion and
civil war under his sons.

Apart from its effects upon the morals, the new religion greatly and
beneficially stirred the mind of the age. Political speculation and
discussion were impossible under a despotism, and active minds turned
to theology, and soon showed that the intellectual power of the time was
to be found within the ranks of Christianity.

Among these early writers and rules of the church, known as the
“Christian Fathers,” the following are the chief, Tertullian, Ambrose,
Cyprian, Lactantius, Jerome, and Augustine being Latin Fathers; Origen,
Gregory, Basil, Chrysostom, and Athanasius being Greek Fathers.


THE IGNOBLE END OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE

The last Roman Emperor of the West was a child, called, as if in
derision, Romulus Augustulus, the one name being that of the city’s
mythical founder, the other (“Augustus the little”) a parody of the
style of him who organized the empire. Augustulus became nominal ruler
in A.D. 475, and in 476 was overthrown by the invasion of some German
tribes, of which the chief were the Heruli. Their leader, Odoácer, took
the title of “King of Italy,” and the Western Empire came thus ignobly
to an end.


CONTRIBUTIONS OF ROMAN SWAY TO THE WORLD

The chief benefits derived by the world from Rome’s imperial sway were
the spread of the Greek culture, the transmission of the greatest
productions of the Greek mind, and the clear course made for the
progress of Christianity.


THE DARK AND MIDDLE AGES

Modern history, in a comprehensive sense, begins with the downfall of
the Western Roman Empire; for with that event the volume of ancient
history was closed: new actors then appeared on the stage, and a new
civilization arose.


THE ROMAN WORLD SUCCEEDED BY THE GERMANIC

The development of the German world begins, kindled by foreign culture,
religion, polity, and legislation. These new elements were taken up by
the Teutonic tribes, and amalgamated with their own national life.


THE HISTORIC DARK AGES

In many respects this period seemed a relapse into barbarism, and the
interval from the fifth to the eleventh century is sometimes called
specifically the Dark Ages. But in a juster view it was the germinating
season: the seeds of modern civilization, cast into the soil, were
quickening in new institutions and new nations; so that when we see
modern society in the fifteenth and sixteenth nations; so that when we
see modern society in the fifteenths and sixteenth centuries assuming
the fixed shape which it still wears, we must remember that it grew into
that shape in the antecedent thousand years.


REAL NATURE OF THIS PERIOD

The most important historic features of the Middle Ages were certain
peculiar forms of society, rather than the development of great nations.
Indeed, the modern nations as such were only in their beginnings, and
these characteristic social peculiarities were common to all of them.
Thus, all the nations of Europe were under that peculiar form of society
called _feudalism_; all bore certain relations to the _papal power_; all
participated in the _Crusades_ and in the spirit of _Chivalry_; and all
passed through the period named the _Dark Ages_, and shared in the
intellectual revival which marked the latter part of the Middle Ages.


  THE EASTERN OR BYZANTINE EMPIRE.--This Empire, called also the Greek
  Empire, was sustained under various fortunes, for a period of almost
  one thousand years after the overthrow of the Western or Roman
  Empire. After the fall of Rome nearly sixty different emperors had
  occupied the throne at Constantinople, when, A.D. 1202, that city
  was taken by the crusaders from France and Venice. By this event the
  Greek emperors were forced to establish their court at Nicæa in Asia
  Minor. After the lapse of sixty years, their former capital was
  recovered; and, subsequent to this, eight different emperors held
  the scepter there, until the empire was gradually reduced in
  strength and extent, and it consisted of but a little corner of
  Europe. Its existence was prolonged to A.D. 1453, when
  Constantinople fell into the hands of the Turks, who have retained
  it to the present day.

While the new nationalities and the new civilization of Western Europe
were being developed under the influence of German vigor, the emperors
at Constantinople, though they ruled dominions where the language and
civilization were mainly Greek, still claimed to be Roman emperors, and
under their sway the laws and official forms of imperial Rome were
maintained.

The Patriarch of Constantinople was the head of the Christian Church in
the East, as the Bishop of Rome was in the West, while the latter, as
the successor of St. Peter, was the head of the universal Church.


NOTABLE REIGN AND SERVICE OF JUSTINIAN

The Eastern Empire attained its acme in the sixth century, during the
reign of Justinian, A.D. 527-565. It was he who built the great Church
of Saint Sophia at Constantinople, now a Mohammedan mosque. His chief
service to mankind, however, was the codification of the laws in the
great system of Roman jurisprudence called the Civil Law, forming the
basis of the law in European states at the present day.


CONQUESTS OF THE FAMOUS GENERAL BELISARIUS

In the East, the famous Belisarius, an Illyrian of plebeian birth,
fought for Justinian against the Persian king Chosroes I. (or
Nushirvan), who reigned A.D. 531-579. Justinian purchased peace by
payment of tribute to this Oriental despot, whose empire extended from
the Red Sea to the Indus.

In the West, Justinian’s arms had great success. In 534 the Vandal
kingdom in Africa was brought to an end by the victories of Belisarius.
In 535 Belisarius conquered Sicily, and from 535-540, and again from
541-544, fought the Goths in Italy, until the jealousy of his master
recalled him.

His successor in command, Narses, completed the overthrow of the
Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy by his campaigns in 552-553. Under
Justinian, the Visigoths were driven out of the south of Spain, so that
there was for a time a revived Roman Empire of the West, embracing
nearly the whole of the Mediterranean coasts. Justinian died in 565, and
a speedy change came in Italy.


LOMBARDS CONQUER AND CONTROL ITALY UNTIL TIME OF CHARLEMAGNE

The warlike Germans called Lombards had settled in Pannonia (south of
the present Austrian Empire), by Justinian’s invitation, about 540. They
fought to extermination the Gepidæ (Goths), and in 568 passed over the
Alps into the fertile plain of northern Italy.

Under their king Albion, the Lombards subdued the north and much of the
south of Italy (the central part, including Rome and Ravenna, on the
Adriatic, with Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia, remaining still Roman),
and the Lombard kingdom of Italy thus formed continued for two
centuries, until conquered by Charlemagne.

The growth of Venice dates from this Lombard conquest, when the victims
took refuge in the islands and lagoons at the head of the Adriatic Sea,
where a town had been founded by fugitives from the Huns.


THE EMPIRE OVERRUN BY PERSIANS AND GREEKS

The flourishing period of the Eastern Empire closes for a long time with
Heraclius, who died in A.D. 641. The Persians and the Turks (Mongolians
from Asia), with their kinsmen the Avars attacked the empire with
formidable strength. Between 611 and 615 the Persians overran Egypt,
Syria and Asia Minor, remaining encamped for ten years within sight of
Constantinople. Heraclius, between 620 and 628, recovered the Persian
conquests.


DECLINE OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE AND CONQUEST BY THE TURKS

For the next four hundred years the Empire enjoyed a period of
comparative prosperity, marked by successful defense against Saracens
and Bulgarians. From 1204 to 1261 it fell under the sway of the French
and Venetians, who jointly established the so-called Latin dynasty. From
this period on for almost a hundred years its decline was steady, and,
in 1453, the empire was brought to a close with the capture of
Constantinople by Mohammed II.

[Illustration: =MOSQUE NEAR BAGDAD, THE EASTERN CAPITAL OF THE SARACEN
EMPIRE=]


THE SARACEN EMPIRE: ITS FANATICISM, ART AND LEARNING

  Saracen (Arab. _Sharkiin_, the eastern people, from _Sharq_, the
  East), is a term applied to the first followers of Mohammed or
  Mahomet who within forty years after his death, 632 A.D., had
  subdued a part of Asia and Africa. The Saracens conquered Spain in
  711 and following, but were defeated at Tours, France, by Charles
  Martel in 732. Under Abd-el-rahman they established the caliphate of
  Cordova in 755, which gave way to the Moors in 1237. The empire of
  the Saracens closed with the capture of Bagdad by the Tartars, 1258.

We now come to a remarkable chapter in European history,--the invasion
of Europe, the land of the Aryans, by a Semitic race, the followers of
the famous Mohammed. Connected with this is the rise of the new religion
and of a vast dominion that played a great part in the history of the
Middle Ages. The latter only can be touched on here.


THE “KORAN” BECAME THE BASIS OF BOTH RELIGION AND EMPIRE

The doctrines of Mohammed, written down from time to time, received the
name of the Koran,--that is, the “Reading”; and the religion itself was
called _Islam_, or Mohammedanism--that is, “Salvation.”


THE HEGIRA OR FLIGHT OF MOHAMMED

His wife and a few other immediate relatives were the prophet’s first
disciples, and these did not increase very rapidly. The people of Mecca
denounced him as a madman or an impostor, and in a little time he was
forced to flee from Mecca to save his life. He betook himself, with his
disciples, to what is now Medina. The date of this flight, or _Hegira_,
as the Arabians call it,--July 15, 622 A.D.,--has been adopted ever
since as the chronological era in Mohammedan countries. At Medina he was
received with open arms,--his doctrines having already made a number of
converts in that place; and here he built his first mosque.


HIS RELIGION SPREAD BY THE SWORD

A complete change now came over Mohammed,--the dreamer became a
red-handed soldier. “The sword,” cried he, “is the key of heaven and
hell,” and by the sword Islam was to be forced upon all men. Tribe after
tribe was subdued; and before the lapse of ten years the whole Arabian
peninsula acknowledged the sovereignty of Mohammed, and could boast of
an unmixed population of _Moslems_, or True Believers. The prophet was
preparing to carry the new religion beyond the bounds of Arabia, when he
was cut off by a fever at Medina in A.D. 632.


EMPIRE EXTENDED BY CONQUESTS OF THE CALIPHS

Mohammed was succeeded in his power by rulers called his _Caliphs_, or
Successors, the first of whom was his father-in-law, Abu-beker. They
were at once spiritual and temporal rulers. The proselyting spirit of
Mohammed had been communicated to his successors, and they began a long
series of invasions, wars, and conquests. They everywhere gave men the
choice of three things,--Koran, tribute, or sword. By these means the
religion of Mohammed was spread over a large part of Asia and Africa,
and made its way into Europe also.


SARACEN CONQUESTS IN THE EAST

The first countries assailed were the Oriental possessions of the
Byzantine Empire. In the reign of Abu-beker, Syria and Mesopotamia were
subdued by Arabian armies. Under the next caliph, Omar, Egypt was
conquered and Northern Africa overrun. The Arabs, or Saracens, as they
were also called, met with comparatively little resistance in the
Oriental countries, the countries beyond Mount Taurus; and this may be
accounted for by the fact that these were the parts of the Roman Empire
in which both Roman law and Christianity had taken least hold.

Thus the Eastern Empire was shorn of all its Oriental possessions; and
even the farther East--Persia and the lands beyond, to India--was added
to the Moslem dominion.


THE FURY OF CONQUEST IN THE WEST

In the West, however, a stout resistance was encountered. The Saracens
besieged Constantinople, against which they carried on a siege of eight
years (A.D. 668-675); but every assault was repelled by torrents of
terrible Greek fire. A second siege, forty years afterward, met a like
result. In North Africa, too, they encountered long and obstinate
resistance; but finally the whole northern coast--Cyrene, Tripoli,
Carthage--was subdued; and in A. D. 710 a host of turbaned Arabs, with
unsheathed scimitars, under Tarik-ben-Zaid, crossed the narrow strait
into Spain and landed on the rock which commemorates the name of their
leader (“Gibraltar,” i. e., _Jebel Tarik_, the Mountain of Tarik).


SUBJUGATION OF SPAIN AND SOUTHERN GAUL

It will be remembered that a Visigothic kingdom had been established in
Spain; but Roderick, the “last of the Goths,” was defeated on the field
of Xeres, and the Saracens established themselves firmly in Spain. In
the course of a few years they had possession of the whole peninsula,
with the exception of the mountainous districts in the north, where the
little Christian kingdom of the Asturias maintained itself.

The ambition of the Saracens now overleaped the Pyrenees. They obtained
a foothold in Southern Gaul; and after a time an able Saracen commander,
Abd-el-rahman, led a powerful Mohammedan army northward to subdue the
land of the Franks. As far as the Loire everything fell before him, and
it seemed that all Europe would come under Moslem sway.


THEIR DEFEAT BY CHARLES MARTEL

It was in the hour of need that Charles Martel appeared as a champion
for Christendom. Gathering a powerful army, he met the Saracens between
Tours and Poitiers (_pwät-yea´_). A desperate battle, which lasted for
seven days, ensued; but on the seventh day the Saracens were defeated
with great slaughter, A.D. 732.

This victory arrested forever the progress of the Mohammedan arms in
Europe, and procured for Charles the expressive surname of “the Hammer”
(_Martel_), by which he is known in history.

While the Saracens were stopped from pushing their conquests farther
into Europe, they firmly established themselves in Spain, where they
founded a kingdom that lasted for seven hundred years,--that is, till
the very close of the Middle Ages.


DIVISION OF SARACENIC EMPIRE

For a short time the vast dominion which the Saracens had conquered held
together, and a single caliph was obeyed in Spain and in India. But soon
disputes arose as to the right of succession to the caliphate: wars and
secessions took place, and in A.D. 755 the Saracenic empire was
divided,--one caliph reigning in Spain and another in Bagdad.

In the East, the most distinguished of the Saracenic rulers was
Haroun-al-Raschid (Aaron the Just), who became caliph in A.D. 786, and
was a contemporary of Charlemagne. In the _Arabian Nights_ we find a
vivid picture of the city he ruled and the life he led. After the death
of Haroun, the Eastern dominion of the Saracens was rent by civil
strife; one province after another broke off from the caliphate, till in
the eleventh and twelfth centuries it fell a prey to the Turks.


SARACENS SUCCEEDED BY THE MOORS IN SPAIN

In Spain, on the division of the Saracenic power, the rule was in the
hands of the Ommiyad line, and the capital was at Cordova. From this
city the scepter of the Ommiyades ruled during 283 years (from A.D.
755-1038); but in the eleventh century the supremacy of the Saracens
gave place to the Moorish empire in Spain.


SARACEN CONTRIBUTIONS TO LEARNING AND ART

In the intellectual history of the Middle Ages the Saracens played a
remarkable part. When Europe was sunk in the grossest ignorance, this
clever people were actively engaged in the cultivation of science,
learning, and the arts. The schools of Cordova vied with those of Bagdad
in the collection of books and the encouragement of science, and from
them proceeded nearly all that was original in the medicine, physics,
and metaphysics of Europe during the Middle Ages.


GERMANIC EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE

  Charlemagne may be regarded as the chief regenerator of Western
  Europe after the dissolution of the Roman Empire. At the date of his
  coronation, 800 A.D., his empire was not inferior in extent to that
  of the old Roman Empire. He was master of all Germany and Gaul, the
  greater part of Italy, and part of Spain. Under him the Frankish
  dominion reached its highest point, and marks the formal termination
  of an antiquated state of society. It was also the introduction to
  another totally different form itself and from its predecessor. It
  was not barbarism, it was not feudalism; but it was the bridge which
  united the two.

The most important chapter in the history of the Middle Ages is that
informing us how the ruins of the dilapidated Western Empire were for a
time rebuilt into an imposing structure by the genius of a great man,
the grandest figure of the Middle Ages,--Charlemagne. The real name of
this great man was Karl, that is, Charles. Though best known by his
French name of Charlemagne (Charles the Great), we must remember that he
was not a Frenchman in our sense of the term, but a thorough Teuton, or
German, in birth, instinct, speech, and residence.


WHAT THE DOMINIONS OF CHARLEMAGNE COMPRISED

The kingdom of the Franks, to which Charlemagne fell heir on the death
of his father, formed an extensive dominion comprising portions of the
two countries we now call France and Germany,--for it must be remembered
that the specific countries, France and Germany, did not yet exist at
all.

At this time--the latter half of the eighth century--Italy was divided
between the Lombards and the Eastern emperors, England had come into
existence, but only as a number of feeble and warring states, Spain was
under the rule of the Moslems. In the meantime the land of the Franks
was lifting itself from out the surrounding barbarism of the new races,
and was the center of that Germanic civilization which was struggling
into existence.

It is important to bear in mind the actual condition of the European
world at the time Charlemagne came on the stage, for it will help us to
understand the work he did, how far he succeeded and how far he failed.


THE CENTRAL PLAN OF CHARLEMAGNE’S EMPIRE

The ruling idea of Charlemagne was the re-establishment of the Roman
Empire,--the building up on German soil of that colossal power which had
toppled over because it rested on the too narrow basis of Latin
nationality. In executing this design he aimed to use all the elements
of civilization that the times presented, and especially these two great
elements,--the political ideas and instincts of the Teutons, and the
adhesive power of the Christian Church. Hence we find him, throughout
his whole career, carefully cherishing all those old German
institutions upon which the mass of his people looked with deep
reverence, while at the same time we behold him the protector of the
Pope and the loyal and ardent champion of the Church.


OBJECT OF HIS WARS AND HIS CHIEF FOES

It was in the effort to realize his grand idea that Charlemagne
undertook the numerous wars and expeditions that filled the forty-six
years of his reign. We shall not enter into the details of these wars;
but it is needful to understand their object and their result.

The most important of Charlemagne’s military enterprises were directed
against the fierce pagan nations of Germany and the wild Scythians in
the outlying lands beyond. To appreciate the importance of these we must
try to realize that the eastern frontier of the Frankish land, that is,
the eastern boundary of Charlemagne’s kingdom, on the German side of the
Rhine, ran into and abutted on the extensive stretch of country in
Middle Europe that was still in the hands of the various uncivilized
tribes. As long as these peoples remained in their warlike, savage, and
pagan condition, they would press heavily on the struggling civilization
of the Frankish kingdom, and would endanger, if not utterly destroy, its
progress. Hence to subdue and especially to Christianize these
tribes--to extend the domain of organized and law-governed society into
the desert waste of Teutonic barbarism--was a main object with
Charlemagne.


HE SUBDUES THE SAXONS AND BAVARIANS

With the Saxon confederation, formed by various pagan tribes on the
Weser and the Elbe (the same tribes from among which the Saxons and
Angles, who conquered Britain three centuries before this, had gone
forth), Charlemagne had the greatest trouble. He repeatedly marched into
their country and subdued them; but they constantly rose up again, and
it was only after some terrible acts of vengeance,--for example, he one
day had forty-two hundred prisoners hanged,--that they at length
submitted to be baptized and to become peaceable subjects.

Soon after this the Bavarians attempted to render themselves
independent of the Frankish power by the assistance of the Avars, a
Tartar race living in what we now call Hungary (then _Pannonia_).
Charlemagne overpowered the Bavarians, incorporating Bavaria with his
German territory; and then revenged himself on the Avars by conquering
them, taking their treasures, and annexing Hungary to his dominion.


THE FIRST UNION OF THE GERMANS UNDER ONE HEAD

The result of Charlemagne’s conquests on the east side of the Rhine was
that Germany was for the first time all united under one head, and on
that side the Frankish kingdom was extended to the confluence of the
Danube with the Theiss and the Save.

Against the Saracens in Spain Charlemagne made an important expedition.
The capture of Saragossa laid Aragon and Navarre at his feet, and he
united the whole country as far as the Ebro to his own kingdom as a
Spanish province. During his return the rear-guard under Roland,
suffered a defeat in the valley of Roncesvalles, in which the bravest
champions of the Franks were destroyed. This somewhat tarnished the
laurels Charlemagne had won in Spain, but did not undo the substantial
results of the campaign.


NORTHERN ITALY UNITED TO HIS EMPIRE

We must now see what Charlemagne did in Italy. At this period the
Lombards were very troublesome to the Pope, and frequently assailed the
Roman territory. Accordingly, when Pope Adrian I. called on Charlemagne
for aid, the Frankish monarch crossed the Alps, defeated the Lombards,
shut up their king in a monastery, and himself assuming the famous “iron
crown” of Lombardy, united the whole of Upper Italy to the kingdom of
the Franks (A.D. 773). At the same time he confirmed the gifts made by
Pepin to the Pope.

The general result of all the wars and conquests which we have described
was that by the year 800 Charlemagne, who had inherited from Pepin a
kingdom scarcely equal to all Gaul, found himself lord of a dominion as
large as the ancient Roman Empire of the West, and extending from the
Ebro (in Spain) on the west to the Elbe in the northeast, the Theiss
(Hungary) in the southeast, and including half of Italy, with Corsica,
Sardinia, and the Balearic Isles. He fell heir to a kingdom; he was now
master of an empire.


CROWNED BY THE POPE AS EMPEROR OF THE WEST

The year A.D. 800 forms the climax of Charlemagne’s reign. The sovereign
had gone in splendid state to visit Italy. On Christmas day Charlemagne
and his court were attending divine service in the church of St.
Peter’s, at Rome. Suddenly, while the monarch was kneeling on the steps
of the altar in prayer, the Pope, Leo III., placed a crown upon his head
and solemnly saluted him as “Emperor of the West,” with the title of
Charles I., Cæsar Augustus.


CHARLEMAGNE’S CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE CIVILIZATION OF HIS TIME

The latter years of Charlemagne’s life were spent in labors for the
consolidation of his empire and the elevation of his people. He was a
great patron of learning and learned men. He was himself a good Latin
scholar, and he knew something of Greek. Wherever he was he was usually
surrounded by learned churchmen, whom he drew to his court from all
quarters, and with whom he delighted to hold conversations on literary
and other subjects. The emperor, his family, and all attached to his
household formed what was called the “School of the Palace.” Fond of
literary pursuits, Charlemagne studied grammar, rhetoric, music, logic,
astronomy, and natural history under his learned friends; and even after
he was considerably advanced in years he took the pains to acquire the
art of writing,--an accomplishment then very unusual except among
churchmen.


HIS EFFORTS FOR EDUCATION OF HIS PEOPLE

Nor was the emperor’s interest in education confined to his own
household. Each of the numerous monasteries that he endowed was bound to
maintain a school. He had copies of the writings of the ancient Romans
made and distributed among the convents, he formed a collection of old
German heroic ballads, and under his patronage church music was greatly
improved.


CAPITAL AND FAVORITE RESIDENCE OF CHARLEMAGNE

Charlemagne’s favorite place of residence was at Aix-la-Chapelle (in
German, _Aachen_). He made this the northern capital of his empire, as
Rome was the southern, and built a magnificent palace there. When his
power was confirmed by his coronation as Emperor of the West, all the
world hastened to pay him homage. The Saracen caliph, the famous
Haroun-al-Raschid, who ruled the Eastern dominion of the Saracens, at
Bagdad, exchanged courtesies with his great brother of the West, sending
him, among other presents, an ape, an elephant, and a curious clock
which struck the hours.


THE END OF CHARLEMAGNE’S GREAT EMPIRE

Charlemagne died at the age of seventy-two, at Aix-la-Chapelle, in A.D.
814. The year before, he had caused his only living son, Louis, to
assume the imperial crown. But the vast structure that Charlemagne had
raised during his lifetime tottered and fell almost immediately after
his death. Louis, known as the Gentle (_le Debonnaire_), was better
fitted for the repose of a cloister than for the government of a warlike
kingdom. His sons, among whom he divided the empire, turned their arms
first against himself and then against one another. Finally, in A.D.
843, a treaty was made at Verdun, by which France, Germany and Italy
became separate and independent states; so that, in less than thirty
years after the death of Charlemagne, the history of the FRANKS came to
an end, and the history of FRANCE and of GERMANY began.


COMPARATIVE HISTORY OF NATIONS--Continued


IX. FROM THE TREATY OF VERDUN TO THE SIGNING OF MAGNA CHARTA BY KING
JOHN, 843-1215 A. D.

  GREAT EVENTS OF PERIOD. 900-1000: Norse ravages and conquests
  continue; also private wars. 1000-1100: Increasing and beneficent
  power of the church exerted in the direction of order. Normans in
  Italy and Sicily. The Norman conquest of England; which as regards
  good government far surpasses all other countries. Quarrels between
  popes and emperors begin. 1100-1200: Quarrels between popes and
  emperors continue; zenith of papal power; Criticism revived. Private
  wars lessen; advance in power of kings and of towns at expense of
  the feudal baronage. The Crusades. 1200-1300: Rise of universities
  and of mendicant Friars. Quarrels between popes and emperors still
  continue. Last Crusades. English liberties recognized by the crown.
  Magna Charta.

  +-------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+
  |=A. D.=|     =Spain=    |=Eastern Empire=|   =Saracens=   | =China, Japan, |
  |       |                |                |                |     India=     |
  +-------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+
  | =850= |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |859. Japan:     |
  |       |864-1131. King- |                |                |Powerful Seiwa  |
  |       |dom of Barcelo- |867-1057. East- |                |family arises.  |
  |       |na.             |ern emperors of |870-892.        |                |
  | =875= |                |the Macedonian  |Muattemed re-   |                |
  |       |885-1512. King- |line.           |establishes the |                |
  |       |dom of Navarre. |                |capital at      |                |
  |       |                |886-911. Leo    |Bagdad.         |                |
  | =900= |                |VI., the Philos-|                |                |
  |       |                |opher.          |                |907-960. China: |
  |       |912-961.        |                |                |Period of five  |
  |       |Abderrahman III.|917. The Bul-   |                |dynasties.      |
  | =925= |_The greatest   |garians besiege |                |                |
  |       |Arab prince of  |Constantinople. |                |                |
  |       |Spain; splendid |                |                |                |
  |       |edifices built; |941. Russian ex-|                |                |
  |       |learning en-    |pedition against|                |                |
  |       |couraged; com-  |Constantinople, |                |                |
  |       |merce flou-     |under Igor.     |                |                |
  | =950= |rishes._        |                |                |                |
  |       |                |956. Armenia and|                |                |
  |       |                |the provinces   |                |                |
  |       |                |between the     |                |                |
  |       |                |Black and the   |                |                |
  |       |                |Caspian Sea, re-|                |                |
  |       |                |covered from the|                |                |
  |       |                |Saracens.       |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |959-963. Romanus|                |                |
  |       |                |II.             |                |960. China: Tai |
  |       |                |                |                |Tsoo founder of |
  |       |                |964-975. Cyprus,|                |later Sung      |
  |       |                |Cilicia and     |969. The        |dynasty.        |
  |       |                |Antioch are cap-|FATIMITES become|                |
  |       |                |tured by Nice-  |masters of      |                |
  |       |                |phorus; Syria is|Egypt, with     |                |
  |       |                |overrun, and,   |Cairo as the    |                |
  |       |                |under Zimisces, |capital.        |                |
  |       |                |the Greeks pene-|                |                |
  |       |                |trate to the    |                |                |
  |       |                |Tigris.         |                |                |
  | =975= |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |976-1025. Basil |                |                |
  |       |                |II.             |980. Seljuk, a  |                |
  | =1000=|1000-1035.      |                |Turk officer of |1000-1186.      |
  |       |Sancho III., the|1018. Bulgaria  |the khan of     |India: Supremacy|
  |       |Great, King of  |again reduced to|Tartary, becomes|of Ghazni.      |
  |       |Navarre and     |a Grecian pro-  |a Mohammedan,   |                |
  |       |Castile. There  |vince.          |and settles in  |                |
  |       |existed hence-  |                |Samarcand.      |                |
  | =1025=|forward three   |1025-1028.      |                |_Golden Age of  |
  |       |Christian king- |Constantine IX. |                |Rajput civiliza-|
  |       |doms in Spain:  |                |                |tion in India._ |
  |       |1, Castile-Leon;|_Culmination    |                |                |
  |       |2, Navarre; 3,  |point of Byzan- |                |                |
  |       |Aragon. _Golden |tine greatness. |                |                |
  |       |age of Arabian  |Greeks greatest |                |                |
  |       |literature in   |merchants and   |                |                |
  |       |Spain._         |capitalists of  |                |                |
  |       |                |the world during|                |                |
  |       |1026. Hixem III.|this century._  |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1030. With him  |                |                |                |
  |       |ends the Cali-  |                |1042. Turks in- |                |
  | =1050=|fate of the     |                |vade and conquer|                |
  |       |West.           |1057-1185. East-|Persia.         |                |
  |       |                |ern emperors of |                |                |
  |       |1072. Alfonso   |the houses of   |The kingdom of  |                |
  |       |VI. of Castile, |the Ducas and   |Ghizni declines |                |
  |       |enlarges his    |the Comnenes.   |after 1032, and |                |
  |       |dominions by    |Southern Italy  |is confined to  |                |
  |       |conquests from  |lost to the     |India; falls    |                |
  |       |the Mohammedans.|Normans.        |1183.           |                |
  | =1075=|                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1076. Jerusalem |                |
  |       |                |                |captured by     |                |
  |       |                |                |Turks.          |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1084. Seljuks in|                |
  |       |1085. The Cid.  |                |Asia Minor.     |                |
  |       |Toledo is taken |                |                |                |
  |       |by Alfonso VI.  |                |                |                |
  |       |after a three   |                |                |                |
  |       |years’ siege.   |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1086. The battle|                |                |                |
  |       |of Zalaca.      |                |1092. The Seljuk|                |
  |       |                |                |Empire falls    |                |
  |       |                |                |apart into a    |                |
  |       |                |                |number of smal- |                |
  |       |                |                |ler states.     |                |
  |       |                |                |Iconium or Roum,|                |
  |       |                |                |Damascus,       |                |
  |       |                |                |Aleppo, Kerman  |                |
  |       |                |                |and Iran.       |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1095-1270. =The |                |
  |       |                |                |First Crusade.= |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1099. Foundation|                |
  | =1100=|                |                |of the Kingdom  |                |
  | =1125=|                |                |of Jerusalem.   |                |
  |       |                |                |Godfrey of      |1127. China:    |
  |       |1139. Kingdom of|                |Bouillon,       |Kaou Tsung, Emp-|
  |       |Portugal.       |                |elected king by |eror.           |
  |       |                |                |the army.       |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1146. =The      |                |
  | =1150=|                |                |Second Crusade.=|                |
  |       |                |                |                |1156. Japan: War|
  |       |                |                |_The power of   |between the fa- |
  |       |                |                |the crusaders   |milies of _Gen_ |
  |       |                |                |declines._      |and _Hei_.      |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1171-1193.      |                |
  | =1175=|                |                |Saladin becomes |                |
  |       |                |1185-1204.      |Sultan of Egypt.|                |
  |       |                |Dynasty of      |Extends his     |1186-1206.      |
  |       |                |Angelus.        |dominions in    |India: The      |
  |       |                |                |Egypt, conquers |Afghans of Ghor |
  |       |                |                |Syria, Assyria, |rule.           |
  |       |                |                |Mesopotamia and |                |
  |       |                |                |Arabia.         |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1189. =The Third|                |
  |       |                |                |Crusade.=       |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1193. Saladin   |                |
  |       |1195. Battle of |                |dies; his do-   |                |
  | =1200=|Alarcon in which|                |minions divided.|                |
  |       |the Christians  |                |                |                |
  |       |are defeated.   |                |1202. =The      |                |
  |       |                |1204. New revo- |Fourth Crusade.=|                |
  |       |                |lution. The Cru-|                |                |
  |       |                |saders return,  |                |                |
  |       |                |again take      |                |                |
  |       |                |Constantinople. |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |1204-1261. Latin|                |                |
  |       |                |Empire.         |                |1206. GENGHIS   |
  |       |1212. Battle of |                |                |KHAN becomes    |
  |       |Navas de Tolosa;|                |                |emperor of the  |
  |       |a victory for   |                |                |Mongols.        |
  |       |the Christians. |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1213-1276. James|                |                |                |
  |       |I., the Conquer-|                |                |                |
  |       |or in Aragon.   |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1214-1217. Henry|                |                |                |
  |       |I., King in     |                |                |                |
  |       |Castile.        |                |                |                |
  +-------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+

  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |=A. D.=|      =Britain=      |       =France=      |      =Germany=      |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  | =850= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |855. Kingdom divided. Louis II., Emperor,  |
  |       |866. Invasion of the |obtains Italy and Rhætia till 875. Charles,|
  |       |Danes.               |Provence, till 863.                        |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |871-900. ALFRED THE  |                     |                     |
  | =875= |GREAT.               |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |876. Kingdom divided:|                     |
  |       |                     |Charles the Fat ob-  |Louis the Younger,   |
  |       |                     |tains Suabia and     |Saxony and Thuringia |
  |       |                     |Alsace till 887.     |till 882.            |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |884. Charles the Fat reunites the monarchy |
  |       |                     |of the Franks.                             |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  | =900= |                     |Rollo, the Dane,     |                     |
  |       |901-924. Edward the  |forces Charles to    |                     |
  |       |Elder, the first     |confer on him the    |                     |
  |       |prince who takes the |province of Normandy |                     |
  |       |title of King of     |and becomes:         |                     |
  |       |England.             |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |912. Robert, Duke of |                     |
  |       |                     |Normandy; capital    |919-1024. Kings and  |
  |       |                     |Rouen.               |Emperors of the Saxon|
  |       |                     |                     |house.               |
  |       |                     |_France is now divi- |                     |
  |       |                     |ded among the power- |919-936. Henry I.,   |
  |       |                     |ful barons, who exer-|the Fowler, a great  |
  |       |                     |cise sovereign power |prince, consolidates |
  |       |                     |in their respective  |the empire.          |
  | =925= |                     |domains._            |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |936-973. OTHO the    |
  |       |                     |                     |GREAT.               |
  | =950= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |955. Decisive victory|
  |       |                     |                     |over the Huns, which |
  |       |                     |                     |leads to the consoli-|
  |       |                     |                     |dation of the margra-|
  |       |                     |                     |vate of Austria.     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |961-965. Otho’s      |
  |       |                     |                     |second expedition    |
  |       |                     |                     |into Italy; he de-   |
  |       |                     |                     |thrones Berenger; is |
  |       |                     |                     |crowned king, and    |
  |       |                     |                     |emperor.             |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |962. Makes Rome his  |
  |       |                     |                     |capital.             |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |967. Otho II. crowned|
  |       |                     |                     |emperor.             |
  | =975= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |978-1016. Ethelred   |                     |                     |
  |       |the Unready.         |                     |                     |
  |       |New invasion of the  |                     |                     |
  |       |Danes.               |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |   =House of Capet=  |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |987-996. HUGH CAPET. |                     |
  | =1000=|                     |France, for a long   |                     |
  |       |                     |period before and    |1002-1024. Henry,    |
  |       |1016-1035. Canute the|after the accession  |Duke of Bavaria, a   |
  |       |Great, King of       |of the Capets, has no|just and pious king. |
  |       |Denmark.             |national history; the|Continual wars with  |
  |       |                     |royal authority is   |the Poles and Italy. |
  |       |1017-1041. Danish    |now restricted to the|                     |
  |       |kings.               |city in which the    |     =House of       |
  |       |                     |court resides.       |     Franconia=      |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1024-1039. Conrad    |
  | =1025=|                     |                     |II., the Salic.      |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1039-1056. HENRY III.|
  |       |                     |                     |He defeats the Bohe- |
  |       |                     |                     |mians and Hungarians |
  |       |                     |                     |and makes both tribu-|
  |       |                     |                     |tary. _The imperial  |
  |       |                     |                     |power at its highest |
  |       |                     |                     |point._              |
  |       |1042. The Saxon line |                     |                     |
  |       |restored.            |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1042-1066. Edward the|                     |                     |
  | =1050=|Confessor. French    |                     |                     |
  |       |Normans become a new |                     |1056-1106. Henry IV. |
  |       |source of trouble.   |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1059. =Quarrels be-  |
  |       |                     |1060-1108. Philip I. |tween the Popes and  |
  |       |                     |                     |German Emperors      |
  |       |1066. Harold elected |1066. William, Duke  |respecting investi-  |
  |       |king, but is defeated|of Normandy, invades |tures and nomination |
  |       |and slain in the     |England.             |to the Holy See.=    |
  |       |battle of =Hastings=,|                     |                     |
  |       |which gives England  |                     |                     |
  |       |to William.          |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1066-1154. =Norman   |                     |                     |
  |       |Kings.=              |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1066-1087. WILLIAM   |                     |                     |
  |       |THE CONQUEROR.       |                     |                     |
  | =1075=|                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1087-1100. William   |                     |                     |
  |       |II., Rufus. _Revolt  |1096. =The First     |                     |
  |       |of the Norman nobles.|Crusade.= Peter the  |                     |
  |       |The feudal system    |Hermit and Walter the|                     |
  |       |established in       |Penniless.           |                     |
  |       |England._            |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  | =1100=|1100-1135. HENRY I., |                     |                     |
  |       |Beauclerc.           |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1101. Robert, Duke of|                     |                     |
  |       |Normandy, invades    |                     |                     |
  |       |England.             |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1103-1106. Henry in- |                     |                     |
  |       |vades and conquers   |                     |1106-1125. Henry V., |
  |       |Normandy.            |                     |Emperor of Germany   |
  |       |                     |                     |and King of Italy.   |
  | =1125=|                     |                     |                     |
  |       |=Wars between the French and English, and  |     =House of       |
  |       |rise of rivalry between these two nations, |    Hohenstaufen=    |
  |       |which lasts for three centuries and a      |                     |
  |       |half.=                                     |1138-1152. Conrad I.,|
  |       |                     |1147. =The Second    |elected emperor.     |
  |       |                     |Crusade= preached by |                     |
  |       |                     |St. Bernard and      |_Rise of the factions|
  |       |                     |joined by the Emperor|of Guelfs and        |
  |       |                     |Conrad and Louis VII.|Ghibelines._         |
  | =1150=|                     |of France.           |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1152-1190. Frederic  |
  |       |1154-1399.           |                     |I., Barbarossa,      |
  |       |=Plantagenets.=      |                     |Emperor and King, one|
  |       |                     |                     |of the most heroic   |
  |       |1154-1189. Henry II.,|                     |figures of the Middle|
  |       |Plantagenet.         |                     |Age.                 |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1159. War between France and England.      |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1166. Frederic in    |
  |       |                     |_The French language |Italy. League of the |
  |       |1171-1172. Conquest  |cultivated._         |Italian cities, 1167,|
  |       |of Ireland.          |                     |to preserve their    |
  | =1175=|                     |                     |liberties.           |
  |       |                     |1180-1223. Philip    |                     |
  |       |                     |II., the greatest    |1183. Peace of       |
  |       |1189-1199. Richard   |prince since         |Constance re-        |
  |       |I., the Lion-hearted.|Charlemagne.         |establishes the inde-|
  |       |Dreadful massacre of |                     |pendence of the      |
  |       |the Jews at his      |                     |Italian Republics.   |
  |       |coronation.          |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1189. =Third Crusade= led by Philip Augustus, of France; Richard,|
  |       |of England; and Frederic Barbarossa.                             |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1190-1198. Henry VI.,|
  |       |                     |                     |Emperor and King of  |
  |       |                     |                     |Italy and the        |
  |       |                     |                     |Sicilies.            |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1198. Philip of      |
  |       |1199-1216. John      |                     |Suabia and Otho of   |
  |       |usurps over Arthur,  |                     |Saxony, dispute the  |
  |       |the son of his elder |                     |crown; the former    |
  |       |brother, Geoffrey.   |                     |supported by the     |
  | =1200=|                     |                     |Ghibelines, the      |
  |       |1201-1206. War with France; Philip espouses|latter by the Guelfs.|
  |       |the cause of Prince Arthur.                |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1202. The =Fourth    |                     |
  |       |                     |Crusade= under       |1212-1250. Frederic  |
  |       |1213-1215. War with  |Boniface of          |II. becomes emperor  |
  |       |France; the English  |Montferrat.          |and king of the two  |
  |       |lose Vermandois and  |                     |Sicilies.            |
  |       |Valois.              |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1215. Insurrection of|                     |                     |
  |       |the barons.          |                     |                     |
  |       |=Magna Charta= signed|                     |                     |
  |       |at Runnymede.        |                     |                     |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+

  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |=A. D.=|       =Italy=       |       =Church=      |  =Scandinavia and   |
  |       |                     |                     |       Slavs=        |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  | =850= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |855. Kingdom divided.|                     |                     |
  |       |Louis II., Emperor,  |860. =Separation of  |                     |
  |       |obtains Italy and    |the Greek and Latin  |862. Russia: Rurik,  |
  |       |Rhætia till 875.     |Churches.=           |first grand prince.  |
  |       |Charles, Provence,   |                     |                     |
  |       |till 863.            |                     |863-1030. Norway:    |
  |       |                     |867. Pope Hadrian    |Harold Harfargar to  |
  |       |                     |II., Photius,        |St. Olaf.            |
  |       |                     |Patriarch of         |                     |
  |       |                     |Constantinople, de-  |                     |
  |       |                     |posed.               |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |872. Pope John VIII. |                     |
  | =875= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |Carloman, Bavaria,   |                     |                     |
  |       |etc. till 879; be-   |                     |895. Hungary: Magyars|
  |       |comes King of Italy, |                     |under Arpad enter the|
  |       |877.                 |                     |Kingdom.             |
  | =900= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |911. The Northmen in |                     |
  |       |919-1024. Kings and  |France embrace       |                     |
  |       |Emperors of the Saxon|Christianity.        |                     |
  |       |house.               |                     |                     |
  | =925= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |927. Odo, abbot of   |                     |
  |       |                     |Cluny, establishes   |                     |
  |       |                     |celebrated code of   |                     |
  |       |                     |discipline.          |                     |
  | =950= |950-961. Berenger    |                     |                     |
  |       |II., submitted to    |959. St. Dunstan be- |                     |
  |       |Otto as his suzerain.|comes Archbishop of  |                     |
  |       |                     |Canterbury and       |                     |
  |       |961-965. Otho’s      |attempts to reform   |                     |
  |       |second expedition    |the church; enforcing|                     |
  |       |into Italy; he de-   |clerical celibacy.   |                     |
  |       |thrones Berenger; is |                     |                     |
  |       |crowned king, and    |966. Poland receives |                     |
  |       |emperor.             |Christianity under   |                     |
  |       |                     |Miecislas.           |                     |
  | =975= |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |989. Byzantine       |                     |
  |       |                     |Christianity propa-  |                     |
  |       |                     |gated in Russia by   |                     |
  |       |                     |Vladimir the Great.  |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |999. Pope Sylvester  |                     |
  |       |Venice, Genoa, and   |II.                  |                     |
  | =1000=|Pisa rise in power,  |                     |                     |
  |       |opulence and civili- |                     |1019. Russia:        |
  |       |zation.              |                     |Yaroslaff the Great. |
  | =1025=|                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1029. Settlement of  |                     |                     |
  |       |the Normans in South |                     |                     |
  |       |Italy.               |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1041. They conquer   |                     |                     |
  |       |Apulia from the      |                     |                     |
  |       |Greeks; 1060,        |                     |                     |
  |       |Calabria; 1060-1090, |                     |                     |
  |       |Sicily.              |                     |                     |
  | =1050=|                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1059. =Quarrels between the Popes and      |                     |
  |       |German Emperors respecting investitures and|                     |
  |       |nomination to the Holy See.=               |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1060. Robert         |                     |                     |
  |       |Guiscard, first duke.|                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1060-1090. Sicily    |                     |                     |
  |       |conquered by Count   |1073. _POPE GREGORY  |                     |
  |       |Roger, brother of    |VII._                |                     |
  |       |Robert.              |                     |                     |
  |       |Robert invades the   |_Papacy attains great|                     |
  |       |Greek Empire and     |power._              |                     |
  | =1075=|gains the battle of  |                     |                     |
  |       |Durazzo.             |                     |1077. Hungary:       |
  |       |                     |                     |Ladislas I., the     |
  |       |                     |                     |Saint.               |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1084. Bohemia erected|
  |       |                     |1088. Pope Urban II. |into a kingdom by the|
  |       |                     |                     |Emperor Henry IV.    |
  |       |                     |1099. Pope Pascal II.|                     |
  | =1100=|                     |                     |1100-1523. Denmark:  |
  |       |                     |                     |Introduction of      |
  |       |                     |                     |Feudal system to In- |
  |       |                     |                     |dependence of Sweden.|
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1100-1468. Norway.   |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1100-1448. Sweden.   |
  |       |1106-1125. Henry V., |                     |                     |
  |       |Emperor of Germany   |1119. POPE CALIXTUS  |                     |
  |       |and King of Italy.   |II.                  |                     |
  | =1125=|                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1139. The two        |                     |                     |
  | =1150=|Sicilies erected into|                     |                     |
  |       |a kingdom under      |1154. Pope Hadrian   |                     |
  |       |Roger.               |IV.                  |1157. Denmark:       |
  |       |                     |                     |Waldemar I., the     |
  |       |1158. Venice a great |                     |Great.               |
  |       |maritime power.      |1159. Pope Alexander |                     |
  |       |                     |III.                 |                     |
  |       |1166. Frederic in    |                     |                     |
  |       |Italy. League of the |1170. The Waldenses. |                     |
  | =1175=|Italian cities, 1167,|                     |                     |
  |       |to preserve their    |                     |1177. Poland: Casimir|
  |       |liberties.           |                     |the Just.            |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1183. Peace of       |                     |                     |
  |       |Constance re-        |                     |                     |
  |       |establishes the inde-|                     |                     |
  |       |pendence of the      |                     |                     |
  |       |Italian Republics.   |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1189. =Third Crusade=|                     |                     |
  |       |led by Philip        |                     |                     |
  |       |Augustus, of France; |                     |                     |
  |       |Richard, of England; |                     |                     |
  |       |and Frederic Barba-  |                     |                     |
  |       |rossa.               |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1190-1198. Henry VI.,|                     |                     |
  |       |Emperor and King of  |1191. Pope Celestine |                     |
  |       |Italy and the        |III.                 |                     |
  |       |Sicilies.            |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1198. =Pope Innocent |                     |
  | =1200=|                     |III.=                |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1202-1241. Denmark:  |
  |       |1204. Venice ag-     |Papal power attains  |Waldemar II., the    |
  |       |grandized by the con-|its climax. It is    |Conqueror.           |
  |       |quest of             |supreme over secular |                     |
  |       |Constantinople.      |power.               |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1210-1212. First war |                     |                     |
  |       |of Venice and Genoa. |_ST. FRANCIS OF ASSISI_ (1182-1226)        |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1215. Fourth Lateran,|                     |
  |       |                     |and twelfth general  |1217-1262. Norway:   |
  |       |                     |council against the  |Haco IV.             |
  |       |                     |Albigenses and all   |                     |
  |       |                     |heretics. The doc-   |                     |
  |       |                     |trines of transub-   |                     |
  |       |                     |stantiation and auri-|                     |
  |       |                     |cular confession     |                     |
  |       |                     |established.         |                     |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+


X. FROM THE SIGNING OF MAGNA CHARTA TO THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY
COLUMBUS, 1215-1492 A. D.

  GREAT EVENTS OF PERIOD. 1200-1300: Hanse League established. Great
  conquests Tartars in Asia; they overrun Russia and establish a
  dynasty at Moscow. 1300-1400: Growth of cities and trade--especially
  in Italy, where also literature and art, inspired by Dante and
  Giotto, make progress. Popes at Avignon. Era of Wyclif: his teaching
  spreads in Bohemia. Invention of gunpowder. Mariner’s compass comes
  into use in the West. 1400-1500: Turks take Constantinople. Revival
  of learning and advance of art in the West--especially in Italy.
  Consolidation of France and Spain. End of Tartar rule in Russia.
  Invention of printing. Formation of modern “middle classes.”
  Maritime discoveries: The cape route to India; the “New World.” End
  of the Middle Ages.

  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |=A. D.=|  =Spain, Portugal=  |      =Britain=      |       =France=      |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |                     |1214-1292. _ROGER    |                     |
  |       |                     |BACON._              |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1216-1272. Henry III.|                     |
  |       |1217. Ferdinand, King|                     |                     |
  | =1225=|of Castile.          |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1226-1270. LOUIS IX.,|
  |       |                     |1228. =The Fifth     |Saint. Blanche of    |
  |       |1230. =Castile and   |Crusade.= Many       |Castile, his mother, |
  |       |Leon united by Fer-  |English and French   |regent.              |
  |       |dinand III., who     |nobles join.         |                     |
  |       |takes large territory|                     |1248. The king sets  |
  |       |from the Moors.=     |                     |out on =The Sixth    |
  | =1250=|                     |                     |Crusade=.            |
  |       |1253. The Alhambra   |                     |                     |
  |       |founded.             |1263-1265. CIVIL WAR.|                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1265. Parliament of  |                     |
  |       |                     |Simon of Montfort.   |                     |
  |       |                     |Beginning of the     |                     |
  |       |                     |House of Commons. De-|                     |
  |       |                     |feat and death of    |                     |
  |       |                     |Simon of Montfort at |                     |
  |       |                     |Evesham.             |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1270. =The Seventh   |                     |
  |       |                     |and Last Crusade.=   |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1272-1307. EDWARD I.,|                     |
  |       |1274. Crown of       |Longshanks.          |                     |
  | =1275=|Navarre passes to    |                     |                     |
  |       |France.              |                     |1276. France at war  |
  |       |                     |1283. England and    |with Castile.        |
  |       |                     |Wales united. Robert |                     |
  |       |                     |Bruce and John       |                     |
  |       |                     |Balliol contend for  |                     |
  |       |                     |the crown of Scot-   |                     |
  |       |                     |land.                |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1284. Annexation of  |                     |
  |       |1291. James II., King|Wales to England.    |                     |
  |       |of Aragon.           |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1297. War between    |1297. Invasion of    |
  |       |                     |England and Scotland.|Flanders.            |
  | =1300=|                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1302. First convoca- |
  |       |                     |                     |tion of the states-  |
  |       |                     |                     |general in France.   |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1304. War with       |
  |       |                     |1306. ROBERT BRUCE   |Flanders.            |
  |       |1312. Alphonso XI.,  |proclaimed king of   |                     |
  |       |King of Castile and  |Scotland.            |                     |
  |       |Leon.                |                     |                     |
  | =1325=|                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1327. Arrival of     |1327-1377. EDWARD    |                     |
  |       |200,000 Moors to     |III.                 |                     |
  |       |assist Granada.      |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1328-1400. _CHAUCER._|1328-1498. =The House|
  |       |                     |                     |of Valois.=          |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1328-1350. Philip VI.|
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1337. Edward lays claim to France which    |
  |       |                     |gives rise to:                             |
  |       |                     |                                           |
  |       |                     |1337-1453. HUNDRED YEARS WAR.              |
  |       |1340. Moors defeated |                     |                     |
  |       |at Tarifa.           |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  | =1350=|Heroic Age of        |                     |                     |
  |       |Portugal.            |                     |1364-1380. Charles V.|
  | =1375=|                     |                     |the Wise.            |
  |       |1394-1460. =Henry the|                     |                     |
  |       |Navigator=, King of  |1399-1461. =House of |                     |
  |       |Portugal.            |Lancaster.=          |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1399. Henry IV., King|                     |
  |       |                     |of England.          |                     |
  | =1400=|                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1406. James I., King |                     |
  |       |1407. John II., King |of Scotland.         |                     |
  |       |of Castile.          |                     |1410. Civil war be-  |
  |       |                     |                     |tween Orleans and    |
  |       |                     |                     |Burgundy.            |
  |       |                     |1414. Henry V. claims|                     |
  |       |1416. Alphonso V.,   |the French crown.    |                     |
  |       |King of Aragon and   |                     |                     |
  |       |Sicily.              |1422. Henry VI. pro- |                     |
  | =1425=|                     |claimed at Paris,    |                     |
  |       |                     |King of France. War  |1427-1429. =Siege of |
  |       |1430. War between    |with France.         |Orleans.= The English|
  |       |Castile and Granada. |                     |defeated by the      |
  |       |                     |                     |French under Joan of |
  |       |                     |                     |Arc. France saved    |
  |       |                     |                     |from the fate of     |
  |       |                     |                     |Ireland. Charles VII.|
  |       |                     |                     |crowned at Rheims.   |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1431. Joan of Arc    |
  |       |                     |1444. Truce with     |burned.              |
  |       |                     |France. Marriage of  |                     |
  |       |                     |Henry to Margaret of |                     |
  |       |                     |Anjou.               |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  | =1450=|1450-1560. =Period of|1450. Richard, Duke  |                     |
  |       |great maritime power |of York, claims the  |                     |
  |       |of the Portuguese.=  |throne.              |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1452. Civil war in   |                     |                     |
  |       |Navarre, in which    |1453. _End of the French and English wars, |
  |       |Castile and Aragon   |without any formal peace._                 |
  |       |join.                |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1454. Henry IV. of   |                     |                     |
  |       |Castile, King of     |1455-1485. WARS OF   |                     |
  |       |Spain.               |THE ROSES.           |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1461-1485. =House of |1461. Louis XI.,     |
  |       |                     |York.=               |King.                |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1461. Edward IV.,    |                     |
  |       |                     |King. House of York. |                     |
  |       |1469. Marriage of    |                     |                     |
  |       |Ferdinand of Aragon  |1470. Henry VI. re-  |                     |
  |       |with Isabella of     |stored by Warwick.   |                     |
  |       |Castile.             |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1471. Return of      |                     |
  |       |                     |Edward IV. Deaths of |                     |
  |       |                     |Warwick and Henry VI.|                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  | =1475=|                     |1475. Edward IV. in- |                     |
  |       |                     |vades France.        |1477. Artois and     |
  |       |1479. =Union of      |                     |Burgundy united to   |
  |       |Castile and Aragon.= |                     |France.              |
  |       |                     |1480. War between    |                     |
  |       |                     |England and Scotland.|1483-1498. Charles   |
  |       |                     |                     |VIII.                |
  |       |                     |   =House of Tudor=  |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1485-1509. Henry VII.|                     |
  |       |1492. Conquest of    |                     |                     |
  |       |Granada and union of |                     |                     |
  |       |the kingdom with     |                     |                     |
  |       |Castile.             |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1492. =America dis-  |                     |                     |
  |       |covered by Columbus.=|                     |                     |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+

  +-------+-------------------------------------------+---------------------+
  |=A. D.=|            =Holy Roman Empire=            |=Switzerland, Poland,|
  |       |  =Italy and Church= |      =Germany=      |  Hungary, Bohemia=  |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |_Struggle of the Guelfs and Ghibelines. The|                     |
  |       |power of the Roman pontiffs is carried to  |                     |
  |       |the highest pitch during this century._    |                     |
  | =1225=|                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1227-1274. _THOMAS   |                     |                     |
  |       |AQUINAS._            |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1243. Struggle of    |1243. =The Hanseatic |                     |
  |       |Pope Innocent IV.    |League.=             |                     |
  |       |with the Emperor     |                     |                     |
  | =1250=|Frederick.           |1250. Conrad IV.,    |                     |
  |       |                     |Emperor.             |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     | =House of Hapsburg= |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1273. =Rudolf=,      |                     |
  |       |1274. Fourteenth     |Emperor, founds House|                     |
  |       |General Council at   |of Hapsburg.         |                     |
  | =1275=|Lyons.               |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1293. Naval war be-  |                     |                     |
  |       |tween Genoa and      |                     |1295. Poland:        |
  |       |Venice.              |1298. Adolphus,      |Vladislav the Dwarf, |
  |       |                     |Emperor, deposed and |founder of Polish    |
  |       |                     |Albert I. enthroned. |greatness.           |
  | =1300=|1303. Papal power    |                     |                     |
  |       |declines.            |1304. Rise of the    |                     |
  |       |                     |Swiss towns.         |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1306. Rudolf of      |                     |
  |       |                     |Austria, Emperor.    |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1308. Henry of Luxem-|                     |
  |       |1309. Seat of the    |burg, Emperor. Gene- |                     |
  |       |popes transferred to |ral insurrection in  |                     |
  |       |Avignon.             |Switzerland.         |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1311. General Council|                     |                     |
  |       |at Vienna.           |1314. Louis of       |                     |
  |       |                     |Bavaria and Frederick|1315-1388. AUSTRO-   |
  |       |1265-1321. _DANTE._  |of Austria contend   |SWISS WAR.           |
  |       |                     |for the crown.       |                     |
  |       |1265-1337. _GIOTTO._ |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1322. Frederick of   |                     |
  | =1325=|                     |Austria defeated.    |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1333. Poland: Casimir|
  |       |1339. Struggle in    |                     |the Great becomes    |
  |       |Rome between the     |                     |King.                |
  |       |Colonna and the      | =House of Luxemburg=|                     |
  |       |Ursini.              |                     |1342. Hungary: Louis |
  |       |                     |1346-1378. Charles   |the Great.           |
  |       |                     |IV., King of Bohemia.|                     |
  |       |1347. Democracy in   |                     |                     |
  |       |Rome under Rienzi,   |                     |                     |
  |       |last of the Tribunes.|                     |                     |
  | =1350=|                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1354. Rienzi killed; |                     |                     |
  |       |papal dominion re-   |1355-1356. Promulga- |                     |
  |       |stored.              |tion of the golden   |1370. Poland: Extinc-|
  |       |                     |bull; it fixes the   |tion of the royal    |
  |       |                     |prerogatives of the  |race of Piasts with  |
  |       |                     |electoral college.   |Casimir III.         |
  |       |                     |Fundamental law of   |                     |
  |       |                     |the empire.          |                     |
  | =1375=|                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1378. Wenceslas, King|                     |
  |       |                     |of Bohemia, Emperor. |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  | =1400=|                     |1400. Robert, Count  |                     |
  |       |                     |of Palatine, Emperor.|                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1411. Sigismund, King|                     |
  |       |                     |of Hungary, Emperor. |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1414. Council of     |                     |
  |       |                     |Constance.           |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1419. Bohemia: HUS-  |
  |       |                     |1420. Sigismund be-  |SITE WAR.            |
  |       |                     |comes king of        |                     |
  |       |                     |Bohemia.             |1424. Bohemia: Death |
  | =1425=|                     |                     |of John Ziska, the   |
  |       |1429-1463. Cosmo de’ |                     |Hussite leader.      |
  |       |Medici in Florence,  |1438. =House of      |                     |
  |       |great patron of the  |Austria.= Albert II. |                     |
  |       |arts and sciences.   |(King of Bohemia and |                     |
  |       |                     |Hungary), Emperor.   |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1446. War with       |                     |
  | =1450=|1450-1466. House of  |Hungary.             |                     |
  |       |Sforza in Milan.     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1453. Austria made an|                     |
  |       |1454. Struggle be-   |hereditary duchy by  |                     |
  |       |tween Cosmo de’      |Emperor Frederick    |1458. Hungary:       |
  |       |Medici and the aris- |III.                 |Matthias Corvinus    |
  |       |tocracy.             |                     |makes his country    |
          |                     |1462. The emperor be-|formidable to her    |
  |       |                     |sieged in court at   |neighbors.           |
  |       |                     |Vienna.              |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1469. =Lorenzo de’   |1469-1480. Invasion  |                     |
  |       |Medici= at Florence. |of the Turks.        |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1471. Increase of the|                     |                     |
  | =1475=|power of the Medici. |                     |                     |
  |       |Rise of learning.    |1477. Marriage of    |1477. Hungary: War   |
  |       |Sixtus IV., Pope.    |Maximilian and Maria |with Frederick III.  |
  |       |                     |of Burgundy.         |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1485. Hungary:       |
  |       |                     |                     |Matthias Corvinus    |
  |       |                     |                     |takes Vienna.        |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+

  +-------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+
  |=A. D.=|=Scandinavia and|=Eastern Empire=|   =Saracens=   | =China, Japan, |
  |       |     Russia=    |                |                |     India=     |
  +-------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+
  |       |                |                |                |1219. Japan: The|
  |       |                |                |                |shogunate seized|
  |       |                |                |                |by the Fujiwara.|
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |1221. Robert    |                |1221. The       |
  |       |1224-1240.      |Guiscard, Em-   |                |Khorasmian Em-  |
  |       |Mongolian inva- |peror.          |                |pire overthrown |
  |       |sion of Russia. |                |                |by Genghis Khan.|
  | =1225=|                |                |                |                |
  |       |1242. Alexander |                |                |                |
  |       |Nevski, Prince  |1244. The       |                |                |
  | =1250=|of Novgorod.    |Khorasmians take|1250. Egypt: The|                |
  |       |                |Jerusalem.      |Mamelukes rule; |                |
  |       |                |                |take Damascus   |                |
  |       |                |                |and Aleppo.     |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1258. Hulaku    |                |
  |       |                |                |Khan enters     |1259-1294.      |
  |       |                |1261. Michael   |Persia, takes   |China: Kublai   |
  |       |1262. Norway:   |Palæologus re-  |Bagdad, and an  |Khan, Emperor of|
  |       |Iceland sub-    |covers          |end to the      |all China,      |
  |       |jected. Green-  |Constantinople  |caliphate.      |founder of the  |
  |       |land tributary  |and overthrows  |                |Mongol dynasty. |
  |       |to Norway.      |the Latin       |                |                |
  |       |                |Empire.         |                |1264. China:    |
  | =1275=|                |                |                |Kublai Khan     |
  |       |1279. Russia:   |                |                |builds Pekin,   |
  |       |Hanseatic       |                |                |and makes it his|
  |       |settlement at   |                |                |capital.        |
  |       |Novgorod.       |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |1281. Japan: In-|
  |       |                |                |1288. Othman    |vasion of Mongol|
  |       |                |1291. Capture of|begins to lay   |Tatars.         |
  | =1300=|                |Acre by the     |the foundations |                |
  |       |                |Mamelukes; end  |of the Turkish  |                |
  |       |                |of the European |power in Asia   |                |
  |       |                |states in Asia  |Minor.          |                |
  | =1325=|                |Minor.          |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1326. Death of  |                |
  |       |                |                |Othman; Orkhan, |                |
  |       |                |                |son of Othman,  |                |
  |       |                |                |makes Prusa his |                |
  |       |                |                |capital.        |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1327. Nicomedia |                |
  |       |1328. Moscow    |                |taken by Orkhan.|                |
  |       |under the Grand-|1329. Andronicus III. defeated by|                |
  |       |duke Ivan Kalita|the Turks in the battle of       |                |
  |       |becomes para-   |Pelekanon.                       |                |
  |       |mount in Russia.|                                 |                |
  |       |                |1330. Nicæa taken.               |1333. China:    |
  |       |                |                |                |Shun-te last of |
  |       |                |                |                |the Mongol Em-  |
  |       |                |                |                |perors succeeds.|
  |       |                |                |                |Japan: Fall of  |
  |       |                |                |                |the Hojo family.|
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |1336-1392.      |
  |       |1340. Denmark:  |                |                |Japan: Feudalism|
  |       |Waldemar III.   |1341. John V.   |                |reached its     |
  |       |                |(Paleologus),   |                |height.         |
  |       |                |Emperor.        |                |                |
  | =1350=|                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |1354. Turks seize Gallipoli in   |                |
  |       |                |Europe.                          |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1359. Murad I., |                |
  |       |                |                |conquered       |1363. Timur, or |
  |       |                |                |Adrianople.     |Tamerlane, be-  |
  |       |                |                |                |gins his career |
  |       |                |                |1365. Adrianople|of conquest.    |
  |       |                |                |residence of    |                |
  |       |                |                |sovereigns.     |1368-1398.      |
  |       |                |                |                |China: Hung Woo |
  |       |                |                |                |establishes the |
  |       |                |                |                |native Ming     |
  |       |                |                |                |dynasty.        |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |1369. Timur be- |
  | =1375=|                |                |                |comes king of   |
  |       |                |1381. The empire|                |Transoxiana and |
  |       |1382. Russia:   |pays tribute to |                |makes Samarcand |
  |       |The Tartars sack|the Turks.      |                |the capital of  |
  |       |Moscow.         |                |                |his new empire. |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1387. Denmark   |                |                |                |
  |       |and Norway:     |                |                |1392. Timur sub-|
  |       |Margaret, the   |                |                |jugates Persia. |
  |       |Semiramis of the|                |                |                |
  |       |North, becomes  |                |                |                |
  |       |queen.          |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1397. =Union of |                |                |                |
  |       |Calmar=, forming|                |                |1398. Invasion  |
  |       |Denmark, Sweden |                |                |of India by     |
  |       |and Norway into |                |                |Timur; he takes |
  |       |a single        |                |                |Delhi.          |
  |       |monarchy.       |                |                |                |
  | =1400=|                |                |                |1400-1573.      |
  |       |                |                |1402. Bajazet   |Japan: The      |
  |       |                |                |defeated and    |Shoguns dominate|
  |       |                |                |made prisoner by|for almost two  |
  |       |                |                |Timur at the    |centuries.      |
  |       |                |                |battle of       |                |
  |       |                |                |Angora.         |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1403. Empire of |                |
  |       |                |                |the Turks di-   |                |
  |       |                |                |vided after     |                |
  |       |                |                |death of        |                |
  |       |                |                |Bajazet, among  |                |
  |       |                |                |Solyman I., Musa|                |
  |       |                |                |and Mohammed I. |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1413. Mohammed  |                |
  |       |                |                |I. sole ruler of|                |
  |       |                |                |the Turks.      |                |
  | =1425=|                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |1438-1439. The  |                |                |
  |       |                |emperor visits  |                |                |
  |       |                |Italy to obtain |                |                |
  |       |                |help against the|                |                |
  |       |                |Turks.          |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1448. Denmark:  |1448.           |                |                |
  | =1450=|Christian I., of|Constantine     |                |                |
  |       |Oldenburg, King.|XII., last of   |1451. Mohammed  |                |
  |       |Sweden: Charles |the Greek       |II., sultan of  |                |
  |       |VIII.           |emperors.       |the Turks.      |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |1453. Siege and capture of       |                |
  |       |                |Constantinople by the Turks,     |                |
  |       |                |ending the Eastern Empire.       |                |
  |       |                +---------------------------------+                |
  |       |                |         =Ottoman Empire=        |                |
  |       |                +---------------------------------+                |
  |       |                |1458. Greece subjected to the    |                |
  |       |                |Turks.                           |                |
  |       |                |                                 |                |
  |       |                |1464. War with Hungary.          |                |
  |       |                |                                 |                |
  |       |                |1468. Uzun Hasan, master of all  |                |
  |       |                |Persia.                          |1469. India: The|
  |       |                |                                 |Sikhs become    |
  |       |                |1470. Forms an alliance with the |powerful.       |
  |       |1472. Russia:   |Venetians and the Duke of        |                |
  |       |Ivan III. mar-  |Burgundy against the Turks; con- |                |
  |       |ries Sophia,    |quers Bagdad.                    |                |
  |       |niece of the    |                                 |                |
  |       |Greek Emperor.  |1480. Otranto taken.             |                |
  |       |                |                                 |                |
  |       |                |1481. Bajazet II., Sultan.       |                |
  +-------+----------------+---------------------------------+----------------+


XI. FROM THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY COLUMBUS TO THE PEACE OF
WESTPHALIA, 1492-1648 A. D.

  GREAT EVENTS OF PERIOD. 1500-1600: The Reformation: Immense
  development of new life in Europe. Age of Charles V. Power of Spain,
  and her conquests in America. The monarchy strong in England.
  1600-1700: The Thirty Years’ War, at first a life struggle of Roman
  Catholics and Protestants, results in downfall of Spain, and the
  ascendency of France, which reached its zenith under Louis XIV.

  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |=A. D.=|      =Britain=      | =Spain and Portugal=|      =Holland=      |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |                     |The power of Spain   |                     |
  |       |                     |grew rapidly.        |                     |
  |       |                     |Greatest power in    |                     |
  |       |                     |Europe during most of|                     |
  |       |                     |Sixteenth Century.   |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1492. America dis-   |                     |
  |       |                     |covered by COLUMBUS. |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1494-1529. WARS WITH |                     |
  |       |                     |FRENCH for control of|                     |
  |       |                     |Italy.               |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1497-1503. Voyages of|                     |
  |       |                     |AMERIGO VESPUCIUS.   |                     |
  |       |                     |South American coast |                     |
  |       |                     |explored.            |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1498. Vasco de Gama  |                     |
  | =1500=|                     |reaches India via    |                     |
  |       |1502. Marriage of    |Cape of Good Hope.   |                     |
  |       |Henry’s eldest       |                     |                     |
  |       |daughter, Margaret,  |1506. Columbus dies  |1506-1530. =Margaret |
  |       |with James IV., King |at Valladolid.       |of Austria regent for|
  |       |of Scotland.         |                     |her nephew Charles.= |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1509. HENRY VIII.,   |                     |                     |
  |       |King.                |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1512. War with       |                     |                     |
  |       |France. Alliance with|                     |                     |
  |       |Spain and the Pope   |                     |                     |
  |       |against France.      |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1513. Battle of      |                     |                     |
  |       |Flodden; James IV.   |                     |                     |
  |       |killed.              |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1515. WOLSEY, chan-  |                     |                     |
  |       |cellor and cardinal. |1516-1556. CHARLES I.|                     |
  |       |                     |of Spain and V. of   |                     |
  |       |                     |Germany.             |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1519. Conquest of    |                     |
  |       |                     |Mexico by Cortez.    |                     |
  | =1525=|                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1529. =Reformation   |                     |                     |
  |       |begins in England.=  |_Rivalry of Spain and|                     |
  |       |                     |France begins._      |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1531-1532. Conquest  |                     |
  |       |1532. The king mar-  |of Peru by PIZARRO.  |                     |
  |       |ries Anne Boleyn.    |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1535. Henry excommu- |_IGNATIUS LOYOLA_    |                     |
  |       |nicated by the Pope. |(1491-1556).         |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1540. Lisbon the     |                     |
  |       |                     |market of the world. |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1541. De Soto disco- |                     |
  |       |1543. Invasion of    |vers the Mississippi |                     |
  |       |France.              |River.               |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1547. Edward VI.,    |                     |                     |
  |       |King. Formal estab-  |                     |                     |
  |       |lishment of Protes-  |                     |                     |
  |       |tantism.             |                     |                     |
  | =1550=|                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1553. MARY TUDOR,    |                     |                     |
  |       |Queen of England.    |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1554. Lady Jane Grey |                     |                     |
  |       |executed.            |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1555. Persecution of |                     |                     |
  |       |the Protestants.     |1556. PHILIP II.,    |                     |
  |       |                     |King.                |                     |
  |       |1558. ELIZABETH,     |                     |                     |
  |       |Queen. Rise of the   |_CAMOENS_ (1525-     |                     |
  |       |Puritans.            |1579).               |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1564. Acquisition of |                     |
  |       |                     |the Philippines.     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1567. DUKE OF ALVA,  |                     |
  |       |1568. MARY, QUEEN OF |Governor of the      |WAR OF LIBERATION.   |
  |       |SCOTS, takes refuge  |Netherlands.         |1568-1648. Sanguinary|
  |       |in England.          |                     |tribunals. Egmont and|
  |       |                     |                     |Horn beheaded, 1568. |
  |       |_SPENSER_ (1553-     |                     |                     |
  |       |1599).               |1571. Battle of      |_Reign of Terror     |
  |       |                     |Lepanto.             |under Alva._         |
  |       |_SIR WALTER RALEIGH_ |                     |                     |
  |       |(1552-1618).         |                     |                     |
  | =1575=|                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1579. Commencement of|
  |       |                     |1580. Portugal passes|the Dutch Republic by|
  |       |                     |under Spanish        |the Union of Utrecht;|
  |       |                     |dominion.            |WILLIAM, PRINCE OF   |
  |       |                     |                     |ORANGE, stadholder.  |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1584. Raleigh’s      |                     |1584. William of     |
  |       |colony in Virginia.  |                     |Orange assassinated. |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1585. War with Spain.|                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1588. Spanish Armada |1588. Defeat of the  |                     |
  |       |destroyed.           |=Spanish Armada=.    |                     |
  |       |                     |England saved from   |                     |
  |       |=Maritime supremacy  |Spanish invasion.    |                     |
  |       |of England begins.=  |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |_CERVANTES_ (1547-   |                     |
  |       |1596-1597. Naval ex- |1616).               |                     |
  |       |peditions of Drake   |                     |                     |
  |       |and Raleigh in South |1598-1621. Philip    |                     |
  |       |America. Cadiz taken,|III.                 |                     |
  |       |and the Spanish fleet|                     |                     |
  |       |burned.              |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |_SHAKESPEARE_ (1564- |                     |                     |
  |       |1616).               |                     |                     |
  | =1600=|                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1603. UNION OF       |                     |                     |
  |       |ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND.|                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |_BACON_ (1561-1626). |                     |1583-1645. _GROTIUS._|
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1607. English settle-|                     |                     |
  |       |ment at =Jamestown=. |1609. Expulsion of   |                     |
  |       |                     |the Moors.           |                     |
  |       +---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       | 1618-1648. THIRTY YEARS WAR--THIRTY YEARS WAR--THIRTY YEARS WAR |
  |       +---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |1620. Emigration of  |                     |                     |
  |       |Pilgrims to New      |1621. Dutch War.     |1621. Dutch West     |
  |       |England and founding |                     |India Company in-    |
  |       |of =Plymouth=.       |                     |corporated.          |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |_HARVEY_ (1578-1657).|                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  | =1625=|1625. Charles I.,    |1625. Naval war with |1625. Breda taken by |
  |       |King.                |England.             |Spinola.             |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1632. Maryland       |                     |                     |
  |       |settled by a colony  |                     |1639. Great naval    |
  |       |sent out by Lord     |1640. Portugal re-   |victory by Van Tromp,|
  |       |Baltimore.           |gains independence.  |over the Spanish     |
  |       |                     |                     |fleet in the Downs.  |
  |       |1642-1649. CIVIL WAR |_VELASQUEZ_ (1599-   |                     |
  |       |AND REVOLUTION.      |1660).               |_Vandyck_ (1599-     |
  |       |                     |                     |1641).               |
  |       |1648. Cromwell routs |                     |                     |
  |       |the Scotch. The pres-|                     |                     |
  |       |byterians expelled   |                     |                     |
  |       |from parliament,     |                     |                     |
  |       |which receives the   |                     |                     |
  |       |name of “the Rump.”  |                     |                     |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+

  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |=A. D.=|       =France=      |            =Holy Roman Empire=            |
  |       |                     |  =Italy and Church= |=Germany and Austria=|
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |1491. Bretagne united|                     |                     |
  |       |to the crown.        |                     |1493-1519. MAXIMILIAN|
  |       |                     |                     |I.                   |
  |       |1494-1529. WARS FOR  |1494. Expedition of  |                     |
  |       |THE CONTROL OF ITALY |Charles VIII. into   |                     |
  |       |between the French   |Italy.               |                     |
  |       |and Spanish.         |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1494-1559. =Sixty-   |                     |
  |       |                     |five years of Italian|1495. Diet at Worms. |
  |       |                     |Wars.=               |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |_COPERNICUS_ (1473-  |
  |       |                     |                     |1543).               |
  | =1500=|                     |1500. Partition of   |                     |
  |       |                     |Naples between France|                     |
  |       |                     |and Spain.           |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1503. Naples annexed |                     |
  |       |1510. Council of     |to the Spanish crown.|                     |
  |       |Tours.               |JULIUS II., pope.    |1512. Maximilian di- |
  |       |                     |                     |vides the empire into|
  |       |                     |1513. Pope LEO X.    |ten circles.         |
  |       |                     |patron of literature |                     |
  |       |                     |and the arts.        |_LUTHER_ (1483-1546).|
  |       |1515. FRANCIS I. in- |                     |                     |
  |       |vades Italy.         |_ARIOSTO_ (1474-     |1517. =Beginning of  |
  |       |                     |1533).               |the Reformation.=    |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |_RAPHAEL_ (1483-     |1519-1556. CHARLES   |
  |       |                     |1520).               |V., King of Spain,   |
  |       |                     |                     |Emperor.             |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1521. First war with |                     |1521. Accession of   |
  |       |Charles V.           |                     |Bohemia and Hungary  |
  |       |                     |                     |to the House of      |
  | =1525=|1525. Francis de-    |1525. Spanish ascen- |Hapsburg.            |
  |       |feated and taken     |dency by the victory |                     |
  |       |prisoner at Pavia.   |of Pavia.            |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1527. Second war with|_MICHAELANGELO_      |                     |
  |       |Charles V.           |(1475-1564).         |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |_CALVIN_ (1509-1564).|_TITIAN_ (1477-1576).|_HOLBEIN_ (1498-     |
  |       |                     |                     |1559).               |
  |       |1532-1544. Struggle  |                     |                     |
  |       |for possession of    |1540. Order of       |                     |
  |       |Italy.               |Jesuits founded by   |1543. Alliance with  |
  |       |                     |LOYOLA.              |England against      |
  |       |                     |                     |France.              |
  |       |                     |1545. Council of     |                     |
  |       |                     |Trent.               |1546-1547.           |
  |       |1547. Henry II.,     |                     |SCHMALKALDIC WAR.    |
  | =1550=|King; CATHERINE DE’  |1550. Julius III.,   |                     |
  |       |MEDICI, Queen.       |Pope.                |1551. Treaty of      |
  |       |                     |                     |Passau secures reli- |
  |       |1552. Fifth war with |                     |gious liberty to the |
  |       |Charles V.           |                     |Protestants.         |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |_PALISSY_ (1510-     |                     |1556. =Charles V.    |
  |       |1589).               |1559. Termination of |abdicates.=          |
  |       |                     |French wars in Italy.|                     |
  |       |RELIGIOUS WARS IN    |                     |                     |
  |       |FRANCE 1562-1598.    |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1562. Religious      |_Tintoretto_ (1512-  |                     |
  |       |liberty granted to   |1594).               |1564. MAXIMILIAN II.,|
  |       |the Huguenots.       |                     |Emperor.             |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |_MONTAIGNE_ (1533-   |1569. Florence a     |                     |
  |       |1592).               |grand duchy.         |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1572. Massacre of St.|_Torquato Tasso_     |                     |
  |       |Bartholomew.         |(1544-1595).         |                     |
  | =1575=|                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1576. The Catholic   |                     |1576. Rudolph II.,   |
  |       |league.              |                     |(King of Bohemia and |
  |       |                     |                     |Hungary), Emperor.   |
  |       |1577. Sixth religious|                     |                     |
  |       |war.                 |1585. Pope SIXTUS V. |                     |
  |       |                     |restores the Vatican |                     |
  |       |1588. Revolt of      |library.             |                     |
  |       |Paris.               |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1589-1792. =House of |                     |                     |
  |       |Bourbon.=            |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1589-1610. HENRY IV. |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1590. Siege of Paris |                     |                     |
  |       |raised by the        |1592. The Rialto and |                     |
  |       |Spaniards.           |Piazza di San Marco  |1594. Union of       |
  |       |                     |built at Venice.     |Protestants at       |
  |       |                     |                     |Heilbronn.           |
  |       |1598. =Edict of      |                     |                     |
  |       |Nantes= toleration   |                     |_KEPLER_ (1571-1630).|
  |       |granted to the       |_GALILEO_ (1564-     |                     |
  |       |Protestants.         |1642).               |                     |
  | =1600=|                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1608. Protestant     |
  |       |                     |1609. Leghorn becomes|union under Frederick|
  |       |1610. Assassination  |the emporium of the  |the Elector.         |
  |       |of Henry IV.         |Levant trade.        |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1614. Last assembly  |                     |                     |
  |       |of the states-       |                     |                     |
  |       |general.             |                     |                     |
  |       +---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       | 1618-1648. THIRTY YEARS WAR--THIRTY YEARS WAR--THIRTY YEARS WAR |
  |       +---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |                     |                     |1620. Massacre of    |
  |       |1624. Ministry of    |                     |Prague.              |
  | =1625=|Cardinal Richelieu.  |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1626. =St. Peter’s=  |                     |
  |       |                     |dedicated.           |1628. Victories of   |
  |       |                     |                     |Wallenstein.         |
  |       |_DESCARTES_ (1596-   |                     |                     |
  |       |1650).               |                     |1629. Gustavus       |
  |       |                     |1631. Influence of   |Adolphus lands in    |
  |       |                     |France increases.    |Germany.             |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1632. Battle of      |
  |       |1638. Invasion of    |                     |Lutzen.              |
  |       |Spain.               |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1640. Turin taken by |                     |                     |
  |       |the French.          |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1643. LOUIS XIV.,    |                     |                     |
  |       |King.                |1646. Revolt of      |                     |
  |       |                     |Naples under         |                     |
  |       |1648. WARS OF THE    |Masaniello.          |1648. PEACE OF WEST- |
  |       |FRONDE.              |                     |PHALIA, THE BASIS OF |
  |       |                     |                     |ALL SUBSEQUENT       |
  |       |                     |                     |TREATIES; SIGNED AT  |
  |       |                     |                     |MUNSTER.             |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |_At this time begins |
  |       |                     |                     |the policy of the    |
  |       |                     |                     |“Balance of Power” in|
  |       |                     |                     |Europe._             |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+

  +-------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+
  |=A. D.=|    =Poland,    |  =Scandinavia  | =Ottoman Empire| =China, Japan, |
  |       |    Prussia,    |   and Russia=  |   and Persia=  |     India=     |
  |       |    Hungary,    |                |                |                |
  |       |    Bohemia=    |                |                |                |
  +-------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+
  | =1500=|                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |1502. Destruc-  |1502. Persia:   |                |
  |       |                |tion of the     |Ismail Shah Sufi|                |
  |       |                |Golden Horde and|makes himself   |                |
  |       |                |end of Mongol   |sole sovereign  |                |
  |       |                |power in Russia.|of Persia.      |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1505. War with  |                |
  |       |                |                |Persia.         |                |
  |       |1506. Poland:   |                |                |1506. China:    |
  |       |Sigismund I.,   |                |1512. Selim I.  |Portuguese,     |
  |       |the Great.      |                |dethrones and   |first Europeans |
  |       |                |                |puts to death   |in China.       |
  |       |                |                |his father.     |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1514. Persians  |                |
  |       |                |                |defeated;       |                |
  |       |                |                |Kurdistan added |                |
  |       |                |                |to the empire.  |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1516. Cairo     |                |
  |       |                |                |taken.          |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |1520. Christian |1520. Soliman   |                |
  |       |                |II. of Denmark  |the Magnificent,|                |
  |       |                |invades Sweden  |Sultan.         |                |
  |       |                |and overthrows  |                |                |
  |       |                |Sten Sture.     |1521. Belgrade  |                |
  |       |                |                |taken.          |                |
  |       |                |1523. Sweden:   |                |                |
  | =1525=|1525. Albert,   |Revolt under    |                |                |
  |       |Grand-master of |GUSTAVUS VASA.  |1526. Invasion  |1526. India:    |
  |       |Teutonic Order  |The Danes expel-|of Hungary.     |Baber founds the|
  |       |makes East Prus-|led. Union of   |                |Mogul dynasty at|
  |       |sia a secular   |Calmar dis-     |1529. Invasion  |Delhi.          |
  |       |possession.     |solved. Denmark |of Austria.     |                |
  |       |                |and Norway:     |Siege of Vienna.|                |
  |       |                |Frederick I.    |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |1530. Russia:   |                |                |
  |       |                |IVAN IV., the   |                |                |
  |       |                |Terrible.       |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |1533. Norway and|                |                |
  |       |                |Denmark:        |1535. Barbarossa|                |
  |       |                |Christian III.  |seizes Tunis.   |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1547. Turks in- |                |
  |       |                |                |vade Persia.    |                |
  | =1550=|                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1551. Tripoli   |                |
  |       |                |                |taken.          |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1552. Invasion  |                |
  |       |                |                |of Hungary.     |1556. India:    |
  |       |                |                |                |AKBAR becomes   |
  |       |                |1559. Denmark   |1559. Military  |Mogul emperor, a|
  |       |                |and Norway:     |power of the    |patron of       |
  |       |                |Frederick II.   |Turks at its    |science and li- |
  |       |                |                |greatest height |terature. _Mogul|
  |       |                |_Tycho Brahe_   |under Soliman.  |Empire at its   |
  |       |                |    (1546-1601).|                |greatest        |
  |       |                |                |                |splendor._      |
  |       |1569. Poland and|                |                |                |
  |       |Lithuania united|                |1570. War with  |                |
  |       |by the Diet of  |                |Venice.         |                |
  |       |Lublin.         |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |1571. Russia de-|1571. Battle of |                |
  |       |                |vastated by the |Lepanto.        |1573. Japan:    |
  | =1575=|1575. Poland:   |Tartars, and    |                |Fall of the     |
  |       |Stephen Bathori |Moscow burned.  |                |Ashikaga        |
  |       |chosen king; he |                |                |shoguns;        |
  |       |strengthens the |                |                |Nobunaga        |
  |       |Jesuits.        |                |                |supreme.        |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1578. Alliance  of Sweden and    |                |                |
  |       |Poland against Russia.           |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1587. Poland:   |                |                |                |
  |       |Sigismund III., |1588. Denmark:  |                |                |
  |       |King.           |Christian IV.   |1589. Revolt of |                |
  |       |                |                |the Janisaries. |                |
  |       |                |1592. Sweden:   |                |                |
  |       |                |Sigismund III., |1595. Power in  |                |
  |       |_RUBENS_ (1577- |of Poland, suc- |Hungary de-     |                |
  |       |1640).          |ceeds to the    |clines; revolt  |                |
  |       |                |Swedish crown.  |of Wallachia.   |                |
  | =1600=|                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |1603. Japan:    |
  |       |                |                |                |Tokugawa Iyeyasu|
  |       |                |                |                |makes himself   |
  |       |                |                |                |shogun: his de- |
  |       |                |                |                |scendants retain|
  |       |                |                |                |power till 1868.|
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |1605. India:    |
  |       |                |1611. Sweden:   |                |Jehangir, Mogul,|
  |       |                |GUSTAVUS        |                |Emperor.        |
  |       |                |ADOLPHUS, King. |                |                |
  |       |                |War with Den-   |                |                |
  |       |                |mark.           |                |                |
  |       |                |OXENSTIERN,     |                |                |
  |       |                |Minister.       |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |1613. Russia:   |                |                |
  |       |                |MICHAEL         |                |                |
  |       |                |ROMANOFF, Czar, |                |                |
  |       |                |founder of the  |                |                |
  |       |                |present ruling  |                |                |
  |       |                |line.           |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |1616. _Sweden   |                |                |
  |       |                |dominates the   |                |                |
  |       |                |North._         |                |                |
  |       +----------------+----------------+                |                |
  |       |   1618-1648. THIRTY YEARS WAR   |                |                |
  |       +----------------+----------------+                |                |
  | =1625=|                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |WAR WITH AUSTRIA|                |
  |       |1632. War with  |1632. Sweden:   |1682-1699.      |                |
  |       |Russia. Poles   |CHRISTINA,      |                |                |
  |       |advance to      |Queen;          |1634. Murad in- |                |
  |       |Moscow.         |OXENSTIERN,     |vades Persia.   |                |
  |       |                |Regent.         |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1637. Troubles  |                |
  |       |1640. FREDERICK |                |on the Tartar   |                |
  |       |WILLIAM of      |                |frontier. Bagdad|1644. China: Es-|
  |       |Prussia.        |                |taken by the    |tablishment of  |
  |       |                |                |Turks.          |the Manchu      |
  |       |                |                |                |dynasty.        |
  |       |                |                |1645. War with  |                |
  |       |                |                |Venice.         |                |
  |       |1648. PEACE OF WESTPHALIA, THE   |                |                |
  |       |BASIS OF ALL SUBSEQUENT TREATIES;|                |                |
  |       |SIGNED AT MUNSTER.               |                |                |
  |       |                                 |                |                |
  |       |_At this time begins the policy  |                |                |
  |       |of the “Balance of Power” in     |                |                |
  |       |Europe._                         |                |                |
  +-------+---------------------------------+----------------+----------------+


XII. FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA TO THE CLOSE OF AMERICAN WAR OF
INDEPENDENCE, 1648-1783 A. D.

  GREAT EVENTS OF PERIOD. 1600-1700: Civil and religious liberty
  fought out in England under the Stuarts. Rise of modern science and
  philosophy. 1700-1800: Astounding growth of the British Empire.
  Government in England now and henceforth carried on by a Cabinet
  Ministry. Development of manufactures in England. Inventions and
  discoveries. Immense advance in arts and sciences. INDEPENDENCE OF
  THE UNITED STATES. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION which powerfully influences
  social, political and intellectual progress for the next hundred
  years.

  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |=A. D.=|   =United States=   :      =Britain=      | =Spain and Portugal=|
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |                     :1649. Trial and exe- |                     |
  | =1650=|                     :cution of Charles I. |                     |
  |       |                     :=The Commonwealth.=  |                     |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :1652. War with Hol-  |                     |
  |       |                     :land.                |                     |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :1653. CROMWELL, Lord |                     |
  |       |                     :Protector.           |1654. Brazil re-     |
  |       |                     :                     |covered from the     |
  |       |                     :                     |Dutch.               |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :_MILTON_ (1608-1674).|1655. War with En-   |
  |       |                     :                     |gland.               |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :=Stuarts restored.=  |                     |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :1660. Charles II.,   |                     |
  |       |                     :King.                |1661. Invasion of    |
  |       |1663. Settlement of  :                     |Portugal.            |
  |       |North Carolina under :                     |                     |
  |       |royal patent.        :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |1664. New Amsterdam  :                     |                     |
  |       |occupied by the      :1665-1700. CHARLES   |                     |
  |       |English.             :II.                  |                     |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :1668. Triple alliance|                     |
  |       |                     :of England, Sweden   |                     |
  |       |                     :and Holland against  |_MURILLO_ (1618-     |
  |       |                     :France.              |1682).               |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :                     |1673. War with France|
  | =1675=|1675-1676. King      :                     |to protect Holland.  |
  |       |Philip’s War in New  :1679. HABEAS CORPUS  |                     |
  |       |England. Bacon’s Re- :ACT passed.          |                     |
  |       |bellion in Virginia. :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :_NEWTON_ (1642-1727).|                     |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :1685. James II.,     |                     |
  |       |                     :King. Rise of the    |                     |
  |       |                     :Whigs and Tories.    |                     |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :_JOHN LOCKE_ (1632-  |                     |
  |       |                     :1704).               |                     |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :1688. Revolution.    |                     |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |1689-1697. WAR OF WILLIAM AND MARY WITH THE|1689. Revolt in      |
  |       |FRENCH.                                    |Catalonia in favor of|
  |       |                     :                     |France.              |
  |       |                     :1689. WILLIAM III.,  |                     |
  |       |                     :King, and MARY II.,  |                     |
  |       |                     :Queen. War with      |                     |
  |       |                     :France.              |                     |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :1690. Battle of the  |                     |
  |       |                     :Boyne. James de-     |1691. Incursion of   |
  |       |                     :feated, returns to   |the French into      |
  |       |                     :France.              |Aragon.              |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :1697. General peace. |                     |
  | =1700=|                     :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :  1701-1714. WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :                     |1701. Philip V.,     |
  |       |1702-1713. QUEEN     :1702. QUEEN ANNE. War|King.                |
  |       |ANNE’S WAR WITH THE  :against France and   |                     |
  |       |FRENCH.              :Spain.               |                     |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :1704. Gibraltar taken|                     |
  |       |                     :by English.          |1705. Barcelona taken|
  |       |                     :                     |by the Allies.       |
  |       |1707. Unsuccessful   :1707. Act of union of|                     |
  |       |expedition against   :England and Scotland.|                     |
  |       |Port Royal.          :First united parlia- |                     |
  |       |                     :ment of Great Britain|                     |
  |       |                     :meets.               |                     |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |1713. Treaty of      :1713. =Peace of      |                     |
  |       |Utrecht which gives  :Utrecht.= England    |                     |
  |       |Arcadia to the       :acquires large       |                     |
  |       |English.             :American possessions.|                     |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |1718. New Orleans    :1718. WAR WITH SPAIN. QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE OF|
  |       |settled by the       :THE EMPEROR, FRANCE, ENGLAND AND HOLLAND,  |
  |       |French.              :AGAINST THE DESIGNS OF SPAIN.              |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :                     |1724. Spain: Philip  |
  | =1725=|                     :                     |V. abdicates but re- |
  |       |                     :1727. George II.,    |sumes power after    |
  |       |1729. The Carolinas  :King of England.     |some months.         |
  |       |separated.           :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |1734. Beginning of   :                     |1734. Conquest of    |
  |       |the Great Awakening  :1739. War with Spain.|Sicily and Naples by |
  |       |in New England.      :                     |Don Carlos.          |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |                     : 1740-1748. WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :1745. Troubles in    |                     |
  |       |                     :Scotland.            |1746. Ferdinand VI., |
  |       |                     :King.                |King.                |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :_HUME_ (1711-1776).  |                     |
  | =1750=|                     :                     |                     |
  |       |1754-1763. OLD FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR OR SEVEN YEARS WAR: ENGLAND |
  |       |AND PRUSSIA VS. FRANCE, AUSTRIA, RUSSIA, SPAIN AND SWEDEN.       |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :1756. Alliance with  |                     |
  |       |1759. Invasion of    :Prussia.             |                     |
  |       |Canada; death of     :                     |                     |
  |       |Wolfe. Quebec taken. :1760-1820. GEORGE    |                     |
  |       |                     :III.                 |                     |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :1762. War with Spain.|                     |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :1763. Peace of Paris.|                     |
  |       |_FRANKLIN_ (1706-    :                     |                     |
  |       |1790).               :_GIBBON_ (1737-1794).|                     |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |1765. Stamp Act re-  :1765. Establishment  |                     |
  |       |sisted in Massa-     :of a British Empire  |1767. Jesuits ex-    |
  |       |chusetts and         :in India.            |pelled from Spain.   |
  |       |Virginia.            :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :_JAMES WATT_ (1736-  |                     |
  |       |                     :1819).               |                     |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  | =1775=|1775-1783. AMERICAN REVOLUTIONARY WAR.                           |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |1775. April 19,      :1775. Lord North’s   |                     |
  |       |skirmish at          :“conciliatory mea-   |                     |
  |       |Lexington. June 17,  :sures” rejected by   |                     |
  |       |battle of Bunker     :the colonies.        |                     |
  |       |Hill.                :                     |                     |
  |       |                     :                     |                     |
  |       |1776. =Declaration of|                     |                     |
  |       |Independence, July   |                     |                     |
  |       |4.= British army     |                     |                     |
  |       |takes possession of  |_ARKWRIGHT_ (1732-   |                     |
  |       |New York. Hessians   |1792).               |                     |
  |       |hired for service in |                     |                     |
  |       |America.             |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1777. Battle of      |                     |1777. Portugal:      |
  |       |=Saratoga= and criti-|1778. Siege and cap- |Maria, Queen.        |
  |       |cal battle of the    |ture of Pondicherry, |                     |
  |       |Revolution.          |by the English.      |1779. Spain: Alliance|
  |       |                     |                     |with the American    |
  |       |1781. Surrender of   |                     |colonists.           |
  |       |Cornwallis at        |1783. Treaty of      |                     |
  |       |Yorktown.            |Versailles. Indepen- |                     |
  |       |                     |dence of the United  |                     |
  |       |                     |States acknowledged. |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1783. Peace of Versailles between France, Spain, England and     |
  |       |America.                                                         |
  +-------+-----------------------------------------------------------------+

  +-------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+
  |=A. D.=|    =France=    |   =Italy and   |    =Holland=   |  =Scandinavia= |
  |       |                |     Church=    |                |                |
  +-------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+
  |       |1649. Siege of  |                |                |                |
  |       |Paris.          |                |                |                |
  | =1650=|                |                |                |                |
  |       |1653. Mazarin   |                |1653. JOHN DE   |1653. Sweden:   |
  |       |enters Paris in |                |WITT, Grand     |Christina re-   |
  |       |triumph.        |                |Pensionary of   |signs. Charles  |
  |       |                |                |Holland.        |X. first of the |
  |       |_MOLIERE_ (1622-|                |                |House of        |
  |       |1673).          |                |_REMBRANDT_     |Zweibrucken.    |
  |       |                |                |(1607-1669).    |                |
  |       |                |                |                |1655. Charles X.|
  |       |                |                |                |of Sweden in-   |
  |       |                |                |                |vades Poland.   |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |1658. Denmark:  |
  |       |1659. Peace of  |                |                |War against the |
  |       |the Pyrenees.   |                |                |Swedes, who     |
  |       |                |                |                |overrun Denmark,|
  |       |                |                |                |and menace      |
  |       |                |                |                |Copenhagen.     |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |1660. Denmark:  |
  |       |1667-1697. First|                |1667. Holland:  |Peace of Copen- |
  |       |three wars of   |1669. Candia    |Peace of Breda; |hagen. Revolu-  |
  |       |Louis XIV.      |taken from      |loss of New     |tion in Denmark;|
  |       |                |Venice.         |Netherlands.    |absolute monar- |
  |       |1667. War with  |                |                |chy established.|
  |       |Spain.          |1670. War be-   |_SPINOZA_ (1632-|Prussia acknow- |
  |       |                |tween Genoa and |1677).          |ledged indepen- |
  |       |                |Savoy.          |                |dent.           |
  |       |1672. War with  |                |1672. Sea fight |                |
  | =1675=|Holland.        |                |between the     |1675. The Swedes|
  |       |                |1676. Messina   |Dutch fleet,    |invade Branden- |
  |       |                |blockaded by the|under De Witt   |burg and are de-|
  |       |                |Dutch and       |and De Ruyter,  |feated at       |
  |       |                |Spanish fleets. |and the English |Fehrbellin.     |
  |       |                |                |and French      |                |
  |       |                |                |fleets; Dutch   |1677. Battle of |
  |       |1678. Peace with|                |defeated.       |the Lund, be-   |
  |       |Holland and     |                |Holland: William|tween the Swedes|
  |       |Spain restores  |                |III., Stadt-    |and Danes; the  |
  |       |tranquility to  |                |holder.         |latter defeated.|
  |       |Europe.         |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1680. =France   |                |                |                |
  |       |the most formi- |                |                |                |
  |       |dable power in  |                |                |                |
  |       |Europe.=        |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1685. Revocation|                |                |                |
  |       |of the edict of |                |                |                |
  |       |Nantes.         |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1688. War of the|                |                |                |
  |       |allies against  |1689. Alexander |                |                |
  |       |France.         |VIII., Pope.    |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |1693. Battle of |                |1693. The King  |
  |       |                |Marsaglia.      |1695. Brussels  |of Sweden de-   |
  |       |1697. General   |                |bombarded by the|clared absolute.|
  |       |peace of Ryswick|                |French.         |                |
  |       |between France  |                |                |1699. CHARLES   |
  |       |and the allies. |                |                |XII. begins to  |
  |       |                |                |                |reign. Denmark, |
  |       |                |                |                |Poland and      |
  |       |                |                |                |Russia form an  |
  |       |                |                |                |alliance against|
  |       |                |                |                |Sweden.         |
  | =1700=|                |                |                |                |
  |       |             1701-1714. WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION              |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1702. Invasion  |1702. French    |                |1702-1706.      |
  |       |of Holland. Re- |victory at      |                |Charles XII.    |
  |       |volt of the     |Luzzara over the|                |sweeps Poland   |
  |       |Huguenots.      |Imperialists.   |                |and Russia.     |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1704. Defeat at |                |                |                |
  |       |Blenheim.       |1706. French    |                |                |
  |       |                |driven from     |                |                |
  |       |                |Italy by Prince |                |                |
  |       |                |Eugene.         |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |1707. All       |                |                |
  |       |1713. Peace of  |Spanish posses- |                |                |
  |       |Utrecht; per-   |sions in Italy  |                |                |
  |       |petual separa-  |abandoned.      |                |                |
  |       |tion of the     |                |                |                |
  |       |crown of France |                |                |                |
  |       |and Spain.      |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1715. Death of  |1715. Siege of  |1715. Treaty of |1715. Charles   |
  |       |Louis XIV.;     |Corfu raised.   |Antwerp with    |returns to      |
  |       |LOUIS XV., King.|                |Austria.        |Sweden. Prussia |
  |       |                |                |                |and England join|
  |       |_MONTESQUIEU_   |                |                |the alliance    |
  |       |(1689-1755).    |                |                |against him.    |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1718. WAR WITH SPAIN. QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE OF THE EMPEROR, FRANCE,   |
  |       |ENGLAND AND HOLLAND, AGAINST THE DESIGNS OF SPAIN.                 |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |1718. Charles   |
  |       |_VOLTAIRE_      |1719. Sicily in-|                |XII. invades    |
  |       |(1694-1778).    |vaded by the    |                |Norway and is   |
  |       |                |Spanish.        |                |killed at the   |
  |       |                |                |                |siege of        |
  |       |                |                |                |Frederickshall. |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |1720. Sweden:   |
  |       |1724-1725. Con- |                |                |The queen abdi- |
  |       |gress of Cambray|                |                |cates in favor  |
  |       |to consider     |                |                |of her husband, |
  |       |claims of Spain |                |                |Frederick I.    |
  |       |and Austria.    |                |                |                |
  | =1725=|                |                |                |_LINNAEUS_      |
  |       |                |                |                |(1707-1778).    |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |1730. Clement   |                |1730. Denmark:  |
  |       |1733. The Polish|XII., Pope.     |                |Christian VI.   |
  |       |succession in-  |                |                |                |
  |       |volves France in|                |                |                |
  |       |war.            |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |             1740-1748. WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION             |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |1741. Sweden:   |
  |       |                |                |                |War with Russia.|
  |       |                |                |                |Swedes driven   |
  |       |                |                |                |out of Finland. |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |1743. Peace of  |
  |       |1744. War with  |1744. Italy in- |                |Abo with Sweden |
  |       |England and     |vaded by the    |                |gives to Russia |
  |       |Austria.        |French and      |                |southern Fin-   |
  |       |                |Spaniards.      |                |land.           |
  |       |_D’Alembert_    |                |                |                |
  |       |(1717-1783).    |1746. French and|                |                |
  |       |                |Spaniards driven|                |                |
  |       |1747. War with  |from Lombardy.  |1747. Nether-   |                |
  |       |Holland.        |                |lands: William  |                |
  |       |                |                |IV., Stadt-     |                |
  |       |                |                |holder.         |                |
  | =1750=|                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1751. Nether-   |                |
  |       |                |                |lands: William  |                |
  |       |                |                |V., Stadtholder.|                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1754-1763. OLD FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR OR SEVEN YEARS WAR: ENGLAND   |
  |       |AND PRUSSIA VS. FRANCE, AUSTRIA, RUSSIA, SPAIN AND SWEDEN.         |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1760. Loss of   |                |                |                |
  |       |all Canada.     |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1763. Peace of  |                |                |                |
  |       |Paris.          |                |                |1766. Denmark:  |
  |       |                |                |                |Christian VII.  |
  |       |1770. Marriage  |                |                |                |
  |       |of the dauphin  |                |                |1772. Despotism |
  |       |to Marie        |1773. Jesuits   |                |re-established  |
  |       |Antoinette.     |expelled from   |                |in Sweden by    |
  |       |                |Rome.           |                |Gustavus III.   |
  |       |1774. LOUIS     |                |                |                |
  |       |XVI., King.     |                |                |                |
  | =1775=|                |                |                |                |
  |       |1776. Franklin  |                |                |                |
  |       |in Paris.       |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1778. Alliance  |                |                |                |
  |       |with America.   |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1780. Rochambeau|                |                |1780. _Declara- |
  |       |sent to aid the |                |                |tion of the     |
  |       |Americans.      |                |                |Armed Neutrality|
  |       |                |                |                |for the protec- |
  |       |_LAVOISIER_     |                |                |tion of neutral |
  |       |(1743-1794).    |                |                |flags_ against  |
  |       |                |                |                |the right of    |
  |       |1783. Peace of  |                |                |maritime search |
  |       |Versailles be-  |                |                |claimed by En-  |
  |       |tween France,   |                |                |gland--joined by|
  |       |Spain, England  |                |                |Denmark and     |
  |       |and America.    |                |                |Sweden. Prussia |
  |       |                |                |                |and Austria,    |
  |       |                |                |                |1781. Portugal, |
  |       |                |                |                |1782.           |
  +-------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+

  +-------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+
  |=A. D.=|    =Germany=   |  =Prussia and  |    =Russia=    |   =Ottomans,   |
  |       |                |     Poland=    |                |  India, Japan, |
  |       |                |                |                |     China=     |
  +-------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+
  |       |                |1648. Poland:   |                |                |
  |       |                |The Cossacks re-|                |                |
  |       |                |volt and defeat |                |                |
  |       |                |the Poles. John |                |                |
  |       |                |Casimir, King.  |                |                |
  | =1650=|                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |1653. Poland:   |                |                |
  |       |                |War with Russia.|1654. Russian   |                |
  |       |                |                |victories in    |                |
  |       |                |1656. The       |Poland.         |                |
  |       |                |Elector of Bran-|                |                |
  |       |                |denburg allies  |                |                |
  |       |                |himself with    |                |                |
  |       |                |Sweden against  |                |                |
  |       |                |Poland.         |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1657. Leopold   |1657. Poland    |                |1657. Alliance  |
  |       |I., Emperor.    |cedes Prussia to|                |with Sweden     |
  |       |                |the Elector.    |                |against Poland. |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |1661. War with  |
  |       |                |                |                |Austria.        |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |1662. Invasion  |
  |       |                |                |                |of Hungary.     |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |1664. India:    |
  |       |1665. Tyrol     |                |                |Rise of the     |
  |       |united to       |                |1671. The Cos-  |Mahratta power. |
  |       |Austria.        |                |sacks sub-      |Sivaji takes and|
  |       |                |                |jugated.        |sacks Surat.    |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1672. The       |                |                |1672. Invasion  |
  |       |Emperor and     |                |                |of Poland.      |
  |       |Elector of Bran-|                |                |                |
  |       |denburg ally    |                |                |                |
  |       |themselves with |                |                |                |
  |       |Holland against |                |                |                |
  |       |France.         |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1673. War of    |                |                |                |
  |       |Austria and     |1674. Sobieski, |                |                |
  |       |France.         |King of Poland. |                |                |
  | =1675=|                |                |                |                |
  |       |1676. General   |                |                |                |
  |       |revolt of the   |                |                |1678. First war |
  |       |Hungarians.     |                |                |with Russia.    |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |_LEIBNITZ_      |                |                |                |
  |       |(1646-1716).    |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1680. Greater   |                |                |                |
  |       |part of Alsace  |                |1682. Ivan and  |1682. War with  |
  |       |seized by       |                |Peter, Czars.   |Austria.        |
  |       |France.         |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1683. Siege of  |                |                |                |
  |       |Vienna by the   |                |                |                |
  |       |Turks.          |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1686. Buda taken|                |                |1686. Russia de-|
  |       |after being held|                |                |clares war.     |
  |       |by the Turks one|                |                |                |
  |       |hundred and     |                |                |1686. India: The|
  |       |forty-five      |                |                |Dekkan conquered|
  |       |years.          |                |                |by Aurungzeb.   |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1687. Joseph I.,|                |                |1687. Revolution|
  |       |King of Hungary.|                |1688. Prussia:  |in Constanti-   |
  |       |                |                |Frederick III.  |nople. Solyman  |
  |       |                |                |                |II., Sultan.    |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1689. Russia:   |1689. First     |
  |       |1690. Joseph I. |                |PETER THE GREAT |trade with      |
  |       |elected King of |                |begins personal |China.          |
  |       |the Romans.     |                |rule after over-|                |
  |       |                |                |throwing his    |India: Height of|
  |       |                |                |sister Sophia   |the Mogul power |
  |       |                |                |and repressing  |under Aurungzeb.|
  |       |                |                |the Streltsi.   |                |
  |       |                |                |                |China: Great in-|
  |       |                |                |1692. First     |fluence of      |
  |       |                |1696. Poland:   |trade with      |Jesuits.        |
  |       |                |Death of        |China.          |                |
  |       |                |Sobieski; suc-  |                |                |
  |       |                |ceeded by:      |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1697. Victories |1697. Frederick |                |                |
  |       |of PRINCE EUGENE|Augustus I.     |                |1699. =Peace of |
  |       |over the Sultan |                |                |Carlowitz. The  |
  |       |Mustapha at     |                |                |Ottoman power   |
  |       |Zenta.          |                |                |broken.=        |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  | =1700=|1700-1721. GREAT NORTHERN WARS.  |1700. Peter the |                |
  |       |                |                |Great wars with |                |
  |       |1701. Hague     |1701. Prussia is|the Northern    |                |
  |       |alliance.       |erected into a  |Powers.         |                |
  |       |                |kingdom under   |                |                |
  |       |                |Frederick I.    |1703. St.       |1703. Mustapha  |
  |       |                |                |Petersburg      |II. deposed by  |
  |       |1704. Battle of |1704. Stanislaus|founded.        |the Janizaries. |
  |       |=Blenheim=.     |I., King of     |                |                |
  |       |Bavarians and   |Poland.         |1707. Revolt of |                |
  |       |French defeated |                |the Cossack     |                |
  |       |by English and  |                |Mazeppa.        |                |
  |       |Allies. Germany |                |                |                |
  |       |delivered from  |                |1708. Charles   |                |
  |       |Louis XIV.      |                |XII. of Sweden  |                |
  |       |                |                |invades Russia. |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1709. Is de-    |                |
  |       |1711. CHARLES   |                |feated at       |                |
  |       |VI., Emperor.   |1712-1786.      |=Pultowa= by    |                |
  |       |                |FREDERICK II.   |Peter the Great.|                |
  |       |                |                |Russia becomes a|                |
  |       |                |                |great power.    |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1714. Finland   |                |
  |       |                |                |conquered.      |1717. Turks lose|
  |       |                |                |                |Belgrade.       |
  |       |_BACH_ (1685-   |                |1721. Peter as- |                |
  |       |1754).          |                |sumes the title |1723. Turks and |
  |       |                |                |“Emperor of all |Russians attempt|
  |       |_HANDEL_ (1685- |                |the Russias.”   |to dismember    |
  |       |1759).          |                |                |Persia.         |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  | =1725=|1725. Treaty of |                |                |                |
  |       |Vienna, alliance|                |1727. Treaty    |                |
  |       |between Spain   |                |with China.     |                |
  |       |and Austria.    |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1730. Peter II.,|                |
  |       |                |                |last of the     |                |
  |       |                |                |Romanoffs.      |                |
  |       |1733. =War of   |1733. Poland:   |                |                |
  |       |the Polish suc- |Frederick       |                |                |
  |       |cession.=       |Augustus II. The|                |                |
  |       |                |diet elects     |                |                |
  |       |                |Stanislaus, but |                |                |
  |       |                |is compelled by |                |                |
  |       |                |the Russian army|                |                |
  |       |                |to elect        |                |                |
  |       |                |Frederick.      |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |1734. Stanislaus|                |1734. Turks     |
  |       |                |besieged in     |                |driven from     |
  |       |                |Dantzic, escapes|                |Persia by Nâdir |
  |       |                |to Konigsberg.  |                |Shah.           |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |1739. India:    |
  |       |                |                |                |Invaded by Nâdir|
  |       |                |                |                |Shah who takes  |
  |       |                |                |                |and plunders    |
  |       |                |                |                |Delhi.          |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1740-1748. WAR  |1740-1786.      |                |1740. Renewed   |
  |       |OF THE AUSTRIAN |FREDERICK THE   |                |invasion of     |
  |       |SUCCESSION.     |GREAT of Prus-  |                |Turkey.         |
  |       |                |sia.            |                |                |
  |       |1741. MARIA     |                |                |                |
  |       |THERESA succeeds|                |                |                |
  |       |to the heredita-|                |                |                |
  |       |ry states.      |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1745. Francis   |                |                |                |
  |       |I., husband of  |                |                |                |
  |       |Maria Theresa,  |                |                |                |
  |       |Emperor.        |                |                |                |
  | =1750=|                |                |                |                |
  |       |1754-1763. OLD FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR OR SEVEN     |                |
  |       |YEARS WAR: ENGLAND AND PRUSSIA VS. FRANCE,        |1756. India:    |
  |       |AUSTRIA, RUSSIA, SPAIN AND SWEDEN. 1754-1763.     |Calcutta taken  |
  |       |                |                |                |by Surajah      |
  |       |                |                |1762. CATHERINE |Dowlah of       |
  |       |1763. Prussia and Austria hold   |II. reigns.     |Bengal; the     |
  |       |the balance of power on the      |                |Black Hole.     |
  |       |Continent.                       |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |_LESSING_ (1729-|1764. Poland:   |                |                |
  |       |1781).          |Stanislaus      |1768. War with  |1768. War be-   |
  |       |                |Poniatowski     |the Ottoman     |tween Russia and|
  |       |                |elected king.   |Empire.         |the Ottoman     |
  |       |                |                |                |Empire.         |
  |       |1772. JOSEPH II.|1772. First     |                |                |
  |       |takes part in   |partition of    |                |1773. Ottoman   |
  |       |the first parti-|Poland, among   |                |Empire: The Rus-|
  |       |tion of Poland, |Russia, Prussia |                |sians are re-   |
  |       |the territory   |and Austria.    |                |pulsed at Varna |
  |       |acquired being  |                |                |and Silistria.  |
  |       |made into the   |                |                |ABDUL HAMID suc-|
  |       |Kingdom of      |                |                |ceeds.          |
  |       |Galicia.        |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1774. Revolt of |1774. India:    |
  |       |_IMMANUEL KANT_ |                |the Cossacks.   |Warren Hastings,|
  |       |(1724-1804).    |                |Peace of        |first British   |
  |       |                |                |Kutchuk-Kainarji|governor-       |
  |       |                |                |between Russia  |general.        |
  |       |                |                |and Turkey.     |                |
  | =1775=|                |                |                |                |
  |       |1778. War of the|                |                |1778. India: War|
  |       |Bavarian succes-|                |                |between the     |
  |       |sion. Bavaria   |                |                |English and the |
  |       |seized by       |                |                |Mahrattas.      |
  |       |Germany.        |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |_MOZART_ (1756- |                |                |                |
  |       |1791).          |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1780. _Declaration of the Armed Neutrality for the|                |
  |       |protection of neutral flags_ against the right of |                |
  |       |maritime search claimed by England--joined by     |                |
  |       |Denmark and Sweden. Prussia and Austria, 1781.    |                |
  |       |Portugal, 1782.                                   |                |
  +-------+--------------------------------------------------+----------------+


XIII. FROM THE RECOGNITION OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE TO THE ESTABLISHMENT
OF THE SECOND FRENCH REPUBLIC, 1783-1848 A. D.

  GREAT EVENTS OF PERIOD. France chief power in Europe. Napoleon’s
  colossal power and downfall. Fall of despotisms and rise of
  Republicanism; great political advance of European people. Continued
  rapid advancement of science, inventions and discoveries. Increased
  philanthropic effort and intellectual enlightenment.

  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |=A. D.=|   =United States=   |   =Great Britain=   | =Spain and Portugal=|
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |                     |1787. Warren Hastings|1788. Charles IV.,   |
  |       |1789. GEORGE         |impeached.           |King.                |
  |       |WASHINGTON, Presi-   |                     |                     |
  |       |dent.                |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1793. Washington re- |1793. FIRST COALITION AGAINST FRANCE:      |
  |       |elected. Neutrality  |DIRECTED BY ENGLAND, _which forms alliances|
  |       |in regard to France. |with Russia, Sardinia, Spain, Naples, Prus-|
  |       |                     |sia, Austria, Portugal and Tuscany; all    |
  |       |_HAMILTON_ 1757-     |Europe except Sweden, Denmark and Turkey._ |
  |       |1804.                |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1796. Alliance with  |
  |       |1797. John Adams,    |1797. NELSON destroys|France; war against  |
  |       |second president.    |French fleet near    |England.             |
  |       |                     |Alexandria.          |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1798. SECOND COALITION AGAINST FRANCE:     |
  |       |                     |_Alliances of England with Russia, Naples, |
  |       |                     |Sicily, Turkey and Austria--Prussia, Hol-  |
  |       |                     |land and Belgium, neutral._                |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  | =1800=|                     |1800. Union of En-   |                     |
  |       |1801. THOMAS         |gland.               |                     |
  |       |JEFFERSON, third     |                     |                     |
  |       |president.           |_SIR WALTER SCOTT_   |                     |
  |       |                     |(1771-1832).         |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1803. Purchase of    |1803. Successful war |1803. Purchases neu- |
  |       |Louisiana.           |in India.            |trality with the     |
  |       |                     |                     |French by a subsidia-|
  |       |_JOHN MARSHALL_ 1755-|                     |ry treaty; declares  |
  |       |1835.                |                     |war against England, |
  |       |                     |                     |1804.                |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1805. THIRD COALITION AGAINST FRANCE:      |
  |       |                     |_formed by England; alliances with Sweden, |
  |       |                     |Russia and Austria--Prussia unfortunately  |
  |       |                     |neutral._                                  |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1805. Napoleon de-   |1805. =Battle of     |
  |       |                     |feated at Trafalgar. |Trafalgar.=          |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |_WORDSWORTH_ (1770-  |                     |
  |       |                     |1850).               |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1806. British Orders |1806. FOURTH COALITION AGAINST FRANCE:     |
  |       |in Council and Napo- |_England, Russia, Prussia, Saxony and      |
  |       |leon’s decrees seri- |Sweden._                                   |
  |       |ously impair American|                     |                     |
  |       |commerce.            |1807. Bill for the   |1807. Invasion of    |
  |       |                     |abolition of the     |Portugal.            |
  |       |                     |slave trade, passed. |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1808. Madrid taken by|
  |       |                     |                     |the French. Joseph   |
  |       |                     |                     |Bonaparte, King.     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1809. James Madison, |1809. FIFTH COALITION AGAINST FRANCE: _En- |
  |       |fourth president.    |gland, Austria, Spain and Portugal._       |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1812-1814. WAR OF 1812, between United     |1812. Battle of      |
  |       |States and Great Britain.                  |Salamanca.           |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1813. Perry’s victory|1813. SIXTH GREAT COALITION AGAINST FRANCE |
  |       |on Lake Erie.        |AND GENERAL INSURRECTION OF THE NATIONS OF |
  |       |                     |EUROPE AGAINST FRENCH DOMINION: _England,  |
  |       |                     |Russia, Prussia, Sweden and Austria after  |
  |       |                     |the Congress of Prague, with 800,000 men;  |
  |       |                     |against France, Italy, the Confederation of|
  |       |                     |the Rhine and Denmark, with about 400,000  |
  |       |                     |men._                                      |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1814. City of        |                     |1814. Ferdinand VII.,|
  |       |Washington burned by |                     |restored.            |
  |       |the British.         |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1815. British de-    |1815. WELLINGTON vic-|1815. Union of Portu-|
  |       |feated at New        |torious at Waterloo. |gal and Brazil under |
  |       |Orleans.             |The Allies enter     |John VI.             |
  |       |                     |Paris, and Napoleon  |                     |
  |       |                     |is banished to St.   |                     |
  |       |                     |Helena.              |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1816. U. S. Bank in- |1816. Bombardment of |                     |
  |       |corporated.          |Algiers. The Bey com-|                     |
  |       |                     |pelled to abolish    |                     |
  |       |1817. JAMES MONROE,  |slavery.             |1817. Slave trade    |
  |       |President.           |                     |abolished.           |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |First passage of the Atlantic by steam ef- |                     |
  |       |fected by the Savannah, of New York, to    |                     |
  |       |Liverpool.                                 |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1819. Florida        |                     |1819. Ferdinand of   |
  |       |purchase.            |1820-1830. GEORGE IV.|Spain sells Florida  |
  |       |                     |                     |to the United States.|
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1821. Monroe re-     |1821-1829. WAR OF GRECIAN INDEPENDENCE.    |
  |       |elected. Missouri    |GREEKS, AIDED BY ENGLAND, RUSSIA, AND      |
  |       |Compromise bill      |FRANCE VS. TURKS. 1821-1829.               |
  |       |passed.              |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1823. The CANNING    |                     |
  |       |1824. Visit of       |ministry.            |                     |
  |       |Lafayette.           |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |_GEORGE STEPHENSON_  |                     |
  | =1825=|1825. Erie Canal     |(1781-1848).         |                     |
  |       |opened. Protective   |                     |                     |
  |       |tariff enacted. J. Q.|1828. Wellington     |                     |
  |       |Adams, President.    |ministry. Irish      |                     |
  |       |                     |disturbances.        |                     |
  |       |_DANIEL WEBSTER_     |                     |                     |
  |       |1782-1852.           |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1829. ANDREW JACKSON,|                     |                     |
  |       |President.           |1830. William IV.,   |1830. Salic law      |
  |       |                     |King. Difficulties   |abolished.           |
  |       |                     |with China.          |                     |
  |       |1831. Northeastern   |                     |                     |
  |       |boundary between the |1832. =Reform Bill=  |                     |
  |       |United States and    |passed.              |                     |
  |       |British provinces    |                     |                     |
  |       |established.         |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1833. President      |                     |1833. Isabella II.,  |
  |       |Jackson re-elected.  |                     |Queen of Spain.      |
  |       |Bank deposits removed|                     |Portugal a constitu- |
  |       |from the U. S. Bank. |                     |tional monarchy.     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1836. Spain: The     |
  |       |                     |                     |queen regent adopts  |
  |       |                     |                     |the constitution of  |
  |       |                     |                     |1812.                |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1837. Independence of|1837. VICTORIA,      |1837. The monasteries|
  |       |Texas acknowledged.  |Queen.               |in Spain dissolved.  |
  |       |Martin Van Buren,    |                     |                     |
  |       |President.           |1840. War with China |                     |
  |       |                     |over the opium trade.|                     |
  |       |_EMERSON_ 1803-1882. |War in Syria; Great  |                     |
  |       |                     |Britain an ally of   |                     |
  |       |                     |Austria and Turkey.  |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1841. W. H. Harrison,|1841. Chinese war    |                     |
  |       |President. Death of  |ended.               |1842. Insurrection in|
  |       |Harrison and succes- |                     |Barcelona.           |
  |       |sion of John Tyler.  |_THOMAS CARLYLE_     |                     |
  |       |                     |1795-1884.           |                     |
  |       |_MORSE_ 1791-1872.   |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1844. Daniel         |                     |
  |       |1845. Texas annexed  |O’Connell’s trial.   |                     |
  |       |to the U. S. Treaty  |Sentence reversed by |                     |
  |       |with China. James K. |the House of Lords.  |                     |
  |       |Polk, President.     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1846-1848. WAR WITH  |1846. Repeal of the  |1846. Civil war in   |
  |       |MEXICO. The Oregon   |English corn-laws.   |Portugal.            |
  |       |treaty with Great    |                     |                     |
  |       |Britain settling the |1847. Severe famine  |                     |
  |       |northwestern boundary|in Ireland.          |                     |
  |       |of the United States.|                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1848. Treaty of      |1848. Civil war in   |                     |
  |       |Guadalupe Hidalgo,   |Ireland. Habeas      |                     |
  |       |ends Mexican War.    |Corpus Act suspended.|                     |
  |       |Gold discovered in   |                     |                     |
  |       |California.          |                     |                     |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+

  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |=A. D.=|       =France=      |  =Italy and Church= |  =Scandinavia, Hol- |
  |       |                     |                     |    land, Belgium,   |
  |       |                     |                     |     Switzerland=    |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |1787. First assembly |                     |                     |
  |       |of Notables.         |                     |                     |
  |       |Lafayette commander  |                     |                     |
  |       |of the national      |                     |                     |
  |       |guards.              |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1789-1799. FRENCH    |                     |                     |
  |       |REVOLUTION.          |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1792. War with       |                     |1792. Sweden:        |
  |       |Germany. France de-  |                     |Gustavus IV.         |
  |       |clared a republic.   |                     |                     |
  |       |Battle of =Valmy=.   |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1793. FIRST COALITION AGAINST FRANCE: DIRECTED BY ENGLAND, _which|
  |       |forms alliances with Russia, Sardinia, Spain, Naples, Prussia,   |
  |       |Austria, Portugal and Tuscany; all Europe except Sweden, Denmark |
  |       |and Turkey._                                                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1793. King and Queen |                     |                     |
  |       |beheaded. Reign of   |                     |                     |
  |       |Terror.              |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1795. =The           |                     |1795. Holland con-   |
  |       |Directorate.=        |                     |quered and the       |
  |       |                     |                     |Batavian Republic    |
  |       |1795. NAPOLEON       |                     |proclaimed.          |
  |       |BONAPARTE commands   |                     |                     |
  |       |the army.            |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1796. War in Italy.  |1796-1797. Napoleon’s|                     |
  |       |                     |Italian campaign.    |                     |
  |       |1797. Napoleon in    |                     |                     |
  |       |Austria.             |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1798. SECOND COALITION AGAINST FRANCE: _Alliances of England with|
  |       |Russia, Naples, Sicily, Turkey and Austria--Prussia, Holland and |
  |       |Belgium, neutral._                                               |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1798. Expedition to  |1798. Roman republic |1798. Swiss revolu-  |
  |       |Egypt.               |proclaimed by the    |tion. Helvetian Re-  |
  |       |                     |French.              |public declared.     |
  |       |1799. Swiss campaign.|                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  | =1800=|1800. Battle of      |                     |                     |
  |       |Marengo.             |                     |1801. Danish fleet at|
  |       |                     |                     |Copenhagen defeated  |
  |       |_Madame de Staël_    |                     |by Nelson.           |
  |       |(1766-1817).         |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1802-1815. NAPOLEONIC|1802. Napoleon,      |                     |
  |       |WARS.                |President of the     |                     |
  |       |                     |Italian Republic.    |                     |
  |       |1804-1814. =First    |                     |                     |
  |       |French Empire.=      |                     |                     |
  |       |Napoleon I., Emperor |                     |                     |
  |       |of the French.       |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |_BICHAT_ (1771-1802).|                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1804. Code Napoleon  |                     |                     |
  |       |published.           |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1805. THIRD COALITION AGAINST FRANCE: _formed by England; alli-  |
  |       |ances with Sweden, Russia and Austria--Prussia unfortunately     |
  |       |neutral._                                                        |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1805. May 26,        |1805. Napoleon       |                     |
  |       |Bonaparte crowned    |crowned King of      |                     |
  |       |King of Italy, at    |Italy.               |                     |
  |       |ilan. Naval defeat at|                     |                     |
  |       |Trafalgar. Austrian  |                     |                     |
  |       |campaign; battle of  |                     |                     |
  |       |Austerlitz. Peace of |                     |                     |
  |       |Presburg.            |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |_CUVIER_ (1769-1832).|                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1806. FOURTH COALITION AGAINST FRANCE: _England, Russia, Prussia,|
  |       |Saxony and Sweden._                                              |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1806. _Formation of  |                     |1806. Louis          |
  |       |the Confederation of |                     |Bonaparte, King of   |
  |       |the Rhine._ Victories|                     |Holland.             |
  |       |of Auerstädt and Jena|                     |                     |
  |       |over the Prussians.  |1808. Rome annexed by|1808. Denmark:       |
  |       |Berlin decree against|Napoleon to the king-|Frederick VI.        |
  |       |British commerce.    |dom of Italy.        |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1809. FIFTH COALITION AGAINST FRANCE: _England, Austria, Spain   |
  |       |and Portugal._                                                   |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1809. Papal states   |1809. Sweden: Charles|
  |       |                     |annexed to France.   |XIII.; Bernadotte be-|
  |       |                     |                     |comes prince royal.  |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1810. Continental    |                     |1810. Holland joined |
  |       |peace except with    |                     |to France.           |
  |       |Spain.               |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1810. Emperor marries|                     |                     |
  |       |Maria Louisa of      |                     |                     |
  |       |Austria.             |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1811. Napoleon II.,  |                     |                     |
  |       |King of Rome, born.  |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1812. Disastrous war |                     |                     |
  |       |against Russia. The  |                     |                     |
  |       |Poles declared a     |                     |                     |
  |       |nation by Napoleon.  |                     |                     |
  |       |Diet of Warsaw.      |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1813. SIXTH GREAT COALITION AGAINST FRANCE AND GENERAL INSURREC- |
  |       |TION OF THE NATIONS OF EUROPE AGAINST FRENCH DOMINION: _England, |
  |       |Russia, Prussia, Sweden and Austria after the Congress of Prague,|
  |       |with 800,000 men; against France, Italy, the Confederation of the|
  |       |Rhine and Denmark, with about 400,000 men._                      |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1814. Allies enter   |1814. Fall of        |1814. Union of Hol-  |
  |       |Paris. =House of     |Napoleon. Kingdom    |land and Belgium.    |
  |       |Bourbon.=            |ceases.              |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1814. =Union of      |
  |       |                     |                     |Sweden and Norway= as|
  |       |                     |                     |two kingdoms under   |
  |       |                     |                     |one monarch.         |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1815. Napoleon re-   |1815. Kingdom of Two |1815. William I.,    |
  |       |turns from Elba.     |Sicilies restored.   |King of Netherlands. |
  |       |=Hundred Days’ war.= |                     |=Battle of Waterloo= |
  |       |Abdication of        |                     |and defeat of        |
  |       |Napoleon.            |                     |Napoleon.            |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |TALLEYRAND (1754-    |                     |                     |
  |       |1838).               |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1818. France joins in|                     |1818. Sweden: CHARLES|
  |       |Holy Alliance.       |                     |XIV. (Bernadotte).   |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1821-1829. WAR OF GRECIAN INDEPENDENCE. GREEKS, AIDED BY ENGLAND,|
  |       |RUSSIA, AND FRANCE VS. TURKS. 1821-1829.                         |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1821. Death of       |1821. Austrian inva- |                     |
  |       |Napoleon at St.      |sion of Italy.       |                     |
  |       |Helena.              |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1824. CHARLES X.,    |                     |                     |
  | =1825=|King.                |1825. Death of       |                     |
  |       |                     |Ferdinand after reign|                     |
  |       |                     |of sixty-six years.  |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1827. Treaty between |                     |
  |       |                     |Russia and Turkey    |                     |
  |       |                     |respecting Greece.   |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1830. Algiers taken  |                     |1830. Belgium revolts|
  |       |by the French. Revo- |                     |from Holland, and is |
  |       |lution and abdication|                     |declared independent |
  |       |of Charles X. Louis  |                     |by the Great Powers. |
  |       |Philippe, King.      |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1831. Abolition of   |1831-1833. Formation |1831. Leopold I.,    |
  |       |hereditary peerage in|of Young Italy party |King of the Belgians.|
  |       |France.              |by Mazzini.          |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |New constitution for |
  |       |                     |                     |Denmark, Sleswick and|
  |       |                     |                     |Holstein; with repre-|
  |       |                     |                     |sentative local      |
  |       |                     |                     |councils.            |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1836. Insurrection   |                     |                     |
  |       |attempted by Louis   |                     |1839. Christian VIII.|
  |       |Napoleon at          |                     |succeeds.            |
  |       |Strasburg.           |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1840. William I. ab- |
  |       |_H. DE BALZAC_ (1799-|1843. King Otho of   |dicates as King of   |
  |       |1850).               |Greece compelled to  |Holland.             |
  |       |                     |accept a constitu-   |                     |
  |       |GUIZOT (1832-1848).  |tion.                |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1844. War with       |                     |                     |
  |       |Morocco.             |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |     =The Second     |                     |                     |
  |       |      Republic.=     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |_VICTOR HUGO_ 1802-  |                     |                     |
  |       |1885.                |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1848. Abdication of  |1848. Rising of the  |1848. Holland re-    |
  |       |Louis Philippe, and a|great Italian cities |ceives a constitu-   |
  |       |republic proclaimed. |in revolution. Roman |tion.                |
  |       |Louis Napoleon,      |republic overthrown. |                     |
  |       |President. Bloody in-|                     |Denmark: Frederick   |
  |       |surrection in Paris. |                     |VII., King; revolt of|
  |       |                     |                     |Schleswig-Holstein.  |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+

  +-------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+
  |=A. D.=|    =Germany=   |  =Prussia and  |    =Russia=    |   =Ottomans,   |
  |       |                |     Poland=    |                |  China, India, |
  |       |                |                |                |     Japan=     |
  +-------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+
  |       |_SCHILLER_      |1786. Prussia:  |                |                |
  |       |(1759-1805).    |Death of        |1787. War with  |1787. Disastrous|
  |       |                |Frederick the   |the Turks.      |war with Austria|
  |       |1792. War with  |Great. Frederick|                |and Russia.     |
  |       |France.         |William II.     |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1793. FIRST COALITION AGAINST FRANCE: DIRECTED BY |                |
  |       |ENGLAND, _which forms alliances with Russia,      |                |
  |       |Sardinia, Spain, Naples, Prussia, Austria,        |                |
  |       |Portugal and Tuscany; all Europe except Sweden,   |                |
  |       |Denmark and Turkey._                              |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |1793. Second    |                |                |
  |       |                |partition of    |                |                |
  |       |_GOETHE_ (1749- |Poland by Russia|                |                |
  |       |1832).          |and Prussia.    |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |1794. Polish re-|                |                |
  |       |                |volt at Cracow. |                |                |
  |       |                |Revolt under    |                |                |
  |       |                |Kosciuszko.     |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |1795. Final     |                |                |
  |       |                |partition of    |1796. Unsuccess-|                |
  |       |1797. Napoleon’s|Poland; extinc- |ful war with    |                |
  |       |Austrian cam-   |tion of the     |Persia.         |                |
  |       |paign. Peace of |kingdom.        |                |                |
  |       |Campo Formio in |                |                |                |
  |       |which Austria   |                |                |                |
  |       |cedes Belgium   |                |                |                |
  |       |and Lombardy re-|                |                |                |
  |       |ceiving Venetia.|                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1798. SECOND COALITION AGAINST FRANCE: _Alliances of England with  |
  |       |Russia, Naples, Sicily, Turkey and Austria--Prussia, Holland and   |
  |       |Belgium, neutral._                                                 |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |1798. Prussia:  |                |1798. War with  |
  |       |                |Frederick       |                |the French in   |
  |       |                |William III.    |                |Egypt.          |
  | =1800=|                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |1801. ALEXANDER |                |                |
  |       |1803. =End of   |I.              |                |1803. Insurrec- |
  |       |the Holy Roman  |                |                |tion of         |
  |       |Empire.=        |                |                |Mamelukes at    |
  |       |FRANCES II.     |                |                |Cairo.          |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |1803. India:    |
  |       |1804. The       |                |1804. War with  |Great Mahratta  |
  |       |Emperor of      |                |Persia.         |War.            |
  |       |Germany assumes |                |                |                |
  |       |the title of    |                |                |                |
  |       |Emperor of      |                |                |                |
  |       |Austria.        |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |  =Confederation of the Rhine.=  |                |                |
  |       |Prussia henceforth the center of |                |                |
  |       |the German federate system.      |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |_HEGEL_ (1770-  |                |                |                |
  |       |1831).          |                |                |                |
  |       |1805. THIRD COALITION AGAINST FRANCE: _formed by  |                |
  |       |England; alliances with Sweden, Russia and Austria|                |
  |       |--Prussia unfortunately neutral._                 |                |
  |       |                                                  |                |
  |       |1805. Battle of Austerlitz.                       |                |
  |       |                                                  |                |
  |       |NAPOLEON PROTECTOR OF THE CONFEDERATION OF THE    |                |
  |       |RHINE.                                            |                |
  |       |                                                  |                |
  |       |1806. FOURTH COALITION AGAINST FRANCE: _England,  |                |
  |       |Russia, Prussia, Saxony and Sweden._              |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1807. Victories |                |1807. Treaty of |1807. War       |
  |       |of Eylau and of |                |Tilsit.         |against Russia  |
  |       |Friedland are   |                |                |and England.    |
  |       |followed by the |                |                |                |
  |       |peace of Tilsit |                |                |                |
  |       |in which Prussia|                |                |                |
  |       |loses her Polish|                |                |                |
  |       |territories.    |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |_BEETHOVEN_     |                |                |                |
  |       |(1770-1827).    |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1809. Battles of|                |                |                |
  |       |Eckmühl, Aspern |1812. The Poles |1812. Russian   |                |
  |       |and Wagram.     |declared a      |campaign. Inva- |                |
  |       |Peace of Vienna.|nation by       |sion of         |                |
  |       |Austria cedes   |Napoleon. Diet  |Napoleon. Moscow|                |
  |       |territory to    |of Warsaw.      |burned.         |                |
  |       |Russia, Bavaria |                |                |                |
  |       |and France.     |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |_A. VON         |                |                |                |
  |       |HUMBOLDT_ (1769-|                |                |                |
  |       |1859).          |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1813. SIXTH GREAT COALITION AGAINST FRANCE AND    |                |
  |       |GENERAL INSURRECTION OF THE NATIONS OF EUROPE     |                |
  |       |AGAINST FRENCH DOMINION: _England, Russia,        |                |
  |       |Prussia, Sweden and Austria after the Congress of |                |
  |       |Prague, with 800,000 men; against France, Italy,  |                |
  |       |the Confederation of the Rhine and Denmark, with  |                |
  |       |about 400,000 men._                               |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1813. War of    |                |                |1813. Servia in-|
  |       |German indepen- |                |                |vaded by Turkish|
  |       |dence. Battle of|                |                |army.           |
  |       |Leipsic.        |                |                |                |
  |       |Bonaparte driven|                |                |1814. Malta     |
  |       |to the Rhine.   |                |                |falls to        |
  |       |                |                |                |England.        |
  |       |1815. =Congress |                |1815. Joins the |                |
  |       |of Vienna ef-   |                |“Holy Alliance”:|                |
  |       |fects the poli- |                |Russia, Prussia |                |
  |       |tical recon-    |                |and Austria,    |                |
  |       |struction of    |                |later joined by |                |
  |       |Europe.=        |                |France. Poland  |                |
  |       |Germanic Con-   |                |united to       |                |
  |       |federation      |                |Russia.         |                |
  |       |organized.      |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1817. Population|                |                |                |
  |       |28,000,000.     |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1818. Napoleon’s|1818. The       |                |                |
  |       |son made Duke of|=Zollverein=    |                |                |
  |       |Reichstadt.     |formed.         |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |METTERNICH      |1819. Death of  |1819. Establish-|                |
  |       |(1773-1859).    |Marshal Blucher.|ment of military|                |
  |       |                |                |colonies. Liber-|                |
  |       |                |                |ty of the press |                |
  |       |                |                |in Poland nulli-|                |
  |       |                |                |fied.           |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1821-1829. WAR OF GRECIAN INDEPENDENCE. GREEKS, AIDED BY ENGLAND,  |
  |       |RUSSIA, AND FRANCE VS. TURKS. 1821-1829.                           |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1821. Congress  |                |                |                |
  |       |of monarchs at  |                |                |1822. Greek     |
  |       |Laybach.        |                |                |declaration of  |
  |       |                |                |                |independence.   |
  |       |                |                |                |Massacre of Scio|
  |       |                |                |                |and capture of  |
  |       |                |                |                |Acropolis of    |
  |       |                |                |                |Athens by       |
  |       |                |                |                |patriots.       |
  | =1825=|                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1826. NICHOLAS  |1826. Greece:   |
  |       |                |                |I. crowned at   |Missolonghi and |
  |       |                |                |Moscow. War     |Athens (1827)   |
  |       |                |                |against Persia. |taken by the    |
  |       |                |                |                |Turks.          |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1828. Russia: War declared       |
  |       |1829-1834. Prussia, Bavaria, and |against Turkey. By the peace of  |
  |       |finally all Germany, save        |Turkmantchai, Persian Armenia is |
  |       |Austria, unite in a Zollverein or|acquired.                        |
  |       |Customs-Union, which gave great  |                |                |
  |       |impetus to trade and helped to-  |                |                |
  |       |wards national unity.            |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1831. Austria   |                |                |                |
  |       |interferes in   |1832. Poland    |1832. Kingdom of|                |
  |       |Italian affairs.|made part of    |Greece founded. |                |
  |       |                |Empire.         |                |                |
  |       |1836. Visit of  |                |                |                |
  |       |the Emperor of  |                |                |                |
  |       |Russia.         |                |                |                |
  |       |Ferdinand I.,   |                |                |                |
  |       |Emperor.        |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1838. Commercial|                |1838. Smuggling |                |
  |       |treaty with En- |                |carried on ex-  |1839-1842.      |
  |       |gland.          |1840. Frederick |tensively.      |China: Opium War|
  |       |                |William, King.  |                |with Great      |
  |       |_RICHARD WAGNER_|                |                |Britain. Hong   |
  |       |1813-1883.      |                |                |Kong ceded to   |
  |       |                |                |                |latter.         |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |1843. Greece:   |
  |       |                |                |                |King Otho com-  |
  |       |                |                |                |pelled to accept|
  |       |                |                |                |constitution,   |
  |       |                |                |                |Sept. 15.       |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |1844. China:    |
  |       |                |                |1845. Emperor   |Commercial      |
  |       |1847. Austria   |                |visits England. |treaty with     |
  |       |takes possession|                |                |United States.  |
  |       |of Cracow.      |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1848. Revolution|1848. Insurrec- |                |                |
  |       |in Hungary.     |tion in Berlin. |                |                |
  |       |FRANCIS JOSEPH, |                |                |                |
  |       |Emperor. Kossuth|                |                |                |
  |       |withdraws his   |                |                |                |
  |       |army from       |                |                |                |
  |       |Vienna.         |                |                |                |
  +-------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+


XIV. FROM THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SECOND FRENCH REPUBLIC TO THE
FOUNDING OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE, 1848-1871 A. D.

  GREAT EVENTS OF PERIOD. Continued rapid advancement of science,
  inventions and discoveries. Increased philanthropic effort and
  intellectual enlightenment. Unification of Italy. Commercial
  treaties with China and Japan. American Civil War. Union of Austria
  and Hungary. Franco-Prussian War. Establishment of the German
  Empire.

  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |=A. D.=|   =United States=   | =Spain and Portugal=|   =Great Britain=   |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |1849. Zachary Taylor,|                     |1849. Mooltan in     |
  |       |President. Railroad  |                     |India taken.         |
  |       |from Boston to New   |                     |                     |
  |       |York.                |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  | =1850=|1850. Attempted inva-|                     |1850. The war in     |
  |       |sion of Cuba by fili-|                     |Lahore ended. The    |
  |       |busters. Death of    |                     |Punjab annexed to the|
  |       |President Taylor;    |                     |British Crown.       |
  |       |Millard Fillmore,    |                     |                     |
  |       |President. Texas     |                     |1850-1853. Kafir War |
  |       |boundary settled.    |                     |in South Africa.     |
  |       |Fugitive Slave Law   |                     |                     |
  |       |passed.              |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1851. Erie railway   |1851. Death of Dodoy,|1851. Continuance of |
  |       |opened. Charleston   |“Prince of Peace.”   |the Kafir war.       |
  |       |Convention. Kossuth  |                     |Kossuth visits En-   |
  |       |arrives in New York. |                     |gland.               |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1853. Franklin       |                     |1853. Queen Victoria |
  |       |Pierce, President.   |                     |visits Ireland. Kafir|
  |       |Gadsden Purchase.    |                     |war ended.           |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1854. Treaty with    |1854. Military insur-|1854-1856. CRIMEAN   |
  |       |Japan. Kansas-       |rection under        |WAR. Treaty of       |
  |       |Nebraska Bill passed.|O’Donnell.           |alliance with France.|
  |       |Ostend Manifesto     |                     |                     |
  |       |issued.              |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1855. Panama Railroad|                     |1855. British fleet  |
  |       |completed. Troubles  |                     |bombards and partial-|
  |       |in Kansas.           |                     |ly destroys Canton,  |
  |       |                     |                     |China.               |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |_ROBERT BROWNING_    |
  |       |                     |                     |(1812-1889).         |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1857. Dred Scott de- |                     |1857-1858. SEPOY     |
  |       |cision. James        |                     |MUTINY. Sepoys vs.   |
  |       |Buchanan, President. |                     |English.             |
  |       |Great financial      |                     |                     |
  |       |panic.               |                     |1858. Completion of  |
  |       |                     |                     |the Atlantic tele-   |
  |       |1859. John Brown     |1859. War with       |graph cable.         |
  |       |captures Harpers     |Morocco.             |                     |
  |       |Ferry.               |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1860. South Carolina |1860. Defeat of the  |1860. Rebellion in   |
  |       |passes ordinance of  |Moors.               |India subdued. Neu-  |
  |       |secession.           |                     |trality proclaimed   |
  |       |                     |                     |during the American  |
  |       |                     |                     |Civil War.           |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1861-1865. AMERICAN  |1861. Annexation of  |_TENNYSON_ (1809-    |
  |       |CIVIL WAR. Federal   |Santo Domingo. Inter-|1892).               |
  |       |Government of United |vention in Mexico.   |                     |
  |       |States vs. Southern  |                     |_DARWIN_ 1809-1882.  |
  |       |Confederacy. ABRAHAM |                     |                     |
  |       |LINCOLN, President.  |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1863. =Battle of     |                     |                     |
  |       |Gettysburg.=         |1864. Rupture with   |                     |
  |       |                     |Peru.                |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1865. Assassination  |1865. Dispute with   |1865. Fenian out-    |
  |       |of President Lincoln;|Chile.               |breaks in Ireland.   |
  |       |Andrew Johnson,      |                     |British and French   |
  |       |President.           |                     |governments rescind  |
  |       |                     |                     |their recognition of |
  |       |1866. Civil Rights   |1866. Military insur-|the Confederate      |
  |       |Bill passed. Atlantic|rection headed by    |States of America.   |
  |       |telegraph completed. |General Prim.        |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1867. General        |1867. Death of       |                     |
  |       |amnesty proclamation.|Marshal O’Donnell.   |                     |
  |       |Purchase of Alaska.  |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1868. Burlingame     |1868. Queen deposed. |1868. GLADSTONE,     |
  |       |treaty with China.   |                     |Premier              |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1869. U. S. GRANT,   |                     |                     |
  |       |President. Union     |1870. Isabella II.   |1870. Irish Land Act |
  |       |Pacific railway      |abdicates; Amadeus,  |passed.              |
  |       |opened for traffic.  |King.                |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |_HERBERT SPENCER_    |
  |       |                     |1871. Sagasta, Prime |(1820-1903).         |
  |       |                     |Minister.            |                     |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+

  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |=A. D.=|       =France=      |  =Italy and Church= |  =Holland, Belgium, |
  |       |                     |                     |     Switzerland,    |
  |       |                     |                     |     Scandinavia=    |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |1848-1852. =Second   |                     |                     |
  |       |Republic.=           |1849. Catania,       |                     |
  |       |                     |Syracuse, and Palermo|                     |
  | =1850=|1850. Jerome         |taken by assault.    |1850. Denmark: Bloody|
  |       |Bonaparte, Field-    |MAZZINI’S proclama-  |battle of Idstedt,   |
  |       |Marshal.             |tion of provisional  |between the Danes and|
  |       |                     |government. VICTOR   |Schleswig-           |
  |       |                     |EMANUEL, King. Rome  |Holsteiners.         |
  |       |                     |surrenders to the    |                     |
  |       |                     |French; Garibaldi    |                     |
  |       |                     |leaves city. Bourbon |                     |
  |       |                     |rule begins.         |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1852-1870. =Second   |1852. CAVOUR becomes |                     |
  |       |Empire.=             |Prime Minister in    |1853. Denmark:       |
  |       |                     |Piedmont.            |Parliament prorogued |
  |       |1852. NAPOLEON III.  |                     |and a “fundamental”  |
  |       |declared Emperor.    |                     |law issued.          |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1853. Belgium: Mar-  |
  |       |1854. War declared   |                     |riage of the Duke of |
  |       |against Russia.      |1855. Important con- |Brabant, heir-       |
  |       |                     |cordant between Italy|apparent of the      |
  |       |1856. Peace with     |and Austria.         |throne, and the Arch-|
  |       |Russia.              |                     |duchess Maria.       |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |Holland: The first   |
  |       |                     |                     |chamber adopts the   |
  |       |                     |                     |much-disputed law on |
  |       |                     |                     |religious liberty.   |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1859. THE WAR OF     |                     |1859. Sweden: Oscar  |
  |       |ITALIAN LIBERATION.  |                     |I., died July 8; suc-|
  |       |Sardinia-Piedmont and|                     |ceeded by his son    |
  |       |France vs. Austria.  |                     |Charles XV.          |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1860. Commercial     |1860. GARIBALDI lands|                     |
  |       |treaty with England. |in Sicily, and as-   |                     |
  |       |                     |sumes dictatorship.  |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1861. Victor Emanuel |                     |
  |       |                     |II., King of         |                     |
  |       |                     |Sardinia, first King |                     |
  |       |                     |of Italy.            |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1862. Great distress |1862. Garibaldi es-  |                     |
  |       |caused by American   |tablishes a provisio-|                     |
  |       |Civil War.           |nal government.      |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1863. The French     |                     |1863. Denmark:       |
  |       |occupy Mexico.       |                     |Christian IX. suc-   |
  |       |                     |                     |ceeds Frederick VII. |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1864. Maximilian ac- |1864. Florence made  |1864. Peace between  |
  |       |cepts Mexican crown. |capital of Italy.    |Denmark and the      |
  |       |                     |                     |allies, to whom      |
  |       |                     |                     |Schleswig-Holstein   |
  |       |                     |                     |and Lauenburg are    |
  |       |                     |                     |surrendered.         |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1865. Ionian Isles   |1865. Leopold II.    |
  |       |                     |made over to Greece. |succeeds his father, |
  |       |                     |                     |Leopold I. in        |
  |       |                     |1866. Austrian War.  |Belgium.             |
  |       |                     |Venetia proclaimed a |                     |
  |       |                     |part of Italy.       |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1867. Great exposi-  |1867. Garibaldi and  |                     |
  |       |tion in Paris.       |the Papal States.    |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |_PASTEUR_ 1822-1895. |1869. Vatican Council|                     |
  |       |                     |opened at Rome.      |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1870. =Third         |1870. Rome is annexed|                     |
  |       |Republic.=           |to Italy and declared|                     |
  |       |                     |the capital.         |                     |
  |       |1870-1871. FRANCO-   |                     |                     |
  |       |PRUSSIAN WAR. France |                     |                     |
  |       |vs. Prussia supported|                     |                     |
  |       |by all German States |                     |                     |
  |       |including South.     |                     |                     |
  |       |=Battle of Sedan.=   |                     |_HENRIK IBSEN_ 1828- |
  |       |Surrender of Metz.   |                     |1908.                |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1871. Capitulation of|                     |                     |
  |       |Paris. Peace rati-   |                     |                     |
  |       |fied.                |                     |                     |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+

  +-------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+
  |=A. D.=|    =The German Confederation=   |    =Russia=    |=Turkey, Greece,|
  |       +----------------+----------------+                |  China, India, |
  |       |    =Prussia=   |    =Austria=   |                |     Japan=     |
  +-------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+
  |       |1849. The king  |1849. New con-  |1849. Aids      |                |
  |       |declines the Im-|stitution       |Austria in sub- |                |
  |       |perial Crown.   |promulgated.    |duing Hungary.  |                |
  |       |Armistice be-   |                |                |                |
  |       |tween Prussia   |                |                |                |
  |       |and Denmark.    |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  | =1850=|1850. Treaty of |                |1850. Harbor of |1850. Turkey:   |
  |       |peace with      |                |Sebastopol com- |Insurrection in |
  |       |Denmark. New    |                |pleted.         |Bosnia.         |
  |       |constitution for|                |                |                |
  |       |Prussia.        |                |                |1850-1864.      |
  |       |                |                |                |China: Taiping  |
  |       |                |1851. LOUIS     |                |rebellion.      |
  |       |                |KOSSUTH sen-    |                |                |
  |       |                |tenced to death |                |                |
  |       |                |at Pesth.       |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |1852. Emperor of|                |1852. Greece:   |
  |       |1853. Plot to   |Austria visits  |1853. War de-   |Convention of   |
  |       |overthrow the   |Emperor of      |clared against  |London by En-   |
  |       |government.     |Prussia.        |Turkey.         |gland, France,  |
  |       |                |                |                |Prussia, Bavaria|
  |       |                |                |                |and Greece in   |
  |       |                |                |                |reference to the|
  |       |                |                |                |affairs of      |
  |       |                |                |                |Greece.         |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |1852. Turkey:   |
  |       |                |                |                |War between the |
  |       |                |                |                |Turks and       |
  |       |                |                |                |Montenegrins.   |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1854. Treaty    |1854. Alliance  |1854-1856. CRIMEAN WAR. Russia   |
  |       |with Austria,   |with England and|vs. Turkey aided by Great        |
  |       |offensive and   |France.         |Britain, France and Sardinia.    |
  |       |defensive.      |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1854. War with  |1854. Japan:    |
  |       |                |                |France and En-  |Treaty with the |
  |       |                |                |gland. Siege of |United States.  |
  |       |                |                |Sebastopol.     |                |
  |       |                |                |Battle of Balak-|                |
  |       |                |                |lava.           |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1855. Death of  |                |
  |       |                |                |Nicholas I.     |                |
  |       |                |                |Alexander II.,  |                |
  |       |                |                |Emperor.        |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |1856. Hungarians|1856. Destruc-  |                |
  |       |                |granted amnesty.|tion of         |1857-1858. Sepoy|
  |       |                |                |Sebastopol      |Mutiny.         |
  |       |                |                |docks. Evacua-  |                |
  |       |                |                |tion of Crimea. |1857-1860.      |
  |       |                |                |                |China: Second   |
  |       |                |                |1858. Partial   |war with Great  |
  |       |1859. THE WAR OF ITALIAN LIBERA- |emancipation of |Britain.        |
  |       |TION.                            |the serfs.      |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |Peace after     |                |                |
  |       |                |battle of       |                |                |
  |       |                |Solferino.      |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1861. WILLIAM   |1861. New con-  |                |                |
  |       |I., King.       |stitution for   |                |                |
  |       |                |the Austrian    |                |                |
  |       |                |monarchy.       |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1862. BISMARCK, |1862. Amnesty to|1862.           |1862. Bloody    |
  |       |Premier.        |political offen-|Nesselrode,     |conflict between|
  |       |                |ders in Hungary.|Chancellor.     |Servians and    |
  |       |                |                |                |Turks in        |
  |       |1863. King re-  |                |1863. Termina-  |Belgrade.       |
  |       |solves to govern|                |tion of serfdom.|                |
  |       |without parlia- |                |                |                |
  |       |ment. Congress  |                |                |                |
  |       |of German sover-|                |                |                |
  |       |eigns at Frank- |                |                |                |
  |       |fort. “One      |                |                |                |
  |       |Federal State”  |                |                |                |
  |       |proposed.       |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1864. DANISH WAR. Austria and    |1864. Emigration|1864. George of |
  |       |Prussia vs. Denmark.             |of Caucasian    |Denmark becomes |
  |       |                |                |tribes into     |King of Greece. |
  |       |                |                |Turkey.         |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1866-1871. =North German Confede-|1866. Inaugura- |                |
  |       |ration.=                         |tion of trial by|                |
  |       |                |                |jury. War with  |                |
  |       |1866. AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR. Prus- |Bokhara.        |                |
  |       |sia with smaller North German    |                |                |
  |       |States and Italy vs. Austria,    |                |                |
  |       |Hanover, Saxony and South German |                |                |
  |       |States.                          |   =Austria-    |                |
  |       |                |                |    Hungary=    |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1867. North     |1867. Autonomy  |1867. Alaska    |                |
  |       |German Constitu-|for Hungary an- |sold to the     |1868. Japan: End|
  |       |tion accepted.  |nounced. Emperor|United States.  |of the          |
  |       |                |crowned King of |                |Shogunate.      |
  |       |                |Hungary.        |                |Restoration of  |
  |       |_HELMHOLTZ_     |                |                |the Mikado.     |
  |       |1821-1894.      |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1870-1871.      |1870. Concordat |                |                |
  |       |FRANCO-PRUSSIAN |with Rome sus-  |                |                |
  |       |WAR. Battle of  |pended.         |                |                |
  |       |Sedan.          |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1871- ----.     |                |                |                |
  |       |=House of Hohen-|                |                |                |
  |       |zollern.=       |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1871. King of   |1871. New German|1871. Electric  |1871. Japan:    |
  |       |Prussia pro-    |Empire recog-   |telegraph be-   |Feudalism       |
  |       |claimed Emperor |nized.          |tween Russia and|abolished.      |
  |       |of Germany.     |                |Japan.          |                |
  +-------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+


XV. FROM THE FOUNDING OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE TO THE CLOSE OF THE EUROPEAN
WAR AND THE RECONSTRUCTION OF EUROPE, 1871- ----

  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |=A. D.=|   =United States=   | =Spain and Portugal=|   =Great Britain=   |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |                     |                     |1873. Payment of     |
  |       |                     |1874. Alfonso XII.,  |Alabama claims to the|
  |       |                     |king.                |United States.       |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  | =1875=|                     |1875. Civil war.     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1876. Queen Victoria |
  |       |1877. R. B. Hayes,   |                     |proclaimed Empress of|
  |       |president.           |                     |India.               |
  | =1880=|                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1881. James A.       |                     |                     |
  |       |Garfield, president. |                     |1882. Attempt on life|
  |       |President Garfield   |1883. Sagasta again  |of Queen Victoria.   |
  |       |assassinated, July   |minister.            |                     |
  |       |2d; Chester A.       |                     |                     |
  |       |Arthur, president.   |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1885. Grover         |                     |                     |
  |       |Cleveland, president.|                     |1887. Queen’s        |
  |       |                     |                     |Jubilee.             |
  |       |Apache Indian War.   |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1889. Benjamin       |1889. Trial by jury  |1889. Great labor    |
  |       |Harrison, president. |first put in force.  |strikes.             |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |Johnstown flood.     |Accession of Carlos  |                     |
  |       |                     |I. to Portuguese     |                     |
  |       |                     |throne on death of   |                     |
  |       |                     |his father, Luis I.  |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  | =1890=|1890. McKinley tariff|1890. Castillo,      |1890. Stanley returns|
  |       |bill passed.         |premier.             |from Africa.         |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1893. Grover         |1893. War with       |1893. Behring Sea    |
  |       |Cleveland, president.|Morocco.             |arbitration.         |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |Chinese exclusion    |                     |1894. Manchester ship|
  |       |bill approved.       |                     |canal opened.        |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |World’s Columbian ex-|                     |                     |
  |       |position at Chicago. |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1897. William        |1897. Assassination  |1897. Blackwell      |
  |       |McKinley, president. |of Premier Canovas   |tunnel opened. The   |
  |       |                     |del Castillo. Scheme |Queen’s Diamond      |
  |       |                     |of Cuban autonomy    |Jubilee celebrated.  |
  |       |                     |approved.            |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1898. Destruction of |                     |1898. Death of       |
  |       |the “Maine” at       |                     |Gladstone. Irish     |
  |       |Havana. Spanish-     |                     |local government bill|
  |       |American war between |                     |passed. Imperial     |
  |       |United States and    |                     |penny postage goes   |
  |       |Spain. Treaty of     |                     |into effect.         |
  |       |Paris.               |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1899. Cuba is re-    |1899. Death of       |1899. The Boer war in|
  |       |linquished by Spain. |Premier Canovas of   |South Africa.        |
  |       |Philippines and Porto|Spain.               |                     |
  |       |Rico acquired.       |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |Spain sells the      |                     |
  | =1900=|1900. Civil govern   |Caroline, Pelew and  |1900. Field Marshal  |
  |       |ment established in  |Ladrone islands to   |Roberts takes command|
  |       |the Philippines.     |Germany.             |in South Africa.     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |Chinese troubles.    |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1901. Assassination  |                     |1901. Census of the  |
  |       |of President McKinley|                     |Indian empire taken. |
  |       |by the anarchist     |                     |Death of Queen       |
  |       |Czolgosz. Capture of |                     |Victoria and acces-  |
  |       |Aguinaldo. Death of  |                     |sion of Edward VII.  |
  |       |ex-President         |                     |                     |
  |       |Harrison.            |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1902. Cuban indepen- |1902. Alfonso XIII., |1902. The British-   |
  |       |dence under Platt    |king.                |Japanese alliance    |
  |       |amendment. President |                     |signed. Boer war     |
  |       |Roosevelt recommends |                     |ended. Marquis of    |
  |       |the purchase of the  |                     |Salisbury resigns as |
  |       |Panama Canal company.|                     |premier.             |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1903. Panama Canal   |                     |1903. King Edward    |
  |       |treaty signed with   |                     |visits the king of   |
  |       |Colombia. Commercial |                     |Italy. Irish land    |
  |       |treaty with China    |                     |bill passed the      |
  |       |signed. Independence |                     |Houses of Parliament.|
  |       |of Panama recognized.|                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1904. Great Baltimore|1904. Death of ex-   |1904. Col. Young-    |
  |       |fire. U. S. Senator  |Queen Isabella at    |husband enters Tibet.|
  |       |Burton convicted of  |Paris.               |                     |
  |       |malfeasance in       |                     |                     |
  |       |office. St. Louis    |                     |                     |
  |       |exposition opened.   |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1905. Protocol with  |1905. Attempted      |1905. Resignation of |
  |       |Santo Domingo.       |assassination of the |Lord Curson as vice- |
  |       |                     |king in Paris.       |roy of India.        |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1906. Riot at        |1906. King Alfonso   |1906. King Edward    |
  |       |Brownsville, Texas.  |married to Princess  |visits Paris.        |
  |       |The president visited|Victoria of England. |                     |
  |       |Panama. Great earth- |                     |                     |
  |       |quake at San Francis-|                     |                     |
  |       |co.                  |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1907. Philippine     |1907. King and queen |1907. King Edward and|
  |       |assembly opened.     |visit England.       |Emperor Francis      |
  |       |                     |                     |Joseph meet at Ischl.|
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1908. Voyage of the  |                     |1908. Asquith,       |
  |       |Pacific fleet to     |                     |premier.             |
  |       |Asiatic waters.      |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1909. Tariff revised.|                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  | =1910=|1910. Elections re-  |1910. Spain recalled |1910. Death of King  |
  |       |sult in great        |its envoy to the     |Edward VII. Accession|
  |       |Democratic gains.    |vatican.             |of George V.         |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |Portugal becomes a   |                     |
  |       |                     |republic.            |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1911. Extra session  |1911. Further crea-  |1911. King George    |
  |       |of Congress called by|tion of religious    |formally opens the   |
  |       |President Taft. Cana-|orders prohibited.   |British Parliament.  |
  |       |dian reciprocity bill|                     |                     |
  |       |passed.              |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1912. Tariff revision|                     |1912. King George re-|
  |       |begun by Congress.   |                     |turns from Durbar, in|
  |       |                     |                     |India. Steamship     |
  |       |                     |                     |“Titanic” sinks with |
  |       |                     |                     |appalling loss of    |
  |       |                     |                     |life.                |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1913. Democratic     |1913. Continued      |1913. Colonies aid   |
  |       |Party comes into     |Strife between       |policy of Naval Ex-  |
  |       |power. Parcels Post  |Royalists and Re-    |pansion.             |
  |       |System inaugurated.  |publicans.           |                     |
  |       |Woodrow Wilson in-   |                     |                     |
  |       |augurated president. |Attempted assassina- |                     |
  |       |                     |tion of King Alfonso.|                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |=Greatest European War in History begins with the British Empire,|
  |       |France, Russia, Belgium, Japan, Servia, Italy, Portugal and      |
  |       |Roumania on one side, and Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and   |
  |       |Bulgaria on the other.=                                          |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1914. Anti-trust     |1914. Portuguese     |1914. King George    |
  |       |legislation begun in |cabinet resigns,     |urges mutual conces- |
  |       |Congress. Declares   |Bernardino Machado,  |sions in Irish Home  |
  |       |neutrality in the    |premier. Portugal    |Rule controversy.    |
  |       |European war. New    |supports the Triple  |                     |
  |       |regional banking sys-|Entente.             |Wages war on the     |
  |       |tem goes into opera- |                     |Teutonic Alliance as |
  |       |tion. Panama Canal   |                     |a member of Triple   |
  |       |officially opened.   |                     |Entente.             |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1915. American pro-  |1915. The Spanish    |1915. War Council    |
  |       |tectorate established|cabinet resigns.     |created to direct the|
  |       |over Haiti. La       |Spain maintains      |policies of the Al-  |
  |       |Follette Seaman’s Act|strict neutrality in |lies in the European |
  |       |passed by Congress.  |European war.        |war. Gigantic war    |
  |       |Diplomatic inter-    |                     |loans strain British |
  |       |changes with Germany |                     |finances. The British|
  |       |concerning rights of |                     |blockade of the      |
  |       |neutral ships.       |                     |Central Powers only  |
  |       |Carranza government  |                     |partially successful.|
  |       |in Mexico recognized |                     |                     |
  |       |by the United States.|                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1916. Year of great  |1916. Martial law is |1916. British and    |
  |       |industrial and com-  |declared throughout  |French forces compel-|
  |       |mercial activity and |Spain on account of  |led to withdraw from |
  |       |high prices. Woodrow |the widespread rail- |operations against   |
  |       |Wilson re-elected    |way strike.          |the Dardanelles with |
  |       |President.           |                     |disastrous losses.   |
  |       |                     |                     |Rebellious uprising  |
  |       |Woman suffrage a pro-|                     |in Ireland suppressed|
  |       |nounced political    |                     |by military force.   |
  |       |power. Santo Domingo |                     |Home Rule agitation  |
  |       |passes under the     |                     |continues. Asquith   |
  |       |military rule of the |                     |cabinet overthrown,  |
  |       |United States. Presi-|                     |and David Lloyd      |
  |       |dent sends a military|                     |George made premier  |
  |       |force into Mexico.   |                     |with practically dic-|
  |       |                     |                     |tatorial powers.     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1917. Famous “Peace  |1917. Seventh attempt|1917. Great Britain  |
  |       |Note” issued to the  |made upon the life of|rejects the peace    |
  |       |nations of the world |King Alfonso.        |overtures of the     |
  |       |by President Wilson. |                     |Central Powers.      |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |Rupture with Germany,|                     |Sends envoys, headed |
  |       |and diplomatic rela- |                     |by ex-premier        |
  |       |tions severed.       |                     |Balfour, to United   |
  |       |                     |                     |States for an Allied |
  |       |War declared by the  |                     |War Council.         |
  |       |United States on Ger-|                     |                     |
  |       |many, and war loan of|                     |                     |
  |       |seven billion dollars|                     |                     |
  |       |passed by Congress.  |                     |                     |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+

  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |=A. D.=|  =Holland, Belgium, |       =France=      |  =Italy and Church= |
  |       |    Switzerland,     |                     |                     |
  |       |    Scandinavia=     |                     |                     |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+
  |       |1872. One thousandth |                     |                     |
  |       |anniversary of king- |1873. Marshal Mac-   |                     |
  |       |dom of Norway cele-  |Mahon, president.    |                     |
  |       |brated.              |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1874. Death of       |                     |
  | =1875=|Death of Charles XV. |Guizot.              |                     |
  |       |of Sweden, succeeded |                     |1878. Death of Victor|
  |       |by Oscar II. Coinage |1879. Jules Grevy,   |Emmanuel II. Humbert,|
  |       |made uniform in Den- |president.           |king. Death of Pius  |
  |       |mark, Sweden and     |                     |IX. Leo XIII., pope. |
  |       |Norway.              |                     |                     |
  | -1880=|                     |                     |1882. Death of       |
  |       |                     |                     |Garibaldi.           |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1885. War with       |
  |       |                     |                     |Abyssinia.           |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1887. Sadi-Carnot,   |1887. Alliance of    |
  |       |                     |president.           |Italy with Austria-  |
  |       |                     |                     |Hungary and Germany  |
  | =1890=|1890. Holland:       |1890. War with       |signed. Crispi, prime|
  |       |William III. of the  |Dahomey.             |minister.            |
  |       |Netherlands dies, and|                     |                     |
  |       |is succeeded by his  |                     |                     |
  |       |daughter, Wilhelmina,|                     |                     |
  |       |under the regency of |                     |                     |
  |       |her mother.          |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1891. Switzerland:   |                     |1891. Treaty of Italy|
  |       |Celebration of the   |1892. Panama         |with Great Britain   |
  |       |six hundredth anni-  |scandals.            |relative to East     |
  |       |versary of the foun- |                     |Africa.              |
  |       |dation of the Swiss  |                     |                     |
  |       |Confederacy.         |                     |Triple Alliance      |
  |       |                     |                     |renewed.             |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1893. Belgium: Uni-  |                     |1893. Pope’s Jubilee |
  |       |versal suffrage in   |                     |at Rome.             |
  |       |combination with     |                     |                     |
  |       |plural voting        |                     |                     |
  |       |established.         |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1894. Denmark: Fall  |1894. President      |                     |
  |       |of the Estrup minis- |Carnot assassinated  |                     |
  |       |try, succeeded by a  |at Lyons. M. Casimir-|                     |
  |       |cabinet under Reeds- |Perier, president.   |                     |
  |       |Thott.               |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |Captain Dreyfus tried|                     |
  |       |                     |and imprisoned.      |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1895. President      |                     |
  |       |1896. Belgium: Inter-|Casimir-Perier re-   |1896. Peace with     |
  |       |national Bimetallic  |signs. M. Felix      |Abyssinia.           |
  |       |Congress assembles at|Faure, president.    |                     |
  |       |Brussels.            |                     |Italy abandons claims|
  |       |                     |Death of PASTEUR.    |to a protectorate    |
  |       |1897. Ten-hour law   |                     |over that country.   |
  |       |for railway employes |                     |                     |
  |       |passed.              |1898. Review of      |1898. Pope offers to |
  |       |                     |Dreyfus case granted.|mediate in the Cuban |
  |       |                     |                     |question.            |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  | =1900=|                     |                     |1900. Assassination  |
  |       |1901. The Norwegian  |1901. Diplomatic re- |of King Humbert of   |
  |       |Parliament confers   |lations with Turkey  |Italy. Victor        |
  |       |the franchise in mu- |suspended.           |Emmanuel III., king. |
  |       |nicipal and communal |                     |                     |
  |       |elections on women   |1902. M. Combes forms|                     |
  |       |tax-payers.          |a new French         |                     |
  |       |                     |ministry.            |                     |
  |       |Marriage of Queen    |                     |                     |
  |       |Wilhelmina of the    |1903. Dreyfus case   |1903. Death of Pope  |
  |       |Netherlands to Duke  |reopened. President  |Leo XIII. Pope Pius  |
  |       |Henry of Mecklenberg-|Loubet visits King   |X.                   |
  |       |Schwerin.            |Edward.              |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1904. Arbitration    |1904. King and queen |
  |       |                     |treaties with Hol-   |of Italy visit En-   |
  |       |                     |land, Spain, Sweden, |gland.               |
  |       |                     |Norway and the United|                     |
  |       |                     |States. Bill for     |                     |
  |       |                     |separation of church |                     |
  |       |                     |and state introduced.|                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1905. Norway: Haakon |1905. The Moroccan   |1905. The railway    |
  |       |VII., king.          |situation grows in   |bills passed in      |
  |       |                     |complexity.          |Italy.               |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1906. Death of King  |1906. M. Fallières,  |1906. Sonnino,       |
  |       |Christian of Denmark.|president. The church|premier.             |
  |       |Norway and Sweden in-|controversy. The     |                     |
  |       |dependent kingdoms.  |Pope’s encyclical.   |International exhibi-|
  |       |                     |M. Sarcien, premier. |tion at Milan.       |
  |       |The crown prince of  |                     |                     |
  |       |Denmark is proclaimed|                     |                     |
  |       |King Frederick VIII. |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |The Belgian Chamber  |                     |                     |
  |       |votes in favor of    |                     |                     |
  |       |annexing the Congo   |                     |                     |
  |       |Free State.          |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1907. Death of Oscar |1907. Wine growers’  |1907. Italy signs    |
  |       |II. of Sweden. Gustav|agitation. French    |arbitration treaty   |
  |       |V., king. Norwegian  |occupation of        |with Argentina.      |
  |       |Parliament votes to  |Morocco.             |                     |
  |       |grant the suffrage to|                     |                     |
  |       |about three hundred  |                     |                     |
  |       |thousand women, based|                     |                     |
  |       |upon a property      |                     |                     |
  |       |qualification.       |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1909. Belgium: Albert|                     |                     |
  |       |I., king.            |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  | =1910=|1910. Denmark:       |1910. Briand cabinet |1910. Decree issued  |
  |       |Christian X., king.  |resigned.            |by the king of Greece|
  |       |                     |                     |for a revision of the|
  |       |                     |                     |constitution.        |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1911. New ministry   |1911. Second Parlia- |
  |       |                     |formed by premier.   |ment assembles.      |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |1911-1912. War with  |
  |       |                     |1913. Raymond        |Turkey over Tripoli. |
  |       |                     |Poincaré inaugurated |                     |
  |       |                     |president.           |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |=Greatest European War in History begins with the British Empire,|
  |       |France, Russia, Belgium, Japan, Servia, Italy, Portugal and      |
  |       |Roumania on one side, and Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and   |
  |       |Bulgaria on the other.=                                          |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1914. A new political|                     |
  |       |                     |party is formed to be|                     |
  |       |                     |known as the         |                     |
  |       |                     |Briandist. Joins     |                     |
  |       |                     |Great Britain and    |                     |
  |       |                     |Russia in war upon   |                     |
  |       |                     |Teutonic Alliance.   |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1915. Holland con-   |1915. The Viviani    |1915. Italy joins the|
  |       |tinues her policy of |coalition ministry   |Triple Entente in the|
  |       |strict neutrality.   |resigned. Immense war|war. Declares war on |
  |       |                     |loans successfully   |Bulgaria.            |
  |       |Belgium passes under |floated.             |                     |
  |       |the military rule of |                     |                     |
  |       |Germany.             |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |1916. Frequent       |1916. Verdun is suc- |1916. Italian milita-|
  |       |Belgian protests     |cessfully defended   |ry movements ineffec-|
  |       |against German mili- |against violent      |tive on the Austrian |
  |       |tary rule. Many      |assaults of the Ger- |frontier. A change of|
  |       |Belgians deported to |manic forces. Gen.   |ministry forecasted. |
  |       |Germany as a military|Joffre is succeeded  |                     |
  |       |measure.             |as commander-in-chief|                     |
  |       |                     |of the French army by|                     |
  |       |                     |General Petain.      |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |A war council suc-   |                     |
  |       |                     |ceeds the general    |                     |
  |       |                     |ministry.            |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |                     |
  |       |                     |1917. France joins   |1917. Conference of  |
  |       |                     |Great Britain in re- |Entente Allies held  |
  |       |                     |jecting the Kaiser’s |in Rome.             |
  |       |                     |peace overtures.     |                     |
  |       |                     |                     |Much discontent in   |
  |       |                     |Ex-premier Viviana   |Italy over the war.  |
  |       |                     |and General Joffre   |                     |
  |       |                     |sent to United States|                     |
  |       |                     |as members of the    |                     |
  |       |                     |Allied War Council.  |                     |
  +-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------+

  +-------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+
  |=A. D.=|    =Germany=   |    =Austria-   |    =Russia=    |   =Turkey and  |
  |       |                |    Hungary=    |                | Balkans, China,|
  |       |                |                |                |  India, Japan= |
  +-------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+
  |       |1871. William   |                |                |                |
  |       |I., emperor.    |                |1873. Khiva cap-|                |
  | =1875=|                |                |tured.          |1875. Insurrec- |
  |       |                |                |                |tion against the|
  |       |                |                |                |Turks in        |
  |       |                |                |                |Herzegovina.    |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |Insurrection in |
  |       |                |                |                |Bosnia.         |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |1876. Sultan    |
  |       |1877. Attempted |                |1877. War       |Murad deposed;  |
  |       |assassination of|                |against Turkey. |Abdul Hamid II. |
  |       |emperor.        |                |                |succeeds.       |
  |       |                |1878. Occupation|1878. Spread of |                |
  |       |                |of Bosnia.      |Nihilism in the |Six weeks’      |
  |       |                |                |empire.         |armistice be-   |
  |       |                |                |                |tween Turkey and|
  | =1880=|                |                |1880. Many      |Servia.         |
  |       |                |                |Nihilists       |                |
  |       |                |                |imprisoned and  |Constitution for|
  |       |                |                |executed.       |Turkey          |
  |       |                |                |                |announced.      |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |1881. Alexander |1881. Roumania  |
  |       |                |1882. Six       |II. assassina-  |declared a king-|
  |       |1883. Italy     |hundredth anni- |ted.            |dom.            |
  |       |joins the al-   |versary of the  |                |                |
  |       |liance between  |House of        |Alexander III., |                |
  |       |Germany and     |Hapsburg.       |emperor.        |                |
  |       |Austria, thus   |                |                |                |
  |       |forming the     |                |                |                |
  |       |Triple Alliance.|                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1884. German    |                |                |                |
  |       |annexations on  |                |1885. Ship canal|1885. Outbreak  |
  |       |African slave   |                |from St. Peters-|of war between  |
  |       |coast; December |                |burg to Cron-   |Servia and      |
  |       |19, in Pacific  |                |stadt opened.   |Bulgaria.       |
  |       |Ocean, begin-   |                |                |                |
  |       |nings of German |                |Trouble with the|                |
  |       |colonial policy.|                |Afghans.        |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |1886. Army put  |1886. Russia    |1886. Servia,   |
  |       |                |on war footing  |interferes in   |Bulgaria and    |
  |       |                |of one million  |Bulgaria.       |Greece compelled|
  |       |                |five hundred    |                |by the powers to|
  |       |1888. Accession |thousand men.   |1888. Central   |disarm.         |
  |       |and death of    |                |Asian railway   |                |
  |       |Frederick III.  |                |opened.         |Treaty of peace |
  |       |William II.,    |                |                |signed between  |
  |       |emperor.        |                |                |Servia and      |
  |       |                |                |                |Bulgaria.       |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |1889. Japan’s   |
  | =1890=|1890. Resigna-  |                |1890-1892.      |Constitution    |
  |       |tion of Bismarck|                |Famine through  |proclaimed.     |
  |       |as chancellor.  |                |the empire.     |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1891. Triple    |1891. Renewal of|1891. Imperial  |                |
  |       |Alliance re-    |Triple Alliance.|ukase orders ex-|                |
  |       |newed.          |                |pulsion of Jews |                |
  |       |                |                |from Moscow.    |                |
  |       |1893. Anti-     |                |                |                |
  |       |Jesuit law re-  |                |                |                |
  |       |pealed.         |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1894. Commercial|1894. Commercial|1894. Death of  |1894. Turkey:   |
  |       |treaty with     |treaty with     |Alexander III.  |British, French |
  |       |Russia. New par-|Russia ratified.|                |and Russian am- |
  |       |liament house   |                |Nicholas II.,   |bassadors pre-  |
  |       |opened.         |                |czar.           |sent note to    |
  |       |                |                |                |sultan demanding|
  |       |1895. North Sea |1895. Anti-     |1895. Diplomatic|reforms in      |
  |       |and Baltic canal|Semitic agita-  |relations with  |Armenia.        |
  |       |opened. Restric-|tion.           |Abyssinia. Per- |                |
  |       |tions imposed on|                |secution of the |1894-1895.      |
  |       |American in-    |                |Jews.           |Chinese-Japanese|
  |       |surance compa-  |                |                |war.            |
  |       |nies.           |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1896. New civil |1896. Archduke  |1896. First     |                |
  |       |code for the    |Karl Ludwig,    |official census |                |
  |       |empire com-     |heir to the     |of the empire.  |                |
  |       |pleted.         |throne, dies.   |                |                |
  |       |                |Millennial expo-|1897. Judicial  |1897. Turko-    |
  |       |                |sition at Buda- |reform in       |Grecian war.    |
  |       |                |pest.           |Siberia.        |                |
  |       |                |                |                |China: Kiau-    |
  |       |1898. Death of  |1898. Assassina-|1898. Port      |Chau, with sur- |
  |       |Bismarck. Em-   |tion of the em- |Arthur leased   |rounding zone,  |
  |       |peror visits    |press by an     |from China.     |leased to       |
  |       |Constantinople  |anarchist at    |                |Germany for     |
  |       |and Jerusalem.  |Geneva. Aus-    |1899. Czar pro- |ninety-nine     |
  |       |                |gleich of 1867  |poses universal |years.          |
  |       |                |renewed.        |peace. The Fin- |                |
  |       |                |                |nish diet is de-|Port Arthur and |
  |       |                |                |prived of the   |Ta-lien-wan     |
  |       |                |                |exclusive right |leased to Russia|
  |       |                |                |of legislation  |for twenty-five |
  |       |                |                |and a thorough  |years.          |
  |       |                |                |policy of Russi-|                |
  |       |                |                |fication begun. |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  | =1900=|1900. Abolition |1900. Marriage  |1901. Count     |1900. China:    |
  |       |of the Roman law|of the heir ap- |Tolstoi excommu-|Boxer uprising. |
  |       |throughout      |parent, Francis |nicated.        |                |
  |       |Germany.        |Ferdinand.      |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1901. Bicentena-|                |                |1901. Turkey    |
  |       |ry of the coro- |                |                |pays to the     |
  |       |nation of the   |                |                |United States   |
  |       |first king of   |                |                |the claims ad-  |
  |       |Prussia.        |                |                |vanced in behalf|
  |       |                |                |                |of the missiona-|
  |       |                |                |                |ries in Asia    |
  |       |                |                |                |Minor for losses|
  |       |                |                |                |incurred during |
  |       |                |                |                |the Armenian    |
  |       |                |                |                |disturbances of |
  |       |                |                |                |1895-1896.      |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1902. Prince    |1902. Triple    |                |1902. Treaty of |
  |       |Henry of Prussia|Alliance re-    |                |alliance signed |
  |       |visits the      |newed. The      |                |between Great   |
  |       |United States.  |language ques-  |                |Britain and     |
  |       |                |tion between    |                |Japan.          |
  |       |England and     |Germany and     |                |                |
  |       |Germany press   |Czechs.         |                |                |
  |       |their Venezuelan|                |                |                |
  |       |claims.         |1903. New tariff|1903. Russo-    |1903. Servia: A |
  |       |                |bill. Visit of  |Japanese crisis.|band of conspi- |
  |       |                |the czar of     |                |rators invade   |
  |       |                |Russia.         |                |the royal palace|
  |       |                |                |                |and slay King   |
  |       |                |                |                |Alexander and   |
  |       |                |                |                |Queen Draga.    |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |The national    |
  |       |                |                |                |assembly chooses|
  |       |                |                |                |Peter           |
  |       |                |                |                |Karageorgevitch |
  |       |                |                |                |king.           |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1904. German    |1904. Ultimatum |1904. War with  |1904. Japanese  |
  |       |troops defeated |to the Sultan   |Japan over      |war with Russia.|
  |       |in Africa.      |issued. Great   |Manchuria begun.|                |
  |       |                |railway strike. |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1905. Interven- |1905. Treaty    |1905. Fall of   |1905. The Russo-|
  |       |tion of Germany |with Germany    |Port Arthur and |Japanese peace  |
  |       |in Moroccan     |ratified.       |end of war.     |treaty ratified.|
  |       |affairs.        |                |Great railway   |                |
  |       |The new commer- |Universal suf-  |strike at Petro-|                |
  |       |cial treaties.  |frage on an     |grad, Warsaw and|                |
  |       |                |educational     |Moscow. Consti- |                |
  |       |Marriage of the |basis advocated.|tution granted  |                |
  |       |crown prince.   |                |by czar and the |                |
  |       |                |                |Duma authorized.|                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1906. Propaganda|1906. Prince    |1906. The czar  |                |
  |       |against         |Schillingfurst  |opened the first|                |
  |       |Socialism.      |succeeds Baron  |Russian Duma.   |                |
  |       |                |Gautch.         |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1907. German    |1907. Universal |1907. Third     |1907. Abdication|
  |       |emperor visited |suffrage bill   |Russian Duma    |of Korean       |
  |       |London.         |passed.         |convened. Resig-|emperor.        |
  |       |                |                |nation of Count |                |
  |       |                |1909. Bosnia and|Witte as prime  |                |
  |       |                |Herzegovina ac- |minister of     |                |
  |       |                |quired.         |Russia.         |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  | =1910=|1910. Emperor   |                |1910. Death of  |1910. Japan     |
  |       |William received|                |Count Tolstoi.  |annexed Korea.  |
  |       |ex-President    |                |                |                |
  |       |Roosevelt.      |                |                |Montenegro be-  |
  |       |                |                |                |came a kingdom  |
  |       |                |                |                |with Nicholas as|
  |       |                |                |                |king.           |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1911. The       |1911. Austria   |1911. Russian   |                |
  |       |Emperor urged a |strengthens her |army mobilized  |                |
  |       |policy of re-   |army and navy.  |on Chinese      |                |
  |       |clamation.      |                |frontier.       |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1912. Large     |1912. Death of  |Premier Stolypin|1912. Greece    |
  |       |Socialist gains |Premier         |assassinated.   |joins Balkan    |
  |       |in German Diet. |Aerenthal.      |                |Allies in war   |
  |       |                |                |                |against Turkey. |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |Death of        |
  |       |                |                |                |Mutsuhito;      |
  |       |                |                |                |Yoshito becomes |
  |       |                |                |                |mikado of Japan.|
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1913. Declares  |1913. Mobilize  |1913. Serfdom   |1913. Assassina-|
  |       |support of      |army on Servian |obliterated from|tion of King    |
  |       |Triple Alliance.|frontier to con-|entire empire.  |George of       |
  |       |                |serve interests |                |Greece. Constan-|
  |       |                |of Empire       |                |tine, king.     |
  |       |                |pending Balkan  |                |                |
  |       |                |war.            |                |China a repub-  |
  |       |                |                |                |lic; Yuan,      |
  |       |                |Archduke and    |                |president.      |
  |       |                |Duchess of      |                |                |
  |       |                |Austria assassi-|                |                |
  |       |                |nated in Bosnia.|                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |=Greatest European War in History begins with the British Empire,  |
  |       |France, Russia, Belgium, Japan, Servia, Italy, Portugal and        |
  |       |Roumania on one side, and Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and     |
  |       |Bulgaria on the other.=                                            |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1914. Germany’s |1914. Austria   |1914. Russian   |1914. Greece re-|
  |       |new fiscal poli-|adopts a strong |Premier         |tains the Aegean|
  |       |cy lays a tax on|policy against  |Kokovtsov re-   |islands wrested |
  |       |royalty. De-    |Balkan expan-   |signs. As a     |from Turkey.    |
  |       |clares war on   |sion. Joins Ger-|member of the   |                |
  |       |the Triple      |many in a decla-|Triple Entente  |                |
  |       |Entente.        |ration of war on|joins in war on |                |
  |       |                |the Triple      |the Teutonic    |                |
  |       |                |Entente.        |Alliance.       |                |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1915. Wages a   |1915. At the    |1915. Russia de-|1915. King Con- |
  |       |ruthless sub-   |suggestion of   |clares war on   |stantine of     |
  |       |marine war on   |the United      |Bulgaria. Loses |Greece refuses  |
  |       |allied shipping |States, its Am- |Poland and its  |to support      |
  |       |and neutral     |bassador, Dr.   |capital, Warsaw,|Venizelos’ pro- |
  |       |vessels carrying|Dumba, is recal-|to the Teutonic |allies policy.  |
  |       |contraband of   |led from        |Allies.         |Latter resigns  |
  |       |war. Shows as-  |Washington.     |                |as premier.     |
  |       |tonishing effi- |                |                |                |
  |       |ciency in the   |                |                |Turkey success- |
  |       |conduct of the  |                |                |fully repulsed  |
  |       |war against the |                |                |the attempt of  |
  |       |Entente Allies. |                |                |the Entente     |
  |       |                |                |                |Allies to force |
  |       |                |                |                |the Dardanelles.|
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |Bulgaria enters |
  |       |                |                |                |the war on be-  |
  |       |                |                |                |half of the     |
  |       |                |                |                |Teutonic Allies.|
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |                |                |                |Yoshohito       |
  |       |                |                |                |crowned emperor |
  |       |                |                |                |of Japan.       |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1916. German mi-|1916. Austria-  |1916. Premier   |1916. Roumania  |
  |       |litary opera-   |Hungary proves a|Sturmer resigns |enters the war  |
  |       |tions and con-  |powerful aid to |and is succeeded|on side of the  |
  |       |quests stand out|the Teutonic    |by M. Trepoff.  |Entente, and is |
  |       |in marked con-  |Allies in the   |                |conquered by the|
  |       |trast with those|Balkans. Emperor|Russian and     |Teutonic-Bulgar |
  |       |of the Entente  |Francis Joseph  |Roumanian armies|forces with the |
  |       |Allies. Belgium,|dies and is suc-|are defeated and|loss of its cap-|
  |       |Servia, Monte-  |ceeded on the   |driven back with|ital, Bucharest.|
  |       |negro, Poland,  |throne by Emper-|frightful losses|                |
  |       |Lithuania, Alba-|or Charles I.   |in the Balkans. |President Yuan  |
  |       |nia and Roumania|                |                |of China assas- |
  |       |are held under  |                |                |sinated. Li     |
  |       |Teutonic rule.  |                |                |Yuan-hung be-   |
  |       |Poland is de-   |                |                |comes president.|
  |       |clared indepen- |                |                |                |
  |       |dent by Germany |                |                |Premier Okuma of|
  |       |and Austria.    |                |                |Japan resigns,  |
  |       |                |                |                |and is succeeded|
  |       |                |                |                |by Count        |
  |       |                |                |                |Terauchi, an ag-|
  |       |                |                |                |gressive champi-|
  |       |                |                |                |on of both Japan|
  |       |                |                |                |and China.      |
  |       |                |                |                |                |
  |       |1917. The German|1917. Austro-   |1917. The Rus-  |1917. Great     |
  |       |government sends|Bulgarian army  |sian government |political unrest|
  |       |peace overtures |makes a strong  |supports France |in India.       |
  |       |to belligerent  |drive against   |and Great       |                |
  |       |and neutral     |Roumania, and   |Britain in re-  |Turkey revokes  |
  |       |nations.        |Russia. Emperor |jecting peace   |all treaties    |
  |       |                |Charles crowned |overtures of the|limiting her ab-|
  |       |Germany declares|King of Hungary.|Central Powers. |solute indepen- |
  |       |a rigid blockade|                |                |dence as a      |
  |       |of the Entente  |                |Russian monarchy|nation.         |
  |       |Powers.         |                |overthrown; Czar|                |
  |       |                |                |abdicates and a |                |
  |       |                |                |republic is     |                |
  |       |                |                |established.    |                |
  +-------+----------------+----------------+----------------+----------------+


LIVING NATIONS OF THE WORLD TO-DAY

The world as it is known to-day comprises six great divisions or parts,
namely, Europe, Asia, Africa, North America, South America, and Oceania
or Australasia. The most dependable statistics estimate their _area_ and
_population_ as follows:

AREA AND POPULATION OF THE EARTH BY CONTINENTS

  ===========+==========+=====================
             |          |     INHABITANTS
  CONTINENTAL| AREA IN  +-------------+-------
  DIVISIONS  | SQUARE   |             |  PER
             |  MILES   |   NUMBER    |SQUARE
             |          |             | MILE
  -----------+----------+-------------+-------
  Africa     |11,632,000|  127,312,000| 10.9
  America, N.| 7,146,641|  136,939,000| 19.1
  America, S.| 7,344,508|   55,444,000|  7.55
  Asia       |17,470,282|  842,100,000| 48.20
  Australasia| 3,456,290|    8,000,000|  2.31
  Europe     | 3,671,624|  458,795,000|124.9
  Polar Reg. | 6,970,000|      300,000|   .04
             +----------+-------------+-------
  Total      |57,691,345|1,628,890,000| 28.2
  -----------+----------+-------------+-------

POPULATION OF THE EARTH ACCORDING TO RACE

  ====================+============+=============
        RACE          |  LOCATION  |    NUMBER
  --------------------+------------+-------------
  Indo-Germanic or    |Europe      |
    Aryan (white)     |America     |
                      |Persia      |
                      |India       |
                      |Australia   |  775,000,000
  Mongolian or        |            |
    Turanian (yellow  |            |
     and brown)       |Asia        |  600,000,000
  Semitic (white)     |Africa      |
                      |Arabia, etc.|   65,000,000
  Negro and Bantu     |            |
    (black)           |Africa      |  130,000,000
  Malay and Polynesian|            |
    (brown)           |Australasia |   33,000,000
  American Indian,    |            |
    North and South   |            |
    (red and half     |            |
     breeds)          |            |   25,000,000
                      |            +-------------
  Total               |            |1,628,000,000
  --------------------+------------+----------------

At the opening of the European war in 1914 the human race was subject to
fifty-four independent and five quasi-independent governments. The
British Empire and Russia are the largest two, while Monaco with its
eight square miles and San Marino with its thirty-eight square miles of
territory are the smallest two. The _absolute monarchies_ are Abyssinia,
Afghanistan, Morocco, Siam, Oman, and Monaco; the _limited monarchies_
are Albania, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Bhutan, British Empire, Bulgaria,
Denmark, German Empire, Greece, Italy, Japan, Liechtenstein, Luxemburg,
Montenegro, Nepal, Netherlands, Norway, Persia, Roumania, Russia,
Servia, Spain, Sweden, and Turkey; the _republics_ are Andorra,
Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba,
Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Liberia, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama,
Paraguay, Peru, Portugal, Salvador, San Marino, Santo Domingo,
Switzerland, United States, Uruguay, Venezuela.

PRINCIPAL LANGUAGES SPOKEN

  There are said to be 3,424 spoken languages or dialects in the
  world, distributed as follows: America, 1,624; Asia, 937; Europe,
  587; Africa, 276.

  ----------+-----------------------+------------
  LANGUAGES |  NUMBER OF PERSONS    | PROPORTION
            |     SPOKEN BY         |OF THE WHOLE
            +-----------+-----------+------------
            |     1801  |    1916   | 1801| 1916
  ----------+-----------+-----------+-----+------
  English   | 20,520,000|160,000,000| 12.7| 27.3
  French    | 20,520,000|160,000,000| 12.7| 27.3
  German    | 30,320,000|130,000,000| 18.7| 22.2
  Italian   | 15,070,000| 50,000,000|  9.3|  8.6
  Spanish   | 26,190,000| 50,000,000| 16.2|  8.6
  Portuguese|  7,480,000| 25,000,000|  4.7|  4.3
  Russian   | 30,770,000|100,000,000| 19.0| 17.1
            +-----------+-----------+-----+------
  Total     |161,800,000|585,000,000|100.0|100.0
  ----------+-----------+-----------+-----+------

RELIGIOUS POPULATION OF THE WORLD BY CONTINENTS

  =======================+===========+===========+===========
        RELIGION         |   EUROPE  |    ASIA   |  AFRICA
  -----------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------
  Catholic Churches:     |           |           |
    Roman Catholic       |183,760,000|  5,500,000|  2,500,000
    Eastern Catholic     | 98,000,000| 17,200,000|  3,800,000
  Protestant Churches    | 93,000,000|  6,000,000|  2,750,000
                         +-----------+-----------+-----------
  Total Christians       |374,760,000| 28,700,000|  9,050,000
                         |           |           |
  Confucianism and Taoism|        ...|300,000,000|     30,000
  Hinduism               |        ...|210,000,000|    300,000
  Mohammedanism          |  3,800,000|142,000,000| 51,000,000
  Buddhism               |        ...|138,000,000|     11,000
  Judaism                |  9,950,175|    484,359|    404,836
  Animism                |        ...| 42,000,000| 98,000,000
  Shintoism              |        ...| 25,000,000|        ...
    Unclassified         |  1,000,000|  6,000,000|    130,000
                         +-----------+-----------+-----------
    Total Non-Christians | 14,750,175|863,484,359|149,875,836
  -----------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------

  =======================+===========+==========+==========+=============
        RELIGION         |   NORTH   |  SOUTH   | OCEANIA  |    TOTAL
                         |  AMERICA  | AMERICA  |          |  FOLLOWERS
  -----------------------+-----------+----------+----------+-------------
  Catholic Churches:     |           |          |          |
    Roman Catholic       | 36,700,000|36,200,000| 8,200,000|  272,860,000
    Eastern Catholic     |  1,000,000|       ...|       ...|  120,000,000
  Protestant Churches    | 65,000,000|   400,000| 4,500,000|  171,650,000
                         +-----------+----------+----------+-------------
  Total Christians       |102,700,000|36,600,000|12,700,000|  564,510,000
                         |           |          |          |
  Confucianism and Taoism|    100,000|       ...|   700,000|  300,830,000
  Hinduism               |    100,000|   110,000|    30,000|  210,540,000
  Mohammedanism          |     15,000|    10,000|25,000,000|  221,825,000
  Buddhism               |        ...|       ...|    20,000|  138,031,000
  Judaism                |  2,144,061|    50,000|    19,415|   13,052,846
  Animism                |     20,000| 1,250,000|17,000,000|  158,270,000
  Shintoism              |        ...|       ...|       ...|   25,000,000
    Unclassified         |  8,000,000|       ...|   150,000|   15,280,000
                         +-----------+----------+----------+-------------
    Total Non-Christians | 10,379,061| 1,420,000|42,919,415|1,082,828,846
  -----------------------+-----------+----------+----------+-------------

NOTE.--The Coptic Church has 706,322 followers (Egyptian census 1907);
Nestorians 80,000; Jacobites 70,000.


INDEPENDENT COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD TODAY

  The separate nationalities grouped under their respective
  hemispheres and continental divisions. On account of the European
  war the boundaries and statistics of the nations engaged will,
  doubtless, be subject to important changes within the next decade.

  ======================+============+=========+==============
        COUNTRIES       | POPULATION |  SQUARE |   CAPITALS
                        |            |  MILES  |
  ----------------------+------------+---------+--------------
  =EASTERN HEMISPHERE=  |            |         |
    =(1) Europe=        |            |         |
      Albania           |     825,000|   11,000|Durazzo
      Andorra           |       6,000|      175|Andorra
      Austria-Hungary   |  50,000,000|  260,034|Vienna
      Belgium           |   7,571,387|   11,373|Brussels
      Bulgaria          |   4,755,000|   43,000|Sofia
      Denmark           |   2,775,076|   15,388|Copenhagen
      France            |  30,601,509|  207,054|Paris
      German Empire     |  66,715,000|  208,780|Berlin
      Great Britain     |See page 467|      ...|...
      Greece            |   5,000,000|   46,522|Athens
      Holland or Nether-|            |         |
      lands             |   6,500,000|   12,648|Amsterdam
      Italy             |  35,240,000|  110,623|Rome
      Luxemburg         |     268,000|      999|Luxemburg
      Monaco            |      20,000|        8|...
      Montenegro        |     520,000|    5,650|Cettinje
      Norway            |   2,459,000|  124,129|Christiania
      Poland            |         ...|      ...|...
      Portugal          |   5,957,985|   35,490|Lisbon
      Roumania          |   7,600,000|   54,000|Bucharest
      Russian Empire    | 171,000,000|8,647,657|Petrograd
      San Marino        |      10,655|       38|...
      Servia            |   4,600,000|   34,000|...
      Spain             |  19,588,688|  190,050|Madrid
      Sweden            |   5,476,441|  172,876|Stockholm
      Switzerland       |   3,741,971|   15,976|Berne
      Turkey (Europe)   |   1,892,000|   11,000|Constantinople
                        |            |         |
    =(2) Asia=          |            |         |
      Afghanistan       |   6,000,000|  250,000|Kabul
      Arabia            |   3,500,000|1,000,000|...
      Bhutan            |     250,000|   20,000|Punakha
      China             | 400,000,000|2,169,200|Pekin
      Japan             |  52,985,423|  147,655|Tokio
      Nepal             |   4,000,000|   54,000|Khatmandu
      Oman              |     750,000|   82,000|Muscat
      Persia            |   9,000,000|  628,000|Teheran
      Siam              |   6,000,000|  220,000|Bangkok
      Turkey (Asia)     |  19,382,000|  699,224|...
                        |            |         |
    =(3) Africa=        |            |         |
      Abyssinia         |   8,000,000|  390,000|Adis Ababa
      Liberia           |   2,060,000|   41,000|Monrovia
      Morocco           |   6,500,000|  200,000|Fez
                        |            |         |
  =WESTERN HEMISPHERE=  |            |         |
    =(1) North America= |            |         |
      Costa Rica        |     420,180|   23,000|San Jose
      Cuba              |   2,383,000|   44,164|Havana
      Dominican Republic|     700,000|   19,325|San Domingo
      Guatemala         |   2,119,165|   48,290|Guatemala
      Haiti             |   2,000,000|   10,204|Port-au-Prince
      Honduras          |     600,000|   46,250|Tegucigalpa
      Mexico            |  15,063,207|  765,535|City of Mexico
      Nicaragua         |     500,000|   49,200|Managua
      Panama            |     427,000|   32,380|Panama
      San Salvador      |     700,000|    7,325|San Salvador
      United States     | 112,445,000|3,743,312|Washington
                        |            |         |
  =(2) South America=   |            |         |
      Argentina         |   8,000,000|1,153,418|Buenos Ayres
      Bolivia           |   2,267,925|  708,195|La Paz
      Brazil            |  24,000,000|3,292,000|Rio de Janeiro
      Chile             |   5,000,000|  292,100|Santiago
      Columbia          |   5,500,000|  438,000|Bogata
      Ecuador           |   1,500,000|  116,000|Quito
      Paraguay          |     800,000|  196,000|Asuncion
      Peru              |   4,000,000|  680,000|Lima
      Uruguay           |   1,300,000|   72,210|Montevideo
      Venezuela         |   3,000,000|  393,976|Caracas
  ----------------------+------------+---------+---------------

  ======================+=====================+================+===========
         COUNTRIES      |   PRESENT OFFICIAL  | TITLE AND DATE | SALARY OR
                        |       HEAD AND      |  OF ACCESSION  |  BUDGET
                        |    DATE OF BIRTH    |                |
  ----------------------+---------------------+----------------+-----------
  =EASTERN HEMISPHERE=  |                     |                |
    =(1) Europe=        |                     |                |
      Albania           |Essad Pasha (b. ...) |President (1914)|        ...
      Andorra           |...                  |Consul          |        ...
      Austria-Hungary   |Charles (b.1887)     |Emperor (1917)  |$ 4,520,000
      Belgium           |Albert (b.1875)      |King (1909)     |    623,600
      Bulgaria          |Ferdinand (b.1861)   |Czar (1887)     |    250,000
      Denmark           |Christian X. (b.1870)|King (1912)     |    262,500
      France            |Raymond Poincaré     |President (1913)|    140,000
                        |(b.1860)             |                |
      German Empire     |William II. (b.1859) |{Emperor (1888) |} 3,700,000
                        |                     |{King (1888)    |}
      Great Britain     |George V. (b.1865)   |King (1910)     |  2,350,000
      Greece            |Constantine (b.1868) |King (1913)     |    260,000
      Holland or Nether-|                     |                |
      lands             |Wilhelmina (b.1880)  |Queen (1898)    |    250,000
      Italy             |Victor Emmanuel III. |King (1900)     |  2,650,000
                        |(b.1869)             |                |
      Luxemburg         |Marie (b.1894)       |Grand Duchess   |        ...
                        |                     |(1912)          |
      Monaco            |Albert (b.1848)      |Prince (1889)   |        ...
      Montenegro        |Nicholas (b.1841)    |King (1910)     |     24,000
      Norway            |Haakon VII. (b.1872) |King (1905)     |    185,000
      Poland            |...                  |...             |        ...
      Portugal          |Dr. Bernardino       |President (1915)|        ...
                        |Machado (b.1850)     |                |
      Roumania          |Ferdinand (b.1865)   |King (1914)     |    227,520
      Russian Empire    |Nicholas II. (b.1868)|Emperor (1894)  | 12,000,000
      San Marino        |...                  |President (....)|        ...
      Servia            |Peter (b.1844)       |King (1903)     |    225,000
      Spain             |Alfonso XIII.        |King (1886)     |  1,344,000
                        |(b.1886)             |                |
      Sweden            |Gustaf V. (b.1858)   |King (1907)     |    416,500
      Switzerland       |Dr. Shulteis (b. ...)|President (1917)|      3,000
      Turkey (Europe)   |Mohammed V. (b.1884) |Sultan (1909)   |  7,500,000
                        |                     |                |
    =(2) Asia=          |                     |                |
      Afghanistan       |Habibulla Khan       |Ameer (1901)    |        ...
                        |(b.1872)             |                |
      Arabia            |...                  |...             |        ...
      Bhutan            |...                  |...             |        ...
      China             |Li Yuan Hung (b. ...)|President (1916)|        ...
      Japan             |Yoshihito (b.1879)   |Emperor (1912)  |  2,250,000
      Nepal             |Dhiraja Tribhubana   |Maharaja (1911) |        ...
                        |Sh’sher Jang (b.1906)|                |
      Oman              |Seyyid Taimur bin    |Sultan (1913)   |    250,000
                        |Turkee (b. ...)      |                |
      Persia            |Ahmed Mirza (b.1897) |Shah (1914)     |        ...
      Siam              |Vagiravudn (b.1880)  |King (1910)     |  2,000,000
      Turkey (Asia)     |...                  |...             |        ...
                        |                     |                |
    =(3) Africa=        |                     |                |
      Abyssinia         |Lij Ey-assu (b. ...) |Emperor (1914)  |        ...
      Liberia           |D. E. Howard (b. ...)|President (1912)|        ...
      Morocco           |Muley Yusoef (b.1875)|Sultan (1912)   |        ...
                        |                     |                |
  =WESTERN HEMISPHERE=  |                     |                |
    =(1) North America= |                     |                |
      Costa Rica        |Alfredo Gonzalez     |President (1914)|        ...
                        |(b. ...)             |                |
      Cuba              |Mario G. Menocal     |President (1913)|     25,000
                        |(b. ...)             |                |
      Dominican Republic|Ramon Baez (b. ...)  |President (1914)|        ...
      Guatemala         |Manuel Estrada       |President (1911)|        ...
                        |Cabrera (b.1856)     |                |
      Haiti             |Gen. Dartiguenave    |President (1915)|     24,000
                        |(b. ...)             |                |
      Honduras          |Dr. Bertrand (b.1867)|President (1913)|        ...
      Mexico            |Venustiano Carranza  |President (1915)|     50,000
                        |(b. ...)             |                |
      Nicaragua         |Adolfo Diaz (b. ...) |President (1911)|        ...
      Panama            |Belisario Porras     |President (1912)|     24,000
                        |(b. ...)             |                |
      San Salvador      |Carlos Melendez      |President (1913)|        ...
                        |(b. ...)             |                |
      United States     |Woodrow Wilson       |President (1913)|     75,000
                        |(b.1856)             |                |
                        |                     |                |
    =(2) South America= |                     |                |
      Argentina         |Victorino de la Plaza|President (1914)|     36,000
                        |(b. ...)             |                |
      Bolivia           |Ismael Montes        |President (1913)|        ...
                        |(b. ...)             |                |
      Brazil            |W. B. Pereira Gomes  |President (1914)|     40,000
                        |(b. ...)             |                |
      Chile             |Juan Luis San Fuentes|President (1915)|      7,000
                        |(b. ...)             |                |
      Columbia          |Jose Vicente Concha  |President (....)|        ...
                        |(b. ...)             |                |
      Ecuador           |Leonidas Plaza       |President (....)|     12,000
                        |(b. ...)             |                |
      Paraguay          |Eduardo Schaerer     |President (1912)|      9,500
                        |(b. ...)             |                |
      Peru              |Jose Pardo (b. ...)  |President (1915)|     12,000
      Uruguay           |Feliciano Viera      |President (1915)|     36,000
                        |(b. ...)             |                |
      Venezuela         |Juan Vincente Gomez  |President (1915)|        ...
                        |(b. ...)             |                |
  ----------------------+---------------------+----------------+-----------


=WEALTH OF NATIONS=

  These are the latest estimates: United States, $188,000,000,000;
  Great Britain and Ireland $85,000,000,000; Canada, $7,000,000,000;
  India, $15,000,000,000; total British Empire (including possessions
  not here stated), $130,000,000,000; Germany, $80,000,000,000;
  France, $50,000,000,000; Russia, $40,000,000,000; Austria-Hungary,
  $25,000,000,000; Italy, $20,000,000,000; Belgium, $9,000,000,000;
  Spain, $5,400,000,000; Netherlands, $5,000,000,000; Switzerland,
  $4,000,000,000; Portugal, $2,500,000,000.


THE CONTINENT OF EUROPE

  From its political and historical importance Europe has always been
  regarded as one of the great divisions of the earth’s surface though
  it is not a separate and independent mass. It is, rather, a great
  peninsula of what is sometimes called _Eurasia_--i.e. the continent
  of Europe and Asia combined--that extends westward its many arms
  between the Arctic Ocean on the north, the Atlantic on the west, and
  the Mediterranean Sea on the south.

  Its name seems to have been derived from the Semitic word _ereb_,
  meaning “the land of the setting sun,” and came into use among the
  Greeks and Latins in very early times as _Europa_.

  =Outline and Extent.= The most striking feature of its outline is
  that of its great irregularity, the deep inlets and gulfs of the
  ocean which penetrate its mass, and the peninsulas which run from
  it.

  The greatest distance between its extreme north and south
  points--the North Cape of Norway and Cape Matapan in Greece--is
  about twenty-four hundred miles; and from east to west--from Cape La
  Roca, or the “Rock of Lisbon,” to Cape Apsheron, the eastern
  extremity of the Caucasus range, on the Caspian--about three
  thousand miles.


EUROPEAN GULFS AND INLETS

On the north the _White Sea_, so called from the ice and snow which bind
it up for more than half the year, reaches in from the Arctic Ocean.
From the Atlantic, the shallow _North Sea_, or German Ocean, and the
_English Channel_ (called _La Manche_, or “The Sleeve,” by the French)
break in to separate the British Isles from the mainland; and from the
former the _Skager Rak_, “the crooked and boisterous strait,” leads
through the _Kattegat_, the “Cat’s Throat,” and the “Belts” of the
Danish islands, to the _Baltic_, or the “East Sea” of the Germans, and
its continuations, the Gulfs of Bothnia, Finland, and Riga.

Farther southward, the stormy _Bay of Biscay_, named from the Basque
province of Vizcaya, sweeps in along the northern coast of Spain, and
beyond the Peninsula the narrow _Strait of Gibraltar_ leads into the
great _Mediterranean_, which stretches eastward for twenty-three hundred
miles.


THE MEDITERRANEAN AND ITS ARMS

Among the many branches of this great basin are the _Gallic Sea_,
running north toward Gaul, between Spain and the islands of Sardinia and
Corsica, forming the stormy Gulf of the Lion and that of Genoa; the
_Tyrrhenian Sea_, between Sardinia and Italy; the _Ionian Sea_ and the
_Adriatic_ running north from it, between Italy and the Balkan
peninsula, towards the ancient seaport of Adria, perhaps the oldest in
Europe.

Beyond Greece, the island-studded Ægean leads north to the narrow inlet
of the _Dardanelles_, opening into the little Sea of Marmora, named from
its marble-yielding islands, and from that by the _Bosporus_ or Oxford
(the canal of Constantinople), into the second great Mediterranean
basin, the _Black Sea_ or Euxine, with its offshoot the shallow _Sea of
Azof_. The Caspian Sea, forms part of the natural frontier between
Europe and Asia.

The indented seaboard of Europe measures not less than sixty thousand
miles.


PENINSULAS OF EUROPE

Between each of these branches of the sea there run out corresponding
promontories and peninsulas of the mainland. These are most numerous on
the south side, where we find the _Crimea_, _Turkey_ and _Greece_,
_Italy_ and _Spain_, bordered by the islands of the Archipelago, by
Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, and the Baleares.

The western or Atlantic side presents the greatest peninsula, that of
_Scandinavia_, and the most important island group, that of the British
Isles. The Danish peninsula is remarkable as the only one in Europe, and
indeed in almost any part of the world, that points northward.


SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS

The great lowland of Europe lies toward the east, embracing the vast
continental area of Russia, and sending out arms westward round the Gulf
of Bothnia and the Swedish side of the Baltic, and through North Germany
and Denmark, to form the lowlands of Holland and Belgium and of Western
France, along the shores of the Bay of Biscay, as far as the rise of the
Pyrenees.

The vast central area of the Russian lowland has almost everywhere the
same character, _woods and marshes_ alternating with cultivated land,
affording a superfluity of grain, which is sent down by the rivers to
the seaports of the Baltic and the Black Sea; but along its northern
border, next the icy Arctic Sea, lie the moss-covered swamps called the
_Tundras_, the soil of which is never thawed for more than a yard’s
depth; all its southern margin toward the Black Sea and the Caspian is a
treeless _steppe_, over which at some seasons the grasses shoot up above
a man’s height, concealing the pasturing herds.


REMARKABLE SURFACE OF FINLAND

Finland is one of the most remarkable regions of the great European
plain; its granite floor, elevated above the sea-level probably in a
recent geological period, is worn into thousands of angular lake-basins,
which form a perfect network over its surface; to the sailor on the
Baltic its margin presents a girdle of steep cliffs guarded by a fringe
of rocky islets or skerries. The cliffy Aland Islands are detached
fragments of this remarkable formation.


LOWLANDS OF WESTERN EUROPE

The eastern portions of the North German plain, as far as the Oder, have
the same character, the same corn-yielding clay soil, as the adjoining
lowlands in Russia; but farther west, round the capital city of Berlin,
the plain becomes less fertile, in some parts sandy and bare. Beyond the
Elbe, in Hanover, the _Lüneburg heath_ covers a large part of the plain;
next it lie the moors, marshes, and fens of Oldenburg and the borders of
Holland, where cattle and horses are the wealth of the land; and beyond
these the highly cultivated lowlands on each side of the Rhine delta,
separated by the heaths and moors of Brabant, which run out toward the
lower Scheldt like a dividing wedge between Holland and Belgium.

Passing into France, and across the broad river basins of its lowlands
which open to the English Channel and the Bay of Biscay, we come upon
the great wine-yielding lands, such as _Champagne_ and the vineyards of
the Gironde, with the corn country of Brie northeast of Paris, and of
Touraine, on the Loire between these; and lastly, at the extremity of
this branch of the European plain, to the _Landes_ along the coast
between the mouth of the Gironde and the Pyrenees, composed of sandy
heaths and marshes.


ISOLATED LOWLANDS OF EUROPE

Of these, two of large extent occur in the basin of the river Danube,
separated by the gorge of the “Iron Gate,” formed where the Balkan and
Carpathian ranges approach most closely. The upper plain, circled about
on all sides by mountains, is that of _Hungary_, over which corn fields
interchange with pastoral steppes well stocked with horses and cattle,
sheep and swine, merging in some parts into marsh lands or into dusty
sand flats. Where the plain begins to rise to the sunny hills, the
Hungarian grape ripens to yield its famous wines. The lower plain of the
Danube, which might be called a branch of the vast Russian lowland, is
that of _Roumania_, with its far-stretching treeless heaths and pasture
lands supporting great herds of cattle and horses, passing into wide
reed swamps which characterize the delta of the Danube.

Corresponding to the Roumanian plain is that of _Lombardy_, perhaps the
most productive region of Europe, in which the irrigated meadows may be
six times mowed in the year, and where wheat, maize, and rice, and wine
and dairy produce, are yielded in vast quantity.


MOUNTAINS AND HIGHLANDS

Europe presents two great mountain regions; a southern, extending along
the northern border of the Mediterranean from Turkey to Spain, in
continuation of the chief line of the heights of Asia; and a northern,
appearing in Scandinavia and Britain, separated from the former by the
western branch of the great lowland that we have been noticing.


THE ALPINE REGION

The _Alps_ rise as the central mass of the southern mountain region of
Europe. The many groups comprised in this series of heights which curve
round the plain of Lombardy arrange themselves into three generally
recognized divisions:--The Western Alps, the groups lying between the
Gulf of Genoa and the Little St. Bernard Pass; the Central Alps,
extending from the St. Bernard to the pass named the Stilfser Joch; and
the Eastern Alps beyond this. The central mass is the highest, rising
with majestic forms from deep valleys up to sharp riven peaks, high
above the line of permanent snow; its wings to east and west decrease in
elevation towards the Gallic Sea and the plain of the Danube on either
side. All the less jagged heights are mantled in snows, from which
glacier streams descend. The largest of these ice streams are the
Aletsch glacier from the group of the Finsteraarhorn, and those of the
frequented valley of Chamounix, descending from Mont Blanc, the monarch
of the Alps.


FAMOUS ALPINE PASSES

The passes of the Alps have always had importance as the gates of
traffic from North Italy to the rest of Europe; some of them, such as
the two St. Bernard Passes, are under the protection of friendly monks;
but railroads have now been constructed to pass the great barrier by the
tunnels of Mont Cenis in the west, of St. Gothard in the center, and the
Simplon farther east (opened 1906), by a line over the Brenner Pass from
Innsbruck to Bozen, and by an eastern road over the Semmering from
Vienna to Graz.

Southward the Alps fall steeply to the low plain of Lombardy, but a mass
of lesser highlands and plateaus extends northward from them over
central Europe to the border of the plain of Northern Germany.


OUTLYING SPURS OF THE ALPS

The first division is the long limestone range of the _Jura_, with its
magnificent pine forests. Beyond, bordering the Rhine valley, rises the
_Schwarzwald_, or Black Forest, then the _Odenwald_ and the _Rhön_
mountains, leading into the _Vogelsberg_ and _Taunus_, and to the
outlying _Harz_, the farthest north of the central European heights.
Turning eastward, we reach the _Thüringerwald_, the _Fichtel Gebirge_,
and the metalliferous or _Erz Gebirge_; then across the Elbe, in Saxon
Switzerland, come the _Riesen Gebirge_ (the Giant Range), and the
_Sudetic Mountains_, extending to the Oder. Turning south again towards
the Alps, the _Mährische Höhen_ (the Mavorian heights) are reached, and
joining with these to close in the high valley of the Upper Elbe, the
high _Böhmerwald_, the forest mountain of Bohemia. Almost all the area
of South Germany, including Würtemberg, Bavaria, and Bohemia, enclosed
by these heights, which extend northward from the Alpine mass, is high
plateau land.


HIGHLANDS OF FRANCE

Westward of these central European heights, beyond the Rhone, rises the
range of the _Cevennes_ in France, extending from near the Pyrenees
northward through the _Forez_ and _Côte d’Or_ to the plateau of
_Langres_, to the _Vosges_ and _Hardt_, the undulating plateau of
_Ardennes_ covered with beech and oak wood, and the volcanic group of
the _Eifel_, skirting the Rhine valley. More centrally in France,
contrasting with the adjoining long range of the Cevennes, the volcanic
cones and domes of _Auvergne_ rise from bare lava-covered plateaus.


PYRENEES AND SPANISH PENINSULA

Shut off from the rest of Europe by the _Pyrenees_ whose high and close
barrier admits easy passage only round its flanks, is the Spanish
Peninsula, which, excepting in its river valleys, and along some parts
of the seaboard, is a continuous highland. A number of mountain ranges,
supporting broad plateaus between, traverse it from east to west. Along
its northern edge the _Cantabrian_ mountains prolong the high line of
the Pyrenees; centrally rise the _Sierras of Guadarrama_ and _Estrella_;
farther south the _Sierra Morena_, and along the Mediterranean border
the _Sierra Nevada_ of Granada. Throughout the summer the table-lands of
_Castile_, bare and treeless, are burned up by the hot sun, but through
the chilly winter they are swept by violent winds. The herdsman who
wears a broad-brimmed hat for protection against the excessive heat
during the day, a few hours later puts on his thick warm cloak; in the
same way, after the almost rainless summer, follows a cold winter with
ice and snow.


MOUNTAINS OF ITALY AND THE BALKANS

The _Apennines_ prolong the Maritime Alps, and run like a backbone
through the peninsula of Italy. Cleared of its natural wood, and
scorched by the southern sun, this range is generally dreary and barren
in aspect, like a long wall, with few peaks or salient points to recall
the magnificent forms of the Alps. The volcano of _Vesuvius_, the only
active one in all the continental part of Europe, rises over the coast
plain of Campania.

The lines of the eastern wing of the Alps are prolonged north-eastward
across the Danube by the grand curve of the wooded _Carpathians_ and
_Transylvania Alps_, circling round the plain of Hungary. Southeastward
they branch into the many ranges which support between them the confused
mass of highlands of Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Montenegro, of Servia and
Albania. Farther on these heights take more definite shape in the range
of the _Balkan_ which runs east to the Black Sea, in the mass of the
_Rhodope_ mountains extending south-eastward to the Ægean Sea, and in
the _Pindus_ range, which gives shape to Greece, and runs out into the
Mediterranean in the peninsulas of the Morea.


MASS OF THE CAUCASUS

Distinct from all the rest of the southern highlands of Europe stands
the huge mass of the _Caucasus_, the natural frontier of Europe on the
southeast, rising like a wall from the flat isthmus between the Black
Sea and the Caspian. Its close parallel chains are united by high
plateaus cut into by deep narrow transverse gorges of extreme depth.
Though attaining far greater heights than the Alps and reaching several
thousand feet above the limit of perennial snows, the glaciers and
snow-fields of the Caucasus are small and insignificant in comparison
with those of the Alps. This is owing to the dryness of the region in
which they stand, and the small snowfall over them.


SCANDINAVIAN MOUNTAIN GROUPS

In the north European mountain region the mass of heights which form the
Scandinavian peninsula are by far the most important. These present no
definite range, but are rather a collection of broad plateaus topped
with moor or snow-field, cut into by long steep-walled “fiords” on the
Atlantic side, and resembling the Alps in the pine woods of their
slopes, in their lakes and extensive glaciers, though they are nowhere
of very great altitude.

The main _field_, which is applied to most of the Scandinavian mountain
groups, suggests their plateau form; the _Hardanger Field_, _Ymes
Field_, and _Dovre Field_, with the _Jostedals Brae_ (or
ice-brae--glacier), are the most prominent of the southern heights of
Norway; in the north the broken heights which run along the Atlantic and
Arctic borders of the peninsula have the general name of the _Kiölen_.
The heather-covered hills of Scotland--the Grampians and west coast
mountains--as well as those of Cumberland and Wales farther south in
Great Britain, belong to the same system as that of the Scandinavian
heights.


SURFACE OF EUROPEAN ISLANDS

We have formerly noticed that almost all the European islands are high.
In the Mediterranean we find the island of Crete reaching to upwards of
eight thousand feet in _Mount Ida_; Sicily, with its volcano of _Etna_
nine thousand six hundred and fifty-two feet; Sardinia with _Mount
Gennargentu_ (six thousand two hundred and ninety feet); Corsica, with
_Monte Rotondo_ (nine thousand and sixty-five feet); Iceland, on the
border of the Arctic seas, recalling Norway in its grand fiords, rises
high in its mass of volcanic jökulls (_Orœfa_, six thousand four hundred
and eight feet; _Hecla_, five thousand one hundred and ten feet),
covered in between with accumulated snows and glaciers; _Spitzbergen’s_
black peaks, which give its name, also rise high from its white glacier
fields.


CHAIN OF THE URAL

Separate and distinct in character and direction from the mountains of
the rest of Europe, is the long chain of the _Ural_, rich in gold,
platinum, iron, and copper. It takes its name probably from the Tartar
word meaning “belt,” which well expresses the length and continuity of
this remarkable line of heights, stretching along the eastern border of
the great European plain for more than twelve hundred miles. In height,
however, the Ural is insignificant. Another separated height, that of
the forest-covered Valdai hills in Western Russia, would scarcely be
worthy of mention among the European highlands if it did not form the
water-parting of the greatest of European rivers, the Volga.

For the height of the chief mountain peaks and ranges, consult the
tables on page 74 and following.


RIVERS OF EUROPE

European rivers flow in part to the Atlantic and its Mediterranean
branches, partly to the Arctic Sea, and partly to the Caspian, which
last belongs to the “continental” system of drainage, or the area from
which no rivers escape to the open ocean.

The _Volga_, the largest European river, is the principal feeder of the
Caspian, and the great highway of commerce of Central and South Russia.

The _Don_, _Dnieper_, _Dniester_, and _Danube_ all flow into the Black
Sea. The last-named is the second of European rivers, and forms, with
its navigable tributaries, the route for traffic between Central Europe
and the East.

The _Po_, the _Rhone_ (the most rapid European river, though of little
value for navigation), and the _Ebro_ flow into the Mediterranean.

The chief rivers (all of immense importance) draining into the Atlantic,
are: the _Tagus_ (with its port of Lisbon), the _Douro_ (Oporto), the
_Gironde_ (Bordeaux), the _Loire_ (Nantes), and the _Mersey_
(Liverpool); while of less importance are the _Guadalquivir_,
_Guadiana_, _Tagus_, and _Douro_ in Spain; the _Garonne_, _Loire_, and
_Seine_ in France. Into the North Sea flow the _Thames_ (London), the
_Meuse_ (Rotterdam), the _Rhine_ and the _Elbe_, giving uninterrupted
water-way to Switzerland and into the heart of Bohemia; and into the
Baltic, the rivers _Oder_, _Vistula_, _Niemen_, and _Dwina_, more or
less important for purposes of transport.

On account of the great historic, political and scenic importance that
attaches to the Rhine and the Danube, in addition to the fact that their
courses are not confined strictly to any one country, these rivers call
for more detailed descriptions. The other European rivers of importance
are described in connection with the country to which they either wholly
or in great part belong.


  =THE RHINE= (_Ger._ Rhein), is probably the most famous river in the
  world, and, except the period between 1697 and 1871, always a purely
  German possession. It is usually divided into the upper, middle, and
  lower parts, the first lying within and along part of the boundary
  line of Switzerland, the second between Basel and Cologne, and the
  third between Cologne and the sea.


THE UPPER RHINE AND ITS SOURCE

A large number of rivulets, issuing from Swiss glaciers, unite to form
the upper Rhine; but two are recognized as the principal sources--the
Nearer and the Farther Rhine. The former emerges on the northeast slope
of the St. Gotthard pass (seven thousand six hundred and ninety feet
above sea-level), the other side of which is the cradle of the Rhone;
the Farther Rhine has its origin on the flank of the Rheinwaldhorn,
seven thousand two hundred and seventy feet high, not far from the Pass
of Bernardino. The two mountain torrents meet at Reichenau, six miles
southwest of Coire (Chur), in the Grisons canton, Switzerland, after
they have descended the Nearer Rhine five thousand seven hundred and
sixty-seven feet in twenty-eight miles, the Farther Rhine five thousand
three hundred and forty-seven feet in twenty-seven miles.


LAKE CONSTANCE AND THE FALLS OF SCHAFFHAUSEN

After plowing its way north for forty-five miles between Switzerland and
Austrian Vorarlberg, the river enters the Lake of Constance, soon after
leaving which, its water a deep transparent green, it plunges down the
falls of Schaffhausen, nearly seventy feet, in three leaps, and flows
westward to Basel, separating Baden from Switzerland. In this stretch
the river (four hundred and ninety feet wide), receives from the left
the waters of the Aar. At Basel (seven hundred and forty-two feet), now
two hundred and twenty-five yards wide, it wheels round to the north,
and traversing an open shallow valley that separates Alsace and the
Bavarian Palatinate from Baden, reaches Mainz, split into many side arms
and studded with green islands. Navigation begins at Basel.


THE MIDDLE RHINE FROM BASEL TO COLOGNE

Of the numerous affluents here the largest are the navigable Neckar and
the Main from the right, and the navigable Ill from the left. A little
below Mainz, the Rhine (six hundred and eighty-five yards wide) is
turned west by the Taunus range; but at Bingen it forces a passage
through, and pursues a northwesterly direction across Rhenish Prussia,
past Coblenz, Bonn, Cologne, Düsseldorf, Ruhrort, and Wesel as far as
the Dutch frontier; here it is one thousand and eighty-five yards wide
and thirty-six feet above sea-level.


THE FAMOUS STRETCH FROM BINGEN TO BONN

The first half of this portion of the river from Bingen to Bonn is the
Rhine of song and legend, the Rhine of romance, the Rhine of German
patriotism. Its banks are clothed with vineyards that yield wine
esteemed the world over; the rugged and fantastic crags that hem in its
channel are crowned by ruined castles; the treasure of the Nibelungs
rests at the bottom of the river (higher up, at Worms); the Bingerloch
and the Mouse Tower of Bishop Hatto, the fortress of Ehrenbreitstein,
the rock of the siren Lorelei, the commanding statue of Germania (the
trophy of German victory in 1870), and innumerable other features lend
interest to this, the middle course of “Father Rhine.” Between Bingen
and Bonn the steep rocky walls that fence in the river approach so close
that road and railway have to find their way through tunnels. The Nahe
enters the Rhine at Bingen, the Moselle at Coblenz; from the right side
the Lahn enters above Coblenz. Gigantic rafts are floated down from the
Black Forest to Dordrecht in Holland. Below Bonn the Rhine is joined by
the Sieg, Wupper, Ruhr, and Lippe from the right.

[Illustration: =PANORAMIC VIEW OF THE RIVER RHINE, THE MOST HISTORIC
RIVER IN THE WORLD=

Starting from the important city of Cologne and ascending the river.
These pages and those immediately following give an almost photographic
panorama of the entire Rhine valley as far as Mainz--the course of the
river, its confluents, bridges, cities, villages, castles, fortresses,
historic ruins and museums, and the general topography of the region
through which river flows.

COLOGNE CATHEDRAL, the grandest Gothic church in the world. Begun in
1248, consecrated 1880. It has seven wonderful chapels.

University Bldgs.

KÖLN, OR COLOGNE, sixth city in size in the German Empire, was
originally an ancient Teutonic town and later an important Roman
garrison. Its greatest ornament is the Cathedral. The city is encircled
by a boulevard of great beauty. The Hahnentor Museum contains a famous
collection of armor and weapon.

Hahnentor in Cöln

BONN is 21 miles from Cologne, has a beautiful location, and is chiefly
noted for its University, housed in the Electoral Palace built
1717-1730. It was a great Roman fortress and suffered many sieges. The
Cathedral was founded by the mother of Constantine. In its cemetery are
buried Niebuhr, the historian, Schlegel, Schumann, Arndt and Bunsen.

BEETHOVEN’s birthplace in Bonn was at 20 Bonngasse. There is a bronze
statue of the great composer in Münsterplatz.

GODESBURG CASTLE. A fine mediæval castle on a hill overlooking the
Rhine. Splendid view.

ROLANDSECK is half an hour’s sail above Königswinter on the right; and
high on the hill above is the fragment of the castle said to have been
built by Roland, paladin of Charlemagne, and rich in legends. See
Bulwer’s “Pilgrims of the Rhine” for the story, which doubtless
suggested Schiller’s ballad of “Ritter Toggenburg.”

Rolandseck

REMAGEN is renowned for its beautiful Gothic church on a hill just below
the village. It was erected under the direction of Zwirner, the
architect of the superb south portal of the Cologne cathedral and is
adorned with large frescoes, which are masterpieces of Modern German
art.

Königswinter is beautifully situated at the foot of the Siebengebirge,
or Seven Mountains, and nearest the castles crag of Drachenfels
(Dragon’s rock). The Siebengebirge form a picturesque volcanic group,
1,000 to 1,500 ft. high, about 5m. square, covered with forests and
ruins. The prospect from Drachenfels and from the Petersberg are among
the finest on the Rhine. A funicular railway reaches the top of the
Drachenfels and the Petersberg. See story of “Nibelungenlied.”

A massive tower and ruined castle at Andernach memorialized in
Longfellow’s “Hyperion.”

HAMMERSTEIN is a 10th century castle where Henry IV. took refuge. It was
held during the Thirty Years’ war by Swedes, Spaniards and Germans.

ANDERNACH, with its ruined castle, ancient walls, and lofty watch tower
is one of the most interesting towns on the Rhine. It was one of the 50
forts of Drusus; recaptured from the Alemanni by Julian in 339; a royal
Franconian residence in the 6th century; an imperial town later; stormed
by Cologne troops in 1496; and burned by the French in 1688. Nearby is
the Benedictine Abbey of Laach, founded in 1093, with magnificent
Romanesque church, on the vast crater-lake of the Laachser See.

KOBLENZ, the capital of Rhenish Prussia, is at the confluence of the
Rhine and Moselle, whence the Romans called it Confluentia. It is a
powerful fortress, with heights crossed with enormous fortifications.
The Palace contains interesting Electoral Hall and Festival Hall. The
Rhine is crossed by a bridge of boats and by a very fine railway bridge.
Across the Rhine is Ehrenbreitstein, (“Honor’s Broad Stone”), “The
Gibraltar of the Rhine,” a vast fortress on a precipitous rock, 387 ft.
above the river, and commanding a wonderful view. It has often been
beleaguered but yielded only twice.

STOLZENFELS.

STOLZENFELS (“Proud rock”), a fine castle of the middle ages, on a
projecting rock overlooking the Rhine, belongs to the Royal Family of
Prussia. It was presented by the city of Koblenz to King William IV.
Here they say treasures are buried which Archbishop Werner acquired by
his knowledge of alchemy. Fine view of the Lahn Valley and Koblenz.

Ehrenbreitstein

BRAUBACH, an ancient little town, at the entrance of the valley that
winds round the Marksberg, with a fine old Castle, the Marksburg, a
fortress of the middle ages, one of the few ancient Rhine castles which
escaped destruction.

ST. GOARSHAUSEN is under the castle called The Cat, built in 1393, and
blown up by the French in 1804. Above is the Lurlei rock, a precipice
433 ft. high, rising over whirlpools in the deepest and narrowest part
of the Rhine, and the fabled seat of a siren who lured sailors to a
tragic death.

RHEINSTEIN

ST. GOARis overlooked by the grandest ruin on the river, the famous
Rheinfels, dating from 1245; besieged often; now royal property.

OBERWESEL is charmingly situated in the midst of the finest scenery of
the Rhine. The Church of Notre Dame, south of the town, is a fine
specimen of 14th century Gothic, with curious old pictures and
monuments. The Chapel of St. Werner, erected in the 13th century,
commemorates one of the old stories of child-murder by the Jews. Above
the town are the ruins of Schönburg, built about the 12th century.

CAUB (left) is a little town with a big castle, Gutenfels, towering
above it, and not far above, in the midst of the river is the Pfalz,
built by Louis of Bavaria early in the 14th century.

THE MOUSE TOWER (Mäuserturm) is situated on a rock in the middle of the
Rhine, near Bingen. It is notable from the legend of Bishop Hatto’s
tragic fate.

THE NIEDERWALD, opposite Bingen, is the great National Monument
commemorating the restoration of the German Empire in 1870-71. It stands
740 feet above the river, and consists of a colossal statue of Germania,
33 feet high, upon a sculptured pedestal 78 feet high.

Bingen

BINGEN is at the junction of the Rhine and the Nahe. The river scenery
above Bingen is less interesting, though it is here the fertile and
beautiful wine region begins. Rüdesheim, just across the river, has rich
wines, far-viewing heights, wild legends, and a Roman fortress. On the
heights is the Castle of Johannisberg, where Prince Metternich once
lived. It is amid the best vineyards on the Rhine and commands a superb
view. At Riebrich, opposite Mainz, is the beautiful palace of the Duke
of Nassau.

Mainz. MAINZ, or Mayence, with its magnificent cathedral, has been both
a German and a French town. Thorwaldsen’s statue of Gutenberg, the
inventor of printing, stands near the Cathedral. The Electoral Palace is
a rich museum of Roman relics and an important picture gallery. The city
is a noted wine center and trade emporium.]


THE LOWER RHINE FROM COLOGNE TO THE SEA

At Bonn the river enters the plains, and almost immediately after
passing the Netherlands frontier its delta begins. The principal arm,
carrying two-thirds of the volume, flows under the name of the Waal, and
later the Mermede, to Dordrecht, picking up the Maas (Meuse) from the
left. At Dordrecht the river again divides for a bit, one branch, the
old Maas, running out to sea; the other, the Noord, forming a loop by
way of Rotterdam. The northern arm sends one branch, the Yssel, due
north to the Zuider Zee; the other branch is the Lek, which runs into
the Waal-Maas arm above Rotterdam.

A thin stream, called the “Winding Rhine,” leaves the Lek and splits at
Utrecht into two channels, of which the Old Rhine, a mere ditch, manages
with the help of a canal and locks to struggle into the North Sea at
Katwyk, northwest of Leyden, while the Vecht flows due north from
Utrecht to the Zuider Zee near Amsterdam. In the delta the streams have
to be bordered by dykes.


THE RHINE IN EARLY EUROPEAN HISTORY

The Rhine was the Romans’ bulwark against the Teutonic invaders and was
long a boundary between the province of Gaul and the German tribes.
Under Charlemagne the Rhine valley became the focus of civilization.
Except between 1697 and 1871 the Rhine was always a purely German river;
at the peace of Ryswick, Alsace-Lorraine was appropriated by France, and
the Rhine became part of the dividing line between France and Germany.
In 1801 Napoleon incorporated the whole of the left bank with France; in
1815 the arrangement in force before 1801 was restored; and after 1871
the Rhine became once more wholly German. It has often been crossed by
armies; twice by Julius Cæsar; again in the Thirty Years’ war, and in
the wars of Louis XIV., the Revolution, and Napoleon. Its navigation was
declared free in 1868.

The Rhine is connected by canals with the rivers Danube, Rhone and
Marne. There is a railway along both its banks, but a steamboat is
greatly preferable for viewing the incomparable course between Cologne
(Köln) and Mainz (_Fr._, Mayence) as shown in panoramic form on
preceding page. Its beauties are better displayed, also, at most points,
in ascending the river than in descending it.


  =THE DANUBE= (_Ger._, Donau), one of the most important rivers of
  Europe, and next to the Volga the largest, originates in two small
  streams rising in the Schwarzwald, or Black Forest, in Baden,
  Germany, and uniting at Donaueschingen, two thousand two hundred and
  sixty-four feet above sea level. The Germans occupy the entire upper
  basin, and portions of the middle and lower; the Slavs parts of both
  banks of the middle course; the Magyars the central portion of the
  valley; and the Roumanians the lower regions.


GENERAL COURSE OF THE GERMAN DANUBE

The river flows first southeast and then northeast to Ulm, one
thousand, five hundred and nineteen feet above sea level. At Regensburg
it reaches its most northerly point, and from thence its course is
generally southeast. Between Regensburg and Vienna the banks of the
river are frequently remarkable for their romantic beauty. At Tuttlingen
it contracts and the hills crowd close to the banks, while ruins of
castles crown almost every possible summit. The scenery is wild and
beautiful until the river passes Sigmaringen.


THE AUSTRIAN DANUBE, FAMED IN HISTORY AND SONG

From Passau the Danube flows through Austria for a distance of two
hundred and thirty-three miles. Closed in by mountains it flows past
Linz in an unbroken stream; below, it expands and divides into many arms
until it reaches the famous whirlpool near Grein, where its waters unite
and flow on in one channel for forty miles through mountains and narrow
passes. Between Linz and Vienna it is renowned not only for its
picturesque beauty, but for the numerous historic buildings and ruins
which crown its banks. The splendid Benedictine monastery of Melk, the
ruins of Durrenstein, and the prison of Richard the Lion-hearted are
among the most interesting.

Vienna, to defend the city against risk of inundation, the course of the
Danube skirting it was, in 1868-81, diverted into an artificial channel.
Similar works have been undertaken near Budapesth, in Hungary.


FROM VIENNA TO THE IRON GATE

After passing Vienna and Marchfeld, the river cuts through a defile
formed by the lower spurs of the Alps and Carpathians and enters Hungary
at the ruined castle of Theben, a little above Pressburg, the old Magyar
capital. Here, again, it gives off a number of branches, forming a
labyrinth of islands known as Schütten, but on emerging it flows
uninterruptedly southward through wide plains interspersed with pools,
marshes, and sandy wastes. The principal affluents here are the Save,
the Drave, and the Theiss.

Sixty miles before entering Roumania the river passes through a
succession of rapids or cataracts which it has made in cutting a passage
for itself through the cross chain of hills which connect the Carpathian
Mountains with the Alps. The last of these cataracts, at Old Orsova, is
called the Iron Gate. Between 1878 and 1898, the Hungarian government
carried through, at a cost of seven million five hundred thousand
dollars, extensive engineering works at the gorges of the Iron Gates for
deepening the channel and cutting a canal.


ITS JOURNEY THROUGH THE BALKAN COUNTRIES

The lower course of the Danube, in Roumania and Bulgaria, is through a
flat and marshy tract, fertile but badly cultivated and thinly peopled.
It forms the northern boundary of Bulgaria as far as Silistria; and from
here it turns northward, skirting the Dobruja, and flows between marshy
banks to Galatz, receiving on the way the Jalomitza and the Sereth.
From Galatz it flows east, and, after being joined by the Pruth from
the north, it continues southeast to the Black Sea.

The delta is a vast wilderness (one thousand square miles) cut up by
channels and lagoons; the farthest mouths are sixty miles apart.
Two-thirds of the Danube’s volume passes through the Kilia, which, like
the southern or St. George branch, forms a double channel near the
outlet; and so ships enter by the middle or Sulina mouth, deepened to
twenty feet and straightened in 1858-1903. The steel cantilever bridge
across the river at Tchernavoda is one of the great railway bridges of
the world.


ITS CHIEF TOWNS AND COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE

The principal towns on the Danube are Ratisbon, Vienna, Pressburg,
Budapest, Belgrade, and Galatz. The width of the river varies
considerably, and at some points the opposite shore is hardly
discernible. It is first navigable at Ulm, and, thanks to various
improvements, is now navigable continuously from that point to its
mouth. Engineering work to this end, undertaken at Vienna, Budapest, and
the Iron Gates has already been referred to. The International Danube
Navigation Commission, appointed in 1856, controls the lower portion of
the river, and has done much to improve navigation at the delta.
Sea-going vessels of six hundred tons can now go nearly as far as the
Iron Gates, while vessels of twenty-five hundred tons can go above
Galatz. By means of canals the Danube is connected with the Rhine and
the Elbe.


ITS PART IN HISTORY AND INTERNATIONAL POLITICS

This mighty river is exceedingly rich in historical and political
associations. For a long period it formed the frontier of the Roman
Empire, and along its course are still found many notable Roman remains.
Traces of the great wall erected by the Emperor Trajan are to be seen on
the south side of the Hungarian Danube. At Turn Severin, east of the
Carpathians, a tower and several piers of Trajan’s Roman bridge, a
splendid piece of ancient engineering, are still standing; while his
more marvelous road in the rocky Kazan defile is marked by a Roman
tablet still visible.

The struggles of races and peoples in the lands bordering the Danube
have been among the fiercest and strongest in all history. Finns, Kelts,
Germans, Slavs, Greeks, Italians and Turks have all vied with one
another in the race of conquest and possession; and even today the
Balkan countries are still in the seething cauldron of new struggles for
domination or independence.

  The Lake Region of Europe lies round the Baltic. _Ladoga_, in
  Russia, is the largest fresh-water lake in Europe, as wide across as
  the English Channel, between Portsmouth and Cherbourg. _Onega_, and
  Peipus (Russia) are also of great size, as well as the lakes of
  Finland and Sweden, and some of those of the Alps. Chief of these
  are Wetter and Mœlar in Sweden; the myriad lakes of Finland; the
  beautiful lakes of the folds of the Alps, Geneva, Neuchatel, and
  Constance on the north side; and Maggiore, Como, and Garda in the
  Italian valleys. They will be noticed further under the countries to
  which they belong.


THE NATIONS OF EUROPE--THE GREAT POWERS

  Of the nations of Europe it may be said that in point of rank Great
  Britain, Germany, France, Austria, and Russia stand first as the
  “five great powers.” These include within their limits more than
  two-thirds of the entire population of Europe, and have for a long
  time controlled all continental questions. Second come Italy, Spain,
  and Sweden; in third rank are Turkey, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, and
  Portugal.

  Another grouping on the basis of race stocks is frequently made
  beginning with the highest in culture, the _Germanic_; passing
  thence to the _Romanic_; concluding with the _Slavonic_, and the
  lands under the rule of the _Turks_, lowest in the scale, which are
  most closely connected with the Mongols of Asia. The Germanic, or
  Teutonic nations, include Great Britain; the German Empire;
  Austria-Hungary; Scandinavia (Norway, Sweden, Denmark); Holland, or
  the Netherlands; Switzerland, and Belgium. The Romanic nations
  include France; Italy; Spain; Portugal; Greece, and Roumania. The
  Slavonic nations, Russia in Europe; Servia, and Montenegro. The
  Turkish or Mongol nations, Turkey in Europe; Bulgaria.

  For various reasons the first grouping is adopted in the pages
  following.


GREAT BRITAIN

The British Empire, Great Britain and England are often erroneously used
in the popular mind for one and the same nation. In strict accuracy the
British Empire consists of (1) The United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland; (2) India, and the British Colonies, Protectorates, and
Dependencies. Great Britain proper includes only England, Scotland and
Wales. What is really meant is the geographical group of the British
Isles, including England, Scotland, Wales, Ireland and the adjacent
islands. For here is the source of power and authority that holds
together and controls this greatest of modern empires.

=Geographical Features.=--The British Isles belong distinctly to the
mainland of Europe. If we imagine the sea level between England and
Holland to fall sixty feet--the height of an ordinary house--the broad
_Dogger Bank_, midway between England and Denmark, would begin to show
its sands, and if a fall of two hundred feet took place one might walk
dry shod across to the continent, to Belgium, Holland, or Denmark. From
its shallows and banks, its stormy cross seas and frequent fogs, the
navigation of the _North Sea_ is dangerous; yet the traffic over it is
enormous, for it is surrounded by countries, the inhabitants of which
have been famous on the seas from the earliest times.

The great highways of commerce from it are _Dover Strait_, leading to
the English Channel, in the south, and the stormy _Pentland Firth_,
which separates Scotland from the Orkney Islands, in the north. The
_English Channel_, though deeper than the North Sea, is also shallow;
the enclosed _Irish Sea_, between England and Ireland, with _St.
George’s Channel_ and the _North Channel_ leading out from it to the
ocean, has been scoured deeper in its central lines; but there is a
width of about fifty miles of shallow sea, or “soundings,” all round the
islands, in the west, where they face the broad Atlantic.

=Chief Islands and Divisions.=--The main island of Great Britain,
roughly triangular in shape, measures about six hundred miles in a
straight line from its southwest corner, where the granite walls of
_Land’s End_ and the dark serpentine cliffs of the _Lizard_ run out into
the Atlantic, to the northern apex, the high red sandstone rocks of
_Dunnet Head_, or its companion _Duncansby Head_, where John o’Groat’s
House stood, on the beach of the Pentland Firth.

The base of the island, forming the north coast of the English Channel,
measures only about half this distance, or three hundred and twenty
miles; and the eastern side, from the chalk cliffs of the _South
Foreland_, on the Strait of Dover, to the Pentland Firth, is about five
hundred and forty miles long. No part of the interior of Great Britain
is more distant than three or four days’ walk from the sea on one side
or other. In the narrower parts of the north of Scotland, indeed, where
the Moray Firth runs into the land, it is an easy day’s journey from the
head of this inlet of the North Sea to that of one or other of the
opposite sea lochs running in from the Atlantic.

The second island, _Ireland_, more rounded in general outline, measures
three hundred miles from _Malin Head_, its northernmost point, to _Mizen
Head_, its most southerly extremity, and two hundred miles from
_Carnsore Point_, its southeastern corner nearest England, to _Erris
Head_, its northwestern promontory on the Atlantic.

=Smaller Islands.=--The most extensive of the many island groups and
islets are those which lie off the broken west coast of Scotland, the
wild and rugged Outer and Inner Hebrides, of which _Lewis_, separated by
the channel called the Minch, and _Skye_, _Mull_, _Islay_ and _Arran_,
in the inner group, are the largest. The _Orkney_ group, separated from
the north of Scotland by the turbulent Pentland Firth, consist of no
fewer than fifty-nine rocky islets; and the _Shetlands_, forty miles
farther north, comprise upwards of a hundred separate points. The high
_Isle of Man_, in the middle of the Irish Sea; _Anglesey_, close to the
Welsh coast; and now united to it by the famous railway tubes across the
Menai Strait; and the _Isle of Wight_, “the garden of England,” in the
English Channel, separated from the mainland by the busy Solent, are the
others of importance. The Channel Islands, of which _Jersey_ and
_Guernsey_ are the largest, belong politically to Britain, but are
physically parts of France.

=Surface: Mountains and Lowlands.=--In the island of Great Britain the
highest portions lie generally to north and west, the lowlands to south
and east.

The heather-covered Highlands, which fill the north of Scotland, are
divided by the great natural passage of _Glen More_, which runs in a
straight line across the island from northeast to southwest into two
chief groups, the northern and central.

The northern group consists of irregularly-distributed and often almost
isolated masses, separated, it may be, by deep sea-fiords, and
presenting every variety of contour, from that of the round mass of _Ben
Wyvis_ to the steep, wall-like sides of _Suilvein_ or the sharp peak of
_Ben Stack_. The Central Highlands or the _Grampians_, extending from
the peninsula of Cantyre northeastward to the precipitous coast of
Buchan on the North Sea, are far more massive and continuous.

_Ben Nevis_, a huge round mass ascending abruptly from the shores of
Loch Eil at the mouth of the Great Glen, is the highest mountain of the
British Isles.

The Southern Highlands of Scotland are more broken, and separated by
river valleys. _Mount Merrick_, in the southwest, is their highest
point; the _Lowther Hills_ form their central group; the _Pentlands_,
_Moorfoot_, and _Lammermoor_ hills their more detached portions, on the
northeast.

With the Cheviot Hills, the boundary range between Scotland and England,
begins the long _Pennine chain_, which reaches due south into the heart
of England. _Cheviot Hill_, in the north, _Crossfell_, and _Whernside_,
and the _Peak of Derby_, in the south, mark the summits and direction of
the chain. To the west of the Pennine chain rises the compact circular
knob of slate mountains of Cumberland, of which _Scawfell_ is the summit
of England proper. And corresponding to this mass, near the opposite
coast, are the eastern moorlands and _wolds_ of Yorkshire.

Separated from the Pennine heights by the plain of Cheshire (west of
England) rise the highlands of Wales, collectively called the _Cambrian
Mountains_.

Across the Bristol Channel we come to the heights of the southwestern
peninsula of England, with its three groups of _Exmoor_, _Dartmoor_,
with its rugged granite tors, and the _Cornish Heights_. These are the
more important mountain groups of Great Britain.

Over all the south and east of England the elevations are comparatively
insignificant; broad, undulating, grassy uplands, called the _South
Downs_ and the _Chiltern Hills_, rarely attaining more than eight
hundred feet of elevation, follow the chalk formation across Southern
England as far as Beachy Head on the Channel and the Foreland Cliffs on
the Strait of Dover. The limestone _Cotswold Hills_ between these and
the Welsh Highlands rise somewhat higher.

Almost all the lowlands of Great Britain lie to the east and south. Here
we find the plain of the “_New Forest_” in Hampshire and the treeless
_Salisbury Plain_, the broad open _Valley of the Thames_, the “_Eastern
Plain_” of Essex, Suffolk, and Norfolk, extending with rounded shores
towards the North Sea; the low “_Fen District_” behind the shallow
estuary of “_The Wash_,” from which many tracts have been reclaimed; the
long “_Plain of York_” beyond; the valleys of the Tees and Tweed, the
latter including the cultivated “_Merse_,” the march or border land of
Berwickshire; the Scottish “_Lowlands_” between the Central and Southern
Highlands; the “_Carse_” or alluvial plain of Gowrie, north of the Tay;
“_Strathmore_,” the broad valley which extends between the Grampians and
their southern outliers; the _plain of Cromarty_ and the level moors of
eastern Caithness farthest north of all. The only extensive lowlands on
the western side of the island are the “_Vale of Severn_,” the “_Plain
of Cheshire_,” between the Pennine chain and the Welsh Highlands, the
lowlands round the estuary of the Solway, those of Ayrshire, and the
_Valley of the Clyde_.

Crossing over to Ireland, though we find the lines of elevation running
generally in the same direction as those of Great Britain, or from
northeast to southwest, as shown in the peninsulas of the southwest
coast, the mountains appear rather in detached clusters than in definite
ranges, with shapes rather rounded than abrupt, forming a fringe round
the coasts. The plateau of Antrim, which forms the precipice of _Fair
Head_, the nearest point to the Scottish coast, contains the remarkable
basaltic scenery of the Giants’ Causeway.

=Giants’ Causeway.=--This extensive and extraordinary assemblage of
basaltic columns is in the county of Antrim, between Bengore Head and
Port Rush. The name is sometimes given to the whole range of basalt
cliffs along the coast, some of which reach the height of four or five
hundred feet; but it is more properly restricted to a small portion of
it where a platform of closely-ranged basalt columns from fifteen to
thirty-six feet in height runs down into the sea in three divisions,
known as the Little, the Middle, and the Grand Causeway. The last is
from twenty to thirty feet wide, and stretches some nine hundred feet
into the sea.

The Giants’ Causeway derives its name from the legend that it was built
by giants as a road which was to stretch across the sea to Scotland.
There are similar formations on the west coast of Scotland, on the
island of Staffa.

In the southwest are the _Mountains of Kerry_, containing _Cam Tual_,
the summit of all Ireland. The only important groups that lie centrally
in the island are the mountains of western Tipperary.

Within the circle of these heights, and branching out between them at
many points to the sea-coast, lies the _Great Plain of Ireland_,
averaging perhaps two hundred feet in elevation above the sea. The
highest point between Dublin and Galway, east to west across its center,
is only three hundred and twenty feet above the sea-level. Many parts of
it, such as that which surrounds Lough Neagh in the north, are scarcely
fifty feet in elevation.

=Rivers.=--England and Ireland are very bountifully watered; Scotland
rather less so, as the higher mountains of Great Britain rise in the
west of the island, so the water-parting line following the greatest
general height lies nearer the west than the east. The longer and
gentler slope of the island is to the North Sea; the shorter and steeper
to the Atlantic side. Hence most of the larger rivers belong to the
North Sea drainage.

THE THAMES (_Temz_), the most important river of Great Britain, flows
southeast by east across the southern portion of the country. It rises
in the Cotswold Hills and follows a course of some one hundred and
ninety miles to Gravesend, the head of the estuary, where it has a width
of half a mile, gradually increasing then to ten miles at the Nore
lightship about thirty miles farther. By the addition of its tributaries
the Colne, Leach, and Churn, it becomes navigable for barge traffic at
Lechlade, where the canal to the Severn leaves. Above Oxford the stream
is frequently called the Isis. At Oxford the navigability improves, and
river steamers ply between Oxford and points below it as far as London.
Until the Tower Bridge, in London, was built, London Bridge was the
lowest in the course, and ocean-going vessels still reach the latter.

Gravesend, twenty miles lower, grew up at the spot where vessels waited
the turn of the tide; a little farther the Medway, by virtue of its
estuary the most important tributary, enters; just inside this is
Chatham, an important naval depot. Opposite Gravesend and on the north
bank is Tilbury, the terminus of modern liners. The waters from the
Tilbury docks to the Nore lightship are of great strategic importance,
hence there is here a station for destroyers, torpedo-boats, and
gun-boats. Sheerness and Shoreham as land defenses add to this.

From London Bridge downward the Thames is lined with docks and wharves,
the former being now under the Port of London authority. At Woolwich, on
the south bank, eight miles below London Bridge, is the arsenal, and a
little farther up the river Greenwich Observatory.

Historically, the Thames is unsurpassed by any river of the world. A
slight rise surrounded by marsh on the left bank formed the first point
suitable for bridging a strategic site for London, the tide giving
facilities to it as a port, while yet placed well up the river for
defensive purposes. Still farther up, a dominating site in the lower
valley was found at Windsor for the mediæval kings. In Anglo-Saxon times
the kingdoms were divided by the river, and the break in the Chiltern
Hills at Goring was a check in the line of aggression.

Above London the scenery is rich and beautiful, though not romantic, the
numerous islands lending a peculiar charm. The Thames is the best
beloved of English rivers for those who boat for pleasure. During the
summer the Thames is a favorite holiday resort, house-boats being
frequently the temporary homes of pleasure-seekers; and regattas are
held at Henley, Kingston, and other places. For boat-racing, it divides
the honors with the Tyne. The Thames watermen are renowned in song and
story. Since Spencer’s days “the silver-streaming Thames” has been sung
by England’s poets; Herrick calls it “Silver-footed Thamesis;” Denham’s
apostrophe is famous; and Pope has word-painted much of the scenery of
its banks.

OTHER BRITISH RIVERS.--The next longest river to northward is the _Great
Ouse_, navigable from the west for ninety miles to Bedford; then we come
to the group of rivers which water the long plain of York, and unite in
the estuary of the Humber, including the _Trent_ from the south,
navigable one hundred and five miles to Burton; the _Yorkshire Ouse_,
navigable forty-five miles to the city of York, with its main tributary
the _Derwent_. Farther north are the _Tees_ and _Wear_, and the busy
_Tyne_. Passing into Scotland, we reach the _Tweed_, valuable for its
fisheries, but unnavigable; the _Forth_, winding in links through the
fertile lowland, navigable to Stirling; the _Tay_, navigable to Perth;
the rapid _Dee_ and _Spey_ from the Grampians, and the _Ness_ from the
lakes of Glenmore.

On the western or Atlantic side of Britain, the largest river, the
second in drainage area in the island, is the _Severn_, drawing its
upper tributaries from the Welsh mountains, and its chief lower
affluent, the navigable _Avon_, from England, curving round to the
British Channel; it is navigable to Welshpool, one hundred and twenty
miles from its mouth. The _Mersey_, though a short river, forms one of
the most important estuaries of the island, the “Liverpool Channel.”
Scarcely less valuable in this respect is the lower _Clyde_, the most
important commercial river of Scotland, navigable to Glasgow, and
forming in its upper valley the largest falls in the island.

Almost all the river estuaries of Britain are great highways of
commerce; the Solway Firth, between England and Scotland on the west
coast, is the most important exception, its swift and strong tides,
rushing in over the sands so fast that a galloping horseman can scarcely
escape from them, being exceedingly dangerous to shipping. Besides these
estuaries many natural harbors lie round the coast. Such are the
sheltered Solent and Portsmouth harbor behind the Isle of Wight,
Plymouth Sound farther west, and Milford Haven on the south coast of
Wales, unsurpassed perhaps in the world as a deep and spacious harbor
thoroughly sheltered from all winds.

=British Lakes.=--The lakes of South Britain are comparatively few and
small. _Bala Lake_, only four miles long, is the largest in the Welsh
Highlands; in England the only considerable group is that which clusters
round the knot of mountains in Cumberland, known through the rare
interest that has been added to this district by the group of
illustrious poets who made it their home about the beginning of the
nineteenth century.

=English Lake District.=--Within this area are grouped as many as
sixteen lakes or _meres_, besides innumerable mountain _tarns_ and
streams. The district extends about thirty miles from north to south by
about twenty-five from east to west, and contains within its compass the
utmost variety and wealth of natural scenery, soft and graceful beauty
ever alternating closely with grandeur and sublimity.

Windermere, the largest of the lakes (ten and one-half miles by one
mile), lies in the southeast corner of the district and is connected
with Rydal Water, Grasmere, Elther Water, and Esthwaite. To the west
rises the Scawfell range, terminating in the Old Man of Coniston, which
rises above Coniston Water, and to the east of the Scawfell range lies
Wastwater (three miles long), the deepest of all the lakes. In the
northeast is Ullswater, with the sequestered Hawes Water to the
southeast. To the west of Helvellyn is Thirlmere, which is the reservoir
for the water supply of Manchester, dammed in 1890-1894. The river
Derwent, rising in the Scawfell range, flows north through Borrowdale
and forms Bassenthwaite and Derwentwater, the most beautiful of the
lakes. Westward from Borrowdale opens a valley in which lie Buttermere
and Crummock Water, and between these and the Derwent valley is
Ennerdale Water. There are several waterfalls, the chief, perhaps, being
Lodore, near Derwentwater. Near Derwentwater lies Keswick, the chief
town of the district, while Ambleside and Bowness (Windermere) and
Hawkshead (Esthwaite) are other places of importance.

Of the lake school of poets, Wordsworth was the acknowledged head and
founder, and his home for sixty years was in the Lake District. Southey,
Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and De Quincey were the chief of the group, and
Shelley, Scott, Carlyle, Mrs. Hemans, Matthew Arnold, Edward Fitzgerald,
Tennyson, Gray, and Charles Lamb, although not directly associated with
the school, were connected with the district.

=Scotch Lakes.=--Scotland abounds in lakes in all three Highland
districts, and their number increases towards the north. _Loch Lomond_,
twenty-four miles long, in the largest in Britain, _Loch Awe_, _Loch
Tay_, _Loch Rannoch_, and _Loch Ericht_, may be mentioned as the largest
of those in the Grampian valleys. _Loch Ness_, twenty-four miles long
and eight hundred feet deep, with _Loch Oich_ and _Loch Lochy_, fills
the deep trench of the Great Glen between the Grampians and the Northern
Highlands; _Loch Shin_, twenty miles long and only one mile broad, and
_Loch Maree_, are the largest of the Northern Highland region. On the
western watershed of the Northern Highlands, however, lakes are so
thickly sown that hundreds may be counted from a mountain top, and the
Outer Hebrides are covered with a perfect network of them.

=Irish Rivers and Lakes.=--In Ireland, in contrast to Britain, the
watersheds are more evenly divided toward all points of the compass; the
greatest drainage, however, is westward to the Atlantic. On this side we
find the largest river, the _Shannon_, one hundred and sixty miles long,
draining an area second only to that of the Thames in extent, and
affording a navigable highway over the central plain almost up to its
source. The _Erne_ is another large river of the western drainage of
Ireland. Flowing northward we find the _Foyle_, and the _Bann_ passing
through Lough Neagh, and navigable for fifty-five miles. On the eastern
watershed the _Liffey_, from the Wicklow Mountains, is the most
important stream; the _Barrow_, navigable to Athy, seventy miles from
its fine estuary of Waterford Harbor, receiving near its mouth the
almost equally important _Nore_ and _Suir_, is the chief river of the
southern drainage; the _Blackwater_, affording twenty-two miles of
navigation, and the _Lee_, flowing to Cork (Queenstown) Harbor, are the
other notable rivers of this slope.

The lakes of Ireland, in contrast to those of Britain, belong rather to
the plain than to the mountain regions. _Lough Neagh_, in the basin of
the Bann in the north, is the largest of all in the British Islands, one
hundred and fifty-four square miles in area, twenty miles in length. The
lakes of the _Erne_, upper and lower, stand next in size; _Loughs
Corrib_ and _Mask_ in Connaught, joined by a subterranean channel, are
the largest in the west. The Shannon has three large expansions, _Loughs
Allen_, _Ree_, and _Derg_. Most famous for their scenery, however, are
the much smaller highland _Lakes of Killarney_, embosomed in the
southwestern mountains of Kerry, and considered the finest in Great
Britain.

=Climate.=--Their maritime situation has a favorable effect on the
climate of the British Isles, making it milder and more equable than
that of continental countries in the same latitude.

=Peoples of the British Isles.=--During the four centuries in which the
Romans held the lowlands of South Britain, many of the native British
tribes became Romanized, but the Celtic peoples of the mountain regions
of Wales, the Scottish Highlands, and of the west of Ireland, have
retained their language and more or less pure blood to the present day.
After the fall of the Roman power the invading Anglo-Saxons and Jutes
conquered the island, and to their strong Germanic element followed that
of the brilliant Normans, or Northmen who had settled in Normandy, and
who had there adopted the religion, language, and manners of the French.

Thus the population of these islands is a mixed Celtic, Germanic, and
Romanic one, all its elements being more thoroughly amalgamated in the
populous lowlands of Britain, the Celtic remaining purer in the highland
regions, which are more difficult of access. In Ireland the Teutonic
element prevails along the eastern margin; thence towards the western
mountains the transition is gradual to the pure Celtic.

=Religion.=--In religion, rather more than half the population of
England claims membership in the Church of England; the most prominent
other bodies being the Wesleyan Methodists, the Independents, and
Baptists. About a twentieth part of the population is Roman Catholic.

=Cities.=--The three largest cities in Wales are Cardiff, Rhondda, and
Merthyr Tydfil. The capital of England and of the British Empire is
London. The cities next in size (in order of population) are Liverpool,
Manchester and Salford, Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Bristol, Bradford,
Nottingham, and Hull.

The capital of Scotland is Edinburgh. Glasgow is the industrial
metropolis, followed by Dundee, and Aberdeen. After these come, in order
of population, Paisley, Leith, Greenock, Coatbridge, Kilmarnock,
Kirkcaldy, Perth, Hamilton, Motherwell, and Falkirk.

The capital of Ireland is Dublin; the other chief towns are Belfast,
Cork, Limerick, and Londonderry.

There are numerous other cities, towns, villages and districts notable
for industrial, educational, historical, literary, or other
associations.

[Illustration: =THE VICTORIA EMBANKMENT, LONDON, WITH THE THAMES IN THE
FOREGROUND=]

=LONDON=, the capital of the British Empire and the second largest city
in the world, is situated in the southeast of England on both sides of
the River Thames, which winds through it from west to east. The river is
crossed by numerous bridges and is deep enough to allow large vessels to
come up to London Bridge, the lowest of these (except the movable Tower
Bridge), where it is two hundred and sixty-six yards wide. London may be
said to stretch from east to west about fourteen miles, from north to
south about ten.

The area embraced by the Metropolitan and City police districts,
including all parishes within fifteen miles of Charing Cross, is spoken
of as Greater London. The population of London roughly equals that of
Scotland, Holland, Portugal or Sweden. Under the Act of 1899 London
includes the municipal boroughs of Battersea, Bermondsey, Bethnal Green,
Camberwell, Chelsea, Deptford, Finsbury, Fulham, Greenwich, Hackney,
Hammersmith, Hampstead, Holborn, Islington, Kensington, Lambeth,
Lewisham, Paddington, Poplar, St. Marylebone, St. Pancras, Shoreditch,
Stoke Newington, Wandsworth, Westminster and Woolwich.

GENERAL FEATURES.--The greater portion of London lies on the north side
of the Thames, in the counties of Middlesex and Essex, mainly the
former, on a site gradually rising from the river, and marked by several
inequalities of no great height, except in the northern suburbs, where
the elevation of four hundred and thirty feet is reached; on the
opposite bank, in the county of Surrey and partly in Kent, the more
densely built parts cover an extensive and nearly uniform flat, in some
places below the level of the highest tides, while the outskirts are
mostly elevated.

The nucleus of London was formed by what is still distinctively the City
of London, situated in the heart of the metropolis on the north bank of
the Thames. The City is a separate municipality, having a civic
corporation of its own, at its head being the Lord-mayor of London. The
City occupies only six hundred and seventy-one acres, and has a resident
population of only twenty-seven thousand.

Westminster, another portion of old London, associated with the
sovereigns, the parliaments, and the supreme courts of justice of
England for over eight hundred years, borders with the City on the west;
while across the river from the city lies the ancient quarter of
Southwark, or “The Borough.” Besides these, London consists of a great
number of well-defined quarters or districts, as well as many minor
districts, the names of which are familiar to the outside world, such as
Whitechapel, Spitalfields, Pimlico, Bloomsbury, Bermondsey, Belgravia,
etc. Another loose division of London is into the West End or
fashionable quarter, the residence of the wealthy, and the East End, the
great seat of trade and manufactures.

[Illustration: =PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS, LONDON=]

The financial and business houses of the city are principally located to
the east of St. Paul’s; the galleries, theaters, and places of amusement
between St. Paul’s and St. James’s Park; the parks and residences of the
nobility upon the western margin of the city. The railway stations are,
with few exceptions, in the suburbs.

London, on the whole, may be called a well-built city, brick being the
material generally employed, though many public and other edifices are
built of stone. In some streets the brick fronts are made to imitate
stone by being coated with cement. The streets are generally well kept
and well paved and lighted, but, except in some of the more recent
quarters, the general appearance of London is not attractive, much of
the effect of the fine buildings being lost by overcrowding and the want
of fitting sites.

What generally most strikes a stranger in London is its immense size,
which can only be grasped by actually traveling about, or by obtaining a
view from some elevation, as Primrose Hill in the northwest, or the dome
of St. Paul’s Cathedral near the center, the most conspicuous building
in the metropolis. Other striking and also attractive features of London
are the parks, especially Hyde Park and Regent’s Park, so valuable as
breathing spaces; and the handsome and massive stone embankments along
the Thames, forming wide roadways and promenades bordered by trees for
long distances.

As the capital of the British Empire, London is from time to time the
residence of the sovereign and court. It contains the buildings for the
accommodation of parliament and all the great government departments. It
is the chief intellectual center of Britain, and is equally great as a
center of commerce, banking and finance generally.

MAIN STREETS.--Although in the different districts of London, with the
exception of the parts most recently built, there are numerous narrow
and crooked streets, yet the whole extent of the metropolis is well
united by trunk lines of streets in the principal directions, which
render it comparatively easy for a stranger to find his way from one
district to another. Picadilly and Pall Mall; the Strand and its
continuation Fleet Street, Oxford Street and its continuations, Holborn,
Holborn Viaduct, and Cheapside eastward, and Bayswater Road, Notting
Hill High Street, and Holland Park Avenue westward, are among noteworthy
streets running east and west; while of those running north and south,
Regent Street, perhaps the handsomest street in London, and the location
of fashionable shops, is the chief. Edgware Road, with its
continuations, is an important thoroughfare running northwest. Kings-way
and Aldwych, connecting Holborn with the Strand, were opened in 1905.

Many of the streets are closely associated with special trades,
industries, pursuits, etc. Thus Bond Street is associated with jewelers,
Oxford Street and Regent Street with milliners, the Burlington Arcade
with fashionable haberdashers, Fleet Street with newspapers,
Northumberland Avenue and the Strand with hotels, Long Acre with
carriage builders, Shaftesbury Avenue with theaters, while Pall Mall is
the especial center of clubland. Booksellers’ Row and the Lowther Arcade
in the Strand, famous respectively for second-hand book shops and for
toy shops, have both disappeared quite recently. The Thames Embankment
on the north or Middlesex side, known as the Victoria Embankment, also
forms a magnificent thoroughfare, adorned by important buildings, and at
different points with ornamental grounds and statues.

BRIDGES.--A number of magnificent bridges cross the Thames. The lowest
is the Tower Bridge, a “bascule” bridge opening by machinery so as to
let ships pass through. The others most remarkable in upward order
(exclusive of railway bridges) are London Bridge, nine hundred feet
long, and built of Aberdeen granite; Southwark Bridge, and Blackfriars’
Bridge, all connecting the city with Southwark; Waterloo Bridge, one
thousand three hundred and eighty feet long, consisting of nine
elliptical arches of Aberdeen granite; Westminster Bridge, an elegant
structure of iron, one thousand two hundred feet long, crossing the
river from Westminster to Lambeth; Vauxhall Bridge (rebuilding completed
in 1906), carrying an electric railway; Putney Bridge, and Hammersmith
Bridge. A great traffic passes under the river in tunnels, some for
electric railways. The old Thames Tunnel, two miles below London Bridge,
now contains a railway. The great Blackwall Tunnel, farther down, is for
general traffic.

PARKS AND SQUARES.--The chief parks are in the western portion of the
metropolis, the largest being Hyde Park and Regent’s Park, which,
together with St. James’s Park and the Green Parks, are royal parks. The
most fashionable is Hyde Park, containing about four hundred acres. It
is surrounded by a carriage-drive two and one-half miles long, has some
fine old trees, large stretches of grass, and contains a handsome sheet
of water sadly misnamed the Serpentine River. Kensington Gardens (three
hundred and sixty acres), with which Hyde Park communicates at several
points, are well wooded and finely laid out. St. James’s Park,
eighty-three acres, and the Green Park, seventy-one acres in extent,
adjoin Hyde Park on the southeast. Regent’s Park, in the northwest of
London, north of Hyde Park, containing the gardens of the Zoological
Society and those of the Royal Botanic Society, covers an area of four
hundred and seventy acres. The Zoological Gardens contain the largest
collection of living animals of all kinds in the world. Adjoining
Regent’s Park to the north is Primrose Hill. There are, besides,
Victoria Park in the northeast of London, Hampstead Heath in the
northwest, the happy hunting-ground of the toilers of the city on “bank
holidays.” Battersea Park in the southwest, West Ham Park in the extreme
east, Greenwich Park at Greenwich, etc.

Of the squares the most central and noteworthy is Trafalgar Square, with
Charing Cross adjoining. Most of the squares possess gardens, some
public, such as Leicester Square, others private, as Grosvenor Square,
Russell Square, Bedford Square, Tavistock Square, etc.

[Illustration: =CLEOPATRA’S NEEDLE, LONDON=]

MONUMENTS.--Among the public monuments are “The Monument” on Fish Street
Hill, London Bridge, a fluted Doric column two hundred and two feet
high, erected in 1677 in commemoration of the great fire of London; the
York Column, in Waterloo Place, one hundred and twenty-four feet high;
the Guards’ Memorial (those who fell in Crimea), same place; the Nelson
Column, in Trafalgar Square, one hundred and seventy-six and one-half
feet high, with four colossal lions by Landseer at its base; the
national memorial to Prince Albert in Hyde Park, probably one of the
finest monuments in Europe, being a Gothic structure one hundred and
seventy-six feet high, with a colossal statue of the prince seated under
a lofty canopy; Cleopatra’s Needle on the Thames Embankment; a handsome
modern “cross” at Charing Cross; and numerous statues of public men. The
Queen Victoria Memorial at Buckingham Palace, on a grand scale, was
designed by Sir Aston Webb, R.A.

PUBLIC BUILDINGS.--Among the royal palaces are St. James’s, a brick
building erected by Henry VIII.; Buckingham Palace, the King’s London
residence, built by George IV.; Marlborough House, the residence of the
Prince and Princess of Wales; Kensington Palace, a plain brick building,
the birthplace of Queen Victoria. These are all in the west of London.

Lambeth Palace, the residence of the Archbishop of Canterbury, is
situated on the Surrey side of the river, while Fulham Palace, the
residence of the Bishop of London, is in Fulham, near Putney Bridge.

On the north bank of the Thames stand the Houses of Parliament, a
magnificent structure in the Tudor Gothic style, with two lofty towers.
The buildings cover about eight acres, and cost fifteen million dollars.
Westminster Hall, adjacent to the Houses of Parliament, a noble old pile
built by William Rufus, was formerly the place in which the Supreme
Courts of Justice sat, but is now merely a promenade for members of
parliament.

In and near Whitehall in the same quarter are the government offices,
comprising the Foreign, Home, Colonial, and India Offices, the new War
Office, Horse Guards and Admiralty.

Somerset House, which contains some of the public offices, is in the
Strand. The Postoffice in the city occupies spacious and handsome
buildings. New Postoffice buildings are on the former site of Christ’s
Hospital, the king having laid the foundation stone in 1905.

Adjoining the city on the east is the Tower, the ancient citadel of
London, which occupies an area of twelve acres on the banks of the
Thames. The most ancient part is the White Tower, erected about 1078 for
William the Conqueror.

Other noteworthy buildings are the new Law Courts, a Gothic building at
the junction of the Strand and Fleet Street; the Bank of England; the
Royal Exchange; the Mansion House, the official residence of the
lord-mayor; the Guildhall, the seat of the municipal government of the
city; and the four Inns of Court; and Inner and Middle Temple, Lincoln’s
Inn; and Gray’s Inn.

CHURCHES.--Among the churches the chief is St. Paul’s Cathedral,
completed in 1710 by Sir Christopher Wren. It is situated in the City,
occupies the summit of Ludgate Hill, and is a classic building, five
hundred and ten feet in length, with a dome four hundred feet in height.

Westminster Abbey, one of the finest specimens of the pointed style in
Great Britain, dates from the reign of Henry III. and Edward I. It
adjoins the Houses of Parliament, is five hundred and thirty-one feet
long, including Henry VII.’s chapel, and two hundred and three feet wide
at the transepts. Here the kings and queens of England have been
crowned, from Edward the Confessor to George V. In the south transept
are the tombs and monuments of great poets from Chaucer downward, whence
it is called “Poets’ Corner”; and in other parts are numerous sculptured
monuments to sovereigns, statesmen, warriors, philosophers, divines,
patriots, and others, many of whom are interred within its walls. Among
many old churches are St. Bartholomew’s in West Smithfield; the Chapel
Royal, Savoy; St. Andrew’s, Undershaft; St. Giles, Cripplegate; St.
Margaret’s, Westminster; St. Stephen’s, Walbrook; the Temple Church, Bow
Church, St. Bride’s in Fleet Street. The Roman Catholic Cathedrals at
Westminster and in Southwark should also be mentioned.

[Illustration: =ST. PAUL’S CATHEDRAL, LONDON=]

PLACES OF AMUSEMENT.--These are naturally exceedingly numerous. Among
the theaters may be mentioned: Covent Garden, the home of opera; Drury
Lane, identified with melodrama and pantomime; His Majesty’s, famous for
its efforts in the cause of the higher drama; the Haymarket, St.
James’s, Criterion, Wyndham’s New, Duke of York’s, Garrick, Court, and
others, for comedy; the Gaiety, Daly’s, Lyric, Prince of Wales’s, Savoy,
and Vaudeville for musical comedy and comic opera. The “music-hall” is
equally conspicuous among London’s places of amusement, variety
entertainments being given at the Alhambra, Empire, Palace, Coliseum,
Hippodrome, Lyceum, and a host of others. Among the more dignified
concert halls may be mentioned the Royal Albert Hall (capable of holding
an audience of eight thousand persons), Queen’s Hall, and Crystal
Palace.

MUSEUMS.--The British Museum, the great national collection, in a very
central position, is the principal one. It contains an immense
collection of books, manuscripts, engravings, drawings, sculptures,
coins, etc.

The South Kensington Museum is a capacious series of buildings
containing valuable collections in science and the fine and decorative
arts, and there is a branch museum from it in Bethnal Green, in the East
End. The very extensive natural history department of the British Museum
occupies a fine Romanesque building at South Kensington. The India and
the Patent Museums are also at South Kensington, and here was built the
Imperial Institute, partly intended as a museum of home and colonial
products, but now also accommodating the University of London.

The Soane Museum contains many valuable objects of art. The chief
picture-galleries are the National Gallery, in Trafalgar Square, the
National Gallery of British Art (known as the Tate Gallery), the
collection in the Victoria and Albert Museum, and the National Portrait
Gallery. Mention must also be made of the Wallace Collection, at
Hertford House, Manchester Square, a magnificent collection of pictures,
sculpture and objects of art, bequeathed to the nation by the widow of
Sir Richard Wallace in 1897.

The chief libraries are the British Museum, Lambeth Palace library, the
Guildhall library, Sion College library, the London library, London
Institution library. Many free libraries have recently been established.

SHIPPING.--The port of London has been for many years the greatest in
the world. The control and management of the business of the port was
transferred in March, 1909, from the Thames Conservancy to the Port of
London Authority. This new body controls the river from Teddington to
Warden Point, fifty-one miles east of London Bridge. It also took over
the India, Millwall, and Surrey Commercial docks. The total cost of the
transfer was one hundred and twelve million dollars.

ITS COSMOPOLITAN POPULATION.--There are in London nearly 60,000 persons
of Scottish birth and over 60,000 of Irish birth. Of 150,000 foreigners,
40,000 are Russians (including Jews), with 16,000 Russian Poles, 30,000
Germans, 12,000 French, 11,000 Italians, 6,000 Austrians, 6,000
Americans (U. S.), 4,500 Dutch, 45,000 Swiss, 2,500 Belgians, 1,800
Swedes, 1,000 Norwegians, and 1,000 Danes.


COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL CENTERS

=In England and Wales.=--_Hull_, the _Tyne Ports_ (Newcastle, Gateshead,
and Shields), and _Sunderland_, with London, form the great outlets of
the east of England. _Liverpool_ (with Birkenhead), ranking with London
in maritime importance, and _Bristol_, are the great outlets and seats
of commerce in the west of England, as _Southhampton_ and _Plymouth_ on
the Channel are in the south.

The most important of all the textile industries of England is that of
cotton, which has centered itself in _Manchester_ and in its satellite
cities on the coalfield of Lancashire and Cheshire (Preston, Blackburn,
Oldham, Wigan, Bury, Rochdale, Bolton, Stockport, Macclesfield), drawing
a dense population round these centers, with their thousands of
factories, fed with raw material from abroad, and relieved of their
manufactured products by Liverpool and the port of Manchester.

The woolen manufactories, next in importance, are on the opposite side
of the Pennine chain, in the great towns of _Leeds_ and _Bradford_, as
well as in Halifax, Huddersfield, Wakefield, and Dewsbury, clustering
round these. Linen manufactures center at _Barnsley_, farther south,
also on this Yorkshire coalfield. Three outlying woolen manufacturing
centers may be noted; these are _Leicester_, in a famous sheep-raising
district, and _Kidderminster_, noted for its carpets, _Stroud_,
_Bradford_, and other towns in the west of England, noted for the
quality of their cloth. Newtown, in Montgomeryshire, is the center of
the Welsh flannel trade.

Hardwares have two great points of production--the one round
_Sheffield_, on the Yorkshire coal and iron field, the other round
_Birmingham_ and the towns on the South Stafford coal and iron field
(Wolverhampton, Wednesbury, Bilston, Dudley, Walsall), called the “Black
Country” because large parts of it are so completely cut up with
collieries and ironworks that no cultivation exists.

In North Staffordshire, between the iron and the cotton manufacturing
regions, lies the “Potteries,” a district which by supplying coal is
able to maintain its staple industry. _Stoke-upon-Trent_ is the center
of the cluster of Pottery towns (Burslem, Longton, Hanley, Tunstall),
all connected by lines of busy hamlets. Worcester, on the Severn, is
also celebrated for its pottery.

English silk manufacturers give importance to three separate districts,
those round _Congleton_ and _Macclesfield_, in Cheshire; Derby; and
_Coventry_, in Warwickshire. _Nottingham_ town combines silk and cotton
manufactures in hosiery and lace work. _Stafford_ town supplies boots
and shoes to all the manufacturing towns which lie round it.

The coal trade of North England centers in the _Tyne Ports_ and
Sunderland, which are also famous for their iron, ships and engines, and
their chemical works. The South Wales iron and coal field has its heart
in _Merthyr Tydfil_, one of the largest towns of Wales; _Cardiff_, with
fine docks and iron shipbuilding yards, besides its large coal export
trade; _Swansea_ is the headquarters of copper and tin smelting, from
ores brought thither from the most distant parts of the world; _Milford
Haven_ aspires to becoming the rival of Liverpool in the trade with
America.

Among the few large towns besides London which lie outside the
manufacturing and mining region of England, may be noted _Norwich_, in
agricultural Norfolk, a seat of manufactures of the most various kind,
introduced by about four thousand Flemings who fled thither in Queen
Elizabeth’s reign.

=In Scotland.=--On the Scottish coal and iron field, _Glasgow_, favored
by its position on the estuary of the Clyde, has risen to be at once the
great commercial and manufacturing center of the country, carrying on a
large trade with all parts of the world, in manufacturing cottons and
machinery, and in building ships. A number of manufacturing towns
(Paisley, noted for its shawls; Greenock, for its sugar-refining;
Dumbarton, for its iron ships; Airdrie, in the midst of the collieries
and iron works) have risen round Glasgow over the Scottish coalfield.
_Leith_, the port of Edinburgh, is mainly engaged in the Baltic grain
trade; _Dundee_, on the estuary of the Tay, owes much of its prosperity
to its jute and hemp factories, and to its Greenland whaling and sealing
trade.

=In Ireland.=--Owing to its poverty in coal and iron, the manufactures
of Ireland have not attained an extent at all comparable with those of
Britain. Its only extensive manufacturing district is that which lies
round _Belfast_, in the northeast, where the flax, grown largely in the
north of the country, is made into linen. The linen district extends to
_Armagh_, on the west, and _Coleraine_, in the north.

_Dublin_, the capital, is noted for its poplins, stout, and whiskey; its
quays afford excellent accommodation for shipping, and it takes the lead
in the foreign trade of Ireland.

_Cork_, with its fine harbor the “Cove of Cork,” or Queenstown, in the
south; _Limerick_, on the Shannon; _Galway_, the port of the west;
_Londonderry_, in the north, are the other important centers of
population in Ireland.


EDUCATIONAL, HISTORICAL AND LITERARY CENTERS

=Edinburgh= (ed-in-bo-ro; _Edwin’s burgh_), the metropolis of Scotland,
grew up originally beneath the protecting walls of its castle, and is
not a manufacturing town, but derives its importance mainly from the law
courts, its university and schools, and its printing and publishing
trade. It is situated upon two ridges of ground, divided by a deep,
narrow valley, formerly a morass, now made into a public park, through
which the railways pass. To the north of this park is the New Town,
composed of modern and elegant buildings--the principal street, Princes
Street, bordering upon and overlooking the park. The principal hotels
are on the opposite of Princes Street. The railway stations are in the
valley. To the south lies the ridge of the Old Town, terminating, to the
west in a rocky bluff, upon which stands the Castle in the heart of the
city. The Old Town is the historic part of the city, the New being quite
modern. The first Scottish Parliament was convened here by Alex. II.,
1215.

The principal places of interest are Edinburgh Castle, Holyrood Abbey
and Calton Hill. Among the objects of less interest are the house of
John Knox, High Street; St. Giles Church; Allan Ramsay’s Theater, the
favorite resort of Burns; the Black Turnpike, the prison of Queen Mary,
near the Iron Church; and the Heart of Midlothian, the site of an old
prison. Annie Laurie was married in Iron Church two hundred and fifty
years ago. John Knox is buried in the paved court between the Parliament
House and St. Giles; marked by the letters J. K. in the pavement.

THE CASTLE, stands on a precipitous rock about three hundred feet above
the valley, accessible only from the east side. It is an extensive mass,
of which the oldest portion--and the oldest building in the city--is St.
Margaret’s Chapel, the private oratory of the Saxon Princess Margaret,
queen of Malcolm Canmore. Another portion is a lofty range of old
buildings, in a small apartment of which Queen Mary gave birth to James
VI. in 1566; while in an adjoining apartment are kept the ancient
regalia of Scotland. Here, also, is the old Parliament Hall, restored in
1888-1889. The castle as a fortress contains accommodation for two
thousand soldiers, and the armory space for thirty thousand stand of
arms. An old piece of ordnance built of staves of malleable iron, cask
fashion, and known as _Mons Meg_, stands conspicuous in an open area.

HOLYROOD PALACE AND ABBEY was founded by King David I., who is said to
have been saved from the horns of a stag, driven to bay near this spot,
by a luminous cross in the sky. In the northwest angle of the building
are the apartments which were occupied by Mary, Queen of Scots, nearly
in the same state in which they were left by that unfortunate princess.

CALTON HILL (_call-ton_) is at the eastern end of Princes Street and has
an altitude of about three hundred and fifty feet. Upon the hill,
adjacent to the stairs, is Dugald Stewart’s monument at the left; to the
north is the Old Observatory, and the New Observatory with a small dome.
To the south is Nelson’s monument, one hundred and two feet high,
surmounted by a time-ball. The unfinished colonnade is a part of a
structure in honor of Waterloo, intended to be a copy of the Parthenon
at Athens. The foundation was laid 1822, but, proving too costly, the
project was abandoned.

The view from the summit of this hill is scarcely to be surpassed. To
the north is what may be called New Edinburgh, extending toward Granton
and the port of Leith. Across the Forth, is Fifeshire. Following down
the Forth, is first, the islands of Inch Keith, Portobello, Bass Rock,
and the Isle of May, farther at sea. Toward the south and west the Burns
monument; Holyrood immediately below; Salisbury Craig and south,
Arthur’s Seat, eight hundred and twenty feet high; thence to the north
the Old Town, commanded by the frowning Castle.

[Illustration: =VIEW OF EDINBURGH FROM THE CASTLE=]

=Oxford=, capital of Oxford county, and seat of one of the most
celebrated universities in the world, is situated about fifty miles
northwest of London, on a gentle acclivity between the Cherwell and the
Thames, here called the Isis. Oxford, as a city of towers and spires, of
fine collegiate buildings, old and new, of gardens, groves, and avenues
of trees, is unique in England.

Of the university buildings the most remarkable are Christ’s Church, the
largest and grandest of all the colleges, with a fine quadrangle and
other buildings, and a noble avenue of trees. It was founded by Wolsey
in 1525, and its magnificent chapel is the cathedral church of the see
of Oxford. The _hall_ is a noble room.

_Merton College_, founded about 1264, has a very beautiful chapel of the
fifteenth century, and the library is the oldest in the kingdom.

_New College_, founded by William of Wykeham, in 1386, is one of the
wealthiest of the colleges, and the chapel is very handsome.

The _gardens of St. John’s College_ are much admired and the grounds of
Magdalen College (perhaps the most beautiful college in Oxford) are no
less attractive. The latter include “Addison’s Walk,” a shaded avenue
that was his favorite resort when a student here. The _Bodleian Library_
and _Picture Gallery_, the _Theatre_ (built by Wren), the _Ashmolean
Museum_ (also by Wren), the _Radcliffe Library_ and _Observatory_, the
_Divinity School_ (in the hall of which Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley
were tried in 1555), _St. Mary’s Church_, the _Taylor Institute_, the
_University Galleries_ and _Museum_, the _Botanical Gardens_, and the
_Martyr’s Memorial_ are also among the noteworthy things in Oxford. The
_High Street_ is the subject of one of Wordsworth’s sonnets; and
Hawthorne calls it “the noblest old street in England.” Oxford depends
mostly on the university, and on its attractions as a place of
residence.

=Stratford-on-Avon=, Shakespeare’s birthplace, is a pleasant town of
Warwickshire, eight miles southwest of Warwick, twenty-two miles
southeast of Birmingham, and one hundred and ten miles northeast of
London. It stands on the right bank of the quiet Avon, which here is
spanned by the “great and sumptuous bridge” of fourteen pointed arches,
three hundred and seventy-six yards long, that was built by the Lord
Mayor of London.

It is a quiet, old-fashioned place, with wide and well-kept streets, and
many handsome mansions. The _Town Hall_ was dedicated to the memory of
the poet. Here is a statue of Shakespeare, presented by Garrick, on the
pedestal of which are the lines from _Hamlet_; “Take him for all in all,
we shall not look upon his like again.” Very interesting is the
_Shakespeare Memorial Building and Theater_, in a charming situation by
the Avon, the outgrowth of the feeling that the poet should have a
suitable monument in his native town.

SHAKESPEARE’S HOUSE, in Henley Street, became national property in 1847,
and has been carefully restored. The room in which the poet is said to
have been born seems to have undergone but little change since that day.
In another room there is a small museum of Shakespearian curiosities.

STRATFORD CHURCH, in which Shakespeare is buried, is on the bank of the
Avon. It is a large and elegant structure, with a graceful stone spire
one hundred and sixty-three feet high, erected in 1764 to replace a
wooden one that had been taken down. The building has been judiciously
restored in recent years. There is an elegant window illustrating
Shakespeare’s “Seven Ages,” the contribution of Americans.

The grave of Shakespeare is in the chancel, covered by a plain
flagstone, while above, on the wall to the left, is the monumental bust
which is the most trustworthy representation of the poet. His wife lies
near him, with his favorite daughter, “good Mistris Hall,” and Dr. John
Hall, her husband. In the chancel there is also an elegant marble
monument to John Combe, the poet’s friend.

SHOTTERY, where Anne Hathaway lived before she became the wife of
Shakespeare, is about a mile from Stratford, and may be reached by a
footpath through the fields. The cottage that was Anne’s home has a
timber and plaster front, and a thatched roof. The interior contains the
oaken seat on which Shakespeare and Anne were wont to sit; many bits of
venerable furniture; and, upstairs, a vast bed, on which many a Hathaway
has drawn the last breath of life.

Stratford also possesses a memorial fountain, presented by George W.
Childs of Philadelphia, and Harvard House, the birthplace of the mother
of John Harvard, founder of Harvard University. It is still an important
agricultural center; but its chief prosperity depends on the thirty
thousand or so pilgrims who visit it yearly.

=Ayr=, forty miles from Glasgow, Scotland, by railway, is noted
especially as the birthplace of Burns, the poet; as also the place where
Wm. Wallace was imprisoned. The town is divided by the river Ayr, over
which are the “twa brigs” of Burns. The Burns Cottage, or birthplace,
the scene of his “Cotter’s Saturday Night,” is two miles south of the
town, and is now used as a public memorial. It contains few articles
associated with Burns.

ALLOWAY KIRK, mentioned in “Tam O’Shanter,” or what remains of it, is
one-half mile south of the Cottage. Near the church are the Burns
monument, a circular shaft sixty feet in height, erected 1820, and the
Doon, immortalized in the “Banks and Braes of Bonny Doon.”

Burns died at Dumfries, where he had lived three years, and was buried
in the churchyard there. Nineteen years later, upon the completion of
the monument to his memory, his body was exhumed and placed within the
Mausoleum at Dumfries.

=Melrose=, in the county of Roxburgh, thirty-one miles southeast of
Edinburgh, is celebrated for the abbey founded by King David in 1136;
destroyed by Edward II. in 1322; rebuilt by Bruce in 1326, and partly
demolished by the English in 1545. Sir Walter Scott has given it an
enduring description in his Lay of the Last Minstrel.

The material of which it is built is a very hard stone, and much of the
carving is as perfect as when fresh from the sculptor’s hand. Within its
walls are the graves of kings, and nobles and priests of the olden time;
among them Alexander II. of Scotland, and more than one of the renowned
Earls of Douglas. Before the high altar the heart of King Robert Bruce
is said to have been deposited. Sir David Brewster’s grave is in the
churchyard.

DRYBURGH ABBEY, four miles from Melrose, was founded about the same time
as Melrose, and, like that, was destroyed in 1322 by Edward II. Robert
I. restored it, at least in part; but it was again destroyed in 1544.
St. Mary’s aisle, the most beautiful part of the ruins, contains the
tomb of Scott, buried here September 26, 1832; also the graves of his
wife and his eldest son, and of his son-in-law Lockhart.

[Illustration: =ABBOTSFORD, HOME OF SIR WALTER SCOTT=]

ABBOTSFORD, two miles from Melrose, was long the home of the “Great
Enchanter of the North.” The author’s study is the most interesting
room. There the old writing-table, the plain leathern armchair, the
reference books, seem to indicate that Sir Walter has but just left
them. The _Library_ (twenty thousand volumes) contains a bust of Scott,
by Chantrey, and many miniatures. The roof is of carved oak, designed
from models taken from Roslin Chapel. The _Drawing-room_, where Sir
Walter died, and the little octagonal dressing-room contain many
precious relics. The _Armory_ has a fine collection of Scotch weapons.

=Windsor=, is in Berkshire, England, on the Thames, twenty-one and
one-quarter miles from London. It contains a town hall, built by Sir
Christopher Wren in 1686, the church of St. John the Baptist, with fine
examples of Grinling Gibbon’s wood-carving, and a fine Jubilee statue of
Queen Victoria.

Windsor owes its chief importance to its castle, which stands east of
the town on a height overlooking the River Thames, and is the principal
royal residence in the kingdom. It was begun, or at least enlarged, by
Henry I., and has been altered and added to by almost every sovereign
since. The castle stands in the Home Park or “Little Park,” which is
four miles in circumference, and this again is connected with the Great
Park, which is eighteen miles in circuit, and contains an avenue of
trees three miles in length.

[Illustration: =STRATFORD-ON-AVON, IMMORTALIZED BY ITS ASSOCIATIONS WITH
SHAKESPEARE=]

The chief features of interest in the castle are the old state
apartments; St. George’s Chapel, where the Knights of the Garter are
installed, and the vaults of which contain the remains of Henry VI.,
Edward IV., Henry VIII., Charles I., George III., George IV., and
William IV.; the Round Tower or ancient keep; and the present state
apartments.

ETON COLLEGE is one-half mile from Windsor across the river. The stone
chapel, one hundred and seventy-five feet long, is very handsome. There
is also a bronze statue of Henry VI. The college was founded in 1440.

STOKE POGIS, the scene of Gray’s _Elegy_, and the burial-place of the
poet, is near Windsor.

There is a fine monument to Gray in _Stoke Park_.

=Cambridge=, fifty-six miles from London, and on the Cam, a narrow
stream that rambles all over the town. Tradition gives 630 as the date
of the foundation of the University; but the oldest college,
_Peterhouse_ or _St. Peter’s_, can only be referred to 1257. The public
buildings are the Shire Hall, Town Hall, University halls and library,
and Fitzwilliam Museum.

There are seventeen colleges, inferior in architectural beauty to those
of Oxford, though their associations are quite as interesting.

TRINITY, was founded by Henry VIII. in 1546, and has three fine
quadrangles; a splendid hall in the Tudor style; gardens; and an
important library, with busts of Newton and Bacon, Thorwaldsen’s statue
of Byron, Newton’s telescope and some of John Milton’s manuscripts.

CHRIST’S COLLEGE, founded in 1442, was Milton’s college. In the gardens
is _Milton’s Mulberry-Tree_. The quadrangle was rebuilt by Inigo Jones.

JESUS COLLEGE (1496) and _Chapel_ are very fine buildings, on the site
of a Benedictine nunnery.

CAIUS (pronounced _Kees_) was founded in 1384, and enlarged in 1557 by
Dr. Caius, physician to Queen Mary. Rebuilt lately, it is now one of the
best.

CORPUS CHRISTI (1351) contains curious portraits, especially those of
Sir Thomas More, Wolsey, Erasmus, and Foxe, the author of the _Book of
Martyrs_.

KINGS COLLEGE (1441), founded by Henry VI., is the finest building in
the University. The chapel is the finest specimen of perpendicular
Gothic existing. The roof, unsupported by pillars, contains twelve
divisions of exquisite lace-work tracery in stone. The twenty-four
stained-glass windows, each fifty feet high, are beautiful.

The _Fitzwilliam Museum_, and some of the churches, especially the round
chapel of _St. Sepulchre_, are of considerable interest. _All Saints_
contains a monument, by Chantrey, to Henry Kirke White. _Girton
College_, for women, founded in 1869, is about two miles northwest of
the town. The walk along the Cam behind the colleges, with the view of
the “Backs” and bridges, is the pride of Cambridge.


ENGLISH HISTORY

  The island of Great Britain in the remotest times bore the name of
  _Albion_. From a very early period it was visited by Phœnicians,
  Carthaginians, and Greeks, for the purpose of obtaining tin.

=Roman Period.=--Cæsar’s two expeditions, 55 and 54 B. C., made it known
to the Romans, by whom it was generally called _Britannia_; but it was
not till the time of Claudius, nearly a hundred years after, that the
Romans made a serious attempt to convert Britain into a Roman province.
Some forty years later, under Agricola, the ablest of the Roman
generals in Britain, they had extended the limits of the Provincia
Romana as far as the line of the Forth and the Clyde.

Here the Roman armies came into contact with the Caledonians of the
interior, described by Tacitus as large-limbed, red-haired men. After
defeating the Caledonians, Agricola marched victoriously northward as
far as the Moray Firth, establishing stations and camps, remains of
which are still to be seen. But the Romans were unable to retain their
conquests in the northern part of the island, and were finally forced to
abandon their northern wall and forts between the Clyde and the Forth
and retire behind their second wall, built in 120 A. D. by Hadrian,
between the Solway and the Tyne. Thus the southern part of the island
alone remained Roman, and became specially known as Britannia, while the
northern portion was distinctly called Caledonia.

The capital of Roman Britain was York (Eboracum). Under the rule of the
Romans many flourishing towns arose. Great roads were made, traversing
the whole country and helping very much to develop its industries.
Christianity was also introduced, and took the place of the Druidism of
the native British. Under the tuition of the Romans the useful arts and
even many of the refinements of life found their way into the southern
part of the island.

=Creation of England and Scotland.=--From the time of the Roman
conquest, and still more decidedly after the Saxon invasions in the
fifth century, the history of Britain branches off into a history of the
southern part of the island, afterwards known as England, and a history
of the northern part of the island, afterwards named Scotland. It was
not till the union of the crowns in 1603 that the destinies of England
and Scotland began again to unite; and it was not till the final union
of the parliaments in 1707 that the histories of the two countries may
be said to merge into one.

=The Anglo-Saxon Period.=--In 411 Honorius abandoned Britain, whose
inhabitants, finding it impossible to defend themselves against the
Picts, called to their aid the Saxons, who, in 449, assisted them so
effectually that they took possession of the country and founded the
four kingdoms of Essex, Wessex, Sussex, and Kent. The Angles, who
followed them, established three other kingdoms, _viz._, East Anglia,
Deira, and Mercia, 540-584. All these kingdoms ended by being reduced to
one, under Egbert, the Saxon king of Wessex, in 827.

After 835 the Danes ravaged England from time to time, but in 871 Alfred
the Great forced them to desist, and from thence till near the end of
his reign in 900, the Danes left the island in peace. Returning in 981,
the Danes succeeded, in 1013, in putting their king, Sweyn, on the
throne, which was not recovered by the Saxon dynasty till 1041.

=Norman Conquest.=--When William of Normandy landed in England to claim
the crown which Edward the Confessor had bequeathed to him, he found
that the people had raised to the throne Harold, the son of a popular
nobleman. The resources of the Saxons, however, had been wasted in
domestic conflicts before the attack of William; and the battle of
Hastings, in 1066 A. D., gave England with comparative ease to the
Normans. The next twenty years saw the conquest completed, and nearly
all the large landed estates of the Saxons pass, on every pretext except
the true one, into the hands of the Normans. In the course of time the
Normans were absorbed among the Saxons, their very language
disappearing, though leaving many traces. From this union arose the
English people and the English language as they now exist. The union of
the Normans with the Saxons was not fully effected so long as the
Normans retained their foreign possessions. In King John’s reign the
whole of these were lost excepting Guienne and Poitou.

In the reign of Stephen occurred the civil war between the Empress Maud,
daughter of Henry I., and Stephen; she finally retired to France, and
concluded a peace with her adversary. The great struggles of the
successors of William were with the ecclesiastics and with the barons.
Sometimes in these the popular sympathies were with, and sometimes
against, the crown. The Conqueror himself and his immediate successors
had no difficulty in maintaining the superiority of the courts of
justice over the ecclesiastics; but even a sovereign so bold and
skillful as Henry II. was forced, after the outcry occasioned by the
murder of Thomas à Becket (1170 A. D.) to yield the point. The right to
nominate the higher ecclesiastics was also secured by the popes.

=The Plantagenets.=--Under the Plantagenets an era of progress,
generally, opened for England. The reign of Henry II. gave to the
country the constitution of Clarendon; Ireland was conquered, 1172;
England was divided into six circuits for the better administration of
justice, and a digest of the laws was made by Glanville about 1181.
Richard I. did little for the internal good of the land, his chief
exploits occurring on the field of battle in foreign lands.

=Magna Charta.=--Under John two important events occurred: Magna Charta
was obtained, and the French possessions were nearly all lost--both
unmitigated blessings; but otherwise John’s influence was cast against
progress and reform. The degradation of the English monarchy was at its
lowest when he consented (1213 A. D.) to hold the crown as a gift from
Rome. From Henry II. something similar to the Great Charter had already
been gained; but it was the Magna Charta of John which firmly
established two great English principles--that no man should suffer
arbitrary imprisonment, and that no tax should be imposed without the
consent of the council of the nation.

During the reign of Henry III., England obtained her first regular
parliament, and gold money was first coined in 1257. Edward I. was
crowned 1272, and almost the first event of his reign was the conquest
of Wales; Scotland also was subdued, but revolted again in 1297.

The reign of Edward II. was disastrous to himself and to England. The
barons rose against his favorites, and Edward was murdered by the
connivance of his wife. A new and vigorous era began with the reign of
Edward III. The Scots were defeated at Halidon Hill; important victories
were gained in France; the Order of the Garter was instituted, and, most
important of all, law pleadings were ordered to be in English, instead
of in the Norman-French tongue which had hitherto prevailed. Richard II.
was crowned in 1377, and with his death in 1385, ended the line of the
Plantagenets.

=House of Lancaster.=--Henry IV. was the first sovereign under this
ill-fated house. His reign was disturbed by an insurrection of the Welsh
under the Percies, but was otherwise peaceful. Henry V. invaded France
and won the famous battle of Agincourt, and gained the French crown,
1420; but during the reign of his successor, Henry VI., all the French
possessions were lost save Calais. He was deposed by Warwick the
kingmaker, and the first representative of the House of York, Edward
IV., was placed on the throne. The Wars of the Roses ensued, which
continued through the two succeeding reigns of Edward V. and Richard
III, ending with the death of Richard on Bosworth field, the coronation
of Henry VII., 1485, and his marriage with Elizabeth, daughter of Edward
IV.

=The Tudors.=--The union of the houses of York and Lancaster under Henry
VII. begins a new period in English history. Under him England entered
on her career of maritime discovery. He died, 1599, and was succeeded by
his second son, Henry VIII. Henry VIII. succeeded under the most
favorable auspices. He found the alliance of his now important country
courted by both of his contemporaries, Francis I., of France, and
Charles V., of Germany. But the interest of the foreign complications of
the reign merges in the courts of England and of Rome. Henry was
frequently engaged in hostilities with foreign countries, and the great
victory of Flodden was won by one of his generals over James IV. of
Scotland, husband of his sister Margaret. He threw off his allegiance to
the pope, and became head of the church in England. He was six times
married, and two of his wives were beheaded and two were repudiated. In
his reign the scaffold was occupied by victims from every class of
society. He died January 28, 1547, and was succeeded by his only son,
Edward VI., whose mother was Jane Seymour, Henry’s third wife.

Edward was in his tenth year, and the government was vested in a
regency. In this reign the church of England was established, and the
nation placed on the Protestant side in the struggle then going on in
Europe. When Edward VI. died, July 6, 1553, Lady Jane Grey, to whom
Edward had bequeathed the crown, was queen for ten days, when her party
was dispersed, and Mary, eldest daughter of Henry VIII., ascended the
throne.

The marriage of Mary with Philip II. of Spain led to war between England
and France, and an English army joined the Spanish force that invaded
France. Mary was a devout Catholic, and caused Cranmer, Latimer, Ridley,
and about three hundred other Protestants to be burned. Her death,
November 17, 1558, left the throne to Elizabeth, who sided with the
Protestants.

=Elizabethan Period.=--The reign of Elizabeth, which lasted nearly
forty-five years, is one of the most brilliant in English history. She
triumphed over her enemies, and raised her kingdom to the first place in
Europe. She ruled over Scotland in fact, and put the queen of that
country, the unfortunate Mary Queen of Scots, to death, after having
held her in captivity nearly nineteen years. The Huguenots of France and
Henry IV. received aid from her, and but for the assistance which she
gave the Dutch they would have sunk under the power of Spain. She
invited the Turks to join her in attacking the pope and Phillip II.; and
over both those potentates she achieved a great triumph in 1588, when
the Spanish armada was destroyed. The enterprise of Englishmen led them
to circumnavigate the globe, to attempt colonization, to extend
commerce, and to inaugurate trade relations with India. Elizabeth died
March 24, 1603, and with her terminated the Tudor dynasty, after an
existence of nearly one hundred and eighteen years.

=House of Stuart.=--Elizabeth was succeeded by James VI. of Scotland,
the son of her victim, Mary Stuart, and first king of England of the
Stuart line, who inherited the English crown in virtue of his descent
from Margaret Tudor, eldest daughter of Henry VII., who had married his
great-grandfather, James IV. The new king, under the title James I., was
hailed with much satisfaction by the English; but he was a pedant and a
tyrant, and soon lost his popularity. His first parliament, 1604, in
reply to his assertion that all their privileges were derived from him,
asserted all those principles for which the English constitutionalists
contended as facts not to be questioned.

Then began that civil contest which lasted down to 1689 in full force,
and which was not utterly at an end till 1746. The foreign policy of
James was as vicious as his home policy, and England sank in the
estimation of Europe. He died in 1625, and was succeeded by his son
Charles I.

For eleven years (1629-1640) this ruler called no parliament, and
England was ruled as despotically as France. His chief instruments were
Wentworth, afterward earl of Strafford, and Laud, archbishop of
Canterbury. Laud sought to fasten the English church policy on Scotland.
War between the Scotch people and the English government followed, and
Charles was compelled to call a parliament April, 1640, which was
dissolved in a few days, and became known as the “short parliament.” Six
months later assembled the famous “long parliament,” which proceeded to
divest the king of much of his power.

=Period of the Commonwealth.=--The contest between the king and
parliament under the lead of Vane, Cromwell and others, led to the
great English Civil war, which began in the latter part of 1642.
Cromwell was everywhere victorious in the field. The army became the
source of all power. The king was tried, condemned and executed. Ireland
was conquered by Cromwell, who was almost equally successful in
Scotland. The battle of Worcester, September 3, 1651, crushed the
royalists for nearly nine years. In 1653 Cromwell dissolved the
parliament by force, and was master of England for five years, as Lord
Protector. After his death, in 1658, the military and civil republicans
quarreled.

=Restoration of the House of Stuart.=--Richard, the son and successor of
the great Protector, resigned, and the restoration of the Stuarts was
effected in the person of Charles II., 1660, whose reign in law dates
from the time of his father’s execution, January 30, 1649. The king’s
popularity soon declined, mainly on account of his foreign policy. An
unnecessary war with the Dutch produced much disgrace. The triple
alliance with Sweden and Holland for a brief interval stayed the course
of Louis XIV., but the king’s forces assisted in the war on Holland made
by Louis, and afterward assistance was sent to the Dutch.

The peace of 1678 was followed by the excitement caused by the alleged
popish plot. Parliament after parliament was elected, met, set itself in
decided opposition to the government, and was dissolved. The leading
object of the opposition was the exclusion of the duke of York, Charles’
brother, from the line of succession. Charles II. died in February,
1685, and his brother James II., an avowed Roman Catholic, came to the
throne.

James II. was bent on the establishment of a despotism, by the
destruction of the constitution in church and state. He punished
Monmouth’s rebellion with excessive vindictiveness. The king prorogued
parliament in November, 1685, and that body never met again. For three
years he governed despotically, and a perpetual contest was waged
between him and his people.

In June, 1688, it was announced that the king’s second wife had given
birth to a prince, who was afterwards known as the pretender. It was
generally believed that a supposititious child had been placed in the
position of heir apparent.

In November, William, prince of Orange, who was the king’s nephew and
had married his eldest daughter Mary, heir apparent to the British
crown, landed in England at the head of an army. James fled, and William
and Mary were proclaimed sovereigns.

War was declared against France in 1689, and was ended in 1697. Ireland
was subdued. Mary died in 1694, and left William III. sole monarch till
his death in March, 1702, when the succession passed to Anne, second
daughter of James II.

In May war was declared against France, and after splendid victories
achieved by Marlborough, it was ended by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713.
The union of England and Scotland was effected in 1707. Anne died August
1, 1714, and the crown passed to the house of Hanover in the person of
George I.

=House of Hanover under the Four Georges.=--The rebellion of 1715 in
behalf of the Stuarts proved a failure. The bursting of the “South sea
bubble” in 1720 placed Robert Walpole in control of the government,
which he retained under George II. (who ascended the throne in 1727)
till 1742. His fall was occasioned by a war with Spain, to which one
with France was soon added, growing out of the question of the Austrian
succession. In 1746 the contest between the reigning dynasty and the
remains of the Stuart party was brought to an end at Culloden where the
duke of Cumberland defeated Charles Edward. The treaty of
Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 restored peace to Europe for a few years.

The Whigs continued to rule, headed by Henry Pelham, and after his death
in 1754 by his brother, the duke of Newcastle. The renewal of the war
with France in 1755 was followed by the formation in 1757 of the
celebrated Pitt-Newcastle ministry, which carried on the contest with
great vigor; so that when George II. died, October 25, 1760, his fleets
and armies were everywhere triumphant. The foundation of the East Indian
empire of England was laid at Plassey June 23, 1757. French America was
conquered at Quebec, September 13, 1759.

The new king, George III. (the first English-born king of his house),
grandson of George II., was by nature and education as despotic as the
worst of the Stuarts. The attempt to tax the American colonies led to
the American revolution. The English in the last years of the war had to
fight the Americans, the French, the Spaniards, and the Dutch. The peace
of 1783 left England in a low condition.

When France became convulsed by the revolution, England engaged in the
war against her that soon followed, which lasted, with two brief
intervals, till 1815, ending in the complete triumph of England and her
allies. The legislative union between Ireland and Great Britain went
into effect January 1, 1801. The exertions made by England, beginning
with the administration of Pitt, were vast. Her fleets, chiefly under
Nelson, achieved splendid victories over the French and Spaniards, and
in the last years of the war her armies were greatly distinguished under
the lead of Wellington, who, at Waterloo, inflicted the final defeat on
Napoleon in 1815.

In 1810 George III. lost his reason finally, and his eldest son was
prince regent till 1820 when he became king as George IV.

In 1812 England became involved in a war with the United States, growing
out of the impressment and right of search questions. The contest was
virtually terminated by the treaty of Ghent, December 24, 1814. In 1829
the Catholic emancipation act was passed, under a ministry headed by
Wellington and Peel. George IV. died in 1830, and was succeeded by his
brother, the duke of Clarence, as William IV.

In March, 1831, a bill for parliamentary reform was introduced into the
house of commons by Lord John Russell, and after long debates in
parliament and intense excitement in the country, caused by the
opposition of the house of lords, a bill making extensive changes in the
constitution of the house of commons finally passed in June, 1832, under
the ministry of Earl Grey.

The first reformed parliament, which met January 29, 1833, contained an
overwhelming majority of reformers. Lord Grey retired from office in
1834, and was succeeded by Lord Melbourne. Toward the close of the same
year the government was committed to Sir Robert Peel, who formed a
conservative ministry. Peel continued in office until April 8, 1835,
when he retired, having been repeatedly beaten on Irish church
questions. Lord Melbourne returned to office, with many of his old
colleagues. The king died on June 20, 1837, and was succeeded by his
niece Victoria, the only child of Edward, duke of Kent, fourth son of
George III.

=The Victorian Period.=--The accession of Victoria led to the separation
of the crowns of England and Hanover, which had been worn by the same
persons since 1714. In 1841 Melbourne resigned, and the conservatives
under Peel came into power. In 1846 the Peel ministry brought forward an
act to protect life in Ireland, but it was defeated in the commons on
the same day that the Corn Laws were repealed, and the ministry came to
an end, being succeeded by one at the head of which was Lord John
Russell. The Russell ministry went out of office in 1852, and for
several months the tories, led by Lord Derby and Mr. Disraeli, were at
the head of affairs. This ministry was followed by one composed of the
coalesced Whigs and Peelites, headed by Lord Aberdeen.

=Crimean War.=--In 1853 the troubles on the Turkish question began, and
war was declared against Russia by France and England in March, 1854.
Large fleets and armies were sent to the East, and fleets to the Baltic.
The Crimea was invaded, the victory of the Alma won by the allies, and
Sebastopol partially invested. On September 8 Sebastopol was reduced,
the French storming the Malakhoff, and peace was restored by a congress
of the powers at Paris in March, 1856.

=Indian Mutiny and Final Absorption of the Indian Empire.=--Early in
1857 a formidable revolt broke out in England’s great Bengal army of
sepoys. Delhi fell into the hands of the rebels, and the nominal Mogul
emperor found himself once more a sovereign in reality. The mutiny
spread rapidly, and in a short time the whole Bengal army had become
hostile to the English. The military reputation of England was greatly
raised by the successes of her armies in India, achieved under the lead
of Sir Henry Havelock, Sir Colin Campbell, and others. In eight months
after the breaking out of the mutiny there were nearly seventy thousand
effective English troops there, and new native corps had replaced the
sepoys. By the end of 1858 the revolt was totally suppressed. The
rebellion resulted in the transfer of the immediate government of India
from the East India company to the crown, the old directory sitting for
the last time September 1, 1858.

In February, 1858, the Palmerston ministry was driven from office, and a
new conservative ministry was formed, with the earl of Derby as premier,
and Mr. Disraeli as Chancellor of the Exchequer. This ministry soon
resigned and Lord Palmerston resumed office in June, 1859. On May 13,
1861, Great Britain recognized the belligerency of the Confederacy
during the American Civil war and the blockade of their ports, and
proclaimed neutrality.

In 1868 Disraeli became Prime Minister in succession to Lord Derby, but
was defeated in the general election of that year and resigned before
the end of the year.

Disraeli was succeeded by Gladstone, who, during the five years of his
ministry passed more measures than almost any previous one. Education
became compulsory. Trade unions were legalized, the Ballot Act was
passed. The Irish Church Act and a Land Act for Ireland were passed, and
the state of Ireland at the time also necessitated Coercion Acts.

In 1874 Gladstone resigned, and the Conservatives were returned to
power, having for the first time since 1841 a real majority in the House
of Commons. The ministry formed by Disraeli was a brilliant one, and the
Opposition was for a time weakened by the withdrawal into private life
of Gladstone. The great question of Home Rule was gradually forcing
itself to the front, and the Irish tactics in the House became
obstructive. It was at this time that Disraeli put forward his imperial
policy, and the ministry is chiefly noticeable for its attitude on
foreign and imperial affairs.

From 1879 to the present time Irish agitation has been for Great Britain
a source of serious disquiet. In 1882 Mr. Gladstone adopted a policy of
conciliation, but the murder of Lord Frederick Cavendish and of Mr.
Burke caused its abandonment and the immediate passing of a coercion law
which virtually placed Ireland under martial law. In 1882 the Egyptian
army, under the leadership of Arabi Bey, having revolted from the
khedive’s authority, Great Britain sent a large naval expedition to
Egypt, bombarded Alexandria, and defeated the rebellious forces. Since
that date the Egyptian government has been under British suzerainty, and
in 1896, a British expedition was sent up the Nile with the purpose of
regaining the provinces of Egypt held by the mahdist forces.

Within the past quarter of a century Great Britain has largely extended
its territory in Africa, bringing great areas in the south and east of
the continent under its protection. During the same interval several
subjects of dispute have arisen with the United States, which have all
been peacefully settled. An imposing festival took place in London in
June, 1897, on the occasion of the sixtieth anniversary of Queen
Victoria’s accession, in which all sections of the empire took part.

=Boer War.=--October 11, 1899, war was declared by the Boers of the
Transvaal and Orange Free State, the aim being the destruction of the
British paramountcy in South Africa. This led to the annexation of those
states by the British, after a fierce contest, in 1900. In 1900, a new
parliament was elected, which again supported the Conservative
ministry, with a slightly increased majority.

=House of Saxe-Coburg.=--Victoria died January 22, 1901, and was
succeeded by her eldest son, Edward VII., who proved himself to be an
active promoter of peaceful relations with other countries.

The Boer war was concluded in the middle of 1902 by the treaty of
Vereeniging, and almost immediately afterward Lord Salisbury retired
from office, being succeeded in the premiership by his nephew, Mr. A. J.
Balfour. The education act of 1902 did away with school boards where
they existed, bringing the voluntary and former board schools alike
under education committees in England and Wales, and the same change was
made in London in 1903. The Irish land act of 1903 was a measure of the
first importance, its object, being to transfer practically all the
agricultural land of Ireland to farmers or peasant proprietors. In the
autumn of 1903 Mr. Chamberlain resigned office in order to be free to
advocate a change in the country’s fiscal policy, intended to unite the
colonies more closely with the mother country--a change which many have
regarded as meaning a return to protection.

In 1905 the Liberal party returned to power under the leadership of Sir
Henry Campbell Bannerman, who was succeeded after his death in 1908 by
H. H. Asquith.

On May 5, 1910, the illness of King Edward was announced, followed by
that of his death the next day. His son, George V., succeeded to the
throne May 6, 1910.

A lengthy battle had begun to be waged against the hereditary
prerogatives of the House of Lords, to which the death of the king
caused a temporary cessation, but, in August, 1911, the Upper House was
finally shorn of its permanent veto. In September, 1910, the fisheries
dispute with the United States, which had remained unsettled for more
than a hundred years, was decided at the Hague.

Early in 1913 the Irish home rule question became the dominant issue and
a bill favoring it was passed by the House of Commons by a large
majority, only to be overwhelmingly rejected in the House of Lords. In
February, 1914, King George urged mutual concessions in the controversy,
and in the same year the Home Rule bill became a law without the
approval of the Lords, but practically non-operative. Today (1917) home
rule for Ireland is still the great unsolved problem of British domestic
policy.

The year 1914 also marked the entrance of Great Britain into the great
European war that has since engulfed practically the whole of Europe and
one-third of the civilized world. England’s history since has been
almost wholly bound up with the diplomatic, economic, and military
aspects of that titanic struggle, the real facts of which it will
require more than a generation of dispassionate minds to verify, sift
and assess at their true values. An attempt is made to give the leading
features of this war, and the parts played in it by the various nations
involved, under a separate heading.


IMPORTANT FACTS CONCERNING THE BRITISH EMPIRE

  This title is usually given to the total territory governed or
  administered in the name of the British government centralized in
  London. It includes the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland,
  the self-governing Dominions, Dependencies, Crown colonies and
  Protectorates whose inhabitants look to the king as their ultimate
  head. Of the whole area of the lands of the globe, the British
  Empire occupies nearly one-quarter, extending to every continent.

                             =THE UNITED KINGDOM=
  +--------------+----------+-----------+----------------+----------------+
  |COUNTRIES     | AREA IN  |   POPU-   |  HOW AND WHEN  |  CHARACTER OF  |
  |              |  SQUARE  |  LATION,  |    ACQUIRED    |   GOVERNMENT   |
  |              |  MILES   |   1911    |   BY ENGLAND   |                |
  +--------------+----------+-----------+----------------+----------------+
  |=EUROPE:=     |          |           |                |                |
  |  England     |    50,839| 34,043,076|...             |}Constitutional |
  |  Wales       |     7,470|  2,032,183|Conquest, 1282  |}Monarchy. Con- |
  |  Scotland    |    29,785|  4,759,445|Union, 1603     |}stitute the    |
  |  Ireland     |    32,583|  4,381,951|Conquest, 1172  |}United Kingdom |
  |  Islands     |       302|    148,934|...             |}of Great       |
  |              |          |           |                |}Britain and    |
  |              |          |           |                |}Ireland.       |
  |                      =DEPENDENCIES AND COLONIES=                      |
  |=EUROPE:=     |          |           |                |                |
  |  Gibraltar   |         2|     23,553|Conquest, 1704  |Military Gover- |
  |              |          |           |                |nor.            |
  |  Malta, etc. |       122|    215,879|Treaty cession, |Governor; Coun- |
  |              |          |           |1814            |cils.           |
  |              |          |           |                |                |
  |=ASIA:=       |          |           |                |                |
  |  India (in-  | 1,800,258|314,955,000|{Conquest, begun|{Viceroy; Coun- |
  |  cluding     |          |           |{1757           |{cil; Depart-   |
  |  Burma)      |          |           |{Transfer from  |{ments. Native  |
  |              |          |           |{East India Co.,|{rulers under   |
  |              |          |           |{1858           |{Political      |
  |              |          |           |                |{Supervision.   |
  |              |          |           |                |                |
  |  Ceylon      |    25,365|  4,038,456|Treaty cession, |}               |
  |              |          |           |1801            |}               |
  |              |          |           |                |}               |
  |              |          |           |                |}               |
  |  Cyprus      |     3,584|    261,587|Convention with |}               |
  |              |          |           |Turkey, 1878    |}Governor;      |
  |  Aden and    |     3,070|     53,222|(Aden) Conquest,|}Executive      |
  |  Socotra     |          |           |1839            |}and            |
  |  Straits     |     1,500|    620,127|Treaty cession, |}Legislative    |
  |  Settlements |          |           |1785-1824       |}Councils.      |
  |  Hongkong    |      30.5|    428,888|Treaty cession, |}               |
  |              |          |           |1841            |}               |
  |  Labuan      |        31|      8,411|Treaty cession, |}               |
  |              |          |           |1846            |}               |
  |              |          |           |                |                |
  |  British     |    31,000|    204,000|Cession to com- |{Governor (Brit-|
  |  North Borneo|          |           |pany, 1877      |{ish North Bor- |
  |              |          |           |                |{neo Company).  |
  |              |          |           |                |                |
  |=AFRICA:=     |}         |           |{               |{The Union of   |
  |  Union of    |}         |           |{               |{South Africa-- |
  |  South Africa|}         |           |{               |{Governor-      |
  |  (including  |}         |           |{Treaty, con-   |{General;       |
  |  Cape of Good|}         |           |{quest, and     |{Executive      |
  |  Hope, Natal,|}  473,184|  5,938,499|{cession,       |{Council;       |
  |  The Trans-  |}         |           |{1588-1900      |{Senate;        |
  |  vaal, and   |}         |           |{               |{House          |
  |  Orange River|}         |           |{               |{of             |
  |  Colony)     |}         |           |{               |{Assembly.      |
  |              |          |           |                |                |
  |  St. Helena  |        47|      3,553|Conquest, 1673  |}Governor and   |
  |              |          |           |                |}Executive      |
  |              |          |           |                |}Council.       |
  |              |          |           |                |                |
  |  Ascension   |        38|        266|Annexation, 1815|Under the       |
  |              |          |           |                |Admiralty.      |
  |              |          |           |                |                |
  |  Mauritius,  |     1,063|    373,336|{Conquest and   |{Governor; Exec-|
  |  etc.        |          |           |{cession, 1810, |{utive and Leg- |
  |              |          |           |{1814           |{islative Coun- |
  |              |          |           |                |{cils.          |
  |              |          |           |                |                |
  |  British East|}         |           |{               |}               |
  |  Africa (in- |}         |           |{               |}               |
  |  cluding the |}         |           |{               |}               |
  |  Protectorate|}         |           |{               |}Governor, Exec-|
  |  of Nyasa-   |}         |           |{Conquest and   |}utive and Leg- |
  |  land, East  |}  420,466|  8,728,276|{cession,       |}islative Coun- |
  |  Africa,     |}         |           |{1870-1890      |}cils.          |
  |  Uganda,     |}         |           |{               |}               |
  |  Zanzibar and|}         |           |{               |}               |
  |  Somaliland) |}         |           |{               |}               |
  |              |          |           |                |                |
  |  British West|{         |           |}               |{               |
  |  Africa (in- |{         |           |}               |{               |
  |  cluding     |{         |           |}               |{               |
  |  Gambia, Gold|{         |           |}               |{               |
  |  Coast Colo- |{         |           |}{Conquest,     |{Governor; Exec-|
  |  ny, Northern|{  495,490| 17,442,772|}annexation,    |{utive and Leg- |
  |  Nigeria,    |{         |           |}cession,       |{islative Coun- |
  |  Southern    |{         |           |}1673-1872      |{cils.          |
  |  Nigeria, and|{         |           |}               |{               |
  |  Sierra      |{         |           |}               |{               |
  |  Leone)      |{         |           |}               |{               |
  |              |          |           |                |                |
  |=AMERICA:=    |          |           |                |                |
  |Dominion of   | 3,745,574|        ...|{Conquest and   |}               |
  |Canada        |          |           |{settlement,    |}               |
  |              |          |           |{1670-1858      |}               |
  |  Ontario     |   260,862|  2,519,902|Conquest, 1759- |}               |
  |              |          |           |1760            |}               |
  |  Quebec      |   347,350|  2,000,697|Conquest, 1759- |}               |
  |              |          |           |1760            |}               |
  |  New Bruns-  |    27,985|    351,815|Treaty cession, |}               |
  |  wick        |          |           |1763            |}               |
  |  Nova Scotia |    21,428|    461,847|Conquest, 1627  |}               |
  |  Manitoba    |    73,732|    454,691|Settlement, 1813|}               |
  |  British     |   312,363|    362,768|Transfer to     |}Governor       |
  |  Columbia    |          |           |crown, 1858     |}General;       |
  |  Alberta     |   253,540|    372,919|Settlement      |}Parliament.    |
  |  Saskatchewan|}         |           |                |}               |
  |  (including  |}         |           |                |}               |
  |  Mackenzie,  |}  250,650|    453,508|Settlement      |}               |
  |  Ungava, and |}         |           |                |}               |
  |  Franklin)   |}         |           |                |}               |
  |  Northwest   |{1,418,000|     19,330|Charter, 1670   |}               |
  |  Territories |{         |           |                |}               |
  |  Yukon       |}  196,976|      7,000|Charter, 1670   |}               |
  |  Territory   |}         |           |                |}               |
  |  Prince Ed-  |}    2,184|     93,722|Conquest, 1745  |}               |
  |  ward Island |}         |           |                |}               |
  |              |          |           |                |                |
  |  Newfoundland|{   42,734|}          |Treaty cession, |{Governor;      |
  |  (and Labra- |{  120,000|}   230,000|1713            |{Parliament.    |
  |  dor)        |{         |}          |                |{               |
  |              |          |           |                |                |
  |British Guiana|   104,000|    305,090|{Conquest and   |}               |
  |              |          |           |cession, 1803-  |}               |
  |              |          |           |1814            |}               |
  |British       |     8,598|     44,000|Conquest, 1798  |}               |
  |Honduras      |          |           |                |}Governor; Exec-|
  |Jamaica       |     4,207|    831,123|Conquest, 1655  |}utive and Leg- |
  |Trinidad and  |     1,868|    358,641|...             |}islative Coun- |
  |Tobago        |          |           |                |}cils.          |
  |Barbadoes     |       166|    196,287|Settlement, 1605|}               |
  |Bahamas       |     5,794|     55,872|Settlement, 1629|}               |
  |Bermuda       |        19|     19,289|Settlement, 1612|}               |
  |Other Islands |     8,742|    255,000|...             |}               |
  |              |          |           |                |                |
  |=AUSTRALASIA:=|          |           |                |                |
  |              |          |           |                |{Separate State |
  |              |          |           |                |{Legislatures   |
  |Commonwealth  |          |           |                |{and Governments|
  |of Australia  |          |           |                |{(Governors);   |
  |(including    |          |           |                |{Federal Parlia-|
  |Australia,    | 3,091,496|  5,140,393|Settlement      |{ment and       |
  |Tasmania, and |          |           |                |{Government;    |
  |Papua)        |          |           |                |{Governor-      |
  |              |          |           |                |{General and    |
  |              |          |           |                |{Executive      |
  |              |          |           |                |{Council.       |
  |              |          |           |                |                |
  |Dominion of   |   104,471|    982,926|Purchase, 1845  |}Governor and   |
  |New Zealand   |          |           |                |}Houses of      |
  |              |          |           |                |}Parliament.    |
  |              |          |           |                |                |
  |Fiji          |     7,435|    128,404|Cession from the|{Governor and   |
  |              |          |           |natives, 1874   |{Legislative    |
  |              |          |           |                |Council.        |
  +--------------+----------+-----------+----------------+----------------+


TABLE OF THE SOVEREIGNS OF ENGLAND

  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  | NAMES AND LINEAGE   |Began|Years|L’gth|    DEATH    |    CHARACTER    |
  |   OF SOVEREIGNS     | to  | of  | of  |             |                 |
  |                     |Reign| Age |Reign|             |                 |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |                           ANGLO-SAXON KINGS                           |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |EGBERT (775?-837)--  |  801|  ...|   37|Natural      |Possessed all the|
  |Son of Alcmund, de-  |     |     |     |causes.      |qualities re-    |
  |scended from Inigi-  |     |     |     |             |quired in a      |
  |sil, brother to Ina, |     |     |     |             |warrior.         |
  |king of West Saxons. |     |     |     |             |                 |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |ETHELWOLF (---- -358)|  838|  ...|   20|Natural      |Pious, wise, val-|
  |--Son of Egbert.     |     |     |     |causes.      |iant and clement.|
  |                     |     |     |     |             |A lover of peace,|
  |                     |     |     |     |             |and zealous for  |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |religion.        |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |ETHELBALD--Son of    |  858|  ...|    2|Natural      |Neither pious nor|
  |Ethelwolf.           |     |     |     |causes.      |valiant.         |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |ETHELBERT--Son of    |  860|  ...|    6|Natural      |Sweet-tempered,  |
  |Ethelwolf.           |     |     |     |causes.      |wise, pious and  |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |valiant.         |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |ETHELRED I. (871).-- |  866|  ...|    6|Killed in the|Pious, valiant,  |
  |Brother to Ethelbert.|     |     |     |battle of    |prudent, and     |
  |                     |     |     |     |Wittingham.  |just.            |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |ALFRED THE GREAT     |  872|   22|   28|By a contrac-|A great sover-   |
  |(849-901).--Brother  |     |     |     |tion of the  |eign, warrior,   |
  |to Ethelred, and son |     |     |     |nerves.      |legislator, poli-|
  |of Ethelwolf.        |     |     |     |             |tician and       |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |scholar.         |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |EDWARD THE ELDER     |  900|   17|   25|Natural      |Equal to his     |
  |(870?-924).--Second  |     |     |     |causes.      |father--his love |
  |son of Alfred the    |     |     |     |             |for learning and |
  |Great.               |     |     |     |             |lenity excepted. |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |ATHELSTAN (895?-941).|  925|   20|   16|Natural      |Possessed uncom- |
  |--Natural son of     |     |     |     |causes.      |mon virtues;     |
  |Edward the Elder.    |     |     |     |             |wise, valiant,   |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |and just.        |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |EDMUND THE PIOUS     |  941|   25|    7|Assassinated |Pious, valiant   |
  |(923-946).--Eldest   |     |     |     |by Leolf,    |and just, and    |
  |legitimate son of    |     |     |     |while feast- |much respected by|
  |Edward the Elder.    |     |     |     |ing at       |his people.      |
  |                     |     |     |     |Puckle-kirk. |                 |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |EDRED (---- -955?).--|  948|   29|    7|Natural      |Pious and val-   |
  |Second legitimate son|     |     |     |causes.      |iant, but too ob-|
  |of Edward the Elder. |     |     |     |             |sequious to his  |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |council.         |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |EDWY (939?-959).--   |  955|   17|    4|Died of grief|Hated the monks, |
  |Eldest son of Edmund |     |     |     |on brother   |and persecuted   |
  |the Pious.           |     |     |     |being set up |them, which      |
  |                     |     |     |     |in his stead.|caused a rebel-  |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |lion.            |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |EDGAR (943?-975).--  |  959|   13|   16|Natural      |Pacific, active, |
  |Brother to Edwy.     |     |     |     |causes.      |wise, and indus- |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |trious.          |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |EDWARD THE MARTYR    |  975|   15|    3|Assassinated |Amiable and      |
  |(961?-978).--Eldest  |     |     |     |by order of  |sweet-tempered.  |
  |son of Edgar.        |     |     |     |his step-    |                 |
  |                     |     |     |     |mother       |                 |
  |                     |     |     |     |Elfrida.     |                 |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |ETHELRED II.         |  979|   12|   37|Natural      |Cowardly, indo-  |
  |(_Sweyn_) (----      |     |     |     |causes.      |lent, and avari- |
  |-1016).--Brother to  |     |     |     |             |cious.           |
  |Edward the Martyr,   |     |     |     |             |                 |
  |and son of the beau- |     |     |     |             |                 |
  |tiful Elfrida.       |     |     |     |             |                 |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |EDMUND, IRONSIDE     | 1016|   26|    1|Assassinated |Valiant and      |
  |(989-1017).--Eldest  |     |     |     |by order of  |prudent.         |
  |son of Ethelred II.  |     |     |     |Edric.       |                 |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |                              DANISH KINGS                             |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |CANUTE I. (995-1035).| 1017|  ...|   19|Natural      |A great king;    |
  |--Son of Sweyn, King |     |     |     |causes.      |humble, just, and|
  |of Denmark.          |     |     |     |             |truly religious. |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |HAROLD I. (1040-     | 1036|   30|    3|Occasioned by|Impious, unjust, |
  |----)--Second son of |     |     |     |intemperance.|dissolute and    |
  |Canute I., by Queen  |     |     |     |             |mean.            |
  |Alfwen.              |     |     |     |             |                 |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |CANUTE II. (1019-    | 1039|   29|    2|By excessive |To the vices of  |
  |1042).--Third son of |     |     |     |eating.      |Harold I., he    |
  |Canute I., by Emma of|     |     |     |             |added that of    |
  |Normandy.            |     |     |     |             |cruelty.         |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |                               SAXON KINGS                             |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |EDWARD THE CONFESSOR | 1041|   40|   24|Natural      |Honored as a     |
  |(1004-1066).--Son of |     |     |     |causes.      |great saint; of a|
  |Edmund Ironside.     |     |     |     |             |mild and peaceful|
  |                     |     |     |     |             |temper; was      |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |charitable, but  |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |had no great     |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |genius.          |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |HAROLD II. (1022-    | 1065|  ...|    1|Killed in the|A valiant        |
  |1066).--Son of Earl  |     |     |     |battle of    |warrior.         |
  |Godwin, by the eldest|     |     |     |Hastings.    |                 |
  |daughter of Canute I.|     |     |     |             |                 |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |                              NORMAN KINGS                             |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR| 1066|   40|   21|Death occa-  |Possessed great  |
  |(1027-1087).--Son of |     |     |     |sioned by    |bodily strength, |
  |Robert, Duke of Nor- |     |     |     |heat at the  |a great soul and |
  |mandy, by his mis-   |     |     |     |burning of   |an elevated mind,|
  |tress Harlotte.      |     |     |     |Mantes.      |and a prodigious |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |genius; and      |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |governed the En- |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |glish with a     |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |heavy hand.      |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |WILLIAM RUFUS (1056- | 1087|   31|   13|Accidentally |Courageous and   |
  |1100).--Second son of|     |     |     |shot by Sir  |vicious to a high|
  |William the Con-     |     |     |     |Walter       |degree.          |
  |queror.              |     |     |     |Tyrrell, in  |                 |
  |                     |     |     |     |New Forest.  |                 |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |HENRY I. (1068-1135).| 1100|   32|   35|Death occa-  |Handsome, brave, |
  |--Brother of William |     |     |     |sioned by    |sober, cruel,    |
  |Rufus.               |     |     |     |eating too   |avaricious, and  |
  |                     |     |     |     |many         |unclean.         |
  |                     |     |     |     |lampreys.    |                 |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |STEPHEN (1105-1154). | 1135|   31|   19|Natural      |In person majes- |
  |--Son of Stephen,    |     |     |     |causes.      |tic; his air     |
  |Earl of Blois, and   |     |     |     |             |placid and in-   |
  |Adela, daughter of   |     |     |     |             |sinuating. Pos-  |
  |William the Con-     |     |     |     |             |sessed great     |
  |queror.              |     |     |     |             |courage, an ele- |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |vated genius, and|
  |                     |     |     |     |             |sound judgment.  |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |                              PLANTAGENETS                             |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |HENRY II. (1133-     | 1154|   21|   35| Natural, be-|Brave, generous, |
  |1189).--Eldest son of|     |     |     |fore the High|magnificent,     |
  |Geoffrey, Earl of    |     |     |     |Altar at     |clement, just,   |
  |Anjou, and of the Em-|     |     |     |Chinon.      |prudent, ambi-   |
  |press Maud. Heir to  |     |     |     |             |tious, lustful,  |
  |Henry I.             |     |     |     |             |and violent in   |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |anger.           |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |RICHARD I. (1157-    | 1189|   33|   10|Killed by a  |Brave to a high  |
  |1199).--Second son of|     |     |     |cross-bowman,|degree; but pos- |
  |Henry II.            |     |     |     |at the siege |sessed no other  |
  |                     |     |     |     |of Chalus.   |virtue.          |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |KING JOHN (1166-     | 1199|   33|   17|Died of grief|Witty, hot-headed|
  |1216).--Brother to   |     |     |     |for having   |and hasty. After |
  |Richard I.           |     |     |     |lost his rich|his first trans- |
  |                     |     |     |     |baggage.     |ports, soft, in- |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |dolent, fearful  |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |and wavering.    |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |HENRY III. (1207-    | 1216|    9|   56|Natural      |Inconstant, ca-  |
  |1272).--King John’s  |     |     |     |causes.      |pricious and pro-|
  |eldest son.          |     |     |     |             |digal of his     |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |money; continent |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |and averse to    |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |cruelty.         |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |EDWARD I. (1239-     | 1272|   33|   35|Natural      |A good king and  |
  |1307).--Eldest son of|     |     |     |causes.      |father, a formi- |
  |Henry III.           |     |     |     |             |dable enemy, and |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |a great captain; |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |chaste, just,    |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |prudent and mode-|
  |                     |     |     |     |             |rate.            |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |EDWARD II. (1284-    | 1307|   23|   20|Murdered by  |Handsome shaped, |
  |1327).--Eldest son of|     |     |     |Gourney and  |but had neither  |
  |Edward I.            |     |     |     |Maltravers at|the capacity of  |
  |                     |     |     |     |Berkley      |warrior, states- |
  |                     |     |     |     |Castle.      |man, or man of   |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |genius.          |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |EDWARD III. (1312-   | 1327|   14|   50|Died of the  |An excellent     |
  |1377).--Son of Edward|     |     |     |St. Anthony’s|prince; gentle,  |
  |II.                  |     |     |     |fire at      |beneficent, and  |
  |                     |     |     |     |Sheen.       |valiant.         |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |RICHARD II. (1366-   | 1377|   11|   22|Murdered by  |Handsomest mon-  |
  |1400).--Son of Edward|     |     |     |Exton, at    |arch in the      |
  |the Black Prince, and|     |     |     |Pontefract   |world. Kind, mag-|
  |grandson of Edward   |     |     |     |Castle, by   |nificent, soft,  |
  |III.                 |     |     |     |order of     |timid, of little |
  |                     |     |     |     |Henry IV.    |genius, and a    |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |slave to his     |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |favorites.       |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |                           HOUSE OF LANCASTER                          |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |HENRY IV. (1366?-    | 1399|   32|   14|Died of a    |Courageous, pru- |
  |1413).--Son of John  |     |     |     |dropsy.      |dent, vigilant,  |
  |of Gaunt, and grand- |     |     |     |             |and extremely    |
  |son of Edward III.   |     |     |     |             |jealous of his   |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |throne, which he |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |obtained by un-  |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |warrantable      |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |means.           |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |HENRY V. (1388-1422).| 1413|   24|    9|Natural      |A good soldier   |
  |--Eldest son of Henry|     |     |     |causes.      |and politician;  |
  |IV.                  |     |     |     |             |had an elevated  |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |genius; was ex-  |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |tremely ambi-    |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |tious, and in-   |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |clined to cruel- |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |ty.              |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |HENRY VI. (1421-     | 1422| 9 m.|   39|Dethroned.   |Just, chaste,    |
  |1471).--Son of Henry |     |     |     |Afterwards   |temperate, pious |
  |V.                   |     |     |     |killed, by   |and patient; but |
  |                     |     |     |     |order of Ed- |had a weak mind. |
  |                     |     |     |     |ward IV.     |                 |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |                             HOUSE OF YORK                             |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |EDWARD IV. (1441-    | 1461|   19|   22|Death occa-  |One of the hand- |
  |1483).--Son of       |     |     |     |sioned by ex-|somest men in    |
  |Richard, Duke of     |     |     |     |cessive      |England, but     |
  |York; descendant of  |     |     |     |eating.      |after crowned was|
  |Edward III.          |     |     |     |             |a voluptuary.    |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |EDWARD V. (1470-     | 1483|   12| 2 m.|Smothered by |...              |
  |1483).--Eldest son of|     |     |     |order of     |                 |
  |Edward IV.           |     |     |     |Richard, Duke|                 |
  |                     |     |     |     |of Glouces-  |                 |
  |                     |     |     |     |ter.         |                 |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |RICHARD III. (1452-  | 1483|   30|    2|Killed in the|Small, ugly and  |
  |1485).--Brother to   |     |     |     |battle of    |crooked backed;  |
  |Edward IV.           |     |     |     |Bosworth     |dissembling and  |
  |                     |     |     |     |Field.       |cruel, yet saga- |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |cious and brave. |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |                             HOUSE OF TUDOR                            |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |HENRY VII. (1457-    | 1485|   28|   24|By consump-  |A wise and able  |
  |1509).--Son of       |     |     |     |tion.        |prince; pious,   |
  |Margaret, Countess of|     |     |     |             |chaste, temperate|
  |Richmond; descendant |     |     |     |             |and just; but in-|
  |of John of Gaunt.    |     |     |     |             |satiably covet-  |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |ous.             |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |HENRY VIII. (1491-   | 1509|   18|   38|Natural      |Comely, but very |
  |1547).--Second son of|     |     |     |causes.      |corpulent; brave,|
  |Henry VII.           |     |     |     |             |candid and liber-|
  |                     |     |     |     |             |al; versed in    |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |music, philoso-  |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |phy, and divini- |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |ty; yet was cruel|
  |                     |     |     |     |             |and presumptuous.|
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |EDWARD VI. (1537-    | 1547|    9|    6|Of a consump-|Sweet tempered,  |
  |1553).--Son of Henry |     |     |     |tion.        |and had a great  |
  |VIII., by Jane       |     |     |     |             |genius.          |
  |Seymour.             |     |     |     |             |                 |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |QUEEN MARY (1516-    | 1553|   38|    5|Of a dropsy. |Small capacity,  |
  |1558).--Daughter of  |     |     |     |             |bigoted, revenge-|
  |Henry VIII., by      |     |     |     |             |ful and cruel.   |
  |Catharine of Aragon. |     |     |     |             |                 |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |QUEEN ELIZABETH      | 1558|   25|   45|Natural      |Tolerably hand-  |
  |(1533-1603).--       |     |     |     |causes.      |some; had a noble|
  |Daughter of Henry    |     |     |     |             |air, and great   |
  |VIII., by Anne       |     |     |     |             |affability; cele-|
  |Boleyn.              |     |     |     |             |brated for her   |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |wit, judgment,   |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |economy, policy, |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |sincerity, jus-  |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |tice, liberality,|
  |                     |     |     |     |             |and magnificence.|
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |                            HOUSE OF STUART                            |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |JAMES I. (1566-1625).| 1603|   37|   22|Of an ague.  |Learned and pa-  |
  |--Son of Mary, Queen |     |     |     |             |cific, but       |
  |of Scots, and Henry  |     |     |     |             |wavering and un- |
  |Stuart, Lord Darnley;|     |     |     |             |determined.      |
  |and great-grandson of|     |     |     |             |                 |
  |Margaret, daughter of|     |     |     |             |                 |
  |Henry VII.           |     |     |     |             |                 |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |CHARLES I. (1600-    | 1625|   25|   24|Beheaded near|Religious, sober,|
  |1649).--Third son of |     |     |     |the windows  |chaste, affable  |
  |James I.             |     |     |     |of the       |and courageous;  |
  |                     |     |     |     |banqueting   |had great pene-  |
  |                     |     |     |     |house, White-|tration and judg-|
  |                     |     |     |     |hall.        |ment, but too    |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |fond of preroga- |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |tive.            |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |COMMONWEALTH declared| 1649|  ...|   11|...          |...              |
  |May 19.              |     |     |     |             |                 |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |                            HOUSE OF STUART                            |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |CHARLES II. (1630-   | 1660|   29|   25|Supposed to  |Extremely liberal|
  |1685).--Eldest son of|     |     |     |have been    |and affable; had |
  |Charles I.           |     |     |     |poisoned.    |a sprightly and  |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |witty genius, and|
  |                     |     |     |     |             |a wonderful con- |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |ception.         |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |JAMES II. (1633-     | 1685|   52|    3|Natural,     |A kind father,   |
  |1701).--Brother to   |     |     |     |having abdi- |husband and      |
  |Charles II.          |     |     |     |cated the    |master; more     |
  |                     |     |     |     |throne.      |pious than reso- |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |lute, and too    |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |submissive to his|
  |                     |     |     |     |             |ministers.       |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |WILLIAM (1650-1702)  | 1688|W. 37|W. 14|Mary died of |Mary, pious and  |
  |and MARY (1662-1694).|     |M. 26|M.  6|the smallpox;|amiable; had an  |
  |--William, Prince of |     |     |     |William, by a|air of grandeur, |
  |Orange, (Holland).   |     |     |     |fall from his|without pride or |
  |Mary, eldest daughter|     |     |     |horse.       |affectation.     |
  |of James II., by Anne|     |     |     |             |William, not     |
  |Hyde.                |     |     |     |             |comely in person,|
  |                     |     |     |     |             |had a great      |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |genius, was a    |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |good statesman   |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |and warrior.     |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |QUEEN ANNE (1685-    | 1702|   37|   12|Natural      |In private life, |
  |1714).--Second       |     |     |     |causes.      |virtuous, chari- |
  |daughter of King     |     |     |     |             |table and pious; |
  |James II., and con-  |     |     |     |             |as a sovereign,  |
  |sort of George,      |     |     |     |             |easy, kind and   |
  |Prince of Denmark.   |     |     |     |             |generous.        |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |                            HOUSE OF HANOVER                           |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |GEORGE I. (1660-     | 1714|   54|   13|Died of a    |Unostentatious   |
  |1727).--Eldest son of|     |     |     |lethargic    |and familiar; a  |
  |Ernest Augustus, Duke|     |     |     |disorder, at |circumspect gen- |
  |of Brunswick, and    |     |     |     |Osnaburg.    |eral; a wise and |
  |Princess Sophia,     |     |     |     |             |virtuous prince. |
  |daughter of Frederick|     |     |     |             |                 |
  |V., of Bohemia.      |     |     |     |             |                 |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |GEORGE II. (1683-    | 1727|   44|   34|Died instant-|Well-shaped, fair|
  |1760).--Only son of  |     |     |     |ly, by a sud-|complexion;      |
  |George I., by        |     |     |     |den rupture  |hasty, of moder- |
  |Dorothy, daughter and|     |     |     |of the heart,|ate abilities,   |
  |heiress of the Duke  |     |     |     |while in good|humane, liberal, |
  |of Zell.             |     |     |     |health.      |temperate, and a |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |scientific       |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |warrior.         |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |GEORGE III. (1738-   | 1760|   22|   59|By the gradu-|His figure       |
  |1820).--Eldest son of|     |     |     |al exhaustion|uniting strength |
  |Frederick and        |     |     |     |of nature,   |and comeliness;  |
  |Augusta, Prince and  |     |     |     |having been  |his manners un-  |
  |Princess of Wales,   |     |     |     |in state of  |assuming and     |
  |and grandson of      |     |     |     |continual    |liberal; hair    |
  |George II.           |     |     |     |mental de-   |light flaxen,    |
  |                     |     |     |     |rangement for|eyes grey, eye-  |
  |                     |     |     |     |nine years.  |brows white, of  |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |moderate genius, |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |and very pious.  |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |GEORGE IV. (1762-    | 1820|   58|    9|...          |...              |
  |1830).--Eldest son of|     |     |     |             |                 |
  |George III., by his  |     |     |     |             |                 |
  |consort, Charlotte of|     |     |     |             |                 |
  |Mecklenburg.         |     |     |     |             |                 |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |WILLIAM IV. (1765-   | 1830|   65|    7|Natural      |A man of homely  |
  |1837).--Third son of |     |     |     |causes.      |talents, immoral,|
  |George III.          |     |     |     |             |tactless, but    |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |good hearted.    |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |QUEEN VICTORIA (1819-| 1837|   18|   64|Natural      |A sagacious      |
  |1901).--Daughter of  |     |     |     |causes.      |ruler, jealous of|
  |Edward, fourth son of|     |     |     |             |her royal pre-   |
  |George III., and     |     |     |     |             |rogative, persis-|
  |Victoria Maria       |     |     |     |             |tent, self-      |
  |Louisa, daughter of  |     |     |     |             |devoted, but     |
  |Francis, duke of     |     |     |     |             |greatly beloved. |
  |Saxe-Coburg.         |     |     |     |             |                 |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |                          HOUSE OF SAXE-COBURG                         |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |EDWARD VII. (1841-   | 1901|   60|    9|Natural      |Lacked political |
  |1910).--Son of       |     |     |     |causes.      |training, but    |
  |Victoria and Prince  |     |     |     |             |cultivated the   |
  |Albert of Saxe-Coburg|     |     |     |             |arts of peace.   |
  |and Gotha.           |     |     |     |             |Popular, but     |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |lacking in moral |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |force.           |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+
  |GEORGE V. (1865-     | 1910|   45|  ...|...          |Without political|
  |----).--Son of Edward|     |     |     |             |training; like   |
  |VII. and Queen       |     |     |     |             |his father, his  |
  |Alexandra, daughter  |     |     |     |             |foreign policy   |
  |of Christian IX. of  |     |     |     |             |almost wholly in |
  |Denmark.             |     |     |     |             |the hands of a   |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |powerful minis-  |
  |                     |     |     |     |             |try. Personally a|
  |                     |     |     |     |             |notable sportsman|
  |                     |     |     |     |             |and popular.     |
  +---------------------+-----+-----+-----+-------------+-----------------+

  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |  NAMES AND LINEAGE  |    PRINCIPAL   |     CHIEF     |     EVENTS OF    |
  |   OF SOVEREIGNS     |    STATESMEN   |    WARRIORS   |       REIGN      |
  |                     |                |               |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |                              ANGLO-SAXON KINGS                          |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |EGBERT (775?-837)--  |...             |The king.--    |The kingdoms of   |
  |Son of Alcmund, de-  |                |Ethelwolf.--   |the Heptarchy     |
  |scended from Inigi-  |                |Kenneth.       |united, and take  |
  |sil, brother to Ina, |                |               |the name of En-   |
  |king of West Saxons. |                |               |gland.            |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |ETHELWOLF (---- -358)|Athelstan.      |Wolfhere.--    |Tithes instituted;|
  |--Son of Egbert.     |                |Ethelhelm.--   |London plundered  |
  |                     |                |Ceorle.        |by the Danes; En- |
  |                     |                |               |gland becomes     |
  |                     |                |               |tributary to the  |
  |                     |                |               |Holy See.         |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |ETHELBALD--Son of    |Swithun, Bishop |Osric.         |Scots defeated by |
  |Ethelwolf.           |of Winchester.  |               |the Britons.      |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |ETHELBERT--Son of    |...             |The king.      |Winchester burnt  |
  |Ethelwolf.           |                |               |by the Danes.     |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |ETHELRED I. (871).-- |...             |Young Alfred.  |Battles of Aston  |
  |Brother to Ethelbert.|                |               |and Basing--York  |
  |                     |                |               |taken.            |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |ALFRED THE GREAT     |...             |The king.--    |University of Ox- |
  |(849-901).--Brother  |                |Oddune, earl of|ford founded.     |
  |to Ethelred, and son |                |Devonshire.    |Juries instituted.|
  |of Ethelwolf.        |                |               |England divided   |
  |                     |                |               |into shires,      |
  |                     |                |               |tithings and      |
  |                     |                |               |and hundreds.     |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |EDWARD THE ELDER     |...             |The king.      |Northumberland and|
  |(870?-924).--Second  |                |               |East Anglia united|
  |son of Alfred the    |                |               |to the crown. Uni-|
  |Great.               |                |               |versity of Cam-   |
  |                     |                |               |bridge founded.   |
  |                     |                |               |Battles of Tems-  |
  |                     |                |               |ford and Malden.  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |ATHELSTAN (895?-941).|Turketul, Chan- |Guy of Warwick.|Constantine III.  |
  |--Natural son of     |cellor.         |               |of Scotland and   |
  |Edward the Elder.    |                |               |six Irish and     |
  |                     |                |               |Welsh kings killed|
  |                     |                |               |at battle of      |
  |                     |                |               |Brunanburh.       |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |EDMUND THE PIOUS     |...             |The king.      |Cumberland and    |
  |(923-946).--Eldest   |                |               |Westmoreland given|
  |legitimate son of    |                |               |up to Malcolm,    |
  |Edward the Elder.    |                |               |king of Scotland. |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |EDRED (---- -955?).--|Aldheim, Arch-  |The king.      |Northumbrian Danes|
  |Second legitimate son|bishop of       |               |reduced.          |
  |of Edward the Elder. |Canterbury.     |               |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |EDWY (939?-959).--   |Odo, Archbishop |Prince Edgar.  |Rebellion of the  |
  |Eldest son of Edmund |of Canterbury.  |               |Mercians.         |
  |the Pious.           |                |               |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |EDGAR (943?-975).--  |Ethelwold.      |...            |King of Wales,    |
  |Brother to Edwy.     |                |               |Ireland and the   |
  |                     |                |               |Isle of Man,      |
  |                     |                |               |recognize Edgar   |
  |                     |                |               |for their sover-  |
  |                     |                |               |eign.             |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |EDWARD THE MARTYR    |Dustan.         |...            |...               |
  |(961?-978).--Eldest  |                |               |                  |
  |son of Edgar.        |                |               |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |ETHELRED II.         |Siricius, Arch- |Prince Edmund. |Arabic figures in-|
  |(_Sweyn_) (----      |bishop of       |Alfric.        |troduced. Sweyn,  |
  |-1016).--Brother to  |Canterbury.     |               |king of Denmark,  |
  |Edward the Martyr,   |                |               |conquers England. |
  |and son of the beau- |                |               |                  |
  |tiful Elfrida.       |                |               |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |EDMUND, IRONSIDE     |Edric, Earl of  |...            |Massacre of the   |
  |(989-1017).--Eldest  |Wilts.          |               |Danes. England di-|
  |son of Ethelred II.  |                |               |vided between     |
  |                     |                |               |dward and Canute  |
  |                     |                |               |I.                |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |                                DANISH KINGS                             |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |CANUTE I. (995-1035).|Thurkell, Duke  |Godwin, Earl of|Parents prohibited|
  |--Son of Sweyn, King |of East Anglia. |Kent.          |selling their     |
  |of Denmark.          |--Urick, Duke of|               |children. End of  |
  |                     |Northumberland. |               |the Danish war of |
  |                     |                |               |two hundred years.|
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |HAROLD I. (1040-     |Earl Godwin.    |Godwin, Earl of|Paper first used  |
  |----)--Second son of |                |Kent.          |in England.       |
  |Canute I., by Queen  |                |               |                  |
  |Alfwen.              |                |               |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |CANUTE II. (1019-    |Earl Godwin.    |Leofric, Duke  |...               |
  |1042).--Third son of |                |of Mercia.     |                  |
  |Canute I., by Emma of|                |               |                  |
  |Normandy.            |                |               |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |                                SAXON KINGS                              |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |EDWARD THE CONFESSOR |Robert, Arch-   |Siward, Duke of|Common law of En- |
  |(1004-1066).--Son of |bishop of       |Northumberland.|gland established.|
  |Edmund Ironside.     |Canterbury--    |               |Westminster Abbey |
  |                     |Harold.         |               |founded.          |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |HAROLD II. (1022-    |Morcar, Earl of |Gurth and      |Battle of         |
  |1066).--Son of Earl  |Northumberland. |Leofwin, the   |Hastings, Norman  |
  |Godwin, by the eldest|                |king’s         |conquest.         |
  |daughter of Canute I.|                |brothers.      |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |                               NORMAN KINGS                              |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR|Odo, Bishop of  |Malcolm, King  |Tower of London   |
  |(1027-1087).--Son of |Bayeaux.        |of Scotland.   |built. Doomsday   |
  |Robert, Duke of Nor- |Fitzosborne,    |               |book. Bishoprics  |
  |mandy, by his mis-   |Earl of         |               |created.          |
  |tress Harlotte.      |Hereford.       |               |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |WILLIAM RUFUS (1056- |Herbert--       |Earl of        |First Holy War.   |
  |1100).--Second son of|Lozinga.        |Northumberland |Westminster Hall  |
  |William the Con-     |                |--Duke of      |built. Reduction  |
  |queror.              |                |Normandy.      |of the Welsh.     |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |HENRY I. (1068-1135).|Archbishop      |Earl of        |Normandy con-     |
  |--Brother of William |Anselm. Bishop  |Flanders.      |quered. First     |
  |Rufus.               |of Salisbury.   |               |Parliament.       |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |STEPHEN (1105-1154). |William of      |Earl of        |Canon law intro-  |
  |--Son of Stephen,    |Ypres.          |Gloucester.    |duced.            |
  |Earl of Blois, and   |                |               |                  |
  |Adela, daughter of   |                |               |                  |
  |William the Con-     |                |               |                  |
  |queror.              |                |               |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |                               PLANTAGENETS                              |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |HENRY II. (1133-     |Thomas à Becket,|Strongbow, Earl|King takes posses-|
  |1189).--Eldest son of|Lord Chancellor.|of Pembroke.   |sion of Ireland.  |
  |Geoffrey, Earl of    |                |               |Judicial circuits |
  |Anjou, and of the Em-|                |               |established.      |
  |press Maud. Heir to  |                |               |                  |
  |Henry I.             |                |               |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |RICHARD I. (1157-    |Bishop of Durham|The king, sur- |London divided in-|
  |1199).--Second son of|--Longchamp,    |named Cœur de  |to companies. King|
  |Henry II.            |Bishop of Ely.  |Lion.          |joins the Crusade.|
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |KING JOHN (1166-     |Archbishop of   |Prince Arthur. |Phillip II. of    |
  |1216).--Brother to   |Hubert, Chancel-|               |France takes pos- |
  |Richard I.           |lor.            |               |session of        |
  |                     |                |               |Normandy. War with|
  |                     |                |               |the barons. Magna |
  |                     |                |               |Charta signed.    |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |HENRY III. (1207-    |William, Earl of|Simon, Earl of |Intestine wars.   |
  |1272).--King John’s  |Pembroke, Hugh  |Leicester.     |Westminster Abbey |
  |eldest son.          |de Burgh, Bishop|Prince Edward. |rebuilt.          |
  |                     |of Winchester.  |               |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |EDWARD I. (1239-     |Giffard, Arch-  |Llewellyn,     |Wales united to   |
  |1307).--Eldest son of|bishop of York. |Prince of      |England. Mariner’s|
  |Henry III.           |                |Wales.         |compass invented. |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |EDWARD II. (1284-    |Pierce Gaveston |Guy, Earl of   |King abdicates the|
  |1327).--Eldest son of|--Hugh de       |Warwick.       |throne. Courts of |
  |Edward I.            |Spencer.        |               |Nisi Prius es-    |
  |                     |                |               |tablished.        |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |EDWARD III. (1312-   |Mortimer, Earl  |Edward, the    |Battles of Cressy |
  |1377).--Son of Edward|of March.       |Black Prince-- |and Poictiers.    |
  |II.                  |                |Sir Richard    |Order of the      |
  |                     |                |Knowles.       |Garter instituted.|
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |RICHARD II. (1366-   |Richard de Vere,|H. Percy, sur- |Wat Tyler’s insur-|
  |1400).--Son of Edward|Duke of Ireland.|named Hotspur--|rection. King de- |
  |the Black Prince, and|A. Neville,     |John of Gaunt. |posed.            |
  |grandson of Edward   |Archbishop of   |               |                  |
  |III.                 |York.           |               |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |                            HOUSE OF LANCASTER                           |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |HENRY IV. (1366?-    |R. Neville, Earl|Sir John       |Battle of         |
  |1413).--Son of John  |of Westmoreland.|Oldcastle.     |Shrewsbury.       |
  |of Gaunt, and grand- |                |               |                  |
  |son of Edward III.   |                |               |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |HENRY V. (1388-1422).|Beaufort, Duke  |Duke of        |Battle of         |
  |--Eldest son of Henry|of Exeter.      |Gloucester,    |Agincourt. Siege  |
  |IV.                  |                |Wodehouse Gam. |of Rouen.         |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |HENRY VI. (1421-     |Humphrey, Duke  |Joan of Arc,   |Battles of        |
  |1471).--Son of Henry |of Gloucester,  |Duke of        |Crevant, Verneuil,|
  |V.                   |Duke of Suffolk,|Bedford, Lord  |St. Albans, and   |
  |                     |Duke of         |Talbot, R.     |Towton. Siege of  |
  |                     |Somerset.       |Neville, Earl  |Orleans.          |
  |                     |                |of Warwick.    |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |                              HOUSE OF YORK                              |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |EDWARD IV. (1441-    |Earl Rivers.    |Admiral Coulon.|Printing first in |
  |1483).--Son of       |                |               |use.              |
  |Richard, Duke of     |                |               |                  |
  |York; descendant of  |                |               |                  |
  |Edward III.          |                |               |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |EDWARD V. (1470-     |Richard, Duke of|Lord Hastings. |Richard’s usurpa- |
  |1483).--Eldest son of|Gloucester.     |               |tion.             |
  |Edward IV.           |                |               |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |RICHARD III. (1452-  |Lord Stanley.   |Henry, Earl of |Battle of Bosworth|
  |1485).--Brother to   |                |Richmond. Duke |Field.            |
  |Edward IV.           |                |of Buckingham. |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |                              HOUSE OF TUDOR                             |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |HENRY VII. (1457-    |Cardinal Morton,|Lord Lovell.   |Discovery of      |
  |1509).--Son of       |Sir Edward      |               |America.          |
  |Margaret, Countess of|Poynings.       |               |                  |
  |Richmond; descendant |                |               |                  |
  |of John of Gaunt.    |                |               |                  |
  |                     |                |               |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |HENRY VIII. (1491-   |Cardinal Wolsey,|Duke of Norfolk|The Reformation.  |
  |1547).--Second son of|Sir Thomas More,|--Earl of      |Monasteries dis-  |
  |Henry VII.           |Fox, Cromwell.  |Surrey.        |solved.           |
  |                     |                |Lord Maxwell.  |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |EDWARD VI. (1537-    |Seymour, Duke of|Lord Russell.  |Religious insur-  |
  |1553).--Son of Henry |Somerset--      |               |rection.          |
  |VIII., by Jane       |Dudley, Earl of |               |                  |
  |Seymour.             |Warwick.        |               |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |QUEEN MARY (1516-    |Gardiner, Chan- |Duke of Savoy. |Catholic religion |
  |1558).--Daughter of  |cellor.         |               |restored.         |
  |Henry VIII., by      |                |               |                  |
  |Catharine of Aragon. |                |               |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |QUEEN ELIZABETH      |Robert Dudley,  |Admiral Howard |Mary Queen of     |
  |(1533-1603).--       |Sir Nicholas    |--Sir Francis  |Scots executed.   |
  |Daughter of Henry    |Bacon, Lord     |Drake. Sir F.  |Spanish Armada    |
  |VIII., by Anne       |Burleigh.       |Vere. Sir P.   |destroyed. Protes-|
  |Boleyn.              |                |Sidney.        |tant religion re- |
  |                     |                |               |stored.           |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |                             HOUSE OF STUART                             |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |JAMES I. (1566-1625).|Robert Car, Earl|Sir Horace     |Union of the      |
  |--Son of Mary, Queen |of Somerset.    |Vere.          |crowns of England |
  |of Scots, and Henry  |George Villiers,|               |and Scotland. Gun-|
  |Stuart, Lord Darnley;|Duke of Bucking-|               |powder plot.      |
  |and great-grandson of|ham. Earl of    |               |                  |
  |Margaret, daughter of|Salisbury.      |               |                  |
  |Henry VII.           |                |               |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |CHARLES I. (1600-    |Earls of Port-  |Earl of Essex. |Battles of Edge   |
  |1649).--Third son of |land and Straf- |Sir T. Fairfax,|Hill, Tadcaster   |
  |James I.             |ford--Laud,     |Earl of        |and Gisborough.   |
  |                     |Archbishop of   |Manchester.    |                  |
  |                     |Canterbury.     |               |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |COMMONWEALTH declared|Oliver Cromwell.|Admiral Blake, |Charles I. be-    |
  |May 19.              |                |General Monk.  |headed. Royal     |
  |                     |                |               |power usurped.    |
  |                     |                |               |Battle of Dunbar. |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |                             HOUSE OF STUART                             |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |CHARLES II. (1630-   |Earl of Claren- |Duke of York.  |Restoration of    |
  |1685).--Eldest son of|don.            |Earl of        |monarchy. Plague  |
  |Charles I.           |                |Sandwich.      |and fire in       |
  |                     |                |               |London. Royal So- |
  |                     |                |               |ciety founded.    |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |JAMES II. (1633-     |Chancellor      |Duke of        |King abdicates the|
  |1701).--Brother to   |Jeffries.       |Monmouth.      |throne. Revolu-   |
  |Charles II.          |                |               |tion.             |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |WILLIAM (1650-1702)  |Earl of Sunder- |Russell,       |Bank of England   |
  |and MARY (1662-1694).|land. Earl of   |Shovel, Ginkle.|established. Siege|
  |--William, Prince of |Tankerville.    |               |of Namur. Battles |
  |Orange, (Holland).   |                |               |of Boyne and La   |
  |Mary, eldest daughter|                |               |Hogue. Treaty of  |
  |of James II., by Anne|                |               |Ryswick.          |
  |Hyde.                |                |               |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |QUEEN ANNE (1685-    |Lords Godolphin |Duke of        |Battles of Blen-  |
  |1714).--Second       |and Cowper--Earl|Marlboro’--Sir |heim and Ramilles.|
  |daughter of King     |of Oxford.      |G. Rook, Ormund|Scotch union.     |
  |James II., and con-  |Harcourt.       |--Benbow.      |                  |
  |sort of George,      |Bollingbroke.   |               |                  |
  |Prince of Denmark.   |                |               |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |                             HOUSE OF HANOVER                            |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |GEORGE I. (1660-     |Dukes of New-   |Earl of Mar.   |Insurrection in   |
  |1727).--Eldest son of|castle and      |Duke of Argyle.|favor of the Pre- |
  |Ernest Augustus, Duke|Devonshire.     |Lord Cobham.   |tender. Septennial|
  |of Brunswick, and    |Lords Townsend  |               |parliament.       |
  |Princess Sophia,     |and Carteret.   |               |                  |
  |daughter of Frederick|                |               |                  |
  |V., of Bohemia.      |                |               |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |GEORGE II. (1683-    |Sir R. Walpole. |Duke of Cumber-|New style intro-  |
  |1760).--Only son of  |Mr. Sandys. Earl|land. Lord     |duced. Battles of |
  |George I., by        |of Huntington.  |Anson. Earl of |Dettingen,        |
  |Dorothy, daughter and|Duke of Bedford.|Stair. Gen.    |Culloden, and     |
  |heiress of the Duke  |                |Wolfe.         |Minden. Peace of  |
  |of Zell.             |                |               |Aix La Chapelle.  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |GEORGE III. (1738-   |Chatham. North, |Rodney, Howe,  |French and Ameri- |
  |1820).--Eldest son of|Pitt, Fox.      |Abercrombie--  |can Revolutions.  |
  |Frederick and        |                |Nelson,        |Union with Ire-   |
  |Augusta, Prince and  |                |Wellington.    |land. Battles of  |
  |Princess of Wales,   |                |               |Leipsic and       |
  |and grandson of      |                |               |Waterloo.         |
  |George II.           |                |               |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |GEORGE IV. (1762-    |...             |...            |...               |
  |1830).--Eldest son of|                |               |                  |
  |George III., by his  |                |               |                  |
  |consort, Charlotte of|                |               |                  |
  |Mecklenburg.         |                |               |                  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |WILLIAM IV. (1765-   |Lord John       |...            |Reform Bill passed|
  |1837).--Third son of |Russell, Robert |               |by Parliament. Mu-|
  |George III.          |Peel, Lord      |               |nicipal Corpora-  |
  |                     |Melbourne.      |               |tions Act. Estab- |
  |                     |                |               |lishment of the   |
  |                     |                |               |University of     |
  |                     |                |               |London.           |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |QUEEN VICTORIA (1819-|Lord Palmerston,|Generals       |Crimean war,      |
  |1901).--Daughter of  |Lord Derby,     |Gordon,        |Indian Mutiny,    |
  |Edward, fourth son of|Disraeli,       |Roberts,       |Zulu war, Boer    |
  |George III., and     |Gladstone,      |Kitchener.     |war, Home Rule    |
  |Victoria Maria       |Rosebury,       |               |agitation. Austra-|
  |Louisa, daughter of  |Salisbury.      |               |lian Commonwealth |
  |Francis, duke of     |                |               |bill. Imperialism |
  |Saxe-Coburg.         |                |               |strengthened.     |
  |                     |                |               |Marked literary   |
  |                     |                |               |achievements.     |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |                           HOUSE OF SAXE-COBURG                          |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |EDWARD VII. (1841-   |...             |Lord Roberts,  |King Edward and   |
  |1910).--Son of       |                |General        |his Ministers were|
  |Victoria and Prince  |                |Kitchener.     |influential in es-|
  |Albert of Saxe-Coburg|                |               |tablishing the    |
  |and Gotha.           |                |               |Triple Entente,   |
  |                     |                |               |including England,|
  |                     |                |               |France and Russia.|
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+
  |GEORGE V. (1865-     |Asquith, Lloyd- |Kitchener,     |England the lead- |
  |----).--Son of Edward|George, Cecil.  |French, Haig.  |ing and directing |
  |VII. and Queen       |                |               |power of the      |
  |Alexandra, daughter  |                |               |Entente in the    |
  |of Christian IX. of  |                |               |Great European war|
  |Denmark.             |                |               |against the       |
  |                     |                |               |Germanic Allies.  |
  +---------------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+


FRANCE

=Location and Extent.=--France occupies the narrowest part of the great
western peninsula of the European continent between the Mediterranean on
the one side, and the Bay of Biscay and the English Channel on the
other. As both coasts have many harbors, the situation between two seas
is a very advantageous one. In extent it is fully three and a half times
larger than England, measuring about six hundred miles each way across
it.

Most of its frontiers are natural. On the south the high barrier of the
Pyrenees rises between it and Spain; on the east the Alps and Jura
separate it from Italy and Switzerland and part of the Vosges mountains
forms the boundary towards Germany. On the northeast alone the political
limit towards Germany and Belgium is artificially drawn, and has to be
guarded by a line of fortresses.

Since 1768, France had held the Mediterranean island of _Corsica_, a
rugged pyramid of forest-covered mountains.

=Divisions of the Country.=--Previous to the French Revolution, France
was divided into _provinces_, which bore the names of the separate
territories out of which the state had been gradually built up. These
are accordingly of much greater historical interest than the present
division into eighty-seven _departments_, which are almost universally
named after the river basins in which they lie. The provincial names are
also those which are still most in use in ordinary life in France.

The following are the provinces, with the dates of their incorporation
as parts of France, and the departments they include:

ILE DE FRANCE, the original kernel of the state round Paris
(_Departments_--Seine, Seine et Oise, Seine et Marne, Oise, Aisne).

CHAMPAGNE (part of France since 1285) to the east of the former
(Ardennes, Marne, Haute-Marne, Aube).

LORRAINE (since 1766), east of Champagne (Meuse, Meurthe et Moselle,
Vosges, and territory of Belfort).

FLANDERS (since 1677), on the border of Belgium (Nord).

ARTOIS (since 1640), on the Channel (Pas de Calais).

PICARDY (original), adjoining Ile de France on N. (Somme).

NORMANDY (since 1203), along the Channel (Seine-inferieure, Eure,
Calvados, La Manche, Orne).

BRITTANY (since 1532), the western peninsula (Finistere, Morbihan,
Cotes-du-Nord, Ille et Vilaine, Loire-inferieure).

POITOU (since 1375), southeast of Brittany (Vendee, Deux-Sevres,
Vienne).

ANJOU (since 1202) north of Poitou, across the Loire (Maine et Loire).

MAINE (since 1202), between Anjou and Normandy (Mayenne, Sarthe).

ANGOUMOIS, AUNIS and SAINTONGE (since 1242), south of Poitou, along the
Bay of Biscay (Charente and Charente-inferieure).

TOURAINE (since 1256), across the Loire, east of Anjou (Indre et Loire).

ORLEANS (original), south of Ile de France (Loire et Cher, Eure et
Loire, Loiret).

NIVERNAIS (since 1707), southeast of Orleans (Nievre).

BOURBONNAIS (since 1559), south of Nivernais (Allier).

MARCHE (since 1531), southwest of Bourbonnais (Creuse).

BERRI (since 1100), between Marche and Orleans (Cher, Indre).

LIMOUSIN (since 1369), southwest of Marche (Haute-Vienne and Correze).

AUVERGNE (since 1531), west of Limousin (Cantal, Puy-de-Dome).

LYONNAIS (since 1307), northeast of Auvergne (Loire, Rhone).

BURGUNDY (since 1476), south of Champagne (Ain, Saone et Loire, Cote
d’or, Yonne).

FRANCHE COMTE (since 1674), nearest Switzerland (Haute-Saone, Jura,
Doubs).

DAUPHINE (since 1349), between the Alps and the Rhone Channel (Isere,
Drome, Hautes, Alpes).

SAVOIE (since 1860), south of Lake of Geneva (Savoie, Haute-Savoie).

LANGUEDOC (since 1271), along the Mediterranean, west of the Rhone
(Ardeche, Haute-Loire, Lozere, Gard, Herault, Tarn, Haute-Garonne,
Aude).

GUYENNE (since 1453), in the basin of the Garonne, southwest (Aveyron,
Lot, Dordogne, Tarn et Garonne, Lot et Garonne, Gironde).

GASCOGNE (since 1453), in the southwest, old _Aquitaine_ (Landes, Gers,
Hautes-Pyrenees).

BEARN and NAVARRE (since 1607) (Basses Pyrenees).

FOIX (since 1607) next Spain, in the south (Ariege).

ROUSSILLON (since 1642), in the southeast (Pyrenees-Orientales).

AVIGNON, VENNAISSIN, and ORANGE (since 1791), near the Rhone delta
(Vaucluse).

PROVENCE, Roman Provincia (since 1245), in the southeast along the
Mediterranean (Bouches-Du-Rhone, Basses-Alpes, Var, Alpes-Maritimes).

CORSICA (since 1768), in the Mediterranean (Corse).

=Surface and Mountains.=--Within France the long curve of the _Cevennes
Mountains_ in the southeast, prolonged northward by the _Cote d’or_, the
_Plateau of Langres_, and the _Vosges_, determines the slope of the
country. Between them and the _Alps_ lies the deep valley of the Rhone,
with a southward fall to the Mediterranean. But these high lands,
ramifying outward with gentler descent to north and west, give direction
to the drainage of the longer slope to the Atlantic coast, the Bay of
Biscay, the Channel, and the North Sea.

_Mont Blanc_, the highest point in Europe, rises within France, near the
point of union of its boundary with that of Italy and Switzerland; the
_Pic de Nethou_, the highest point of the Pyrenean barrier, stands just
outside the boundary on the Spanish side; centrally in the country, the
highest point is _Mont Dore_, in the volcanic group of the mountains of
Auvergne, embraced by the curve of the Cevennes. The lowlands of France
are not level plains like those of Belgium and Holland, but for the most
part undulating districts; they lie along the Atlantic border (excepting
where the heights of Normandy and Brittany run out into the ocean) and
in the Mediterranean valley of the Rhone.

=Chief Rivers.=--The main direction of the drainage of France is from
southeast to northwest over the long slope of land. The _Garonne_,
receiving the numerous _gaves_, as the streams from the Pyrenees are
called, and its tributary the _Dordogne_, from the mountains of
Auvergne, forming the estuary of the _Gironde_ in the south; the
_Loire_, curving through the center of the country from the Cevennes to
the Atlantic,--the longest river of France; the _Seine_, from the Cote
d’or, flowing northwest to the English Channel; and the _Meuse_, from
the Vosges, passing out to join the Rhine in the Netherlands. All are
navigable, forming with their tributaries the natural waterways of
France, which possesses a river navigation of about five thousand five
hundred miles. The great southern river, the _Rhone_, from the mountains
of Switzerland, receiving its chief tributary, the _Saone_, from the
southern Vosges, is comparatively valueless to navigation from the
rapidity of its current.

=Climate and Soil.=--Occupying a middle position between northern and
southern Europe, France enjoys one of the finest climates of the
continent. Toward the northeast it becomes more continental, toward the
northwest more maritime and like that of southern England; in the warm
south the hot winds from the African deserts may occasionally be felt,
and in contrast to these, in the Rhone valley, the chilly northeast wind
known as the _Mistral_ at times descends from the Alpine Heights with
great violence; but the greater part of the country is within the area
of the westerly winds.

=Products of Soil.=--Very few parts of the country are unadapted for
cultivation; only some parts of the Pyrenees, the Landes, and of the
Vosges, can be thus characterized.

The destruction of natural timber in France within the past two
centuries has been enormous. About a sixth part of the surface is
wooded, the most extensive remaining forests being those of _Orleans_
and _Fontainebleau_, between the northern curve of the Loire and Paris;
of the hills of Var in the extreme southeast; and of the Jura and the
Vosges. Much of the department of Vaucluse, in the lower valley of the
Rhone, is covered with _Truffle oaks_, from about the roots of which
enormous quantities of this fungus are obtained. The western promontory
of Brittany is now barest of all, but here, as in the mountains of
Auvergne, the Cevennes, the Pyrenees, and the Alps, replanting has
begun.

The vine is grown in all parts of France excepting the northwestern
departments; more than one thousand four hundred varieties of grapes are
recognized; the finest growths being those of _Champagne_ and _Burgundy_
in the east, and of the basin of the Gironde (_Bordeaux_) in the
southwest. Wheat, flax and beet-root for sugar, are the staple products
of the north; olives of the extreme southeast. Apples and pears are
widely grown in Normandy for cider and perry; oranges, citrons, and
pomegranates come from the Mediterranean departments.

In pastoral wealth, in cattle and sheep rearing, France is far behind
England and Germany in proportion to its extent.

=Industries and Trade.=--Agricultural and pastoral pursuits occupy the
larger share of the people of France. The trade of the Champagne wine
district centers at _Reims_ and _Chalons-sur-Marne_, east of Paris; that
of the Burgundy wines at _Dijon_, in the Saone valley, on the east; that
of the Gironde wines, or claret, at _Bordeaux_, on the southwest. The
subsidiary products of vinegar and brandy are made most largely, the one
at _Orleans_, on the Loire, the other at _Cognac_, a small town on the
Charente, north of Bordeaux.

=The French People.=--To the aboriginal _Iberian_ and _Celtic_ peoples
of France came the _Romans_ chiefly in the south and east; the
descendants of this intermixture being the small dark and lively
Frenchman of the south; in the north, in some degree, the Germanic
element became interwoven; hence the Frenchman of the northern parts of
the land partakes more of the character of his neighbors, is taller,
blonde, blue-eyed, and less volatile than the southerner. Hence also the
old division of the Romanized French language into the _Langue d’oc_ (or
Provençal) of the south; and the _Langue d’oil_ (or Roman Walloon) of
the north, from which the many dialects now spoken have descended.

The _Celtic_ element remains almost pure in Brittany, and the _Iberian_
in the _Basques_ of the western Pyrenees. _Italians_ appear in the
southeast and in Corsica, _Flemings_ on the Belgian frontier, and
_Germans_ toward Lorraine and Alsace, though, in this direction, the
boundary drawn long the Vosges and round Lorraine since the war of 1871
follows as nearly as possible the meeting points of the German and
French inhabitants of the northeast.

=Religion and Education.=--France is a Roman Catholic country.
Protestants form but a small proportion, and the most numerous in the
southwest between the Loire and the Pyrenees. Public education is
entirely under the supervision of the Government, and no longer in the
hands of the clergy. The percentage of illiterates is least in the
districts which lie nearest to Germany, and greatest in the Atlantic
coast-lands of the west and southwest.

There are state universities at Aix, Algiers, Angers, Bordeaux, Caen,
Clermont, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyon, Marseilles, Montauban,
Montpelier, Nancy, Nantes, Paris, Poitiers, Rennes, and Toulouse.

=Cities and Towns.=--More than 8,000,000 people live in the seventy-one
chief cities. Fifteen cities have populations of more than 100,000:

  Paris         2,888,110
  Marseilles      550,619
  Lyon            523,796
  Bordeaux        261,678
  Lille           217,807
  Nantes          170,535
  Toulouse        149,576
  St. Etienne     148,656
  Nice            142,940
  Le Havre        136,159
  Rouen           124,987
  Roubaix         122,723
  Nancy           119,949
  Rheims          115,178
  Toulon          104,582

There are besides twenty others of over 50,000 inhabitants.

[Illustration: =PLACE DE LA CONCORDE, PARIS, UNDER GIANT SEARCHLIGHTS=]

=Paris= (Fr. pron. _Par-ee´_), capital of France, and the largest city
in Europe after London, is situated on the river Seine, about one
hundred and ten miles from its mouth. It lies in the midst of the
fertile plain of the Île-de-France, at a point to which converge the
chief tributaries of the river, the Yonne, the Marne, and the Oise; and
is the center of a great network of rivers, canals, roads, and railways.

France has long been the most highly centralized country in Europe, and
Paris as its heart contains a great population of government
functionaries. It is a metropolis of pleasure, and attracts the wealthy
from all parts of the world; hence it is a city of capitalists and a
great financial center.

THE SEINE AND ITS BRIDGES.--The Seine divides the city into two parts,
and forms the islands of La Cite and St. Louis, both covered with
buildings. This river is navigable by small steamers. The quays or
embankments, which extend along its banks on both sides, are built of
solid masonry, protect the city from inundation and form excellent
promenades. The Seine, within the city, is fully five hundred and
thirty feet in width, and is crossed by numerous bridges, the more
important being Pont Neuf, Pont de la Concorde, Pont Alexandre III.,
Pont d’Iena, and the Pont de l’Alma.

[Illustration: =THE MADELEINE, PARIS=

This splendid edifice, begun in 1764, is modeled after the Parthenon at
Athens. In 1806, Napoleon decreed its completion for a Temple of Glory.
Louis XVIII. proposed converting it into an expiatory chapel to Louis
XVI. and XVII. and Marie Antoinette. It was completed, 1842, at a cost
of nearly $3,000,000.]

ENVIRONS AND FORTIFICATIONS.--Paris is surrounded by a line of
fortifications twenty-five miles long; outside of this is a chain of
fortresses, while beyond that again are the detached forts. These form
the two main lines of defense. The inner line consists of sixteen forts,
the outer line of eighteen forts besides redoubts; the area thus
inclosed measuring four hundred and thirty square miles, with an
encircling line of seventy-seven miles.

Montmartre, within the fortifications is four hundred feet high; the
city is encircled at a distance of from two to five miles by an outer
range of heights, including Villejuif, Meudon, St. Cloud, and
Mont-Valerien (six hundred and fifty feet), some of which are crowned by
the detached forts which now form the main defenses of the city. At the
fifty-six gates in the walls of Paris are paid the octroi dues.

STREETS AND BOULEVARDS.--The houses of Paris are almost all built of
white calcareous stone, and their general height is from five to six
stories, arranged in separate tenements. Many of the modern street
buildings have mansard roofs, and are highly enriched in the renaissance
manner. In the older parts of the city the streets are narrow and
irregular, but in the newer districts the avenues are straight, wide,
and well-paved.

The central point of the city is Place Royal, along which passes the
great thoroughfare of the city from southeast to northwest. Beginning at
the Place de la Nation, at the southeast margin of the city, this grand
avenue, from Place de la Nation to Place de la Bastille, is called _Rue
du Faubourg St. Antoine_; from Place Bastille to near Hotel de Ville it
is called _Rue St. Antoine_; from Hotel de Ville, past the Louvre, to
Place de la Concorde, _Rue de Rivoli_; from Place de la Concorde to the
Arc de Triomphe, _Avenue des Champs Elysees_; and beyond the Arch, _Ave.
de la Grande Armée_.

THE CENTER OF PARISIAN LIFE.--That which is specifically called _The
Boulevard_ extends in an irregular arc on the north side of the Seine,
from the Place de la Bastille in the east to the Place de la Madeleine
in the west and it includes the Boulevards du Temple, St. Martin, St.
Denis, des Italiens, Capuchins, and Madeleine, and its length is nearly
three miles. Here may be noted also the triumphal arches of the Porte
St. Denis and the Porte St. Martin, the former of which is seventy-two
feet in height.

On the south side of the Seine the boulevards are neither so numerous
nor so extensive, the best-known being the Boulevard St. Germain, which
extends from the Pont Sully to the Pont de la Concorde.

After the boulevards among the best streets are the great new streets
formed in the time of Napoleon III. are the Rue de Rivoli, two miles in
length, the Rue de la Paix, the Rue du Faubourg St. Honore, the Rue
Royale and twelve fine avenues radiating from the Place de l’Etoile.

SQUARES AND PARKS.--The most notable public squares or _places_ are the
Place de la Concorde, one of the largest and most elegant squares in
Europe, adorned by an Egyptian obelisk, fountains, and statues; Place de
l’Etoile, in which is situated the Arc de Triomphe, a splendid structure
one hundred and fifty-two feet in height; the Place Vendôme with column
to Napoleon I.; Place des Victoires, with equestrian statue of Louis
XIV.; Place de la Bastille, with the Column of July; Place de la
République, with colossal statue of the Republic.

[Illustration: =A REMARKABLY INFORMING PANORAMA OF PARIS AND IMMEDIATE
SUBURBS, SHOWING THE PLAN OF THE CITY, THE COURSE OF THE RIVER SEINE,
CHIEF BOULEVARDS AND STREETS, AS WELL AS THE LOCATION AND ARCHITECTURAL
OUTLINES OF THE PRINCIPAL BUILDINGS AND MONUMENTS.=]

[Illustration: =ARC DE TRIOMPHE (ARCH OF TRIUMPH), PARIS=]

Within the city also are situated the gardens of the Tuileries, which
are adorned with numerous statues and fountains; the gardens of the
Luxembourg, in which are fine conservatories of rare plants; the Jardin
des Plantes, in which are the botanical and zoological gardens,
hothouses and museums, which have made this scientific institution
famous; the Buttes-Chaumont Gardens, in which an extensive old quarry
has been turned to good account in enhancing the beauty of the
situation; the Parc Monceaux; and the Champs Elysees, the latter being a
favorite promenade of all classes.

[Illustration: =TROCADERO PALACE, PARIS=

Built for the Exhibition of 1878, the Trocadero contains a fine
collection of architectural and monumental casts. The building affords
some of the finest views of Paris.]

But the most extensive parks are outside the city. Of these the Bois de
Boulogne, on the west, covers an area of two thousand one hundred and
fifty acres, gives an extensive view toward St. Cloud and Mont Valérien,
comprises the racecourses of Longchamps and Auteuil, and in it are
lakes, cascades, ornamental cafes, and the Jardin d’Acclimatation.

The Bois de Vincennes, on the east, even larger, is similarly adorned
with artificial lakes and streams, and its high plateau offers a fine
view over the surrounding country.

The most celebrated and extensive cemetery in Paris is Père la Chaise
(one hundred and six and one-half acres), finely situated and containing
the tombs of many celebrities. The Catacombs are ancient quarries which
extend under a portion of the southern part of the city, and in them are
deposited the bones removed from old cemeteries now built over.

CATHEDRALS AND CHURCHES.--Of the churches of Paris the most celebrated
is the Cathedral of Notre Dame, situated on one of the islands of the
Seine, called the Île de la Cité. It is a vast cruciform structure, with
a lofty west front flanked by two square towers, the walls sustained by
many flying-buttresses, and the eastern end octagonal.

The church of La Madeleine, a modern structure in the style of a great
Roman temple, with a peristyle of lofty Corinthian columns, stands on an
elevated basement fronting the north end of the Rue Royale. It is
considered by many to be the most beautiful edifice in Paris.

The Pantheon, or church of St. Geneviève, patron saint of Paris (1764)
was begun as a church, but converted by the Constituent Assembly into a
temple dedicated to the great men of the nation. Napoleon III. restored
it to the church and rededicated it to St. Geneviève, but once more, on
the occasion of the funeral of Victor Hugo (1885), it was reconverted
into a valhalla. There are the tombs also of Voltaire, Rousseau, Marat
and Victor Hugo.

[Illustration: =PALACE OF JUSTICE, PARIS=

The Sainte Chapelle, in the south court of the Palais of Justice is the
most beautiful example of Gothic in Paris.]

St. Eustache (1532-1637) is an interesting example of French Renaissance
architecture; and others worthy of note are: St. Germain l’Auxerrois;
St. Gervais; St. Roch; St. Sulpice; Notre Dame de Lorette; and St.
Vincent de Paul. On the very summit of Montmartre is the Church of the
Sacred Heart, a vast new structure in the Byzantine style which cost
over five million dollars. The chief French Protestant churches are the
Oratoire and Rédemption. There are several English, Scotch, and American
churches, a Russian Greek church, and several synagogues.

[Illustration: =THE PANTHEON, PARIS=

It occupies a most commanding position near the Luxembourg Palace, and
is one of the finest architectural structures of the city.]

PALACES AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS.--Notable among the public buildings of
Paris are its palaces.

The Louvre, a great series of buildings within which are two large
courts, is now devoted to a museum which comprises splendid collections
of sculpture, paintings, engravings, bronzes, pottery, Egyptian and
Assyrian antiquities. _The Venus de Milo_, the _Fettered Slaves_ of
Michael Angelo, the _Mona Lisa_ of Leonardo da Vinci, and a noble group
of the works of Raphael, Titian, and Veronese are the chief treasures.
In one gallery there are twenty-one large pictures by Rubens. The _Salon
Carré_ contains the most striking works of art.

The palace of the Tuileries was set on fire in 1871 by the Communists.
The ruins have been removed, but a few of the architectural details have
been preserved.

The Palace of the Luxembourg, south of the Seine, since 1879 the
meeting-place of the French senate, was built by Marie de Médicis in the
Florentine style. Close to it a gallery has been constructed for the
reception of the works of living artists acquired by the state.

The Palais de l’Élysée, situated in the Rue St. Honoré, with a large
garden, is now the residence of the president of the republic. The
Chambre des Députés--known under the Empire as the Palais du Corps
Législatif--is the building in which the deputies meet.

The Hôtel de Ville, or municipal building, is situated in the Place de
l’Hôtel de Ville, formerly Place de Grève, on the right bank of the
river. It was destroyed by the communists in 1871, but has now been
re-erected on the same site with even greater magnificence. It is a very
rich example of Renaissance architecture.

[Illustration: =HOTEL DES INVALIDES, PARIS=

Prepared as a tomb for Napoleon by Louis Philippe.]

The Hôtel des Invalides, built in 1670, is now used as a retreat for
disabled soldiers, and is capable of accommodating five thousand. The
church attached has a lofty and finely-proportioned dome. It contains
the burial-place of the first Napoleon.

The Palais de Justice is an irregular mass of buildings occupying the
greater part of the western extremity of the Île de la Cité. Opposite
the Palais de Justice is the Tribunal de Commerce, a quadrangular
building inclosing a large court roofed with glass. The mint (Hôtel des
Monnaies) fronts the Quai Conti, on the south side of the Seine, and
contains an immense collection of coins and medals.

[Illustration: =GRAND OPERA HOUSE, PARIS=

This is the finest building of its class in the world.]

THEATERS AND PLACES OF AMUSEMENT.--Paris has numerous theaters. The
leading houses are the Opéra, the Théâtre Français--chiefly devoted to
classical French drama--the Opéra Comique and the Odéon, which receive a
subvention from government. The new opera house, completed in 1875,
cost, exclusive of the site, five million, six hundred thousand dollars.

Montmartre is the center of the bohemian life of Paris, and contains
many _cafés_ and places of amusement. It has upwards of forty theaters.

LATIN QUARTER AND ITS INSTITUTIONS.--The chief institutions connected
with the University of France, and with education generally, are still
situated in the Quatier Latin.

The Sorbonne, the seat of the Paris faculties of letters, science, and
Protestant theology, has been rebuilt and increased in size. The
Sorbonne contains lecture-halls and class-rooms, and an extensive
library open to the public. There gratuitous lectures are given and
degrees are granted by the University of France.

Near the Sorbonne is the Collège de France, where gratuitous lectures
are also delivered by eminent scholars and men of letters, as well as a
large number of colleges and lycées, the great public schools of France
for secondary instruction.

The Ecole Polytechnique, the School of Medicine and the School of Law,
the Observatory, and the Jardin des Plantes, with its great museums of
natural history, are situated in the same quarter of Paris.

The principal public library is Bibliothèque Nationale, which originated
in a small collection of the books placed by Louis XI. in the Louvre.

INDUSTRIES OF PARIS.--Paris cannot be described as a manufacturing town.
Its chief and peculiar industries produce articles which derive their
value not from the cost of the material, but from the skill and taste
bestowed on them by individual workmen. They include jewelry, bronzes,
artistic furniture, and decorative articles known as articles de Paris.
In consequence of the intelligence and taste required in their trades
the Paris workmen are in many respects superior to the machine hands of
manufacturing cities.

[Illustration: =STAIRWAY OF HONOR, GRAND OPERA HOUSE=]

=Versailles= (_vér-sālz´_ Fr. pron. _ver-säy´_), is situated eleven
miles west-southwest of Paris. It contains a famous royal palace, a
great part of which is now occupied by the Museum of French History,
consisting of paintings; but some of the apartments are still preserved
with the fittings of a royal residence. The chapel is well proportioned
and sumptuous. The great gallery, called the Galerie des Glaces, is one
of the finest rooms existing; it is two hundred and forty by thirty-five
feet, and forty-two feet high, adorned with mirrors and gilding, and
with ceiling-paintings by Lebrun representing the triumphs of Louis XIV.

Here King William of Prussia was proclaimed German emperor in 1871. The
council-chamber, the bedroom of Louis XIV., the antechamber of the Mil
de Boeuf, the Petits Apartements of the queen, and the theater are all
historic and highly interesting.

The gardens are the finest of their kind. They abound with monumental
fountains profusely adorned with groups of sculpture, and supplied the
model for those of half the palaces of Europe.

=St. Denis= (_saṅ-dė-nē´_), two and one-half miles north of the
fortifications of Paris, is chiefly notable for its abbey church, the
historic burial-place of the kings of France. Dagobert built the church,
which was the nucleus of one begun by Pepin, finished by Charlemagne in
775, and demolished and a larger one built on its ruins four hundred
years later. During the Revolution the church was pillaged. It was
restored by Viollet-le-Duc. Here Charlemagne was anointed; the Oriflamme
was kept; Abélard dwelt; Joan of Arc hung up her arms; Henri IV. abjured
Protestantism; and Napoleon I. was married to Marie Louise. The bones of
the kings of France from Dagobert (630) to Louis XV. (1774) were buried
here; and the mad Revolutionists tore them from their tombs, and buried
them in a common ditch. They are now in the crypt, and superb royal
monuments adorn the church, whose interior is lighted by splendid
stained windows, and enriched with mosaics and statuary.

Among the monuments of greatest interest are those of Frédégonde,
Dagobert, Pepin, Charlemagne, Clovis II., Charles Martel, Henry II.,
Catherine de Médicis, Francis I., Louis XVI., Marie Antoinette, Henry
IV., Louis XII., and Louis XIV.

Of the 167 sepulchral monuments, 53 are new or were brought from other
churches. In 1817, Louis XVIII. caused the remains of Louis XVI. to be
removed from the Madeline cemetery to St. Denis.

[Illustration: =THE EIFFEL TOWER=

Contains three stories, reached by a series of elevators. The platform
at the summit is nine hundred and eighty-five feet above the ground. It
cost about one million dollars.]

=Fontainebleau= (_Fong´tehn-blȯ´_), near the Seine’s left bank,
thirty-seven miles southwest of Paris, is chiefly famous for its royal
château, and the beautiful forest that surrounds it. The château, said
to have been founded by Robert the Good toward the end of the tenth
century, was rebuilt in 1169 by Louis VII., and enlarged by Louis XI.
and his successors. After being allowed to fall into decay, it was
repaired and embellished by Francis I., Henry IV., Napoleon I., and
Louis-Philippe.

[Illustration: =PETIT TRIANON, VERSAILLES=

This beautiful little palace was the favorite residence of the
unfortunate Marie Antoinette, after Louis XVI. came to the throne of
France. It is now a museum of the personal relics of this beautiful and
ill-fated Queen.]

=Barbizon= (_Bar-bee-song´_), is close to the Forest of Fontainebleau.
It is a great artists’ resort, and was the home and death-place of
Millet. Corot, Diaz, Daubigny, and Rousseau were other members of the
“Barbizon School” of painters.

=Chief Industrial Centers.=--Textile manufactures are the most important
of the mechanical industries of France.

_Lyons_, the third city of France, at the junction of the Saône with the
Rhone, is the center of the silk-growing region and the metropolis of
the _silk manufactures_, in which the country stands unrivalled. _St.
Etienne_ (146,000), southwest of Lyons, comes second to it in this
manufacture, after which come _Nimes_, near the delta of the Rhone,
_Tours_, on the Loire, and _Paris_. Inland trade and manufactures in the
south are most active at ancient _Toulouse_, on the Garonne, and at
_Montpellier_, near the Rhone delta.

_Woolen, linen, and cotton manufactures_ are almost entirely confined to
the northern region. Foremost among these manufacturing towns of the
north stands _Lille_, with its neighbor towns of _Roubaix_ and
_Tourcoing_, still nearer the Belgian manufacturing region; and
_Cambrai_, _Douai_, _Valenciennes_, and _St. Quentin_, southeast of it.
_Rouen_, on the Seine in Normandy, and _Amiens_, on the Sommer, between
Rouen and Lille, _Reims_, in the Champagne district, _Sedan_, on the
Ardennes and _Nancy_, in French Lorraine, still farther east, are the
other chief manufacturing towns of the northern region.

At _Sèvres_, southwest of Paris, are the chief _porcelain_ factories,
which give the models and take the lead in this industry. _Limoges_ is
also a noted center of porcelain manufacture.

_Glass_ is very extensively made in the northern departments. Paris
itself excels in every kind of luxurious and fanciful manufacture.
_Besançon_, the largest town near the frontier of Switzerland, is a
great depot for the produce of the French half of that country, and
manufactures watches largely.

The mining industries of France are comparatively limited. _Coal_ is
drawn chiefly from the _basin of Valenciennes_, which continues the
Belgian coalfield on the north, from the basin of the Loire and Rhone,
and from that of _Creuzot_, on the south of the heights of the Côte
d’or. Iron occurs in eleven districts and is of excellent quality, but
generally lies distant from the fuel necessary to smelt it, so that this
metal must also be imported in large quantity. _St. Etienne_, southwest
of Lyons, is the most noted center of the French hardware manufactures,
especially of guns and machinery; _Le Creuzot_, in the midst of its coal
basin, has also noted ironworks.

The trade of France is only inferior to that of Britain, Germany, and
the United States; the position of the country, with coasts on three of
the most frequented seas, is exceedingly favorable to its commerce. The
great seats of maritime traffic with all the world are _Marseilles_, on
the Mediterranean coast; _Bordeaux_ and _Nantes_, with _St. Nazaire_, on
the coast of the Bay of Biscay; _Le Havre_ (at the mouth of the Seine),
_Boulogne_, _Calais_, and _Dunkerque_, on the English Channel. All of
these may in a sense be called the harbors of the central point of the
life of the state, luxurious _Paris_.

=Naval and Military Centers.=--The naval arsenals of France, dockyards,
and stations of the fleet, are at _Cherbourg_ and _Brest_, on the
northwest coast; _L’Orient_ and _Rochefort_ (south of La Rochelle) on
the Bay of Biscay; and _Toulon_, on the Mediterranean. _Nice_ and
_Cannes_, on the Riviera, are favorite winter resorts.

France has more than one hundred fortified places; indeed almost every
town along the northern and northeastern border is a fortress.
_Briançon_, the highest town in the country, in the Alps, south of the
pass of Mont Cenis into Italy, is the chief arsenal and depot of this
mountain barrier, and is considered impregnable.


HISTORY

  The name France first appears in history about the ninth century.
  Prior to that time the country which constitutes the greater part of
  modern France was occupied successively by Celts, Gauls and Franks.

=Under the Romans.=--When first known this country was called Gallia,
and was the center whence swarms of plunderers poured over the mountains
into Italy; but the Phœnicians and Greeks had a few trading cities on
the Mediterranean coast--especially Marseilles--where in the seaport
towns traces of descent from the Greeks are said still to be found.

In 125 B. C. the Romans formed in the east of the Rhone a settlement
ever since called Provincia or “the Province,” whose capital was Aquae
Sextiae (now Aix), and where corrupted Latin has never ceased to be the
dialect, and their power and influence gradually spread. Between 58 and
51 B. C. Julius Caesar subdued the whole of Gaul, except the granite
peninsula of the northwest. Later, refugees from Britain caused it to be
called Brittany; and there to the present day the Celtic tongue has
prevailed, and the habits have been peculiar. The Iberian or Basque
tribes of the Pyrenees have likewise preserved their entirely different
tongue, which is not even Aryan.

=The Impress of Roman Rule.=--Roman habits, civilization and speech were
adopted all over the country, and Christianity became nearly universal.
Many cities were founded as centers of government from the conquered
population, and most of the great cities such as Arles and Lyons and
many others date from this time. Nimes and Vienne show splendid
monuments of Roman architecture. The Romans also made magnificent roads,
and are said to have introduced the olive and the vine, to both of which
the climate is eminently suitable.

=Under Teutonic Invaders.=--Continual warfare on the open frontier soon
began between the Roman legions and the advancing Teutonic nations, of
whom the Belgians, a mixed race, were the van. The city of Lutetia
Parisiorum, now known by its tribal name, Paris, was the headquarters of
Emperor Julian before his accession in A.D. 361, while he was struggling
with these invaders. After his death, Gaul became a prey to the Teutons.
They did not destroy the old population, but quartered themselves as
guests on the proprietors of land; while the Roman cities kept up their
self-government, and paid ransoms to escape pillage. Chief of these
Teutonic tribes were the Goths, Burgundians and Franks.

=Merovingians.=--The Franks, whose dominion swallowed up those of both
the foregoing tribes, had been long settled in the north; and Pharamond,
their chief in 420, is considered the founder of the French monarchy, as
he was of the first or Merovingian race of Frankish kings. In 485 Clovis
defeated Syagrius, the Roman general, at Soissons, and finally
extinguished the Roman power in the west, and in 507, by his victory
over the Visigoths, he rendered himself master of the country between
the Loire and Garonne, but was checked at Arles by Theodoric, king of
the Ostrogoths. He then settled in Paris, where he died. His chief aim
was a united Frankish kingdom.

[Illustration: =AMIENS CATHEDRAL=

The most perfect specimen of Gothic architecture in France, dating from
the thirteenth century. This splendid structure is embellished with a
wealth of magnificent mediæval sculpture. Viollet-le-Duc happily calls
this cathedral “the Parthenon of Gothic architecture.”]

Clovis in 493 married Clotilda, a Christian Burgundian princess, and in
496 embraced her faith.

Though nominally Christians, the Franks brought their old hereditary
Teuton customs of inheritance and chieftainship, which, as they had last
come from the banks of the Yssel, were known as Salic laws--_i.e._ of
the Salian Franks. Their German dominions were called Austreich (the
eastern kingdom); their Gaulish Neaustreich (not Eastern) or Neustria;
and both were Frankland. Their dynasty soon exhausted itself, and
latterly their kings were called _Fainéants_ or “Do-nothing” kings while
the mayors of the palace really governed.

=Carlovingians.=--One of the mayors, a Teuton wholly in blood, Charles
Martel, in 721 checked the tide of Saracen invasion, and saved Gaul by
the great battle of Soissons. His son, Pepin, in 753 was elected king,
and thence descended the line known as Carlovingians. Under Pepin and
Charles the Great, called by the French “Charlemagne,” the country was
relatively peaceful and prosperous; but after the latter’s death things
returned to their original state of confusion.

Charlemagne was one of the really great monarchs of the world. His
dominions reached from the Ebro to the Channel, from the Elbe, to the
Atlantic, and included North Italy, and in 800 he was crowned by the
Pope Emperor of the West. His power was too vast for a single hand of
less power, and fell to pieces after his son’s death. The Western Franks
fell to Charles the Bald, and it was then (about 870) that France became
a recognized term for the country between the Channel and the Pyrenees.

The king had, however, very little power; his lands were cut up into
divisions under dukes, marquises, and counts, who simply paid him a
nominal homage, and were bound to follow him in war, but who ruled quite
independently. Moreover, the Northmen or Normans were horribly ravaging
the whole country; Paris was fortified against them under Robert the
Strong, but, in 911, Charles the Simple found himself obliged to make to
Rolla, the chief of the Northmen invaders, a grant of the Neustrian
lands, which took the name of Normandy. The Carlovingians finally were
deposed in 987, and their last sovereign, Louis V., retired to
Lotharingia or Lorraine as duke.

=Capetians.=--The grandson of Robert the Strong, Hugh, became king. He
was called Capet, apparently from the hood which marked him as guardian
of the Abbey of St. Denis; and the name is used for his dynasty, which
reigned for eight hundred years.

The German influences had passed away, though the king and nobility were
of Frankish blood. The whole realm was parcelled out into feudal
holdings, the great chiefs of which hardly owned the royal power, and
the only place where the king really ruled directly was the county of
Paris. There was much confusion and private warfare, and after the
conquest of England in 1066, the Dukes of Normandy overshadowed the
French kings.

Louis IV. (“the Fat”), in 1108, was the first king of any ability. He
judicially overcame a robber count, and in his time (though not on any
fixed principles) cities began to be allowed to purchase their power of
self-government, such as the southern one had preserved from Roman
times. This was called the right of _commune_. Except in these cities,
the lot of the people of Gallo-Roman blood was wretched. They were
called villeins, and, except that they were attached to the soil, were
almost slaves, cruelly oppressed and downtrodden by their irresponsible
lords, mostly Franks, who covered the land with fortified castles. There
was, however, much religious zeal, which found its outlet in the
Crusades, first proclaimed at Clermont, in Auvergne, in 1095, and in the
religious orders, whose beautiful monasteries and splendid cathedrals
still exist.

France was at its weakest under Louis VII., when Henry II. of England,
by inheritance Duke of Normandy and Count of Anjou, had married the
heiress of the great Duchy of Aquitaine, and obtained the heiress of
Brittany for his son. Philip II., called Augustus, spent his life in
undermining the power of the English kings, and when King John murdered
his nephew Arthur of Brittany, Philip held a court of justice, cited him
thither, and, on his non-appearance, adjudged him to have forfeited
Normandy and Anjou, which easily were conquered, leaving only Aquitaine
as the possession of John’s mother, and these lands, being held direct
of the crown, much added to the royal power.

=Under Louis IX.=--The king, Louis IX., was the best and most blameless
of French sovereigns. It was he who, in 1258, established the Parliament
of Paris. In every Teuton nation the king was supposed to take counsel
and do justice among the other nobles and freemen; but to attend courts
of law in a large territory was a great vexation to the nobles, who
would not come, and yet resented decisions made in their absence. Louis
arranged that though every immediate vassal of the crown had a right to
sit in it, yet in its working state it should only consist of men
trained in the law, with just nobles enough to give authority. In this
parliament the wills and edicts of the king, and the taxes he imposed,
were registered. The provinces, likewise, had parliaments to serve as
courts of law. Louis’s devotion led him to attempt two unfortunate
crusades, and he died in the second, in 1270.

His grandson Philip IV. (“the Fair”), had a desperate quarrel with the
Papacy, and by underhand means succeeded in forcing Pope Clement V. to
reside in his dominions. The Popes fixed their residence at Avignon, in
Provence, a province belonging to the Empire, and held at the time by
Philip’s uncle, Charles, Count of Anjou, but near enough for French
influence. Here the Papal court continued for seventy years. Philip V.
was a violent and unscrupulous man, and the three sons who reigned in
succession after him had not his force of character.

Philip was succeeded in turn by Louis X., Philip V., and Charles IV. The
rivalry between France and England, consequent upon the accession of
Duke William of Normandy to the throne of the latter, came to a decisive
crisis during the first half of the fourteenth century.

=House of Valois and the “Hundred Years’ War.”=--On the death of Charles
IV. (1328) Philip of Valois succeeded to the throne, beginning the
Valois dynasty; but Edward III. of England, by virtue of hereditary
right derived from his mother’s side, claimed not only such provinces as
had been taken from his ancestors, but the whole kingdom. In this way
began the protracted conflict which French historians call the “hundred
years’ war” (1337-1453), a period covering the reigns of John II.
(1350-1364), Charles V. (1364-1380), Charles VI. (1380-1422), and the
greater part of the reign of Charles VII. (1422-1461). In 1340 an
English fleet destroyed the naval force of France at Sluis, on the coast
of Flanders; in 1346, at Crécy, the English archers overcame the flower
of French chivalry; and at Poitiers (1356) the Black Prince defeated
King John and made him prisoner.

The States-General were also the scene of a deadly struggle between the
regent and the third estate, and the peasantry of several districts
broke out into a fearful insurrection, which was named the _Jacquerie_,
and marked by all the horrors of a servile war. Charles V., with the
help of his great constable, Du Guesclin, regained in a few campaigns
almost all the English acquisitions in France. On his death, in 1380,
his son Charles VI., surnamed the _Well-Beloved_, ascended the throne.

The reign of this sovereign was signally unfortunate. He fell into a
state of insanity, which rendered him incapable of attending to the
administration of the government, and in consequence regents were
appointed, whose misconduct threw the kingdom into a civil war. During
these calamities which afflicted France, Henry V. of England invaded the
country, and gained the memorable battle of Agincourt. The consequence
of this victory, and other advantages gained by Henry, enabled him to
conclude a treaty by which his succession to the throne of France was
acknowledged on the death of Charles. Henry and Charles both died
shortly after this event, A. D. 1422.

=Charles VII. and Joan of Arc.=--Charles VII., surnamed the
_Victorious_, asserted his right to the throne of his father, while at
the same time the infant Henry VI. of England was proclaimed King of
France under the regency of his uncle, the Duke of Bedford. The English
laid siege to Orleans, a place of the greatest importance, and so
successful were they in their operations against this and other places
that the affairs of France began to wear a most gloomy aspect. The tide
of misfortune, however, was successfully turned by one of the most
extraordinary events recorded in history.

When the hope of saving Orleans was almost abandoned, a young girl named
Joan of Arc, about seventeen years of age, who had lived an humble life
in a village on the borders of Lorraine, presented herself to the
Governor of Vaucouleur, and maintained with much earnestness that she
had been sent by Divine commission to raise the siege of that city, and
procure the coronation of Charles in the city of Rheims.

After undergoing a most rigid examination before a committee of persons
appointed for that purpose, and also before the court and the king
himself, she was intrusted with the liberation of Orleans. As she
approached the city her presence inspired the inhabitants with
confidence, while it spread dismay and consternation among the English,
who hastily raised the siege and retired with precipitation, but being
pursued by the heroine at the head of the French army, they were
entirely defeated at Patay, with a loss of nearly five thousand men,
while the French lost only one of their number. From this event Joan was
called the Maid of Orleans.

The second part of her mission, which yet remained to be accomplished,
was equally arduous and dangerous. The city of Rheims and the
intermediate country being in possession of the English or their allies,
presented apparently insurmountable difficulties. Charles, however,
placing full confidence in her guidance, commenced his march, and as he
advanced every obstacle disappeared; the citizens of Rheims, having
expelled the garrison, received him with every demonstration of joy.
After the coronation was performed, Joan threw herself at the feet of
Charles, declaring that her commission was accomplished, and solicited
leave to return to her former humble station; but the king, unwilling to
part with her services so soon, requested her to remain for some time
with the army, with which at length she complied. She afterwards
attempted to raise the siege of the city of Campiegne; but her good
fortune seemed to have deserted her; she fell into the hands of the
English, who, to gratify their revenge for the many losses they
sustained through her valour, condemned her, under a charge of various
pretended crimes, and caused her to be burned in the public square at
Rouen.

By this cruel measure the English hoped to check the success that had
attended the operations of Charles. In this they were disappointed; such
was the impulse which the heroine had given to the affairs of France,
that the English in a few years were expelled from all their possession
in the country, with the exception of Calais.

Charles passed the remainder of his reign in improving the internal
condition of his kingdom. The close of his life was embittered by the
unnatural conduct of his son, who attempted to poison his father. He
died in 1464, a prince of acknowledged virtue, justice and discretion.

Louis XI. (1461-1483), the son and successor of Charles VII., annexed
Burgundy and Picardy, and acquired Anjou, Maine, Provence, and the
counties of Rousillon and Cerdagne; and France thus became one of the
great powers on the Mediterranean. On the northwest, by the marriage of
Charles VIII. with Anne of Brittany, she gained possession of that large
province. Charles VIII. invaded Italy in 1494, and this was the first of
a long series of Italian wars in which France was engaged for more than
half a century. With Charles VIII., who died in 1498, the direct line of
Valois ended, and Louis, duke of Orleans, grandson to a brother of
Charles VI., became king under the title of Louis XII. He met at first
with some success in Italy, but was at last driven out.

=Wars of Francis I. and Charles V. of Germany.=--Francis I. (1515-1547),
his successor, being opposed by the emperor Charles V., of Germany,
suffered a disastrous defeat at Pavia in 1525, and was carried a
prisoner to Madrid, where in 1526 he agreed to a treaty by which he
forfeited Burgundy, and all claims to Naples, Milan, Tournay, and Arras.
No sooner was he set at liberty than he secured from the pope a release
from his oaths, and renewed the struggle, but again with unfavorable
results, and was compelled to make another disastrous peace at Cambrai
(1529).

The Reformation had now begun, and Charles V. was obliged to turn his
attention to Germany. Francis encouraged the Protestant princes in their
opposition to the emperor, and in 1536 the war again broke out. It was
ended in 1544 by the peace of Crespy, when the emperor was threatening
Paris.

Francis I. died in 1546, and was succeeded by his son, Henry II., and
the struggle soon began again. Henry recovered Calais for France. Under
Francis II. (1559-1560) the Roman Catholic House of Guise obtained
possession of the effective power in the state. Their adversaries, the
House of Bourbon, headed the movement of the reformers. Under the weak
kings Charles IX. (1560-1574) and Henry III. (1574-1589), who were under
the influence of their mother, Catherine de’ Medici, this division in
the French nobility resulted in the war of the League and wars of
religion. The massacre of the Protestants on the night of St.
Bartholomew (1572) raised to such a pitch the pride of the House of
Guise that Henry III. fled to the camp of the Bourbon leader, where he
was murdered by a fanatical monk. The name of Charles IX. remains
associated with the horrors of the St. Bartholomew’s night, which
witnesses the striking of a blow at the very heart of the nation.

=The Bourbon Line.=--The accession of the Bourbon prince, Henry IV. of
Navarre (1589-1610), allayed the fury of religious wars, but his
recantation of Protestantism in favor of Catholicism disappointed his
own party, to which, however, he granted the free exercise of their
religion by the edict of Nantes (1598).

Henry, however, meditated the humiliation of the house of Austria, and
was on the eve of his departure for the army when he was assassinated by
Ravaillac, May 14, 1610.

Under the regency of his widow, Maria de’ Medici, mother of Louis XIII.,
the kingdom was distracted by war between the queen mother and the young
king. Cardinal Richelieu, who took the reins of government in 1624,
consolidated the power of the monarch at home, and, while annihilating
the power of the French Protestants, energetically supported the German
Protestants against the house of Austria.

His successor, Cardinal Mazarin, pursued the same policy; and the treaty
of Westphalia (1648) asserted the triumph of religious and political
liberty in Germany, and the victory of France, which added to her
territory the province of Alsace.

The troubles of the Fronde, a faint image of the old civil wars,
detracted nothing from the influence gained abroad by the French
government, and Mazarin concluded with Spain, in 1659, the treaty of the
Pyrenees, which secured two other provinces to France--Artois and
Roussillon.

=Age of Louis XIV.=--Under the personal rule of Louis XIV. France rose
to the height of glory, while he himself was placed above all control.
From the day of Mazarin’s death (1661) he assumed the direction of
public affairs. In the first years of his administration the national
wealth, promoted by the admirable efforts of Colbert, increased with
unusual rapidity. Intellectual progress kept pace with material, and
everything conspired to create a literary period of great magnificence.

The king’s military successes, too, achieved through Condé, Turenne,
Luxembourg, and others, were brilliant; and he added to his kingdom
Flanders, Franche-Comté, the imperial city of Strasburg, and several
other important territories.

But the revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685 drove from the kingdom
a large number of its best citizens, and crippled many branches of
industry. The war of 1689-1697 against the league of Augsburg greatly
exhausted the country, and that of the Spanish succession nearly reduced
it to extremities; but after a contest of twelve years Louis succeeded,
and by the treaties of Utrecht and Rastadt (1713 and 1714) the house of
Bourbon, in the person of Louis’s grandson, Philip V., inherited the
best part of the Castilian monarchy.

Louis XIV. died in 1715, after an unparalleled reign of seventy-two
years. The burden which he had borne was far too heavy for his weak
successors; and toward the end of Louis XV.’s reign France could
scarcely be ranked among the great European powers. The four wars in
which she then participated, against Spain (1717-1719), during the
regency of Philip of Orleans, for the succession of Poland (1733-1735),
for the succession of Austria (1740-1748), and finally the seven years’
war (1756-1763), were productive only of disgrace and disaster,
including the loss of Canada.

=Prelude to the Revolution.=--Louis XV. died in 1774, and his grandson
Louis XVI. ascended the throne at a period which was perhaps the most
inglorious of French history. The kingdom was on the verge of financial
as well as political ruin, and it seemed evident that a disastrous
crisis was approaching.

An attempt to conciliate the people was made by the restoration of the
parliament of Paris; but instead of promoting reform, this body proved a
hindrance to it. Turgot and Malesherbes, associated with Maurepas in the
ministry, acted with considerable efficiency in the endeavor to improve
the state of affairs, but were deposed through the influence of the
court party. Necker, who became minister of finance in 1777, at first
seemed to improve matters slightly; but the opposition of the nobles
and clergy to any scheme of general taxation, with other causes, led to
his deposition.

His successor, Calonne, recklessly plunged the finances into a more
hopeless condition than ever, and in 1786 the king was induced to call
together the States-General, the really popular assembly of
representatives, which had not met since 1614, and then in vain.
Thenceforward there was a succession of barriers thrown down; madness
set in upon the long-oppressed people, who wreaked the vengeance of a
thousand years. Frightful mobs rose upon all whom they connected with
their past misery. Nobles and clergy fell; the king was dethroned, and
in 1793 was executed. A reign of terror set in, during which Robespierre
and other fanatics, who thought they must destroy in order to build up,
sent to the beheading machine, the guillotine, thousands of victims, and
hoped to have swept away even the Christian religion, together with all
the old abuses of power.

=The Advent of Napoleon and the Directory.=--When they fell in 1794,
less sanguinary counsels prevailed, and, after sundry attempts at forms
of government, Napoleon Bonaparte, of Corsican birth, climbed to supreme
power. His course had been through victories. Belgium had been overrun,
the Austrians forced back across the Rhine, the allied armies of England
and Holland gradually pushed back, and Prussia and Spain forced to
conclude peace. The new government began on October 28, the convention
having been dissolved on the 26th. England, Russia, and Austria, in a
new coalition, now began to carry on a more vigorous warfare; but
Carnot’s strategic direction soon baffled it. Bonaparte was put in
command of the army which was not to advance against the Austrians from
Italy, and in 1796 and 1797 completely changed the condition of affairs.
At the truce of Leoben (April 18, 1797) France controlled all Italy;
Austria surrendered all rights in Belgium and recognized those republics
which France established; and the history of France became almost wholly
identified for nearly eighteen years with that of a single man, Napoleon
Bonaparte.

=The Consulate.=--Bonaparte was chosen first consul for ten years,
December 13, 1799; consul for life, August 2, 1802; then hereditary
emperor, May 18, 1804. He reformed and reorganized legislation at home
by the formation of the civil code, the organization of public
instruction, and the improvements he introduced in all the branches of
public service; while he added to his military and political glory by a
new succession of triumphs, resulting in the treaties of peace signed at
Presburg (1805), Tilsit (1807), and Vienna (1809).

He had now reached the height of his glory; he had placed his brothers
on the thrones of Holland, Westphalia, and Spain, and his brother-in-law
on that of Naples; but his power was shaken by the resistance which he
met with in the Spanish peninsula (1808-1813); and his prestige was
ruined by his expedition to Russia in 1812. The European nations united
against him, and inflicted upon him at Leipsic, October 16-19, 1813, a
blow from which he never recovered.

=The Restoration.=--Napoleon was dethroned in April, 1814, exiled to the
island of Elba, and the brother of Louis XVI. received from the
conquerors the sceptre of France, now restricted to her old limits. The
sudden return of Napoleon from Elba, however, overthrew this new power;
and for one hundred days, from March 20 to June 28, 1815, he was again
the sovereign of France; but the battle of Waterloo (June 18, 1815)
destroyed his power forever, and the Bourbons once more ruled the
kingdom.

Louis XVIII. granted a charter to his subjects, and died in 1824 in
undisturbed possession of his throne. His brother and successor, Charles
X., sought popularity by supporting the Greek insurrection against
Turkey and conquering Algiers; but having attempted to suspend some of
the most important guarantees secured by the charter, a formidable
insurrection broke out, July 27, 1830, and he was obliged to abdicate.

=House of Orleans.=--After a few days’ interval the head of the younger
branch of the house of Bourbon, Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, was
appointed “king of the French” (August 9) by the chamber of deputies.
The choice, being acceptable to the middle classes or _bourgeoisie_, was
maintained; and notwithstanding some occasional outbursts of
republicanism among the people, the July monarchy, as it was called,
lasted for nearly eighteen years.

=Revolution of 1848.=--A political manifestation in favor of
parliamentary reform brought on another revolution, February 24, 1848,
and France became a republic, with a provisional government in which
Lamartine played the most conspicuous part; but within a few months the
majority of the constituent assembly, frightened by socialistic
movements and a terrible civil struggle in the capital (June 23-26),
became hostile to the new form of government. On December 10, 1848,
Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of Napoleon I., was elected president,
for a term of four years. On December 2, 1851, the president dissolved
the assembly, assumed dictatorial powers, and appealed to the people to
sanction his act by their votes. He was reëlected president for a term
of ten years; a new constitution was promulgated; and finally, on
November 7, 1852, the senate proposed the reëstablishment of the empire.

=Second Empire.=--The empire was proclaimed, December 2, 1852, and Louis
Napoleon ascended the throne with the title of Napoleon III. The chief
event of the early portion of this reign was the Crimean war, which
largely increased the military prestige of the nation, as well as the
popularity and strength of Napoleon’s rule. The war with Austria (1859)
left France in a position of even greater authority than before in
European politics. In 1860 Savoy and Nice were ceded to France by Italy.
The emperor’s schemes for establishing the Hapsburg prince Maximilian on
the throne of Mexico proved so ignominious a failure as to do much
toward undermining the opinion of his power that had been held in
Europe.

The course which Napoleon pursued during the Prusso-Austrian war in 1866
did not tend to restore confidence in him. In 1867 he aided in defending
the power of the pope against the Garibaldians. In 1868 the growth of
public opinion against the emperor was conspicuous; in 1869 much
excitement was caused by the exposure of the confusion in financial
affairs; and in 1870 popular disturbances, fomented by Rochefort, broke
out on the acquittal of Pierre Bonaparte for the shooting of Victor
Noir.

The demand for reforms was answered by a new constitution, which was
finally confirmed by a _plebiscite_ on May 8.

=Franco-Prussian War.=--In the spring of 1870 there were unmistakable
manifestations of a hostile spirit on the part of the government against
Prussia. The declaration of the candidature of the Hohenzollern prince
Leopold for the throne of Spain furnished an immediate cause of war. The
voluntary withdrawal of Prince Leopold followed the remonstrances of
France, but the latter demanded also of the king of Prussia an explicit
promise that no prince of Hohenzollern should ever be a candidate for
the Spanish crown. This demand was refused, and war was declared by
France, July 19.

On the 28th Napoleon went to Metz, where he personally took command of
his forces; and on August 2 the king of Prussia, accompanied by Bismarck
and Moltke, joined his army. On the latter day the French bombarded and
took Saarbruck. On August 4 the German advance, under the crown prince,
defeated the French at Weissenburg, and on the 6th totally defeated
MacMahon at Worth.

On the 11th the three German armies under Steinmetz, Prince Frederick
Charles, and the crown prince effected a junction on French territory,
with headquarters at Saarbruck. By the 14th Steinmetz had advanced to
near Metz, where the French army was concentrated under Bazaine, and on
the afternoon of the same day won a victory at Courcelles; on the 16th
Frederick Charles won a second battle at Mars-la-Tour; and on the 18th
the combined forces under King William again defeated the French at
Gravelotte.

Bazaine now drew within the fortifications, and the Germans, leaving a
portion of their forces to invest the city, marched against MacMahon at
Chalons. News reaching them of the advance of MacMahon to relieve
Bazaine, they turned northward to intercept him. On the 30th they
surprised a corps of General Failly near Beaumont, and fought a battle
which resulted in the retreat of the French beyond the Meuse and their
final withdrawal to Sedan.

The battle of Sedan was begun by the Germans September 1. After severe
fighting they drove the French from all sides to that fortress, where,
almost surrounded and without provisions or defenses, they were
compelled to capitulate. The emperor surrendered to King William in
person, September 2, and was carried a prisoner to Wilhelmshohe. In
dead, wounded, and prisoners, the French thus lost in the last few days
an army of nearly one hundred and fifty thousand men.

=The Third Republic.=--The news of Sedan created intense excitement at
Paris, and the popular indignation against Napoleon and his party was
without bounds. Gambetta proclaimed the republic; and a provisional
government of national defense was at once formed, with General Trochu
for president and Jules Favre for vice-president. The empress took
refuge in England.

The German army entered Rheims on the 5th, and on the 15th they had
closely approached Paris. A sortie by General Ducrot on the 19th was
repulsed, and a few days later the actual investment of the city was
begun. The German headquarters were established at Versailles. A portion
of the French government of national defense remained in the capital;
another portion, in order to be in communication with the provinces, was
established at Tours. Toul surrendered on the 23rd. Strasburg
capitulated in the night of September 27-28. Soissons and Schlettstadt
capitulated respectively on October 16 and 24, and on the 27th Metz also
yielded, Bazaine surrendering one hundred and seventy-three thousand
men.

In the meantime the situation of Paris had become hopeless; and on
January 28 arrangements for its capitulation had been concluded and
provision made for a general armistice. On February 17, 1871, Thiers was
chosen chief executive of the republic. On the 26th the preliminary
treaty of peace was signed at Versailles, by which France ceded to
Germany the greater part of Alsace and Lorraine, and agreed to pay as
war indemnity five milliards of francs. The definitive treaty with
Germany had been signed at Frankfort on the 10th of May.

In 1873 the Thiers administration was overthrown and replaced by one
under Marshal MacMahon. In 1875 a Parliamentary Republic was
established, and still remains under the guarantees of the constitution.
In 1877 MacMahon was succeeded by Grevy. By this time the republic was
fairly firmly established and withstood many attacks. A policy of
colonial expansion was adopted, particularly in Egypt, but in spite of
the dual control France and England established in 1879, France, in
1882, refused to help England in Egypt, and lost any control she had
there.

The Triple Alliance of 1883 isolated France, but in 1890 she confronted
the Triple Alliance with the Dual Alliance--between France and
Russia--and made great attempts to establish colonial power.

The outstanding events of 1914, 1915 and 1916 were those connected with
France’s participation in the European war as the leading military power
of the Entente Allies. (See further under Great Wars of History.)

  =Books of Reference.=--The chief histories are those of Henri
  Martin, Michelet, Dareste, Lavalee, Sismondi, Kitchin Lavisse, and
  Durny. These works cover the general history of France. See, in
  addition, Tocqueville’s _The Ancient Regime_; Taine’s _French
  Revolution_; Carlyle’s _History of the French Revolution_; Fyffe’s
  _History of Europe_; Hazlitt’s _Life of Napoleon Bonaparte_.


COLONIES AND DEPENDENCIES

The colonies and dependencies of France (including Algeria and Tunis)
have an area roughly estimated at about 4,000,000 square miles with a
population of about 41,600,000. Algeria, however, is not regarded as a
colony but as a part of France, and Tunis is attached to the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs.

The area and population of the colonial domain of France at the
beginning of the European war was as follows:

  ================================+==========+==========
  COLONIES AND YEAR OF ACQUISITION|  AREA IN |POPULATION
                                  |  SQ. MI. |
  --------------------------------+----------+----------
  =In Asia=:                      |          |
    India (1679)                  |       196|   277,000
    Annam (1884)                  |}         |
    Cambodia (1862)               |}         |
    Cochin-China (1861)           |}  309,980|16,317,000
    Tonking (1884)                |}         |
    Laos (1892)                   |}         |
                                  +----------+----------
      Total Asia                  |   310,176|16,594,000
                                  +----------+----------
  =In Africa=:                    |          |
    Algeria (1830-1902)           |   343,500| 5,231,850
    Sahara (----)                 | 1,544,000|   800,000
    Tunis (1881)                  |    45,779| 1,500,000
    Senegal (1637-1880)           |}         |{  915,000
    Upper Senegal & Niger (1893)  |}         |{4,415,000
    Guinea (1843)                 |}         |{1,498,000
    Ivory Coast (1843)            |}1,585,810|{  890,000
    Dahomey (1893)                |}         |{  749,000
    Mauritania (1893)             |}         |{  400,000
    Congo (1884)                  |   669,280| 5,000,000
    Reunion (1649)                |       970|   201,000
    Madagascar (1643-1896)        |   226,015| 2,701,000
    Mayotte (1843)                |       840|    96,000
    Somali Coast (1864)           |     5,790|   180,000
                                  +----------+----------
      Total Africa                | 4,421,934|24,576,850
                                  +----------+----------
  =In America=:                   |          |
    St. Pierre and Miquelon (1635)|        96|     6,000
    Guadeloupe (1634)             |       688|   182,000
    Martinique (1635)             |       378|   182,000
    Guiana (1626)                 |    34,000|    27,000
                                  +----------+----------
      Total America               |    35,222|   397,000
                                  +----------+----------
  =In Oceania=:                   |          |
    New Caledonia (1854-1887)     |     7,200|    55,800
    Tahiti, etc. (1841-1881)      |     1,544|    30,000
                                  +----------+----------
      Total Oceania               |     8,744|    85,000
                                  +----------+----------
      Grand Total                 | 4,776,126|41,653,650
  --------------------------------+----------+----------


SOVEREIGNS AND PRESIDENTS OF FRANCE

  Giving, in order, the Royal Houses to which the French sovereigns
  belonged; Period of Rule in Chronological order; names of kings,
  emperors, regents and presidents; dates of birth and death of each;
  their genealogy or lineage; and other important personal facts.

THE MEROVINGIANS

=420-428.=--Pharamond (?-?); life obscure.

=428-448.=--Clodion (?-?); son of Pharamond; king of the Salic Franks.

=448-457.=--Merovaeus (411?-457); founder of the Merovingian Dynasty.

=458-481.=--Childeric (?-481); son of Merovaeus, king of the Franks.

=481-511.=--Clovis I. (465-511); son of Childeric; real founder of the
Frankish monarchy. At his death his four sons divided the empire.

  Childebert; Paris.
  Clodomir; Orleans.
  Thierry; Metz; and
  Clotaire; Soissons.

=558-561.=--Clotaire I.; sole ruler (497-561); fourth son of Clovis.
Upon his death the kingdom was divided between four sons: viz.

  Charibert, ruled at Paris.
  Gontram, in Orleans and Burgundy.
  Sigebert, at Metz and Chilperic, at Soissons; both assassinated by
  Fredegonde.

=575-596.=--Childebert II. (570-596); son of Sigebert and Princess
Brunehaut; ruled under the regency of his mother; poisoned.

=613-628.=--Clotaire II. (584-628); son of Chilperic I.

=628-638.=--Dagobert I., the Great (602-638); son of Clotaire II.;
divided the kingdom between his two sons:

  Clovis II., Burgundy and Neustria.
  Sigebert II., Austrasia.

=670-673.=--Childeric II. (649-673); son of Clovis II.; assassinated,
with his queen and his son Dagobert, in the forest of Livri.

=687-714.=--Pepin II., of Heristal (?-714); ruled the whole kingdom of
the Franks during the reigns of Dagobert II., Clovis III., Childebert
III., and Dagobert III.

=715-720.=--Chilperic II. (?-720); deposed by Charles Martel, mayor of
the palace in 717, restored in 720, but soon dies at Noyon.

=720-737.=--Thierry IV. (712-737); son of Dagobert III.; reigned under
the influence of Charles Martel who took the title “duke of the Franks.”

=737-741.=--Interregnum, till death of Charles Martel, 741.

=742-752.=--Childeric III. (?-755); son of Childeric II.; last of the
Merovingians; made king by Pepin, 742; deposed by him, 752.

THE CARLOVINGIANS

=751-768.=--Pepin the Little (714-768); son of Charles Martel.

=768-814.=--Charlemagne, or Charles the Great (742-814); son of Pepin
the Short; Charles crowned Emperor of the West, by Leo III., 800.
Carloman reigned with him three years.

=814-840.=--Louis I., _le Debonnaire_ (778-840); son of Charles the
Great; emperor; dethroned, but restored.

=843-877.=--Charles the Bald (823-877); younger son of Louis le
Debonnaire, king; emperor in 875; poisoned by Zedechias, a Jewish
physician.

=877-879.=--Louis II. (846-879); son of Charles the Bald.

=879-884.=--Louis III. (863-882) and Carloman (?-?); sons of Louis II.;
the former died 882, and Carloman reigned two years alone.

=884-888.=--Charles the Fat (839-888); son of Louis the German; usurps
right of Charles the Simple.

=888-898.=--Count Eudes (?-898); Eudes, or Hugh, count of Paris.

=898-922.=--Charles the Simple (879-929); son of Louis the Stammerer;
Charles III. (or IV.) was deposed, and died in prison in 929; he married
Edgiva, daughter of Edward the Elder, of England, by whom he had a son,
King Louis IV.

=922-936.=--Raoul (Rudolph of Burgundy) (?-?); Rudolph, or Raoul, duke
of Burgundy; elected king, but never acknowledged by the southern
provinces.

=936-954.=--Louis IV. (921-954); son of Charles the Simple; taken by his
mother into England, died by fall from his horse.

=954-986.=--Lothaire (941-986); son of Louis IV.; ruled with his father
from 952, succeeds him at fifteen years of age, protected by Hugh the
Great; poisoned.

986-987.--Louis V. (966-987); son of Lothaire; poisoned (supposed by his
queen, Blanche); last of race of Charlemagne.

HOUSE OF CAPET

=987-996.=--Hugh Capet, the Great (?-996); eldest son of Hugh the Abbot;
usurps the rights of Charles of Lorraine, uncle of Louis IV. From him
this race of kings is called Capetians.

=996-1031.=--Robert II. (971-1031); son of Hugh Capet; surnamed the
Sage; died lamented.

=1031-1060.=--Henry I. (1011?-1060); son of Robert II.

=1060-1108.=--Philip I., the Fair (1052-1108); son of Henry I.;
succeeded at eight years of age; ruled at fourteen.

=1108-1137.=--Louis VI. (le Gros) (1078-1137); son of Philip I.

=1137-1180.=--Louis VII. (1120-1180); son of Louis VI.; surnamed the
Young; reigned with his father for some years.

=1180-1223.=--Philip II., Augustus (1165-1223); son of Louis VII.;
succeeds at fifteen; crowned at Rheims in his father’s lifetime.

=1223-1226.=--Louis VIII. (1187-1226); son of Philip Augustus.

=1226-1270.=--Louis IX., or St. Louis (1215-1270); son of Louis VIII.;
succeeded at fifteen, under his mother as guardian and regent; died in
camp before Tunis.

=1270-1285.=--Philip III., the Bold (1245-1285); son of Louis IX.

=1285-1314.=--Philip IV., the Fair (1268-1314); son of Philip III.; king
in his seventeenth year.

=1314-1316.=--Louis X. (1239-1316); son of Philip IV.; surnamed _Hutin_,
an old word for headstrong, or mutinous.

=1316-1321.=--Philip the Hardy (1294-1322) second son of Philip IV.

=1322-1328.=--Charles IV., the Fair (1294-1328); youngest son of Philip
the Fair.

HOUSE OF VALOIS

=1328-1350.=--Philip VI., of Valois (1293-1350); son of Charles of
Valois.

=1350-1364.=--John II., the Good (1319-1364); son of Philip VI.; died
suddenly in the Savoy in London.

=1364-1380.=--Charles V., the Wise (1337-1380); son of John II.

=1380-1422.=--Charles VI. (1368-1422); son of Charles V.

=1422-1461.=--Charles the Victorious (1403-1461); son of Charles VI.

=1461-1483.=--Louis XI. (1423-1483); son of Charles VII.; able but
cruel.

=1483-1498.=--Charles VIII. (1470-1498); son of Louis XI.; the Father of
his People; great-grandson of Charles V.

=1498-1515.=--Louis XII. (1462-1515); a descendant of the younger son of
Charles V.

=1515-1547.=--Francis I. (1494-1547); son of Charles, Count of
Angoulême; called the Father of Letters; great-great-grandson of Charles
V.

=1547-1559.=--Henry II. (1519-1559); son of Francis I.; died of
accidental wound by comte de Montmorency at the tournament for nuptials
of his sister with the duke of Savoy.

=1559-1560.=--Francis II. (1543-1560); eldest son of Henry II.; married
Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots.

=1560-1574.=--Charles IX. (1550-1574); second son of Henry II.;
Catherine de’ Medici, his mother, regent.

=1574-1589.=--Henry III. (1551-1589); third son of Henry II.; elected
king of Poland; last of the house of Valois; stabbed by Jacques Clement,
a Dominican friar.

HOUSE OF BOURBON

=1589-1610.=--Henry IV., the Great (1553-1610); son of Antoine de
Bourbon, King of Navarre; son-in-law of Henry II.; assassinated by
Francis Ravaillac.

=1610-1643.=--Louis XIII., the Just (1601-1643); son of Henry IV.

=1643-1715.=--Louis XIV., the Great (1638-1715); son of Louis XIII. and
Anne of Austria.

=1715-1774.=--Louis XV. (1710-1774); great-grandson of Louis XIV.

=1774-1793.=--Louis XVI. (1754-1793); grandson of Louis XV.; ascended
the throne in his twentieth year; married the archduchess Marie
Antoinette, of Austria, May, 1770; dethroned, July, 1789; guillotined,
January, 1793, and his queen, October following.

=.........=--Louis XVII., son of Louis XVI., never reigned; and died in
prison, supposed by poison, June, 1795, aged ten years two months.

THE FIRST REPUBLIC

=1792-1795.=--National convention; first sat September 21, 1792; it
consisted of seven hundred and fifty members.

=1795-1799.=--Directory nominated. November 1, 1795; the Directory
(Lareveillère Lepaux, Letourneur, Rewbell, Barras, and Carnot) nominated
November; abolished, and Bonaparte, Ducos, and Siéyès appointed an
executive commission, November, 1799.

THE CONSULATE

=1799-1804.=--Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821); Cambacérès (1753-1824);
and Lebrun (1739-1824), appointed consuls, December, 1799. Napoleon
appointed consul for ten years, May, 1802; for life, August, 1802.

THE EMPIRE

(Established by the Senate, May 18, 1804.)

=1804-1814.=--Napoleon (Bonaparte) I. (1769-1821), decreed Emperor, May
18, 1804. He renounced the thrones of France and Italy, and accepted the
Isle of Elba for his retreat, April 5, 1814. Again appeared in France,
March 1, 1815. Was defeated at Waterloo, June 18, 1815. Abdicated in
favor of his infant son, June 22, 1815. Banished to St. Helena, where he
died, May 5, 1821.

=.........=--Napoleon II. (1811-1832); never reigned; he was Napoleon’s
son by his second wife, Maria Louisa of Austria, and later created Duke
of Reichstadt, and King of Rome.

RESTORATION OF THE BOURBONS

=1814-1824.=--Louis XVIII. (1755-1824); brother of Louis XVI.; married
Marie-Josephine-Louise of Savoy; entered Paris, and took possession of
the throne, May, 1814; obliged to flee, March, 1815; returned July, same
year; died without issue.

=1824-1830.=--Charles X. (1757-1836); younger brother of Louis XVIII.;
married Marie-Thérèse of Savoy; deposed July, 1830. He resided in Great
Britain till 1832, and died at Gratz, in Hungary.

HOUSE OF ORLEANS

=1830-1848.=--Louis Philippe (1773-1850); son of Louis-Philippe, duke of
Orleans, called _Egalité_, descended from Philippe, duke of Orleans, son
of Louis XIII.; married, 1809, Maria-Amelia, daughter of Ferdinand I.,
king of the Two Sicilies; raised to the throne as king of the French,
1830; abdicated, 1848; died in exile, in England.

THE SECOND REPUBLIC, 1848

=February 22 to December 19, 1848.=--The revolution commenced in a
popular insurrection at Paris, February, 1848. The royal family escaped
by flight to England; a provisional government was established, monarchy
abolished, and France declared a republic.

=1848-1852.=--Charles Louis Napoleon (1808-1873); declared by the
National Assembly President of the Republic of France; and proclaimed
next day, December 20, 1848; elected for ten years, December, 1851.

THE SECOND EMPIRE

=1852-1870.=--Napoleon III. (1808-1873); nephew of Napoleon I.; formerly
president of the French Republic as Charles Louis Napoleon; elected
Emperor, November, 1852; proclaimed, December, 1852; surrendered himself
a prisoner to the King of Prussia at Sedan, September, 1870; deposed at
Paris, September 4; died at Chislehurst, England, and buried there.

THE THIRD REPUBLIC

=1870-1871.=--Committee of Public Defense.

=1871-1873.=--I. Louis Adolphe Thiers (1797-1877); appointed President
of the French Republic by the National Assembly, 1871; resigned, 1873.

=1873-1879.=--II. Marshal M. E. Patrice Maurice MacMahon (1808-1893);
elected president, 1873.

=1879-1887.=--III. François Paul Jules Grévy (1807-1891); elected
president, January, 1879; reelected, 1885; resigned, December, 1887.

=1887-1894.=--IV. Marie-François Sadi-Carnot (1837-1894); elected
president, December, 1887; assassinated, June, 1894.

=1895-1899.=--V. Jean Pierre Paul Casimir-Perier (1847-1907); elected
president, June, 1894; resigned, January, 1895.

=1899-1906.=--VI. François Felix Faure (1841-1899); elected president,
January, 1895; died, February, 1899.

=1906-1913.=--VII. Emile François Loubet (1838- ----); elected
president, February, 1899.

=1913- ----.=-- VIII. Raymond Poincaré (1860- ----); elected president,
1906.


GERMAN EMPIRE.

=GERMANY= (from Lat. Germania) is the English name of the country which
the natives call Deutschland, and the French L’Allemagne; while
internationally it is known as the German Empire (Das Deutsches Reich),
especially since 1871.

The German Empire is composed of a federation of twenty-five states,
with one common imperial province, the names of which, with their areas
and populations, are given on a subsequent page. Heligoland was ceded by
Britain to Germany in 1890.

=Divisions of the Empire.=--The political divisions or states of the
German Empire, together with their areas and population at the last
census, are given in the subjoined table:

  ===============================+=======+==========
              STATES             |AREA IN|POPULATION
                                 |  SQ.  |  AT LAST
                                 | MILES |  CENSUS
  -------------------------------+-------+----------
  KINGDOMS                       |       |
     1. Prussia                  |134,616|40,163,333
     2. Bavaria                  | 29,292| 6,876,497
     3. Saxony                   |  5,789| 4,802,485
     4. Württemburg              |  7,534| 2,435,611
  GRAND-DUCHIES                  |       |
     5. Baden                    |  5,823| 2,141,832
     6. Hesse                    |  2,966| 1,282,219
     7. Mecklenburg-Schwerin     |  5,068|   639,879
     8. Saxe-Weimar              |  1,397|   417,166
     9. Mecklenburg-Strelitz     |  1,131|   106,347
    10. Oldenburg                |  2,482|   482,430
  DUCHIES                        |       |
    11. Brunswick                |  1,418|   494,387
    12. Saxe-Meiningen           |    953|   278,792
    13. Saxe-Altenburg           |    511|   216,313
    14. Saxe-Coburg-Gotha        |    764|   257,208
    15. Anhalt                   |    888|   331,047
  PRINCIPALITIES                 |       |
    16. Schwarzburg-Sondershausen|    333|    89,984
    17. Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt   |    363|   100,712
    18. Waldeck-Pyrmont          |    433|    61,723
    19. Reuss, Junior Branch     |    122|   152,765
    20. Reuss, Elder Branch      |    319|    72,616
    21. Schaumburg-Lippe         |    131|    46,650
    22. Lippe-Detmold            |    469|   150,749
  FREE-TOWNS                     |       |
    23. Lübeck                   |    115|   116,533
    24. Bremen                   |     99|   298,736
    25. Hamburg                  |    160| 1,015,707
  REICHSLAND                     |       |
    26. Alsace-Lorraine          |  5,604| 1,871,702
                                 +-------+----------
      TOTAL                      |208,780|64,903,423
  -------------------------------+-------+----------

=Location and Extent.=--This combination of Germanic States extends now
from the Alps and the Bohemian mountains on the south to the Baltic on
the north; and from the borders of France, Belgium, and Holland, on the
west, to those of Russia on the east; the greatest distance across it
from east to west and from north to south being about five hundred
miles. The coast-line measures about nine hundred and fifty miles. The
most remarkable features of the coast are the expansions of the river
mouths in the Baltic; the lagoons called the Kurische Haff, Frische
Haff, and Stettiner Haff; the estuaries of the Elbe and Weser; and the
rounded inlets of Jade Bay and the Ems mouth, on the North Sea.

The mountains on the south and the sea on the north give natural
frontiers for the most part, but west and east artificial boundaries are
marked out, which correspond only in a few parts with the ethnographic
limits of Germanic and Romanic peoples on the one side, and Germanic and
Slavonic on the other.

=Surface Characteristics.=--The surface of the empire falls naturally
into three divisions: the lowlands in the north, the table-land of the
south, and the basin of the Middle Rhine.

THE LOWLANDS are part of the Great European plain, and are largely
occupied with sandy tracts, with here and there deposits of peat. They
are well watered, and in certain districts fertile, while the monotony
of their level is broken by two lines of hills whose heights vary from
five hundred to eight hundred feet, and which may be said to extend
roughly from the Mecklenberg to the Vistula, and from the moors of
Lüneburg in Hanover to Silesia.

TABLE-LANDS.--In the southern plateau of Bavaria, the Fichtelgebirge is
clearly the pivot round which the other mountain systems revolve. Thus,
to its northwest there rises the Thuringian Forest and the Harz
Mountains, and to the northeast the Erzgebirge, the Riesengebirge, and
the Sudetic Mountains. Southwest radiate the Franconian and Swabian
Juras and the Schwarzwald or Black Forest heights. Westward stretch the
Taunus Mountains, while beyond these, and divided only by the Rhine, are
the ridges of the Vosges. In the extreme southeast of Bavaria the
Tyrolese or Noric Alps follow the northern bank of the Inn, and from
this range rises the Zugspitze (nine thousand seven hundred feet), which
is the highest summit in the whole empire. Between Basle and Mannheim,
the Middle Rhine is splendidly sheltered by the Vosges and the Black
Forest, which guard its course to left and right. (See further under the
Rhine.)

=Rivers.=--By far the greater part of the country is drained northwards
to the Baltic and the North Sea by its navigable highways, the Vistula,
Oder, Elbe, Weser, and Rhine. The southeastern corner alone belongs to
the upper basin of the Danube, flowing towards the Black Sea. (See
Danube.)

The Vistula and the Oder are Baltic waterways, but more important from a
commercial point of view are the Elbe, with its chief affluents the
Mulde, Havel, and the Saale, and the great Rhine, which both empty into
the North Sea, along with the smaller Ems and the Weser, which latter is
the only purely German stream. This fact is worth noticing, as the
sources of the Oder, Elbe, and Vistula must be traced in Austria, and
sections only of the Rhine and Danube traverse the empire.

=Climate.=--Broadly speaking, the general contours are not favorable to
climate; for the level exposed flats, north and east offer no resistance
to the passage in winter of the dry, piercing winds from Siberia and the
Arctic, while to the south and west the mountainous tracts form
effectual barriers against the moist Anti-trades. Extremes of
temperature increase eastward in proportion to the distance from the
Atlantic. In the warmer latitudes of the south, the elevations
counteract the natural tendency to grow hotter, so that Ratisbon has the
same temperature as Hamburg. In the Upper Harz the rainfall reaches
sixty-six inches, but the mean annual precipitation is only about twenty
inches. On the whole the climate may briefly be described as
continental. It should be noted that the general slope of the country is
from the southeast to northwest, that is, away from the sun, and also
that the Rhine valley is so delightfully sheltered that it reaps the
full benefit of its warm latitude, and thus enjoys excellent weather
conditions.

=Internal Communications.=--The commercial prosperity of the empire may
in some measure be traced to the excellence of the railways, the
majority of which are managed by the state. Berlin is splendidly
provided with communications by rail, and it may with truth be said that
it is within twenty-four hours’ reach of almost every point in the
empire. Further, the trunk systems have many of them an international
importance; for the great Oriental express from Paris to Constantinople
traverses the line from Strassburg to Vienna through Munich, while Paris
is linked with the remote Siberia by means of the lines from Cologne to
Berlin and from Berlin to Warsaw. Berlin is also directly connected with
Breslau, Hamburg, Danzig, and Königsberg. From Frankfort-on-Main, which
is the trading center between north and south Germany, lines radiate to
Cologne, Ostend, Antwerp, Flushing, Rotterdam, and Berlin northward, and
in a southerly direction to Strassburg, Basle, Munich, and Vienna, while
east and west it is joined up with Dresden, Breslau and Metz.

Domestic commerce has been further facilitated by an elaborate network
of canals. By far the most important of these is the Kaiser-Wilhelm
Canal (sixty-one miles long), which unites the North Sea and the Baltic.
The Dortmund-Ems (one hundred and fifty miles long) and the Elbe-Trave
(forty-three miles long) have only recently been completed. Since the
building of the Rhine and Rhone canal through Mulhaüsen, it has been
possible for a barge to pass from Rotterdam to Marseilles without
unloading.

The union of the Danube and Rhine is effected by the Ludwigs canal, and
that of the Seine and Rhine by the Rhine and Marne Canal. A number of
canals, including the Teltow (opened in 1906), serve to connect the
Spree, and therefore Berlin, with the Oder and the Elbe, the Oder and
Vistula being joined by what is known as the Bromberger Canal.

=Productions and Industries.=--Following this distribution of climate,
the forests which still cover a great part of Germany, and form a
feature of its landscapes, are chiefly of the hardier pines in the north
and east, and of deciduous trees in the south and west. About sixty-one
per cent of the surface of the empire is suitable for cultivation, the
forests occupy twenty-five per cent, and the uncultivable moors and
mountain tracts only eight per cent.

AGRICULTURE.--There are sixty-five million acres of cultivated soil, and
over twenty-one million acres of grass and pasture lands. Rye and oats
are the chief grains, the former flourishing in the north despite the
drawbacks of poor climate and soil. Almost as much land is devoted to
potatoes as to rye; for the sandy plains of western Prussia and
Pomerania seem to suit this crop equally well. Flax, hemp, and the
beet--the last for the sugar industry--are grown in Saxony and in the
Baltic provinces, especially in Hanover. The vine covers the dry, sunny
slopes of the Vosges, and is also extensively grown along the Rhine. The
rich alluvial soils of the sheltered valleys in the southwest are also
favorable to the production of tobacco and hops, which are accordingly
cultivated with success in Baden, Hesse, and Bavaria.

MINERALS.--Germany is rich in minerals, especially in coal and iron. The
great industrial activity of the country very largely depends on the
fact that these two minerals are found together, and moreover in
proximity to navigable water-courses. In the Rhine basin the coal beds
follow the courses of the Ruhr, Saar, and Ill, and excellent iron ore is
found in both the Ruhr and Saar coal fields. Coal is also found in
Silesia, while the Saxon mines in the Elbe basin yield chiefly the
lignite variety.

Almost one half of the zinc produced in the world is mined in Germany,
the chief centers being at Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle), in Rhenish Prussia,
and Königshütte, on the Oder coal fields, while nearly half the silver
of Europe is produced from the silver, lead, and copper ores found in
the Harz Mountains, Silesia, and the mines of Freiberg (Saxony). Most of
the German copper comes from the Harz and Erzgebirge Mountains. Large
quantities of rock and potassium salts are produced in Hanover, Saxony,
Thuringia, and Anhalt. The mineral springs of Baden-Baden, Wiesbaden,
Ems, etc., are world famous.

MANUFACTURES.--The industrial development of the empire proceeded at an
almost unprecedented rate throughout the last century. The following
catalogue will give some idea of the local distribution of the various
industries: Iron goods and machinery are manufactured in Prussia,
Saxony, Alsace-Lorraine, and Bavaria; steel goods in Rhenish Prussia.
Woolens and worsteds are produced in Saxony and the Rhine province;
cotton goods in Prussia, Saxony, Baden, Bavaria and Alsace-Lorraine;
silk at Elberfeld (Rhenish Prussia) and in Baden; and linen goods in
Westphalia, Silesia, and Saxony. The Rhine and Moselle districts are
important centers for light wines; Bavaria is famous for its toys, like
Nuremberg for its watches and pencils, and Meissen, Dresden, and Berlin,
etc., for their porcelain. Finally there are manufactories up and down
the country of chemicals, beer, sugar, tobacco, leather (in
Hesse-Darmstadt), and paper.

=People and Language.=--The German-speaking inhabitants of the empire
are about ninety-three per cent of the total population; but a
considerable proportion of these are not of the Germanic stock. Among
the peoples retaining their own language (about four and one-fourth
millions) are Poles (exclusively in eastern and northeastern Prussia),
Wends (in Silesia, Brandenburg, and Saxony), Czechs (in Silesia),
Lithuanians (in eastern Prussia), Danes (in Sleswick), French (in
Rhenish Prussia, Alsace and Lorraine) and Walloons (about
Aix-la-Chapelle in Rhenish Prussia). The Germans are divided into High
and Low Germans; the language of the former is the cultivated language
of all the German states; that of the latter, known as Platt-Deutsch, is
spoken in the north and northwest. (See further, Teutonic peoples, in
Book of Races.)

=Education and General Culture.=--Germany stands conspicuously foremost
in the field of state education, and so far is without rival for the
admirable systemization and for the variety and thoroughness of the
technical trainings provided. It is established by law that every child
from the age of six to fourteen must attend one of the elementary
schools (“Volkschulen”), or some other recognized scholastic
institution.

There are also a number of fully-equipped Technical High Schools, with
the power of granting degrees, and some one thousand four hundred
secondary schools (gymnasia, realschulen, oberrealschulen, etc.);
numerous special schools of technology, agriculture, forestry, mining,
commerce, military science, etc. There are twenty-one universities in
the empire: at Königsberg, Berlin, Breslau, Greifswald (in Pomerania,
southeast of Stralsund), Kiel, Halle, Göttingen, Münster, Bonn, Marburg,
Rostock, Giessen, Jena, Leipzig, Heidelberg, Freiburg, Strassburg,
Tübingen, Munich, Erlangen, and Würzburg. All of these have the four
faculties of theology, law, medicine, and philosophy, and many are some
of the oldest foundations of their kind in Europe.

Outside the country the best known are probably Berlin, Munich, Leipzig,
and Bonn, which also have the largest numbers of undergraduates, and
Göttingen, Strassburg, Heidelberg, and Jena. Four teach theology
according to the Roman Catholic doctrine, while in four others the
theological faculty is open to both Protestants and Roman Catholics; the
remaining universities are Protestant.

Culture is further stimulated in the large towns by public libraries,
learned societies, museums, art galleries, and observatories, whilst
musical knowledge and appreciation diffuses itself from the
highly-reputed conservatories at Leipzig, Dresden, Munich, Frankfort,
and Berlin.

=Religion.=--The Constitution provides for entire liberty of conscience
and for complete social equality among all religious confessions. The
relation between Church and State varies in different parts of the
empire. The Jesuit order is interdicted in all parts of Germany, and all
convents and religious orders have been suppressed.

Protestantism predominates in the north and middle, and Roman
Catholicism in the southeast and west, although very few states exhibit
exclusively either form of faith. The Protestants belong chiefly either
to the Lutheran confession, which prevails in Saxony, Thuringia,
Hanover, and Bavaria east of the Rhine, or to the Reformed or
Calvinistic Church, which prevails in Hesse, Anhalt, and the Palatinate.
A union between these two churches has taken place in Prussia. There are
five Roman Catholic archbishoprics and fourteen Roman Catholic suffragan
bishoprics and six bishoprics immediately subject to Rome.

=Defense.=--Military service in Germany is compulsory and universal,
with the usual exemptions.

ARMY.--By the regulations in force, every German who is capable of
bearing arms must be in the standing army for seven years (generally his
twentieth to his twenty-seventh year). Two years must be spent in active
service and the remainder in the army of reserve. He then spends five
years in the first class of the Landwehr, after which he belongs to the
second class till his thirty-ninth year. Besides this, every German,
from seventeen to twenty-one and from thirty-nine to forty-five is a
member of the Landsturm, a force only to be called out in the last
necessity. Those who pass certain examinations require to serve only one
year with the colors, and are known as “volunteers.”

The wide stretches of unprotected borderlands have obliged the Germans
to consider very carefully the question of frontier defenses. Thus the
empire is at present divided into ten “fortress districts,” in which the
following are the chief fortified cities: Danzig, Königsberg Posen,
Neisse, Spandau, Magdeburg, Küstrin, Mainz, Ulm, Metz, Cologne, Koblenz,
Kiel, and Strassburg.

NAVY.--Rapid progress has been made in recent years in the formation of
a German navy. Prussia took the initiative in gathering together a
fleet, but by 1851 it had grown only to fifty-one vessels, thirty-six of
which were small gunboats. However, an advance was made in 1867, when
every vessel in the navy flew the national colors (black, white, and
red), and during the last twenty-five years the measure of progress has
been phenomenal. (See further, Armies and Navies of the World.)

Kiel is the chief naval station on the Baltic, and Wilhelmshaven on the
North Sea, these two bases being connected by the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal
across the Schleswig-Holstein peninsula. Other naval establishments are
Danzig, Cuxhaven, and Sonderburg.

[Illustration: Museum of Fine Arts

Cathedral

Royal Palace

National Monument

=PANORAMIC VIEW OF THE HEART OF BERLIN, SHOWING THE MUSEUM OF ART,
LUSTGARTEN, NEW CATHEDRAL, ROYAL PALACE, AND NATIONAL MONUMENT.=]

=Chief Cities.=--German cities and towns are officially distinguished as
large cities (with one hundred thousand inhabitants and upwards); medium
cities (twenty thousand to one hundred thousand inhabitants); small
cities (five thousand to twenty thousand inhabitants); and country towns
(two thousand to five thousand inhabitants). According to the latest
census, the population of cities over fifty thousand was as follows:

  =====================+===============+==========
         CITIES        |     STATE     | LATEST
                       |               |POPULATION
  ---------------------+---------------+----------
  Berlin               |Prussia        | 2,070,695
  Hamburg              |Hamburg        |   932,166
  Munich               |Bavaria        |   595,053
  Leipzig              |Saxony         |   587,635
  Dresden              |Saxony, K.     |   546,882
  Cologne              |Prussia        |   516,167
  Breslau              |Prussia        |   511,891
  Frankfort-on-Main    |Prussia        |   414,598
  Dusseldorf           |Prussia        |   357,702
  Nürnberg             |Bavaria        |   332,651
  Charlottenburg       |Prussia        |   305,181
  Hanover              |Prussia        |   302,384
  Essen                |Prussia        |   294,629
  Chemnitz             |Saxony, K.     |   287,340
  Stuttgart            |Württemberg    |   285,589
  Magdeburg            |Prussia        |   279,685
  Bremen               |Bremen         |   246,827
  Königsberg           |Prussia        |   245,853
  Rixdorf              |Prussia        |   237,378
  Stettin              |Prussia        |   236,145
  Duisburg             |Prussia        |   229,478
  Dortmund             |Prussia        |   214,333
  Kiel                 |Prussia        |   211,044
  Mannheim             |Baden          |   193,379
  Halle-on-Saale       |Prussia        |   180,551
  Strassburg           |Alsace-Lorraine|   178,913
  Schoeneberg          |Prussia        |   172,902
  Altona               |Prussia        |   172,533
  Danzig               |Prussia        |   170,347
  Elberfeld            |Prussia        |   170,118
  Gelsenkirchen        |Prussia        |   169,530
  Barmen               |Prussia        |   169,201
  Posen                |Prussia        |   156,696
  Aachen               |Prussia        |   156,044
  Cassel               |Prussia        |   153,078
  Brunswick            |Brunswick      |   143,534
  Bochum               |Prussia        |   136,916
  Karlsruhe            |Baden          |   134,161
  Crefeld              |Saxony, K.     |   129,412
  Plauen               |Prussia        |   121,104
  Mülheim-on-Ruhr      |Prussia        |   112,602
  Erfurt               |Prussia        |   111,461
  Mainz                |Hesse          |   110,634
  Wiesbaden            |Prussia        |   109,033
  Augsburg             |Bavaria        |   102,293
  Lübeck               |Lübeck         |    98,620
  Mülhausen            |Alsace-Lorraine|    95,041
  Münster              |Prussia        |    90,283
  Oberhausen           |Prussia        |    89,897
  Hagen                |Prussia        |    88,625
  Bonn                 |Prussia        |    87,967
  Darmstadt            |Hesse          |    87,085
  Görlitz              |Prussia        |    85,790
  Spandau              |Prussia        |    84,919
  Würzburg             |Bavaria        |    84,387
  Freiburg             |Baden          |    83,328
  Ludwigshafen-on-Rhine|Bavaria        |    83,297
  Bielefeld            |Prussia        |    78,334
  Offenbach            |Hesse          |    75,593
  Linden               |Prussia        |    73,352
  Zwickau              |Saxony, K.     |    73,538
  Königshütte          |Prussia        |    72,642
  Remscheid            |Prussia        |    72,176
  Pforzheim            |Baden          |    69,084
  Metz                 |Alsace-Lorraine|    68,445
  Frankfort on O.      |Prussia        |    68,230
  Beuthen              |Prussia        |    67,718
  Harburg              |Prussia        |    67,024
  Gleiwitz             |Prussia        |    66,983
  Liegnitz             |Prussia        |    66,620
  Fürth                |Bavaria        |    66,535
  München Gladbach     |Prussia        |    66,410
  Osnabrück            |Prussia        |    65,956
  Rostock              |Meckl.-Sch.    |    65,377
  Potsdam              |Prussia        |    62,224
  Flensburg            |Prussia        |    60,931
  Elbing               |Prussia        |    58,631
  Bromberg             |Prussia        |    57,585
  Dessau               |Anhalt         |    56,606
  Koblenz              |Prussia        |    56,478
  Ulm                  |Württemberg    |    55,817
  Kaiserslautern       |Bavaria        |    53,803
  Brandenburg-on-Havel |Prussia        |    53,595
  Mülheim-on-Rhein     |Prussia        |    53,428
  ---------------------+---------------+-----------


CITIES OF PRUSSIA

=Berlin=, capital both of the Empire and of the Kingdom of Prussia, is
by far the most important center of population in Germany. It lies on
both sides of the Spree, and by the Spandau and Tetlow canals to the
Havel it is linked with the systems of the Oder and the Elbe. It is
eighty-four miles from Stettin and one hundred and eighty miles from
Hamburg, and is the center of the great Prussian state railway system.
(See Internal Communications.)

The city itself is served by an Outer Circle (_Ringbahn_) and by the
_Stadtbahn_, running east and west through the city. There are electric
surface lines, an overhead, or elevated, electric railway, and a shallow
underground railway.

On an island in the center of the city stands the Royal Palace, a
foursquare pile built at different times between 1451 and the present
day. It stands in the Schloss-platz, and is one of the few old buildings
in Berlin, dating from the sixteenth century. It contains over six
hundred rooms, including the great White Salon, and halls of the Black
and Red Eagle orders.

UNTER DEN LINDEN.--From this island stretches westward the noblest
street in Berlin, Unter den Linden (“under the lime trees”). The
triumphal arch at the west end of the street, the Brandenburg Gate (a
copy, made in 1789-93, of the Propylæa at Athens), forms the entrance to
the large park (six hundred and thirty acres) of the Thiergarten. In the
east is the magnificent avenue of the Siegesallee or Avenue of Victory,
adorned with thirty-two marble groups of the rulers of Prussia and
Brandenburg. In the Unter den Linden are many splendid public edifices,
among which are the Armory, the Opera House, the Royal Library, the new
Town Hall, the University, the palaces of William I. and of Frederick
III., and the monument to Frederick the Great by Rauch.

In the northeast of the Thiergarten stands the most imposing building of
the city, the Imperial Diet or Parliament, erected from designs by
Wallot, in 1884-94, at a cost of over five million dollars.

BUSINESS QUARTER.--The Friedrichs-Stadt is the business center of
Berlin, and the streets in this section are interesting. The banking
street, Behrenstrasse, and the Wilhelmstrasse, the official quarter,
where is the imperial chancellor’s palace, lie to the south. Fine shops
and restaurants line the Friedrichstrasse, while Viktoriastrasse is one
of the many thoroughfares of the fashionable district, southwest.
Königstrasse and Kaiser Wilhelmstrasse are the business streets of the
city proper.

The Tempelhofn Feld, also to the south, is the parade and review ground
of the Berlin garrison.

The most striking bridge is the Schloss-brücke, or Palace bridge, by F.
Schinkel, with colossal marble figures. It leads from Unter den Linden,
to the Lustgarten, a park in which stands an equestrian statue of
Frederick William III.

[Illustration: =DRAMATIC THEATER, GENSDARMEN MARKT=]

The Opera Platz contains statues of five generals, by Rauch, and is
bounded by the Palace, University, Opera House, and St. Hedwig’s Church,
an imitation of the Roman Pantheon. The Schauspielhaus, the leading
dramatic theater, is in Gensdarmen Markt. The Schauspielhaus, with the
church on each side, is considered one of the finest architectural
groups in Berlin.

STATUES AND ART MUSEUMS, ETC.--No city has so many statues and monuments
to the national heroes, kingly or military, or to those famed in
literature, science and art.

[Illustration: =GERMAN CATHEDRAL, GENSDARMEN MARKT=]

The Royal Library, once in the palace, is now in the new building, built
in 1909 on Unter den Linden; it contains nearly five million printed
books. The University Library is housed in the same building. There is a
large public library and twenty-eight municipal libraries.

The Royal Museum, in the Lustgarten, north of the Schlossplatz, is
divided into the Old and the New Museums, containing the treasures of
classical and mediæval sculpture, the Egyptian collection, etc. The Old
Museum is the finest building in the city, with a grand Ionic portico,
adorned with colossal bronze groups, and richly frescoed halls. It has
vast collections of antiquities; the halls of Greek, Roman, mediæval,
and modern sculptures; and the Hall of the Heroes.

The New Museum is entered from the Old, and contains Kaulbach’s famous
mural paintings, the Egyptian museum, an immense collection of casts,
twelve cabinets of Northern antiquities four rooms of objects of art,
and five hundred thousand engravings. It has a renaissance façade to the
east. Opposite is the new Corinthian temple of the National Gallery,
which contains a magnificent and world-renowned collection of ancient
and modern paintings.

BERLIN SUBURBS.--In recent years there has been a remarkable expansion
of the suburban districts of Berlin, residential sites have sprung up in
the pine woods and by the lakes of the Havel to the northwest, and
Spandau, Charlottenburg, and Potsdam may almost be regarded as suburbs.

[Illustration: =THE BOURSE, OR EXCHANGE, BERLIN=]

POTSDAM, “the Versailles of Prussia,” with its palaces and parks, is
sixteen miles from Berlin, among wooded hills and the lakelike expanses
of the Havel. Here is the Sans Souci Palace, built by Frederick the
Great, and full of reminiscences of him. Near by are the
Picture-Gallery, the Orangery (adorned with fine statuary), and the
Sicilian Garden. The New Palace has two hundred richly adorned rooms,
with fine paintings, and a noteworthy Marble Saloon.

The Marble Palace is north of Potsdam, and has many paintings.
Babelsberg is a new Gothic palace, with rich art-treasures. The Royal
Palace (1660) is full of relics of the Great Frederick. The Garrison
Church contains his tomb and military trophies. The Church of Peace is a
noble Ionic basilica, with masterpieces of sculpture. The famous Sans
Souci fountains play on summer Sunday afternoons.

INDUSTRIES OF BERLIN.--In its industries Berlin is almost as varied as
London, but machinery, especially locomotive and electrical, woolens,
dyeing, furniture and metal work are the chief. It is beginning to rival
Leipzig in book production, and its breweries are large. Besides being
the center of the great trade in corn and other cereals of Eastern
Europe, its great banks exercise increasing international influence.

A CENTER OF EDUCATION AND CULTURE.--The famous Freidrich Wilhelm
University, founded in 1810, now the largest in numbers in Germany, the
splendid technical institution at Charlottenburg, and its numerous
schools of all ranks, make Berlin one of the greatest intellectual and
educational centers of the world. As the seat of the Imperial Court, and
of the Imperial Parliament and administration, it is also the social
center of the empire, and its modern wealth and luxury have made it a
growing rival to Paris as a city of pleasure.

Since 1878 the city has been practically rebuilt; the sudden growth of
population has resulted in much overcrowding and crushingly high
rentals. Once deplorable, the sanitation, water supply, and public
hygiene are now of the highest standard, and German scientific
thoroughness has made it the most highly organized and best administered
city in the world.

[Illustration: =ST. HEDWIG’S CHURCH, BERLIN=]

[Illustration: =THE NEW HOHENZOLLERN CATHEDRAL, BERLIN=]

=Other Prussian Cities.=--Breslau on the Oder, the capital of the mining
districts of Silesia, has grown to be the second town of the kingdom,
carrying on very extensive manufactures and a great trade by river and
railway. It is also the emporium of the flax-growing district of
Silesia. About the Rhenish coal fields, which yield half the supply of
the kingdom, stand the manufacturing and trading towns of Cologne,
Aachen or Aix, Barmen, Düsseldorf, Elberfeld, Crefeld and Dortmund,
spinning cotton, wool, linen, and silk; and the famous iron and steel
works of Solingen and Essen, where Krupp’s steel guns are made.

Magdeburg, on the Elbe, and Cassel, on the Fulda, are the great
manufacturing and trading towns of central Prussia. Much of the internal
trade of Germany is still carried on at great annual fairs, and in this
respect the two Frankforts (on the Main to the west, and on the Oder to
the east) hold the most important place. Hanover, on the Leine, is the
point of exchange of the mineral products of the Harz for the goods
which come in by Bremen on the Weser, and has important manufactures of
its own.

The chief ports belonging to Prussia are the Baltic ones--Königsberg,
Danzig, Stettin, Stralsund, Memel, Rostock, Wismar, and Kiel, on the
Baltic; Altona, on the Elbe, next Hamburg. Posen, on the Warthe, was the
ancient capital of Poland, and is the most important fortress towards
the Russian frontier. Wiesbaden is the most important and the oldest of
the watering-places which have grown up round the mineral springs of
Nassau. Eisleben, where Luther was born, and Erfurt, where he resided,
both in Prussian Saxony, are notable points in connection with the
history of the Reformation in Germany.

[Illustration: =THE NEW PALACE AT POTSDAM=

Erected by Frederick the Great, at a cost of $2,250,000. The principal
rooms are the Shell Saloon, the rooms of Frederick the Great, the Marble
(concert) room, and ball room.]

=Dresden and Other Cities of Saxony.=--Dresden, its capital, finely
placed on both banks of the Elbe, famous for its art treasures, has also
many varied manufactures. Its architecture and its art collections have
given it the name of “the German Florence.”

The old bridge, Augustusbrücke (Augustus Bridge), may be taken as the
center of the most interesting part of Dresden. Immediately to the east
of the Augustusbrücke, on the Alstadt side, stretches the beautiful
Brühl Terrasse, whence are fine views over the river. There are
high-class concerts in the Belvedere on the Brühl Terrace. Near the
flight of steps to the terrace, facing the Royal Palace and Catholic
Church, is the Rathaus (Town Hall) with an equestrian statue of King
Albert in front.

[Illustration: =THE ZWINGER, DRESDEN, CONTAINING THE WORLD-RENOWNED
GALLERY OF PAINTINGS=]

The Royal Palace, just south of the Augustusbrücke, will be discovered
by its lofty tower, three hundred and thirty-one feet high.

The Zwinger, to the west of the Schloss, is a range of buildings of
seven pavilions, with the Museum at one corner. In the Museum are the
picture gallery, with collections of engravings and drawings, and
mineralogical collections, with scientific instruments.

The Picture Gallery is of world renown, containing more than two
thousand four hundred paintings, mostly by Italian and Flemish masters.
The gem of the collection is Raphael’s “Sistine Madonna;” other
masterpieces being Titian’s “Tribute Money,” and Correggio’s “Magdalene”
and “La Notte.”

The Green Vault in the Royal Palace contains an unrivaled collection of
precious stones, articles wrought in gold, silver, and ivory, etc. The
new Hoftheater is one of the finest theaters in Europe. Of the churches
the most noted are the Frauenkirche, with its lofty dome (three hundred
and ten feet high).

The so-called “Dresden china” is made for the most part at Meissen,
fifteen miles from Dresden.

=Leipzig= is not only the seat of a famous university and the great book
market of Germany, but has one of the largest annual fairs in the world,
to which merchants come from all parts of the earth, even from America
and China.

Chemnitz and Zwickau, beside the Saxon coal field, are the great woolen
and machine-manufacturing towns of the kingdom. Freiberg is famed for
its school of mines.

=Cities of Bavaria.=--Munich (München), the capital, stands in the midst
of a bare elevated plain on the left bank of the Isar, one thousand
seven hundred feet above sea-level, but has risen to importance as the
central point of the great grain-growing plateau of southern Bavaria. It
is the great corn depot of the country, and the place of manufacture of
its favorite beer. In recent times it has become celebrated as a seat of
the fine arts and for its splendid buildings.

Ancient Nürnburg, with its double line of walls, where watches, first
called Nürnberg eggs, were invented, is the great seat of industry and
commerce in the north of Bavaria, exporting toys which go to all parts
of the world. It stands on the Ludwigs Canal, the most important one in
the kingdom, uniting the navigable tributaries of the Rhine and Danube.

Augsburg, on the Lech, northwest of Munich, where the Protestants
presented the Confession of Faith to Charles V., is a chief center of
Bavarian trade and exchange. Würzburg, on the Main, is the old capital
of Franconia, the district which was peopled by colonies of Franks in
the sixth century.

Speyer or Spire and the fortress of Landau are also important places in
the palatinate.

=Cities of Württemberg.=--Stuttgart, where Hegel was born, and where
Schiller spent his youth, is the capital, and stands next to Leipzig and
Berlin in the printing arts and book trade. The fortress of Ulm, on the
Danube, where it leaves Württemberg, has a large transit trade.
Heilbronn is another important trading place. Tübingen is the
university town.

[Illustration: =THE PINAKOTHEK, MUNICH, FAMOUS GERMAN MUSEUM OF FINE
ARTS=]

The little territory belonging to the house of Hohenzollern, which runs
into Württemberg on the south, fell by inheritance to the king of
Prussia in 1849.

=Cities of Baden, and Elsass-Lothringen= (Alsace-Lorraine).--Carlsruhe,
the capital, and Mannheim, at the confluence of the Neckar and Rhine,
are its largest towns. Heidelberg (north) and Freiburg (south) are the
seats of universities. Baden-Baden in the center, the famous
watering-place, gives its name to the Duchy.

The fortress of Strassburg, on the Rhine, in central Elsass, anciently a
free imperial city of Germany, is the chief place in the Reichsland and
its university town, noted also for its manufacture of leather-work and
of beer. The cotton, wool and silk factories and machine works of the
province center at Mülhausen in southern Elsass.

The fortresses of Metz and Diedenhofen or Thionville, memorable in the
war of 1871, are the chief places in Lothringen.

=Cities of the Smaller States.=--Hamburg, Bremen and Lübeck, the
remaining free Hanse[6] towns, are republics, each governed by a senate
and house of burgesses. Each of them has a small territory besides that
occupied by the city.

  [6] The Hansa or League of the North German towns was the first
  trade union of Europe, and dates from the thirteenth century. At one
  time it included eighty-five towns, and had several foreign
  factories.

They are the great gates of the external commerce of Germany, and from
this have also become important centers for the preparation of foreign
products, and of the necessaries of trading (tobacco, sugar-refining,
cotton-spinning, shipbuilding). Besides the traffic brought to Hamburg
and Bremen by their rivers, all the railways of the northwest converge
toward them.

GERMAN COLONIES.--At the commencement of the war these had a total area
of 1,134,239 square miles, with a population of about 14,890,000, of
whom 24,170 (including garrison and police) were whites. Of these whites
about 18,500 were settled Germans.

The following is a list of the principal colonies and regions under the
protection or influence of Germany, with approximate estimates of area
and population:

  ====================+=========+===================+=========+==========
      COLONIES AND    | DATE OF |      METHOD OF    |ESTIMATED| ESTIMATED
      DEPENDENCIES    | ACQUISI-|     GOVERNMENT    |AREA SQ. |POPULATION
                      |   TION  |                   |MILES    |
  --------------------+---------+-------------------+---------+----------
  IN AFRICA           |         |                   |         |
    Togoland          |   1884  | Imperial Governor |  33,700 | 1,000,000
    Kamerun           |   1884  | Imperial Governor | 191,130 | 3,000,000
    German South West |         |                   |         |
    Africa            |1884-1890| Imperial Governor | 322,450 |   120,000
    German East Africa|1885-1890| Imperial Governor | 384,180 |10,000,000
                      |         |                   +---------+----------
      Total African   |         |                   |         |
      Possessions     |1884-1890|                   | 931,460 |14,120,000
                      |         |                   +---------+----------
  IN ASIA             |         |                   |         |
    Kiauchau Bay      |   1897  | Imperial Governor |     200 |    33,000
  IN THE PACIFIC      |         |                   |         |
    _German New       |         |                   |         |
    Guinea_           |         |                   |         |
      Kaiser Wilhelm’s|         |}                 {|        }|
      Land            |1885-1886|}                 {|  70,000}|
      Bismarck Archi- |         |}                 {|        }|   300,000
      pelago          |   1885  |}                 {|  20,000}|
      Caroline Islands|   1899  |}                 {|     ... |
      Palau or Pelew  |         |}Imperial Governor{|         |
      Islands         |   1899  |}                 {|     560}|
      Marianne Islands|   1899  |}                 {|     250}|
      Solomon Islands |   1886  |}                 {|   4,200}|    56,000
      Marshall        |         |}                 {|        }|
      Islands, etc.   |   1886  |}                 {|     150}|
    _Samoan Islands_  |         |                   |         |
      Savii           |   1899  |}Imperial Governor{|     660}|    37,000
      Upolu           |   1899  |}                 {|     340}|
                      |         |                   +---------+----------
      Total Pacific   |         |                   |         |
      Possessions     |1884-1899|                   |   96,160|   393,000
  --------------------+---------+-------------------+---------+----------

[Illustration: =PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS, BERLIN=]


HISTORY OF GERMANY

  The earliest information we have of the Germans, the peoples and the
  tribes who dwelt among the dense forests that stretched from the
  Rhine to the Vistula and from the Danube to the Baltic Sea, comes to
  us from the Romans.

=First Contact with Romans.=--The first tribes of Germanic race to come
into collision with the arms of Rome were the Cimbri and Teutones, who
in 113 B. C. had invaded Styria, and there met with defeat from the
troops of the consul Papirius. When in 58 B. C. Cæsar began his
campaigns in Gaul, he found several hordes of Germans, mostly Marcomanni
and Suevi, settled between the Rhine and the Vosges, and even on the
western side of these hills.

Appealed to by the Gauls of those regions to free them from their German
oppressors, Cæsar inflicted a crushing defeat upon their ambitious
chieftain, Ariovistus, and chased him and his followers across the
Rhine. In the period 166-74 Aurelius was engaged in beating back a
formidable incursion of the Marcomanni and Quadi into Roman territory.
From the third century we no longer read of single tribes, but of great
confederations of tribes, as the Goths, Alemanni, Franks, Frisians,
Saxons, Thuringians, and others. Of the history of Germany itself we
learn little more that is authentic until we come down to the times of
the Franks, by whom the kingdoms of France and Germany were subsequently
formed.

Henceforward, till the time of Charlemagne, Germany was occupied by a
number of chieftains, who were perpetually at war with one another,
except when invasions from without forced them into transitory alliance.

=Charlemagne=, or Charles the Great, the Frankish king, was crowned
emperor of Rome by the pope in 800, and after his death his empire was
partitioned among his four sons, and the result of the family struggles
which followed was the separation of Germany from Gaul and of both from
Burgundy and Italy by the Treaty of Verdun in 843. (See history of
France; also Empire of Charlemagne.)

A separate kingdom of Germany was then formed under Lewis the German. A
temporary reunion of the dominions of Charlemagne--with the exception of
Burgundy--was effected under Charles the Fat in 884, but he was deposed
in 887 and the final separation into the East and West Frankish kingdoms
was accomplished.

The inroads of the Norsemen were checked in 891 by Arnulf, but they were
followed by the savage attacks of the Hungarians during the reign of
Louis the Child, with whom ended the race of Charlemagne in 911.

=Under Feudal System.=--The royal power had now almost vanished, and the
system of granting fiefs had resulted in the formation of a class of
powerful local rulers--the dukes of the great groups or confederations
of tribes. The maintenance of central authority at all was probably due
only to external danger from Slavs, Norsemen, and Magyars, and even this
could not prevent constant warfare between the great feudal lords.
Conrad of Franconia, elected by the leading nobles, was unable to
enforce his authority, and was, at his own suggestion, succeeded by his
great enemy, Henry, Duke of Saxony.

[Illustration: =THE BRANDENBURG GATE=

at the western terminus of the Unter den Linden, was erected 1789, at a
cost of three hundred and seventy thousand dollars, after the Propylæa
of Athens, and is regarded as the finest archway in Europe next to the
Arc de Triomphe at Paris. The Quadriga or four-horse car of Victory, by
Schadow, was taken to Paris by the French in 1806, and returned 1814.]

=Henry I. Establishes Order.=--A born leader of men, statesman and
general, Henry I. (919-936) introduced a new civil and military
organization. He created the burgher class by the foundation of towns,
compelling every tenth freeman to labor on buildings, and these towns he
made the centers for judicial administration, ceremonies and festivals,
markets, and trade. He broke the power of the Magyars, subdued Danes and
Slavs, and before his death private war had ceased.

=Otto the Great Revives the Holy Roman Empire.=--His son, Otto the Great
(936-973), consolidated the royal power, and reduced the great Duchies
to submission, keeping them in his own hands or in those of members of
his family. In 951 he entered Italy to settle the affairs of the Lombard
kingdom, but returned to cope with a revolt terminated only by the vital
danger of an invasion by the Magyars, whose power was finally crushed in
955. Crowned Emperor by the Pope in 962, he set an example to subsequent
German kings, who claimed the Imperial and Lombard crowns as of right;
but the precedent led also to the continued absences of the German
rulers in Italy and the severance of their interests from those of their
own proper dominions. The sense of German nationality grew in his reign,
yet this was accompanied by a weakening of central authority and the
development of the power of the great vassals, dukes, and princes,
ecclesiastical and secular.

=Under the House of Franconia.=--After his death constant civil war
increased their power until their growing independence was checked by
Conrad II. (1024-1039), the first of the Franconian Emperors, who
rendered the mediate nobles, vassals of the great lords, less dependent
on their feudal superiors, and formed a close alliance with the towns.
His son, Henry III. (1039-1056), further strengthened the royal power,
put down private war, and in 1043 proclaimed a general peace.

=Struggle with the Papacy.=--His attempted reformation of the Papacy and
appointment of four German popes in succession commenced the long and
fierce struggle between the Emperors and the Popes. During the minority
of his son, Henry IV., the great nobles recovered much of their power.
His opposition to the famous decree of Pope Gregory VII. in 1075 against
the marriage of the clergy and their investiture by laymen was followed
by his summons to Rome, his deposition of the Pope through a synod of
German bishops, his excommunication and complete humiliation at Canossa
in 1077. The dispute was only settled under his son, Henry V., by a
compromise, the “Concordat of Worms,” in 1122, but the power of the
Papacy had been enormously strengthened. It had attempted to dispose of
the Imperial Crown, and Innocent II. even claimed to have granted it to
Lothar of Saxony (1125-1137) in 1133 as to a vassal.

=Famous Hohenstaufen Line.=--With Conrad III. of Franconia (1137-1152)
commences the line of the famous Hohenstaufen Emperors. The two great
parties supporting the Pope and the Emperor now first became known as
Guelfs and Ghibelines (Welfs and Waiblings). His successor, the great
Frederick Barbarossa (1152-1190), was occupied in Italy during long
years with the now permanent struggle against the Popes and the Italian
cities supporting them. In Germany Teutonic power was extended over the
Slavonic countries along the Baltic by Henry the Lion of Saxony and
Albert the Bear, to whom was granted the Mark of Brandenburg. Under
Frederick II. (1212-1250) the struggle with the Papacy was continued.
Sentence of excommunication was launched against him, and a rival king
was elected, and his continued absence in Italy led to the utmost
anarchy in Germany. Meanwhile the conquest of the Slavonic lands now
forming a great part of Prussia progressed steadily under the Knights of
the Teutonic Order and of the Order of the Sword.

The period of the Hohenstaufens was one of great brilliancy. Chivalry
was promoted in the Crusades, literature was in full bloom in the works
of the Minnesänger, Gothic architecture received its finest
developments, the towns increased in prosperity, many serfs were freed,
and codes of local customs and usages were compiled, such as the
Sachsenspiegel and the Schwabenspiegel. On the other hand, the greater
vassals became practically independent, and the principle of inheritance
was applied to their lands and offices. The privileges usurped by the
ecclesiastical and secular princes were confirmed by Frederick II. in
the “Pragmatic Sanctions” of 1220 and 1232, and the right of electing
the Emperor was confined to the Seven Electors.

=The Interregnum.=--The period of anarchy culminating in the “Great
Interregnum” (1250-1273) is marked by the formation of the Rhenish
Confederation of some seventy leading cities for mutual defense, and of
the powerful Hanseatic League.

=Beginning of the Hapsburg Line.=--Rudolf of Hapsburg, elected in 1273,
revived the royal authority and strictly enforced justice, but his rule
was unfavorable to the growing privileges of the towns. In this respect
his policy was reversed by his successor, Adolf of Nassau (1291-1298),
and by his son, Albert I. (1298-1308), who even befriended the serfs and
the Jews. The long struggle between the Empire and the Papacy
practically ended under Louis IV. (1314-1347), by the formal declaration
of the Electors in 1338 that the Papal sanction was not needed to the
election of the emperor. Public peace was encouraged under Louis IV.,
and his friendship to the towns was constant. Industry and trade
flourished more and more in the cities, and their government was now
becoming more democratic through the victory of the craft-guilds over
the old patrician families.

=House of Luxemburg.=--Charles IV. (1347-1378), the first emperor who
retained his hereditary lands on election, by the “Golden Bull” in 1356
regulated the method of election and confirmed the complete sovereignty
of the Electors in their own territories. In 1396 the foundations of
Swiss independence were laid in the victory of the “Eidgenossen” over
Duke Leopold of Austria at Sempach.

=Reformation Foreshadowed.=--In the reign of Sigismund (1410-1437), who
united the dignities of King of Hungary, King of Bohemia, and Margrave
of Brandenburg, and who was the last Emperor crowned at Rome, the
Hussite war, consequent on the burning of John Huss by the Council of
Constance in 1415, foreshadowed the Reformation. The Mark of Brandenburg
now passed to the Hohenzollerns, under whom it was to grow into the
kingdom of Prussia.

The reigns of Frederick IV. (1440-1493), and Maximilian I. (1493-1519),
the husband of Mary, the heiress of Charles the Bold, last Duke of
Burgundy, bring the Middle Ages to a close. The age of chivalry was
ended by the invention of gunpowder and the use of mercenary troops; the
realities of feudalism had passed away, the Imperial authority had
dwindled to nominal control, and princes and cities had attained
independence. But the Imperial dignity was now permanently connected
with the House of Hapsburg and combined with great territorial
possessions. The semblance and, to some extent, the reality of unity
were established by the growing use of Roman law, by the constitution in
1495 of an Imperial Tribunal or Court of Appeal (the “Aulic Council”),
and by the division of Germany in 1501 and 1512 into “Circles,” each
with its own “States” charged to carry out the decisions of the Imperial
Chamber.

=Period of Charles V.=--Luther’s denunciation of indulgences was made in
1517, but the full storm of the Reformation burst after the accession of
Charles V. (1519-1555), who united to the Empire the entire possessions
of the kingdom of Spain. At the Diet of Worms in 1521 he took up the
defense of the Church, and condemned Luther as a heretic. At the same
Diet an Imperial Administrative Council was established, and a
“Matricula” drawn up, settling the contingents of troops to be raised by
the States, both of which existed until the fall of the Empire. The
Reformation now made irresistible progress; a common name,
“Protestants,” was acquired by the Reformers at the Diet of Speyer in
1529, and in common statement of doctrines, the “Augsburg Confession,”
was drawn up in 1530.

=Thirty Years’ War.=--The new and the old religions were put upon an
equality by the Religious Peace of Augsburg in 1555, in which, however,
the Calvinistic or Reformed Faith was not included. In the fearful
struggle which followed the Reformation the Imperial authority was
completely ruined. The reaction against the new doctrines, due mainly to
the zeal of the Jesuits, gave fresh strength to the Catholic party, the
Reformation was stamped out in Bohemia, and complete toleration was not
acquired by Protestants (including both Lutherans and Calvinists) until
the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.

This was at the close of the disastrous and merciless struggle known as
the Thirty Years’ war. The result of the confused period commencing with
the abdication of Charles V. in 1555 must be briefly summed up. The
Empire in Germany was practically ended and was now attached to the
hereditary dominions of the house of Hapsburg in Austria. The population
of Germany was reduced by more than one-half; industry and trade had
almost ceased to exist; enormous territorial losses had been suffered,
and France and Sweden had made great acquisitions. Switzerland and the
United Provinces were severed from the Empire, and had acquired complete
independence. Germany emerged from the war a mere lax confederation of
states, whose rulers--a race of absolute and, in most cases, coarse and
selfish despots--were recognized by the Peace of Westphalia as
independent. Even in the cities government had passed into the hands of
local oligarchies. The only bond of union was the nominal authority
remaining to the emperor, and now transferred to the Diet, of passing
laws, concluding treaties, and making war and peace. One completely good
result of the war was that amid the prevailing anarchy were laid, by
Grotius, the foundations of a system of International Law.

=Rise of Prussia to Power.=--The Thirty Years’ war was followed by the
rise of Prussia. Brandenburg had in 1611 become united to the Duchy of
Prussia, part of the possessions of the Teutonic Order, which was in
1657 declared independent of Poland, of which it had been a fief, and
received further accessions under the Great Elector, Frederick William.
It grew steadily in power during the long struggle against the
unscrupulous aggressions of Louis XIV., and in 1701 the son of the Great
Elector, Frederick I., obtained from the Emperor the recognition of the
Prussian Duchy as a kingdom. In 1713 a “Pragmatic Sanction” was drawn up
by the Emperor Charles VI. (1711-1740), providing for the inheritance of
the Austrian dominions by his daughter, Maria Theresa, and this was
ultimately guaranteed by the leading powers.

=Frederick the Great and the Seven Years’ War.=--But his death in 1740
was the opportunity of Prussia, where Frederick II., better known as
Frederick the Great, had just ascended the throne. He immediately
occupied Silesia. Maria Theresa met with enthusiastic support in
Hungary, and in 1745 her husband was elected emperor as Francis I.
(1745-1765). An interval of peace was followed by the Seven Years’ war,
at the conclusion of which, in 1763, Prussia was confirmed in the
possession of Silesia, took rank as a great Power, and became definitely
the rival of Austria in German politics.

In 1765 Joseph II. succeeded to the imperial crown, becoming at the same
time co-regent with his mother of the Austrian hereditary dominions. He
joined with Russia and Prussia in the first partition of Poland (1772).
He was succeeded by his brother Leopold, who, having died in 1792, was
succeeded by his son, Francis II., who joined in 1793 in the second
partition of Poland. He took the command of his army against the French
in 1794, concluded the peace of Campo Formio with Bonaparte (1797);
joined the second coalition against France in 1799, and concluded the
treaty of Lunéville (1801).

In 1804 Francis took the title of hereditary emperor of Austria,
renouncing two years later that of head of the German Empire, which,
indeed, had ceased to exist, owing to the conquests of Napoleon. The
latter’s secularization of the ecclesiastical states, overthrow of
Austria at Austerlitz (1805) and of Prussia at Jena and Auerstädt
(1806), and formation of the Confederation of the Rhine, completed the
extinction of the Holy Roman Empire.

=The German Confederation.=--The states of Germany were again united by
the treaty of Vienna (1815), in a confederation called the German
Confederation (_der Deutsche Bund_). In 1818 a general commercial
league, called the Zollverein was projected by Prussia, and was
gradually joined by most of the German states, exclusive of Austria.
Revolutionary outbreaks caused great disturbances in various German
states in 1830 and 1848, particularly the latter. The German Diet was
restored in 1851 by the efforts of Prussia and Austria, who were
latterly rivals for the supremacy in the confederation.

=Beginning of Bismarck’s Power.=--In 1861 William I. succeeded to the
throne of Prussia, and the conflicts between the liberals and his
ultra-reactionary government led in 1863 to the entrance into the
ministry of Otto von Bismarck, who soon after became its president and
the minister of foreign affairs. On the death of Frederick VII. of
Denmark, Prussia and Austria disputed the claims of Christian IX., his
successor, to the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, and the war which
followed (1864) resulted in the cession of Schleswig-Holstein, and
Lauenburg to those powers jointly.

By the treaty of Gastein, Austria and Prussia agreed to a joint
occupation of the Elbe duchies; but to prevent collision it was judged
prudent that Austria should occupy Holstein, and Prussia Sleswick.

=Contest Between Prussia and Austria.=--Already a difference of policy
had begun to show itself. Prussia was believed to have the intention of
annexing the duchies; while Austria began to favor the claims of Prince
Frederick of Augustemburg. In the meantime, both nations were making
ready for the struggle; and Italy, looking upon the quarrel as a
precious opportunity to strike a blow for the liberation of Venetia, had
secretly entered into an alliance with Prussia.

On July 3, 1866, was fought the decisive battle of Sadowa, in which the
Austrians were routed. Not till the victorious Prussians had pushed
forward towards Vienna was a truce obtained through the agency of the
Emperor of the French, the Peace of Prague (August 20). Italy, though
more than half-inclined to stand out for the cession by Austria of the
Trentino, as well as Venetia, reluctantly agreed to the armistice
(August 12).

A brief campaign sufficed for the defeat of the minor states of Germany
that had joined Austria, viz.: Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and
Hesse-Darmstadt; and, after peace had at last been arranged, some of
them were forced to submit to a certain loss of territory.

=Independence of Austria and Union of Germany.=--The war completed the
dissolution of the Confederation, and secured the reconstruction of
Germany on an entirely new basis. Austria was excluded from Germany, and
a new confederation, the North German, was formed of the states north of
the Main, under the headship of the king of Prussia. Schleswig-Holstein,
Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort were incorporated with that
kingdom. Efforts to secure a further consolidation were opposed by the
South German states, but the final solution of the question was at
length brought about by France, whose demands resulted in the War of
1870. (See under France.)

In this war Germany acquired Alsace and a part of Lorraine, and south
Germany now waived any further opposition to a consolidation of all the
German states under the leadership of Prussia.

=Restoration of the German Empire.=--On December 3 the king of Bavaria
invited the king of Prussia to restore the dignity of German emperor.
Most of the other states gave their assent and the North German
Reichstag on December 10 adopted a motion for the establishment of the
German empire under the king of Prussia. On January 18, 1871, the
restoration of the imperial dignity was solemnly proclaimed by William
I. at Versailles.

Subsequently the empire was largely organized under the vigorous
administration of Prince Bismarck. The parliament of the new empire soon
met at Berlin, and adopted the new constitution. The main result of his
foreign policy was a cordial alliance with Austro-Hungary; an alliance,
in 1872, between the emperors of Germany, Austria and Russia, in which,
subsequently, Italy took the place of Russia, forming what is known in
European politics as the Triple Alliance.

In domestic affairs many difficulties were encountered. With the birth
of the new Empire commenced the long struggle of Prince Bismarck with
the Papacy. The Jesuits were expelled in 1872, and in 1873 the famous
“Falk Laws” imposed secular restrictions on all ecclesiastical
appointments. The strict enforcement of these laws led to intense
discontent and ill-feeling among Catholics. The contest ended with the
grant of many concessions and the confession by Prince Bismarck in 1887
that his policy was practically changed. The democratic movement known
as Socialism, aiming at the regulation and organization by the State of
labor and production, grew rapidly in strength and importance, and
inaugurated an era of “labor policy” by legislation compelling employers
to institute a system of insurance in favor of their work-people, since
followed by the adoption of an important state-aided scheme of insurance
against death and old age.

In 1888 Emperor William I. died, and the premature death, after a reign
of three months, of the beloved Crown Prince, who succeeded him as
Frederick III., disappointed the hopes of those who had anticipated a
Liberal policy on the part of the Crown.

=Accession of William II.=--His son and successor, William II., took a
strong view of his functions as emperor and king. His reign was
immediately characterized by the further development of the labor policy
inaugurated by Prince Bismarck. The emperor was not, however, generally
in accord with the views of the great Chancellor, whose resignation was
accepted in 1891.

Caprivi now became chancellor, and managed to negotiate a series of
commercial treaties, in 1892-1894, with the countries of Central Europe
(Austria, Belgium, Switzerland, Italy), and later with Servia and
Roumania, the purpose of which was to lower the import-duty on corn on
condition that the foreign states favored German manufactures. These
treaties at once induced the peasants to combine and in 1893 a great
agricultural union was formed, called the _Bund der Landwirte_, with
which an older association, the _Deutsche Bauernbund_, almost
immediately coalesced.

=Commercial and Colonial Expansion.=--But the great features of recent
German history have been the growth of German trade and commerce, the
great colonial expansion in Africa and Polynesia, and the rapid increase
of her navy.

[Illustration: =MONUMENT OF VICTORY, BERLIN=

Erected in the Königs Platz at the conclusion of the Franco-Prussian war
of 1871. It consists of a circular temple surrounded with a colonnade of
sixteen pillars, standing upon a square base or pedestal, and surmounted
by a cylindrical shaft bearing a colossal gilt bronze Victory, winged
and holding a wreath. The total height is one hundred and ninety-four
feet. It may be ascended by an interior staircase. Upon the base are
elaborate reliefs of the various campaigns commemorated.]

In 1905 Germany intervened to disturb the French policy in Morocco,
resulting in a conference of the powers interested at Algeciras. In 1911
Germany again intervened by sending a warship to Agadir for the
protection of German property and German subjects. The action occasioned
a complication of the European situation, and all but resulted in war.
Germany’s claim for territorial compensation was not entertained by
France, and Great Britain, as ally of France, claimed the right to be
consulted if territory were to be conceded. The net result, after months
of diplomatic intercommunication, was a readjustment of frontiers. (See
German Colonial Possessions.)

The history of the German Empire since 1914 is chiefly that of the
leading Teutonic power in the great European war of 1914-1917.

[Illustration: =ST. PETER’S, ROME=

St. Peter’s is the largest church in the world, covering two hundred and
forty thousand square feet. It cost over sixty million dollars, took one
hundred and seventy-six years to build; contains many vast and beautiful
chapels, tombs of the popes, many paintings by great masters, and
sculptures by Bernini, Michaelangelo, Canova and Thorwaldsen.]


KINGDOM OF ITALY

  Modern Italy occupies the central of the three great peninsulas of
  southern Europe, together with Sicily, Sardinia, and some smaller
  islands. The peninsula, which at the Strait of Otranto approaches
  within less than fifty miles of Albania, is bounded west and south
  by that portion of the Mediterranean known as the Tyrrhenian Sea,
  east by the Adriatic, and north by the Alps, separating it from
  France, Switzerland and Austro-Hungary. The frontier with France is
  estimated at three hundred and seven miles; with Switzerland at four
  hundred and seven miles; and with Austria at four hundred and
  sixty-six miles. Its greatest length is seven hundred and ten miles;
  the breadth ranges from three hundred and fifty-one miles in the
  north to about twenty between the Gulfs of St. Eufemia and
  Squillace, but in most places is about ninety or one hundred miles.
  The seaboard of the peninsula extends to two thousand two hundred
  and seventy-two miles.

=Mountains and General Configuration.=--On the northern frontier the
Alps sweep round in a mighty arc from Nice to Trieste, running out in
places into Piedmont, Lombardy, and Venice. For the most part they rise
steep and abrupt, except where their wall is pierced by long, deep
valleys; and some of the loftiest peaks in the system, including Mont
Blanc and Monte Rosa, belong to this mountain-girdle.

The highest mountain entirely within the kingdom is Gran Paradiso, the
culminating point of the Graian Alps, in Piedmont. Between the Alps and
the Apennines spreads the broad fertile Lombardo-Venetian plain, a
nearly level country, which differs altogether in character from the
peninsula to the south, and for a long period was politically distinct
from it. Most of this great alluvial tract, which fills nearly the whole
of northern Italy, belongs to the basin of the Po; it is irrigated by
numerous streams and canals, and is one of the most fruitful and
flourishing districts of Italy.

This great northern plain--generally but a few feet above
sea-level--round which the Alps rise like a wall, is believed to have
been at one period an extension of the Adriatic Gulf, which has been
gradually filled up with rich alluvial soil worn down from the steep
sides of the mountains by the snow-fed torrents.

=The Apennines.=--The form of all the more strictly peninsular part of
Italy is given by the central range of the Apennines, which extends
continuously through its length from the maritime Alps of France, round
the head of the Gulf of Genoa, down to Cape Spartivento in the extreme
south. The Apennines have their highest part, called the Gran Sasso
d’Italia, “the great rock of Italy,” near the center of the long range.
The slopes of these heights to the sea, northeast and southwest, are so
short as to allow of only small rivers.

Nearly parallel with the southern part of the Apennine range, and
westward of it, there appears a more recent chain of isolated volcanic
heights. Chief of these, on the peninsula, is the cone of Vesuvius,
which rises abruptly from the Campagna of Naples, above the old cities
of Herculaneum and Pompeii, buried by its lava streams and ashes. North
of Rome, in this volcanic region, the round lakes of Bolsena and
Bracciano occupy the craters of old volcanoes. Carrying the line
southward, across the Tyrrhenian Sea, we come to the volcanic group of
the Lipari Islands, with the ever-active volcano of Stromboli; and
farther on to Mount Etna, in Sicily, the highest of European volcanoes.
Almost all the rest of Sicily, not volcanic, is covered with mountains
of moderate elevation, the main line of which extends along the northern
side of the island from east to west as if in continuation of the course
of the Apennines across the narrow Straight of Messina.

=Islands and their Surface.=--The island of Sardinia, separated from
Corsica by the Strait of Bonifacio, one hundred and fifty miles long
from north to south, is for the most part mountainous, especially along
the eastern side, in the middle of which rises the granitic Mount
Gennargentu.

The island of Elba, famous as the place of Napoleon’s exile, between
Corsica and the peninsula, eighteen miles long, is high, its western
part being formed by Mount Capanne, which rises to three thousand three
hundred and twenty-three feet. Capri, south of the Bay of Naples, where
the Emperor Tiberius passed the last ten years of his life, and Caprera,
Garibaldi’s home, on the north coast of Sardinia, are other noteworthy
islands.

=Rivers and Coast Waters.=--The principal rivers are fed from the Alpine
lakes. The Po, which descends from Monte Viso, on the western frontier,
and, as it sweeps across the plain, receives the contributions of
numerous important streams, ranks for its volume of water among the
notable rivers of Europe. It is navigable for three hundred and twenty
out of its four hundred and twenty miles, and several of its tributaries
are also navigable. Many of the Po’s tributaries spread out at the foot
of the Alps.

The province of Venice, to the north and east of the Po, is traversed by
the Adige, Brenta, Piave and Tagliamento.

Along the coast of the Adriatic, north and south of the Po delta, there
exist large tracts of salt water, known as lagoons, in a flat and marshy
district. They are separated from the sea by narrow banks of sand in
which are inlets, so that the lagoons serve as harbors. The chief of
these is that in which Venice is situated. It extends over nearly forty
miles from Torcello in the north to Chioggia and Brondolo in the south.
The other coast-line of northern Italy is formed by a narrow strip of
land, closed in by the steep, abrupt rocks of the Apennines, and known
as the Italian Riviera.

The Arno, next to the Tiber the most considerable river of central
Italy, rises on Mount Falterona, an offset of the Apennines, at four
thousand four hundred and forty-four feet above sea-level, and
twenty-five miles north of Arezzo. It flows one hundred and forty miles
westward to the sea, eleven miles below Pisa. At Florence it is four
hundred feet wide, but is fordable in summer.

The Tiber, the chief river of central Italy, and the most famous in the
peninsula, rises in a dell of the Tuscan Apennines, eleven miles north
of the village of Santo Stefano, whence it winds two hundred and sixty
miles, and enters the Mediterranean by two branches, which enclose the
Isola Sacra. Towns on or near its banks are Perugia, Orvieto, Rome and
Ostia. It is navigable for boats of fifty tons to the confluence of the
Nera, one hundred miles from its mouth. The Tiber is supplied mainly by
turbid mountain-torrents, whence its liability to sudden overflowings.
Its waters, too, are still discolored with yellow mud, as when the poet
Horace described it.

=Lakes.=--To the south of the Alps, in the north of Lombardy and Venice,
lie the beautiful Italian lakes, Lago di Garda, Maggiore, Como, Lugano,
and Orto.

LAKE OF COMO, the Lacus Larius of the Romans, is generally considered
the most beautiful of the group. It is about thirty-six miles long, and
its greatest width is three miles. Its shores are studded with
picturesque villages and charming villas, with a background of forest
and mountains, some of which are seven thousand feet high. The loveliest
point is Bellagio, where the lake divides into two arms. Cadenabbia, on
the western shore opposite Bellagio, is also a pleasant place.

Como, at the other extremity, is a thriving town of twenty-five thousand
inhabitants, the birthplace of Pliny the Younger and of Volta. The
cathedral is one of the best in Northern Italy.

LAKE OF LUGANO, between Como and Maggiore, though much smaller than
either, is scarcely their inferior in the loveliness of its scenery. It
lies at the southern foot of the Alps, eight hundred and eighty-nine
feet above sea-level. Its length is fourteen and one-half miles; average
breadth one and one-quarter miles; area nineteen and one-half square
miles; maximum depth nine hundred and fifteen feet, and average depth
two hundred and forty-six feet.

LAKE MAGGIORE (_Madjō´ray_), the largest of the Italian lakes, is about
forty-five miles in length, averages three miles in breadth, lies six
hundred and forty-six feet above sea-level, and has a maximum depth of
one thousand two hundred and fifty feet. The river Ticino flows through
it. In a southwestern expansion of the lake are the Borromean Isles. On
the Isola Bella is the large palace built by Count Vitaleo Borromeo
about a century ago, with terraced gardens, fountains, grottoes, etc.,
all very elaborate and artificial.

LAKE GARDA, a beautiful, clear lake, lies between Lombardy and Venetia,
its northern end extending into the Austrian Tyrol. Situated two hundred
and twenty-six feet above sea-level, it has an area of one hundred and
fifteen square miles, a greatest length of thirty-five miles, a breadth
of two to eleven miles, and a maximum depth of nine hundred and
sixty-seven feet. The surface is studded with many islands. It is
drained by the Mincio, a tributary of the Po. The mild climate and the
beauty of the vicinity have caused its shores to be lined with villas.

=Climatic and Landscape Features.=--The north of Italy has the excessive
climate of the temperate region of continental Europe; in the central
parts of the peninsula the climate becomes more genial and sunny, and to
the south almost tropical. The plain of Lombardy, with an average
temperature of fifty-five degrees Fahrenheit, has winters which are as
cold as those of the Scottish lowlands, and the lagoons of Venice have
been frozen over; but its summers are as hot as those of Rome or Nice.
The changes are few; rain lasts for weeks together in autumn, but in
summer the blue sky is never clouded except when a violent thunder and
hailstorm occurs.

About Florence the winters are much milder, with the same summer heat,
and this difference between the seasons decreases still more to
southward.

The summer of the Campagna of Rome, when a heat mist rises over the
plain, is almost unbearable; in January the sky is blue, the mornings
may be frosty, and fresh spring air blows over the land; in March the
trees are already leafy, and in June the harvest begins; in July
everything withers under the excessive heat, till the autumn rains
revive the land.

In Naples and South Italy the sky is cloudless for months together, and
the air is so pure that distant plains appear to be close at hand.

The chief faults of the Italian climate are the cold mountain winds
called the Tramontana, like the mistral of south France, and the Bora of
the north Adriatic, and, in contrast, the hot Sirocco, which
occasionally blows from the African deserts, besides the malaria of the
western coast marshes and of the Venetian lagoons.

Round the lakes at the base of the steep southern slope of the Alps,
Mediterranean forms of vegetation appear; the chestnut reaches up to two
thousand five hundred feet; above that comes the belt of beeches and
oaks, still higher the pine woods, then the pretty alpine plants and
high pastures. Scarcely any part of the world is so covered with
irrigating canals as the highly cultivated plain of Lombardy, so that
the whole of it appears like a great garden. At the northern base of the
Apennines the Mediterranean flora of laurels and myrtles, cork oak and
cypress, covers the first slopes; above that groups of oaks appear, then
beech woods and the extensive summer pastures which reach all over the
Apennine range. The Apennines have no permanent snows, but their highest
summits are frequently snow-clad between October and May, and send down
cold breezes into the warm valleys.

In Sicily the vegetation takes an African character, and many tropical
forms flourish; it is not a well-wooded island, but forests occur here
and there.

=Riviera= (_Ree-vee-ay´ra_ “seashore”), is a term applied to the narrow
strip of coast-land bordering the Gulf of Genoa, strictly from Nice to
Spezzia, but generally understood to include the whole coast of the Alps
Maritimes, and the Italian coast as far as Leghorn.

West of Genoa, and extending into France, it is called the Riviera di
Ponente, or western coast, and beyond Genoa the Riviera di Levante, or
eastern coast. From Hyères to Genoa is two hundred and three miles; from
Genoa to Leghorn one hundred and twelve miles. Sheltered on the north by
mountains, the district enjoys an exceptionally favored climate, no
other region north of Palermo and Valencia being so mild in winter.

The western section is the mildest and most frequented. It abounds in
the most striking and beautiful scenery, and is planted with numerous
health and fashion resorts--Nice, Monaco, Mentone, Ventimiglia, San
Remo, Bordighera, etc.; and west of Nice are Hyères, Fréjus, Cannes,
Gresse, Antibes.

The famous Corniche (Ital. _Cornice_) road, widened by Napoleon I.,
leads along the Mediterranean coast from Nice to Genoa, and commands
magnificent views.

=Products and Industries.=--Of the whole surface of Italy it is
estimated that eighty-three per cent is suitable for cultivation. The
greatest proportion of agricultural land, however, lies in the great
plain of Lombardy and the Campagna Felice of Naples. Notwithstanding
this, the supply of corn grown in Italy is not sufficient for its wants,
and more is imported from Russia, Egypt and North America. Maize and
wheat afford the staple food of the lower classes, as polenta and
macaroni.

=Agriculture and Stock-Raising.=--A sixth of the area of the kingdom is
covered with wood or bush, the island of Sardinia having the largest
forests of all the kingdom--the districts of Lake Como, of southern
Tuscany, and Genoa, being the best wooded parts of the mainland. The
olive grows all over peninsular Italy, and enormous quantities of oil
are produced, much being exported.

All parts of the country are suited to vine-growing. Most wine, however,
is made in south Italy and Sicily. Most horses are bred in Lombardy,
where cattle are also numerous on the dairy farms, which supply enormous
quantities of cheese. Tuscany has most sheep; Sicily the finest mules
and asses; Umbria the greatest number of swine. Coral fishers go out
from Naples, Leghorn (Livorno), and Genoa to the coasts of the Balearic
Isles and of Algeria and Tunis in large numbers.

=Minerals.=--The most important mineral product of Italy is the sulphur
of Sicily; iron is widely distributed, but is obtained in most
considerable quantity in Lombardy and Liguria; lead is an important
product of Tuscany; sea salt of the vicinity of Cagliari, the chief town
of the island of Sardinia. Famous pure white marble is quarried at
Carrara and Massa, on the northwest coast-land of Tuscany.

=Manufactures.=--The zenith period of Italian manufactures, when Milan
was famous for its wool-workers, Venice for its dyes, Florence for its
cloth, has long since passed away, and in this respect Italy now
occupies a low position.

Silk-growing, spinning, and weaving it, is now the most important
branch, and in this the towns of Lombardy--Bergamo, Como, Milan,
Turin--take the lead, followed by those in the plain round Naples, and
by Catania and Palermo in Sicily. Glass-making has also fallen from its
old position; the works at Intra, on Lake Maggiore, and the manufacture
of beads and mosaics at Venice, are, however, still very important.
Porcelain is made chiefly at Milan and Florence; straw hats at Vicenza,
in Venetia, and in Tuscany, whence they come to us as Leghorn hats, from
the port at which they are shipped.

=People and Language.=--The present Italian people have arisen from a
perfect chaos of races. The ancient Ligurians of Iberian race and the
Umbrians of the north were joined, from an unknown quarter, by the
strange people called Etruscans or Tuscans by the Romans, who exercised
such an immense influence on European civilization. The Greeks peopled
the south, and held Sicily along with the Phœnicians; the Romans spread
out from the center of the peninsula to extend their conquests far
beyond its limits; then the Goths and Franks poured in from the north,
and after them the Longobards, who gave their name to Lombardy. The
Savoyards and Waldenses of the valleys of Piedmont along the French
border appear to be of Gallic descent. Insular Sardinia was free from
the irruptions of the northern people, but came under the influence of
the Greeks, the Arabs, and then of the Spaniards.

Here, as in France and Spain, the Roman language endured and prevailed
over all others, and now the people of Italy have one language and
literature, the Italian, descended from the Latin. Its dialects show
traces of the mixture of nationalities, but the Tuscan has now become
classic, for the great writers, like Dante and Boccassio were Tuscans.

=Religion.=--The Roman Catholic Church is reorganized as the state
church, but toleration is granted to all creeds. Over ninety-seven per
cent of the population is Roman Catholic. By the Act of 1871 the rank of
the Pope as a sovereign prince is recognized, the Vatican and Lateran
palaces and the papal villa at Castel Gandolfo having the privilege of
exterritoriality. Protestants number about sixty-six thousand, which
include some twenty-two thousand Waldensians; and there are about
thirty-eight thousand Jews, and about two thousand five hundred members
of the Greek Orthodox Church.

=Education= is controlled by the state under a minister of public
instruction, assisted by a council. Primary education is free and
compulsory, and the state also maintains, partly or wholly, secondary,
technical schools, and the universities. There are thirteen
universities. Private schools may not be opened without state
authorization.

=Cities.=--The largest city is Naples. Rome is the capital. Milan,
Turin, Palermo, Genoa, Florence, rank next. There are four others with
about one hundred and fifty thousand, and twenty-three towns over fifty
thousand.

=ROME=, the “city of the seven hills,” contains more objects of interest
than any other city in the world. It is situated mainly on the left or
east bank of the Tiber, about fifteen miles from its mouth. The river,
which has here an average breadth of two hundred feet, is spanned by
eleven bridges in its course from north to south through the city.

=The Seven Hills.=--On the left bank rise the famous seven hills of
ancient Rome, which, from north to south, are the Aventine, Cœlian,
Palatine, Capitoline, Esquiline, Viminal, and Quirinal. These hills rise
from eighty to one hundred and twenty feet above the river and the
intervening valleys.

[Illustration: =VIEW OF ROME FROM ST. PETER’S=]

The Royal Palace and chief public offices are upon, or adjoin, the
Quirinal Hill. The Aventine and the Cœlian are, in large part, not built
upon. The Esquiline and Viminal are modern industrial quarters. The
Palatine, with the Forum below it on the east, are covered with
important ancient ruins. The Capitoline, crowned by the Capitol, the
most imposing of the hills, the center of ancient life and worships,
has, apart from the new monument of Victor Emmanuel, suffered little
change since the sixteenth century.

=Mediæval and Rome= occupies chiefly the plain, known as the Campus
Martius of ancient times, nearer the river, and on the slopes of the
Pincian Hill, to the north, extending thence eastward to the Quirinal
and Viminal. The smaller part of Rome, on the right or west bank,
comprises the Borgo, or district, containing St. Peter’s, the Vatican,
the Castle of St. Angelo, and the Janiculum Hill, to the north, with the
Trastevere quarter, to the south.

The entire city is surrounded by a wall fourteen miles in circuit, with
thirteen gates, the wall on the left bank being substantially identical
with Aurelian’s Wall, built in the third century; while the Leonine Wall
round the Borgo was extended in the early sixteenth century.

=Modern Features and Districts.=--The business part of the city occupies
the plain on the bank between the hills and river, traversed by the Via
del Corso, the principal thoroughfare in Rome, about a mile in length,
leading from the Porto del Popolo to the foot of the Capitoline Hill,
where is situated the great National Monument to Victor Emmanuel. From
the Piazza del Popolo two great streets diverge on either side of the
Corso, the Via di Ripetta to the right, skirting the Tiber, and to the
left the Via del Babuino, leading to the Piazza di Spagna, whence the
Scala di Spagna, the resort of artists’ models, ascends to the Pincian
Gardens, on the site of the gardens of Lucullus, which command a
splendid view of the city, and form the fashionable drive and promenade.

Of the new streets the most important are the Via Venti Settembre, the
Via Cavour, and the Via Nazionale. The older foreign quarter lay at the
foot of the Pincian, around the Piazza di Spagna, but the healthier
sites on the slopes and summits of the Quirinal and Esquiline are now
more frequented.

Rome abounds in open Squares (_Piazzas_) adorned with fountains,
obelisks, or statues. Eleven Egyptian obelisks still ornament the
gardens and piazzas of Rome, brought by Augustus and others. That in the
Piazza of St. John Lateran, one hundred and four feet in height, is the
largest in existence. It was erected at Thebes by Thothmes III., and
removed by Constantine to the Circus Maximus. The triumphal arches of
Septimius Severus, of Titus, and of Constantine are still conspicuous.
Of the bridges over the Tiber, three are ancient.

The antiquities are legion, some of the most interesting are clustered
within the area from the Colosseum to the crest of the Capitoline Hill.

[Illustration: =SITE OF THE FORUM OF TRAJAN=

The Forum consisted of three parts: the forum proper, the huge Basilica
Ulpie, and the temple of Trajan, with it colonnaded inclosure. It was
once the grandest building in Rome. Trajan’s Column, still standing, is
a Roman Doric column of marble, on a square basement, the total height,
exclusive of the present statue of St. Peter, being one hundred and
twenty-seven and one-half feet. The entire shaft is occupied by vigorous
and lifelike reliefs ascending in a spiral, representing Trajan’s
campaigns. The reliefs contain about two thousand five hundred human
figures, besides those of animals and inanimate objects.]

=Famous Architectural Edifices, Ancient and Modern.=--The remains of
ancient Rome have suffered severely from the vandalism and the neglect
of past centuries, but they are now carefully preserved. The Forum, in
some places nearly forty feet below the present street level, has been
in great part excavated, and near it are many vestiges of by-gone Roman
splendor, including columns, arches and ruins of temples.

ROMAN FORUM.--In remote times, the marshy ground which later became the
site of this famous Forum served as _neutral territory_ whereon both the
Romans (who occupied the Palatine Hill), and the Sabines (who occupied
the Capitoline Hill) could meet. Gradually it became a market-place and
an exchange, till, at length, all the important business of Rome and of
the Empire came to be concentrated in and about the Forum.

A portico was built around the Forum, the first story being devoted to
shops and the second to offices for the collection of taxes. After some
centuries, these were destroyed by fire, when various basilicas and
temples were erected in their places. The Forum existed as such till the
eleventh century, A. D., when it was totally destroyed by Robert
Guiscard. Becoming then a waste, the rubbish of the city was thrown
there until the entire space was filled to the depth of twenty-four feet
and the location and names of the ancient buildings lost. In the revival
of learning, in the sixteenth century, interest began to be awakened in
the ruins of ancient Rome, and, in 1547, excavations of the Forum were
commenced, under Paul III., which, with much irregularity have continued
to the present day.

[Illustration: =ARCH OF SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS=

An arch in the Roman Forum, dedicated 203 A. D., in commemoration of
victories over the Parthians. It is of Pentelic marble, with a central
arch and two side arches, flanked by four Corinthian columns on each
face. There are panels over the side arches and a frieze above all with
reliefs of Roman triumphs.]

[Illustration: =ARCH OF CONSTANTINE=

Built in 312 A. D. in honor of Constantine’s triumph over Maxentius.
Much of its abundant sculpture was taken from the destroyed church of
Trajan.]

The most conspicuous remains of the Forum are the columns of the Temple
of Saturn, the temples of Castor and Pollux and of Vesta, and on its
northern side the arch of Septimius Severus, the Curia, the Basilica
Æmilia, and the temples of Antoninus and Faustina and of Romulus. In the
middle of the eastern part rose the temple and forum of Julius Cæsar.
The more ancient and famous forum from which Cicero spoke was at the
western end.

The latest excavations in the Roman Forum, including the stele and black
stone of Romulus, the Basilica Æmilia, the Chapel of Santa Maria
Antiqua, and the House of the Vestal Virgins, are of extraordinary
interest.

It was traversed by the _Via Sacra_, a winding road which led from the
southern gate of Rome to the Capitol, and was the route by which
triumphal processions passed to the Temple of Jupiter. The Arch of Titus
was at its summit. The great blocks of lava with which this road was
paved still, for the most part, remain.

Beyond it stands the great Column of Trajan, one hundred and twenty-four
feet in height, with spiral bas-reliefs representing scenes from
Trajan’s campaigns against the Dacians, forming the most instructive
historical monument in Rome.

=Palaces and Art Collections.=--THE VATICAN PALACE, the residence of the
pope, adjoining St. Peter’s, enjoys along with the Lateran the privilege
of “exterritoriality.” The massive building, said to include eleven
thousand apartments, contains the finest extant collection of ancient
sculpture, with many celebrated statues, a rich gallery of paintings, a
famous library, and other collections, besides the Sistine Chapel,
adorned with frescoes by Michaelangelo and other masters, and the Stanze
and Loggie, with paintings by Raphael and his contemporaries.

[Illustration: =VATICAN PALACE AND GARDENS=]

[Illustration: =THRONE ROOM OF THE POPE, VATICAN PALACE=]

THE QUIRINAL PALACE, another huge pile on the hill of that name, is
occupied by the king. In the Piazza del Quirinale are two famous marble
groups of Horse-Tamers.

THE VILLA UMBERTO PRIMO, formerly Borghese, outside the Porta del
Popolo, is noted for its beautiful grounds, which are a favorite
promenade connecting with that on the Pincian Hill by an embankment and
bridge opened in 1908. The Casino contains the picture-gallery formerly
in the Palazzo Borghese. It is now an important National Museum, and is
arranged according to schools. Among the masterpieces are Titian’s
Sacred and Profane Love, Raphael’s Entombment, Correggio’s Danaë, etc.

THE PALAZZO BARBERINI, built by Urban VIII., is a large and magnificent
structure, but chiefly notable for a small picture-gallery, the gems of
which are Raphael’s Fornarina, and Guido’s Beatrice Cenci. The library
contains seven thousand manuscripts, many of which are rare.

VILLA MEDICI (_ma´de-che_), was built in 1540, south of the Pincio, for
Cardinal Ricci. About 1600 it came into the possession of the Medici
family, and afterward into that of the grand dukes of Tuscany. Galileo
was confined there 1630-1633. The French Academy of Art, founded by
Louis XIV., was transferred to it in 1801, and it has a fine collection
of casts.

PALACES OF THE EMPERORS.--On the western side of the Forum Romanum rises
the Palatine Hill, its summit covered with the substructures of the
Palaces of the Emperors, the Houses of Augustus, of Tiberius, of Livia,
of Caligula, of Domitian, and of Hadrian. Most magnificent of all is the
Palace of Septimius Severus, rising in seven stages of massive masonry,
which form a southern extension of the Palatine Hill.

Besides these imperial palaces, the Palatine included a magnificent
Stadium, the most perfect in existence, imperial reception halls,
several temples, with gardens, baths, barracks for soldiers, and a
basilica or hall of justice, in which St. Paul must have pleaded before
the emperor.

The Golden House of Nero, built on the opposite side of the Forum, and
occupying the greater portion of the Oppian Hill, was demolished to make
room for the Colosseum and the Baths of Titus.

THE COLISEUM (or Colosseum), originally called the Flavian Amphitheatre,
was begun by Vespasian in A. D. 72, and dedicated by Titus eight years
later. It was built for gladiatorial exhibitions and for the combats of
wild beasts. It is the largest structure of the kind ever built, being
capable of seating from forty to fifty thousand spectators. Though
scarcely a third of the original edifice remains, it is by far the most
imposing monument of antiquity that the Imperial City has to show.

THE PANTHEON is the most perfect of the ancient buildings in Rome. It
was built B. C. 27 by M. Agrippa, and restored by Septimius Severus and
Caracalla about A. D. 202, and has suffered much since. The vast round
walls of brick, twenty feet thick, were once covered with marble. The
portico (now below, but once above, the square) has sixteen huge
monolithic columns of Oriental granite, thirty-nine feet high, with
Corinthian capitals of famed beauty. Statues of Augustus and Agrippa
once stood here. The circular interior is very impressive, and is
lighted from a place twenty-eight feet across in the center of the dome,
open to the sky.

This unrivalled dome is one hundred and forty feet high and one hundred
and forty feet across. The gilded bronze roof-tiles were carried to
Constantinople in 655; and all the other bronzes were used in making
cannon for the citadel and the canopy in St. Peter’s. The seven niches
in which statues of the gods stood are now occupied by altars. Raphael
is buried here, near his betrothed, Cardinal Bibiena’s niece; and here
is the tomb of King Victor Emmanuel of Italy.

THE CAPITOL, which is one hundred and sixty feet above the sea level and
is best approached by the grand staircase known as La Cordonnata. At its
foot are two lions of Egyptian porphyry; at its head the ancient
colossal statues of Castor and Pollux. Beyond these on either side are
the sculptures misnamed “the Trophies of Marius” and the statues of
Constantine and his son from the Baths of Constantine on the Quirinal.
The open space here is the Piazza del Campidoglio, the ancient
Intermontium, where Brutus harangued the people after the murder of
Cæsar. In the center is the celebrated statue of Marcus Aurelius, “the
only perfect ancient equestrian statue in existence.” It owes its
preservation to the fact that it was long supposed to be a statue of
Constantine. On the right is the Palace of the Conservatori, on the left
the Museum of the Capitol, both designed by Michaelangelo; between the
two, occupying the third side of the square, is the Palace of the
Senator, on the site of the ancient Tabularium. The fountain at the foot
of the stairs is adorned with statues of river-gods, the Tiber and the
Nile. The tower contains the great bell which is rung only to announce
the opening of the carnival or the death of a pope.

THE CAPITOLINE MUSEUM contains some of the most famous sculptures
extant, as the Dying Gladiator, the Venus of the Capitol, the Faun of
Praxiteles, the Antinous, etc. There is also the rich collection of
busts and statues of Roman emperors and empresses, statesmen,
philosophers, etc., “perhaps the most interesting portrait gallery in
the world.”

[Illustration: =VILLA UMBERTO PRIMO (FORMERLY VILLA BORGHESE), ROME=

Has art collections considered only second in importance to that of the
Vatican, and, despite the removal of many works, the number of really
great paintings retains for the collection its old pre-eminence.]

[Illustration: =THE MAGNIFICENT VILLA MEDICI, ROME=]

=Famous Churches.=--Ancient Rome contained about three hundred temples,
and modern Rome has about as many churches, eighty of which are
dedicated to the Virgin. St. Peter’s, St. John Lateran, S. Maria
Maggiore on the top of the Esquiline, S. Paolo fuori le Mura (“outside
the walls”), perhaps the most gorgeously decorated church in Rome, and
S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura are the five Patriarchal churches, to one or
other of which all believers throughout the world are supposed to
belong. With Santa Croce in Gerusalemme and S. Sebastiano, they make up
the famous “Seven Churches of Rome” frequented by pilgrims. They are
also unsurpassed in their rich architectural and art interests.

ST. PETER’S, adjoining the Vatican, perhaps the most famous and
certainly the largest church in the world, has an area nearly twice that
of St. Paul’s in London, while its dome rises to the height of four
hundred and three feet.

Many architects were concerned in the building of the Cathedral of St.
Peter, but the principal credit is assigned to Bramante, the creator of
the design, and to Michaelangelo, whose chief work is the dome. To the
spectator, approaching from the Piazza di San Pietro, the majesty of the
dome is lost behind the façade, erected at the instance of Pope Paul V.
at the end of the nave lengthened by him in order to work out the idea
of a Latin cross; the design of Bramante was a Greek cross.

[Illustration: =CHURCH OF ST. JOHN LATERAN, ROME, THE MOTHER CHURCH OF
CHRISTENDOM=]

The building was commenced in 1506, but was not completed until 1626;
the total cost of erection was about fifty million dollars, and its
maintenance absorbs annually about forty thousand dollars.

It covers about eighteen thousand square yards; the length is two
hundred and thirty-two yards, of the transept one hundred and fifty
yards; height of the nave one hundred and fifty-one feet; height of the
dome from the pavement to the summit of the lantern four hundred and
four feet; to the summit of the cross four hundred and thirty-four feet.

Besides the high altar there are twenty-nine other altars; the high
altar being immediately over the Tomb of St. Peter. Round the Confessio
are ninety-five lamps, always lighted. The bronze statue of St. Peter,
on white marble, under a canopy, is by a pillar; the right foot of which
is worn smooth by the kisses of worshipers.

ST. JOHN LATERAN. (It. _San Giovanni in Laterano_), adjoining the papal
palace of the Lateran, claims to be the mother-church of all
Christendom. It was originally named from the Roman family Lateranus.
Beside it are its ancient Baptistery and a building enclosing the Scala
Santa, brought from Pilate’s palace in Jerusalem in 326.

Many other of the Roman churches contain treasures of art or are
interesting for their structure or history. S. Maria Sopra Minerva is
the only ancient Gothic church in the city. S. Pietro in Vincoli
contains Michaelangelo’s famous statue of Moses; and S. Maria delle Pace
Raphael’s beautiful frescoes of the Sibyls. The Gesù is the chief church
of the Jesuits. San Carlo al Corso is the fashionable church.

=Roads.=--The roads leading out of Rome beyond the Servian Walls were
bordered by tombs, many of which, on the erection of the Aurelian Wall,
were included within the city. The most famous of these celebrated roads
was the:

APPIAN WAY (called Regina Viarum) was begun B. C. 312 by Appius
Claudius, and ran to Capua, and afterwards to Brindisi, forming main
route to southern Italy, Greece and Egypt. There are beautiful views all
along, of Campagna, aqueducts, and Alban Mountains.

[Illustration: =APPIAN WAY=

A famous Roman military road, the skill with which it is taken through
difficult country, over hills, ravines, and marshes, is remarkable.
Horace, in his first satire, describes a journey along it, and St. Paul
came this way into Rome (Acts xxviii. 15).]

On Via Appia are Catacombs of S. Calixtus, with tombs of St. Cecilia and
many second and third century popes and martyrs, and seventh-century
Byzantine paintings. A quarter of a mile beyond is very ancient S.
Sebastiano Church under which are extensive catacombs. On a hill still
beyond stands the famous Tomb of Cæcilia Metella, round, sixty-five feet
in diameter, and in thirteenth century a tower of now vanished castle of
the Gaetani. Beyond, the Way is bordered by ancient tombs on either
side, and the old Latin pavement is the road-bed.

At Trivoli is Hadrian’s Villa (Villa Adriana) an extensive ruin, with
the gardens covering about 170 acres.

[Illustration: =POPE PIUS X. IN THE BED IN WHICH HE DIED=

(_Picture by Cav. G. Felici_)]

[Illustration: =PROCLAMATION OF POPE BENEDICT XV.= (Cardinal della
Chiesa) =IN FRONT OF ST. PETER’S, ROME= (_From a Painting_)]

=Florence= (Lat. _Florentia_ Ital. _Firenze_), one of the most famous of
Italian cities, is situated fifty miles from the sea, in the valley of
the Arno, and is built on both sides of the river, but chiefly on the
north. The outlying suburbs are singularly beautiful, and are surrounded
by finely wooded hills, bright with gay villas and charming gardens. The
old city itself is characterized by a somber grandness, and is full of
fine buildings of historic and artistic interest.

The chief building in the city is the Duomo, or Cathedral, the
foundations of which were laid with great solemnity in 1298; but not
until 1887 was the completed façade uncovered. The church contains
sculptures by Ghiberti, Luca della Robbia, Michælangelo, Sansovino,
Bandinelli, and other famous artists.

At the side of the cathedral springs up the light and elegant Campanile,
detached, according to the custom of the times. In front is the
Baptistery in the form of an octagon, supporting a cupola and lantern.
Three bronze gates in basso rilievo are a great additional adornment of
the Baptistery; the two by Ghiberti have been immortalized by
Michælangelo, with the name of Gates of Paradise.

The church of the Santa Croce, the Pantheon of Florence (built in 1294),
contains monuments to Galileo, Dante, Macchiavelli, Michælangelo,
Alfieri and others.

Among the numerous palaces Il Bargello, long a prison, but now restored
and opened as a national museum, is one of the most ancient.

The Palazzo Vecchio, the seat of the republican government from its
establishment till its abolition in 1530, is an imposing mass of
building. Adjoining the palace is the Piazza della Signoria, a square
containing a fine collection of statues, and a noble arcade, the Loggia
dei Lanzi.

The Uffizi Palace is a handsome building adjoining the Palazzo Vecchio,
founded by Cosmo I. On the second floor is contained the famous
Florentine gallery of art. A splendid apartment, known as the Tribuna,
contains the rarest treasures of the collection.

The Pitti Palace, formerly the grand-ducal residence, boasts of a superb
gallery of paintings. Behind it are the beautiful Boboli Gardens royal.
The Strozzi Palace is a fine type of Tuscan architecture.

Florence is the city of Dante, Petrarch, Michaelangelo, Leonardo da
Vinci, Boccaccio, Machiavelli, Galileo and many more of Italy’s great
men, and has a history of exceptional interest. It is an educational
center, and carries on a trade in straw-plaiting and silk, sculptures,
jewelry, and exquisite mosaics in rare stones.

=Genoa= (Ital. _Genova_), is situated on the Mediterranean gulf of the
same name, at the foot of the Apennines, and is an important seaport. By
rail it is eight hundred and one miles southeast of Paris, one hundred
and seventy-one miles northeast of Marseilles, and ninety-three miles
southwest of Milan. The slopes of the hills behind the city down to the
shore are covered with buildings, terraced gardens, and orange and
pomegranate groves; while the bleak summits of the loftier ranges,
rising still farther back, are capped with strong forts, batteries, and
outworks.

While strikingly grand as viewed from the sea, and so far worthy of
being entitled “Genoa the Superb,” is in reality built awkwardly on
irregular rising ground, and consists of a labyrinth of narrow and
intricate lanes. Of the palaces the most famous are the former palace of
the doges, now the meeting-place of the senate; and the Doria, presented
in 1529 to the great Genoese citizen Andrea Doria. Foremost among the
churches stands the Cathedral, a grand twelfth-century pile in the
Italian Gothic style. The marble Municipal Palace and the palace of the
Dogana must also be mentioned.

To Columbus and Mazzini, Genoa’s most famous sons, there are fine
monuments.

It is the commercial outlet for a wide extent of country, of which the
chief exports are rice, wine, olive-oil, silk goods, coral, paper,
macaroni and marble. The principal industrial establishments of the city
embrace ironworks, cotton and cloth mills, macaroni-works, tanneries,
sugar-refineries, and vesta-match, filigree, and paper factories. Genoa
benefited greatly by the opening of the St. Gothard Railway.

=Milan= (_me-lan´_, _mil´an_. Ital. _Milano_, _mee-lah´no_), the capital
of Lombardy, is one of the largest and wealthiest cities of Italy. It
was an important town under the Romans, was sacked by Attila in 452,
totally destroyed by Frederic Barbarossa in 1162, and has figured
prominently in more recent history.

The city, nearly circular in shape, is surrounded on three sides by
walls, has a circuit of nearly eight miles, and is entered by fourteen
gates.

Of the numerous churches the magnificent Gothic Cathedral is the most
famous. It is second only to St. Peter’s and Seville Cathedrals in size
and was built principally during the period 1386-1500. After many delays
and interruptions, work was resumed under Napoleon I. in 1805, but is
not yet fully completed. The façade has recently been restored. It is
cruciform, with double aisles and transept-aisles, separated by
fifty-two pillars, each twelve feet in diameter, with niches crowded
with statues. Interior four hundred and seventy-seven feet long, one
hundred and eighty-three feet wide and one hundred and fifty-five feet
high. It contains six thousand statues, a pavement of marble mosaic,
vast granite monoliths, superb stained windows, many tombs of magnates,
St. Carlo Borromeo’s wooden crucifix and gorgeous tomb, and life-size
silver statues of saints. The wonderful marble roof is studded with
ninety-eight Gothic turrets, hundreds of pinnacles, and over two
thousand life-size marble statues.

Of the other churches S. Maria delle Grazie (fifteenth century), partly
the work of Bremante, was originally an abbey church, and the refectory
in the rear contains Leonardo da Vinci’s celebrated fresco of the Last
Supper, which, in 1909, was successfully restored.

The Brera Palace (twelfth century), formerly a Jesuit college, has now a
great gallery of paintings by Raphael, Da Vinci, Luini, Mantegna, the
Bellinis, Titian, Vandyck, and others, an academy of art, a collection
of casts, the magnificent monument of Gaston de Foix, the National
Library, an archaeological museum, and an observatory.

The colonnade of Victor Emmanuel Gallery is the finest arcade in the
world, and was built in 1865-1867 at a cost of one million six hundred
thousand dollars. It is nine hundred and sixty feet long, forty-eight
feet wide, ninety-four feet high, surrounded by handsome shops, richly
frescoed, and adorned with statues of Raphael, Galileo, Dante, Cavour,
and twenty other famous Italians. The octagon under the dome (one
hundred and eighty feet high) is brilliantly lighted at night, when it
forms a favorite promenade.

On the adjacent Piazza della Scala is Leonardo da Vinci’s monument, and
the massive Municipal Palace. The Arch of Peace, built of white marble,
commemorates the exploits of Napoleon. The Della Scala Opera House is
the second in size (after San Carlo at Naples) in Italy; and the Milan
conservatoire is the most famous school of music in Europe.

Beccaria, Manzoni, the popes Pius IV. and Gregory XIV. were natives of
Milan. The city now carries on a vast trade, much increased since the
opening of the Gothard railroad, in raw silk, cotton, grain, rice, and
cheese, and manufactures silks, velvets, gold, silver, and iron wares,
railroad carriages, tobacco, porcelain, electrical apparatus, and is an
active center of the printing trade.

=Naples= (Ital. Napoli _nä´pō-lē´_).--The capital of the province of
Naples has a lovely situation within the bend of Naples Bay, spreading
from the foreshore back upon wooded hills and rising terraces, behind
which lie the snow-clad Apennines. To the east lies the old town with
its historic Via di Roma and narrow crowded thoroughfares; the newer
portion to the west is more spaciously laid out, and much has been done
in recent years over the whole city to improve the sanitation and water
supply. The National Museum, rich in Pompeii relics, the University,
the National Library, the Cathedral and the four mediæval gateways are
the chief architectural features.

Large quantities of wine, olive-oil, chemicals, perfumery, etc., are
exported, while woolen, silk, linen, glove and other factories carry on
a good home trade.

Naples became incorporated in the kingdom of Italy in 1861 after the
Bourbon dynasty had been swept away by Garibaldi.

[Illustration: =RUINS OF POMPEII, ITALY=]

POMPEII (pron. _Pom-pay’yee_), once a Greek seaport at the mouth of the
Sarnus, is fifteen miles south of Naples; it fell into the possession of
Rome about 80 B. C., and was converted into a watering-place, “the
pleasure haunt of paganism.” The Romans erected many handsome public
buildings, and their villas and theaters and baths were models of
classic architecture and the scenes of unbounded luxury. The streets
were narrow, provided with sidewalks, the walls often decorated with
paintings, and the number of shops witnesses to the fashion and gaiety
of the town. A terrible earthquake ruined it and drove out the
inhabitants in A. D. 63; they returned and rebuilt it, however, in a
tawdry and decadent style, and luxury and pleasure reigned as before
till in A. D. 79 an eruption of Vesuvius buried everything in lava and
ashes. The ruins were forgotten till accidentally discovered in 1748;
since 1860 the city has been disinterred under the auspices of the
Italian Government, and is now a favorite resort of tourists and
archæologists.

[Illustration: =BEAUTIFUL SORRENTO, ITALY=]

HERCULANEUM, so called from the local worship of Hercules, was situated
at the northwestern base of Mount Vesuvius, five miles east of Naples.
In 63 A. D. it was seriously injured by a violent earthquake, and, in 79
A. D., buried, along with Pompeii and Stabiæ, by the memorable eruption
of Vesuvius. In 1738 systematic excavations were commenced, the chief
building explored being the theater, which has eighteen rows of stone
seats, and could accommodate eight thousand persons; part of the Forum
with a colonnade, two small temples, and a villa have also been
discovered, and from these buildings many beautiful statues and
remarkable paintings have been obtained.

In 1880 ruins of extensive baths were brought to light. Among the
art-relics of Herculaneum, which far exceed in value and interest those
found at Pompeii, are the statues of Eschines, Agrippina, the Sleeping
Faun, the Six Actresses, Mercury, the group of the Satyr and the Goat,
the busts of Plato, Scipio Africanus, Augustus, Seneca and
Demosthenes--mostly now in the National Museum at Naples.

[Illustration: =VIEW OF THE CAMPANILE AND PALACE, VENICE, FROM THE GRAND
CANAL=]

=Palermo= (_pä-ler’mō_), capital of the province of Palermo, Sicily, a
seaport on the Bay of Palermo, at the foot of Monte Pellegrino, is
picturesquely situated in the midst of a beautiful and fertile valley
called the Golden Shell. It is a handsome town, with many public
buildings and nearly three hundred churches in Moorish and Byzantine
architecture, a university, art school, museum, and libraries.

The industries are unimportant, but a busy trade is done with Britain,
France and the United States, exporting fruits, wine, sulphur, etc., and
importing textiles, coal, machinery and grain.

[Illustration: =VISTA ON THE GRAND CANAL, VENICE=]

=Sorrento= (_sōr-ren’tō_), a town in the province of Naples, beautifully
situated on the Bay of Naples, sixteen miles south-southeast of Naples,
is a favorite watering-place; was noted in antiquity for its wines; and
was the birthplace of Tasso.

=Turin= (Ital. Torino _tō-re’nō_).--Capital of the province of Turin,
Italy, is situated on the Po, near its junction with the Dora Riparia.
It is regularly built, with many squares and broad streets; is the seat
of important trade for northern Italy; has varied manufactures; and is
rapidly growing. It contains a university, cathedral, castle (Palazzo
Madama), royal palace (with the royal armory and library), Palazzo
Carignano (former seat of Parliament, now containing collections in
natural history), palace of the Academy of Sciences (with a museum of
antiquities and picture-gallery), monument of Cavour, etc. Victor
Emmanuel and Cavour were born there.

[Illustration: =ST. MARK’S CATHEDRAL AND CAMPANILE FROM THE PLAZA=]

Turin was the ancient capital of the Taurini (whence the name); was
captured by Hannibal in 218 B. C.; and has played an important part in
the history of Europe. It figured prominently in the national movements
of the nineteenth century, and was the capital of the kingdom of Italy
1859-1865.

=Venice= (_ven’is_ Ital. _Venezia_), capital of the province of Venice,
is situated in the Laguns (lagoons) in a bay of the Adriatic. Now Venice
covers more than seventy-two islets, or rather mud-banks, its
foundations being piles (“time-petrified”) and stone. Through its two
unequal portions winds for over two miles the Grand Canal, spanned by
the Rialto Bridge (of stone) and two others (of iron), and into it flow
one hundred and forty-six lesser canals, all bridged at frequent
intervals. This vast network of waterway is patrolled by countless
gondolas, while the pedestrian has his choice of innumerable lanes
(calli). A railway viaduct, two and one-eighth miles long, connects
Venice with the mainland.

The Piazza di San Marco, a square five hundred and seventy-six feet long
and one hundred and eighty-five to two hundred and seventy feet wide,
paved with gray trachyte and white Istrian marble, surrounded by
time-stained marble palaces and St. Mark’s Church is the picturesque
center of Venetian life, especially at evening, when the bands play, and
the cafés are crowded by thousands. Flocks of fat pigeons have been fed
here by the city daily for seven hundred years. Palaces enclose three
sides and the palace arcades are occupied by cafés and bric-à-brac
shops.

Of its public buildings the following are the principal: the Ducal
Palace, standing on the site of a former official residence of the
Doges, which was burned in 976. Besides its painted ceilings and walls
there are many pictures by the Italian masters; the Academy of Fine Arts
whose twenty rooms are filled with some of the finest works of the Old
Masters. Its principal churches are St. Marco, St. Giorgio Maggiore, and
Sta. Maria della Salute, are all most highly decorated with frescoes,
mosaics, and carvings, besides containing many world-famed pictures. The
Campanile of St. Marco has been rebuilt since its fall, on July 14,
1902, after standing a thousand years. The palaces of the nobility on
the Grand Canal and other canals contain priceless collections of
pictures. The Arsenal contains many models of the old Venetian ships,
armor, collections of weapons, and spoils of war.

Venice was noted for its textile manufactures as early as the fifteenth
century; the principal manufactures at the present time are tapestry,
brocades, Venetian laces, wood carving, artistic wrought-iron work,
jewelry, bronzes, machinery, and clocks, and at Murano glass and glass
beads.

=Italian Seaports.=--The chief seaports of Italy after Genoa, “the
Superb,” which is the busiest of all, are in order round the
coast--Livorno, or Leghorn, the port of Tuscany and Florence; Civita
Vecchia, the port of Latium; Naples, with Castellamare on the south side
of its bay; Messina, on the Sicilian side of the Strait named after it,
with one of the finest harbors in Europe, beside the eddy which was
feared as the whirlpool of Charybdis in ancient times; Palermo, “la
Felice,” in the vale of the Golden Shell, on the north coast of Sicily;
Catania, on the east coast of the island. Coming round to the Adriatic
coasts we reach the port of Brindisi, a notable point in the most direct
route from western Europe to Egypt and the East. The most important line
of railway in Italy, that leads from the plain of Lombardy all down the
east side of the peninsula, has the port of Brindisi as its objective
point. Farther north in the middle of this coast is Ancona, the port of
the Marches. Lastly we come to Chioggia and Venice, the city of canals
and bridges, described above.


HISTORY OF ITALY

  The ancient history of Italy will be found under Rome. The modern
  history begins with 476 A. D., when Odoacer, chief of the Herulians,
  a German tribe who had invaded the country, was proclaimed king of
  Italy. After a reign of twelve years he and his followers were
  overpowered by the Ostrogoths under Theodoric the Great. The
  Ostrogoths were in turn subdued by Byzantine troops, and Italy came
  under the dominion of the Eastern emperors, who ruled through an
  exarch residing at Ravenna.

THE LOMBARDS.--In 568 the Lombards (Langobardi), a German people
originally from the Elbe, led by their king, Alboin, conquered the Po
basin, and founded a kingdom which had its capital at Pavia. The kingdom
of the Lombards included Upper Italy, Tuscany and Umbria, with some
outlying districts. But on the northeast coast, the inhabitants of the
lagoons still retained their independence, and in 697 elected their
first doge, and founded the republic of Venice.

Ravenna, the seat of the exarch, with Romagna, Rimini, Ancona, and other
maritime cities on the Adriatic, and almost all the coasts of Lower
Italy, remained unconquered, together with Sicily and Rome. The slight
dependence of this part of Italy on the court of Byzantium disappeared
almost entirely in the beginning of the eighth century.

RISE OF PAPAL POWER.--The power of the pope, though at first recognized
only as a kind of paternal authority of the bishop, grew steadily in
these troubled times, especially in the struggle against the Lombard
kings. In consideration of the aid expected against King Astolphus, Pope
Stephen III. (754) not only anointed the king of the Franks, Pepin, but
appointed him patrician or governor of Rome. In return Pepin presented
the exarchate of Ravenna, with the five maritime cities, to the pope,
thus laying the foundation of the temporal power of the Holy See. At the
invitation of Pope Hadrian I. Charlemagne made war upon Desiderius, the
king of the Lombards, took him prisoner in his capital, Pavia (774), and
united his empire with the Frankish monarchy. Italy, with the exception
of the duchy of Benevento and the republics of Lower Italy, thus became
a constituent part of the Frankish monarchy, and the imperial crown of
the West was bestowed on Charlemagne (800).

PORT OF THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE.--On the breaking up of the Carlovingian
empire, Italy became a separate kingdom, and the scene of strife between
Teutonic invaders. At length Otto the Great was crowned emperor at Rome
(961), and the year after became emperor of what was henceforth known as
the Holy Roman Empire.

During the following centuries the towns and districts of North and
Middle Italy gradually made themselves independent of the empire, and
either formed themselves into separate republics or fell under the power
of princes bearing various titles. A large part of Middle Italy at the
same time was under the dominion of the popes, including the territory
granted by Pepin, which was afterwards enlarged on several occasions.

VICISSITUDES OF SOUTHERN ITALY.--In southern Italy there were in the
time of Charlemagne several independent states. In the ninth century
this part of the peninsula, as well as Sicily, was overrun by Saracens,
and in the eleventh century by Normans, who ultimately founded a kingdom
which embraced both Lower Italy and Sicily, and which though it more
than once changed masters, continued to exist as an undivided kingdom
till 1282. In that year Sicily freed herself from the oppression of the
then rulers, the French, by the aid of Pedro of Aragon, and remained
separate till 1435. It was again separate from 1458 to 1504, when both
divisions were united with the crown of Spain. With Spain the kingdom
remained till 1713, when Naples and Sicily were divided by the Treaty of
Utrecht, the former being given to Austria, the latter to the Duke of
Savoy. In 1720 they were again united under Austria, but in 1734 were
conquered from Austria and passed under the dominion of a separate
dynasty belonging to the Spanish house of Bourbon.

MEDIÆVAL ITALY.--The history of mediæval Italy is much taken up with the
party quarrels of the Guelfs and Ghibellines, and the quarrels and
rivalries of the free republics of Middle and Upper Italy. In Tuscany
the party of the Guelfs formed themselves into a league for the
maintenance of the national freedom under the leadership of Florence;
only Pisa and Arezzo remained attached to the Ghibelline cause. In
Lombardy it was different, Milan, Novara, Lodi, Vercelli, Asti, and
Cremona formed a Guelf confederacy, while the Ghibelline league
comprised Verona, Mantua, Treviso, Parma, Piacenza, Reggio, Modena, and
Brescia. Commercial rivalry impelled the maritime republics to mutual
wars. At Meloria the Genoese annihilated (1284) the navy of the Pisans,
and completed their dominion of the sea by a victory over the Venetians
at Curzola (1298.)

INFLUENCES OF NAPOLEON.--Up till the time of the Napoleonic wars Italy
remained subject to foreign domination, or split up into separate
republics and principalities. The different states were bandied to and
fro by the changes and intrigues of war and diplomacy between Austria,
Spain and the House of Savoy. During the career of Napoleon numerous
changes took place in the map of Italy, and according to an act of the
Congress of Vienna in 1815 the country was parcelled out among the
following states:--(1) The Kingdom of Sardinia, consisting of the island
of Sardinia, Savoy, and Piedmont, to which the Genoese territory was now
added. (2) Austria, which received the provinces of Lombardy and
Venetia, these having already been acquired by her either before or
during the time of Napoleon. (3) The Duchy of Modena. (4) The Duchy of
Parma. (5) The Grandduchy of Tuscany. (6) The Duchy of Lucca. (7) The
States of the Church. (8) The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. (9) The
Republic of San Marino. (10) The Principality of Monaco.

STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENT NATIONALITY.--The desire for union and
independence had long existed in the hearts of the Italian people, and
the governments at Naples, Rome, Lombardy, and other centers of tyranny
were in continual conflict with secret political societies. The leading
spirit in these agitations in the second quarter was Giuseppe Mazzini.

The year of revolutions, 1848, opened with a street massacre by the
Austrians in Milan, on January 2. In February, 1849, the French Republic
was declared, and then in Italy the party of Mazzini was for a moment
supreme, when Charles Albert abdicated in favor of his son Victor
Emmanuel. Meanwhile the pope had been driven from Rome, and a Roman
republic had been established under Mazzini and Garibaldi, the leader of
the volunteer bands of Italian patriots. Rome was, however, captured by
the French, who came to the aid of the pope (July, 1849), who resumed
his power in April, 1850, under the protection of the French, and the
old absolutism was restored. Similar attempts at revolution in Sicily
and Naples were also crushed, but the secret societies of the patriots
continued their operations.

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRESENT KINGDOM.--In 1859, after the war of the
French and Sardinians against Austria, the latter power was compelled to
cede Lombardy to Sardinia, and in the same year Romagna, Modena, Parma,
and Piacenza were annexed to that kingdom, which was, however, obliged
to cede the provinces of Savoy and Nice to France. In the south the
Sicilians revolted, and supported by a thousand volunteers, with whom
Garibaldi sailed from Genoa to their aid, overthrew the Bourbon
government in Sicily. Garibaldi was proclaimed dictator in the name of
Victor Emmanuel. In August Garibaldi crossed to Naples, defeated the
royal army there, drove Francis II. to Gaeta, and entered the capital on
the 7th September. Sardinia intervened and completed the revolution,
when Garibaldi, handing over his conquests to the royal troops, retired
to Caprera. A plebiscite confirmed the union with Piedmont, and Victor
Emmanuel was proclaimed king of Italy, thus suddenly united almost in
Mazzini’s phrase, “from the Alps to the sea.”

Only Venice and the Papal State now remained to be joined to the new
kingdom. To obtain Venice, Italy joined Prussia in her war against
Austria in 1866; and though the Italians were beaten on land at Custozza
and on sea at Lissa, the triumph of Prussia was so complete that, by the
peace of Prague, Venice was surrendered to Italy.

CONQUEST OF THE PAPAL STATES.--Rome was less easy to secure, because of
the opposition of Roman Catholic opinion throughout Europe. French
soldiers had protected the pope ever since 1849. In 1862 Garibaldi
prepared to make a dash on the Papal States, but the government felt
obliged to stop him. He was surrounded on Mount Aspromonte and taken
prisoner. The withdrawal of the French troops from Rome (1864) was only
procured by a promise to respect the Papal States, and by the
transference of the capital from Turin to Florence.

In spite of the prohibition of the government, Garibaldi made another
attempt on Rome in 1867; but Napoleon sent more French troops, and
Garibaldi was defeated at Mentana, and had to withdraw. It was not till
the fall of the French Empire in 1871 that the Italian government could
act freely. As Pius IX. refused to give up the temporal power, the
Italian government took the capital by force, and Pius withdrew to the
Vatican, where he remained in voluntary confinement, a course followed
by his successor, Leo XIII. (1878-1903), and by the present Pope, Pius
X.

DIFFICULTIES OF CONSOLIDATION.--The consolidation of Italy, since the
formation of the kingdom, has been slow and difficult owing to the great
social differences between northern and southern Italy. The nation, too,
has been ambitious to be recognized as one of the great powers of
Europe, which involves a vast outlay in expenditure.

[Illustration: =MONUMENT TO VICTOR EMMANUEL II., AT ROME. THIS MEMORIAL
IS EMBLEMATIC OF ITALIAN UNITY AND WAS ERECTED AT AN EXPENDITURE OF
$10,000,000.--THE COSTLIEST MEMORIAL IN THE WORLD, AND POSSIBLY THE MOST
MAGNIFICENT=]

In 1878 Victor Emmanuel died, and was succeeded by Humbert I.; Pius IX.
being succeeded by Leo XIII. in the same year. Humbert’s reign was
marked by electoral reform and foreign colonization. Somaliland, along
the northeast coast of Africa, was acquired between 1880 and 1890, and
the dependency of Eritrea was founded in 1882. Italy’s claims to a
protectorate over Abyssinia led to war, which ended in an Italian defeat
at Adowa, 1896, and the restoration of all land to Abyssinia by the
treaty of Adis Abeba.

In 1883 Italy entered the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria,
largely owing to her distrust of France. In 1900 King Humbert was
assassinated by an anarchist, and was succeeded by his only son, Victor
Emmanuel III. At the beginning of the new century more friendly
relations were secured with France, the Triple Alliance being still
maintained.

In the recent dissensions in Morocco (1906-1911) the government gave its
support to France against Germany, while France acquiesced in Italian
ambitions in Tripoli.

In September, 1911, war broke out between Italy and Turkey in connection
with the rights and privileges of Italian subjects in Tripoli. In
November of the same year the Italian government formally proclaimed the
annexation of Tripoli and Cyrenaica, which was ratified by Turkey in the
treaty of Ouchy in October, 1912. In the Balkan war (1912-1913) Italy’s
sympathies were naturally with the allies against her recent enemies;
the royal family, moreover, is connected with that of Montenegro, Queen
Elena of Italy being the daughter of King Nicholas of Montenegro.

In May, 1915, Italy renounced the Triple Alliance and entered the
European war on the side of Great Britain and France. War was declared
upon Austria-Hungary, and Italian forces dispatched to the Trentino. No
formal declaration of war was made against Germany until Aug. 27, 1916,
subsequently, Italy requisitioned the German steamers interned in
Italian ports.

Early in 1917, an important war conference was held in Rome by
representatives of the Entente allies.

  =Books of Reference.=--Gregorovius’s _History of the City of Rome in
  the Middle Ages_; Sismondi’s _History of the Italian Republics_;
  Symonds’ _Age of the Despots_; Burckhardt’s _Civilization of the
  Renaissance in Italy_; Creighton’s _History of the Papacy During the
  Reformation_; Ranke’s _History of the Popes_ and his _Latin and
  Teutonic Nations_; King’s _A History of Italian Unity_; Stillman’s
  _The Union of Italy_; Orsi’s _Modern Italy_.


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

  Austria-Hungary belongs to the Germanic group of European states,
  because the dominant race is German. The Germans, however, do not
  form so much as a third of its varied population.

  The usual name given to this great empire is Austria, a Latinized
  form of the German _Oesterreich_, meaning “Eastern Kingdom.”

  Since 1867 the empire is composed of a union of two states under one
  emperor, but administratively distinct. The one is Austria, or
  Cisleithania (“on this side the Leitha,” a tributary of the Danube);
  the other, Hungary and the lands of the Hungarian crown, or
  Transleithania. The present article deals with the empire as a
  whole.

=Location and Extent.=--The Austrian dominions form geographically a
compact territory with a circumference of about five thousand three
hundred and fifty miles. The total area is greater than that of any
other European state save Russia, and is nearly twice the area of Great
Britain. The body of the empire lies in the interior of Europe, though
it has about one thousand miles of sea-coast on the Adriatic. Austria
borders on Italy, Switzerland, Bavaria, Saxony, Prussia, Russia,
Roumania, Servia and Montenegro. With the sanction of the Berlin
Congress of 1878, the small territory of Spizza, on the Montenegrin
frontier and formerly Turkish, was incorporated with Dalmatia. The
Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, thenceforward occupied and
administered by Austria, were annexed by proclamation in 1908, and are
now a part of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy.

=Surface Features.=--Austria-Hungary has been termed the “Empire of the
Danube,” since it lies for the most part within the basin of that river,
and embraces the whole of its upper plain, which lies at an elevation of
about three hundred feet above the sea. But it is also, next to
Switzerland, by far the most mountainous land in Europe, no less than
four-fifths of its area being more than six thousand feet above the
sea-level.

On the west, Austria embraces nearly half of the great mass of the Alps
between the plateau of Bavaria and the plain of Lombardy, the mountain
and valley scenery of Tyrol and Salzburg resembling that of Switzerland
on a lesser scale. The highest point of all here is the Ortler Spitze.
An eastern spur of these heights, the Bakony Wäld, runs into Hungary,
compelling the Danube to form a sharp east-to-south bend or knee in its
course. In the northwest the Bohmer Wäld, the Erz, and Riesen Gebirge,
the Sudetic Mountains, and the Moravian heights, enclose the high basin
of the Upper Elbe in Bohemia. Farther east the wooded Carpathians, with
the high outlying granite mass of the Tatra rise round the north of the
Hungarian plain. These are continued by the Transylvanian Alps, which
form the southeastern frontier, next Roumania, and which, with their
northern branch, the Biharia Mountains, enclose the highland of
Transylvania or Siebenbürgen on the east of the Hungarian plain.

=Rivers and Lakes.=--The Danube, entering Austria from Bavaria as a
considerable river, and flowing southeastward over the plain of Hungary,
grows to more than half a mile in width before it leaves the Hungarian
border to descend by the gorge of the Iron Gates into its lower plains.
It is the great highway of the kingdom, and the great outlet to the
Black Sea on the east. (See further under Danube.)

The Save, the southern boundary river of Hungary, and the Drave join the
Danube in the south from the Eastern Alps, up to the base of which both
are navigable.

The Theiss, winding south through the plain of Hungary from its source
in the Carpathians, is its great northern tributary, also navigable, and
so full of fish as to be popularly described as “two-thirds water and
one-third fish.”

The March, from the Sudetic Mountains, corresponds to the Leitha from
the south, forming part of the boundary between Austria and Hungary. The
high basin of Bohemia, as before said, forms the upper basin of the
Elbe, which escapes thence into Saxony.

The head stream of the Oder passes through Austrian Silesia; and the
Vistula, draining like these to the Baltic, has its head streams in the
northern slopes of the Carpathians in Galicia, the eastern portion of
which province, however, drains to the Black Sea by the Dniester.

=Lakes.=--The two large lake basins of the country, which seem to be
remnants of much more extensive inland waters, lie in Hungary between
the Danube and the Drave. The larger, the Platten See or Balaton Lake,
fifty miles long, shallow and stagnant, overflows into the surrounding
marshes only in spring. The Lake of Constance, on the northern margin of
the Alps, and Lake Garda, on the southern, touch upon Austrian
territory.

=Climate and Landscape.=--Though from the variations of elevation the
climates of different parts of Austria-Hungary are very diverse, three
broad divisions may be recognized--(1) the climate of the countries
which lie north of the Carpathian heights, in which the winters are long
and cold, and in which the vine does not flourish; (2) that of the
central plains and slopes of Hungary, favorable to wheat and vines; and
(3) the Mediterranean climate of the Adriatic shores, which yield oil
and silk.

Generally speaking, all the mountainous borders of Austria-Hungary are
forest-covered, the woods occupying a third of the whole surface of
those regions; the great plain of Hungary, on the other hand, is an
open, treeless steppe.

=Peoples and Races.=--Austria-Hungary extends over the area in which
many different races of Europe meet and interlace. Its population
includes Germanic, Slavonic, Magyar, and Romanic elements, with their
various tongues and dialects. The Germanic prevails in the Alpine
regions and in the valley of the Danube in the west, and is widely
mingled with the Slavonic and Magyar in the northern and central parts
of the country.

The Slavs, the most numerous branch, forming about forty-five per cent
of the whole population, appear in two divisions, a northern and
southern; to the northern Slavs belong the Czechs of Bohemia, the
Moravians and Slovaks, Poles and Ruthenians, or Russniaks of Galicia and
Bukowina; to the southern Slavs belong the Slovenes, Croats and
Servians, who occupy the southern border lands of Hungary, between the
Drave and Save, westward to the peninsula of Istria and the Dalmatian
coasts of the Adriatic. The Romanic element appears in the southeast on
the Danube frontier, in southern Transylvania and eastern Bukowina
(Wallachians), and in the southwest, where the Italians prevail in
numbers on the borders of Venetia. The Magyars occupy the central plains
of Hungary. The Szeklers of eastern Transylvania are a branch of the
same family, by some believed to be the descendants of the once
formidable Huns. Among minor elements of population, Jews are numerous
in the northern provinces, Gypsies in Hungary, and Armenians in
Transylvania and Galicia.

=Religion and Education.=--The state religion is the Roman Catholic, and
this is professed by two-thirds of the population; a large proportion on
the eastern borders next to Russia adhere to the Greek Church;
Protestants are most numerous in Hungary and Transylvania, but form only
a tenth part. General education, excepting in German Austria, where the
compulsory system is enforced, is in a very backward state. There are,
however, eleven universities in Austria-Hungary: Vienna, Prague (two),
Budapest, Graz, Innsbruck, Cracow, Lemberg, Czernowitz, Klausenburg, and
Agram.

=Industries and National Resources.=--The occupations of the country
naturally divide themselves between the mining and pastoral industries
of the mountains, and the agricultural and pastoral of the plains.

AGRICULTURE employs by far the largest share of the population; and the
lower lands of Austria-Hungary are among the most fertile portions of
Europe. Oats, rye, barley, wheat, and maize, are the commonest grains;
flax and hemp are widely grown; wines and tobacco chiefly in Hungary;
hops in Bohemia.

HORTICULTURE is carried to great perfection; and the orchards of
Bohemia, Austria proper, Tyrol, and many parts of Hungary produce a
profusion of fruit. Great quantities of cider are made in Upper Austria
and Carinthia, and of plum-brandy in Slavonia. In Dalmatia, oranges,
lemons and a few olives are produced.

In the production of wine, Austria is second only to France. With the
exception of Galicia, Silesia, and Upper Austria, the vine is cultivated
in all the provinces; but Hungary stands first, yielding not only the
finest quality of wine, but four-fifths the total amount produced in the
empire.

ANIMAL PRODUCTS.--The central Hungarian steppes are full of cattle, and
those of the Alpine regions are an exceedingly fine breed. Merino sheep
are carefully reared, especially in Moravia, Bohemia and Hungary. The
river fisheries are important all over the land. The coast fisheries are
of the utmost importance in rocky Dalmatia, where there is little
cultivable land.

MINERALS.--Its mineral wealth is not surpassed in any European country;
it is only lately that Russia has exceeded it in the production of gold
and silver. Mining has been an important pursuit in Austria for
centuries, and has been encouraged and promoted by the government. Gold
is found chiefly in Hungary and Transylvania, and in smaller quantity in
Salzburg and Tyrol. The same countries, along with Bohemia, yield
silver. Quicksilver is found in Hungary, Transylvania, Styria, and
Carinthia. Copper is found in many districts, tin in Bohemia alone.
Zinc is mined chiefly in Cracow and Carinthia. The most productive lead
mines are in Carinthia. Iron is found in almost every province of the
monarchy, though Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola are chief seats.
Antimony is confined to Hungary; arsenic, cobalt, sulphur, and graphite
are produced in various parts of the empire.

The useful earths and building-stones are to be had in great profusion;
likewise marble, gypsum, chalk, etc. Rock-salt exists in immense beds on
both sides of the Carpathians, chiefly at Wieliczka and Bochnia in
Galicia, and in the county of Marmaros in Hungary, and in Transylvania.
Salt is also made at state salt-works by evaporating the water of
salt-springs. There are inexhaustible deposits of coal. Austria has
abundance of valuable mineral springs; about sixteen hundred are
enumerated, some of them of European reputation, as the sulphur baths of
Baden in Lower Austria, the saline waters of Carlsbad, Marienbad,
Franzensbad, Teplitz, etc., all in Bohemia.

MANUFACTURES are most developed in the German portion of Bohemia, in the
districts round Vienna, in Moravia and Austrian Silesia, and in Styria.
The Magyar countries are far behind in this respect and Dalmatia and
Bukowina have scarcely any manufactures at all. Weaving employs the
largest number of hands; next in number come the metal, stone, glass and
wood workers, then the workers in leather. Iron and steel goods are made
in the Alps of Styria. Bohemia has a world-wide reputation for the
manufacture of various kinds of glass, and the Tyrol has long been noted
for the production of carved woodwork. Paper is made chiefly in Bohemia
and in or near Vienna.

=Cities and Towns.=--The most important cities are the capital, Vienna,
and eight other towns above one hundred thousand (Budapest, Trieste,
Prague, Lemberg, Gratz, Cracow, Brün, Szegedin), and twenty-two others
above fifty thousand.

=Vienna= (Ger. _Wien_, pron. _Veen_), the capital of the Austrian
Empire, and (jointly with Budapest) of the dual monarchy, is situated in
Lower Austria, on the Danube Canal, a south branch of the Danube, here
joined by the small river Wien.

CHIEF DIVISIONS.--Vienna proper consists of the Inner City and ten
suburban districts surrounding it, formerly encircled by fortifications
known as the Lines, which in 1892 were replaced by a boulevard, known as
the Ringstrasse. The central point of the city is the Graben, a short
street in the center of the inner city, a pleasant, well-built avenue,
of greater width than usual for streets within the Ring. The Stadt is
the fashionable quarter, where are the imperial palace, the residences
of many of the nobility, the leading churches, museums, galleries, etc.,
and the most elegant shops.

[Illustration: =PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS, VIENNA=]

THE RINGSTRASSE is perhaps not surpassed in its architectural
magnificence by any other street in Europe. Among the most conspicuous
of the public buildings upon it are the Bourse; the University, founded
in 1365 and renowned throughout the world as a medical school, has a
teaching staff of five hundred and some ten thousand students; the new
Rathhaus in the Gothic style, with a tower three hundred and
twenty-eight feet high; the new Court Theater, the extensive and
splendid Houses of Parliament; the Palace of Justice; the twin Imperial
Museums of natural history and of art; the Imperial Opera House,
sumptuous without and within; the Commercial Academy; the Palace of
Archduke William; the Austrian Museum of Art and Industry, and the
School for Art Industry.

Other institutions and buildings of interest are the Polytechnic
Institute (with a Technological Museum); the Deaf and Dumb Asylum,
founded by Maria Theresa; the splendid Public Hospital, the largest in
Europe, and the Josephinum, a medical college founded in 1784,
containing a large collection of anatomical models, etc.

MONUMENTS AND PARKS.--Of the public monuments the most noteworthy are
the equestrian statues of Joseph II., in the Josephsplatz, those of
Archduke Charles and Prince Eugene, and that of Francis I. in the
Hofgarten; the monument of Francis II., in the inner court of the
Hofburg; the grand Maria Theresa monument; the Beethoven and the
Schiller monuments; the Grill-parzer monument, etc. Of the many
beautiful fountains the finest is that by Schwanthaler representing
Austria, with the four rivers, Danube, Elbe, Vistula, and Po.

In the Volksgarten (bordering on the Ringstrasse) is the Temple of
Theseus, modeled after that at Athens, and formerly containing Canova’s
marble Theseus and the Minotaur, which is now in the Imperial Museum of
Art.

[Illustration: =IMPERIAL ART MUSEUM, VIENNA=]

The great park of Vienna is the Prater (four thousand two hundred and
seventy acres), extending for nearly four miles between the Donau Canal
(a narrow arm of the Danube) and the main stream of the river. It was
the site of the Great Exhibition of 1873, some of the buildings of which
are now used for exhibitions, concerts, etc.

[Illustration: =GRAND OPERA HOUSE, VIENNA=]

CHURCHES AND MUSEUMS.--The ecclesiastical center and the historic church
of the city, is St. Stephen’s Cathedral, adjacent to the Graben.

St. Stephen’s is one of the noblest Gothic edifices in Europe. It was
founded in 1147, but was burned in 1258. The present edifice was begun
soon after, but the tower was not finished until 1433. It has recently
undergone extensive restorations, both without and within. The tower is
four hundred and forty-nine feet high. The interior is rich in sculpture
and in monuments; and the carved stalls in the choir and the stone
pulpit are specially to be noted.

The Capuchin Church contains the burial-vault of the imperial family.
The Duke of Reichstadt, son of Napoleon I., lies here among his maternal
ancestors.

In the Minorite Church there is a fine mosaic copy of Leonardo da
Vinci’s Last Supper; also the monument of the poet Metastasio.

[Illustration: =THE IMPERIAL UNIVERSITY, VIENNA=]

The Augustine Church contains Canova’s monument of the Archduchess Maria
Christina, one of his noblest works; and in the Loretto Chapel are the
silver urns that hold the hearts of many members of the imperial family.

The Church of Maria-Stiegen is a Gothic structure of the fourteenth
century restored in 1820, and second in beauty only to St. Stephen’s.

The elegant Karlskirche, or Church of St. Charles Borromeo, was erected
in 1737 in fulfilment of a vow of Charles VI., when the plague raged in
Vienna; it is in Italian style, with two slender spires, one hundred and
forty-five feet high, near the porch.

The Imperial Museums now contain the Picture Gallery, arranged in
schools. It is second only to the Dresden collection, is specially
famous for its unrivaled examples of the Venetian school, Rubens, and
Dürer, the Antiquities, comprising statuary, mosaics, inscriptions,
etc., mostly Austrian; and the Ambras Collection, remarkable for its
ancient armor, ivories and other carvings, etc.

INDUSTRIES.--Vienna is the chief industrial city in the empire.
Machinery, scientific and musical instruments, artistic goods in bronze,
leather, terracotta, porcelain, furniture, meerschaum pipes, etc., are
among the noted manufactures. As a center of trade and finance Vienna is
no less important.

SCHÖNBRUNN, two miles from Vienna, is the seat of the magnificent Summer
Palace of the Emperor, with extensive gardens and pleasure-grounds. From
the marble colonnade of the Gloriette there is a fine view of the city
and its suburbs. In the churchyard is Canova’s monument of Baroness
Pillersdorf.

=Prague= (Ger. _Prag_; Czech _Praha_), the capital of Bohemia, is
situated at the base and on the slope of the hills which skirt both
sides of the isleted Moldau, two hundred and seventeen miles from Vienna
and one hundred and eighteen miles from Dresden. It offers a highly
picturesque appearance from the beauty of its site, and the numerous
lofty towers (more than seventy in number) which rise above the palaces,
public buildings, and bridges of the city.

[Illustration: =STATUE OF THE POET GRILLPARZER IN VIENNA=]

The royal Burg, on the Hradschin (two hundred and forty feet), the
ancient residence of the Dukes of Bohemia, dates mainly now from the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and has four hundred and forty
rooms. The neighboring Cathedral of St. Vitus is still unfinished,
though building was resumed in 1867. Here are the splendid royal
mausoleum and the shrine of St. John of Nepomuk, containing one and
one-half tons of silver. Of forty-seven other Catholic Churches the
chief are the domed Jesuit Church of St. Nicolas, and the Teyn Church
(1407; the old Hussite Church), with Tycho Brahé’s grave, and its marble
statue of the Slavonic martyrs, Cyril and Methodius.

[Illustration: =ROYAL PALACE, SCHÖNBRUNN, NEAR VIENNA=]

Of five bridges and two railway viaducts the most striking is the
Karlsbrücke, five hundred and forty-three yards long, with gate-towers
at either end, and statues of John of Nepomuk and other saints. Other
noteworthy objects are the town hall, the Pulverturm, the new Czech
Theatre, the old Jewish graveyard, the vast Czerni Palace and the
Picture Gallery.

Prague has numerous public gardens and walks, with several noble parks
close by. The manufactures include machinery, chemicals, leather,
cotton, linen, gloves, beer and spirits.

[Illustration: =SALZBURG, AUSTRIA, ONE OF THE MOST CHARMING TOWNS IN
EUROPE, AND BIRTHPLACE OF MOZART AND HAYDN=]

=Salzburg= (_sälts’börg_), is in Upper Austria, twenty-eight miles from
Linz, near the Bavarian frontier, one thousand three hundred and fifty
feet above sea, under some fine hills on the Salzach. It is considered
one of the most beautifully situated towns of Europe. At this point the
river passes between two extensive but isolated masses of rock, one of
which, the Mönchsberg (Monk’s Hill), is crowned by the old citadel,
dating originally from Roman times, but frequently rebuilt. This portion
of the city contains the fine cathedral, with a white marble façade, and
built in imitation of St. Peter’s at Rome.

Its industries are confined chiefly to the manufacture of musical
instruments, marble ornaments.

=Budapest= (_boo´da-pest_; Hung. pron. _boo´do-pesht´_) is the capital
of Hungary, and the second city of the Austrian Empire, consisting of
Buda on the west bank of the Danube, and Pest on the opposite bank.

[Illustration: =ROYAL PALACE AND SUSPENSION BRIDGE, BUDAPEST=]

These twin cities are joined by five bridges: a chain bridge between the
two commercial quarters; the Queen Elizabeth Bridge; the Franz Josef
Bridge; the Margaret Bridge; and a railway bridge.

Buda, the older and formerly the more important of the two parts, stands
on and around two hills. On one stands the royal castle, erected by
Maria Theresa, and a fortress, rebuilt after being destroyed by the
Hungarians in 1849. The palace chapel of St. Sigismund contains the
Hungarian regalia and the hand of St. Stephen. On the Blocksberg, to the
south of this hill, stands the old citadel, while on a lower mound to
the north is the Turkish mosque, built over the tomb of the saint Sheik
Gül-Babas.

Other prominent buildings are the palace of Archduke Joseph, the
residence of the Premier, and of the Minister of National Defense, all
standing in the Georgsplatz, where is also a monument to General Hentzi,
and the thirteenth-century parish church of St. John.

Pest, the more modern city, stands upon a sandy plain with fine quays
along the Danube. The main streets radiate from the Belvaros, which is
enclosed by boulevards replacing the old city walls.

The most notable buildings are the Houses of Parliament and Palaces of
Justice, the Academy of Sciences, containing valuable art collections,
and a fine library, the Bourse, and the Redoute buildings, all on the
Franz Josef Quay; the National Museum Theatre and University on Museum
Street; the Industrial Art Museum, on Ulloi Street; the Royal Military
Academy, in the Orczy Gardens; and the Leopold Basilica on Andrassy
Street, one of the most handsome thoroughfares in Europe. There are a
parish Church, a Greek Church, and a Jewish synagogue, and numerous
parks, including one on Margaret Island in the Danube.

Both towns have valuable baths and sulphur springs, and the united
cities form a large manufacturing center for machinery, spirits, and
tobacco, cutlery and metal-work, glass, etc. The most important industry
is milling, the trade in grain and flour being enormous, and there is
considerable commerce in cattle and swine, honey, wax, bacon and hides,
timber, and coal.

=Salzkammergut= (_Sahltzkammergoot´_), called the Austrian Switzerland,
one of the most picturesque regions of Europe, lies in a district famous
for its salt mines and brine springs, and hence known as the
_Salzkammergut_ (“Estate of the Salt Office”). The scenery combines in
rare beauty the features of valley, mountain and lake. The highest peak
is the Dachstein (nine thousand eight hundred and thirty feet); of its
lakes the most famous are Hallstatt, Traun or Gmünden, Atter, St.
Wolfgang, Aber, Mond, and Zell. The chief seats of the salt-works are
Ischl, Hallstatt, and Ebensee.

[Illustration: =THE GOTHIC POWDER TOWER, PRAGUE=]

=Other Important Places.=--Trieste, the only great seaport of the
Empire, is at the head of its gulf, on the North Adriatic. Pola, near
the southern extremity of the peninsula of Istria, is the chief naval
station of Austria.

Linz, on the Danube, is the seat of a considerable trade. Steyr, on the
river Enns, is noted for its steel and iron industry.

Northern Styria is the center of the Austrian steel and iron industry,
carried on more especially around Leoben. The capital, Graz, is a staple
place for the manufacture of machinery, and one of the most agreeable of
Austrian capitals, and a favorite place of residence.

_Semmering_, an Austrian Alpine pass (three thousand two hundred and
nineteen feet) connecting Vienna with Graz, though the lowest of the
Alpine passes, is traversed by the first railway (1854) to be carried
across the Alps. The viaducts of the Semmering railway, some of them
with several tiers of arches, are among the grandest works of
engineering. The Semmering road begins at Gloggnitz, at an elevation of
one thousand four hundred and twenty-six feet, and is carried along the
face of abrupt precipices over bridges and through tunnels, affording
views of the grandest and wildest scenery en route. This part of the
road is twenty-five miles long, and cost more than seven millions of
dollars.

Innsbruck, on the Inn, is the capital of the Tyrol, the most alpine part
of the monarchy. Its principal rivers are the Inn, in the north, and the
Etsch or Adige, in the south, the mountain range separating them being
crossed by the Pass of the Brenner (five thousand eight hundred and
sixty feet). On the Adige are Botzen, Trent, and Roveredo, the two last
inhabited by Italians.

Reichenberg, in the north, is the center of the textile trades; Teplitz
and Karlsbad, at the foot of the Erzgebirge, are famous watering-places;
Pilsen, in the west, is noted for its beer. Königgrätz and Sadowa, where
the battle was fought which decided the Seven Weeks’ war in 1866, are in
the east.

Brünn is the great center of the Austrian woolen trade; near it is the
old state prison, Spielberg. Olmütz is a strong fortress on the March.

Lemberg and Cracow (the ancient capital of Poland) are the centers of
trade, and the marts for the agricultural produce.

Bukowina is a small duchy at the head of the Sereth and other rivers
falling into the Black Sea, with Czernowitz for its capital. About forty
per cent of the inhabitants are Roumanians.

Pressburg, near the eastern frontier, is the old coronation city;
Komorn, lower down on the Danube, is famous as a fortress; Szegedin, the
chief town on the Theiss, was almost wholly destroyed by floods in the
year 1878.

Fiume, at the head of the Quarnero Gulf, is the chief seaport of
Hungary.


HISTORY OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

  The empire of Austria arose from the smallest beginnings at the end
  of the eighth century. In 796 a Margraviate, called the Eastern Mark
  (i. e. “March” or frontier-land), was founded as an outpost of the
  empire of Charlemagne, in the country between the Enns and the Raab.
  The name Oesterreich appears first in 996.

=Rise Under the Hapsburgs.=--In 1156 the mark was raised to a duchy; and
after coming into the possession of the House of Hapsburg in 1282, it
began its period of growth toward a powerful state. The princes of that
house extended their dominion by marriage, by purchase, and otherwise,
over a number of other states, including the crowns of Bohemia and
Hungary; and from 1438 down to the nineteenth century they held almost
without interruption the throne of the German empire (nominally “the
Holy Roman Empire”)--the emperor being the most conspicuous, if not
always the most powerful personage among the crowned heads of Europe.

=Hapsburg Power Through Marriage.=--The most pronounced rise of Austria
and of the House of Hapsburg to historical eminence may be said to date
from the reign of Maximilian I. (1493-1519). By marrying Mary, daughter
of Charles the Bold (1477), he acquired possession of the Netherlands.
Through the marriage of their son Philip with Joanna of Spain, the
Houses of Austria and Spain were united.

=Passes to Charles V. of Germany.=--As Philip died in 1506, his elder
son, the celebrated Charles V., became heir to the united monarchies,
and was elected emperor of Germany in 1519. Thus, by a succession of
fortunate marriages, the House of Hapsburg became the most powerful
dynasty in the world.

Charles V., however, resigned all his German territories to his younger
brother, Ferdinand I., who was thus the continuation of the Austrian
branch of the line. Under Ferdinand the power of Austria greatly
increased.

=Division of the Empire.=--In the partition of the inheritance that took
place among Ferdinand’s three sons, the eldest, Maximilian II., received
the imperial crown along with Austria, Hungary and Bohemia; the second,
Ferdinand, Tyrol and Upper Austria; the third, Charles, got Styria,
Carinthia, etc. Maximilian II. was fond of peace, tolerant in religion,
and a just ruler. He died in 1576; and of his five sons, the eldest,
Rudolf II., became emperor.

Rudolf II. was negligent, leaving everything to his ministers and the
Jesuits. His war with the Porte and Transylvania brought him little
credit; and the Protestants of Bohemia, oppressed by the Jesuits,
extorted from him a charter of religious liberty. In 1608 he was obliged
to cede Hungary, and in 1611 Bohemia and Austria, to his brother
Matthias.

Matthias, who became emperor in 1612, ceded Bohemia and Hungary to his
cousin Ferdinand, son of the Archduke Charles of Styria, third son of
Maximilian II. Matthias lived to see the outbreak of the Thirty Years’
war, and died in 1619.

=Ferdinand II. and the Thirty Years’ War.=--Bohemia refused to
acknowledge his successor, Ferdinand II., to whom all the Austrian
possessions had again reverted, and chose the Elector Palatine,
Frederick V., the head of the Protestant Union, as king. This election
gave the signal for the Thirty Years’ war, in which the House of Austria
took the lead, both as the champion of Catholicism, and the head of a
power which aimed at universal domination in Germany and in the
Christian world. The battle of Prague (1620) subjected Bohemia to
Ferdinand, who formally set about rooting out Protestantism in that
country and in Moravia. The emperor also succeeded in extorting
acknowledgment of his sovereignty from the states of Austria; and here,
too, Protestantism, which had made great progress since the time of
Luther, was mercilessly suppressed.

Under Ferdinand’s successor, the Emperor Ferdinand III. (1637-1657),
Austria continued to be a theater of war; and at the peace of Westphalia
(1648) had to cede Alsace to France.

=Leopold I. and the War of the Spanish Succession.=--Ferdinand III.’s
son and successor, Leopold I., provoked the Hungarians to rebellion by
his severity. The struggle between Leopold and Louis XIV. of France for
the heirship to the king of Spain led to the War of the Spanish
Succession, during which Leopold died, in 1705.

His eldest son and successor, the enlightened Joseph I., continued the
war. He died childless in 1711, and was succeeded by his brother,
Charles VI.

=Hapsburg-Lorraine Line of Rulers.=--With the death of Charles VI., in
1740, the male line of the Hapsburgs became extinct, and his daughter,
Maria Theresa, who was married to the duke of Lorraine, assumed the
government. For many years it had been the aim of Charles to secure the
adhesion of the European powers to the Pragmatic Sanction, by which the
possessions of the Austrian crown should pass to Maria Theresa. Those
powers during his lifetime had promised to second his wishes, but he was
no sooner in his grave than nearly all of them sought to profit by the
accession of a female sovereign.

=War of the Austrian Succession.=--A great war arose, in which England
alone sided with Maria. Frederick II. of Prussia conquered Silesia. The
Elector of Bavaria was crowned king of Bohemia, and elected emperor as
Charles VII. in 1742. The Hungarians, however, stood by their heroic
queen, who was soon able to wage a fairly successful war against her
numerous foes. At the death of the empress in 1780, the monarchy had an
extent of two hundred and thirty-four thousand square miles, with a
population of twenty-four millions. The administration of Maria Theresa
was distinguished by unwonted unity and vigor, both in home and foreign
affairs.

Her successor, Joseph II., was an active reformer in the spirit of the
enlightened despotism of the times, though often rash and violent in his
mode of proceeding. He was succeeded in the government by his brother,
the grandduke of Tuscany--as German emperor, Leopold II.--who succeeded
in pacifying the Netherlands and Hungary.

=Austria and the French Revolution.=--At the outbreak of the revolution
in France the fate of Leopold’s sister, Marie Antoinette, and her
husband, Louis XVI. of France, led him to an alliance with Prussia
against France; but he died in 1792 before the war broke out. War was
declared by France on his son, Francis II., the same year, and by the
treaty of Campo Formio, 1797, Austria lost Lombardy and the Netherlands,
receiving in lieu the Venetian territory.

In 1795, at the second partition of Poland, it had been augmented by
western Galicia.

Francis, in alliance with Russia, renewed the war with France in 1799,
which was ended by the peace of Lunéville. It is needless to follow all
the alterations of boundary that the Austrian dominions underwent during
these wars. The most serious was at the peace of Vienna (1809), which
cost Austria forty-two thousand square miles of territory. It was in
1804, when Napoleon had been proclaimed emperor of France, that Francis
declared himself hereditary emperor of Austria as Francis I. On the
establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine, he laid down the
dignity of German emperor, which his family had held for nearly four
hundred years.

The humiliating peace of Vienna was followed (1809) by the marriage of
Napoleon with the Archduchess Maria Louisa, and in 1812 Austria figured
as the ally of Napoleon in his great campaign against Russia, but she
did not give much active assistance. In August of the following year
Austria joined the grand alliance against France and the Austrian
general, Schwarzenberg, was entrusted with the chief command of the
allied forces, which at the battle of Leipzig and in the campaign of
1814 broke the power of Napoleon.

=Congress of Vienna and Subsequent Period of Metternich.=--The
sacrifices and great services rendered by Austria in the gigantic
struggle received full consideration at the treaty of Vienna (1815). As
recompense for the loss of the Netherlands she received Venice and
Dalmatia, which afforded an outlet for her foreign trade.

After that time Austria, under the diplomatic guidance of Prince
Metternich, exerted a powerful influence in European politics generally,
and more especially in the German Confederation, of which her emperor
was president. The death of Francis I. in 1835 made little alteration in
the policy of Austria; Ferdinand I. trod in his father’s footsteps. The
political alliance with Russia and Prussia was drawn closer by a
personal conference of the emperor with Nicholas I. and
Frederick-William III. at Teplitz in 1835.

=Revolution of 1848.=--In Austria, after the fall of Metternich from
power, the revolutionary period of 1848-1849 was one of exceptional
severity, the movement for constitutional freedom being complicated by
the revival of the national spirit in Hungary, Italy and Bohemia. The
time was everywhere ripe for revolt, when the fall of Louis-Philippe of
France (February 24, 1848), gave the signal for the outbreak of the
revolutionary elements all over Europe. Nowhere was the spirit of change
stronger than in Vienna, which for many months became a scene of
confusion.

The leaders of the popular movement in Vienna were in sympathy with
Hungary, and when the imperial troops were ordered to suppress the
national rising there, the citizens again rose in insurrection. In the
meantime the military forces had withdrawn from the capital in order to
prevent the Hungarians coming to the aid of the Viennese. Vienna was now
besieged, and surrendered at the end of October, after a resistance of
eight days.

=Francis Joseph Emperor.=--The reaction was triumphant, and the leaders
of revolt severely punished; but as Ferdinand had not shown sufficient
vigor in the great crisis, he was persuaded to abdicate, and Francis
Joseph was declared emperor at the age of eighteen. Thus restored, the
central authority had now to assert itself in Hungary and to complete
the reconquest of northern Italy. With the surrender of Venice, which
took place in August, the subjugation of Italy was complete.

=Conquest of Hungary.=--In Hungary, the Magyars, though the Germans and
Slavs within the country itself were hostile to them, began the campaign
of 1849 with decided success. But the government had already solicited
the aid of Russia, whose armies, entering Transylvania and Hungary,
added to the imperial cause the irresistible weight of numbers.
Surrounded on every side by superior forces, the Hungarians were
completely beaten. It was in vain that Kossuth transferred the
dictatorship to General Görgei. Görgei, whether from treachery, as the
other Magyar leaders maintained, or from necessity, as he himself
averred, laid down his arms to the Russians at Vilagos (August 13). The
surrender of Komorn, in September, completed the subjugation of Hungary,
which was treated as a conquered country.

The ten years which followed on the revolutionary troubles of 1848 were
a period of reaction and of absolutism. A constitution which had been
granted in 1849 was soon annulled. The policy pursued was one of strong
centralization under a bureaucratic government, by which the claims of
nationality and of freedom were alike disregarded. Liberty of the press
and trial by jury were set aside. A rigorous system of police was
maintained. The aim was to Germanize the whole empire and to crush the
aspirations of both Slavs and Hungarians. The Church pronounced against
national freedom, and supported the central authority and received great
privileges by the Concordat of 1855. The result of all these proceedings
was only to irritate the national feeling in Hungary, Italy and Bohemia.

=Struggle Between Austria and Prussia.=--On the confused arena of German
politics, the struggle for ascendancy was kept up between Austria and
Prussia. In 1850 the two powers were armed and ready to come to blows
with reference to the affairs of Hesse-Cassel; but the bold and
determined policy of Schwarzenberg prevailed, and by the humiliating
arrangement of Olmütz, Prussia gave way. For a few years longer the
preponderance of Austria in the German Confederation was secured.

The rule of Austria in Italy had always been unsatisfactory. From her
own provinces in Venice and Lombardy she controlled the policy of the
courts of central and southern Italy, and her influence tended
invariably towards the suppression of national feeling and popular
liberty.

=Loss of Italian Possessions.=--Sardinia was the only state that
worthily represented the spirit of the Italian people. In the spring of
1859 it began to arm against Austrian supremacy. Austria demanded
immediate disarmament, on pain of war; but Sardinia refused. Austria
accordingly commenced hostilities by crossing the Ticino at the end of
April, 1859. Sardinia having secured the aid of France, the Austrians
were defeated at Magenta, Solferino and elsewhere, and their emperor was
fain to seek an armistice from Napoleon. On July 11 the two potentates
met at Villafranca, and concluded a peace, ceding Lombardy to Sardinia.
Venice was all that still remained of the Italian possessions of
Austria.

=Austro-Prussian War.=--The rivalry of Prussia and Austria for influence
in the Germanic body of states dated from the rise of Prussia to be a
leading power. The arrangement of Olmütz in 1850 had left a painful
feeling of humiliation in the minds of the Prussian statesmen. The long
rivalry was now to be brought to a decisive issue. In 1864 the combined
Prussian and Austrian forces drove the Danes out of Sleswick-Holstein,
but the two victors quarreled about the subsequent arrangements. War was
declared, and in 1866 the Austrian armies in Bohemia were completely
beaten by the Prussians, in a campaign of seven days, which closed with
the great defeat of Königgrätz or Sadowa.

=Period of Reforms.=--After the great war of 1866 the history of Austria
has been concerned chiefly with two important interests. In the first
place, the government had to attempt an arrangement of the conflicting
claims and rights of the peoples constituting the empire; in the second
place, it has had to establish working relations with the great
neighboring powers, Germany and Russia, and especially with the latter,
on the Eastern Question.

=Union of Austria and Hungary.=--Hungary’s claims to be recognized as a
separate and distinct country were now, with great advantage, pressed
forward. In 1867 its political rights were successful in being regarded
as justified. This agreement was the famous Ausgleich, which has since
been in force, and which has to a sufficient degree justified its
adoption.

At the end of 1867 the first parliamentary ministry was formed. The
Concordat was set aside. Education was freed from the control of the
Church. Marriage was placed under the jurisdiction of the civil power.
The press laws were relaxed. Finally, the Prussian system of military
organization was introduced.

In the foreign affairs of Austria the chief aim was to arrive at a
satisfactory understanding with Germany and Russia. After 1871 Bismarck
arranged as between Germany, Austria and Russia a “Three Emperors’
Alliance,” which after the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-1878 was superseded
by an alliance between Germany and Austria. This, by the inclusion of
Italy, in 1882, became the Triple Alliance, which remained in full force
down to the great European war of 1914.

During the Turkish revolution of 1908 Austria-Hungary annexed the
Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which the Treaty of Berlin
had placed under Austro-Hungarian administration and military occupation
in 1878.

=Racial Difficulties Bearing Upon the European War, 1914-1917.=--The
multiplicity of races and their mutual jealousies rendered the task of
the central government in Austria-Hungary both delicate and difficult.
(See Peoples and Races.) Russia, as a Slav nation and a great power, had
long exercised a predominant influence in the Balkans. Acting under this
influence, Servia secretly fostered aspirations in the direction of a
Pan-Slavic propaganda with the apparent object of not only lessening
Austrian influence in the Balkans but of breaking up, through internal
defections, the Austrian Empire; from the accomplishment of this Servia
hoped to profit.

The Slavs are closely allied with Russia. The spread of Pan-Slavism
constituted a menace to the very existence of the Dual Monarchy. The
growth of German and Russian aspirations directed at expansion through
the Balkan States had, therefore, a direct connection with the racial
element of which Pan-Slavism was but one manifestation. As an evidence
of the spread of the doctrine of “Pan-Slavic Unity” and of the
bitterness of the racial antipathy which it engendered, the Austrian
Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife, the Duchess of Hohenberg, were
assassinated on June 28, 1914, at Sarajevo, the capital of the Austrian
province of Bosnia. This act led directly to a declaration of war
against Servia on July 28th, followed by an Austrian invasion on July
30th. (Further causes and details of the war will be found under the
European War.)


SOVEREIGNS OF AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

  The following is a list of the Hapsburg rulers of Austria (Dukes
  and, from 1453, Archdukes of Austria, from 1526, also Kings of
  Hungary and Bohemia, from 1804 Emperors of Austria).

                        HOUSE OF HAPSBURG
   Albert I.                                               1282
  *Rudolf II.                                              1282
  *Rudolf III.                                             1293
   Frederick (III. as rival Imperial claimant)             1307
  *Leopold I.                                              1314
  *Albert II.                                              1314
  *Rudolf IV.                                              1358
  *Albert III.                                             1365
  *Albert IV.                                              1395
   Albert V. (II. as Emperor, King of Hungary and Bohemia) 1404
  *Ladislaus (King of Hungary and Bohemia)                 1439
   Fredrick V. (III. as Emperor)                           1457
   Maximilian I.                                           1493
   Charles I. (V. as Emperor)                              1519
   Ferdinand I.                                            1520
   Maximilian II.                                          1564
   Rudolf V. (II. as Emperor)                              1576
   Matthias                                                1611
   Ferdinand II.                                           1619
   Ferdinand III.                                          1637
   Leopold I.                                              1658
   Joseph I.                                               1705
   Charles II. (VI. as Emperor, III. of Hungary)           1711
  *Maria Theresa.                                          1740
                    HOUSE OF HAPSBURG-LORRAINE
   Joseph II.                                              1780
   Leopold II.                                             1790
   Francis I. (II. as Emperor)                             1792
  *Ferdinand I. (V. of Hungary)                            1835
  *Francis Joseph I.                                       1848
   Charles Francis Joseph                                  1916

  * All except those marked with an asterisk likewise filled the
  throne of the Holy Roman Empire.


THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE

  Russia extends over eastern Europe, the whole of northern Asia, and
  a part of central Asia. This area, which is more than twice as large
  as Europe, and embraces one-sixth of the land-surface of the globe,
  has a population estimated at near one hundred and seventy-four
  millions. The Russian Empire consists of two well-defined parts:
  European Russia less than one-fourth of the whole but including
  nearly three-fourths of its population; and Asiatic Russia. The
  inhabitants of European Russia mostly belong to the Slavic branch of
  the human race.

  The subdivisions are indicated in the following table:

  =======================================+=========+===========
                                         |  AREA   |
              GOVERNMENTS AND            | ENGLISH |POPULATION
                 PROVINCES               | SQUARE  |JAN. 1912
                                         |  MILES  |
  ---------------------------------------+---------+-----------
  _European Russia_:                     |         |
     Russia proper (50 Provs.)           |1,862,524|122,550,700
     Poland (10 Provs.)                  |   49,018| 12,776,100
     Finland (Grand Duchy)               |  144,178|  3,140,100
  _Asiatic Russia_:                      |         |
     Caucasia (11 Provs.)                |  180,703| 12,288,100
     Central Asia (10 Provs. and Regions)|1,325,530| 10,727,000
     Siberia (8 Provs. and Regions)      |4,786,730|  9,577,900
  _Dependencies_:                        |         |
     Khiva                               |   26,028|    800,000
     Bokhara                             |   78,524|  1,500,000
     Inland Lakes                        |  317,468|     --
                                         +---------+-----------
                                         |8,770,703|173,359,900
  ---------------------------------------+---------+-----------

The various sections of European Russia differ greatly from one another,
and have thereby given rise to certain _popular divisions_ that are even
better known generally than the strictly governmental provinces. These,
with their distinguishing features, may be indicated as follows:

_Great Russia_ (Muscovy).--All the central and northern regions to the
Arctic shores. Chief towns: Moscow, Tula.

Except on its outskirts, this region presents everywhere the same
aspects, wide, undulating plains covered with cornfields and dotted with
small deciduous forests. The soil is of very moderate fertility in the
north, but very fertile in the black earth belt of the south.

The Great Russians, numbering about fifty-five millions, are a vigorous
and manly stock, usually rather light-haired, with blue or brown eyes,
well-formed hands and feet, and a serious, kindly, but somewhat crafty,
temperament, an inborn disposition for a wandering life, a very small
regard to the value of time, and (especially in the peasantry) an
extreme carelessness and slovenliness in all details of daily life.

_Little Russia_, or the Ukraine.--In the southwest. Chief town: Kieff.

The little Russians, over twenty-two millions in all, are settled in the
Ukraine, which contains also in the borderlands some twelve per cent of
Jews and six per cent of Poles. Their religion, like their love for
music and poetry and their passion for country life, they share with
their relations on the north and northeast, but in their developments of
folklore and popular song, and in the more feminine character both of
their physique and their intellect, they offer marked peculiarities. The
Little Russians of the Dnieper basin are closely allied to the
Ruthenians of Austria-Hungary.

The Ukraine comprises the governments of Tchernigoff, Kieff, Poltava,
and part of Kharkoff, as well as Volhynia and Podolia on the spurs of
the Carpathians, the richest and most populous parts of Russia. The soil
is mostly a rich black earth, and assumes farther south the aspect of
fine grassy steppes, or prairies, yielding rich crops of wheat.

[Illustration: =PETER THE GREAT IN HOLLAND=

The practical ambition of Peter the Great has probably never been
surpassed by any sovereign in history. He began empire building with his
travels in 1697. It was an unparalleled step for a young sovereign of
twenty-five to take: to withdraw from his kingdom and journey abroad in
order to learn the art of government. He was deeply interested in all
branches of engineering, especially ship-building, which he first
studied in Holland, working as an ordinary laborer in a dockyard. In
1698 Peter went to England to pursue his studies in the theory and
practice of ship construction, which he did by visiting the dockyards of
Woolwich, Chatham, and Deptford.]

_Eastern Russia._--Chief towns: Astrakhan, Kazan, Samara, Saratoff.

This part of the country is more elevated, but less effectively drained;
and vast forests stretch from the upper Volga to the Urals.

The peoples are of Turkish origin and include the Tartars of Kazan; the
Nogai Tartars of the Crimea in the south, and the Kirgiz on the Caspian.
The Bashkirs, Chuvash, and others, in the Ural and Volga, are Tartarized
Finns. The Kalmucks may be taken as the purest type of the Mongols; they
are short, swarthy, broad-shouldered horsemen, black-haired and
black-eyed, the eyes slanting down toward the flat nose.

_South Russia._--Along the Black Sea. Chief towns: Odessa, Nikolayeff,
Kisheneff.

This is chiefly the steppe-region, a belt more than two hundred miles
wide along the littoral of the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, and
extends east through the region of the lower Volga and Ural till it
meets the steppes of central Asia.

Here are gently undulating plains, clothed with rich grass and coated
with a thick layer of fertile black earth.

In order to people Bessarabia after its conquest in the eighteenth
century without depriving the Russian landowners of their serfs, several
races of foreigners, as Moldavians, Wallachians (Vlachs), Servians,
Greeks, Germans, and even Scotch, were freely invited to settle there.
The population of the steppe-region exceeds thirteen millions.

_Western Russia._--Including the Lithuanian provinces of Kovno, Vilna,
and part of Grodno and Vitebsk, drained by the Niemen and the upper
Dwina, and other portions of the former kingdom of Poland. Chief town:
Vilna.

Here dwell the White Russians, who number about six millions, but they
are more mixed with Poles, Jews and Little Russians. In all essentials
they are merely “poor relations” of the Great Russian family, living, on
the whole, in a more degraded and undeveloped state than any other
Russians.

_The Baltic Provinces._--The coast-lands of the Gulfs of Finland and
Riga. Chief towns: Petrograd (St. Petersburg), Revel, Riga.

These are four Russian governments bordering on the Baltic--viz.,
Courland, Livonia, Esthonia, and Petrograd; or in a restricted sense,
often the first three. The Baltic provinces once belonged to Sweden,
except Courland, which was a dependency of Poland. They came into the
possession of Russia partly in the beginning of the eighteenth century
through the conquests of Peter the Great, partly under Alexander in
1809.

They occupy an undulating plain three hundred to eight hundred feet
above the sea. Owing to the influence of the sea, this region enjoys a
milder climate than the rest of Russia, and has maintained its excellent
forests, chiefly of oak. The soil is of moderate fertility.

The more important non-Slavic peoples of this region are the Lithuanians
(one million two hundred and fifty thousand) and Letts (one million five
hundred thousand), chiefly in Kovno, Vilna, Grodno, Vitebsk, Courland,
and S. Livonia. The Germans (one million five hundred thousand) are
mainly descendants of the mediæval conquerors of the east Baltic coasts
(Teutonic Knights, Knights of the Sword, and their followers) and of the
agricultural colonists brought by Catherine II.

_The Grand-Duchy of Finland._--In the northwest, next Scandinavia. Chief
towns: Viborg, Helsingfors, Abo.

Finland was ceded by the Swedes in 1809, but still retains an
independent administration. The interior, chiefly elevated plateau,
consists largely of forest land, and is well supplied with lakes, many
of which are united by canals. (See also under Europe.)

Education is highly advanced; Swedish and Finnish are the two languages
of the country, Russian being practically unknown. There is an
excellent Saga literature, and the beginnings of a modern literature.
The Finns came under the dominion of the Swedes in the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries, and were by them Christianized.

The Finnish race includes the Finns and the Karelians (two million four
hundred thousand in Finland and three hundred and fifty thousand in
European Russia); the Esthonians, the people of Livonia, and other
Western Finns in the Baltic Provinces (about one million); the Lapps and
the Samoyedes in the far north; and the Volga Finns and the Ugrians (one
million seven hundred and fifty thousand in European Russia and fifty
thousand in Siberia). The Eastern Finns are being rapidly absorbed by
the Russians; but the Western Finns warmly cherish their nationality.

[7]_Poland._--In the west, next Germany. Chief town: Warsaw.

  [7] Russian Poland was created into an independent kingdom by a
  joint edict of Germany and Austria-Hungary promulgated at Warsaw
  November 5, 1916. What its future status may be when the map of
  Europe is re-adjusted after the close of the European War is
  uncertain. For the present it is given a place among the independent
  nations.

=Surface Features.=--In general these embody the plains of European
Russia and the lowlands and plains that extend to the north of the two
great plateaus of Asia--the high plateau of East Asia and the western
plateau of Persia and Armenia.

In European Russia, apart from the Caucasus, the Urals, and the Crimea,
the only districts rising above one thousand feet are the Valdai hills
at head of the Volga, the Timan range (over three thousand feet) in the
Pechora basin, several heights in Russian Lapland (over one thousand
five hundred), and some in Ukraine (over one thousand). The main
divisions of its landscape are the treeless northern tundras, frozen in
winter, grassy in summer; the rock and lake plateau of Finland; the
immense central forest region, the cultivated parts of which supply
Europe with grain; and the treeless steppes, which lie across the south
of the plain from the saline borders of the northern Caspian toward
Roumania on the west.

In Western Asia, the Caucasus is a single chain, so narrow that the same
summits may be seen from the steppes which reach out from its northern
base, and from the deep valleys which separate it from the heights of
Armenia on the south. It has thus no great valleys in the direction of
its length. The spurs descending from the main chain have deep gorges or
troughs between. The culminating points are the Elbruz peak and Koshtan
Tau, towards the western end of the chain; and Mount Kazbek, near the
middle of it--all rising grandly from deep valleys.

The two most important passes over it were called in ancient times the
Caucasian and Albanian gates. The former, now called the Dariel Pass,
lies close to the eastern base of the Kazbek, and is a narrow cleft
eight thousand two hundred and fifteen feet above the sea, available for
carriages in the summer. The latter skirts the eastern termination of
the range on the shores of the Caspian.

Over the whole chain vegetation is vigorous, but more luxuriant on the
warmer southern slopes. The valleys opening in that direction are highly
fertile, producing rice and cotton and silk, indigo, tobacco, and vines,
and luxuriant woods. The northern slopes, exposed to the keen winds of
the steppes, are characterized by bare pasture-lands and scattered
firwoods.

All Western Siberia, nearest the Ural belt and European Russia, is a
vast plain rising almost imperceptibly from the shores of the Arctic
Ocean to the Kirghiz steppes and the base of the Altai mountains, which
spring up from it like a wall, forming the northern buttress of the
great tableland of Central Asia. The northern border of this plain is
occupied by the marshy frozen tundras; the broad central belt is covered
with forest, in the cleared spaces of which the soil is fertile and well
suited to agriculture; all the southern portion of it is occupied by
treeless steppes which reach away south towards the Caspian and Aral
Seas.

The chief elevation in eastern Siberia is a chain of volcanic mountains
running down the center of the peninsula of Kamchatka, some of whose
peaks reach an elevation of seventeen thousand feet.

=Rivers.=--The chief rivers of Russia are the Niemen, the Dwina, the
Lovat (continued by the Volkhov and the Neva), the Onega, the Dnieper,
the Don and the Volga. By means of three lines of canals and canalized
rivers, which connect the upper tributaries of the Volga with the
streams that flow into Lakes Onega and Ladoga, the real mouth of the
Volga has been transferred from the Caspian to the Gulf of
Finland--Petrograd being the chief port of the Volga basin. The upper
Volga and the upper Kama are also connected by canals with the North
Dwina, and the Dnieper with the Düna, the Niemen, and the Vistula.

The rainfall of Russia is small, and as part of it falls in the shape of
snow, the rivers are flooded in spring and in early summer. During the
winter navigation of course ceases.

=The Lake District.=--This region lies in the north, and includes the
governments of Petrograd, Novgorod, and Finland. The lakes in the
district are well-nigh innumerable, the government of Novgorod alone
containing more than three thousand lakes. The chief lakes of Finland
are the Enare and Saima. Lake Ladoga is the largest lake in Russian
Europe. For a third of the year its surface is frozen. The lake abounds
with fish, and has a peculiar species of seal. The Neva flows from the
lake into the Gulf of Finland.

Lake Onega is joined up to the White Sea by means of a series of lakes
and streams.

Lake Ilmen is formed by the meeting of a number of rivers in a shallow
depression; the average depth does not exceed thirty feet.

Lake Peipus, a part of which is called the Lake of Pskov, connects with
the Gulf of Riga and with the Gulf of Finland. This lake also is very
shallow and does not in any part exceed a depth of ninety feet.

=Seaboard and Islands.=--The ports on the Arctic coast are of little
importance, since for nearly three-quarters of the year the outlets are
frozen.

The White Sea with its port, Archangel, had lost much of the importance
which it formerly possessed until brought into use during the European
war in 1916-1917.

The Bering Sea and the coasts which border on the Sea of Japan lose much
of their value because they are bleak and inhospitable. The great gulf
which has the town of Vladivostok at its head is separated by miles of
waste land from the interior, and the value of one of the most
magnificent harbors in the world suffers much from this fact.

The sea which is of most importance to Russia is the Baltic, with its
gulfs of Bothnia, Riga, and Finland. The chief Russian ports are to be
found situated on its banks, and yet it can in no respect be regarded as
a purely Russian sea.

The chief islands of the Baltic are: the Aland Archipelago, Dago, Oesel,
Mohn, Hochland, and Kotlin, which contains the fortress of Cronstadt.

The Black Sea is becoming of more and more importance every year. The
coast lands are being developed, and as the produce of the interior
becomes greater so the importance of the Black Sea increases.

The Sea of Azov is the greatest inlet of this sea, but on the whole the
importance of the Black Sea is lessened by the fact that it has so few
good ports. The best are those of the peninsula of the Crimea, but these
are too remote to be of any great importance.

Odessa is the second port of Russia and the greatest port of the Black
Sea. Sebastopol is the great naval station, and Batum owes its
importance to the fact that it is the port of the oil fields of the
Caucasus.

The great inland sea of Russia, the Caspian, lacks importance chiefly
because of the fact that it is an inland sea. It forms a good means of
communication from the Transcaucasian provinces to Central Asia, and
also between Central Asia and Persia; but although attempts have been
made to unite it with the Black Sea, the fact that it lies seventy feet
below sea-level prevents any real good from being done. It is, however,
of vast importance as a fishing center, and supplies almost the whole of
Russia with fish.

=Climate.=--In European Russia, except in the Baltic provinces, the
south of the Crimea, and a narrow strip of land on the Black Sea, the
climate is continental. A very cold winter, followed by a spring which
sets in rapidly; a hot summer; an autumn cooler than spring; early
frosts; and a small rainfall, chiefly during the summer and autumn, are
the main features. The winter is cold everywhere. All the rivers are
frozen over early in December, and they remain under ice for from one
hundred days in the south to one hundred and sixty days in the north.

=Products and Industries.=--Excepting along the tundra belt on the
Arctic coasts, in Finland, and in the saline steppes of the southeast,
the cultivation of grain extends all over the great Russian plains.

=Agriculture and Forests.=--Rye and barley, oats and flax, are the chief
crops in the north; wheat and vines, hemp and tobacco, the products of
the center and the south. The south central governments, extending from
the Upper Oka to the Ukraine on the Dnieper, may be regarded as the
granary of Russia, for they produce a third of all its corn supply.
Russia is thus most important of all as a grain-producing country.

Its forests extend over about forty per cent of the surface--pine and
fir and birch in the north; oak and elm and lime in the center and
south. The timber is sent down the Niemen and Vistula to the Baltic, and
to Archangel in the White Sea, in enormous quantities for the supply of
western Europe. In Russia itself the larger portion of the houses are
built of wood.

=Live Stock and Fisheries.=--The steppes of the south are the great
pastoral lands of Russia, which possess more than forty-five millions of
sheep, about twenty-five per cent yielding fine wool; twenty-five
millions of cattle; and twenty millions of horses. Russian leather is
famous. Swine are also kept in very large numbers all over the land; the
export of bristles and brushes from Russia is very large. Reindeer form
the wealth of the Lapps and Samoyeds in the north; camels of the Tartars
in the southeastern steppes. Hunting the bear, wolf, fox, and deer, and
trapping the sable in the forests for their skins, give employment to
many. The Caspian, as well as the Sea of Azof, the Black Sea, and the
great rivers, are rich in fish--tunny, sturgeon, salmon, anchovy. Most
caviare is made at Astrakhan on the Caspian.

MINERALS.--The Obdorsk and Ural Mountains contain very great mineral
riches, and, with the Altai range, are the principal seat of mining and
metallic industry, producing gold, platinum, copper, iron of very
superior quality, rock-salt, marble, and kaolin, or china-clay. Silver,
gold, and lead are also obtained in large quantities from the mines in
the Altai Mountains. Russia is now the largest producer of petroleum in
the world. Great supplies of petroleum and naptha are found in the Baku,
Kerch, and Taman. An immense bed of coal, both steam and anthracite, and
apparently inexhaustible, has been discovered in the basin of the Donetz
(between the rivers Donetz and Dnieper). Other mineral products are:
gold, platinum, pig iron, steel and rails, copper, quicksilver, salt and
lead.

=Education.=--From the close of the sixteenth century onward till 1861,
the greater portion of the inhabitants of Russia were serfs, belonging
either to the crown or to private individuals. Under these circumstances
it is not surprising that the masses of the people in Russia are without
education. Finland is in advance of all other parts of the empire in
respect of education; it possesses a separate system. Probably not more
than ten per cent of the population have received instruction of any
kind. The control and maintenance of primary schools is divided between
the Ministry of Public Instruction and the Holy Synod. Conditions are,
however, improving. Secondary institutions comprise gymnasia and good
schools, but numbers and attendances are small. Special schools are
increasing in number, especially in the European cities. There are
universities at Kazan, Kieff, Kharkoff, Moscow, Odessa, Petrograd,
Saratoff, Tomsk, Yurieff and Warsaw.

=Religion.=--The great bulk of the Russians--excepting a few White
Russians professing the Union--belong to the Greek-Russian Church, or to
one of its numberless sects of dissenters. The Poles and most of the
Lithuanians are Roman Catholics; while the Finns, the Esthonians, and
other Western Finns, the Swedes, and the Germans, are Protestant (about
four millions).

=Cities and Towns.=--The largest towns in European Russia are Petrograd
(2,018,596), Moscow (1,173,427), Warsaw (756,426), Riga (500,000),
Odessa (449,673), Lodz (351,570), Kieff (329,000), Kharkoff (197,405),
Vilna (162,633), Saratoff (143,431), Kazan (143,707), Ekaterinoslav
(135,552), Rostoff (119,889), Astrakhan (121,580), Tula (109,279), and
Kishineff (125,787); while Nijni Novgorod, Nikolaieff, Samara, and Minsk
have populations between 90,000 and 95,000. In Asiatic Russia the
Caucasus contains two towns with over 100,000 inhabitants: Baku
(179,133), and Tiflis (160,645); Turkestan contains five large towns,
Tashkend (156,000), Namangan, Samarkand, and Andijan; in Siberia
Vladivostok has 90,000 (one-third Chinese), Tomsk, Irkutsk, and
Ekaterinburg have each about 50,000 inhabitants. Nijni Novgorod, though
small, is a station on the Trans-Siberian Railway, and has annually the
largest fair in the world.

[Illustration: =PALACE OF PETER THE GREAT, FOUNDER OF PETROGRAD=]

=Petrograd=, the splendid looking metropolis of the Russian Empire, is
situated on the River Neva, near its entrance into the Gulf of Finland.
The flat and low marshy ground upon which the city is built only
recently emerged from the sea. The mighty Neva, which flows thirty-six
miles from Lake Ladoga, subdivides into many branches, thus forming some
one hundred islands.

[Illustration: =VIEW OF PETROGRAD, RUSSIA, FROM THE ISLAND=]

Peter the Great began to build, in 1703, a small hut for himself, and
some wooden hovels near the old fort. Now the quays form noble
uninterrupted walks for several miles on each side of the broad, deep,
rapid, and clear river. The climate is cold, damp, and changeable with a
mean summer temperature of sixty-four degrees, mean winter temperature
of fifteen degrees.

[Illustration: =THE IMPERIAL WINTER PALACE, PETROGRAD=]

GENERAL ASPECT AND DIVISIONS.--The main body of the city stands on the
mainland, on the left bank of the Neva; and a beautiful granite quay,
with a long series of palaces and mansions, stretches for two and
one-half miles. Only three permanent bridges cross the Neva; a bridge of
boats is constructed each spring and removed each autumn.

The island Vasilievsky, between the Great and Little Nevas, contains the
Stock Exchange, the Academy of Sciences, the University, the
Philological Institute, the Academy of Arts, and various schools and
colleges.

On the Petrogradsky Island, between the Little Neva and the Great Neva,
stands the old fortress and prison of St. Peter and St. Paul, facing the
Winter Palace, and containing the mint and the cathedral wherein the
members of the imperial family are buried, also the arsenal.

THE CHIEF CENTER.--The main part of Petrograd has for its center the Old
Admiralty. Its lofty gilded spire and the gilded dome of St. Isaac’s
Cathedral are among the first sights caught on approaching Petrograd by
sea. Three streets radiate from it, the first of them, the famous Nevsky
Prospect. The street architecture, with its huge brick houses covered
with stucco and mostly painted gray, is rigid and military in aspect.

A spacious square, planted with trees, encloses the Old Admiralty on
three sides. To the east of it rise the magnificent mass of the Winter
Palace, the Hermitage Gallery of Art, and the semicircular buildings of
the general staff.

In the Petrogradsky Square is the well-known statue of Peter I. on an
immense block of Finland granite. The richly decorated cathedral of St.
Isaac of Dalmatia, erected by Nicholas I., is an almost cubic building
(three hundred and thirty feet long, two hundred and ninety feet broad,
and three hundred and ten feet high), surmounted by one large and lofty
and four small gilded domes.

In Nevsky Prospect are the Kazan Cathedral, the Public Library, the
square of Catherine II., and the Anitchkoff Palace.

The aristocratic quarter lies between the line of the Nevsky Prospect
and the River Neva.

The principal places of interest are: the Imperial or Winter Palace, the
Hermitage, St. Isaac’s Cathedral, the Kazan Cathedral, the Cathedral of
Saints Peter and Paul, the Smolnoi Church, the Academy of Science, the
House of Peter the Great; and, in the environs, Tsarskoe Selo, and
Peterhof. For most travelers the greatest attraction in Petrograd is:

THE HERMITAGE.--It is connected with the Winter Palace, and was
originally built by the Empress Catherine II. as a retreat. The present
building, erected 1840-1852, by Klenze, is in the Greek style; it is a
parallelogram, five hundred and twelve feet by three hundred and
seventy-five feet, and for elegance of form as well as for beauty and
costliness of materials employed has scarcely a rival in Europe.

Baedeker says: “The gallery of the Hermitage unquestionably stands among
the first in Europe, not on account of its numbers (it boasts over one
thousand nine hundred pictures) or on account of its completeness--the
art of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and the entire German
school is lacking--but because it possesses such a number of
masterpieces from the best periods of the various schools, that for the
Spanish masters it ranks next to the Prado and the Louvre, in French
masters it is surpassed only by the Louvre, in Flemish artists it stands
on a level with the principal galleries, and it is the premier
collection of the Dutch school, especially Rembrandt.”

CATHEDRAL OF ST. PETER AND ST. PAUL is in the fortress. It was erected
1714-1733, and was several times damaged by lightning. It has a
beautiful spire, three hundred and two feet, the loftiest in Russia,
except that at Reval. All sovereigns of Russia, including and since
Peter the Great, except Peter II., who was interred at Moscow, lie
buried here. The tomb of Peter the Great is near the south door. On the
walls are many military trophies, keys of fortresses, flags, weapons,
shields, etc. Nearby the Cathedral, in a brick building, is the boat of
Peter the Great, preserved exactly as when it engaged the curious
attention of Peter and so led to the creation of the Russian navy, of
which it is facetiously called the “Grandfather.”

[Illustration: =THE CATHEDRAL OF ST. ISAAC=

The largest in Petrograd, was begun a century ago by Catherine II.; but
was rebuilt in 1819-1858, by Montferrand, in the shape of a Greek cross.
It is a simple but massive pile, with one hundred and twelve pillars in
the four fronts. Those at the chief entrance are sixty feet high, and
seven feet diameter--all round and highly polished granite monoliths
from Finland. The dome, two hundred and ninety-six feet high, is
surmounted by a golden cross and covered with copper, overlaid with
gold. The Altar screen is of immense value and the entire edifice cost
about fifty million dollars.]

THE KAZAN CATHEDRAL is situated upon the Nevsky Prospect, and is
approached by a circular colonnade, in imitation of St. Peter’s at Rome.
In front are fine statues of Smolenskoi and de Tolly. The interior
corresponds in its magnificence and display to St. Isaac’s. The special
object of interest is the image of “Our Lady of Kazan,” which is covered
with gems, the diamonds of the crown being of exceeding value. Around
the cathedral are banners of important victories won by Russian arms and
valor.

[Illustration: =STATUE OF PETER THE GREAT, PETROGRAD=

A very striking equestrian statue, erected by Catherine II. in 1782. It
is of colossal size, by Falconet, and stands on a huge pedestal of
granite, between St. Isaac’s Church and the River Neva.]

THE SMOLNOI CHURCH, at the eastern extremity of the city, is peculiarly
rich in its effects, the entire structure and all its decorations being
of the purest white. In connection with this church is a celebrated
seminary for young ladies of noble birth.

CATHEDRAL AND MONASTERY OF ST. ALEXANDER NEVSKY is at the extreme east
end of the Nevsky Prospect. The buildings cover much ground, and include
twelve churches, the monastery, and gardens. The Cathedral, which is
that of the Metropolitan, dating from 1790, is enriched with marble and
agate and paintings--the altarpiece, the Annunciation, is by Raphael
Mengs. On pillars opposite the altar are large portraits of Peter the
Great and Catherine II. The shrine of St. Alexander Nevsky is of silver,
about two thousand pounds of the metal being used in the whole; near the
tomb are suspended the keys of Adrianople. The Monastery has a rich
collection of jeweled mitres, gold brocaded vestments, and a mass of
valuables, also many objects of interest, including the crown of St.
Alexander and the bed on which Peter the Great died.

TSARSKOE SELO (_tsär’kō-ye sā´lō_), about fifteen miles south of St.
Petersburg, contains a famous imperial palace, a favorite summer
residence of the court. The Old Palace, begun in 1744, is richly
decorated, the walls of one room are incrusted with amber, those of
another with lapis lazuli. The magnificent marble gallery, two hundred
and seventy feet long, connects the palace with a detached building. The
park is full of caprices, such as a Chinese tower and village, an
Egyptian pyramid, a Turkish kiosk, and the so-called doll-houses of the
royal princesses.

[Illustration: =MONUMENT TO NICHOLAS I., PETROGRAD=]

PETERHOF (_pā´ter-hōf_), near Oranienbaum, was begun in 1720, and built
by Leblond for Peter the Great. A marine palace, with a long front, made
to retain its original appearance, even its ancient yellow color has
been continually renewed. It contains porcelain, malachite, tapestry,
paintings of victories in the reign of Catherine II., and a collection
of three hundred and sixty-eight portraits of women, painted by Count
Rosali for the empress during a journey. All are in the national
costume. The gardens are full of Neptunes and Tritons and good
fountains. The well-wooded park has many curiosities:--Marli, a favorite
resort of Peter the Great; the cottage of the Empress Catherine,
brilliant with gold and mirrors; the Palais de Paille; the English
Garden, with a ball-room.

[Illustration: =THE HERMITAGE OR MUSEUM OF ART,=

connected with the Winter Palace, is one of most famous in Europe and
contains one thousand seven hundred paintings of all schools, among them
being some by Murillo, Velasquez, Rubens, Van Dyke, Rembrandt, and
Ruysdael.]

=Moscow= (_mŏs’kō_), the ancient capital of the Russian Empire, is one
of the most magnificent and interesting cities of the world. The city is
gathered in a semi-circle around the citadel, or Kremlin, which stands
immediately upon the river bank. The streets are exceedingly irregular,
though generally presenting the appearance of broad, well-paved avenues
of a modern European city. The innumerable white, semi-oriental
structures which greet the vision from every commanding point, with
their unnumbered domes, spires, belfries, towers, and minarets, give to
the city a magnificence of beauty scarcely to be found elsewhere in the
great cities of Europe.

THE KREMLIN.--The historic, as well as the most interesting part of the
city, is within the walls of the Kremlin. It is associated with much
that is held in deepest reverence by Russians--here the imperial power
receives religious consecration, and the great bell of Ivan Veliky
proclaims the new monarch. The Kremlin is an assemblage of many
buildings, covering quite a section of the city--churches, palaces,
arsenals, barracks, monuments--enclosed within a brick wall about a mile
and a half in circuit. Upon the wall, which is sixty feet high, are
twenty-one towers. The principal gate, the Gate of the Saviour, is on
the east side. Over the passage of the gate is the venerated “Saviour”
brought from Smolensk in 1685, and it is the custom for the passer-by to
uncover his head.

THE TOWER OF IVAN VELIKY, or John the Great, built in 1600, and three
hundred and twenty feet high, contains thirty-four bells, the largest of
which weighs sixty-four tons. When all these bells are rung together at
Easter the effect is wonderful. At the foot of this tower is the vast
Tsar Kolokol, or Monarch of Bells. It once hung in a tower (burned in
1737), weighs four hundred and forty-four thousand pounds, and is twenty
feet high and sixty feet round. The value of the metal in the bell is
nearly two million dollars.

Outside the Kremlin is the Chinese town, so-called, founded by Helena.
Here are the Romanoff Palace, the Iberian Gate and Chapel, the
University, the great Riding School, the Theaters, and the largest
Bazaar in Russia, except that of Nijni-Novgorod.

THE CHURCH OF THE SAVIOUR, is conspicuous near the river, a quarter mile
southwest of the Kremlin. This beautiful church, by the architect Thon,
was erected 1837-1883, at a cost of more than eight million dollars. It
has five cupolas, the principal being about one hundred feet in
diameter; many figures in relief of patriarchs and saints upon the
facade. The interior is elaborately decorated with marble and gilding;
upon the walls are tablets relating to military events, admirable
paintings and sculpture.

THE CATHEDRAL OF ST. BASIL, erected 1554-1557, is a remarkable edifice,
consisting of eleven chapels with as many cupolas, all different, but
wonderfully proportioned.

=Vladivostok= (_vlä-dē-vōs-tok´_), capital (since 1903) of the
vice-royalty of Eastern Asia, Siberia, is situated on the east shore of
Amur Gulf. It has one of the finest harbors in the world, is a naval
station, has an arsenal, and is a terminus of the Siberian railroad. It
escaped attack during the Russo-Japanese war, but suffered from naval
mutiny and unrest in the Russian disturbances of 1905-1906. Its climate
is severe--the average annual temperature being only forty degrees
Fahrenheit.


HISTORY OF RUSSIA

  The races who peopled Russia were vaguely known to the ancients as
  Scythians, and their country as Sarmatia. It received its name from
  the _Ruotsi_ or _Russ_, a tribe of Norse “rovers” or freebooters,
  who entered the country from the west about the eighth century. The
  name was later applied to the realm of Moscow, and modified to
  Russia.

=Early Traditions.=--Three brothers, Rurik, Sineus, and Truvor,
Scandinavians, were invited, according to tradition, to come and protect
territory in northwest Russia against the Finns and the Lithuanians.
They and their successors built new forts, and took part in wars. The
times of the “Sunny Vladimir” (980-1015) are the “heroic” epoch of early
Russian history, and the feats and feasts of Vladimir and his “war
companions” have been handed down through ages in legend and song; while
his conversion to Christianity made him the hero of the annals written
by monks.

=Kieff the First Historic Center.=--The first half of the eleventh
century, during which Yaroslaff the Wise was grand prince at Kieff, was
the most brilliant time for Kieff, then the “mother of the Russian
towns.” The great cathedral of St. Sophia was built at that time;
schools were opened, and the first written Russian law was compiled. At
his death (1054) Yaroslaff was ruling over most of the Russian towns.

The next two centuries of Russian history correspond to the feudal
period of Western Europe. The Russians at that time were steadily
extending their territory toward the east; they colonized the Oka, the
Don, and the Finnish territories in the northeast.

=Settlements in and about Moscow.=--Owing to the gradual colonization of
the basin of the Oka and the upper Volga, a new Russian territory had
grown in importance in the meantime. Suzdal and Rostoff were its chief
centers. It differed from southwest Russia in many respects. Its
inhabitants were Great Russians--a hard-working race, less poetical and
less gifted, but more active than their southern brethren. Besides, a
good many of its inhabitants were peasants, settled on the lands of the
boyars, and the cities themselves, being of recent creation--like
Vladimir and, later on, Moscow--had not those traditions of independence
which characterized Kieff or Novgorod. It was therefore easier for the
authority of the prince to develop in the northeast, under the guidance
of the church and the boyars.

The first Suzdal prince, Andrei Bogolubsky (1157-1174), was the first
representative of that policy. He invited many Kieff boyars to settle in
the land of Suzdal, and finally he took and burnt Kieff (1169).

The supremacy of Kieff was thus destroyed, and the land of Suzdal became
the Ile-de-France of Russia--the nucleus of the future Russian state.
The Suzdal land continued to grow and to enjoy prosperity during the
next fifty years; economical, educational and literary progress were
marked, and the Russian territory extended farther eastward.

=Tartar Invasion.=--But in the thirteenth century a great calamity
visited Russia: a Mongol invasion suddenly put a stop to the development
of the country and threw it into a totally new direction.

The Tartars first appeared in 1224, but their real conquest, under Batu
Khan, was made in 1238 and the years immediately following. They subdued
all the little Slav states except the republic of Novgorod. Latterly the
rulers or princes of Moscow gained an ascendency over the other states,
and formed the nucleus of a central sovereignty.

=Ivan III. Expels the Tartars.=--The Tartar supremacy lasted till about
1480, when Ivan III. (1462-1505) succeeded in throwing off their yoke.
He did much to consolidate and extend his kingdom, and conquered
Novgorod in 1478. The reign of Ivan IV. “The Terrible” (1533-1584) is of
great importance. In 1547 he assumed the title of Czar or Tsar, a
variant of Cæsar. He conquered Kazan and Astrakhan, and the conquest of
Siberia was begun in his reign. The epithet “terrible” has reference to
his cruel persecution of the boyars, a kind of powerful baronial class.

=House of Romanoff Established.=--The accession of the still-reigning
Romanoff house took place in 1613 when the States-General elected
Michael Romanoff as ruler. Under Alexei (1645-1676), son of Michael,
territory was won from Poland, the Cossacks of the Ukraine had to
submit, and the power of Russia greatly increased. The reign of Alexei’s
son, Feodor III. (1676-1682), witnessed a war with Turkey, but was
signalized by many important reforms. His imbecile brother Ivan was heir
apparent, but Feodor willed the throne to his half-brother Peter, known
in history as the Great; but Peter only obtained sole power in 1689
after overthrowing Sophia, Ivan’s sister.

=Under Peter the Great.=--Peter the Great opened what may be called the
European period of Russian history. (See Peter the Great.) He made his
country a European state. He gave it a standing army, a navy on the
Baltic, the embryo of a modern administration, a diplomatic service, and
a financial organization. He made canals, encouraged industry,
literature and art. The heart of Russia might remain at Moscow, but
henceforth it was to have also a head that looked out westward from the
Neva.

On the other hand, Peter increased taxation; his cruelty was oriental,
and serfdom under him became more and more extensive.

He completed the conquest of Siberia, waged successful war with Charles
XII. of Sweden, and by the treaty of Nystad in 1721 obtained Esthonia,
Livonia, Ingermannland, and part of Finland, thus gaining a large
maritime territory on the Baltic Sea. He founded Petrograd in 1703, and
made it the capital in place of Moscow.

=The Eighteenth Century= in Russian history is a century of empresses.
Peter the Great was succeeded by his wife, Catherine I. (1725-1727). A
grandson of Peter the Great, Peter II., followed Catherine, reigning
from 1727 to 1730. The next sovereign was Anna (1730-1740), whose reign
was a period of German influence. Ivan VI. (1740-1741) was soon
displaced by the anti-German party, and Elizabeth (1741-1762), daughter
of Peter the Great, ascended the throne. A part of Finland was obtained
by the treaty of Abo, and Russia took part against Prussia in the Seven
Years’ war. The first Russian university, that of Moscow, was founded in
1755.

The death of Elizabeth and the accession of Peter III., in 1762, greatly
relieved the hard-pressed Frederick the Great, because Peter at once
reversed the Russian policy.

=Catherine II.=--In July, 1762, he was deposed by his wife, Catherine
II. (1762-1796), whose reign is of great importance in the progress of
Russian power.

Under Catherine II. successful wars were carried on against Turkey,
Persia, Sweden and Poland, which largely extended the limits of the
empire. The acquisition of the Crimea, which gave Russia a firm footing
on the Black Sea, and the first partition of Poland, were two most
important steps toward the consolidation of the empire.

=Napoleonic Period.=--Catherine’s son and successor, Paul I.
(1796-1801), at first, through apprehension of the revolution in France,
joined the Austrians and British against France, but soon after
capriciously withdrew, and was about to commence war with Great Britain
when his assassination took place. A palace conspiracy put an end to his
reign and life.

His eldest son, Alexander I. (1801-1825), was at the outset desirous of
peace, but was soon drawn into the vortex of the great struggle with
France, in which he played a prominent part. (See Alexander I. and
Napoleon.) The Holy Alliance and the example of conservative policy set
by Austria exercised a pernicious influence on the later part of his
reign; and the higher classes, who had looked for the introduction of at
least a portion of the liberal institutions they had seen and admired in
Western Europe, became so dissatisfied that, when his youngest brother,
Nicholas I. (1825-1855), from whom they had nothing to hope, succeeded,
they broke out into open rebellion, which was speedily crushed.

=The Turkish Wars.=--A full stop was now put to the intellectual
development of Russia. Wars were declared with Persia and Turkey; and a
long and deadly struggle commenced with the Caucasian mountaineers. The
cession of Erivan and Nahitchevan by Persia, of the plain of the Kubañ,
of the protectorate of the Danubian principalities, and of the free
right of navigation of the Black Sea, the Dardanelles, and the Danube by
Turkey only induced him to further prosecute his aim of conquering for
Russia a free issue from the Black Sea in the Dardanelles.

In 1830 he converted Poland into a Russian province; in 1849 he aided
Austria in quelling the insurrection of the Magyars; and in 1853 he
began a war with Turkey which became the Crimean war, and in which,
though the allies, Great Britain, France and Sardinia, did not obtain
any decided success, Russia suffered immense loss.

=Alexander II.=--The accession of Nicholas’ son Alexander II.
(1855-1881)--one of whose first acts was the conclusion of the peace of
Paris (1856), by which Russia lost the right of navigation on the
Danube, a strip of territory to the north of that river, and the right
of keeping a navy in the Black Sea--was the signal for a general revival
of intellectual life in Russia. Obligatory military service for all
Russians was introduced in 1874.

The insurrection in Poland was suppressed with extreme severity, and in
1868 the last relics of Polish independence disappeared in the thorough
incorporation of the kingdom with the Russian Empire. The subjugation of
the Caucasus was completed in 1859. Russian supremacy was established
over all the states of Turkestan. In 1876 the administration of the
Baltic provinces was merged in that of the central government; but the
autonomy of Finland was respected and even extended.

=Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878.=--In 1877 the Russo-Turkish war broke
out. At first the Russian progress was rapid; but the energy displayed
by the Turks during the summer, and the resolute defense of Plevna by
Osman Pasha from July till December, checked the progress of the Russian
army. During the winter, however, she crossed the Balkans, and her
vanguard, reaching the Sea of Marmora, stood in view of Constantinople.
The armistice signed in January, 1878, was followed in March by the
treaty of San Stefano; and after diplomatic difficulties that seemed for
a time not unlikely to issue in war between Russia and Great Britain, a
Congress of the Great Powers met at Berlin in June, 1878, and sanctioned
the cession to Russia of the part of Bessarabia given to Moldavia in
1856, as also of the port of Batoum, of Kars, and of Ardahan.

=Rise of Nihilism.=--The growth of revolutionary discontent, leading to
severe repressive measures, was marked by several murders of high
officials, and on March 13, 1881, Alexander II. was killed by the
revolutionists.

=Reactionary Reign of Alexander III.=--The reign of Alexander III.
(1881-1894) was in the main characterized, in contrast to the liberal
reforms of the last reign, by reactionary steps. Press freedom
disappeared completely, and the universities were again suppressed. The
Dumas, or representative assemblies, were deprived of all real
independence in 1892. Alexander II.’s judicial reforms were partly
undone, and the village communities, known as mirs, were brought under
the more direct control of the land-owners. Russification was vigorously
pursued in Poland and the Baltic provinces, and in 1890 the first steps
toward the Russification of Finland were taken.

Alexander III. was not friendly to Germany, but avoided hostilities more
serious than those of a tariff war, although the Bulgarian crisis of
1885 subjected their relations to a severe strain. Russia and France now
began to draw close together, but a Franco-Russian alliance was not
officially admitted till 1896-1897, and its terms were secret. Merv was
annexed in 1884, and the occupation of Penjdeh in 1885 nearly led to war
with Great Britain. Alexander III. escaped several attempts at
assassination, and died of disease in November, 1894.

=Russia in the Far East.=--After the reign of Alexander III. comes the
fateful reign of his son, Nicholas II. In 1896 China granted permission
to carry the Siberian railway (begun in 1889) through Manchuria to the
far eastern Russian seaport of Vladivostok. In December, 1897, in
consequence of the Germans having acquired Kiauchau from China, Russia
occupied Port Arthur, and in the following year obtained from China a
lease of it and some neighboring territory, although in 1895 she had
taken the chief part in preventing Japan from taking it as a prize of
victory. She shared in the international expedition to China in 1900,
and herself suppressed risings in Manchuria with the utmost cruelty.
Professing to be ready, and even anxious to evacuate Manchuria as soon
as possible, she was preparing for virtual annexation; but her
aggressive action in Korea aroused Japanese opposition, and led to the
war of 1904-1905.

By treaty of Portsmouth (1905), which ended this war, Russia lost--for
the time being at least--all influence in Manchuria, Korea, and China,
and had to cede to Japan Port Arthur and its territory, and also
southern Sakhalien.

=The Imperial Duma.=--In August, 1905, the czar issued a manifesto
ordering the election of an Imperial Duma or Parliament. Count Witte was
made president of a reorganized Council of Ministers, with instructions
to form a reform cabinet. The general strike in Finland compelled the
czar to restore Finland’s constitution and liberties previously taken
away in 1903. The bureaucrats attempted to discredit the reform movement
by instigating attacks on Jews, and other outrages, especially in
Odessa, where the authorities permitted appalling atrocities.

The Imperial Duma, promised in 1905, was duly elected early in 1906, and
held its first meeting on May 10 at Petrograd. It was dissolved later in
the year because too liberal, and a second one, elected in 1907, met the
same fate. By various devices the government managed to get a less
advanced Duma elected late in 1907, which did some useful work in 1908.
An important Anglo-Russian convention was signed in 1907, the
signatories agreeing to respect the territorial integrity of Thibet and
the suzerainty of China. Other conventions were signed (1910) between
Russia and Japan respecting the status of Manchuria, and between Russia
and Germany in 1911.

After declaration of war by Austria against Servia in 1914, Russia
announced that her support would be given to Servia. Consequently Russia
joined France and Great Britain in the conflict that followed. (See
further under European war.)

=Books of Reference.=--Wallace’s _Russia_; Leroy-Beaulieu’s _The Empire
of the Tsars_; Norman’s _All the Russians_; Drage’s _Russian Affairs_;
Suvorin’s _All Russia--a Directory of Industries_, etc.; Stepniak’s
_King Log and King Stork_; Krapotkin’s _Memoirs of a Revolutionist_;
Morfill’s _Russia_; Villari’s _Russia under the Great Shadow_;
Wellesley’s _With the Russians in Peace and War_; Ganz’s _The Downfall
of Russia_; Milyoukov’s _Russia and Its Crisis_; Meakin’s _Russia,
Travels and Studies_.


SOVEREIGNS OF RUSSIA

A long list of dukes and grand dukes preceded the actual foundation of
the Russian monarchy under the rule of a czar.

HOUSE OF RURIK

This royal house includes the descendants of Rurik, Grand Prince of
Novgorod, the reputed founder of the Russian royalty. It became extinct
in the person of Feodor in 1598.

=1462-1505.=--Ivan (Basilovitz), or John III., took the title of czar,
1482; Grand Duke of Moscow.

=1505-1533.=--Vasali IV., or Basil V., obtained the title of Emperor
from Maximilian I.; son of Ivan the Great.

=1533-1584.=--Ivan IV. the Terrible; a tyrant; son of Vasily IV.

=1584-1598.=--Feodor, or Theodor, I.; and his son Demetrius, murdered by
his successor; son of Ivan the Terrible: was elected to the throne.

=1598-1604.=--Boris-Godonof, who usurped the throne.

=1605.=--Feodor II., murdered.

=1606.=--Vasali-Chouiski, or Zouinski.

=1606-1610.=--Demetrius the Impostor, a young Polish monk; pretended to
be the murdered prince Demetrius; put to death.

=1610-1613.=--Ladislaus of Poland; retired 1613.

HOUSE OF ROMANOFF--MALE LINE

=1613-1645.=--Michael-Feodorovitz, of the house of Romanoff, descended
from the czar Ivan Basilovitz; unanimously elected czar.

=1645-1676.=--Alexis, styled the father of his country; son of Michael
Feodorovitch.

=1676-1682.=--Feodor, or Theodor, II.; eldest son of Emperor Alexis.

=1682-1689.=--Ivan V.; Peter I., Ivan was the half-brother of Peter the
Great, in whose favor he resigned.

=1689-1725.=--Peter I., the Great, alone; took the title of emperor
October, 1721; founded St. Petersburg; son of Alexis.

=1725-1727.=--Catherine I., his widow, at first the wife of a Swedish
dragoon, said to have been killed on the day of marriage; was married to
Peter the Great in 1707.

=1727-1730.=--Peter II., son of Alexis Petrovitz, and grandson of Peter
the Great; deposed.

HOUSE OF ROMANOFF--FEMALE LINE

The reign of the next three sovereigns of Russia, Anne, Ivan VI., and
Elizabeth, of the female line of Romanoff, formed a transition period,
which came to an end with the accession of Peter III., of the house of
Holstein-Gottorp.

=1730-1740.=--Anne, duchess of Courland, daughter of the czar Ivan.

=1740-1741.=--Ivan VI., an infant, grand-nephew to Peter the Great;
immured in a dungeon for eighteen years; murdered in 1764.

=1741-1762.=--Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great reigned during
Ivan’s captivity.

HOUSE OF ROMANOFF-HOLSTEIN

All the subsequent emperors, without exception, connected themselves by
marriage with German families. The wife and successor of Peter III.,
Catherine II., daughter of the Prince of Anhalt Zerbst, general in the
Prussian army, left the crown to her only son Paul, who became the
father of two emperors, Alexander I. and Nicholas, and the grandfather
of a third, Alexander II. All these sovereigns married German
princesses, creating intimate family alliances, among others, with the
reigning houses of Württemberg, Baden, and Prussia.

=1762.=--Peter III., son of Anne and of Charles Frederick, duke of
Holstein-Gottorp; deposed, and died soon after; supposed to have been
murdered. Son of Charles Frederick, Duke of Holstein.

=1762-1796.=--Catherine II.; a great sovereign; extended the Russian
territories on all sides; died 1796; wife of Peter III.

=1796-1801.=--Paul, her son; murdered, 1801; son of Peter III.

=1801-1825.=--Alexander I., died 1825; son of Paul.

=1825-1855.=--Nicholas I.; died 1855; third son of Paul.

=1855-1881.=--Alexander II., assassinated at St. Petersburg, March,
1881; son of Nicholas I.

=1881-1894.=--Alexander III.; died 1894; married Mary (formerly Dagmar),
princess of Denmark; son of Alexander II.

=1894.=--Nicholas II., married princess Alix of Hesse-Darmstadt; son of
Alexander III.


SECONDARY POWERS OF EUROPE


=BELGIUM= (Fr. _Belgique_), one of the smaller European states, consists
of the southern portion of the former kingdom of the Netherlands (as
created by the Congress of Vienna), lying between France and Holland,
the North Sea and Rhenish Prussia. Its greatest length from northwest to
southeast is one hundred and seventy-three miles; and its greatest
breadth from north to south one hundred and five miles.

=Surface.=--Belgium is, on the whole, a level, and even low lying,
country; diversified, however, by hilly districts. The north and west of
the country is low and level plain, like Holland, but the undulating
forest plateaus of the Ardennes cover all the south and east, rising
near the frontier in that direction to a height of two thousand feet
above the sea. The Campine, composed of marshes, coal-bearing heaths,
and irrigated lands, extends along the Dutch frontier. In Flanders dykes
have been raised to check the encroachments of the sea.

=Rivers.=--The land slopes generally northward, and this is the
direction of the numerous rivers and streams which water it. The great
river of the country is the Meuse, which enters from France and passes
out into Holland, being navigable all through Belgium. Its tributary,
the Sambre, from France, which joins it on the left near the center of
the country, is also a navigable stream; and the Ourthe, from the
frontier of Luxemburg, which joins it lower down on the right, is
navigable for half its course. The Escaut or Scheldt is the main river
of the lowland in the west, and with its chief tributaries, the Lys on
the left and the Rupel on the right, forms the waterway of the plain.
These rivers and important tributaries, with canals make up one thousand
four hundred miles of waterways.

=Climate and Landscape.=--Belgium has a climate which resembles that of
England, opposite to it in the same latitude, but which is more
excessive. The lowland of the north is foggy and damp, like Holland; the
higher country south and east has clearer skies.

=People.=--Belgium is one of the most densely peopled countries of the
world, only equaled in this respect by some parts of the plain of China,
or of the valley of the Ganges in India, a result which is no doubt due
to the combination of natural facilities for agriculture, manufactures,
and trade, within its limits. The Flemings (of Teutonic stock) and
Walloons (Celtic in origin) speak each their own dialects of Dutch and
French; there are also numbers of Germans, Dutch, and French. East and
West Flanders, Antwerp, and Limburg are almost wholly Flemish, and
Brabant mainly so. The line between the Flemish and Walloon districts is
sharply defined, the Flemish part being the richest and most cultivated.
The French language has gained the ascendancy in educated society and in
the offices of government, but the Flemish dialect prevails numerically
in the proportion of nine to eight.

[Illustration: =PALACE OF JUSTICE, OR PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS, AT
BRUSSELS=]

=Religion and Education.=--Almost all the inhabitants of Belgium are
Roman Catholics, though complete liberty and social equality is allowed
to all religious confessions. Education is not yet generally diffused
through the population, and was, until recently, almost entirely in the
hands of the Roman Catholic clergy. There are state universities at
Ghent and Liège, an independent liberal university at Brussels, and a
Catholic university at Louvain.

=Products and Industries.=--About a fourth of all the inhabitants of
Belgium are occupied in agriculture. Besides wheat, rye, and oats, hops
are cultivated on a large scale, for export chiefly to France and
England. Beetroot for the sugar factories, of which there are over a
hundred in the country, is also a large crop, and flax is largely grown
in the Flemish lowlands.

Two great coalfields extend across the central part of the country from
west to east, along the valleys of the Meuse, but Belgium is essentially
a manufacturing country, and it is largely dependent upon foreign
supplies for its food. The mineral kingdom yields, beside coal, iron,
zinc, lead and copper. The leading industries are collieries, quarries,
and metal, glass, textiles, lace, flour and starch mills, sugar,
distilleries, breweries, etc.

=Government.=--On the re-arrangement of European affairs, after the fall
of Napoleon, Holland and Belgium were formed into the ill-assorted
kingdom of the Netherlands under the family of Orange. The differences
between the northern and southern divisions in race and language, in
history, religion, and customs, proved too great.

In 1830 Belgium separated from Holland, and her neutrality was
guaranteed by a conference of the European Powers, and by a further
treaty, in 1839, signed by Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, the
Netherlands, and Russia.

The Belgium constitution of 1831 jointly vests the legislative power in
the king, the Senate, and the Chamber of Representatives. The one
hundred and ten senators (with the exception of twenty-seven elected by
the provincial councils) and one hundred and sixty-six representatives
are elected by the people, the former for eight, the latter for four
years. Universal male suffrage, with plural voting up to three votes by
property and educational qualifications, was introduced by the electoral
law of 1894, proportional representation being secured by an act of
1900. There are in addition representative Provincial and Communal
Councils.

=Cities.=--Brussels, population, 1910, with suburbs, 720,347
inhabitants, is the capital. Other towns with over 100,000 inhabitants
are Antwerp, the chief port (320,650 exclusive of suburbs); Ghent
(165,149), the center of the iron industry, which has also large cotton
and flax spinning mills, and is the second port of importance after
Antwerp, while its flower shows are famous; and Liège (174,768).

Its great harbor and commercial city is Antwerp, a strongly fortified
city on the Scheldt. The other harbors are Ghent, Bruges, Ostend,
Nieuport, Blankenberg, and Zeebrugge.

Antwerp, the principal fortress, and Liège and Namur, also fortified,
were designed to afford military protection on the line of the Meuse
against a violation of neutrality by either France or Germany.

=Brussels= (Fr. _Bruxelles_), the capital of Belgium, is situated in a
fertile plain on the ditch-like Senne, twenty-seven miles south of
Antwerp, and one hundred and ninety-three miles northeast of Paris. It
has a circumference of about five miles, and is built partly on the side
of a hill. Though some of the streets are so steep that they can be
ascended only by means of stairs, Brussels may on the whole be
pronounced one of the finest cities in Europe.

The fashionable Upper Town, in which are the royal palace, public
offices, and chief hotels, is much more healthy than the older Lower
Town, which is greatly subject to fogs, owing to its intersection by
canals and the Senne, although the stream now passes under an arched
covering, which supports a boulevard. But the closely built old streets,
with their numerous handsome buildings, formerly belonging to the
Brabant nobility, and now occupied by successful merchants and traders,
have a fine picturesque appearance, while some of the public edifices
are unrivaled as specimens of Gothic architecture.

[Illustration: =THE TOWN HALL, OR=

Hôtel de Ville, in Grande Place, near the center of the city, 1402, is
regarded as architecturally one of the finest structures in Europe. Its
tower rises to the height of three hundred and seventy feet, and is
placed somewhat to one side of the center of the building.]

French is spoken in the upper division; but in the lower Flemish is the
current language prevalent, and by many the Walloon dialect is spoken.

The walls which formerly surrounded Brussels have been removed, and
their place is now occupied by pleasant boulevards extending all around
the old town, and shaded by alleys of limes. The _Allée Verte_--a double
avenue along the Scheldt Canal--forms a splendid promenade, and leads
toward the country palace of Laeken, three miles north of the city.

Besides the fine park of thirty-two acres, in the Upper Town, ornamented
with fountains and statues, and surrounded by the palace and other state
buildings, Brussels has several other squares or places, among which
are: the _Place Royale_, with its colossal monument of Godfrey of
Bouillon; the _Grande Place_, in which is the hôtel-de-ville, a splendid
Gothic structure of the fifteenth century, with a spire of open
stonework three hundred and sixty-four feet high; and the _Place des
Martyrs_, where a memorial has been erected to those who fell here in
the revolution of 1830. The statue group of the Counts Egmont and Horn
is notable. The cathedral of St. Gudule, dating from the thirteenth
century, has many richly painted windows, and a pulpit considered to be
the masterpiece of Verbruggen. The _Palais des Beaux Arts_ contains the
finest specimens of the Flemish school of painting and a sculpture
gallery. The Royal Library adjoining has half a million volumes.

The _Palais de Justice_, built in 1866-1883 at a cost of more than ten
million dollars, is one of the most magnificent buildings in Europe,
dominating the lower town from the terraced slope of the upper town. The
Royal Palace and the National Palace (for the chambers) are important
buildings. Besides the University, there are schools of painting and
sculpture, and a conservatory of music.

Brussels lace is particularly famous. Of the so-called Brussels carpets
only a few are manufactured here, most of those of Belgian make being
produced at Tournai. There are also manufactures of damask, linen,
ribbons, embroidery, paper, jewelry, hats, soap, porcelain, carriages,
etc.

=History.=--The history of Belgium as a kingdom can be said to date only
from the time of the Congress of Vienna, in 1830, but its history as
part of the Netherlands goes back to the time of the Romans.

The province of Belgica under the Romans passed under the sway of the
Franks, and fell later to the Burgundian princes. On the death of
Charles the Bold in 1477 it passed by marriage to the House of Hapsburg.
The Spanish Netherlands remained (unlike the northern provinces which
rebelled against Spain and became a Protestant republic) under the
Spanish branch of the Hapsburgs, till in 1713 they were transferred to
Austria. From 1794 Belgium was under French sway, but on the fall of
Napoleon was united with the kingdom of the Netherlands. It rebelled in
1830, and since then, as above stated, has had a separate career as a
limited constitutional monarchy. Again, in 1838, Holland and Belgium
seemed on the brink of war, the cause being that Belgium had treated
Lembourg and Luxembourg, which by the convention had been given to
Holland, as if they were in reality a part of its territory. The crisis
was terminated by the action of the Great Powers, who reduced Belgium’s
share of the national debt of the Netherlands, and partitioned the
territories again in dispute. The tranquillity of the country was again
disturbed by the revolutionary spirit of 1848, but after 1850 the
constitutional party began that series of reforms which gained for
Belgium the position of one of the freest countries in Europe.

The question of Luxembourg threatened in 1861 the peace of Europe, and
Belgium took part in the congress which prevented war breaking out. In
1870, on the outbreak of hostilities between France and Germany,
Belgium, fearing invasion, mobilized her troops, but her neutrality was
recognized and left inviolate by both parties. In 1885 the Congo Free
State was acknowledged to be under the presidency of the king of
Belgium, Leopold II., who had succeeded his father in 1865. The
management of the colony gave cause for much bitterness, and led to a
number of scandals. Leopold II. died in 1910, and was succeeded by his
nephew, King Albert.

On August 2, 1914, the neutrality of Belgium was violated by the
invasion of the German army at Visé, on the ground of _military
necessity_. The German forces met with the most stubborn resistance from
the valiant though numerically inferior Belgians at Liège and Namur. The
country was subsequently completely overrun by German armies and
subjected to military control. The Germans are at present (1917) in
occupation of practically the whole country, where they are exercising
civil government. The Belgian government has withdrawn temporarily to
Havre, in France.

[Illustration: =COLUMN OF THE CONGRESS, BRUSSELS=

It is in Place du Congrès, two squares north from the Cathedral, was
erected, 1850, in honor of the adoption, in 1831, of the present
Constitution of Belgium. This is surmounted by a statue of the king. At
the corners are allegorical figures of Liberty.]


=BULGARIA=, a monarchy in the northeast part of the Balkan Peninsula
between the Danube and the Balkans, was created a principality by the
treaty of Berlin in 1878, greatly extended by the incorporation of East
Rumelia in 1885, and declared an independent kingdom in 1908.

The net result of the wars of 1912-1913 was the increase of Bulgarian
territory from 33,600 square miles to about 45,000. The population
increased by about 500,000, was in 1910 4,337,513--over three-fourths
Bulgarians, 465,000 Turks, 121,000 Gypsies, 80,000 Roumanians, 43,000
Greeks, and 40,000 Jews. The Bulgarians now extend into Macedonia,
Bessarabia, etc., their total number being about 8,000,000.

=Surface.=--The north of Bulgaria is fertile plain and hilly country;
the south is wooded and mountainous. The country has a fine waterway on
the northern boundary, a Black Sea and Ægean seaboard, a mild climate,
an agricultural country capable of much, an abundance of iron and some
coal, free institutions, a peasantry possessing the solid qualities and
persevering industry of northern races, and an assured economic
development.

=Productions.=--The chief occupation of the people is agriculture, which
engages about seventy per cent of the population. Cereals (wheat, maize,
rye, barley, oats) are the principal crops, and rank first among the
exports. Wine is produced everywhere, especially near the Black Sea.
Roses are cultivated to a large extent, especially round Kazanlik and
Karlavo and on the north side of the Rhodope Mountains for attar of
roses, which is largely exported. Silkworms are bred in Philippopolis
and Haskaro. Tobacco is carefully cultivated. There is little industry
apart from domestic branches such as native cloth, carpets, trimmings
and ribbons; but there is some brewing and distilling, leather work at
Sumen, copper work, and pottery-making. The chief exports are grain,
live stock, butter, eggs, hides, and attar of roses, sent chiefly to
Turkey, France, Great Britain, and Austria-Hungary.

=People.=--Education has been very zealously and steadily promoted.
Elementary education is compulsory. There are few technical schools.
Sofia has a university.

The old Bulgarian Slavonic tongue is closely allied to the great
Russian, but some Servian, Greek, Romanic, Albanian, and Turkish
elements have found their way into the language.

The Orthodox Greek Church counts seventy-seven per cent as its
adherents, Islam twenty-one and one-half per cent, and the others are
Jews.

=Government.=--Bulgaria possesses one of the freest and most democratic
constitutions in Europe, largely modeled on the lines of the Belgian
constitution, except that there is no second chamber; and election of
the _Sobranje_ or National Assembly is by universal manhood suffrage,
in the proportion of one member to every twenty thousand of the
population. The executive power is vested in eight ministers nominated
by the king. The monarchy, independent since 1908, is hereditary.

[Illustration: =STREET SCENE IN SOFIA CAPITAL OF BULGARIA=

This modern city is quite American in its appearance. It typifies to
Bulgarians the progress of their nation, and is substantial and
practical rather than pleasing. The streets are broad, straight,
electrically lighted, and well paved, while the houses in the newer
sections are modern structures of dignified architecture. While Sofia
may not impress the visitor with its beauty, it does impress him with
the fact that there is a good deal of common sense and business
efficiency in this part of the Balkans.]

=Cities.=--The chief towns of Bulgaria are Sofia, Philippopolis,
Rustchuk and Varna. Varna and Burgas are ports on the Black Sea,
Dedeagatch on the Ægean.

=Sofia= (_sofee´a_), the capital since 1878 of Bulgaria, stands in a
broad valley of the Balkans, on the railway from Constantinople to
Belgrade and Vienna. It lies two hundred and six miles northwest of
Belgrade, while Constantinople lies three hundred miles southeast. The
valley at Sofia is an upland plateau, seventeen hundred feet above sea
level, and near the heart of the peninsula, between the Vitosha
Mountains and the main Balkan chain. At the end of almost every vista in
the city are the distant hill masses, and fringing mountains.

The city early became important as a trade center, and probably would
have developed into one of the great cities of Europe had not periodical
destruction, almost continual dangers of war, and centuries of misrule
held it back.

The rebuilding of Sofia began around 1880. It now has many creditable
public buildings, electric lighting, an electric street railway and good
sewerage and water systems.

It possesses the largest theater in southeastern Europe. The Bulgarian
National Theater, with a competent corps of actors and singers, and
offering the best in opera and drama, is a revelation of the strides
that have been made in the Balkans since the Turks were driven back a
brief generation ago. The theater is a handsome modern structure,
planned with greater luxury of detail than most buildings in Sofia, and
it cost four hundred thousand dollars.

Sofia has a public bathhouse which is one of the finest buildings of its
kind in the world. It was built over a hot mineral spring, famed since
the days of the Romans. This building, in Byzantine style, including in
its interior appointments all of the most modern luxuries, cost the
Bulgarians six hundred thousand dollars.

Their capital city is one of the peculiar prides of the hard-working,
long-enduring, persistent Bulgarians. It typifies to them the promise of
a great Bulgarian future, and they also look upon it as an earnest of
their right to a respected place among the civilized nations of the
West.

=History.=--The country now known as Bulgaria was originally inhabited
by Thracians, and under the Romans formed the province of Mœsia. The
Bulgars originally came from the banks of the Volga and crossed the
Danube in the sixth century, and occupied the East. They overcame the
Slavs, adopted their language and customs, and thus became a great Slav
power; but by 1186 they had split up into three principalities, and from
1393 fell under the domination of the Turks. For close upon five hundred
years the Bulgars were subject to the rule of the Ottoman Empire.

The first national awakening dates from the year 1762, when the monk
Paysios, then at Mt. Athos, wrote the national chronicles, and revived
memories of ancient glory. A new national literature began; the first
Bulgarian school was opened in 1835, and was followed by others. A
newspaper appeared in 1844. The Crimean war stirred up Slavonic
sympathies which Russia sedulously and naturally cherished. In 1872 the
Bulgarian Church and archbishop became again independent of the
supremacy of the Greek patriarch.

In 1877 Russia, as guardian of the Slav races of Turkey, declared war.
As a result of the war, Bulgaria was created by the treaty of Berlin.
July 13, 1878, and in 1885 Eastern Rumelia was added to the newly
created principality. In 1908 the country was declared to be an
independent kingdom. In 1912-1913 a successful war of the Balkan League
against Turkey increased the size of the kingdom, but in August, 1913, a
short campaign against the remaining members of the League reduced the
acquired area, and led to the surrender of about two thousand square
miles to Roumania. In October, 1915, Bulgaria decided to participate in
the European conflict, and sided with Germany, Austria-Hungary, and
Turkey, and attacked Servia.

[Illustration: =NEW QUARTERS OF COPENHAGEN, CAPITAL OF DENMARK=]


=DENMARK,= the smallest of the three Scandinavian kingdoms, consists of
the peninsula of Jutland and a group of islands in the Baltic, and is
bounded by the Skager-Rak, the Cattegat, the Sound, the Baltic, the
Little Belt, Sleswick, and the North Sea.

=Surface.=--Except in Bornholm, the surface of Denmark is very similar
in every part of the kingdom, and is uniformly low, its highest point
(in southeast Jutland) being only five hundred and sixty-four feet above
sea-level. The coast is generally flat, skirted by sand-dunes and
shallow lagoons, especially along the west side. Both the continental
portion and the islands are penetrated deeply; by numerous fiords, the
largest being Limfiord, which intersects Jutland, and has isolated the
northern extremity of the peninsula since 1825, when it broke through
the narrow isthmus which had separated it from the North Sea.

=Rivers.=--Denmark has numerous streams but no large rivers; the
principal is the Guden, which flows northeast through Jutland into the
Cattegat. It is navigable for part of its course. Less important streams
are the Holm, the Lonborg, and the Stor Aa. All the others are
insignificant brooks and streamlets.

The lakes are very numerous but not large, none exceeding five and
one-half miles in length by about one and one-half miles broad. There
are numerous winding inlets of the sea that penetrate far into the land.
The largest of these, the Limfiord in Jutland, entering from the
Cattegat by a narrow channel, winds its way through to the North Sea,
thus making northern Jutland really an island. In this fiord, which
widens out greatly in the interior and gives off various minor fiords,
there are one large and various small islands.

=Climate.=--The climate is milder, and the air more humid than in the
more southern but continental Germany; it is not unhealthy, except in
the low lying islands, such as Laaland, where the short and sudden heat
of the summer occasions fevers.

=Production and Industry.=--The common products are wheat, rye, oats,
barley, potatoes, cattle, horses, pigs, sheep, and butter. Its
manufactures are, for the most part, for home consumption. Its chief
exports are agricultural produce, including wheat and barley, bacon,
hams, flour, butter, eggs, hides, skins, corn meal and oil cake, horses
and cattle.

=People.=--The population of Denmark is composed almost exclusively of
Danes, with a few thousand Jews and others. The Danes have regular
features, fair or brownish hair, and blue eyes. They still maintain
their reputation for seafaring skill and hospitable customs. They
belong to the Scandinavian branch of the Teutonic peoples, and speak the
Danish form of the old Norse, which was fixed in writing about the time
of the Reformation.

Since the Reformation the Danes have been adherents of the Lutheran
Church. Education is well advanced, and there are very few people in the
country who can neither read nor write.

=Government.=--The present constitution of Denmark dates from 1866. The
executive power is vested in the king and his ministers, the legislative
in the _Rigsdag_ or Diet, comprising the _Landsthing_ or Upper House,
and the _Folkething_ or House of Commons, partly nominated by the Crown,
partly elected, indirectly, by the people.

=Cities.=--Copenhagen is the capital, population, 560,000; other chief
towns are Odense, Aarhuus, Aalborg, Randers and Horsens.

[Illustration: =FREDERICK’S CHURCH, COPENHAGEN=]

=Copenhagen= (_kō-pen-hāgen;_ Dan. _Kjöbenhavn_, “Merchants Haven”), the
capital of Denmark, is situated on the low-lying eastern shore of the
island of Zealand, in the Sound, which is here about twelve miles broad.
The channel forms a fine and capacious harbor, which is bridged over so
as to connect the isolated suburb of Christianshavn and the main part of
the city at two points. Copenhagen is still defended by the old citadel
of Frederikshavn and by forts on the seaward side.

Among its buildings of historical interest or intrinsic beauty, the
Cathedral, rebuilt after the bombardment of 1807, possesses statues of
Christ and the Apostles, and a baptismal font, designed and in part
executed by Thorwaldsen. Frederick’s Church, or Trinitatiskirke, is
remarkable for its round tower, which is ascended by a spiral incline
instead of steps.

The Royal Palace, called Christiansborg, was rebuilt between 1794 and
1828, but suffered greatly from fire in 1884. In the castle of Rosenborg
are kept the regalia; the palace of Charlottenborg, is now used as an
Academy of Arts. The University, founded by Christian I. in 1479, has a
library of three hundred and fifty thousand volumes; the royal library
contains six hundred thousand volumes.

Copenhagen is the center, not only of Danish, but of northern literature
and art, and is the seat of the unrivaled Museum of Northern
Antiquities, and the Thorwaldsen Museum.

The exports include grain, rape-seed, butter, cheese, beef, cattle,
wool, etc.; and porcelain, pianos, clocks, watches, mathematical
instruments, chemicals, sugar, beer, and tobacco are manufactured.

=History.=--The early history of Denmark is lost in the twilight of the
Vikings and their valiant deeds. The Danes coming from the islands
occupied the lands deserted by the Jutes and Angles who had in the fifth
century migrated to England. The Danish monarchy was founded in 936 by
Gorm the Old, whose son became a Christian. Waldemar I. (1157-1182)
ruled Norway also, and conquered Mecklenburg and Pomerania; under his
son Waldemar II. further conquests were made in German and Wendish
lands, so that the Baltic became a Danish sea.

By the treaty of Calmar in 1397, Norway, Sweden and Denmark, already
under one monarch, Margaret, were formally united into one state. In
1448 the Danes elected as king Christian of Oldenburg, a descendant of
their royal family, who was also Duke of Sleswick and Holstein; and his
line continued on the throne till 1863.

Sweden became independent in 1523. Lutheranism was introduced into
Denmark in 1527. In 1815 Denmark had to cede Norway to Sweden; and in
1848 the Germanic peoples of the duchies Sleswick and Holstein rebelled
against Denmark. For the time the Danes succeeded in retaining the
duchies, but the controversy, renewed in 1863, led to the defeat of the
Danes by Austria and Prussia (1864), followed by the incorporation of
the duchies in the Germanic Confederation, and, after the
Austro-Prussian war of 1866, in Prussia.

Denmark although reduced to the narrow limits of the islands and
Jutland, has greatly prospered, in spite of the spread of socialistic
opinions, and political dissensions. Christian IX. died January 29,
1906, and was succeeded by his son, Frederick VIII.


=GREECE= is a maritime kingdom in the southeast of Europe. The country
is composed of a continental portion, almost separated into two parts by
the gulfs of Patras and Lepanto on the west, and the gulf of Ægina on
the east, the archipelago of the Ægean Sea and the Ionian Islands, and
is divided into twenty-six provinces, called nomarchies.

=Surface.=--The mountain range which cuts off the peninsula from the
continent of Europe is an extension of the Balkans. From it run chains
from north-northwest to south-southeast, which form the skeleton of
Greece. The western boundary of Thessaly is formed by Pindus, the main
offshoot of the Balkans. The eastern boundary is also marked not only by
the sea but by important mountains derived from the Balkan system. These
are Olympus, Ossa, Mavrovuni, and Pelion. Othrys, a branch of Pindus,
forms the south boundary of Thessaly. This branch is continued in the
celebrated mountains Parnassus and Helicon, forms the land of Attica,
and reappears as the islands of Ceos, Cythnos, Seriphos, and Siphnos.
The Peloponnese, “the island of Pelops,” or by its modern name the
Morea, is connected with northern Greece merely by the narrow isthmus of
Corinth, now pierced by a canal; its highest point is Taygetus.

=Rivers.=--The rivers of Greece are unimportant. The chief in the
Peloponnesus are the Eurotas (Basilipotamo), the Alpheus (Ruphia),
draining Arcadia and Elis; and the Peneus draining Elis.

=Climate.=--The climate is generally mild, in the parts exposed to the
sea equable and genial, but in the mountainous regions of the interior
sometimes very cold. None of the mountains attain the limit of perpetual
snow; but several retain it far into the summer. During summer rain
scarcely ever falls, and the channels of the minor streams become dry.
Toward the end of harvest rain becomes frequent and copious, and fevers
become common.

=Production and Industry.=--The most important of the fruit trees are
the olive, the vine, orange, lemon, fig, almond, citron, pomegranate,
and currant grape. Its exports consist of currants, figs, olive oil,
wine, cognac, tobacco, hides, lead, iron ore, magnesium, emery, marble,
and sponges.

=People.=--The Greeks called themselves _Hellenes_, and the inhabitants
of Italy called them _Graeci_. The modern Greeks are by no means
pure-bred descendants of the ancient Greeks. Indeed, it has been
maintained that from the seventh century A. D. there have been no pure
Greeks in the country, but only Slavs. It is, however, pretty certain
that the two and one-quarter million of modern inhabitants are
descendants of the three races that occupied the soil at the time of the
Roman conquest. They speak the modern Greek tongue, which is a greatly
modified form of the old.

Education is free and compulsory, maintained by local taxation
supplemented by State grants. Secondary education is somewhat backward,
particularly in the country districts. There is a university of some
repute at Athens, which is largely attended by Turks.

=Government.=--According to the constitution, which was framed by an
assembly in 1864, the executive power is vested in the king and his
responsible ministry; the legislature is a single chamber of deputies
called the _Boulé_, elected by the people, and meets at Athens.

=Cities.=--Athens is the capital, population 167,500; the towns next in
size are Patras, Piræus, and Trikhala, all above 20,000; and there are
eight others between 20,000 and 10,000.

=Athens=, in the southeast of Attica, occupies an extensive area round
the site and remains of the classical city, four and one-half miles from
its harbor of Piræus, on the Gulf of Ægina. The city, which takes its
name from Athena, “goddess of science, arts, and arms,” and its own
patron divinity, was originally built on the Acropolis, a conspicuous
limestone rock rising three hundred and twenty feet above the Attic
plain, and afterwards spread out on the plain below. The Acropolis
became the citadel and subsequently the site of a group of beautiful
temples of the time of Pericles (fifth century, B. C.).

The ruins of the Parthenon, the Erechtheum, the temple of Nike Apteros
(“Wingless Victory”), and the Propylæa, still remain to testify to the
former glory of the Acropolis. Of the other ancient buildings the most
notable are the Theseum (also of the Periclean period, and still almost
perfect), and the fragments of the vast temple of Zeus (begun in 530 B.
C. and finished by the Roman Emperor Hadrian), with the theater of
Dionysus and other structures.

Not far from the Acropolis rose the hill Lycabettus (nine hundred and
eleven feet), and the hillocks or ridges of the Pnyx and the Areopagus
or Mars Hill. At a greater distance the plain is bounded by Hymettus
(three thousand three hundred and sixty-eight feet), Pentelicus (three
thousand six hundred and forty-one feet), and other ranges.

Athens was fabled to have been founded by the hero Cecrops. The most
brilliant period of its history was when, after the Persian wars (fifth
century, B. C.), Athens took the lead among the Greek states, became
powerful by land and sea, was adorned by Pericles with most glorious
buildings, and brought Greek literature and Greek philosophy to their
highest development. Its decline dates from the disastrous conclusion of
the Peloponnesian war (403 B. C.). It was plundered and ruined by Sulla
in 87 B. C.; and neither under Byzantine nor Turkish rule ever attained
any prosperity. In the days of its glory Athens had some one hundred
thousand free inhabitants and twice as many slaves; when after the
liberation of Greece Athens was made the capital of the new kingdom
(1834), it was a wretched village of a few hundred houses. Since then it
has had a prosperous growth, looks like a well built German town, with a
fine royal palace, a marble stadium (restored), a university with over
one hundred and fifty professors and lecturers and two thousand five
hundred students, and a good deal of miscellaneous trade by the way of
the Piræus. It is connected by rail also with Corinth, and the
Athens-Larissa line brings Greece into railway communication with the
rest of Europe. (See also under ancient Greece.)

=History.=--Modern Greece threw off the Turkish yoke in 1830 and was
declared an independent kingdom and the boundaries were defined. The
liberated state was at first governed by a national assembly, but the
president, Count Capo D’Istrias, assumed autocratic powers, and sedition
culminated in his assassination. Subsequently the Powers offered the
throne to Prince Leopold (afterwards king of Belgium), but the offer
was refused. The crown was then given to Otho, son of Louis I. of
Bavaria. Throughout his reign discontent was rife, and an insurrection
in 1862 resulted in the deposal of the king. George, second son of the
king of Denmark, was then chosen king, and the Ionian Islands, at that
time under British protection, were ceded unconditionally to the
kingdom.

By the Berlin Congress of 1878, Greece was promised a modification of
her frontier, and in 1881 a readjustment was accepted. The adjustment
proved distasteful to the Hellenes, who demanded Crete, and hostilities
commenced with Turkey in 1897. The war was short-lived, and was
disastrous to the Greeks, and on the intervention of the Powers an
armistice was concluded. By the Treaty of Constantinople Greece was
compelled to pay an indemnity to submit to the readjustment of her
frontier, and to accept the control of the Powers in financial affairs.

In October, 1912, war broke out in the Balkan states, known as the
Balkan war. The permanent effects on the Greek frontier, owing to the
Hellenic participation in the victory over the Turks, are not yet
determinable, but all deeply affect Greek interests, and depend on the
decision of the Great Powers. George, King of the Hellenes, was
assassinated in Salonica by a maniac named Schinas in March, 1913. The
perpetrator of the crime subsequently committed suicide. The present
ruler is the late king’s eldest son, who was proclaimed King Constantine
XII.


=HOLLAND=, the popular name of a country officially described as
“Netherland,” or “The Netherlands,” is bounded by the North Sea,
Prussia, and Belgium. Its greatest length, north to south, is one
hundred and ninety-five miles, and its greatest breadth one hundred and
ten miles. Luxemburg was, till 1890, connected with Holland.

=Surface.=--Almost the whole country is flat and low; the parts of it
nearest the coasts are even below the sea level, the waters being kept
out by dykes, which are maintained at a great annual cost. One stretch
of fifty miles of the coast is guarded by a triple wall of piles driven
into the soil, filled up between, and buttressed by huge granite blocks
brought from Norway. If it were not for these dykes controlling the
rivers and keeping out the sea, nearly half the country would be under
water.

All the southern part of Holland belongs to the alluvial delta lands
formed at the mouths of the Rhine (the chief branch of which is named
the Waal), the Meuse or Maas, and Scheldt. Opening out into broad,
shallow estuaries these river mouths form a number of islands, of which
Walcheren and Beveland, Schouwen and Tholen, Over Flakkee, Voorne and
Beyerland, are the largest.

Toward the north appears the great shallow gulf called the Zuider Zee
(or South Sea, in distinction from the North Sea outside), which was
formed in the thirteenth century by the bursting of the sea into a
former inland lake called “Flevo” by the Roman geographers. Outside of
it a chain of islands marks the line of the former coast of the
mainland.

=Rivers and Canals.=--Besides the natural channels formed by the
estuaries of the Scheldt, the Maas, and the delta branches of the Rhine
(the Waal, Lek, Old Rhine, Vecht, Amstel, and Yssel) the country is
intersected in all directions by _Grachts_ or larger canals, lined with
rows of trees, joining river to river. No country in the world has such
a network of waterways; ships’ masts, and windmills with large sails,
pumping the water from the smaller drainage canals, are seen everywhere.

=Climate.=--The general climate of Holland resembles that of England,
opposite to it, in its rapid variations; but it is more humid. Dense sea
fogs from the North Sea drive over it. In most winters the rivers and
canals are frozen over for two or three months, when even women skate to
market; in summer the thermometer rises to eighty or ninety degrees in
the shade.

=Production and Industry.=--Cattle rearing, butter and cheese making,
are the most general industries of the country, for the grazing meadows
are far more extensive than the corn lands. In the latter, rye, barley,
wheat, and potatoes, are the chief crops. Flax, and beet-root for sugar,
chicory, and tobacco, are grown also to a considerable extent.

The principal manufactures are shipping, bricks, margarine, cocoa,
chocolate, linen, rich damasks, cottons, woolens, cigars and other
manufactured tobacco, candles, confectionery, earthenware and pottery,
glass bottles and ware, chemical and pharmaceutical products, matches,
perfumery, sugar, bicycles and automobiles, boots and shoes, starch,
potato flour, engines, metal substances, works of art in gold and
silver, incandescent lamps, machinery, motors, paper, printing, oils,
beer, “geneva” and other liqueurs. Diamond cutting employs numerous
hands in Amsterdam.

=People.=--Of the population, the greater part (seventy per cent) is
formed by the Dutch or Batavians, the descendants of the Germanic tribe
of the Batavi who occupied the delta of the Rhine in the time of the
Roman conquest of the land. Frieslanders (fourteen per cent),
descendants of the ancient Frisii, occupy the northern borders of the
country, where the peasantry still speak a language closely allied to
Anglo-Saxon; the Flemings (thirteen per cent) occupy the southeastern
borders of the country. Their language differs little from the Dutch;
but the dialects throughout the country are very numerous.

The majority, about three-fifths, belong to the several Reformed
Churches; and the remainder are Roman Catholics, with about one hundred
and seven thousand Jews.

Private state-aided primary instruction is encouraged rather than
public, though the latter is provided, if required, by local taxation.
Secondary schools for working classes are numerous, well equipped and
attended. The principal universities are at Amsterdam, Groningen,
Leiden, Utrecht.

=Government.=--The government of Holland is a limited constitutional
monarchy. The crown is the executive power; legislation is vested in the
States-general of two chambers, called the First Chamber and the Second
Chamber. A State Council of fourteen members appointed by the Sovereign
is consulted on all legislative and on most executive matters.

There is no state religion, but the state gives financial support to the
different churches.

=Cities.=--The capital is The Hague with a population of 300,000; other
cities exceeding 50,000 in 1913 were as follows: Amsterdam, 591,053;
Rotterdam, 454,135; Utrecht, 123,457; Groningen, 78,670; Haarlem,
70,907; Arnhem, 64,760; Leiden, 59,297; Nymegen, 58,679; Tilburg,
54,216.

=The Hague= (Dutch _Gravenhagen_, “the count’s hedge”), the capital of
the Netherlands is two miles from the North Sea and fifteen miles
northwest of Rotterdam. It is intersected by canals and shady avenues of
lime-trees, and has many fine public buildings and private houses.

In the center of it is the Vijver, or Fish-pond, to the south of which
stands the old castle of the Counts of Holland, where the Dutch
parliament sits. In its gatetower the brothers De Witt were confined
till dragged thence and torn to pieces by the populace (1672). The
picture-gallery has a splendid collection of works by native painters
(Paul Potter’s “Bull” and Rembrandt’s “Lesson in Anatomy”); and there
are the royal library with five hundred thousand volumes; the municipal
and other museums; the Town-House, and the royal palaces.

Among the numerous statues are those of William I. (two in number),
William II., Spinoza, Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, and the monument which
commemorates the deliverance from the French. Close to the town is the
beautiful pleasure-park called “The Wood” (_Bosch_), in which stands a
royal residence with the magnificent so-called “Orange Hall.”

[Illustration: =PALACE IN THE WOOD,=

or Dutch “White House,” is situated in a fine old plantation of beeches
and oaks, round ornamental lakes and islands, is a plain building with a
grand interior; and has Jordaen’s masterpiece, the Apotheosis of Prince
Fred. Henry.]

The great Peace Conference was held here in 1899; The Hague is the seat
of the resulting arbitration courts, for which Mr. Carnegie provided
permanent buildings of great architectural beauty. Industries are
iron-founding, copper and lead smelting, cannon-founding, printing,
furniture and carriage making, and the manufacture of gold and silver
lace.

[Illustration: =NATIONAL MONUMENT IN THE WILLEMS-PARK, THE HAGUE=]

=History.=--The ancient inhabitants of the country, the Batavians and
the Frisians, became subjects or allies of the Romans in the first
century A. D., and so remained till in the fourth century their
territories were overrun by the Saxons and Salian Franks.

At the end of the eighth century the Low Countries submitted to
Charlemagne, and various feudal dukedoms, counties, and lordships were
gradually established (the countship of Holland in the eleventh
century). In 1384 the earldom of Flanders passed to the Dukes of
Burgundy, and Philip the Good (_c._ 1450) made the Low Countries as
prosperous as any part of his Burgundian state.

The Emperor Charles V. inherited the Burgundian dominions; and under his
son, Philip II. of Spain, broke out the bitter quarrel between Holland
and Spain, between Dutch Protestantism and persistence and Spanish
tyranny and persecution, which ended in 1581 in the establishment of the
Dutch Republic as an independent state under William the Silent (of
Orange), though the war continued with intervals till 1648, and the
Belgian provinces abode by their allegiance to the kings of Spain.

In the seventeenth century Dutch commerce, especially at sea, Dutch
science, Dutch classical scholarship, Dutch literature and Dutch art
attained an eminence hardly afterwards equalled. The rivalry of Holland
and England at sea led to the unfortunate wars of 1652-1654 and
1664-1667. The accession of William III. of Orange to the
Stadtholdership of the United Provinces (1672) proved the salvation of
the republic from France; in 1678 Louis XIV. signed the peace of
Nymegen.

Ten years later William was hailed as the savior of English liberties,
and became king of Great Britain and Ireland. On William’s death, the
United Provinces became a pure republic once more, the stadtholdership
was re-established in 1747 but it made no difference in the downward
course.

The National Convention of France having declared war against Great
Britain and the stadtholder of Holland in 1793, French armies overran
Belgium (1794); they were welcomed by the so-called patriots of the
United Provinces and William V. and his family (January 1795) were
obliged to escape from Scheveningen to England in a fishing-smack and
the French rule began. After several changes Louis Bonaparte, June 5,
1806, was appointed king of Holland, but, four years later, was obliged
to resign because he refused to be a mere tool in the hands of the
French emperor. Holland was then added to the empire.

The fall of Napoleon I. and the dismemberment of the French empire led
to the recall of the Orange family and the formation of the southern and
northern provinces into the ill-managed kingdom of the Netherlands,
which in 1830 was broken up by the secession of Belgium. In 1839 peace
was finally concluded with Belgium; but almost immediately after
national discontent with the government showed itself, and William I. in
1840 abdicated in favor of his son.

Holland, being moved by the revolutionary fever of 1848, King William
II. granted a new constitution, according to which new chambers were
chosen, but they had scarcely met when he died, March, 1849, and William
III. (born 1817) ascended the throne.

William III. having no living male issue, the succession to the crown
was vested in the princess of Orange, Wilhelmina, the only child of the
king’s second marriage, born in 1880. For many years the great question
of internal politics was the new constitution, which, promulgated
November 30, 1887, increased the electorate of Holland by no less than
two hundred thousand voters. On the death of the king (November 23,
1890), when Luxemburg ceased to be connected with the crown of Holland,
the Princess Wilhelmina became queen.

Queen Wilhelmina married Prince Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, in 1901,
and in 1909 a daughter (the Princess Juliana) was born to them.


=NORWAY= (Norweg. _Norge_), the western division of the Scandinavian
peninsula, is one thousand one hundred and sixty miles in length
(coast-line three thousand miles) and varies in width from twenty to one
hundred miles north of 63° N. lat.; below that line it swells out to two
hundred and sixty miles. The coast-line is extensive, deeply indented
with numerous fiords, and fringed with an immense number of rocky
islands. The surface is mountainous, consisting of elevated and barren
tablelands, separated by deep and narrow valleys. The finest of the
valleys stretching inland from the fiords is Romsdal, where the rounded
pure gneiss mountains tower up to six thousand feet with almost
perpendicular walls. The cultivated area is about one-thirtieth part of
the country; forests cover nearly one-fourth; the rest consists of
highland pastures or mountains.

Norway is separated from Sweden by the Kjolen Mountains (three thousand
to six thousand feet), the backbone of the peninsula, which divide south
of 63°; the western branch widens out into a broad plateau, undulating
between two thousand and four thousand feet and embossed with
mountain-knots--Dovre, Jotun, Lang, Fille, Hardanger Fjelde
(_fells_)--the separate peaks of which shoot up to six thousand feet and
higher.

=Rivers.=--The few important rivers that Norway can claim as exclusively
her own have a southerly direction, and discharge themselves into the
Skager-Rack; of these the chief are the Glommen (four hundred miles),
and its affluent, the Lougen. The most important river in the north is
the Tana, which forms part of the boundary between Russia and Norway,
and falls into the Arctic Ocean. Lofty waterfalls are numerous. Lakes
are extremely numerous but generally small. The principal is the Miösen
Vand. The streams are turned to account in floating down the valuable
timber of the forests, and their rapids give abundant mill power.

=Production and Industry.=--Agriculture, though pursued with some vigor
of late, is unable to furnish sufficient products for home consumption;
hence it has been necessary to import considerable quantities of corn,
meat, and pork. The fisheries give employment to a large part of the
population throughout the year. The most important are cod and herring.
The mineral products are of late increasing.

The purely industrial establishments are grouped mainly around
Christiania, and include textile factories, machine shops, chemical
works, flour mills, breweries, etc. The use of water power for
electrical enterprises is growing. The Norwegians rank among the busiest
sea carriers of the world, the Norwegian mercantile marine ranking third
among maritime nations, or first in proportion to population.

The chief exports consist of timber, matches, fish, oil, and other
products of the fisheries, pulp, paper, skins and furs, nails, minerals,
stone, ice, calcium carbide, condensed milk, butter, margarine, tinned
goods, etc.

=People.=--The people of the peninsula are of Germanic race, with the
exception of the small number of Finns and the Lapps in the north. The
Norsemen of Norway, of middle stature, strong, generally blonde haired
and blue eyed, seamen by choice, have adopted the Danish as the language
of the towns and of literature, the modernized Old Norse being banished
to the outlying country districts and unfrequented fiords.

Education is compulsory and free between the ages of seven and fourteen,
schools being maintained by local taxation with state grants in aid.
The attendance is high. Secondary schools are provided by the state, by
local authorities, and privately. There are a number of special schools
and industrial and technical institutes. The University of Christiania
is an important institution for higher education.

Except 52,700 persons (including Methodists, Baptists, Roman Catholics,
Jews, Mormons), the entire population belong to the Lutheran Church.

=Government.=--After the crisis of European affairs brought about by
Napoleon’s wars, Denmark lost her hold over Norway, which had been
united to it for more than four centuries, and that country was united
to Sweden in exchange for Finland, which then passed under Russian sway.
Norway, however, was again separated from Sweden as an independent
kingdom under King Haakon VII. in 1905.

The _Storthing_ or Parliament consists of one hundred and twenty-three
members, women being eligible and electors (since 1907); and divides for
legislative purposes into two chambers called “_Odelsting_” and
“_Lagting_.”

The Norwegians share with the Swiss the distinction of being the most
democratic people in Europe; all titles of nobility were abolished in
1821. In 1912 practically all offices except in the cabinet, diplomatic
service, army, navy, and church, were thrown open to women.

=Cities.=--The chief cities are the capital, Christiania, and Bergen.
Other important towns are Trondhjem, Stavanger, and Drammen.

=Christiania=, the modern capital and chief commercial town of Norway
(the ancient capital is Trondhjem, “home of the throne,” where the kings
are still crowned), is built on the northern end of the Christiania
Fiord. Population, in 1910, 241,834. It is named after Christian IV.,
who commenced building it in 1624 after the destruction of the ancient
city of Oslo by fire. It is the seat of Parliament, of the High Court of
Judicature, and of the National University. Connected with this are the
students’ garden, a library of four hundred and fifty thousand volumes,
a botanical garden, zoological and other museums, laboratories, and
observatory. The Meteorological Institute was established in 1866. There
are two national and historical palaces here, one in the city quite near
the university, and one, Oscarshall, beautifully situated two miles from
the city on an eminence overlooking the fiord. There is a national
picture-gallery, and a very interesting museum of northern antiquities.
The _Dom_ or Cathedral and Trinity Church are the principal
ecclesiastical buildings. The old fortress _Akershus Faestning_ still
remains, but has little military value.

The staple industry of Christiania is its shipping trade; its chief
export is timber. A considerable industry is the brewing of _Christiania
öl_, a sort of lager beer, with resinous flavor, largely consumed
throughout Norway, and exported. The minor manufactures are cotton,
canvas, engine-works, nailworks, paper-mills, and cariole-making. The
harbor is closed by ice for three or four months most winters.

=History.=--It is not until the ninth century that the story of Norway
begins to emerge from the obscurities of myth and legend. At first it
was occupied by Lapps and by several Gothic tribes, then became an
independent kingdom, founded in 872, and was united to Denmark in 1380.

The Napoleonic crisis in Europe may be said to have severed the union,
which had existed for more than four hundred years between Norway and
Denmark. The latter country after having given unequivocal proofs of
adhesion to the cause of Bonaparte, was compelled, after the war of
1813, to sign the treaty of Kiel in 1814, in which it was stipulated by
the allied powers that she should resign Norway to Sweden. Charles XIII.
was declared joint king of Sweden and Norway in 1818. From that time
down to 1905 Norway remained in union with Sweden. In June of that year
Norway declared the union dissolved, and the repeal of the union was
signed in October of the same year. The throne was offered to and
declined by a prince of the reigning house of Sweden, but was afterwards
accepted by Prince Carl of Sweden, who was thereupon elected as King
Haakon VII. In 1908 a treaty was signed by Great Britain, Germany,
France, Russia, and Norway guaranteeing the integrity of the Norwegian
kingdom.


=Poland= (called by the natives _Polska_, a word of the same root as
_Pole_, “a plain”), a kingdom of Europe, proclaimed, in 1916, by the
governments of Austria-Hungary and the German Empire as the result of
conquests by the Central Powers, comprises substantially what is
geographically known as Russian Poland (the kingdom of Poland formed in
1815) and Austrian Poland (or the Austrian province of Galicia). The
former has an area of about 49,000 square miles, with a population of
more than 12,000,000; the latter, an area of 30,300 square miles, and a
population of 8,000,000.

=Surface.=--This extensive tract forms part of the great European
central plain, and is crossed by only one range of hills, which run
northeast from the Carpathians, forming the watershed between the Baltic
and Black Seas.

Its principal streams are the Vistula, the Niemen, and the Dwina, all
belonging to the basin of the Baltic; and the Dniester, South Bug, and
Dnieper, with its tributary, Pripet, belonging to the basin of the Black
Sea.

The physical configuration of the country makes it admirably adapted for
agriculture. Next to grain and cattle its most important product is
timber.

The soil is mostly a light fertile loam, though there are large barren
tracts of sand, heath, and swamp, especially in the east. Much of the
fertile soil is rich pasture land, and much is occupied with forests of
pine, birch, oak, etc. Rye, wheat, barley, and other cereals, hemp,
timber, honey, and wax, cattle, sheep, and horses, vast mines of salt
and coal, some silver, iron, copper, and lead constitute the natural
riches of the country.

=People.=--The present population of the provinces, included in the
Poland of former days, consists chiefly of Poles, Lithuanians, Germans,
Jews, Malo-Russians, Roumanians and Gypsies. The Poles, who number
10,000,000, form the bulk of the population; the Lithuanians, 2,100,000
in number, inhabit the northeast of the country; the Germans, of whom
there are 2,000,000, live mostly in the towns; the Jews are very
numerous being estimated, at 2,200,000.

Roman Catholics preponderate; then come in order the Greek Church,
Protestants, Jews, and Armenians.

=Cities.=--The following are the populations of the chief cities:
Capital, Warsaw, 800,000; Lodz, 400,000; Lemberg, 225,000; Cracow,
160,000; Przemysl, 60,000.

=Warsaw= (Polish _Warszawa_), the capital of Poland, stands on the
Vistula’s left bank, three hundred and thirty miles east of Berlin by
rail and seven hundred miles southwest of Petrograd. Two iron bridges
lead to the suburb of Prague, on the opposite bank. Standing on a
navigable river, with great railway lines to Moscow, Petrograd, Vienna,
Danzig, and Berlin, Warsaw is one of the most important cities of
eastern Europe, being smaller only than Petrograd and Moscow. Corn and
flax are largely exported, and coal and manufactured goods imported.
Warsaw itself manufactures electroplate, machinery, boots, woolens,
pianos, carriages, tobacco, sugar, chemicals, beer, and spirits.

Of over one hundred Catholic churches the cathedral of St. John is the
most notable; there are also several Greek churches, two Lutheran ones,
and many synagogues. The castle is an imposing building, and there are
many fine private palaces. The university, suppressed at various times,
was reopened in 1915, and has seventy-five professors who now teach in
Polish.

=History.=--The early history of Poland is legendary and obscure. The
Poles, like the Russians, are a Slavonic race, and are first spoken of
as the Polani, a tribe or people between the Vistula and Oder. The
country was divided into small communities until the reign of Mieczyslaw
I. (962-992) of the Piast dynasty, who renounced paganism in favor of
Christianity, and was a vassal of the German emperor.

He was succeeded by Boleslaw the Great (992-1025), who raised Poland
into an independent kingdom and increased its territories. In succeeding
reigns the country was involved in war with Germany, the Prussians, the
Teutonic knights, and with Russia. The last of the Piast dynasty was
Casimir the Great (1364-1370), during whose reign the material
prosperity of Poland greatly increased. He was succeeded by his nephew,
Louis of Anjou, king of Hungary, whose daughter, Hedwig, was recognized
as “king” in 1384, and having married Jagello, prince of Lithuania, thus
established the dynasty of the Jagellons, which lasted from 1386 to
1572.

During this period Poland attained its most powerful and flourishing
condition. In 1572 the Jagellon dynasty became extinct in the male line,
and the monarchy, hitherto elective in theory, now became so in fact.
The more important of the elective kings were Sigismund III.
(1587-1637), Wladislaw or Ladislaus IV. (1632-1648), John Casimir,
(1648-1669), and the Polish general Sobieski, who became king under the
title of John III. (1674-1696). He was succeeded by Augustus II.,
Elector of Saxony, who got entangled in the war of Russia with Charles
XII., and had as a rival in the kingdom Stanislaus Lesczynski. Augustus
III. (1733-1763) followed, and by the end of his reign internal
dissensions and other causes had brought the country into a state of
helplessness.

In 1772 under the last feeble king Stanislaus Augustus (1764-1795), the
first actual partition of Poland took place, when about a third of her
territories were seized by Prussia, Austria, and Russia, the respective
shares of the spoil being Prussia 13,415 square miles, Austria 27,000
square miles, Russia 42,000 square miles.

A second division between Russia and Prussia took place in 1793. Prussia
received nearly all the present province of Posen, and the western part
of what is now Russian Poland; Russia received all the territory east of
about long. 44°. A third division between Russia, Prussia, and Austria
occurred in 1795. Prussia took a large part of the present Russian
Poland, including Warsaw; Austria received part of the present Russian
Poland between the Bug, Vistula, and Pilica; and Russia received all the
remainder, situated east of the Niemen and Bug.

An insurrection under Koszciusko had taken place in 1794, but he was
defeated at the battle of Maciejowice and taken prisoner. Suvorov
(Suwarrow), the Russian general, took Warsaw, and the Polish monarchy
was at an end. King Stanislaus resigned his crown, and died at Petrograd
in 1798.

Part of Poland was formed by Napoleon into the duchy of Warsaw. The
Congress of Vienna in 1815 made a resettlement of the territory,
creating a kingdom of Poland, under Russian rule, with a constitution.
An insurrection which began in November, 1830, was suppressed in
September, 1831; the constitution was abolished in 1832. From this time
the independence of Poland was suppressed, and in 1832 it was declared
an integral part of the Russian empire, with a separate administration,
headed by a viceroy chosen by the Czar. On November 6, 1848, the
republic of Cracow became Austrian; and the subsequent rebellion against
Russian rule in 1863 only brought further humiliation on Polish hopes
and aspirations.

During the European war Poland, in 1914, first suffered invasion and
devastation by the Russian armies, and during the two following years
was completely overrun by the Austro-German armies, and placed under the
military rule of the latter. The proclamation of Poland as a new
independent kingdom took effect in 1916.


=PORTUGAL= (named from Portus Cale, the Roman name of Oporto), a
republic of Europe, lying between Spain and the Atlantic, on the west
side of the Iberian Peninsula, is three hundred and fifty miles in
length and varies in width from seventy to one hundred and forty miles.
The area is 36,038 square miles--a little larger than Ireland.

=Surface and Climate.=--The coast is mostly low and flat, except
immediately north and south of the mouth of the Tagus, and at Cape St.
Vincent. The north of Portugal is diversified by spurs (five thousand
feet) of the mountains of Spanish Galicia. The Sierra da Estrella (six
thousand five hundred and forty feet) is a westward continuation of the
Spanish Sierra Guadarrama system. The Sierra Morena is continued
westwards in southern Portugal.

The principal rivers of the country--the Guadiana in the south, the
Tagus in the center, and the Douro and Minho in the north--are simply
the lower courses of Spanish rivers; but the Mondego has its sources in
the country.

The vicinity to the ocean tempers the climate and exempts it from the
dry heat of Spain. The inequalities of the surface produce, however,
diversities of climate; for, while snow falls abundantly on the
mountains in the northern provinces, it is never seen in the southern
lowlands. Rain falls abundantly throughout the year.

=Production and Industry.=--The chief products are wheat, barley, oats,
maize, flax, hemp, and the vine in elevated tracts; in the lowlands,
rice, olives, oranges, lemons, citrons, figs, and almonds. There are
extensive forests of oak, chestnut, sea pine, and cork, the cultivation
of the vine and the olive being among the chief branches of industry;
the rich red wine known to us as “port” is shipped from Oporto. Its
mineral products are important--copper, lead, tin, antimony, coal,
manganese, iron, slate, and bay salt, which last, from its hardness and
purity, is in demand. Its manufactures consist of gloves, silk, woolens,
linen, and cotton fabrics, metal and earthenware goods, tobacco, cigars,
etc. The exports consist to the extent of fifty per cent of wine, which
is the chief industrial product of the country; others are cork, cattle,
copper ore, fruits, oil, sardines, and salt.

=People.=--The Portuguese are a mixed race--original Iberian or Basque,
with later Celtic admixture. Galician blood (derived from the ancient
Gallaici, presumably Gallic invaders) predominates in the north; Jewish
and Arabic blood are strongly present in the center, and African in the
south.

The Portuguese differ widely from their Spanish brethren, whom they
regard with inveterate hatred and jealousy, mainly on account of their
attempts to subvert the independence of Portugal.

Education is free and nominally compulsory between the ages of seven and
fifteen, but is not strictly enforced, and over seventy-five per cent of
the population above seven years old are illiterate. Secondary education
is conducted in state lyceums. There are also military, naval and other
special schools. The University of Coimbra is the chief higher
institution.

=Government.=--Portugal was a constitutional monarchy till 1910, when a
republic was established. The constitution of 1911 provides a Senate,
elected by municipal councils, and a National Council, by direct
suffrage. The two chambers united constitute the Congress of the
republic. The president of the republic is elected by both chambers for
a period of four years. He cannot be re-elected.

=Cities.=--Capital, Lisbon, on the Tagus, population, 435,359. Oporto
had a population (1911) of 194,664. There are no other large towns, but
Braga, Loulé, Setubal, and Funchal (Madeira) had populations exceeding
20,000 in 1911.

=Lisbon= (Port. _Lisboa_), capital of Portugal, stands on the northern
shore of a bottle-shaped expansion of the Tagus, nine miles from its
mouth; it is four hundred and twelve miles by rail west by southwest of
Madrid. The city extends for four or five miles along the shore, and
climbs up the slopes of a low range of hills, occupying a site of
imposing beauty.

The oldest part of Lisbon is that which escaped the earthquake of 1755;
it lies on the east, round the citadel, and consists of narrow,
intricate streets, not over clean. It is still known by its Moorish name
of Alfama. The western portions were built after the earthquake, with
wide and regular streets, fine squares, and good houses. The summits are
mostly crowned with what were formerly large monasteries.

The gloomy cathedral of the “patriarch,” built in 1147, restored after
1755, has a Gothic facade and choir. The large church of St. Vincent
contains the tombs of the former royal (Braganza) family. The church of
Estrella is a reduced copy of St. Peter’s at Rome. In San Roque is a
chapel thickly encrusted with mosaics and costly marbles. But the finest
structure in the city is the Gothic monastery and church of Belem, a
monument to the great seamen of Portugal; it was begun in 1500 on the
spot from which Vasco da Gama embarked (1497) on his momentous voyage.
Inside the church are tombs to Camoens and Vasco da Gama, and the grave
of Catharine, wife of Charles II. of England.

A fine square facing the bay is surrounded with government offices, the
handsome custom-house, and the marine arsenal. There are an academy of
sciences, with a library of one hundred and twenty thousand volumes, a
polytechnic school, a medical school, a conservatory of music, a public
library of four hundred thousand volumes and two observatories.

A magnificent aqueduct brings water to the city from springs nine miles
to the northwest.

A series of forts protect the seaward approaches. The harbor is one of
the finest in the world, well sheltered, deep close to the quays, and
capacious enough to hold all the navies of Europe at once.

=History.=--Like the rest of Iberia, Portugal (the southern part of
which was known to the Romans as Lusitania, often taken as a poetical
name for the whole country) was thoroughly Romanized after the conquest
of the Carthaginians by the Romans in 138 B. C. Then the peninsula was
overrun by the Visigoths, and next by the Saracens. Northern Portugal
fell under the influence of Castile; but under Alfonso I. (1143)
Portugal became an independent kingdom, though the Saracens were not
conquered in the south till 1250. Wars with Castile were frequent.

Under John (1385-1433) began a close alliance between Portugal and
England, and the Portuguese king John married John of Gaunt’s daughter.
With their son, Prince Henry the Navigator, began the most brilliant era
of discovery and conquest, including the acquisition of Madeira, the
Azores, and the doubling of the Cape of Good Hope (1486), the reaching
of India by sea and settlements there (1497), and the discovery and
occupation of Brazil (1500).

In the sixteenth century Portugal was one of the most powerful
monarchies of Europe, and most prosperous of commercial peoples; but its
decline was swift, and Philip II. annexed Portugal to Spain for sixty
years. English assistance secured the independence of the kingdom in
1640; but the glory had departed. Portugal shared in the troubles of the
French occupation and the Peninsular war; after Napoleon’s defeat, the
old family, which had taken refuge in Brazil, was restored, but the
country was rent by intrigue, dissension, and civil war.

The rush of the European powers to occupy central and southern Africa
stirred Portugal to cling tenaciously to her once great colonial empire
in Africa; but the march of events has given to Britain, Germany,
France, and Belgium much that Portugal once claimed as hers.

Popular discontent culminated in the assassination of King Carlos and
his eldest son in the streets of Lisbon in February, 1908. His second
son, Manoel, succeeded. In 1910 the murder of Dr. Bombarda, a
republican, hastened on a revolution already arranged for. The army and
navy assisted in deposing Manoel and setting up a provisional
government, with Theophile Braga as provisional president. He retired in
1911, and in August of that year Dr. Manoel Arriaga was elected as the
first president of the republic.

The republic was formally recognized by the United States upon the
meeting of the Portuguese chambers in June, 1911, and by the other
powers on the formation of the cabinet in September, 1911. In 1915
Portugal joined the Entente Allies in the European war.


=ROUMANIA=, a kingdom in southeast Europe, lies mainly between the
Carpathians, the Purth, and the Danube (the Dobruja being south of the
Danube). It includes the strip added from Bulgaria as “compensation” for
changes consequent on the Balkan war of 1912-1913, from a point on the
Danube above Silistria to Cape Sabla on the Black Sea. Bordering on
Hungary, Russia, Bulgaria, and Servia, its area is 52,000 square miles,
and population 7,500,000.

=Surface.=--Roumania consists for the most part of a great treeless
steppe-like plain, occupying nearly the whole of the northern watershed
of the Lower Danube; behind this plain rise the wooded Transylvania
Alps. Between the northern bend of the river to its marshy delta and the
Black Sea there rises the bare plateau called the Dobruja, partly
grass-covered, partly swampy, without tree or bush. This famous old
battle-ground is crossed by Trajan’s double wall or rampart, built to
keep the northern barbarians out of the Roman provinces.

=Rivers.=--All the rivers are tributaries of the Danube, and flow from
the Carpathians and the Transylvanian Alps across the level steppe to
join its left bank. The chief are the Pruth, which now forms the
boundary towards Russia, the Sereth, and the Oltu (Aluta).

=People.=--Most of the Roumanians are supposed to be descendants of the
race formed by the alliance of the Roman colonists with the original
inhabitants of Dacia. The Roumanian language is derived mainly from
Latin, with Slavonic, Hungarian, and other elements.

They are strong, well-knit men, with black hair, lively, but not very
active. The mass of the people live in great poverty; a few thousand
Boyars, nobles or landed proprietors, really form the nation. Large
numbers of Jews and Gypsies live among the Roumanians. Almost the entire
population belongs to the Greek Church, but religious equality prevails.

=Government.=--The constitution, voted by a popular assembly in 1866,
vests the executive authority in the reigning king and his council of
ministers; the legislative body consists of a Senate and a Chamber of
Deputies.

=Production and Industry.=--The agricultural products consist of wheat,
maize, millet, barley, rye, beans, and peas. Vines and fruits are
abundant. The forests are of great extent and importance, but the riches
of the country consist mainly in its cattle and sheep. Minerals and
precious metals are said to be abundant, but only salt and petroleum are
obtained.

Education is free and nominally compulsory, but owing to inadequate
provision over sixty per cent of those above seven years of age are
illiterate. Secondary education is relatively better, and the schools
are well attended. There are also special schools and universities at
Bucharest and Jassy. A government high school of commerce was opened in
1913.

=Cities.=--Capital, Bucharest, has a population (1912) of about 500,000.
Other towns are: Jassy, 80,000; Galatz, 66,000; Braīla, 60,000; Ploesci,
50,000; Craiova, 46,000.

=Bucharest= (_Bucuresci_), the “Paris of the East,” stands two hundred
and sixty-five feet above sea-level, in the fertile but treeless plain
of the small, sluggish Dambovitza. By rail it is seven hundred and
sixteen miles southeast of Vienna, forty miles north of Giurgevo on the
Danube, and one hundred and seventy-nine miles northwest of Varna on the
Black Sea. Viewed from the hills which lie to the west and southwest,
Bucharest presents a most striking appearance. It is sprawled out on
both banks of the river, occupying more than twenty square miles of
territory in the slight depression through which the stream makes its
way.

Most of its houses are low, not more than two stories, with flat roofs
that shimmer in the sun. High above them rise almost innumerable towers,
cupolas and minarets of churches, in which the city abounds. The
Catholic Cathedral is a fine edifice, built 1875-1884.

Great spots and stretches of greenery mark the spacious parks and
gardens and the great boulevards, some of which extend along the river
bank, others out to the distant sections of the city.

Three of these thoroughfares skirt the river on the left, where the
greater part of the city lies. They are the Plevna, Lipscani and
Vacaresci, in order. From the Lipscani extend the Elizabeth Boulevard
and Calea Victorie, the avenue of Victory, which connect with another
broad highway extending nearly around the city on its outskirts.

Parks and drives are frequent. Then there are the botanical and
zoological gardens, and a racecourse, where meets are held at least
twice a year.

In these streets the East meets the West. Women gowned in the latest
Paris creations and men in perfect European dress are in contrast with
the wandering bands of gypsies, the brilliant-clad Roumanian country
folk come in to market, the fez-topped Turk, and the distinctly dressed
Russian cabmen.

Besides the parkways and busy thoroughfares there are many beautiful
buildings--the National Bank, the Athenaeum, with its collection of rare
antiques dating back to the days of the Roman conquest; the National
Library and Theater; the University of Bucharest, founded in 1864; the
many other schools and academies; the great home for the blind
established by the late Queen Elizabeth, better known by her pen name
“Carmen Sylvia”; a hundred-and-one other places that go to make the city
notable as a center of learning, culture and modern progress.

Nearly all of these institutions have homes that are masterpieces of
architecture. The Treasury Building and the Postoffice are notable
examples. It is said that the Roumanian government has the finest home
for its foreign ministry of any country in Europe.

Bucharest is the center for trade between Austria and the Balkan
Peninsula, the chief articles of commerce being textile fabrics, grain,
hides, metal, coal, timber, and cattle. It has been several times
besieged; and between 1793 and 1812 suffered twice from earthquakes,
twice from inundations, once from fire, and twice from pestilence.

=History.=--The Roumanians are descended from the ancient
inhabitants--probably Thracians or Dacians--of the country, modified by
elements derived from the Roman, Gothic, Bulgarian, and Slavonic
invaders. Dacia was a Roman colony from 101 A.D. till 274, when it
became the prey of successive swarms of wandering tribes.

Out of numerous small states, two, Wallachia and Moldavia, had become
dominant, when they had to bow to the Turkish yoke, and became tributary
to the Porte. They were governed by rulers nominated by the Porte, who
were generally extortionate Greeks of Constantinople. Russian
intervention during the eighteenth century somewhat improved the
condition of the downtrodden principalities, which at times were wholly
under Russian influence. In 1859 they elected the same prince, Couza. He
ruled till he was deposed for misgovernment in 1866, and was succeeded
by Prince Charles of Hohenzollern.

The Roumanians fought bravely on the Russian side in the Turkish war of
1877-1878, and at the end obtained complete independence, though they
had to give Russia part of Bessarabia for the Dobruja. In 1881 the
prince was recognized as a king.

Roumania is not a Balkan state, and took no part in the operations of
the Balkan League (Bulgaria, Servia, Montenegro, and Greece) against the
Ottoman Empire in 1912-1913; but during the second war (1913), when
Bulgaria was in opposition to the remaining members of the League,
Roumania was able to exact terms from Bulgaria at the Treaty of
Bucharest, by which Bulgarian territory amounting to 7,609 square miles,
with a population of 285,000, was surrendered to Roumania.


=SERVIA= (_ser´vi-ä_), a kingdom in the Balkan peninsula, southeastern
Europe, is bounded by Austria-Hungary (separated by the Save and Danube)
on the north, Roumania (separated by the Danube) and Bulgaria on the
east, Turkey and Bosnia on the south, and Bosnia (mainly separated by
the Drina) on the west.

=Surface.=--The greater part of the country is mountainous and wooded;
it is full of forests and hills, hedged fields, and fresh meadows,
forming pretty but never very grand landscapes. The principal river
(besides the frontier rivers) is the Morava.

=Production and Industry.=--Nearly nine-tenths of the land is left under
its primitive woods and pastures. The principal crops are maize for home
consumption, and wheat for export; flax, hemp, and tobacco are also
grown, and silk-culture is carried on to a limited extent. The exports
consist of dried prunes, pigs, and wool, besides wheat, wine, hides,
cattle, and horses. The bulk of the trade is with Austria. The mineral
treasures of Servia are considerable; gold, copper, and zinc occur in
the hills which reach towards the “Iron Gates” of the Danube, and coal
beds extend along the river.

Fruit trees exist in very great abundance, especially plums, from which
the brandy of the Servians (_slovovitza_) is extensively made.

=People.=--The Servians are a well-built, stalwart Slavonic (or perhaps
in part Slavonized Albanian) race, proud and martial by temperament; the
most striking feature of their social life is the family community or
_Zadruga_. Their literature is rich in poetry, especially lyrics. The
population, about 3,000,000 at the outbreak of the war of 1912-1913, was
raised by conquests to about 5,000,000. Besides these the Montenegrins
(450,000) are almost all pure Servians by race, as are also the Bosnians
and Herzegovinians (2,000,000), not to speak of over 3,700,000 Servians
in other parts of Austria-Hungary.

The people of Servia belong to the Greek Catholic Church. Education does
not reach a very high standard, although a school exists in every
commune. There is a university at Belgrade.

=Government.=--Servia is a constitutional and hereditary monarchy. The
legislative power is vested in the king and the National Assembly. This
last, called the _Skupshtina_, consists of one hundred and sixty
deputies. Besides this body there is a senate of sixteen members, eight
chosen by the king and eight by the National Assembly; this body acts as
a permanent state council.

=Cities.=--Capital, Belgrade (_Biograd_, “White Fortress”) at the
confluence of the Save and Danube, is now a modern city, with electric
railways and light, and wide streets, containing the university,
national museum and library, and the old Turkish citadel. Population
(1910) 91,000. It lies opposite Semlin, at the confluence of the Save
and Danube, two hundred and fifteen miles southeast of Budapesth. The
walls disappeared in 1862; the last and finest of the five gates was
demolished in 1868. Year by year the town is losing its old Turkish
aspect, becoming more modern, more European. The royal palace, the
residence of the metropolitan, the national theater (1871), and the
public offices are the principal buildings. Opposite the theater is a
bronze monument to the murdered Prince Michael III.

Belgrade has but trifling manufactures of arms, cutlery, saddlery, silk
goods, carpets, etc. It is, however, an entrepôt of trade between Turkey
and Austria.

Other towns are Nish, 25,000; Kragojevatz, 19,000; Leskovatz, 15,000;
Podjeravatz, 14,000; Shabatz, 12,000; Vranya, 11,500; Pirot, 11,000; and
Krutchevatz, 10,000.

The principal towns in the territories acquired in 1913 are Monastir,
60,000; Prisrend, 42,000; Uskub, 32,000; Prilip, 24,000; Istip, or
Shtip, 21,000; Kalkandelen, or Tetovo, 20,000; Koprili, or Veles,
20,000; Dibra, 16,000; Pristina, 16,000; Kumanovo, 15,000; Ochrida,
15,000; and Novi Bazar, 13,000.

=History.=--The Servians came from the Carpathians in the seventh
century, and founded a great state, which, about 1350, embraced Albania
and much of Bulgaria and Macedonia; but at Kossovo in 1389 the Turks
crushed the Servian power and made Servia first tributary and then a
province of the Ottoman empire.

A national rising had some success under Kara George in 1807-1810 and
through Russian influence it was arranged that Servia should have some
measure of internal autonomy. Still more successful was a rising in 1815
under Obrenovich. Under his successors there was considerable progress;
and after the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-1878 Servia obtained complete
independence and became a kingdom. King Milan abdicated in 1889.

In 1903 a party of officers, representing a wide conspiracy,
assassinated King Alexander and Queen Draga, and Peter Karageorgevitch
was proclaimed king. In 1913 Servia, as a member of the Balkan League
(Bulgaria, Greece, Servia, and Montenegro), waged a successful war
against Turkey. In August, 1913, Servia and Greece were attacked by
Bulgaria, their former ally, owing to disputes concerning the division
of the spoils. The second war collapsed in a few weeks through the
threatened intervention of Roumania, and ended in the Treaty of
Bucharest. Servia also became involved with the Austro-Hungarian
monarchy on a question of the Albanian frontier, where desultory
fighting had taken place for some months, but eventually the smaller
power withdrew from the disputed area. The outcome of the military
operations was the inclusion of the whole of “Old Servia” (the greater
part of Macedonia) within the Servian boundaries, which thus embrace an
area (1914) of close on thirty-four thousand square miles, with a
population estimated at five million.

The assassination of the Austrian heir presumptive, in June, 1914,
brought about an invasion of Servia by the forces of Austria-Hungary,
and started the Pan-European war that is still in progress.


=SPAIN= (Span. _España_), occupying the larger part of the southwestern
peninsula of Europe, is bounded on the south and east by the
Mediterranean, on the west by the Atlantic and Portugal, and on the
north by the Bay of Biscay and France, from which it is separated by the
Pyrenees. Its coast line extends 1,317 miles--712 formed by the
Mediterranean and 605 by the Atlantic--and it comprises a total area of
196,700 English square miles, and a population (1910) of 19,588,688.

=Surface.=--The interior of the peninsula consists of an elevated
tableland, surrounded and traversed by mountain ranges. The uniform
coast line and the great elevation of its central plateau give Spain a
more continental character in its extreme range of temperature than any
of the other peninsulas of Europe.

Outside the plateau lie the highest summits in the country, the Pic de
Néthou, in the Pyrenees, Mulhacen and Veleta in the Sierra Nevada, while
the Picos de Europa in the Cantabrian Range attain over eight thousand
feet. The plateau itself is traversed by four mountain ranges which
separate the valley of the Ebro from that of the Douro; and the whole
of it has a general slight inclination from east or northeast to
southwest. Hence all the considerable rivers except the Ebro flow
westward to the Atlantic.

These include the Guadalaviar, Júcar, and Segura, important rivers of
the eastern watershed. The Minho, Douro, Tagus, Guadiana, and
Guadalquivir drain the western valleys, which are formed between the
mountain ranges of the Peninsula. The Tagus is the largest river of the
Peninsula, the estuary of which forms a magnificent harbor. The
Guadalquivir, though the shortest of the larger streams, is the most
important on account of its fullness and its course through the most
extensive lowland of the Peninsula. The effect of the tide in it is felt
for several leagues above Seville, to which city it is navigable, eighty
miles from the sea.

The configuration of the country renders the climate very varied. In
parts of the northwest the rainfall is among the heaviest in Europe. In
the east and southeast occasionally no rain falls in the whole year. The
rainfall in the western Pyrenees is very great, yet on the northern
slope of the valley of the Ebro there are districts almost rainless. The
western side of the great plateau, speaking generally, is more humid and
much colder than the eastern, where irrigation is necessary for
successful cultivation.

=Production and Industry.=--Galicia is almost a cattle country;
Estremadura possesses vast flocks of sheep and herds of swine. The
country is generally fertile, and well adapted to agriculture and the
cultivation of heat-loving fruits--as olives, oranges, lemons, almonds,
pomegranates, and dates. The agricultural products comprise wheat,
barley, maize, oats, rice, with hemp and flax of the best quality. The
vine is cultivated in every province; in the southwest, Jerez, the
well-known sherry and tent wines are made; in the southeast, the Malaga
and Alicante.

Spain is rich in iron, copper and lead, but the mines have been only
partially developed.

The seat of the manufacturing industries is chiefly Catalonia. Cotton
and woolen manufactures engage many hands, and there are also
considerable silk, paper, and cork industries.

The principal exports are wine, copper and copper ores, lead, iron ores,
olive oil, raisins, oranges, cork, esparto grass, wool, salt,
quicksilver, grapes, etc.

=People.=--The basis of the population of the whole Peninsula is that of
the old Iberians, modified by the admixture of Celtic, Phœnician, Roman,
Germanic, and Moorish (Arab) invaders who from time to time gained
ascendency in the land and became intermixed with the ancient
inhabitants.

Until lately the only religion tolerated was that of the state, the
Roman Catholic; now a certain toleration is allowed to other
denominations.

Education varies greatly among different classes and in different
provinces. In the large towns and in some of the provinces a great
effort is made to keep the higher and the technical schools on a level
with the best in other European countries. In other parts the neglect
is very great. There are ten universities: Madrid, Barcelona, Granada,
Oviedo, Salamanca, Seville, Santiago, Valencia, Valladolid, and
Saragossa. Primary education is by law compulsory, but the law is not
strictly enforced, which accounts for the large percentage of
illiterates.

=Government.=--The government of Spain is an hereditary monarchy founded
on the constitution of 1876. The Cortes consists of two bodies--the
Senate, of about three hundred and sixty members (one-half elected), and
a Congress of Deputies, elected at the rate of one member to every fifty
thousand inhabitants.

=Cities.=--The principal cities are Madrid, population 597,573;
Barcelona, 587,219; Valencia, 233,348; Seville, 155,366; Malaga,
136,192; Murcia, 125,380; Saragossa, 111,701; Carthagena, 96,983;
Bilbao, 93,536; and San Sebastian, 92,514; and there are also twelve
towns with over 50,000 inhabitants.

[Illustration: =THE ROYAL PALACE, MADRID,=

one of the finest in Europe, has a frontage of four hundred and seventy
feet, is one hundred feet high, and built of white stone. Among the
thirty rooms on the first floor, the largest and finest is the Hall of
the Ambassadors. The vault was painted by Tiepolo, and represents the
exaltation of the Spanish monarchs. The walls are draped with velvet
embroidered with gold, and twelve immense mirrors also decorate it. On
the right of the throne, which is guarded by four gilded bronze lions,
is a statue of Prudence, and on the left that of Justice. The chapel is
extremely rich, but not very handsome. There is also a library, a
theatre, and the magnificent collection of Flemish tapestries.]

=Madrid= (Span. pron. _Madh-reedh´_), the capital of Spain, is situated
in the department of Madrid (part of the ancient province of New
Castile), eight hundred and eighty miles by rail from Paris. It is built
on a treeless, ill-watered plateau, on the left bank of the Manzanares,
two thousand and sixty feet above the sea-level.

The Manzanares is merely a mountain-torrent falling into the Jarama, a
tributary of the Tagus; water is brought from the Guadarrama Mountains
by an aqueduct forty-two miles in length.

The general aspect of the city is clean and gay, while the older parts
are picturesque; no trace now remains of the mediæval city. The new
streets are generally fine, broad, and planted with trees; the houses
well built, lofty, and inhabited by several families living in flats. A
great feature is the magnificent open spaces, chief of which is the
Prado, running north and south through the eastern part of the city,
and, with its continuations, three miles long. It contains four handsome
fountains with groups of statuary, a fine obelisk to commemorate the
gallant struggle with the French (May 2, 1808), monuments to Columbus,
Isabel the Catholic, etc.

The picture-gallery here, founded by Charles III., is one of the finest
in Europe, and contains many of the masterpieces of Velasquez, Murillo,
Raphael, Tintoretto, Rubens, Teniers, and Van Dyck. Two other parks are
the Buen Retiro, the fashionable promenade on the east of the city, and
the Casa de Campo on the west. Midway between its extremities the Prado
is crossed at right angles by the Calle de Alcala, the finest street in
the city, about a mile in length, and leading from outside the fine
triumphal arch rebuilt by Charles III. to the Puerta del Sol, the square
which is the heart of Madrid; here converge the principal electric
lines, and in it and the streets branching off from it are situated the
principal shops and places of business.

The finest square is the Plaza Mayor, formerly the scene of bull-fights;
it contains a gigantic equestrian statue of Philip III., its founder. On
the west of the city are the new cathedral and the royal palace; the
latter, commenced in 1738 to replace the ancient Alcazar, which had been
burned down, was finished in 1764 at a cost of fifteen million dollars.
Other fine buildings are the palace of justice, formerly a convent; the
houses of parliament; Buena Vista Palace, now the ministry of war, and
the new national bank.

Besides a flourishing university, founded by Cardinal Ximenes, and two
high schools, Madrid contains numerous municipal schools. Madrid is
well provided with newspapers and public libraries, the chief being the
National Library, with more than half a million volumes, and the library
of the university.

The opera house is one of the finest in the world; all the theaters must
by law be lighted by electricity. The bull ring, situated outside the
gates on the east, is a solid structure seating fourteen thousand.

Iron founding and the manufacture of furniture, carriages, and fancy
articles are carried on on a small scale. The manufacture of tobacco
employs many persons, chiefly women. The publishing trade is important,
and books are well printed and cheap. The old tapestry factory still
turns out beautiful work, as do the potteries at Moncloa.

[Illustration: =THE ESCURIAL=

is thirty-two miles from Madrid. It is called by the Spaniards the
eighth wonder of the world. Philip II. built it in 1685 to commemorate
the taking of St. Quentin, and to accomplish a vow which he made to St.
Lawrence. This vast building has fifteen principal entrances, and more
than one thousand one hundred windows. It is entirely built of granite,
and its appearance is monotonous and cold. It contains a church, the
Capilla Mayor, filled with royal monuments, the sacristy, a vast vaulted
hall with a marble altar ornamented with bronze, the choir, and the
pantheon or vault, where the kings of Spain are buried. The pantheon is
reached by a magnificent staircase of colored marbles. The urn
containing the remains of Charles V. was opened in 1870, and the body
was even then in perfect preservation. The library of books and the
manuscript library attracts the attention of scholars. The main entrance
to the palace is in the middle of the north façade. The Hall of Battles,
is covered with frescos representing Spanish conquests; and the
apartments in which Philip II. lived and died. The Pavilion of Charles
IV., called the Casa del Principe, is a charming little museum of
paintings, sculptures, and mosaics. The King’s Seat, where Philip II.
came to sit when presiding over the work of the palace, is also to be
seen.]

=History.=--Spain was originally occupied by Iberian tribes (akin to the
present Basque inhabitants of the north), who were partially overlaid by
invading Celts. The Carthaginians established themselves in the south of
Spain in the third century B. C. The Romans appeared in force in the
next century, but it was not till after a fierce and prolonged
resistance from Iberians and Celtiberians that, under Augustus, the
Roman conquest was complete. Soon Spain, thoroughly Romanized, was
contributing largely to Latin literature and Roman culture.

The Germanic invaders from the north, Suevi, Vandals, and Visigoths,
crushed the Roman power in the fifth century A. D., and Spain became a
province of the Visigothic kingdom (573 A. D.). Then followed the
Moorish conquest, which was very rapid (714-732) and complete, except in
the north and northwest. The several Christian kingdoms of Spain:
Castile, Leon, Navarre, Aragon, etc., as well as Portugal--were formed
by the gradual depression of the Moors; but Moorish Granada was not
conquered till 1492, and Spain was not united under one rule till 1512.

Spain became a European state with the union of Ferdinand of Aragon and
Isabella of Castile in 1469, and the New World was discovered for them.
Under the Emperor Charles V., in the sixteenth century, Spain was the
most important country in Europe; but the population was unequal to the
drain upon it caused by constant warfare, emigration, and adverse
economical and industrial conditions.

With Philip II., Charles’s son, the decline of Spain set in, though now
for sixty years Portugal was under the Spanish crown. The Bourbon
dynasty brought complication in the wars of Louis XIV., and little
advantage from the recovery of Naples and Sicily. The nadir of Spanish
history is in the time of Napoleon, when Spain, in spite of some
national efforts, was nominally a kingdom, but really a mere province of
the French empire.

In spite of the valiant patriotism shown in resisting the French, and
the ultimate recovery of national independence through the overthrow of
Napoleon, the history of Spain in the nineteenth century was in the main
inglorious. In Cuba there had been trouble since 1895, the final outcome
of which was the disastrous Spanish-American war, leading to the loss of
the greater colonies. The twentieth century has seen gradual recovery,
growing toleration, a breach with the Vatican, revolutionary and
repressive movements, and ambitions in northwest Africa.

In June, 1911, the situation in Morocco led to the dispatch of a Spanish
force to Alcazar. But the indignation aroused in France at this action
was quite overshadowed by the sensation caused when it became known that
Germany had sent a warship to Agadir. Labor troubles in Spain broke out
in September, 1911. Martial law was proclaimed throughout the country,
and a royal decree suspended the constitutional guarantees, which were
not re-established until October 22. In March, 1912, the ministry was
reconstituted, but, in 1916, during the European war, again gave way
over grave questions over neutrality and internal conditions.


=SWEDEN= (Swedish _Sverige_), a kingdom of northern Europe, occupies the
eastern side of the Scandinavian peninsula. From 1814 till the amicable
but definitive separation in 1905, it was associated with Norway under
one crown. Its greatest length, north to south, is close to 1000 miles,
its greatest breadth 300; its area 170,970 square miles; and its coast
line 1550 miles. Besides many skerry islands, Sweden owns Gothland and
Œland.

=Surface.=--The country may be generally described as a broad plain
sloping southeastward from the Kjölen Mountains to the Baltic. The only
mountainous districts adjoin Norway; the peaks sink in altitude from
seven thousand feet in the north to three thousand eight hundred feet at
the southern end of the chain. Immediately south of this point a
subsidiary chain strikes off to the southeast, and, threading the lake
region of central Sweden, swells out beyond into a tableland with a mean
elevation of eight hundred and fifty feet and maximum of twelve hundred
and forty feet. Fully two-thirds of the entire surface lies lower than
eight hundred feet, and one-third lower than three hundred feet, above
sea level.

Sweden is separated popularly and geographically into three great
divisions--Norrland, Svealand, and Gothland. Norrland, in the north, is
a region of vast and lonely forests and rapid mountain streams, often
forming fine cascades and ribbon-like lakes before they reach the Gulf
of Bothnia.

The central division of Svealand, or Sweden proper, is a region of big
lakes, and contains most of the mines. Lakes occupy nearly fourteen
thousand square miles, or eight and two-tenths per cent of the total
area; several of the largest, as Vener, Vetter, Hjelmar, Mälar, are
connected with one another and the sea by rivers and canals. Lake Mälar
contains some thirteen hundred islands, many beautifully wooded, with
royal palaces or noblemen’s castles; and its shores are studded with
prosperous towns, castles, palaces, and factories.

Gothland, the southern division, contains a much higher proportion of
cultivated land, and its wide plains are all under agriculture.

=Climate.=--The climate of Sweden is continental in the north, along the
Norwegian frontier, and on the southern plateau. The lakes in the colder
districts of the north are ice bound for some two hundred and twenty
days in the year; in the south only for about ninety days. The rainfall
is greatest on the coast of the Cattegat.

=Production and Industry.=--The principal articles of cultivation are
the various cereals--oats, rye, barley, wheat--and potatoes. The forests
are very extensive, covering one-half of the surface of the country, and
consisting of pine, birch, fir; these are of great importance, supplying
timber, pitch, and tar, and also the chief fuel.

The mineral products are extremely rich: iron of excellent quality, that
known as the Dannemora iron, being converted into the finest steel; gold
and silver in small proportions; copper, lead, nickel, zinc, cobalt,
alum, sulphur, porphyry, and marble. There is a railroad opening up the
rich iron ore districts of Lapland, and mineral trains run from
Gellivare and Kiruna to Lulea on the Gulf of Bothnia and to Narvik on
the Atlantic. Considerable mines of coal are worked in Scania.

The chief articles of export are timber, butter, iron, steel, wood pulp,
paper, matches, stone, iron and zinc ores, etc.

=People.=--The Swedes are a Germanic people, tall and strong, but with
more variety of characteristics than the Norwegians. The Swedish
language, allied closely to Norse and Danish, appears in very many
dialects. It has had, especially since the sixteenth century, an
extensive literature.

Almost the whole population is Protestant, adhering to the Lutheran
Church, members of which alone are permitted to hold public offices.
Education is well advanced in both countries, public instruction being
gratuitous and compulsory. Sweden has the Universities of Upsala, which
dates from 1477, and of Lund, founded in 1668, besides the many
scientific and educational institutions of Stockholm.

=Government.=--The constitution of Sweden dates from 1809, but in 1866,
when the separate meetings of the four estates--nobles, clergy,
burghers, and peasants--were done away, the legislative system was much
modified. The executive power is vested in the king, acting under the
advice of a Council of State; the legislative in the two Chambers of the
Diet, both of which are elected by the people--the first for nine years
from proprietors, the second for three years from a lower class. The
administration of justice is entirely independent of the government.

=Cities.=--The capital, Stockholm, has a population (1913) of 382,085.
In addition to the capital, there are fourteen towns with above 20,000
population, viz.: Göteborg, 178,030; Malmö, 95,821; Norrköping, 46,180;
Gefle, 35,736; Helsingborg, 37,385; Örebro, 33,182.

Malmö, on the sound opposite Copenhagen, is the outlet of the corn
granary of the southern plain; Norrköping, on an inlet of the Baltic,
after Stockholm, is the busiest manufacturing town of Sweden, its mills
being driven by the rapids of the Motala; Gefle lies north of Stockholm,
and is second only to it as a seaport on the Baltic side of the country;
and Karlskrona, on the south coast, is the naval arsenal and
headquarters of the fleet of Sweden.

[Illustration: =PANORAMA OF STOCKHOLM, CAPITAL OF SWEDEN=]

Within recent years a network of railways has been formed over southern
Sweden and Norway, connecting the capital towns with the ports of
Göteborg, Malmö, and many other points.

=Stockholm= (_l_ pronounced), stands on several islands and the adjacent
mainland, between a bay of the Baltic and Lake Mälar, in a situation
that is accounted one of the most picturesque in Europe.

Its nucleus is an island in mid-channel called “the Town”; on it stand
the imposing royal palace; the chief church (St. Nicholas), in which the
kings are crowned; the House of the Nobles; the town house; the
ministries of the kingdom; and the principal wharf, a magnificent
granite quay, fronting east.

Immediately west of the central island lies the Knights’ Island
(_Riddarholm_); it is almost entirely occupied with public buildings as
the old Houses of Parliament; the old Franciscan church, in which all
the later sovereigns of Sweden have been buried; the royal archives, and
the chief law-courts.

North of these two islands lie the handsomely built districts of
Norrmalm, separated from them by a narrow channel, in which is an islet
with the new Houses of Parliament. In Norrmalm are the National Museum
with valuable prehistoric collections, coins, paintings, sculptures; the
principal theaters; the Academy of Fine Arts; the barracks; the Hop
Garden, with the Royal Library, two hundred and fifty thousand volumes
and eight thousand manuscripts, and with the statue of Linnæus; the
Academy of Sciences; the Museum of Northern Antiquities; the
Observatory, etc.

Ship Island (_Skeppsholm_), immediately east of “the Town” island, is
the headquarters of the Swedish navy, and is connected with a smaller
island on the southeast, that is crowned with a citadel. Beyond these
again, and farther to the east, lies the beautiful island of the
Zoological Gardens. Immediately south of “the Town” island is the
extensive district of Södermalm, the houses of which climb up the steep
slopes that rise from the water’s edge. Handsome bridges connect the
central islands with the northern and southern districts; quick little
steamboats go to the beautiful islands in Lake Mälar on the west, and
eastward toward the Baltic Sea, forty miles distant.

Sugar, tobacco, silks and ribbons, candles, linen, cotton, and leather
are produced, and there are large iron foundries and machine shops.
Though the water approaches are frozen up during winter, Stockholm
exports iron and steel, oats and tar.

Stockholm was founded by Birger Jarl in 1255, and grew to be the capital
only in modern times.

=History.=--Sweden was originally occupied by Lapps and Finns, but
probably (1500 B. C.) Teutonic tribes drove them into the forests of the
north, and at the dawn of history we find Svealand occupied by Swedes
(Svea) and Gothland by the Goths.

Gothland was christianized and also conquered by the Danes in the ninth
century, while Svealand remained fanatically heathen till the time of
St. Eric (twelfth century), who conquered Finland, henceforth a Swedish
possession. For a century Goths and Swedes had different kings, but
gradually melted into one people toward the end of the thirteenth
century.

Now arose bitter feuds between king, nobility, peasants, and universal
turbulence prevailed; agriculture, industry, literature and culture
progressed not at all or hardly existed. Even after the union of Sweden,
Norway, and Denmark under one monarch (1397), Sweden was torn by
conflicts which lasted down to the expulsion of Danish oppressors, and
the restoration of Swedish autonomy by the national rising under
Gustavus Vasa (1524), the ablest prince who had yet ruled the Swedes.
Under him the reformation was heartily accepted. Gustavus Adolphus and
the Swedes were its bulwark, not merely at home but in Germany in the
Thirty Years’ war; and by the acquirement of Bremen, Verden, and
Pomerania, Sweden became (1648) a member of the empire.

[Illustration: =GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS PLACE AND THE ROYAL THEATER,
STOCKHOLM=]

[Illustration: =NEW UNIVERSITY, UPSALA, SWEDEN=

Upsala is best reached by boat from Stockholm. Here the celebrated
university, founded 1477, by Jacob Ulfson, now magnificently housed,
stands in the Drottninggatan. Library, the largest in Sweden, with three
hundred thousand volumes, including the Codex Argenteus, or Gothic
Gospel of Bishop Ulphilas (318-388), written in silver letters on purple
vellum, also the Atlantica of Rudbeck, and the sacred book of the
Druses, with the Edda Manuscript. An Observatory is attached to the
University. The Botanical Garden has many rare plants and a bust of
Linnæus (Linné), who was professor and physician here, living at
Hammarby.]

Under Charles XII. and his successor, the enmity of Denmark, Poland, and
Russia wrested her new conquests from Sweden, and gave Livonia,
Esthonia, Ingermanland, and Karelia (which had long been Swedish) to
Russia; thus reducing Sweden from the rank of a first-rate European
power. After a bloody struggle Sweden had to cede Finland (1809) to
Russia. Norway was united by a personal union (i. e., by the monarch)
with Sweden in 1810; and in 1818 the French general Bernadotte was
elected king (as Charles XIV.).

Norway’s demand for a larger measure of home rule led in 1905 to a
complete separation.


=SWITZERLAND= (Ger. _Schweiz_; Fr. _Suisse_), is a confederation of
twenty-two cantons, lying practically in the very center of Europe,
between France, Germany, Austria, and Italy. No part of it is within one
hundred miles of the sea. It is also a very small country (sixteen
thousand square miles), not much larger than the half of Scotland. The
greatest length from east to west is two hundred and sixteen miles, the
width from north to south being one hundred and thirty-seven miles. The
population in 1910 was 3,741,971.

=Surface.=--The southern boundary lies for the most part along the
highest crests of the Alps, which descend by the Italian valleys to the
plain of Lombardy; the summits of the Matterhorn and Monte Rosa rise on
the boundary line, which is crossed by the Great St. Bernard, Simplon,
and Splügen passes. North of this mass of heights the deep valleys of
the Upper Rhone flowing west to the Lake of Geneva, and of the Upper
Rhine flowing northeast to that of Constance, mark a deep trench all
across the country. In the heart of the country rises the mass of the
Bernese Alps or Oberland, the Alps of Uri and Glarus, with the summits
of the Finsteraarhorn and Jungfrau. Still farther north the country
descends gradually by less elevated mountains and hills to the
undulating lowland of Switzerland (still one thousand five hundred feet
above the sea), which extends in a curve from the Lake of Constance on
the northeast along the Valley of the Aar, by the Lakes of Biel (Bienne)
and Neuchâtel to that of Geneva. Beyond this the long parallel ranges of
the Jura close in the country on the northwestern frontier.

More than half of the whole country is covered by rocks, glaciers,
forest, and mountain pasture, and cannot be permanently inhabited.

=Rivers and Lakes.=--All the northern part of the country belongs to the
basin of the Rhine flowing to the North Sea. That river, having purified
its waters in its passage through the Boden-See or Lake of Constance
(partly in Switzerland), is joined by the Aar, which rises near the
Grimsel, and flows through the lakes of Brienz and Thun. To this basin
also belong the lakes of Zürich and Zug, Luzerne, Neuchâtel, and Biel or
Bienne. The southwestern district drains by the Rhône to the
Mediterranean, through the Lake of Geneva or Leman, which is partly in
Switzerland, partly in France.

The smaller part of the southern boundary that laps over the Italian
valleys of the Alps includes the head of Lake Maggiore, in Switzerland,
and the upper Ticino, which flows through it to the plain of Lombardy
and the Adriatic. In the east the boundary embraces only one valley,
which drains to the Danube, the Engadine, through which the Upper Inn
flows northeastward.

From the elevation at which they rise, and their rapids, the rivers of
Switzerland are of no value in navigation. The Rhine only begins to be
freely navigable at Basel, where it leaves the country. The larger
lakes, however, have little steamers plying from shore to shore; that of
Geneva, forty-seven miles long, has a considerable traffic.

=Climate and Scenery.=--The climate naturally varies with the elevation
above the sea level, from that of the perennial snows at an elevation of
about nine thousand feet, downward through the pastoral alpine region
and the tall pine forests, to the lower lands in which the chestnut
flourishes, and where orchard fruits, the vine, mulberry, and wheat can
be grown. There is a variation of about thirty-four and one-half degrees
in the mean temperature--between fifty-four and one-half degrees
Fahrenheit at Bellinzona, and twenty degrees on the Theodule Pass.

Switzerland has been called the playground of Europe, and is visited by
large numbers of tourists from all parts of the world, attracted by its
magnificent mountain and lake scenery.

The amount of money brought annually by tourists is estimated at twenty
million dollars.

[Illustration: =STATUE OF TELL, ALTDORF, SWITZERLAND=

Altdorf, near the southern end of Lake Luzerne, and capital of the
canton of of Uri, is in the mountain-walled valley, and is the reputed
scene of Tell’s shooting the apple. The side is marked by a fountain.
The colossal statue of Tell is near by. His birthplace, near Bürglen, is
occupied by a frescoed chapel.]

Geneva and Lausanne, on the beautiful lake of Geneva, Interlaken
(between the lakes of Thun and Brienz), Luzerne and the Rigi,
Schaffhausen at the Rhine fall, Zermatt beneath Monte Rosa, Lugano in
the heart of the Italian lake district, are notable tourist stations;
St. Moritz in the Engadine, and Leuk (Louèche) in the Rhone Valley,
Pfäffers in that of the Upper Rhine, are famous for their baths.
Switzerland as a whole--with its mountains, lakes, glaciers, waterfalls,
valleys and cities--has been described by an American poet as a “cluster
of delights and grandeurs.”

=Production and Industry.=--The forests, which cover about a sixth of
the surface, are of immense value to the country, where most of the
houses are built of wood. The mountain pastures give the characteristic
employments of the people of the Alps and Jura, as herdsmen and
shepherds, tending their cattle and making cheese in the mountain
châlets during summer.

Agriculture is followed chiefly in the valleys, where wheat, oats,
maize, barley, flax, hemp, and tobacco are produced.

The textile industries are the most important, the chief centers being
Zürich, Basel, Glarus, and St. Gall. The chief are silk, cotton, and
linen fabrics, besides raw silk. Next comes the clock and watchmaking
industry, established at Geneva in 1587, which spread to the cantons of
Neuchâtel, Berne and Vaud.

Wood carving was introduced in the Oberland about 1820. Other
manufactures are chemicals, chocolate, and condensed milk.

Salt, obtained on the banks of the Rhine, is the only valuable mineral
of the country.

=People.=--Three-fourths of the population of Switzerland, occupying all
the center and north of the country, are Germanic; the remaining fourth
belongs to three branches of the Romanic family--the French in the west,
the Italian in the south, and the Rhæto-Romanic in the southeast. A
little more than half of the population is Protestant, the remainder,
chiefly in the mountain region, Roman Catholic.

Education is widely diffused, especially in the Protestant districts of
the northeast, where the law of compulsory education is rigidly
enforced. There are universities at Basel, Berne, Zurich, Geneva, and
Lausanne.

=Government.=--At the close of the political storms which raged in
Europe from 1789 till 1815, the affairs of Switzerland were re-arranged
by the Congress of Vienna, which provided for the perpetual neutrality
and independence of Switzerland in its twenty-two cantons. Since 1848
the independent states or cantons of Switzerland have become a united
confederacy (Bundes Staat), the supreme legislative and executive
authority of which is vested in a parliament of two chambers, sitting at
Berne--the Stände Rath or States Council, and the National Rath, the
first composed of two members for each canton, the second of
representatives of the people according to numbers. The cantons are
still, however, in a great measure, independent democracies, each making
its own laws and managing its local affairs.

_Referendum and Initiative._--These are two political institutions
peculiar to Switzerland, the furthest developments of democracy yet
attained.

The referendum, which has now spread throughout the whole Confederation,
and by means of which all legislative acts passed in the Federal or
Cantonal Assemblies may be referred to the people _en masse_, was fully
developed in 1874, and it has been put in operation on an average once a
year. The decisions have generally shown a conservative rather than a
radical tendency on the part of the people.

_Initiative_ is the exercise of the right granted to voters to initiate
proposals for the enactment of new laws or for the alteration or
abolition of the old ones.

=Cities.=--The capital of the Swiss Confederation is Berne, population
(1910) 85,650. In 1910 there were twelve communes with populations
exceeding 20,000: Zürich, 190,733; Bâle, 132,280; Geneva, 123,160;
Berne, 85,650; Lausanne, 63,296; St. Gall, 37,657; Chaux-de-Fonds,
37,626; and Luzerne, 39,152.

[Illustration: =THE BERNE CATHEDRAL=

was built in 1421-1573, and restored in 1850, with a richly sculptured
portal, some good stained glass of the fifteenth century, and a famous
organ. From the Terrace in the rear of the Cathedral, the snowy peaks of
the Bernese Alps are seen in a glorious panorama.]

=Berne=, since 1849 the capital of Switzerland, sixty-eight miles by
rail southwest of Basel, is situated on a lofty sandstone promontory
formed by the winding Aar, which surrounds it on three sides. It is one
of the best and most regularly built towns in Europe, as it is the
finest in Switzerland. The houses are massive structures of freestone,
resting upon shop-lined arcades. Rills of water flow through the
streets. The view of the Alpine peaks from the city is magnificent.

The principal public buildings are a Gothic cathedral, the magnificent
Federal Council Hall, the mint, the hospital, and the university. Berne
has an interesting museum, and a valuable public library of fifty
thousand volumes.

It was founded in 1191, was made a free imperial city in 1218, under
Frederick II.; and between 1288 and 1339 successfully resisted the
attacks of Rudolf of Hapsburg, Albert, his son, and Louis of Bavaria.
The “Disputation of Berne” between Catholics and Reformers in 1528
prepared the way for the acceptance of the reformed doctrine.

On account of the traditionary derivation of its name (Swabian _bern_,
“a bear”), bears are maintained in a public bear-pit.

=History.=--The original inhabitants of Switzerland were the Celtic
Helvetii, and the Rhætii of doubtful affinity. Both were conquered by
Julius Cæsar and the generals of Augustus, and Romanized. Overrun by the
Burgundians in the west, and their Germanic kinsmen the Alemannians in
the east, Helvetia became subject to the Frankish kings and were
christianized in the seventh century.

Most of the country was subsequently part of the Holy Roman Empire; and
in 1273 a Swiss noble, Rudolf of Hapsburg in Aargau, became German
emperor. Soon after his death (in 1291) the inhabitants of Uri, Schwyz,
and Unterwalden formed a league to defend their common interests, and in
1315 crushed an Austrian army at Morgarten. In 1332 Luzerne joined the
alliance, and in 1353, Berne, Zürich, Glarus, and Zug. The Austrians
were again routed in Sempach in 1386, and in 1388 at Näfels.

The Swiss next had a fierce but triumphant struggle with Charles the
Bold of Burgundy, whom they routed at Grandson and Morat in 1476, and
finally at Nancy (where Charles was slain) in 1477.

When the Reformation began there were thirteen cantons, and the cantons
took opposite sides from the beginning, not without serious turmoil and
bloodshed. The treaty of Westphalia in 1648 recognized Switzerland as an
independent state. Some of the cantons were strictly aristocratic and
some highly democratic, and there was much discontent long before the
French Revolution, when, in 1798, between civil strife and French
armies, the old republic (or rather alliance) came to an end.

The Helvetic Republic of nineteen cantons, under French auspices,
endured till 1805; then a new republican constitution was adopted, the
Federal Pact of twenty-two cantons. On Napoleon’s downfall, Valais,
Neuchâtel, and Geneva, which had been incorporated with France, were
restored, and Swiss neutrality and inviolability were recognized by the
treaty of Vienna in 1815. Religious troubles led to a Catholic league in
1844, which was suppressed by the Federal forces in 1847. The present
constitution was adopted in 1848, but revised in 1874. In 1891 a demand
for popular initiative for measures was carried. In 1908 Switzerland
entered into an international convention for compulsory arbitration at
the court of the Hague.

[Illustration: =BERNE CLOCK TOWER,=

famous for its Bear Chimes--figures which perform every time the clock
strikes.]


=TURKEY, or Ottoman Empire=, comprises the wide but heterogeneous
territories really or nominally subject to the Osmânlî Sultan, in
Europe, Asia, and Africa. These territories, which once extended from
the Danube to the cataracts of the Nile, and from the Euphrates to the
borders of Morocco, have been greatly reduced in the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries.

_Asiatic Turkey_ is now the true center of gravity of the empire; it
includes Anatolia (the great plateau of Asia Minor), the lowlands of
Mesopotamia, the highlands of Kurdistan and Armenia, and the island of
Samos. The total area of the empire has been estimated as follows:

         =Area in Square Miles=
  Turkey in Europe             12,000
  Turkey in Asia:
    Anatolia                  193,800
    Armenia and Kurdistan      72,600
    Mesopotamia and Syria     244,460
    Turkish Arabia            172,000
                              -------
      Total                   694,860

         =Estimated Population=
  Turkey in Europe          2,755,000
  Turkey in Asia:
    Anatolia                9,175,000
    Armenia and Kurdistan   2,500,000
    Mesopotamia and Syria   4,650,000
    Turkish Arabia          1,100,000
                           ----------
      Total                20,150,000

Of the above totals only 700,000 square miles (with a population of
21,000,000) are directly under Turkish government.

_European Turkey_ consists of the provinces of Adrianople,
Constantinople and Chatalja, and is separated from Asia by the Bosphorus
at Constantinople and by the Dardanelles (Hellespont), the only
political neighbor being Bulgaria, on the northwest.

[Illustration: =PANORAMA OF THE BOSPHORUS AT THE NARROWEST PART=

The Bosphorus, the straight connecting the Sea of Azov with the Black
Sea, is so-called after Io, who swam over it in the shape of a heifer.
On the western shore is the city of Constantinople. The Bosphorus at
this point is about five hundred and fifty yards wide.]

=Physical Features.=--Turkey in Europe is a mountainous country and the
chief physical features as it is now limited is the strait of Bosphorus
and the Dardanelles. The Bosphorus, which guards the approach to the
Black Sea from the Sea of Marmora, is at the same time the focus of all
maritime trade between the Mediterranean and Russia, etc., as well as of
the overland routes from Europe into Asia Minor. It has fitly been
likened to a tortuous river valley over whose wooded banks are scattered
forts and towers, cities and villages, castles and parks. The southern
gate of the Sea of Marmora is the Dardanelles, which gives an opening
into the Ægean.

Turkey in Asia is still more mountainous. The two almost parallel
ranges, Taurus and Anti-Taurus, which are the basis of its mountain
system, cover almost the whole of the peninsula of Asia Minor or
Anatolia with their ramifications and offshoots, forming the surface
into elevated plateaus, deep valleys, and enclosed plains. From the
Taurus chain the Lebanon range proceeds southwards parallel to the coast
of Syria, and, diminishing in elevation in Palestine, terminates on the
Red Sea coast at Sinai.

The Euphrates, Tigris, Orontes, and Kizil-Ermak are the chief rivers.
(See Asia Minor.)

=Climate.=--The climate of Turkey in Asia is as varied as the physical
features. The great plateau on the north has a distinctly continental
climate, rigorous severe winters with intense scorching heat in summer;
in the eastern part of the plateau region the mountains are covered with
snow for two-thirds of the year, and some of the principal ranges are
capped with perpetual snow; here the peasants build their dwellings
underground to escape the severity of the seasons. Towards the west the
winters are not quite so severe, but the variations of temperature are
excessive.

=Products and Industry.=--The soil of European Turkey is for the most
part very fertile, and the cultivated products include most of those
usual in central and southern Europe--maize, rice, rye, barley, millet,
besides tobacco madder, and cotton. The mineral products are iron in
abundance, argentiferous lead ore, copper, sulphur, salt, alum, and a
little gold; some deposits of coal have been found, but none are worked.
Sheep-breeding is largely carried on.

In Asiatic Turkey the mineral wealth is great; coal and iron are found
together in considerable quantities; rich mines of copper exist in the
mountains on the south of the Black Sea, and in the Taurus near
Diarbekir lead and silver are found at intervals along a line connecting
Angora, Sivas, and Trebizond in the north, and the eastern Taurus in the
south; green, black, and white marble, and the finest quality of
granite, are to be had in many parts of the mountain section.

With a fertile arable soil and a suitable climate, nearly every
agricultural product flourishes. Oats, barley, and wheat are produced in
great abundance. Almost all kinds of garden produce and orchard fruits
abound, grapes and oranges are to be had all round the Mediterranean
coast, as well as the choicest tobacco, opium, valonia and madder.

The mulberry is everywhere cultivated for feeding the silkworms, and
cotton is grown in most of the western valleys. Vast groves of boxwood
and other valuable trees clothe the seaward slopes of the hills. Dates
are produced for export in the Babylonian plain, where wheat is
indigenous. Petroleum and bitumen springs are found in the Euphrates
valley.

Angora is famous for its flocks of goats, which produce the mohair of
commerce, and enormous quantities of wool come from the countless flocks
of sheep tended by the wandering Bedouin and Kurd shepherds.

There are at present no manufactures worth mention. The sponge fisheries
of the Mediterranean are a source of great wealth.

=Commerce.=--The exports include tobacco, cereals, fruits, silk, opium,
mohair, cotton, coffee, skins, wool, oil-seeds, valonia, carpets, etc.,
and are largely derived from the Asiatic provinces. Recently large
quantities of wine and of raisins for the manufacture of wine have been
exported. Since the establishment of the Anatolian railway by German
enterprise the export of cereals, chiefly malting barley, has largely
increased.

=People.=--The population consists of a singular mixture of races.
Turks, Greeks, Slavs, and Albanians are largely represented, besides
Armenians, Kurds, Arabs, Tartars, Jews, Circassians, and Frank
residents. (See Book of Races.)

The established religion is Islam or Mohammedanism, but most other
creeds are recognized and tolerated. The Protestant religion was for the
first time officially recognized in 1845.

Education in all departments has of late been notably improved and has
largely contributed to the complete overthrow of the antiquated and
despotic system of government.

=Government.=--Until 1908 the government of Turkey was a pure despotism.
An amazing change was swiftly and peacefully carried through in the
autumn of that year. In connection with the troubles in Macedonia
between Christians and Moslems, Greeks and Bulgarians, a Turkish
military revolt took place, which, under the guidance of the
“Young-Turkish” party (mostly educated abroad), became a great national
movement. The sultan, overawed, had to acquiesce; parliamentary
government was planned and carried out; equality before the law
proclaimed to all races and religions of the empire; and a large measure
of local self-government promised not merely to Turks but to Greeks,
Bulgarians, Albanians, Armenians, Syrians, Kurds and Arabs.

The enormous difficulties of the crisis were complicated by Bulgaria
proclaiming its independence, and Austria-Hungary annexing the provinces
of Bosnia and Herzegovina. But government by a national assembly has
taken root in Turkey.

The term “Sublime Porte,” sometimes given to the Turkish government, is
derived from the name of the chief gate of Constantinople.

=Cities.=--Of the towns by far the most populous is the capital,
Constantinople (1,200,000), while after it come Adrianople (83,000),
which by reason of its central position in the Maritza valley, commands
an extensive inland commerce, Midia, and Gallipoli, the chief port on
the Dardanelles.

The principal towns of Asiatic Turkey are Smyrna, 260,000; Bagdad,
150,000; Damascus, 150,000; Aleppo, 125,000; Beyrout, 120,000; Scutari
in Anatolia, 80,000, and Broussa, 80,000.

=Constantinople= was founded in 330 A. D. by Constantine the Great, from
whom it derives its name, on a site partly occupied by the ancient Greek
colony of Byzantium. The Turks call it Istambol or Stambol.

The city stands on a hilly promontory of triangular shape, having the
Sea of Marmora and the Bosphorus on the south and east, and on the north
the Golden Horn, an arm of the Bosphorus. It is thus surrounded by water
on all sides but the west, where a strong wall shuts the city off, from
the mainland. Like Rome, the city is built on seven hills, six of them
being separated portions of one long ridge.

As in the case of all great cities, Constantinople has spread far beyond
its original bounds, and may be said to include towns originally quite
separate from itself.

Constantinople is excellently situated, more advantageously, perhaps,
than any European city but Naples.

From the outside its appearance is most picturesque and imposing. At the
taking of the city in the fifteenth century most of the churches were
destroyed, and mosques were erected in the most prominent situations.
Cupolas and minarets, with graceful curves and soaring spires, combine
with lofty cypresses to give the city an air of unique grace, and to
invest it with the mysterious glamour of the oriental world.

Within, however, the appearance is not so pleasing. The streets form a
labyrinth of dirty, crooked, and ill-paved alleys, while most of the
houses are low and are built of wood or rough stone. During the last
half century the aspect of things has become much more European. The
streets, under western influence, have been widened and improved,
lighting at night is common, and a European style of building has been
introduced, even for the sultan’s palace. Cabs and electric cars are to
be seen in most parts, while the old camel service has entirely
disappeared. The dress of the people has changed in the same direction.
The streets are generally dull in appearance, almost all animation being
concentrated in the bazaars.

Constantinople consists of two distinct parts, besides more distant
suburbs--Constantinople proper or Stambol, and what may be termed
Christian Constantinople because it is there that the Christian colonies
chiefly congregate. The two are separated by the Golden Horn, a safe
harbor, capable of accommodating twelve hundred vessels, and so deep
that the largest ironclads of the Turkish navy find enough water for
their draught quite close to the shore.

Stambol or Turkish Constantinople lies on the south side of the Golden
Horn, and Christian Constantinople lies on the north side; the two are
connected by bridges. Stambol is on the site of Byzantium, and the old
walls run a circuit of fourteen miles from the grim but now ruined and
disused castle of the Seven Towers--where many sultans met their deaths
at the hands of their mutinous soldiery, and where foreign ambassadors
were imprisoned upon declaration of war--to the Golden Horn, then along
its south shore to Seraglio Point, and so back to the Seven Towers,
close along the margin of the Propontis. Here are nearly all the
monuments and antiquities worth seeing in Constantinople.

First, next the Seraglio, stands Agia Sophia, Saint Sophia, the church
dedicated by Constantine to “Eternal Wisdom,” and rebuilt with added
splendor by Theodosius and by Justinian, and now converted into a
cathedral mosque. Outside it is not worth a second glance, but within,
the airy grace of its stupendous dome, and the beauty of its marbles and
mosaics fascinate and amaze the vision.

[Illustration: =PANORAMA OF CONSTANTINOPLE=

As the steamer runs up the Bosphorus, the white buildings and glittering
minarets of Constantinople come into view; with the mosque of Santa
Sophia, Galata Tower and Pera, the Sultan’s Palaces at Beshiktash, with
Scutari Suburb on the right, and then, rounding Seraglio Point, it
glides at half speed into the Golden Horn, or harbor of Constantinople.
At this moment, if the weather be fine and clear, a striking panorama
opens to the eye of the voyager. The Golden Horn divides the city into
two sections; Stamboul to the left, and Galata and Pera to the right. It
is a bay, or amphitheater, surrounded by hills which are covered with
buildings, domes, minarets, and palaces, embosomed by cypress groves,
with hundreds of vessels and caiques skimming in all directions.]

Next, but not less beautiful, is the Suleymaniya, the mosque which the
Great Suleyman and his architect Sinan erected on the model of St.
Sophia, but with Saracenic ornament and a loftier though not quite so
expansive dome. Some of the monolithic columns are remarkable for their
size and beauty, and the general effect is even more imposing than that
of St. Sophia.

Scarcely less stately is the Mosque of Sultan Ahmed I. in the
Hippodrome; distinguished without by its six minarets (instead of the
usual four), and within by the four gigantic columns which support the
dome. Here the official celebrations and formal processions take place
at the great festivals.

The mosque of the conqueror, Mohammed II., is also notable, though it
has been greatly altered in restoration.

There are altogether some eight hundred mosques in Constantinople, and
numerous chapels; but very few of them present features of special
interest, except sometimes in the beauty of their wall tiles, of the
Rhodian style, for the manufacture of which the suburb of Eyyûb was
famous.

The remains of the Greek churches are more interesting, and the Fanar,
or Greek quarter of Stambol, recall the memories of many distinguished
Fanariote statesmen; but among the relics of ancient Constantinople none
is more striking than the Hippodrome or “Horse Manège”, originally a
circus surrounded by marble seats, long since removed, but still showing
remains of antiquity, such as the famous column of the Three Serpents
which once stood at the Temple of Delphi, and supported a gold tripod
made out of the spoils taken by the Greeks at the battle of Platæa, but
was removed to his new capital by Constantine.

Christian Constantinople, on the north side of the Golden Horn,
comprises Galata, Pera, and Tophâna. Galata is pre-eminently the
merchant quarter, founded by a colony of Genoese merchants in 1216. The
Tower of Galata, a Genoese erection, serves the same purpose as the
Seraskier’s Tower on the opposite side in giving alarms of fires. A
tunnelled railway drags passengers up the steep ascent to Pera.

Pera is the aristocratic quarter; here are all the embassies and
consulates. The steep and badly paved Grande Rue is lined with fair if
expensive shops, and has an opera house, many cafés and restaurants,
besides most of the principal hotels. Turks preponderate at Tophâna,
which is so named from its cannon foundry.

The magnificent palace of Dolmabagché is on the brink of the Bosphorus.
Other suburbs are Kâsim Pasha, on the Golden Horn, the seat of the
admiralty; Hasköi, and the picturesque village of Eyyûb.

Along the European shore of the Bosphorus are the summer resorts of
Therapia and Biyukderé.

The Asiatic shore is also lined with settlements from Scutari to
Candili. The new palace of Yildiz Köshki stands at the top of the hill
of Beshiktâsh, beyond Pera.

The commerce of Constantinople is increasing rapidly, though most of it
is in the hands of foreigners, especially of Greek and Armenian
merchants. Exports are chiefly cereals, carpets, silk, wool, hides, and
all kinds of refuse and waste materials such as horns, hoofs, skins,
bones, old iron, etc. Several hundreds of tons of the sweetmeat known as
“Turkish delight” are also sent yearly to countries of Europe and
America.

The manufactures have all taken their rise during the last twenty years
or so, and even now only that of cloth making has made much headway.

[Illustration: =ENTRANCE TO DOLMA-BAGTCHE PALACE=

This palace, on the shore of the Bosphorus, was built and inhabited by
Abdul-Medjid (1839-1861), is beautifully decorated in the interior and
has a splendid throne room.]

=History.=--The Osmanlis or Ottoman Turks sprang from a small clan of
the Oghuz, who assisted the Seljûk sultan of Iconium, early in the
thirteenth century, to resist the Mongol avalanche.

In the fourteenth century, the Turks under Osmân or Othmân conquered the
Seljûk kingdom, and became known as Osmânlis or Ottomans. By 1336 they
pushed their way to the Hellespont; under Murâd I. (Amurath) they
occupied Adrianople and Philippopolis, received homage from the kings of
Servia and Bulgaria, and practically held all the Balkan peninsula
except Constantinople, which, after much fighting, fell before Mohammed
II. in 1453. In the same century they conquered Albania, Greece, and the
Crimea; and in the sixteenth century Syria, Egypt, Tunis, Hungary, and
South Russia, and had wars with the Russians, Persians, and Venetians.

Their star began to decline in the seventeenth century; in 1682 they
were driven back from Vienna, and lost Hungary, Transylvania, and
Podolia. In the eighteenth century the Russians were their most
successful enemies, wresting from them the territories from the Dniester
to the Caspian. Greece attained independence in 1828, though Egypt
failed to throw off its allegiance. The Crimean war (1854-1857) was
fought in aid of the Turks against the Russians.

The next great crisis was the Russian war of 1877-1878. The worst
Armenian massacres were in 1895-1896. Turkey held her own against Greece
in 1897.

Abdul Hamid was deposed and constitutional government nominally
established in 1908. But unrest and intrigue still prevent settled
conditions.

Until the disastrous war of 1912-1913 with the States of the Balkan
League (Bulgaria, Greece, Servia, and Montenegro) the European dominions
of Turkey extended westwards to the Adriatic and northwards to
Bosnia-Herzegovina (Austria). Under the Treaty of London in 1913 the
northwest portion of Turkey was a line drawn from Enos, in the Ægean, to
Midia, in the Black Sea, thus excluding Adrianople, which had
capitulated to the Bulgarians after a prolonged siege.

During the second Balkan war (Bulgaria against the other members of the
Balkan States) Turkey took advantage of the military difficulties of
Bulgaria and reoccupied Adrianople, thus recovering a considerable
portion of the province of that name. In 1911-1912 Turkey lost the
remaining portion of her African possessions through the occupation by
Italy of Tripoli and Cyrenaica, which were ceded under the Treaty of
Ouchy(1912).

Turkey joined forces with the Austro-Germans in November, 1914, and
attacked Russia and invaded Egyptian territory. Far more important than
any of the Turkish operations, however, was the attempt of England and
France, in 1915, to force the passage of the Dardanelles, so as to take
much needed supplies of arms and ammunition to Russia and in turn enable
her to export the enormous stocks of wheat which had piled up at her
Black Sea ports.

[Illustration: =EGYPTIAN OBELISK, CONSTANTINOPLE=

This Obelisk from Thebes, of rose colored granite, sixty feet high, was
transported hither by Theodosius the Great, A. D. 390-395, and shows
traces of bas-reliefs of that date, and Egyptian hieroglyphs thirty
centuries old.]

A combined English and French fleet, therefore, attempted to force the
passage of the Dardanelles, battering at the Turkish forts from February
21 to March 18, when they attempted to force the Narrows, but were
repulsed, with the loss of the British battleships _Irresistible_ and
_Ocean_, and the French battleships _Bouvet_ and _Gaulois_, in addition
to serious injury to a number of other warships engaged.

[Illustration: =YILDIZ PALACE AND THE BEAUTIFUL HAMIDIEH MOSQUE,=

in the Beshiktash suburb, some distance north of Galata. The present
Sultan resides in the Palace of Yildiz.]

A joint land and sea expedition was subsequently sent to accomplish what
the fleets had failed to achieve.

The most desperate fighting continued there from the beginning of May.
The allies employed British and French regulars--the famous Foreign
Legion of France, British colonials from Australia and New Zealand, and
troops from Egypt, the Soudan and North Africa--but they failed to
capture the summits of the hills that command the Narrows and the great
Turkish forts.

The land forces had the constant support of British and French fleets,
which engaged the defenses at close range.

On May 11 the British battleship _Goliath_ was sunk, and two weeks later
a German submarine made its way through the straits of Gibraltar,
succeeded in torpedoing the British battleship _Triumph_ and the
_Majestic_ and _Agamemnon_.

On January 9, 1916, the British and French forces entirely withdrew from
the Gallipoli Peninsula, and the attempt to force the Dardanelles was
abandoned.

INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS.--The railways of Turkey have made great strides
in recent years. Constantinople is now in direct communication with
Salonica and Monastir by means of a coastal line, and with Sophia,
Nisch, and Belgrade, by means of a line passing up the Maritza Valley,
through Adrianople and Philipopolis, and thence over a pass between the
Balkans and Rhodope Mountains. Salonica is further united with Uskub and
Mitrevitza.

The postal and telegraphic services are a long way behind those of other
European countries, and foreign nations still find it necessary to
maintain their own post-offices in the large towns and ports.

BAGDAD RAILROAD.--The most important step in the industrial progress of
Turkey in modern times is the concession for the construction of the
Bagdad Railroad, which, when completed, will connect the Mediterranean
with the Persian Gulf.

By a provisional convention, preference was given to a German company in
1903. England had a particular interest in the proposed scheme, as the
line suggested would provide a short route to India; accordingly, in
1903, the British government objected to the railway being placed under
German control, and discussion followed with a view to putting the line
under international control. By the agreement of 1903 it was decided the
German group should control forty per cent of the capital, the French,
through the Imperial Ottoman Bank, thirty per cent, the Austrian,
Italian, Swiss, and Turkish twenty per cent, and the Anatolian Railway
ten per cent. In 1904, one hundred and twenty-four miles of the line
were completed, from Konieh, through Eregli, to Bugurlu. In 1908
sanction was given to extend the line eastwards from Bugurlu across the
Taurus to Adana.

The total length of the line will be one thousand five hundred and fifty
miles and will run through Aintab and Berejik to Mosul, thence along the
right bank of the Tigris to Bagdad.


THE CONTINENT OF NORTH AMERICA

Since the beginning of the sixteenth century America has been the
general name for the two continents and adjacent islands, forming the
main body of land found in the western hemisphere.

=Position and Extent.=--North America forms the northern section of the
“New World” discovered by Columbus. It is separated from Europe by a sea
nine hundred and thirty miles broad, from Asia by Bering Strait sixty
miles across, and extends from the Arctic Ocean nearly to the equator.

The main mass is triangular in shape, and its outline varied by large
peninsulas, broad gulfs and numerous inlets. Development of coast-line,
twenty-eight thousand one hundred and thirty miles. Length, four
thousand five hundred miles; breadth, three thousand one hundred miles.
The area of the continental mainland is estimated at seven million one
hundred and forty-six thousand six hundred and forty-one square miles;
the entire area, including Greenland, the Arctic Archipelago, the West
Indies, Newfoundland, and other islands, at over nine million square
miles.

=Islands.=--It is customary to regard Greenland as a part of America,
while the adjacent island of Iceland, though partially in the western
hemisphere, is usually associated with Europe. The other principal
American islands in the Atlantic are Newfoundland, Cape Breton,
Anticosti, Prince Edward Island, Long Island, the Bermudas, the Antilles
or West Indies, Joannes, Staten Island and South Georgia.

In the Pacific are the Aleutian Islands, Kadiak, the Alexander and Queen
Charlotte groups, Vancouver and other British-Columbian Islands, the
Santa Barbara group, Bevilla-Gigedo, the Pearl Islands, and others in
the Gulf of Panama, the Galápagos, Juan Fernandez and the associated
islets, Chiloe and the Chonos Archipelago. In the Arctic Ocean there are
many large but unimportant islands. (See Map of Comparative Size of
Islands and Table of Areas.)

=Coast-line.=--The coast-line of North America on the west is almost
everywhere high and rocky. To the south of Puget Sound good harbors are
rare, but British Columbia and Alaska have great numbers of good
seaports, the coast-line being, in many places, deeply cut with
high-walled fjords, or “canals,” and elsewhere sheltered by ranges of
high and well-wooded islands. The Atlantic coast, north of New York Bay,
is generally rocky and well sheltered with islands, and has abundance of
good natural harbors; but south of the parallel of New York the coast of
the mainland is almost everywhere low and sandy. Many of the best ports
are formed by river-mouths, and have sandbars across their entrances.
Nowhere else in the world is there any such extent of low and sandy
coast as on the Atlantic and Gulf seaboards of the United States.

=Surface.=--The western mountain-system of North America comprises a
very great number of minor ranges, mostly having a north and south
direction. The main chain (Sierra Madre) cannot be said to preserve an
unmistakable identity throughout. The Coast Range, the Sierra Nevada,
and the Cascade Mountains are the most noted of the western parallel
ranges; they all lie on the Pacific slope, and contain some of the
highest of North American peaks. The elevated plateau called the Great
Basin (chiefly in Utah and Nevada), contains the Great Salt Lake and
several smaller bodies of strongly saline water, evidently the remains
of a much larger lake which once sent its waters to the sea. The eastern
or great Appalachian mountain-system has a general direction nearly
parallel with the Atlantic coast-line.

North of the St. Lawrence River is seen the vast and complicated
Laurentian mountain-system, which extends from the Atlantic westward to
near Lake Superior.

The highest summits are Mt. McKinley, in the north; Mt. Harvard, in the
Rocky mountains; Mt. Whitney, in the Sierra Nevadas; and Mt.
Popocatepetl or Peak of Orizaba, in Mexico. (See Tables of Mountain
Peaks.)

=Rivers and Lakes.=--In the Rocky Mountain region of Canada, the great
rivers, Yukon, Fraser, Columbia, Saskatchewan, and Mackenzie, take their
rise. Between these mountains and Hudson Bay, a girdle of vast lakes, or
inland seas (Great Bear, Great Slave, Athabasca, Deer Lake, Winnipeg,
and others), form a regular succession running from the Arctic Circle to
Lake Superior, the first of a wonderful chain of great sea-like
expansions of the Upper St. Lawrence (the others being Michigan, Huron,
Erie and Ontario). North of the St. Lawrence system almost the whole
country is thickly studded with lakes, which, with their connecting
streams, form a network of important waterways traversable by canoes and
boats.

The Atlantic slope of the United States is well supplied with water, and
many of its streams afford extensive navigation. The Hudson is noted for
its fine scenery; the Potomac is one of the noblest of American rivers;
and important streams flowing to the Atlantic are the St. John, the
Penobscot, the Kennebec, the Merrimac, the Connecticut, the Delaware,
the Susquehanna, the James, and the St. John’s, nearly all navigable in
their lower courses.

The chief rivers flowing to the Gulf of Mexico are the Appalachicola,
the Mobile, the Pearl, the great Mississippi, the Sabine, the Trinity,
the Brazos, the Colorado of Texas and the Rio Grande.

Of the many large Alaskan rivers the principal are the Yukon and the
Kuskoquim. The Fraser is a swift and strong river; the great river
Columbia is noted alike for its navigation, its salmon fisheries, and
its enormous cataracts. The Rio Colorado, whose waters flow to the Gulf
of California, traverses a desert plateau. Here nearly every watercourse
runs in a deep-walled cañon, a narrow valley with precipitous sides,
often of prodigious height.

In the plateau of Central America the largest lake is that of
Nicaragua, nearly equal to Ontario in extent, and only one hundred and
thirty-one feet above the level of the sea. (See further under the
respective countries of North America.)

=Climate.=--Largely determined by the direction of the mountain ranges.
Five climatic regions, viz., an arctic region, whose mean temperature is
less than thirty-two degrees Fahrenheit; an Atlantic temperate region,
extending as far as the Mississippi, with abundant rains and dense
woods; an inland temperate region, dry, with steppes or prairies; a
Pacific coast region, and a tropical region.

=Political Divisions.=--The political divisions of North America are:

(1) Danish America,[8] which includes Greenland and three small islands
of the Virgin group in the West Indies.

  [8] The Danish West Indies were transferred to the sovereignty of
  the United States in 1917 at the purchase price of twenty-five
  million dollars.

(2) British North America, in which division we may place the Dominion
of Canada, Newfoundland, Labrador, the Bermudas, the numerous British
West Indian islands, and British Honduras.

(3) The United States, including the detached territory of Alaska.

(4) Mexico.

(5) The Central American republics of Honduras, Guatemala, Salvador,
Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, together with Panama--unless its southern
part be regarded as belonging to the South American continent.

(6) The West Indian republics of Hayti and San Domingo.

(7) The Dutch West Indies.

(See the articles on the separate states and colonies.)


THE UNITED STATES

  The republic of the United States is by far the most populous,
  wealthy, and progressive country of all the New World.

=Location and Extent.=--It occupies the most valuable portion of the
North American continent, the whole of it (with the exception of the
territory of Alaska) lying within the temperate zone, between Canada on
the north and Mexico on the south, and reaching across from the Atlantic
to the Pacific Ocean.

Its boundary toward the Canadian Dominion passes through the Haro, or
northern channel of the Strait of San Juan de Fuca, south of Vancouver
Island, and thence along the forty-ninth parallel of latitude to Lake
Superior; then midway through the center of the Great Lakes to the St.
Lawrence, and down that river to the forty-fifth parallel, and an
irregular boundary which separates New Brunswick from the States of New
York and Maine, terminating at Passamaquoddy Bay.

In the south, the Mexican frontier runs from the Pacific coast,
northward of the peninsula of California, to the Rio Grande del Norte,
which it follows to the Gulf of Mexico.

From Atlantic to Pacific, the breadth of the United States is not less
than twenty-five hundred miles; and from north to south the country
extends nearly seventeen hundred miles.

=Surface.=--The surface of the United States from east to west may be
divided as follows: (1) The Atlantic Plain, which extends from the coast
to the Allegheny Mountains. (2) The Mississippi Valley and Great
Central Plain, which extends from the Allegheny Mountains west to the
Rocky Mountains. (3) The Western Highlands. (4) The Pacific slope, which
extends from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean.

=Mountains and Plains.=--The chief mountain systems are the Appalachian
region in the east and the Rocky Mountains in the west.

THE APPALACHIAN SYSTEM begins in the northern part of New England (in
Maine without the appearance of regular ranges) and New York, and
extends southwestward to Alabama and Georgia, being divided by the
Hudson River valley and Lake Champlain, and that of the Mohawk River
into three distinct sections.

A coast-plain extends from its eastern base to the Atlantic. It is
narrow in Maine, where it terminates in a bold rocky coast indented by
bays, and broken into projecting promontories and islands. South of
Massachusetts the coast becomes lower and more sandy, and the plain
grows gradually wider, with the exception of a narrow belt at New York,
until in North Carolina it attains a width of two hundred miles.

In the southern part of New England it is characterized by hills, and
below New York by a distinct coast region and a more elevated slope.
This higher region, which is in Virginia and thence southward, is marked
by a somewhat abrupt terrace, varies in altitude from a few hundred to
more than a thousand feet, and is known as the Piedmont plateau. The
lower coast region is seldom more than one hundred feet above the sea.
It has a sandy soil, and in many places there are large swamps near the
coast. Much of this swampy country is uninhabitable, but when reclaimed,
as it has been in many parts of North and South Carolina, it makes
valuable rice-land. Many acres of fertile agricultural land have also
been secured in Florida by draining its swamps. The middle elevated
region is diversified by hills and valleys, and has a productive soil.
The dividing line between it and the low coast-plain marks the head of
navigation of most of the streams, and also determines the sites of many
important towns.

The surface of this region today is a series of parallel ranges divided
by fertile valleys. The various ridges are named as follows: The Blue
Ridge, which lies nearest the Atlantic; the Kittatinny Chain; the
Allegheny Mountains, which lie in the western part of Virginia and the
central part of Pennsylvania; the Cumberland Mountains, on the eastern
boundary of Tennessee and Kentucky; the Catskill Mountains, in the State
of New York, which are continued in the Sacondago Chain; the Green
Mountains, in the State of Vermont; the Hudson River Highlands, and the
hills of New Hampshire. There is no peak of marked elevation in the
Appalachian region, the highest point being Mt. Washington, in New
Hampshire, which reaches a height of nearly seven thousand feet.

GREAT CENTRAL PLAIN.--West of the Appalachian system and lying between
it and the western highland is a great central valley, forming part of
the continental depression which extends from the Arctic Ocean to the
Gulf of Mexico. It is almost an absolute plain, rising gradually from
the Gulf toward the chain of Great Lakes in the north, and toward the
mountains on the east and west. The only important departure from its
uniform level character is an elevation of from five hundred to two
thousand feet, running from southern Missouri through northwestern
Arkansas into eastern Oklahoma, and known as the Ozark Mountains.

This great valley occupies about one-half the entire area of the United
States, and the fertile prairies and bottom-lands of the eastern and
central portions make it the most important agricultural basin of the
globe. From an irregular line west of the Mississippi River the land
rises in an almost imperceptible slope till it reaches the base of the
western plateau.

THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN SYSTEM extends a distance of about two thousand
miles. The system is continued in Canada. The Rocky Mountains are not a
single range, but are double and sometimes threefold. These ranges are
the edge of a region of plateaus and hills which extends to the coastal
mountains. The chief mountain ranges belonging to the United States
Rockies are the Bitter Root Mountains, the Blue Mountains, and the Big
Horn Mountains in the north; the Wahsatch Mountains, the Wind River
Mountains, and the White Mountains in the center; and the Sierra Madre
and the Sangra de Cristo Range in the south. In the western part of the
southern Rockies lies the Great Basin of Colorado, with the Wahsatch
Mountains on the east and the Sierra Nevada on the west. This basin is
extremely arid, has suffered much volcanic action.

THE WESTERN OR PACIFIC SYSTEM forms a part of the vast elevation which
extends from the northern to the southern extremity of the western
continent. In the United States it is a great plateau of four thousand
to ten thousand feet surmounted by a complex system of ranges, in its
widest part more than one thousand miles broad. Of this Cordilleran
region the Rocky Mountains form the eastern and the Sierra Nevada and
Cascade Mountains and the Coast Ranges the western border.

In the ranges of central Colorado alone nearly forty of the summits have
an altitude of more than fourteen thousand feet. In the Wind River
Mountains, in Wyoming, are the head-waters of the Colorado, the
Columbia, and the Mississippi, the three great river-systems of the
United States; and in the northwestern corner of the same state is
situated the National Park, famous for its hot springs and geysers as
well as for its magnificent scenery (see Yellowstone).

Between the Wahsatch Range and the lofty masses of mountains in Colorado
is a region of peculiar interest, consisting of level plateaus in which
the changes of elevation from one plain to another are marked by abrupt
descents and steep cliffs. It is furrowed by cañons or gorges, whose
sides are nearly vertical; and the bed of the Colorado is in some places
more than a mile and a quarter below the surface of the plateau. (See
Grand Cañon under Colorado River.)

Between the Wahsatch Range and the Sierra Nevada lies the Great Basin,
an immense tract having at best but little rainfall, except upon the
summits of the ranges by which it is traversed, and none of whose waters
are drained to either ocean. The saline swamps, salt lakes, and sinks of
Nevada indicate the former location of one of these lakes; Great Salt
Lake is all that now remains of the other.

The Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Range are topographically continuous,
and constitute a great mountain-wall, which so far as the height of the
peaks and the grandeur of the scenery are concerned, is one of the most
striking portions of the Cordilleran system. Most of the peaks of the
Sierras are, however, of granite and metamorphic rock, while those of
the Cascade Range are volcanic. The greatest altitude is attained with
Mt. Whitney as the culminating point. The lofty character of the range
is maintained throughout the greater part of California, and the
sublimity of the scenery is justly celebrated. (See Yosemite Valley.)

From this point there extends northward one of the most remarkable
groups of extinct or faintly active volcanoes to be found anywhere in
the world: the lava overflows in this region cover an area of above two
hundred thousand square miles. The most prominent peaks are Mt. Shasta,
in California, and Mt. Rainier, in Washington. In three separate places
rivers have cut a passage through the volcanic portion of the range. The
most notable is the passage of the Columbia River in a grand cañon more
than three thousand feet in depth.

The Coast Ranges of Washington, Oregon, and northern California consist
of numerous and approximately parallel chains, which as a rule pitch off
abruptly toward the sea, leaving no coast-plain. Between the Coast
Ranges and the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range is a series of broad
valleys, occupied mainly in Oregon by the Willamette River, and in
California by the Sacramento and San Joaquin. In southern California the
mountains of the Coast Ranges diminish in height, but throughout their
whole extent they are interspersed with picturesque and fertile valleys.

=Coast.=--The Atlantic coast has a length of about twelve thousand three
hundred and sixty miles; the Gulf Coast of five thousand seven hundred
and fifty miles, and the Pacific Coast of three thousand two hundred and
fifty miles.

On the coast of the New England states there are many indentations
which, though small, furnish commodious harbors. Long Island Sound adds
greatly to the commercial importance of New York harbor, and farther
south are Delaware and Chesapeake Bays; Albemarle and Pamlico sounds,
and several small indentations, such as those which form the harbors of
Charleston and Savannah. The Chesapeake Bay is the largest indentation
of the Atlantic Coast and runs inland in a northward direction for more
than one hundred and eighty miles, with an average breadth of about
fifteen miles. From Cape Hatteras to Cape Sable, however, the coast is
swampy, and, especially in Florida, fringed with lagoons. The harbors of
this part of the coast are not good naturally. The coast of the Gulf of
Mexico is low and very swampy, but is of special climatic and commercial
importance.

The Pacific Coast of the United States has a very narrow Continental
Shelf, and few bays or capes. With the exception of Puget Sound, the Bay
of San Francisco, and the harbor of San Diego, there is scarcely a
noticeable break in the continuity of the coast line.

=Islands.=--There are many small rocky islands along the coast of Maine,
and on the southern New England Coast is a group to which belongs Long
Island, the largest of the islands of the United States. Farther south,
off the Atlantic Coast, and also in portions of the Gulf of Mexico, are
many low sand-spits lying parallel to the coast and having behind them
shallow channels, lagoons and swamps. On the Pacific Coast there are no
islands of importance except the Santa Barbara group off the southern
coast of California.

=Rivers.=--The rivers of the Atlantic Plain rise in the Appalachian
system, and are comparatively short. In many cases they are too rapid to
be of much value for navigation, but are valuable for supplying water
power. These rivers almost without exception have good harbors at their
mouths. The chief are: the Hudson, the Delaware, the Susquehanna, the
Potomac, the James, and the Savannah.

THE GREAT CENTRAL PLAIN is drained by the Mississippi-Missouri river
system, the basin of which covers half the area of the United States,
and is equal in area to about one-third the area of Europe.

The Mississippi rises in Lake Itasca, in Minnesota, at about fifteen
hundred feet above sea-level. After flowing for about one hundred miles
in an easterly direction it turns south, and is joined by numerous
tributaries. The chief are: St. Peter’s River, which joins the main
stream nine miles above St. Anthony’s Falls; the Missouri, which enters
the Mississippi just above St. Louis; the Ohio, which joins the main
river at Cairo; the Arkansas, the Wisconsin, the Illinois, and the Red
River.

The Mississippi-Missouri has made a broad flood plain, varying in width
from thirty to sixty miles. This plain is subject to severe inundations,
for it slopes very gently away from the river bed, which is in many
parts of the river above the level of the surrounding plain. The river
carries a vast amount of silt, which it deposits at its mouth, thus
forming a delta which stretches a series of long, narrow, tentacle-like
arms seaward.

Other rivers falling into the Gulf of Mexico are the Mobile and the Rio
Grande. The Mobile, which enters the gulf at the town of Mobile, is the
union of the Alabama and the Tombigbee. The Rio Grande forms the
boundary between Texas and Mexico.

The rivers flowing into the Pacific are comparatively short, owing to
the nearness of the coast ranges to the sea. The Colorado River flows
into the Gulf of California, after crossing an arid plateau. (See
description below.)

The San Joaquin and the Sacramento rivers unite and flow into the harbor
of San Francisco; these and the Columbia are the only important rivers
entering the Pacific.

The Great Basin of California is largely an area of inland drainage. The
rivers flow into lakes with no outlets to the sea.

=Colorado River= (Spanish for “red” or “reddish”), is a remarkable river
formed by the union of the Grand and Green Rivers, and flowing through
the great plateau region. Below the junction of the Green and Grand, the
main affluent in Utah is the San Juan, which drains an interesting
region in the southwest of Colorado and the northwest of New Mexico. In
Arizona the main affluents are the Colorado Chiquito or Flax River, the
Bill Williams, and the Rio Gila, all from the left. The only important
affluent the Colorado receives from the right is the Rio Virgen. From
the junction of the Grand and Green the general course of the stream is
to the southwest through the southern part of Utah and northwestern
Arizona; and it afterwards separates Arizona from Nevada and California.
The lower part of its course is in Mexican territory, where it flows
into the northern extremity of the Gulf of California.

The most striking features of the Colorado basin are its dryness, and
the deeply channeled surface of the greater part of the country. Almost
every stream and watercourse, and most of all the Colorado itself, has
cut its way through stratum after stratum of rock, until now it flows in
a great part of its course, at the bottom of a deep trench or cañon.

THE GRAND CAÑON.--The main stream, for nearly four hundred miles below
the mouth of the Colorado Chiquito, thus makes its way through a great
plateau, forming what is called the Grand Cañon of the Colorado, the
most extensive and marvelous example of the kind anywhere known.

Throughout the upper part of the great cañon the walls are from four
thousand to seven thousand feet in height, and are often nearly
perpendicular. Frequently they are terraced and carved into a myriad of
pinnacles and towers, tinted with various brilliant colors. At some
points the walls on either side rise sheer from the water; at others
there is a talus of fallen rock, or occasionally a strip of fertile
soil, on one or both banks. There are two main trails by which the
bottom of the cañon may be reached. The Bright Angel Trail is seven
miles down from the rim to the river and requires three hours for the
descent. The Grand View Trail is somewhat longer and more difficult.

This over-drained river basin has an area of two hundred and twenty-five
thousand square miles. The whole course of the river below the junction
is about nine hundred miles; to its remotest sources it is over two
thousand miles. Navigation is possible for light-draft steamers for over
six hundred miles. The river is subject to vast and frequent changes of
volume, and except where confined by cañon-walls, the river channel
shifts to and fro in a very remarkable degree.

=Hudson River=, one of the most beautiful and important in America,
rises in the Adirondack Mountains, four thousand three hundred and
twenty-six feet above the level of the sea, where its head-streams are
the outlets of many mountain-lakes. At Glens Falls it has a fall of
fifty feet, and soon after, taking a southerly course, runs nearly in a
straight line to its mouth, at New York City. It is tidal up to Troy,
one hundred and fifty-one miles from its mouth, and magnificent
steamboats ply daily between New York and Albany.

Below Newburg, sixty miles from New York, the river enters the
highlands, which rise abruptly from the water to the height of sixteen
hundred feet. Here historical associations add to the interest of varied
scenery of singular beauty and grandeur: here was the scene of Arnold’s
treason and of André’s fate; and at West Point, the seat of the United
States military academy, eight miles below Newburg, are the ruins of
Fort Putnam, built during the War of Independence.

Emerging from the highlands the river widens into a broad expanse called
Tappan Bay, which is four and one-half miles wide and thirteen miles
long. Below, on the right bank, a steep wall of trap rock, called the
Palisades, rises from the river’s brink to a height of three hundred to
five hundred and ten feet, and extends for nearly twenty miles to the
upper portion of the city of New York.

The river from here is known as the North River, and is from one to two
miles wide; and after passing between New York and Hoboken and Jersey
City, it falls into New York Bay. Its whole length is about three
hundred and fifty miles, and its principal tributaries are the
Sacondaga, Mohawk, and Walkill.

The Hudson has valuable shad and sturgeon fisheries, and has large
commercial value. It is connected by the Erie Canal with Buffalo and the
Great Lakes, while the Richelieu Canal connects it with Montreal. The
Hudson River Railroad, connecting New York with Albany, runs along the
east bank.

The river is named for the English navigator who explored it in 1609.
Robert Fulton’s first successful experiment in steamboat navigation was
made on this river in 1807.

=The St. Lawrence=, issuing from Lake Ontario, flows northeast for some
seven hundred and fifty miles--part of the way forming the boundary
between Canada and the United States--and falls into the Gulf of St.
Lawrence by a broad estuary. But in its widest acceptation the name
includes the whole system of the Great Lakes and their connecting
streams, with a total length from source to mouth of two thousand miles,
and a drainage basin of five hundred and sixty-five thousand two hundred
square miles. It pours more fresh water into the ocean than any other
river except the Amazon.

This mighty artery rises, under the name of the St. Louis, on the
spacious plateau which sends forth also the Mississippi toward the Gulf
of Mexico, and the Red River of the North toward Hudson Bay. Lake
Superior (six hundred and two feet above sea-level), the next link in
the chain, finds its way to Lake Huron through St. Mary’s River, whose
rapids have a fall of twenty and one-half feet. Below Lake Huron, which
receives Lake Michigan from the south, St. Clair River, Lake St. Clair,
Detroit River, and Lake Erie, maintain pretty nearly the same level
(there is a fall of some eight feet, however, in Detroit River) till the
river Niagara descends three hundred and twenty-six feet to Lake
Ontario, which is itself still two hundred and forty-seven feet above
the sea-level.

The St. Lawrence proper, with a number of lakelike expansions (such as
the Lake of the Thousand Isles, of St. Francis, St. Peter, etc.),
presents the character first of a river, and then of an estuary, down to
the gulf. What is known as the Lake of the Thousand Islands contains
about seventeen hundred islands, big and little, many of them extremely
picturesque. This is a famous tourist region, with numerous hotels and
other resorts as well as many fine private estates.

Prior to 1858 only vessels drawing not more than eleven feet of water
could pass up the river above Quebec, but since then a channel has been
made in the shallow parts of the river, three hundred feet wide and
twenty-seven and one-quarter deep, which permits the passage up to
Montreal of large vessels.

Between Lake Ontario and Montreal there are several rapids, which,
however, may be all avoided by means of canals that have been
constructed at a very great expense. Immediately above the island of
Montreal, the St. Lawrence is joined by its principal auxiliary, the
Ottawa, from the northwest; and a little more than half-way between this
confluence and Three Rivers, the highest point of tidal influence, the
Richelieu from the south brings in the tribute of Lake Champlain. Other
principal tributaries are the St. Maurice, the Saguenay, and the
Batiscan. The width of the St. Lawrence varies from less than one to
four miles; the estuary at its mouth is above one hundred miles across.
During winter the river is frozen over and navigation closed.

=Lakes.=--Of the Great Lakes of North America, Lake Michigan lies within
the United States, and the southern shores of Lake Ontario, Lake Erie,
Lake Huron, and Lake Superior are United States territory. These lakes
were formed by the action of the glacier which once covered the
continent as far south as the forty-second parallel, roughly speaking.
They are remainders of much larger lakes and are of the utmost
importance as waterways.

New England has very many smaller lakes, which are also the result of
glacial action. The largest lake of the United States apart from the
Great Lakes is the Great Salt Lake of Utah. The extremely low rainfall
of this region and the intense evaporation consequent upon the high
temperature are responsible for the salinity of the waters of the lake.

=The Great Lakes.=--The five Great Lakes cover a total area of over
ninety thousand square miles, forming the largest collective mass of
fresh water in the world.

LAKE SUPERIOR.--The northern shores of Superior are mostly precipitous
cliffs ranging from three hundred to one thousand feet in height. On the
southeast sandy coasts prevail. The coast on the south and southwest is
composed largely of sandstone cliffs, rich in iron and other metal
deposits. The bed of Superior is supposed to be an ancient volcanic
crater. Its depth of one thousand and eight feet represents a depression
extending four hundred feet below sea-level. Superior is, therefore,
distinct in origin from the other lakes of the group, whose beds
represent ancient river systems and date from the glacial period. The
basin of the lake, closely circumscribed by the Mississippi and Hudson
Bay watersheds, receives many streams, but all of them short.

LAKE HURON, the second of the Great Lakes, is bounded north, east and
south by the Province of Ontario, and south and west by the State of
Michigan, including Georgian Bay (five thousand six hundred and
twenty-six square miles), and North Passage, one thousand five hundred
and fifty-six square miles. It is connected with Lake Michigan by the
Straits of Mackinac, three and one-half miles broad and one hundred and
thirty-five feet deep.

The discharge of Lake Huron is about two hundred and seventeen thousand
cubic feet per second. By reason of evaporation and rainfall, the level
of the lake varies annually between four and five feet, but much greater
local variation is caused by the strong winds. The densely wooded
northeast is broken by many low islands of limestone and glacial débris.
Elsewhere the shores are almost unbroken and low, except when cliffs of
one hundred or one hundred and fifty feet high rise from the northeast
border and afford good sites for the many Canadian towns and villages.
Nearly all the harbors on this coast are protected by breakwaters.

LAKE MICHIGAN.--The area of Lake Michigan includes Green Bay on the
northwestern shore, and Grand Travers Bay directly on the eastern shore.
Many islands lie in the lake between these two breaks in the shore,
which elsewhere is low and unbroken.

About the southern and eastern borders are immense heaps of sand which
have been piled up by waves and currents, and drift inland by the winds,
sometimes, as at Sleeping Bear bluffs, completely burying the heavy
forests.

The level of Michigan varies, but not as greatly as does that of Huron,
according to the direction and force of the winds, the changes in
rainfall, evaporation, atmospheric pressure, etc. Except when caused by
protracted gales blowing steadily in one direction, this variation
rarely exceeds one and three-tenths feet. The lake has a lunar tide with
accompanying variation of from one and one-half inches neap to about
three inches spring tide, and the water is warmer than the air in winter
and cooler in summer, and visibly ameliorates the climate of the shores,
as may be shown in the quantity and rich quality of the Michigan fruits.
Like all the Great Lakes, Michigan abounds in fish, such as whitefish
and trout.

LAKE ERIE has a northeast and southwest direction, bounded on the entire
upper shore by the Province of Ontario, and on the southern and eastern
shores by Ohio, Pennsylvania and New York. At its southwestern end it is
connected with Lake St. Clair by the Detroit River. At its northwestern
end it discharges into Lake Ontario through the Niagara River. It is
connected by the Welland Canal with Lake Ontario and by other canals
with the Hudson and Ohio Rivers, making it thus a link in the waterway
from east to west.

Besides the drainage from the Lake Superior system, Lake Erie receives
the Grand River, the Maumee from the west, and the Sandusky and Cuyahoga
from the south. The west coast is broken by the islands of Put-in-Bay.

LAKE ONTARIO is the most eastern, with a northeast and southwest
direction, like Lake Erie. It is the lowest of the Great Lakes, and has
naturally the largest discharge, three hundred thousand cubic feet per
second. The shores are flat, except in the Bay of Quinte, which extends
on the northeast fifty miles inland. There are many harbors and
flourishing ports. The waters have a surface current, due to the fact
that the larger axis of the lake coincides with the direction of the
prevailing westerly winds. This, added to frequent violent storms, keeps
the lake from freezing, except a few miles in width along the shores.

Lake Ontario is connected with the Erie Canal and Hudson River by the
Oswego Canal and with the Ottawa River by the Rideau Canal.

=Great Salt Lake=, in Utah, stretches along the western base of the
Wahsatch Mountains, about four thousand two hundred feet above the sea,
forming a principal drainage center of the Great Basin. Well-marked
shore-lines on the mountains around, reaching one thousand feet higher
than the present level, show that the lake had formerly a vastly greater
extent; this prehistoric sea has been named Lake Bonneville. Great Salt
Lake is over eighty miles long and from twenty to thirty-two broad, but
for the most part exceedingly shallow. It contains several islands, the
largest Antelope I., about eighteen miles long. Its tributaries are the
Bear, Ogden, Jordan and Weber, the Jordan bringing the fresh waters of
Lake Utah; but Great Salt Lake has no outlet save evaporation, and its
clear water consequently holds at all times a considerable quantity of
saline matter in solution. Several species of insects and a brine-shrimp
have been found in its waters, but no fishes; large flocks of
water-fowls frequent the shores.

The first mention of Great Salt Lake was by the Franciscan friar
Escalante in 1776, but it was first explored and described in 1843 by
Fremont.

=Champlain= is a beautiful lake separating the states of New York and
Vermont, and penetrating, at its north end, about six miles into the
Dominion of Canada. Lying ninety-one feet above sea-level, it is one
hundred and ten miles long, by from one to fifteen broad, empties itself
into the St. Lawrence by the Richelieu River, and has communication by
canal with the Hudson. The lake, now an important trade channel, was the
scene of several incidents of the French and Indian revolutionary wars;
and here a British flotilla was defeated by the Americans September 11,
1814. It was discovered by Champlain in 1609, and in 1909 tercentenary
celebrations of its discovery were held along its shores.

=Natural Wonders.=--Of the great natural wonders the chief are the
Niagara Falls, the Grand Cañon of Colorado, and Yellowstone Park. The
Sequoia, General Grant and Calaveras Parks--all reservations of the
famous big trees, many thousands of years old, have also great scenic
interest. Mt. Ranier Park, in Washington, encloses the noblest and most
interesting mountain of our Pacific Coast. The chief feature of Crater
Lake Park, in southern Oregon, is a lake two thousand feet deep,
occupying the crater of an extinct volcano on the summit of the Cascade
Range, with walls one thousand to two thousand feet high. The latest
addition is Glacier Park, in northwestern Montana. It is named from its
glaciers, of which there are over sixty within an area of five square
miles, and contains numerous snow-capped peaks seven thousand to twelve
thousand feet high. It also contains Lake McDonald, one of the most
beautiful alpine lakes. Among the national monuments are the petrified
forests in Arizona.

[Illustration: =GARDEN OF THE GODS, COLORADO,=

is a tract of land about five hundred acres in extent, thickly strewn
with grotesque rocks and cliffs of red and white sandstone. Among the
chief features are the Cathedral Spires, the Balanced Rock, etc. The
Gateway of the Garden of the Gods consists of two enormous masses of
bright red rock, three hundred and thirty feet high and separated just
enough for the roadway to pass between.]

=Garden of the Gods=, a region in Colorado, is noted for its view of
Pike’s Peak, and its weird and grotesque rock pinnacles, needles, etc.,
some of which receive descriptive names such as Cathedral Spires. The
region is about five hundred acres in extent, and in 1908 was presented
to Colorado Springs city.

=Grand Canyon.=--See under Colorado River.

=Mammoth Cave=, in Kentucky, is eighty-five miles by railroad southwest
of Louisville. The cave is about ten miles long; but it is said to
require upwards of one hundred and fifty miles of traveling to explore
its multitudinous avenues, chambers, grottoes, rivers and cataracts. It
is the largest cavern in the world. The main cave is only four miles
long, but it is from forty to three hundred feet wide, and rises in
height to one hundred and twenty-five feet. Lucy’s Dome is three hundred
feet high, the loftiest of the many vertical shafts that pierce through
all the levels.

It is estimated that there are more than four thousand sink-holes and
five hundred open caverns. Some avenues are covered with a continuous
incrustation of the most beautiful crystals; stalactites and stalagmites
abound.

There are several lakes or rivers connected with Green River outside the
cave, rising with the river, but subsiding more slowly, so that they are
generally impassible for more than six months in the year. The largest
is Echo River, three-fourths of a mile long, and in some places two
hundred feet wide. The air of the cave is pure; the temperature keeps at
about fifty-four degrees.

Among the most striking facts which exploration has revealed are the
following: there is a pit, named the Bottomless Pit, one hundred and
five feet deep, besides Scylla, one hundred and thirty-five feet deep.
Crevice Pit, with Klett’s Dome, which forms a part of it, is one hundred
and fifty feet in total vertical measurement. Cleveland Avenue is two
miles long, Silliman’s one and one-half miles and in places two hundred
feet in width. Large stretches of water have been christened Dead Sea,
Lake Lethe; also there are the Styx, and Roaring and Echo rivers. In the
outer galleries of the cave millions of bats are congregated. There are
also blind fish, crayfish, crickets, and other abnormal insect
inhabitants of the cave.

[Illustration: =BIG TREE, CALIFORNIA=

The Mariposa Grove of Big Trees (six thousand five hundred feet),
so-called from its situation in Mariposa (“butterfly”) County, occupies
a tract of land four square miles in area, reserved as a State Park, and
consists of two distinct groves, one-half mile apart. The Lower Grove
contains about two hundred and forty fine specimens of the Sequoia
Gigantea, including the “Grizzly Giant,” the largest of all, with a
circumference of ninety-four feet and a diameter of thirty-one feet. Its
main limb, two hundred feet from the ground, is six and one-half feet in
diameter. In ascending to the Upper Grove, which contains three hundred
and sixty big trees, the road goes through a tunnel, ten feet high and
nine and one-half feet wide (at the bottom), cut directly through the
heart of a living Sequoia, twenty-seven feet in diameter. (See
illustration.) About ten of the trees exceed two hundred and fifty feet
in height and about twenty trees have a circumference of over sixty
feet, three of these being over ninety feet. The Calaveras Grove has
taller trees than any in the Mariposa Grove, but the latter has those of
greatest circumference. At Santa Cruz there is a grove which contains
about a score of the genuine Redwood with a diameter of ten feet and
upwards. The largest is twenty-three feet across; one of the finest,
named the Giant, has a circumference of seventy feet. Here is a large
hollow tree in which General Fremont camped for several days in 1847.
Another stump is covered with a platform, which holds twelve to fourteen
people.]

=Niagara Falls.=--See under Famous Waterfalls.

=Yosemite Valley= is the name of a cleft in the west slope of the Sierra
Nevada, about the center of California, and one hundred and forty miles
east of San Francisco. The name Yosemite is an Indian word which
signifies “large grizzly bear.” This celebrated valley, noted for the
sublimity and beauty of its scenery, is about six miles long and from
one-half to nearly two miles in breadth, and is traversed by the Merced
River. The beholder is awed and impressed by the massiveness of its
mountain elevations, the nearly perpendicular granite walls, from three
thousand to six thousand feet high, by which it is shut in throughout
its entire length, and the grandeur of its waterfalls, which are in some
respects the most remarkable in the world.

At the lower end of the valley stands the striking cliff known as El
Capitan, three thousand three hundred feet high, while from near its
lower corner the Virgin’s Tears Fall descends one thousand feet. But the
eye turns from it to the remarkable fall opposite, happily named the
Bridal Veil, which leaps from the brow of a cliff nine hundred feet
high, and descends in a broad sheet of spray and finally mist, swaying
in the wind and constantly changing its form of fleecy beauty. Farther
up the valley are Cathedral Rock (two thousand six hundred and sixty
feet), the Three Brothers (three thousand eight hundred and thirty
feet), Sentinel Rock (three thousand and forty-three feet), and directly
opposite it the grand Yosemite Falls. (See Famous Waterfalls.) Above the
falls are the North Dome (three thousand five hundred and sixty-eight
feet) and the vast Half Dome, nearly one mile (four thousand seven
hundred and thirty-seven feet) high, whose summit can now be reached by
a long climb. Two miles above the great falls the stream enters the main
valley in two arms, coming out of two canyons. In that of the south fork
is the Illilouet Fall, some six hundred feet high; in the main canyon
are Vernal Fall and Nevada Fall, the latter one of the finest in the
world.

(See Famous Waterfalls.)

The country surrounding the valley and constituting the National Park is
a rolling and hilly region varying from eight thousand to ten thousand
feet above sea-level. There is little soil or vegetation except a
scattered forest growth. Small glaciers still remain near the summits of
some of the adjacent mountains. Bare granite peaks rise still higher
from this surface.

=Yellowstone National Park= comprises a tract of land originally
comprising three thousand five hundred and seventy-five square miles in
northwestern Wyoming, set apart by act of Congress in 1872 as a national
park to preserve from destructive molestation the most wonderful group
of natural features and phenomena known within the boundaries of the
United States. It is readily reached over the Northern Pacific Railroad,
which has a branch from Livingston to Gardiner, just outside the north
park boundary, thirty-six hours’ ride from St. Paul; or it may be
reached from the Oregon Short Line R. R. from the west side by a more
difficult stage connection.

The whole park plateau lies between six thousand and eight thousand feet
above sea-level. The mountains rise in great grandeur upon this plateau,
giving evidence of their volcanic origin, though now extinct, by their
form, and their rock structure, and the many evidences of pent-up heat
that one sees in the hot springs and geysers for which the locality is
justly famous. Twenty-four peaks rise over ten thousand feet, several
over eleven thousand. Electric Peak on the border is eleven thousand one
hundred and fifty-five feet. Many have been glaciated. Just outside the
Teton Range peaks rise to nearly fourteen thousand feet. It is a part of
the continental divide and from Two-ocean Pond the waters may flow into
either the Atlantic or the Pacific. The Yellowstone, Snake and Madison
rivers are fed by the waters from this area.

The surface of the park is dotted with lakes, the largest being
Yellowstone Lake, standing seven thousand seven hundred and forty-one
feet above sea-level, ten by twenty miles in average dimensions, the
largest body at so great elevation in the United States.

The streams contain numerous falls and rapids, twenty-five of special
interest, some as picturesque as the Falls of the Yellowstone, though
not on such a grand scale, and some far removed from the usual routes of
travel. The falls and canyons of the Yellowstone are considered among
the most wonderful in the world. The canyon is cut more than two
thousand feet deep into the lavas and sediments, exhibiting the most
fantastic carvings of erosion, modified by an exquisite blending of
colors. Into it plunges the river by two great leaps, the Upper and the
Lower Falls, one hundred and twelve and three hundred and ten feet high
respectively, and then flows on as a narrow ribbon scarcely more than
one hundred and sixty to two hundred feet wide for twelve miles of this
wonderfully beautiful chasm.

Yellowstone Park includes within its borders the largest geysers in the
world. There are about seventy in all, included in six groups or geyser
basins. Norris, Upper, Middle and Lower basins, ten to fifteen miles
apart, are on the headwaters of the Madison, here called Five Hole
River. The Upper is most active and is called the Great Geyser Basin. A
group is also found at Shoshone Lake, at the head of Snake River, and
another group at Heart Lake. Fifty geysers spout water and steam from
thirty to two hundred and fifty feet into the air. Some spout from open
bowl-shaped basins, and others have built cones or tubes by their
deposits. Extinct geysers are marked by the remains of these cones,
among which is Liberty Cap. Excelsior geyser is the largest of all. It
has a bowl-shaped opening two hundred by three hundred feet, flows four
thousand gallons of boiling hot water per minute, and throws a
fifty-foot column of water and steam seventy-five feet to two hundred
and fifty feet high. Giant throws a five-foot column over two hundred
feet high for an hour. Old Faithful, so named because of its exceptional
regularity, every sixty-four to sixty-five minutes without a failure
within the memory of the oldest observers, discharges a column one
hundred and fifty feet high amounting to one and a half million gallons
of water at each eruption. There is every gradation in size and violence
and periodicity.

In the Mammoth Hot Springs area, near the northern boundary, where there
are fifty active springs within an area of one hundred and seventy
acres, there is a travertine accumulation of one thousand feet. Others
deposit silica in similar manner, both types aided much by algous plant
growth in the mineralized warm waters. In some places sulphur has been
deposited.

Nine-tenths of the whole area is forest. The tree limit varies from nine
thousand four hundred to nine thousand seven hundred feet. Few of the
plateau localities are bare. Pine, poplar, balsam, cedar and spruce grow
abundantly and many to large size. In the spring and geyser localities
the trees are often covered by deposits and buried. Whole forests have
been thus entombed. Petrified trees are common. Wild animals are wholly
unmolested. Deer, elk, buffalo and bear may be seen and approached near
enough to photograph. Trout abound in the waters throughout.

[Illustration: =NATURAL BRIDGE OF VIRGINIA=

The Natural Bridge of Virginia (one thousand five hundred feet above the
sea) is a huge monolithic limestone arch, two hundred and fifteen feet
high, one hundred feet wide, and ninety feet in span, crossing the
ravine of the Cedar Creek. It seems to be a remnant of a great
horizontal bed of limestone rock that entirely covered the gorge of the
brook, which originally flowed through a subterranean tunnel. The rest
of this roof has fallen in and been gradually washed or worn away. The
bridge is finely situated in a beautiful amphitheater, surrounded by
mountains, on land originally granted by George III. to Thomas
Jefferson, who built a cabin here for the use of visitors. Among the
names upon the smooth side of the archway is that of George Washington
(west side, about twenty-five feet up), which was the highest of all
until a student named Piper actually climbed from the bottom to the top
of the arch in 1818.]

The first white man to attempt an exploration of the region was a
trapper named Coulter, who in 1805 traversed a part of this district.
His tales were disbelieved, but were confirmed thirty years later by the
discoveries of Bridger. In 1870 the first official survey was made, and
in 1871 Hayden’s famous expedition revealed the glories of the
Yellowstone district.

=Climate and Irrigation.=--The United States, stretching over such a
vast area and having such great tracts of mountain and plain, must
necessarily present a great variety of climate. The mean annual
temperature ranges from under forty degrees to seventy-five degrees. The
isotherm of fifty-five degrees mean annual temperature crosses the
center of the country from east to west, passing through St. Louis. The
mean annual rainfall for the whole country is about thirty inches, but
there is a great difference in this respect between different parts. The
rainfall is most abundant on the northwest Pacific Coast, on the Gulf
Coast, and on the higher mountain ranges. On the great plains it is only
ten to twenty inches, and there are large desert stretches in the Rocky
Mountain region with a rainfall of less than ten inches.

=Irrigation.=--As far as lack of rainfall is concerned in the so-called
rainless regions of the United States, this has been notably offset by
great works of irrigation that have been steadily going forward.
Agriculture, horticulture and vitaculture are, therefore, no longer
dependent on chance but science, as the National Irrigation Congress
expresses it.

Modern irrigation in the United States began in 1750 with the watering
of the gardens in the hills and deserts of the coast of California by
the adventurous missionaries from Mexico. Irrigation by English-speaking
people had its origin in Utah one hundred years later. There the
Mormons, separated by one thousand miles of untrodden desert from all
cultivated land, found in irrigation their only means of escape from
starvation.

In 1870 there were twenty thousand acres under irrigation, followed by a
rapid development of small ditches, until in 1880 there were one million
acres irrigated. Today (1917) upward of fifty million acres are included
in reclamation projects, and it is estimated that there are upward of
four hundred and fifty million acres still awaiting the scientific use
of water.

The diversity of methods used in irrigation in the United States is
remarkable. Practically every system to be found in the world can be
seen in some part of the arid west. This is due to the fact that many of
the irrigators have come from distant parts of the world and each seeks
to introduce on his farm customs and practices of his old environments.
This is particularly noticeable in California, where the Chinese
irrigate their truck gardens in Chinese fashion, and Italians, Spaniards
and Mexicans imitate for a time at least the practices of their
forefathers.

Upward of one hundred and fifty thousand miles of irrigation canals,
with reservoirs and supplementary works, have been built at a cost of
more than six hundred million dollars. These projects are distributed
through the States of Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas,
Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon,
South Dakota, Texas, Utah, Washington and Wyoming. The most notable
among them are: the Truckee-Carson Canal and Reservoir, in Nevada; the
Minidoka project, in southern Idaho; that of the Uncompahgre Valley, in
Colorado; the Roosevelt Dam, in the Salt River Valley, Arizona; the
Klamath Reservoir, on the Oregon-California boundary; the Boisé project,
Idaho; that of Yuma, on the Arizona-California boundary; North Platte,
on the Nebraska-Wyoming boundary; and the gigantic Elephant Butte
Reservoir, in New Mexico--the second largest in the world.

=Political Divisions.=--Under its present organization the United States
comprises fifty-one political divisions. Of these forty-eight are states
enjoying the full privileges afforded by the federal constitution. The
three territories--Alaska, Hawaii and Porto Rico--all are organized but
not yet admitted to statehood. The Philippines have a modified
territorial government.

(See Tables appended.)

It is worthy of remark that the center of population advanced westward
during the ten decades since 1790 in a nearly uniform line along the
thirty-ninth parallel of latitude.

=THE CENTER OF POPULATION=

  ======+=============================================+==============
  CENSUS|                                             | FROM POINT
   YEAR |                                             |TO POINT IN
        |   APPROXIMATE LOCATION BY IMPORTANT TOWNS   |DIRECT LINE[9]
  ------+---------------------------------------------+--------------
   1790 |Twenty-three miles east of Baltimore, Md.    |    ...
   1800 |Eighteen miles west of Baltimore, Md.        |   40.6
   1810 |Forty miles northwest by west of Washington, |
        |D. C.                                        |   36.9
   1820 |Sixteen miles north of Woodstock, Va.        |   50.5
   1830 |Nineteen miles west by southwest of Moore-   |
        |field, W. Va.[10]                            |   40.4
   1840 |Sixteen miles south of Clarksburg, W. Va.[10]|   55.0
   1850 |Twenty-three miles southeast of Parkersburg, |
        |W. Va.[10]                                   |   54.8
   1860 |Twenty miles south of Chillicothe, Ohio      |   80.6
   1870 |Forty-eight miles east by north of Cincin-   |
        |nati, Ohio                                   |   44.1
   1880 |Eight miles west by south of Cincinnati, Ohio|   58.1
   1890 |Twenty miles east of Columbus, Ind.          |   48.6
   1900 |Six miles southeast of Columbus, Ind.        |   14.6
   1910 |In the city of Bloomington, Ind.             |   39.0
  ------+---------------------------------------------+-----------

  [9] Movement in miles during preceding decade.

  [10] West Virginia formed part of Virginia until 1860.

=Public Lands.=--The United States originally owned nearly all the area
of the states, with the exception of the original thirteen. Homesteads
have been given, or sold at a nominal price, to all bona fide settlers.
Vast areas have been given to railroad companies and in aid of
education. The country’s Indian wards have been provided with ample
reservations. The government has established great national parks, and
it has reserved more than seventy-two thousand square miles of forest
land.

The following tabulations give numerous important facts concerning the
states and territories:

=TABLE OF STATES AND TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES=

  =====+======================+======================+======================
  DATE |  STATE OR TERRITORY  |      SETTLEMENT      |     CAPITALS AND
   OF  |       ORIGIN AND     | WHERE, WHEN, BY WHOM |     POPULATIONS
   AD- |    MEANING OF NAME   |                      |
  MIS- |                      |  ORIGINAL TERRITORY  |  CHIEF PRODUCTIONS
  SION |  AREA AND POPULATION |  FROM WHICH DERIVED  |      OF STATE
  INTO |                      |                      |
  UNION|   MOTTO AND MEANING  |                      |
  -----+----------------------+----------------------+----------------------
   1819|=Alabama= (Indian--   |Mobile Bay, 1702, by  |Montgomery: Pop.
       |Here we rest).        |the French.           |38,136.
       |51,998 sq. miles. Pop.|From Louisiana,       |Corn, oats, wheat,
       |2,138,093.            |Georgia, Mississippi  |rice, cotton, sugar,
       |Motto: _Here we rest._|and Alabama territo-  |iron, lumber, manufac-
       |                      |ries.                 |tures, potatoes.
       |                      |                      |
   1867|‡=Alaska= (_Al-ay-    |Three Saints, 1784, by|Juneau: Pop. 1,864.
       |eska_, meaning “the   |the Russians.         |Seals, salmon, gold,
       |great country”).      |Purchased from Russia |copper, silver,
       |590,884 sq. miles.    |in 1867 for           |lumber, tin, lead,
       |No motto.             |$7,200,000.           |coal.
       |                      |                      |
   1911|=Arizona= (Indian--   |Tucson, 1580, by the  |Phoenix: Pop. 11,134.
       |Sand Hills).          |Spanish.              |Copper, gold, silver,
       |113,956 sq. miles.    |From New Mexico terri-|alfalfa, fruits, live
       |Pop. 204,354.         |tory.                 |stock, wheat, barley.
       |Motto: _Ditat deus_   |                      |
       |(Founded by God).     |                      |
       |                      |                      |
   1836|=Arkansas= (From a    |Arkansas Post, 1685,  |Little Rock: Pop.
       |tribe of Indians).    |by the French.        |45,941.
       |53,335 sq. miles. Pop.|From Louisiana,       |Cotton, lumber, corn,
       |1,574,449.            |Missouri and Arkansas |oats, wheat, fruits,
       |Motto: _Regnat populi_|territories.          |wool, coal, tobacco.
       |(The people rule).    |                      |
       |                      |                      |
   1850|=California= (From an |San Diego, 1768, by   |Sacramento: Pop.
       |old Spanish romance). |the Spanish.          |44,696.
       |158,297 sq. miles.    |From New Albion, Upper|Gold, silver, copper,
       |Pop. 2,377,549.       |California.           |lead, petroleum,
       |Motto: _Eureka_ (I    |                      |borax, lumber, fruits,
       |have found it).       |                      |wine, olives, beet
       |                      |                      |sugar.
       |                      |                      |
   1876|=Colorado= (Spanish-- |Auroria, 1859, by the |Denver: Pop. 213,381.
       |Red, or Ruddy).       |Americans.            |Gold, silver, coal,
       |103,948 sq. miles.    |From Louisiana and    |copper, vegetables,
       |Pop. 799,024.         |Mexican cession.      |fruits, live stock,
       |Motto: _Nil sine      |Colorado territory.   |wheat, beet sugar,
       |numine_ (Nothing with-|                      |oats, corn.
       |out providence).      |                      |
       |                      |                      |
  *1788|=Connecticut= (Indian |Windsor, 1636, by the |Hartford: Pop. 98,915.
       |--Long River).        |English.              |Manufactures, woolen,
       |4,965 sq. miles. Pop. |From North Virginia,  |cotton, notions;
       |1,114,756.            |New England.          |tobacco, iron,
       |Motto: _Qui transtulit|                      |granite, cereals.
       |sustinet_ (He who     |                      |
       |transplanted still    |                      |
       |sustains).            |                      |
       |                      |                      |
  *1787|=Delaware= (In honor  |Wilmington, 1637, by  |Dover: Pop. 3,720.
       |of Lord De La Warr).  |the Swedes.           |Corn, wheat, tomatoes,
       |2,370 sq. miles. Pop. |From New Sweden, New  |fruits, manufactures,
       |202,322.              |Netherlands, three    |leather, iron, steel,
       |Motto: _Liberty and   |lower counties on the |machinery.
       |independence._        |Delaware.             |
       |                      |                      |
   1791|=District of Columbia=|Rome, 1663, by the    |Washington: Pop.
       |(In honor of Colum-   |English.              |331,069.
       |bus).                 |Ceded to government by|Flour mills,
       |70 sq. miles. Pop.    |Maryland and Virginia.|manufactures.
       |331,069.              |                      |
       |Motto: _Justitia      |                      |
       |omnibus_ (Justice to  |                      |
       |all).                 |                      |
       |                      |                      |
   1845|=Florida= (Spanish--  |St. Augustine, 1565,  |Tallahassee: Pop.
       |Blooming).            |by the Spanish.       |5,018.
       |58,666 sq. miles. Pop.|From Florida territo- |Fruits, vegetables,
       |752,619.              |ry.                   |tobacco, rice, cotton,
       |Motto: _In God is our |                      |lumber, turpentine,
       |trust._               |                      |resin, fish, phos-
       |                      |                      |phate.
       |                      |                      |
  *1788|=Georgia= (In honor of|Savannah, 1733, by the|Atlanta: Pop. 154,839.
       |George II.).          |English.              |Cotton, corn, rice,
       |59,265 sq. miles. Pop.|One of the original   |oats, tobacco,
       |2,609,121. Motto: Ob- |thirteen states.      |oysters, peaches,
       |verse: _Wisdom,       |                      |melons, marble, clay;
       |justice, moderation._ |                      |cotton goods, lumber,
       |Reverse: _Agriculture |                      |fertilizers, tar.
       |and commerce._        |                      |
       |                      |                      |
   ----|‡=Hawaii= (From the   |Honolulu, 1820, by the|Honolulu: Pop. 52,183.
       |native Owhyhee).      |Americans.            |Sugar, fruits, rice,
       |6,449 sq. miles.      |From Sandwich Islands.|coffee, hides, wool,
       |No motto.             |                      |honey, sisal.
       |                      |                      |
   1890|=Idaho= (Indian--Gem  |Coeur d’Alene, 1842,  |Boise City: Pop.
       |of the Mountains).    |by the Americans.     |17,358.
       |84,313 sq. miles. Pop.|From Oregon, Washing- |Gold, silver, copper,
       |325,594.              |ton and Idaho territo-|lead, lumber, flour,
       |Motto: _Salve_ (Hail).|ries.                 |wheat, oats, barley,
       |                      |                      |live stock.
       |                      |                      |
   1818|=Illinois= (Indian--  |Kaskaskia, 1682, by   |Springfield: Pop.
       |The Men).             |the French.           |51,678.
       |56,665 sq. miles. Pop.|From Northwest, Indian|Corn, wheat, oats,
       |5,638,591.            |and Illinois territo- |potatoes, hay, live
       |Motto: _National      |ries.                 |stock, wool, meat,
       |union, state sover-   |                      |manufactures.
       |eignty._              |                      |
       |                      |                      |
   1816|=Indiana= (Indian’s   |Vincennes, 1702, by   |Indianapolis: Pop.
       |Ground).              |the French.           |233,650.
       |36,354 sq. miles. Pop.|From Northwest and    |Corn, wheat, tobacco,
       |2,700,876.            |Indiana territories.  |vegetables, fruits,
       |No motto.             |                      |wool, coal, clay,
       |                      |                      |flour, machinery.
       |                      |                      |
   1846|=Iowa= (Indian--Drowsy|Dubuque, 1833, by the |Des Moines: Pop.
       |Ones).                |Americans.            |86,368.
       |56,147 sq. miles. Pop.|From Louisiana,       |Corn, wheat, oats,
       |2,224,771.            |Missouri, Michigan,   |potatoes, hay, live
       |Motto: _Our liberties |Wisconsin and Iowa    |stock, butter, coal,
       |we prize and our      |territories.          |lumber, poultry.
       |rights we will main-  |                      |
       |tain._                |                      |
       |                      |                      |
   1861|=Kansas= (Indian--    |Leavenworth, 1854, by |Topeka: Pop. 43,684.
       |Smoky Water).         |the Americans.        |Corn, wheat, hay, live
       |82,158 sq. miles. Pop.|From Louisiana, Kansas|stock, fruits, coal,
       |1,690,949.            |territory.            |petroleum, salt,
       |Motto: _Ad astra per  |                      |meats, Kaffir corn.
       |aspera_ (To the stars |                      |
       |through difficulties).|                      |
       |                      |                      |
   1792|=Kentucky= (Indian--  |Boonesboro, 1769, by  |Frankfort: Pop.
       |Dark and Bloody       |the English.          |10,465.
       |Ground).              |From Virginia.        |Tobacco, hemp, wheat,
       |40,598 sq. miles. Pop.|                      |cotton, live stock,
       |2,289,905.            |                      |lumber, coal, sorghum,
       |Motto: _United we     |                      |flour.
       |stand, divided we     |                      |
       |fall._                |                      |
       |                      |                      |
   1812|=Louisiana= (In honor |New Orleans, 1718, by |Baton Rouge: Pop.
       |of Louis XIV.).       |the French.           |14,897.
       |48,506 sq. miles. Pop.|From Louisiana, Terri-|Cotton, corn, rice,
       |1,656,388.            |tory of Orleans.      |sugar, lumber,
       |Motto: _Union, jus-   |                      |oysters, salt,
       |tice, and confidence._|                      |sulphur.
       |                      |                      |
   1820|=Maine= (The Main     |Saco, 1623, by the    |Augusta: Pop. 13,211.
       |Land).                |English.              |Hay, grains, dairying,
       |33,040 sq. miles. Pop.|From New England,     |potatoes, wool,
       |742,371.              |Laconia and Massa-    |granite, ice, lumber,
       |Motto: _Dirigo_ (I    |chusetts.             |apples, paper.
       |direct).              |                      |
       |                      |                      |
  *1788|=Maryland= (In honor  |St. Mary’s, 1632, by  |Annapolis: Pop. 8,609.
       |of Queen Henriette    |the English.          |Wheat, hay, corn,
       |Maria).               |From one of the       |vegetables, fruits,
       |12,327 sq. miles. Pop.|original states.      |oysters, coal, wool,
       |1,295,346.            |                      |canned fruits,
       |Motto: _Fatti maschii,|                      |vegetables.
       |parole femine_ (Manly |                      |
       |deeds, womanly words).|                      |
       |                      |                      |
  *1788|=Massachusetts= (The  |Plymouth, 1620, by the|Boston: Pop. 670,585.
       |Place of Great Hills).|English.              |Manufactures (woolen,
       |8,266 sq. miles. Pop. |From North Virginia,  |cotton), boots, shoes,
       |3,366,416.            |New England, Massa-   |fish, tobacco,
       |Motto: _Ense petit    |chusetts Bay.         |granite, marble.
       |placidam sub liberate |                      |
       |quietem_ (With the    |                      |
       |sword she seeks calm  |                      |
       |peace under liberty). |                      |
       |                      |                      |
   1837|=Michigan= (Indian--  |Sault Ste. Marie,     |Lansing: Pop. 31,229.
       |Great Lake).          |1668, by the French.  |Corn, wheat, oats,
       |57,980 sq. miles. Pop.|From Northwest,       |hay, fruits, vege-
       |2,810,173.            |Indiana and Michigan  |tables, iron, copper,
       |Motto: _Si quaeris    |territories.          |clay, lumber, manu-
       |peninsulam amoenam,   |                      |factures.
       |circumspice_ (If you  |                      |
       |seek a beautiful pen- |                      |
       |insula, behold it     |                      |
       |here).                |                      |
       |                      |                      |
   1858|=Minnesota= (Indian-- |St. Paul, 1838, by the|St. Paul: Pop.
       |Cloudy Water).        |Americans.            |214,744.
       |84,682 sq. miles. Pop.|From Louisiana and    |Corn, wheat, oats,
       |2,075,708.            |Northwest and         |barley, flaxseed,
       |Motto: _L’étoile du   |Minnesota territories.|wool, live stock,
       |nord_ (The star of the|                      |flour, iron,
       |north).               |                      |lumber, dairying.
       |                      |                      |
   1817|=Mississippi= (Indian |Biloxi, 1699, by the  |Jackson: Pop. 21,262.
       |--Great River, or     |French.               |Cotton, corn, wheat,
       |Father of Waters).    |From Louisiana and    |oats, potatoes, rice,
       |46,865 sq. miles. Pop.|Georgia, Mississippi  |tobacco, oysters,
       |1,797,114.            |territory.            |shrimps.
       |No motto.             |                      |
       |                      |                      |
   1821|=Missouri= (Indian--  |St. Genevieve, 1755,  |Jefferson City: Pop.
       |Great Muddy).         |by the French.        |11,850.
       |69,420 sq. miles. Pop.|From Louisiana and    |Corn, wheat, oats,
       |3,293,335.            |Louisiana and Missouri|rye, cotton, swine,
       |Motto: _Salus populi  |territories.          |honey, zinc, lead,
       |suprema lex esto_ (The|                      |tobacco, meats.
       |welfare of the people |                      |
       |is the supreme law).  |                      |
       |                      |                      |
   1889|=Montana= (Spanish--A |Yellowstone River,    |Helena: Pop. 39,165.
       |Mountain).            |1809, by the Ameri-   |Wheat, wool, live
       |146,572 sq. miles.    |cans.                 |stock, fruit, oats,
       |Pop. 375,053.         |From Louisiana and    |barley, lumber,
       |Motto: _Oro y plata_  |Nebraska, Idaho,      |copper, lead, silver,
       |(Gold and silver).    |Dakota and Montana    |coal.
       |                      |territories.          |
       |                      |                      |
   1867|=Nebraska= (Indian--  |Bellevue, 1847, by the|Lincoln: Pop. 43,973.
       |Shallow Water).       |Americans.            |Corn, wheat, oats,
       |77,520 sq. miles. Pop.|From Louisiana,       |live stock, hay,
       |1,192,214.            |Nebraska territory.   |chicory, sugar beets,
       |Motto: _Equality be-  |                      |fruits, potatoes.
       |fore the law._        |                      |
       |                      |                      |
   1864|=Nevada= (Spanish--   |Genoa, 1850, by the   |Carson City: Pop.
       |Snow-covered).        |Americans.            |2,466.
       |110,690 sq. miles.    |From Upper California |Gold, silver, copper,
       |Pop. 81,875.          |and Utah and Nevada   |zinc, wool, live
       |Motto: _All for our   |territories.          |stock, lumber, borax.
       |country._             |                      |
       |                      |                      |
  *1788|=New Hampshire=       |Portsmouth, 1623, by  |Concord: Pop. 21,497.
       |(Hampshire, England). |the English.          |Hay, corn, potatoes,
       |9,341 sq. miles. Pop. |From North Virginia,  |oats, apples, granite,
       |430,572.              |New England, Laconia. |mica, manufactures.
       |No motto.             |                      |
       |                      |                      |
  *1787|=New Jersey= (In honor|Elizabethtown, 1617,  |Trenton: Pop. 96,815.
       |of governor of Jersey |by the Dutch.         |Market garden crops,
       |Island).              |From New Netherland.  |cereals, fruits,
       |8,224 sq. miles. Pop. |                      |fisheries, manufac-
       |2,537,167.            |                      |tures, textiles,
       |No motto.             |                      |machinery.
       |                      |                      |
   1911|=New Mexico= (From Old|...                   |Santa Fe: Pop. 5,072.
       |Mexico).              |                      |Gold, silver, fruits,
       |122,634 sq. miles.    |                      |vegetables, live
       |Pop. 327,301.         |                      |stock, wool, lumber,
       |Motto: _Crescit eundo_|                      |copper, coal,
       |(It increases by      |                      |turquoise.
       |going).               |                      |
       |                      |                      |
  *1788|=New York= (In honor  |New York, 1614, by the|Albany: Pop. 100,253.
       |of Duke of York).     |Dutch.                |Market garden crops,
       |49,204 sq. miles. Pop.|From New Netherland.  |fruits, corn, wheat,
       |9,113,614.            |                      |dairying, manufac-
       |Motto: _Excelsior_    |                      |tures, clothing,
       |(Higher).             |                      |textiles, books,
       |                      |                      |magazines, papers.
       |                      |                      |
  *1789|=North Carolina= (In  |Albemarle Sound, 1653,|Raleigh: Pop. 19,218.
       |honor of Charles II.).|by the English.       |Cotton, corn, tobacco,
       |52,426 sq. miles. Pop.|From Albemarle colony.|wheat, shad, oysters,
       |2,206,287.            |                      |lumber, mining.
       |Motto: _Esse quam     |                      |
       |videri_ (To be, rather|                      |
       |than to seem).        |                      |
       |                      |                      |
   1889|=North Dakota= (Indian|Pembino, 1859, by the |Bismarck: Pop. 5,443.
       |--Allied).            |Americans.            |Wheat, oats, barley,
       |70,837 sq. miles. Pop.|From Louisiana,       |flaxseed, live stock,
       |577,056.              |Minnesota and Nebraska|wool, minerals.
       |Motto: _Liberty and   |and Dakota territo-   |
       |union, now and for-   |ries.                 |
       |ever, one and in-     |                      |
       |separable._           |                      |
       |                      |                      |
   1803|=Ohio= (Indian--      |Marietta, 1788, by the|Columbus: Pop.
       |Beautiful River).     |Americans.            |181,548.
       |41,040 sq. miles. Pop.|From Northwest terri- |Corn, wheat, oats,
       |4,767,121.            |tory.                 |hay, potatoes, fruits,
       |No motto.             |                      |tobacco, live stock,
       |                      |                      |wool, dairying, coal,
       |                      |                      |petroleum, salt, iron,
       |                      |                      |steel, machinery,
       |                      |                      |flour.
       |                      |                      |
   1907|=Oklahoma= (Indian--  |Guthrie, 1890, by the |Oklahoma City: Pop.
       |Beautiful Land).      |Americans.            |64,205.
       |70,057 sq. miles. Pop.|From Indian and       |Corn, wheat, oats,
       |1,657,155.            |Oklahoma territories. |cotton, flax, live
       |Motto: _Labor omnia   |                      |stock, petroleum,
       |vincit_ (Labor con-   |                      |minerals.
       |quers everything).    |                      |
       |                      |                      |
   1859|=Oregon= (Spanish--   |Astoria, 1811, by the |Salem: Pop. 14,094.
       |Wild Marjoram).       |Americans.            |Lumber, live stock,
       |96,699 sq. miles. Pop.|From Oregon territory.|wheat, hay, fruits,
       |672,765.              |                      |hops, wool, salmon,
       |Motto: _The union._   |                      |gold, silver, paper
       |                      |                      |making.
       |                      |                      |
  *1787|=Pennsylvania= (Latin |Chester, 1638, by the |Harrisburg: Pop.
       |--Penn’s Woods).      |Swedes.               |64,186.
       |45,126 sq. miles. Pop.|From original state.  |Manufactures, steel,
       |7,665,111.            |                      |machinery, textiles,
       |Motto: _Virtue, liber-|                      |coal, coke, petroleum,
       |ty and independence._ |                      |natural gas, iron,
       |                      |                      |grains, wool, leather.
       |                      |                      |
   ----|‡=Philippines= (In    |Cebu, 1565, by the    |Manila: Pop. 250,000.
       |honor of Philip II.). |Spanish.              |Cocoa, coffee,
       |115,026 sq. miles.    |From Archipelago de   |tobacco, cotton, hemp,
       |                      |San Lazaro.           | cocoanuts, corn,
       |                      |                      |sugar, rice, timber,
       |                      |                      |dyewoods.
       |                      |                      |
   ----|=Porto Rico= (Spanish |San Juan, 1510, by the|San Juan: Pop. 50,000.
       |--Rich Port).         |Spanish.              |Coffee, sugar,
       |3,435 sq. miles.      |Ceded by Spain.       |tobacco, cotton,
       |                      |                      |citrus fruits,
       |                      |                      |bananas, pineapples,
       |                      |                      |salt.
       |                      |                      |
  *1790|=Rhode Island=        |Providence, 1636, by  |Providence: Pop.
       |(Rhodes, an island in |the English.          |224,326.
       |the Ægean Sea).       |From Providence and   |Manufactures, worsted,
       |1,248 sq. miles. Pop. |Rhode Island planta-  |cotton, jewelry,
       |542,610.              |tions.                |machinery, rubber,
       |Motto: _Hope._        |                      |minerals.
       |                      |                      |
  *1788|=South Carolina= (In  |Ashley River, 1670, by|Columbia: Pop. 26,319.
       |honor of Charles II.).|the English.          |Cotton, wheat, corn,
       |30,989 sq. miles. Pop.|From Carteret colony. |oats, tobacco, rice,
       |1,515,400.            |                      |oysters, turpentine,
       |Motto: _Dum spiro,    |                      |lumber, phosphates.
       |spero. Spes_ (While I |                      |
       |breathe, I hope.      |                      |
       |Hope).                |                      |
       |                      |                      |
   1889|=South Dakota= (Indian|Southeast part, 1859, |Pierre: Pop. 3,656.
       |--Allied).            |by the Americans.     |Corn, wheat, oats,
       |77,615 sq. miles. Pop.|From Louisiana,       |flax, potatoes, live
       |583,888.              |Minnesota and Nebraska|stock, wool, gold,
       |Motto: _Under God the |and Dakota territo-   |silver, tin, dairying.
       |people rule._         |ries.                 |
       |                      |                      |
   1796|=Tennessee= (Indian-- |Fort Loudon, 1757, by |Nashville: Pop.
       |River with the Great  |the English.          |110,364.
       |Bend).                |From North Carolina,  |Corn, wheat, cotton,
       |42,022 sq. miles. Pop.|territory south of the|potatoes, tobacco,
       |2,184,789.            |Ohio River.           |live stock, coal,
       |Motto: _Agriculture,  |                      |iron, marble, lumber.
       |commerce._            |                      |
       |                      |                      |
   1845|=Texas= (From tribe of|San Antonio, 1692, by |Austin: Pop. 29,860.
       |Indians).             |the Spanish.          |Cotton, corn, oats,
       |265,896 sq. miles.    |From Mexican cession. |wheat, rice, sugar,
       |Pop. 3,896,542.       |                      |live stock, wool,
       |No motto.             |                      |fruits, lumber,
       |                      |                      |petroleum, coal.
       |                      |                      |
   1896|=Utah= (Indian--      |Salt Lake City, 1847, |Salt Lake City: Pop.
       |Mountain Dwellers).   |by the Americans.     |92,777.
       |84,990 sq. miles. Pop.|From Mexican cession, |Gold, silver, copper,
       |373,351.              |Utah territory.       |lead, coal, vege-
       |Motto: _Industry._    |                      |tables, fruits, sugar,
       |                      |                      |wheat, oats, live
       |                      |                      |stock, wool.
       |                      |                      |
   1791|=Vermont= (French--   |Fort Dummer, 1724, by |Montpelier: Pop.
       |Green Mountain).      |the English.          |7,856.
       |9,564 sq. miles. Pop. |From New Netherland,  |Hay, cereals,
       |355,956.              |New Hampshire grants. |potatoes, lumber,
       |Motto: _Freedom and   |                      |marble, dairying,
       |unity._               |                      |maple sugar, manufac-
       |                      |                      |tures, wood pulp.
       |                      |                      |
  *1788|=Virginia= (In honor  |Jamestown, 1607, by   |Richmond: Pop.
       |of Elizabeth, the     |the English.          |127,628.
       |virgin queen).        |From South Virginia.  |Corn, wheat, oats,
       |42,627 sq. miles. Pop.|                      |tobacco, potatoes,
       |2,061,212.            |                      |cotton, oysters, coal,
       |Motto: Obverse; _Sic  |                      |iron, cotton, manu-
       |semper tyrannis_ (Ever|                      |factures.
       |so to tyrants). Re-   |                      |
       |verse: _Perseverando_ |                      |
       |(By perseverance).    |                      |
       |                      |                      |
   1889|=Washington= (After   |Columbia River, 1811, |Olympia: Pop. 6,996.
       |George Washington,    |by the English.       |Lumber, coal, wheat,
       |first president).     |From Oregon and       |barley, oats, fruits,
       |69,127 sq. miles. Pop.|Washington territo-   |salmon, live stock,
       |1,141,990.            |ries.                 |minerals.
       |Motto: _Al-Ki_ (Bye-  |                      |
       |bye).                 |                      |
       |                      |                      |
   1863|=West Virginia= (From |Berkeley County, 1726,|Charleston: Pop.
       |Virginia).            |by the Americans.     |22,996.
       |24,170 sq. miles. Pop.|From Virginia.        |Corn, oats, hay,
       |1,221,119.            |                      |wheat, fruits, cattle,
       |Motto: Obverse:       |                      |sheep, lumber, coal,
       |_Montani semper       |                      |petroleum, natural
       |liberi_ (Mountaineers |                      |gas, mining.
       |are always free men). |                      |
       |Reverse: _Libertas et |                      |
       |fidelitas_ (Liberty   |                      |
       |and fidelity).        |                      |
       |                      |                      |
   1848|=Wisconsin= (Indian-- |Green Bay, 1745, by   |Madison: Pop. 25,531.
       |Wild Rushing Channel).|the French.           |Corn, oats, barley,
       |56,066 sq. miles. Pop.|From Northwest,       |wheat, hay, potatoes,
       |2,333,860.            |Illinois, Michigan and|fruits, beet sugar,
       |Motto: _Forward._     |Wisconsin territories.|dairying, iron,
       |                      |                      |lumber.
       |                      |                      |
   1890|=Wyoming= (Indian--   |Cheyenne, 1867, by the|Cheyenne: Pop. 11,320.
       |Extensive Plain).     |Americans.            |Wool, lumber, coal,
       |97,914 sq. miles. Pop.|From Louisiana (chief-|copper, petroleum,
       |145,965.              |ly), Nebraska, Dakota,|minerals.
       |Motto: _Equal rights._|Idaho, and Wyoming    |
       |                      |territories.          |
  -----+----------------------+----------------------+----------------------

  * Original Thirteen States. ‡ Organized Territories.

=Cities.=--In January, 1917, three cities of the United States, New
York, Chicago and Philadelphia, had a population of over one million.
St. Louis, Boston, Cleveland, Baltimore, Pittsburgh and Detroit had each
over 500,000. Buffalo, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Milwaukee,
Cincinnati, Newark, New Orleans, Washington, Minneapolis and Seattle had
over 300,000. Forty-seven others had populations ranging from 100,000 to
300,000; while altogether there were one hundred and ninety-eight above
30,000.

The following table gives the approximate population of all cities in
excess of 100,000.

=POPULATION OF CITIES HAVING OVER 100,000 IN 1917=

  ====================+=========
                      |Est. Pop.
         =Cities=     | Jan. 1,
                      |  1917
  --------------------+---------
  Akron, Ohio         |  106,000
  Albany, N.Y.        |  110,000
  Atlanta, Ga.        |  191,000
  Baltimore, Md.      |  590,000
  Birmingham, Ala.    |  182,000
  Boston, Mass.       |  757,000
  Bridgeport, Ct.     |  150,000
  Buffalo, N.Y.       |  469,000
  Cambridge, Mass.    |  112,000
  Camden, N.J.        |  105,000
  Chicago, Ill.       |2,498,000
  Cincinnati, Ohio    |  411,000
  Cleveland, Ohio     |  674,000
  Columbus, Ohio      |  215,000
  Dallas, Tex.        |  135,000
  Dayton, Ohio.       |  130,000
  Denver, Col.        |  261,000
  Des Moines, Iowa    |  106,000
  Detroit, Mich.      |  572,000
  Fall River, Mass.   |  130,000
  Fort Worth, Tex.    |  100,000
  Grand Rapids, Mich. |  141,856
  Hartford, Ct.       |  145,000
  Houston, Tex.       |  148,000
  Indianapolis, Ind.  |  272,000
  Jersey, City, N.J.  |  306,000
  Kansas City, Mo.    |  298,000
  Los Angeles, Cal.   |  504,000
  Louisville, Ky.     |  239,000
  Lowell, Mass.       |  111,000
  Memphis, Tenn.      |  160,000
  Milwaukee, Wis.     |  437,000
  Minneapolis, Minn.  |  364,000
  Nashville, Tenn.    |  135,000
  Newark, N.J.        |  408,000
  New Bedford, Mass.  |  113,000
  New Haven, Ct.      |  150,000
  New Orleans, La.    |  372,000
  New York City       |5,603,000
  Oakland, Cal.       |  192,000
  Omaha, Neb.         |  166,000
  Paterson, N.J.      |  126,000
  Philadelphia, Pa.   |1,710,000
  Pittsburgh, Pa.     |  580,000
  Portland, Ore.      |  296,000
  Providence, R.I.    |  255,000
  Reading, Pa.        |  107,000
  Richmond, Va.       |  157,000
  Rochester, N.Y.     |  257,000
  Salt Lake City, Utah|  125,000
  San Antonio, Tex.   |  125,000
  San Diego, Cal.     |  100,000
  San Francisco, Cal. |  464,000
  Scranton, Pa.       |  150,000
  Seattle, Wash.      |  349,000
  Spokane, Wash.      |  125,000
  Springfield, Mass.  |  102,103
  St. Joseph, Mo.     |  101,800
  St. Louis, Mo.      |  758,000
  St. Paul, Minn.     |  247,000
  Syracuse, N.Y.      |  155,000
  Tacoma, Wash.       |  108,094
  Toledo, Ohio        |  192,000
  Trenton, N.J.       |  110,000
  Washington, D.C.    |  364,000
  Worcester, Mass.    |  164,000
  Youngstown, Ohio    |  118,000
  --------------------+---------

=Atlanta= (ăt-lăn´tȧ), =Ga.= [The “Gate City”; the name Atlanta was
suggested by its geographical position, immediately on the dividing
ridge, separating the Gulf and Atlantic waters.]

It is situated at the base of the Blue Ridge, near the Chattahoochee
River; has an elevation of over one thousand feet, and a remarkably
healthful climate.

Atlanta is laid out in the form of a circle, with the Union Depot as its
center. A little to the south of the old Union Station is the State
Capitol, which contains a library of about sixty thousand volumes and an
interesting geological collection. A little to the northwest is the New
Court House; and farther to the north, beyond the railway, are the
Custom House and the L. & N. Freight House, an enormous concrete
structure. The City Hall, the Chamber of Commerce, the Opera House, the
Carnegie Library (of white marble), the Century Building, the Empire
Building, the Equitable Building, the Jewish Temple, and the First
Methodist Church are notable edifices. Among the chief educational
establishments are the Georgia School of Technology, the Atlanta
University (for colored students), the Agnes Scott Institute, and the
Clark University (colored students). The finest private houses are in
Peachtree Street.

Several railroads, converging at Atlanta and leading to other important
Southern cities, greatly facilitate the city’s extensive and rapidly
increasing trade. It has a large export trade in tobacco, cotton,
horses, and mules, its mule market being one of the most important in
the United States. Its manufactures include implements, fertilizers,
cotton goods, other foundry and machine products.

Atlanta was first settled in 1830. In 1843 it was incorporated as a
town, and called Marthasville. In 1845 changed its name to Atlanta, and
two years later secured a city charter. It was an important city in the
Confederacy and the objective point of General Sherman’s campaign. The
battle of Atlanta (July 22, 1864) was fought southeast of the city. In
September the city was made a military camp by Sherman, and in November
he left the city in flames, and started on his “march to the sea.” The
city was almost entirely destroyed, but recovered rapidly after the war,
and in 1878 became the capital of Georgia.

=Baltimore= (bôl´tĭ-mōr), =Md.= [The “Monumental City”; named for the
proprietor of a large tract of land in Maryland, Cecil Calvert, Lord
Baltimore, who settled the province in 1635.]

It is situated on an estuary of the Patapsco River, at the head of
navigation, about fourteen miles from Chesapeake Bay, and is on the
Baltimore and Ohio, the Philadelphia, Baltimore and Washington, and
other railroads. A good harbor and fine geographical situation give
Baltimore unusual trade advantages, and it has become one of the great
export centers of the United States.

The city is roughly divided into two nearly equal parts by a small
stream, Jones Falls, which flows entirely through the city. The portion
of the city northeast of the stream is called “Old Town.” Baltimore
Street is the chief longitudinal thoroughfare.

The natural center for the visitor is Mt. Vernon Place, a small square,
prettily laid out and suggesting Paris in its tasteful monuments and
surrounding buildings. In the middle rises the Washington Monument, a
column one hundred and thirty feet high, surmounted by a colossal statue
of George Washington.

At the northeast corner of the square is the handsome Mt. Vernon
Methodist Episcopal Church; at the southeast corner, Peabody Institute,
for the encouragement of science, art, and general knowledge.

On the south side of the square is the house of Henry Walters, connected
by an overhead bridge with a new picture-gallery containing the
celebrated Walters Collection, one of the finest private collections of
art in America.

Charles Street, one of the chief thoroughfares of the city, leads to the
north from the Washington Monument past the Union Station, near which,
at the north end of the B. & O. tunnel, is the Mt. Royal Station.
Following Charles Street to the south we pass (right) the First
Unitarian Church and the back of the Roman Catholic Cathedral, which
faces Cathedral Street. The latter is surmounted by a dome one hundred
and twenty-five feet high, and contains some interesting paintings.
Adjacent is the residence of the Cardinal.

Farther on Charles Street passes the Masonic Temple, intersects
Baltimore Street, the chief business street of the city, and is
continued to South Baltimore. In East Fayette Street, to the left, is
the Court House, a handsome white marble building, and the Post Office,
in front of which rises the Battle Monument, erected in 1815 in memory
of the struggles of the war of 1812-1814. The interior of the Court
House is adorned with admirable mural paintings. To the east of the Post
Office is the City Hall, a large and handsome building, with a dome two
hundred and sixty feet high.

To the south of the City Hall, in Gay Street, between Water and Lombard
Streets, is the imposing new Custom House, which was damaged by the fire
of 1904, but has since been repaired and completed.

A little to the west of Mt. Vernon Place, between Howard St. and Eutaw
St., are the unpretentious buildings formerly occupied by Johns Hopkins
University, one of the foremost institutions of learning in the country.
It was endowed with over three million five hundred thousand dollars by
Johns Hopkins, a Quaker. In 1902 a suburban site about two miles north
of the Washington Monument was secured for this famous university, and
the first of a fine group of buildings was occupied by it in 1914.

The Johns Hopkins Hospital, opened in 1889, is also due to the
liberality of Mr. Hopkins, who bequeathed over three million dollars for
its foundation.

Both as a scientific and charitable institution, this hospital is an
important adjunct to the University; and in the completeness of its
equipment and excellence of its system, it ranks with the foremost
hospitals in the world. The buildings of the Medical School of Johns
Hopkins University adjoin the hospital.

Druid Hill Park, a pleasure-ground of about seven hundred acres, owes
its beauty in great part to the fact that is has been preserved as a
private park for one hundred years before passing into the hands of the
city. Its hills afford beautiful views. Druid Lake, one-half mile long,
is one of the reservoirs of the city waterworks.

Baltimore is an important center of the traffic in breadstuffs, and is
also the seat of extensive and varied industries--cotton and woolen
goods, flour, tobacco and cigars, beer, glassware, boots and shoes, iron
and steel (including machinery, car-wheels, iron bridges, stoves,
furnaces, etc.), clothing, pianos, organs, and the canning of oysters.
Shipbuilding has become an important development, and Sparrows Point,
with its immense Bessemer steel plant, is a place of great industrial
activity.

The construction of the first important line of railway in the United
States was begun at Baltimore in 1828 and carried on by private
enterprise, and the first telegraph line was constructed to, and the
first message received in, Baltimore. In 1904 Baltimore was visited by a
fire which consumed fifty million dollars’ worth of property.

[Illustration: =SOME VIEWS IN BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS: RIVER FRONT, PARKS
AND NOTABLE BUILDINGS=

THE CHARLES RIVER EMBANKMENT]

=Boston= (_bôs´ton_), =Mass.= [Called the “Hub” and “Athens of America”;
name is derived from Boston, a seaport in England, originally called
Botalf, or Botolph’s town.]

The capital of Massachusetts, the chief town of New England, Boston is
one of the oldest and most interesting cities of the United States.
Whether considered from the point of view of its educational and
charitable institutions, its trade, manufactures and public buildings,
its influence upon the intellectual life and literary culture of the
nation, or its historic part as an inspirational center of political
liberty and social reform, its record and position command attention.

In no other American city are the civic and other public buildings more
closely associated with events of national importance.

[Illustration: CUSTOM HOUSE]

Boston is situated at the head of Massachusetts Bay, about two hundred
miles northeast of New York, and occupies a peninsula between the
Charles River and the arm of the bay known as Boston Harbor. Originally
the town was founded on three hills, Beacon, Copp’s and Fort, which,
however, have been materially cut down. The metropolitan area now
includes also East Boston, on Noddle’s or Maverick Island, on the other
side of the harbor; South Boston, separated from the old city by an arm
of the harbor; Charlestown, on the other side of the river; and the
suburban districts of Brighton, Roxbury (or Boston Highlands), West
Roxbury (including Jamaica Plain), and Dorchester. Boston is connected
with the city of Cambridge by several bridges across the Charles. The
old town is cramped and irregular, and its streets are narrow and
crooked; but the new parts, especially the so-called Back Bay, formed by
filling in the tide-water flats on the Charles, are laid out on a very
spacious scale.

The chief retail business streets of Boston are Washington Street and
Tremont Street. Among the finest residence streets are Commonwealth
Avenue, Beacon Street, Marlborough Street, Mt. Vernon Street, and Bay
State Road.

[Illustration: TRINITY CHURCH

COPLEY-PLAZA HOTEL]

Boston Common, a park of forty-eight acres in the heart of the city,
shaded by fine elms and other trees and crossed by many pleasant walks,
has been reserved for public use since 1634 and is carefully guarded for
this purpose in the charter of 1822. Just across Charles from the Common
is the fine Public Garden, reclaimed from what was low-lying waste
land.

[Illustration: =SOME VIEWS IN BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS: RIVER FRONT, PARKS
AND NOTABLE BUILDINGS=

STATE HOUSE

BOSTON COMMON

TREMONT STREET]

That part of the Common adjoining Tremont Street and known as the
Tremont Street Mall is now occupied by eight small buildings, covering
the entrances to the stations of the Boston Subway, a wonderful piece of
engineering that facilitates traffic by an underground system of
electric cars. The subway was, in part, constructed in 1895-1898, at a
cost of about four million one hundred and sixty-five thousand dollars,
and since greatly extended by the expenditure of many millions more.

Near the northeast angle of the Common, on Beacon Hill, stands the State
House, an imposing building surmounted by a huge gilded dome, and
preceded by a Corinthian portico and a flight of steps. On the terrace
in front are statues of Daniel Webster and Horace Mann. The dome is
illuminated at night.

In Beacon Street, opposite the State House, is the beautiful Shaw
Monument, by Saint-Gaudens, erected in honor of Colonel Shaw and his
regiment, the first colored regiment raised during the Civil war.

In Pemberton Square is the new County Court House, a massive granite
building in the German Renaissance style, with an imposing central hall
adorned with emblematic figures. In School Street, to the left, is the
City Hall, behind which is the Old Court House. In front of the City
Hall are statues of Franklin and Josiah Quincy.

School Street ends at the large Old South Building in Washington Street,
the most crowded thoroughfare in Boston, with many of the best shops.
Following Washington Street (“Newspaper Row”) to the left, we soon
reach, at the corner of State Street, the Old State House, dating from
1748 and restored as far as possible to its original appearance, even to
the figures of the British lion and unicorn on the roof.

[Illustration: PIERCE BUILDING PUBLIC LIBRARY BUNKER HILL MONUMENT]

State Street, the center of financial life, leads to the east, past the
Exchange Building (with the Stock Exchange) and other large office
buildings, to the Custom House, a massive granite building in the shape
of a Greek cross, with lofty tower.

Change Alley (now inappropriately styled “Avenue”), diverging to the
left from State Street leads to Faneuil Hall, the “cradle of American
liberty,” originally presented to the city in 1742, by Peter Faneuil, a
Huguenot merchant, but rebuilt after a fire in 1761 and reconstructed on
the original plan in 1898.

Devonshire Street leads to the right from State Street to the Government
Building, a huge edifice occupying the entire block between Milk Street,
Devonshire Street, Water Street and Post Office Square. The Post Office
occupies the ground floor, the basement, and part of the first floor,
while the rest of the building is devoted to the United States
Sub-Treasury and the United States Courts.

At the corner of Washington Street stands the Old South Meeting House,
built in 1729 on the site of an earlier church of wood, which lay near
Governor Winthrop’s house.

Boylston Street, another important thoroughfare, diverging from
Washington Street to the right, skirts the Common and Public Garden and
leads to the Back Bay. At the corner of Berkeley Street (right) stands
the Museum of Natural History, with a library of thirty thousand volumes
and good zoological, ornithological, entomological and mineralogical
collections. Opposite is the Berkeley Building, a structure of a fine
commercial type. Adjacent are old buildings of the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, one of the leading institutions of the kind in
the world. It now occupies a magnificent group of buildings on the
Cambridge side of the Charles River, erected at a cost of ten million
dollars.

Boylston Street now reaches Copley Square, which offers perhaps the
finest architectural group in Boston, including Trinity Church, the
Copley-Plaza Hotel, the Public Library, the New Old South Church, and a
number of imposing business structures. (See illustrations.)

Trinity Church, on the east side of the square, the masterpiece of H. H.
Richardson and a typical example of “Richardsonian” architecture, is
deservedly regarded as one of the finest buildings in America. Its style
may be described as a free treatment of the Romanesque of Central
France.

The Public Library, on the west side of the square, designed by McKim,
Mead & White, and erected in 1888-1895, is a dignified, simple and
scholarly edifice which forms a worthy mate to the Trinity Church. Its
style is that of the Roman Renaissance.

The New Old South Church, so called as the successor of the Old South
Church, is a fine building in the Italian Gothic style, with a tower two
hundred and forty-eight feet in height. The marbles and ornamental stone
work are very fine.

Huntington Avenue, which diverges to the left from Boylston Street at
Copley Square, contains many important buildings. This thoroughfare, and
the district known as the Back Bay Fens, is celebrated for its cultural
institutions. Among them are Mechanics Hall, Horticultural Hall, the
imposing Symphony Hall, the New England Conservatory of Music, and the
new Opera House--all in Huntington Avenue. Just beyond this is the New
Museum of Fine Arts, a large granite edifice by Guy Lowell, admirably
adapted for its ends. Farther out, at the corner of Longwood Avenue, are
the extensive new buildings of the Harvard Medical School, erected at a
cost of five million dollars, and equipped in the most complete and
up-to-date manner.

Commonwealth Avenue, which runs parallel with Boylston Street, is one of
the finest residence streets in America, with rows of trees and
handsome houses. It is two hundred and forty feet wide and adorned with
statues.

Beacon Street, beginning on Beacon Hill, skirting the north side of the
Common, and then running parallel with Commonwealth Avenue is the
aristocratic street of Boston. Its back-windows command a fine view of
the Charles River.

The Back Bay, the fashionable west end district traversed by the
above-named streets, was at the beginning of the nineteenth century
occupied by dreary mud-flats, salt-marshes and water.

The Back Bay Fens have been skillfully laid out on the site of unsightly
swamps and form the first link in the splendid chain of parks and
boulevards, of which Franklin Park is the chief ornament. The chief
entrances to the Fens are marked by a gateway and a fountain; and at the
end of Boylston Street is a fine memorial of John Boyle O’Reilly, by D.
C. French.

Fenway Court, the residence of Mrs. John L. Gardner, a building in a
Venetian style, enclosing a courtyard and incorporating many original
balconies, windows, and other details brought from Italy, contains a
choice collection of art, which is open to the public from time to time.

Franklin Park is five hundred and twenty acres in extent and lies in
West Roxbury (reached by electric car). It abounds in natural beauty and
many of its drives and walks are very attractive.

The Public Park System of Boston, as a whole, is almost unique. The City
Park System, with a total area of twenty-four hundred acres, forms an
almost unbroken line of parks and parkways from the Public Garden to
City Point, in Boston Harbor. The Metropolitan System, forming an outer
line of parks, has an area of eleven thousand acres, including two large
wooded reservations (Blue Hills, and Middlesex Fells), three beaches
(Revere Beach, Nantasket Beach, and Lynn Beach), and the boating section
of the Charles River. When completed this system will afford fifty miles
of drives.

The North End of Boston, embracing the site of Copp’s Hill, now one of
the poorer districts and occupied mainly by foreigners, contains some
points of considerable historical interest. The Copp’s Hill Burial
Ground, dating from 1660, contains the graves of Increase, Cotton and
Samuel Mather. Adjacent, in Salem Street, is Christ Church, the oldest
church now standing in the city (1723), on the steeple of which the
signal-lanterns of Paul Revere are said to have been displayed on April
18th, 1775, to warn the country of the march of the British troops to
Lexington and Concord. North Square is the center of what is known as
“Little Italy.” The House of Paul Revere has recently been restored and
contains some relics.

Within metropolitan Boston are many famous institutions of learning. At
the head of these stand Harvard University, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, and Radcliffe College, the greater part of whose schools are
in the adjoining city of Cambridge and the remaining in Boston. Among
the institutions of higher education are Boston University, with its
affiliated colleges, its schools of law, medicine, and theology, and its
post-graduate department in philosophy, science, and language; the
medical, dental, and agricultural schools of Harvard University; Boston
College; the medical and dental schools of Tufts College; Simmons
College for Women; the New England Conservatory of Music; the
Massachusetts Normal Art School; the Lowell Institute; and the
Massachusetts College of Pharmacy.

Wellesley College is situated in the beautiful village of Wellesley,
about fifteen miles from Boston, on Lake Waban.

Besides Trinity Church, already referred to, there are upward of three
hundred other edifices. Chief of these are the Cathedral of the Holy
Cross, on the corner of Washington and Malden Streets, the largest and
most noteworthy Catholic church in New England; Arlington Street Church,
corner of Arlington and Boylston Streets; First Church of Christ,
Scientist, on Falmouth Street, corner of Norway; and Fremont Temple, a
Free Baptist Church.

The beauty of the parks, squares, and of many public buildings is
enhanced by monuments and statues, of which the following are the chief:
Bunker Hill Monument in Charlestown, two hundred and twenty feet high,
built of granite and commemorative of the resistance and heroism of
American patriots at the Battle of Bunker Hill; the equestrian statue of
Washington in the Public Garden; the monument to Colonel Shaw; the
Soldiers’ Monument in the Common; the Crispus Attucks monument, a
memorial of the Boston Massacre of 1770; statues to General Joseph
Warren, Edward Everett, Charles Sumner, Alexander Hamilton, Governor
Winthrop, William Lloyd Garrison, Benjamin Franklin, Josiah Quincy,
Beethoven, Daniel Webster, Horace Mann, Phillips Brooks and many other
notable men.

The principal industries of Boston are the manufacture of food
preparations, clothing, building, printing, publishing, and
book-binding, distilled liquors, machinery, metals and metallic goods,
and furniture. Other important manufactures include musical instruments,
woolen goods, boots and shoes, rubber goods, tobacco, and drugs and
medicines. As a commercial port, Boston ranks next to New York, the
value of foreign trade amounting to two hundred million dollars
annually. After London, the city is the leading wool market of the
world.

Boston was settled in 1630 by a party of Puritans from Salem. A
memorable massacre occurred here in 1770, and in 1773 several cargoes of
English tea were thrown overboard in the harbor by citizens. The battle
of Bunker Hill was fought on Breed’s Hill, within the present city
limits, June 17, 1775. The city charter was granted in 1822.

=Cambridge= (_kām´brĭj_), =Mass.= [So named for the English university
town of that name. The English name is supposed to mean “the bridge over
the river Cam,” the real name of which is the Granta.]

It is virtually a suburb of Boston, from which it is separated by the
Charles River, and with which it is connected by several bridges. The
city comprises Old Cambridge, the seat of Harvard University, North
Cambridge, East Cambridge, Cambridgeport, and Mount Auburn. The streets
are broad and shaded with elms, and there are many places of historical
and literary interest, among these the Craigie House and “Elmwood,” the
homes of Longfellow and Lowell, respectively; and Mount Auburn Cemetery,
containing the graves of Longfellow, Lowell, Prescott, Motley, Agassiz,
Holmes, and other noted men.

The chief interest of Cambridge, however, lies in its educational
institutions, which include Harvard University, Radcliffe College (for
women), Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Episcopal Theological
School, and Andover Theological Seminary. All these institutions are now
in close working alliance with Harvard University.

Harvard University, founded in 1636, is not only the oldest but the
richest of American universities, and the roster of graduates contains
more than twenty thousand names. Massachusetts Hall is the oldest of the
present buildings, being built in 1720. The most notable buildings
architecturally (besides the fine Medical School group in Boston) are:
Austin Hall and Longdell Hall, devoted to the Law School; Widener
Memorial Library, a splendid new building dominating the college yard;
Busch Hall, devoted to the art collections of the Germanic Museum;
Memorial Hall, containing Sanders Theater; and Sever Hall, containing
class-rooms.

The activities of the university require upward of sixty other
buildings, including laboratories, lecture halls, museums, residence
halls, and a number of fine structures devoted to the social, religious,
athletic and art life of the student body.

The Massachusetts Institute of Technology, founded in 1861, is located
on the Charles River Parkway, and occupies a newly acquired area of
about seventy acres. Here has been erected a magnificent group of
buildings, unrivaled, perhaps, in design, adaptation for their
respective uses, and general equipment. This institution is devoted to
the teaching of science as applied to the various engineering
professions--civil, mechanical, mining, electrical, chemical, and
sanitary engineering--as well as to architecture, chemistry, metallurgy,
physics, and geology.

Among the industrial establishments are foundries, machine shops, and
extensive manufactories. The Riverside, Athenæum, and University Presses
are well-known printing establishments, and the “Bay Psalm Book,” the
first book printed in America, was published in Cambridge in 1640.

Cambridge was settled in 1630 by Governor Winthrop under the name of
Newtowne. In 1636 Harvard College was founded at Newtowne, and in 1638
Newtowne became Cambridge. The Washington elm, under which Washington
received command of the American troops, is still standing.

[Illustration: WASHINGTON ELM--Cambridge Mass.

Under this ancient elm near the Cambridge Common, Washington assumed
command of the American Continental army July 3, 1775, by order of the
Continental Congress. It is therefore one of the landmarks of the
greatest historic interest to every liberty-loving American--man, woman,
or child.]

[Illustration: 1. Blackstone Hotel

2. Harvester Building

3. Congress Hotel

4. Auditorium Hotel

5. Fine Arts Building

6. Chicago Club

7. McCormick Building

8. Stratford Hotel

=MICHIGAN BOULEVARD AND GRANT PARK, CHICAGO, VIEWED FROM THE WEST SHORE
OF LAKE MICHIGAN=]

=Chicago= (_shĭ-kä´gō_), =Ill.= [The “Windy City”], probably received
its name from the Indian _Checagua_, meaning “wild onion” and
“pole-cat.”

It is the second city and largest railway center of the United States,
and is situated on the southwest shore of Lake Michigan, at the mouths
of the rivers Chicago and Calumet, five hundred and ninety feet above
sea level and fifteen to seventy-five feet above the lake. It is eight
hundred and fifty miles from Baltimore, the nearest Atlantic port, and
two thousand four hundred and fifteen miles from San Francisco.

Chicago is noted for the magnitude of its commercial enterprises; for
the greatness of its financial institutions; for the excellence of its
parks and public playgrounds--particularly in the number, equipment, and
splendid use of its small parks in congested localities; for its
universities, its efficient public-school system, and for other
educational, artistic, and morally uplifting institutions that give to
it an enlightened, a cultured, and a progressive citizenship.

It is estimated that not more than 350,000 of the inhabitants are of
native American parentage; about 550,000 are Germans, 250,000 are Irish,
225,000 Scandinavians, 160,000 Poles, 110,000 Bohemians, 40,000
Italians, 60,000 Canadians, and 100,000 English and Scottish. There are
some fourteen languages, besides English, each of which is spoken by ten
thousand or more persons.

The city has a water-front on the lake of twenty-six miles and is
divided by the Chicago River and its branches into three portions, known
as the North, South, and West Sides, to which must be added the “Loop,”
or business part of the city. The site of the city is remarkably level,
rising very slightly from the lake; and its streets are usually wide and
straight. Among the chief business-thoroughfares are State, Clark,
Madison, Randolph, Dearborn, and La Salle Streets, and Wabash Avenue.
Perhaps the finest residence streets are Prairie and Michigan Avenues
and Drexel and Grand Boulevards, on the South Side, and Lake Shore
Drive, on the North Side.

A splendid bird’s-eye view of Chicago is obtained by ascending to the
top of the tower of the Auditorium on Congress Street and Michigan
Boulevard. This huge building, erected in 1887-1889 at a cost of three
million five hundred thousand dollars, includes a large hotel and a
handsome theater. The Fine Arts or Studebaker Building, adjoining the
Auditorium, on Michigan Boulevard, is one of the show buildings of
Chicago, and has deservedly been described as the focus of the artistic
and intellectual life of Chicago, containing as it does a theater,
concert, assembly, and lecture rooms, studios of leading artists, and
the meeting-places of several clubs. The beautiful Romanesque building
to the north of the Fine Arts Building is the Chicago Club. A little
farther to the north, at the corner of Jackson Boulevard, is the tall
Railway Exchange Building, erected in 1903-1904, and cased in tiles.
Next to this on the north is the new building of the Chicago Orchestra
Association, on the roof of which is the house of the “Cliff Dwellers,”
a literary and artistic club. A little to the south of the Auditorium,
at the corner of Harrison Street, is the Harvester Building, erected in
1907, beyond which is the palatial Blackstone Hotel. A little farther to
the south is the Illinois Central Station.

Following Michigan Avenue toward the north from the Auditorium, we reach
the Art Institute of Chicago, an imposing building in a semi-classical
style, containing a valuable collection of paintings, sculptures, and
other objects of art. Opposite is the magnificent People’s Gas Building,
erected at a cost of eight million dollars.

Farther to the north, on the opposite side of Michigan Avenue, are the
buildings of the Illinois Athletic Club, the University Club, and the
Chicago Athletic Club. At the corner of Madison Street is the Montgomery
Ward Building, with its tower, and a little farther up, at the corner of
Washington Street, is the Chicago Public Library, an imposing building
in a classical style, erected in 1893-1897, at a cost of two million
dollars.

This fine edifice is worthy to rank with the Library of Congress and the
Boston Public Library. The main entrances are to the north and south, in
Randolph Street and Washington Street. The interior is sumptuously
adorned with marble, mosaics, frescoes and mottoes. It contains three
hundred and fifty thousand volumes. On the first floor is a large
Memorial Hall, used by the Grand Army of the Republic and covered by a
dome; it contains an interesting collection of Civil War and other
historical relics.

On the north, Michigan Avenue ends at the Chicago River. Fort Dearborn
stood to the left, on the river, at the end of the avenue.

[Illustration: 9. Railway Exchange

10. Orchestra Hall

11. Pullman Building

12. Gas Building

13. Lake View Building

14. Illinois Athletic Club

15. Monroe Building

16. University Club

17. Ward Building

VIEWED FROM THE WEST SHORE OF LAKE MICHIGAN]

The business quarters of Chicago occupy chiefly the great central
district called the “Loop,” which is bounded by the lines of the
Elevated Railway. We may follow Randolph Street to the west to the City
Hall and County Building, two large adjoining buildings, in a modern
classical style with huge Corinthian columns, built at a cost of five
million dollars.

La Salle Street, leading to the south from the County Building, contains
some of the finest office buildings in the city. Among these are the
Chamber of Commerce at the corner of Washington Street; the Tacoma
Building at the corner of Madison Street; the Y. M. C. A. Building, a
little farther to the south; the New York Life Insurance Building; the
low but impressive Northern Trust Co. Building, and the oddly shaped
Women’s Temperance Temple, all three at the corners of Monroe Street;
the new granite building of the Corn Exchange National Bank, the Home
Insurance Co. Building, and the Rookery, with a very attractive interior
lined with white marble. Farther on in La Salle Street, at the corner of
Jackson Boulevard, is the Illinois Trust & Savings Bank, a massive
two-storied edifice, with a fine central court. At the end of La Salle
Street stands the granite building of the Board of Trade.

Jackson Boulevard leads hence to the east to the Federal Building,
containing the Post Office and Custom House and occupying an entire city
square. It is in the Corinthian style, with a large central dome two
hundred feet in height.

Other notable buildings within the “Loop” district include: the
Continental and Commercial Bank, Hotel La Salle, First National Bank,
and the great department store, office, newspaper, and hotel buildings.

The park system of Chicago is without a parallel in America; it embraces
Lincoln Park, on the lake shore to the north, and six others, and is
divided into three sections, all connected or nearly so by magnificent
boulevards, which, with the park drives, measure over sixty miles. In
all, Chicago has ninety-three parks, covering more than four thousand
four hundred acres. A characteristic feature of the system is the large
number of small “People’s Parks” scattered through the poorer districts
and provided with baths, gymnasiums and playgrounds. On the north side
is Lincoln Park, reached via Lake Shore Drive, one of the finest
residence streets in Chicago, containing some very handsome houses.
This passes near the Water Works, at the foot of Chicago Avenue, and
ends on the north at Lincoln Park, which is at present three hundred
acres in area, but is being extended by filling in the adjacent shallows
of Lake Michigan.

Among the attractions of this park are the conservatories, palm-house,
lily-ponds, and flower-beds; a small zoological collection; a fountain
illuminated at night by electric light; the statues of Lincoln (by
Saint-Gaudens), Grant (by Rebisso), Beethoven, Schiller, La Salle, a
Mounted Indian, and Linnaeus; and the boating lake. Near the main
entrance is the Academy of Sciences, containing admirably arranged and
classified collections illustrating the various natural sciences.

Grant Park, consisting of a public pleasure ground of two hundred and
ten acres, lies between Michigan Boulevard and Lake Michigan. This park
has been improved of late by the depression of the tracks of the
Illinois Central Railway and by the construction of massive stone
viaducts connecting the park proper with the lake shore. The adjoining
part of the lake, between the shore and the breakwater, has been filled
in and added to the park. In Grant Park, to the south of the Auditorium
and opposite Eldredge Place, is an equestrian statute of General John A.
Logan, in bronze, by Saint-Gaudens.

The South Side parks are also fine. They are best reached by Michigan
Avenue and Drexel Boulevards, two fine residence streets with tasteful
houses and ornamental gardens. Michigan Avenue also contains several
churches, the Calumet Club, numerous large hotels and apartment houses,
and the First Regiment Armory. In Drexel Boulevard is the handsome
Drexel Memorial Fountain.

Washington Park (three hundred and seventy-one acres) and Jackson Park
(five hundred and twenty-three acres) are connected by a wide boulevard
known as the Midway Plaisance, on which is located the University of
Chicago.

The West Side parks, Douglas Park, Garfield Park, and Humboldt Park are
little inferior to those of the North and South Sides.

The University of Chicago, between Fifty-sixth and Fifty-ninth Streets,
occupies probably the finest group of buildings, architecturally,
devoted to higher education in the United States. The total value of
buildings and equipment is more than thirty million dollars, one-fourth
of which was contributed by citizens of Chicago and the balance by John
D. Rockefeller. The ground has an area of sixty-six acres, and the
university includes faculties of Arts, Literature, Science, Commerce and
Administration, Education, Medicine, Law, and Divinity.

Above thirty different buildings have already been erected, mainly of
limestone and in a Gothic style, from the designs of H. I. Cobb and Mr.
Coolidge. Perhaps the most successful group is that at the corner of
Fifty-seventh Street and Lexington Avenue, including an Assembly Hall, a
Students’ Club House, the University Tower, and the University Commons.
Other important buildings are the Cobb Lecture Hall, the Kent Chemical
Laboratory, the Ryerson Physical Laboratory, the Law School, the
Anatomy, Physiology, Zoology, and Botany Buildings, the Walker Museum,
the Haskell Oriental Museum, the handsome Bartlett Gymnasium,
dormitories for women and dormitories for men. On the south edge of the
campus stands the main structure of the Harper Memorial Library, an
enormous Gothic building by Shepley, Rutan & Coolidge, erected in memory
of President Wm. R. Harper. The Yerkes Observatory, at Williams Bay on
Lake Geneva, containing one of the largest refracting telescopes in the
world, belongs to the University of Chicago. Connected with the
University is the large School of Education, facing the Midway
Plaisance, between Monroe and Kimbark Avenues.

Other notable educational institutions include the Lewis Institute,
founded and endowed by the late Mr. A. A. Lewis and opened in 1896,
comprising a School of Arts and a School of Engineering, tuition in
which is furnished at a nominal cost; and the Armour Institute, a well
equipped institution for higher technical education, endowed by its
founder with three million dollars.

Hull House, at the southwest corner of Polk and South Halsted Streets,
is a social settlement of men and women, furnishing a social,
intellectual, and charitable center for the surrounding district. It
includes a free kindergarten, a coffee-house, a residential boys’ club,
a theater, a labor-museum, and a free gymnasium, while classes,
lectures, and concerts of various kinds are held.

The famous Union Stockyards (“Packingtown”) are in South Halsted Street,
five and one-half miles to the southwest of the City Hall, and may be
reached by the South Halsted Street or Racine Avenue trolley-lines, both
running directly to the main entrance at Forty-first Street. The yards
proper cover an area of about five hundred acres, have twenty-five miles
of feeding-troughs, and twenty miles of water-troughs, and can
accommodate seventy-five thousand cattle, three hundred thousand hogs,
fifty thousand sheep, and five thousand horses. From two-thirds to
three-fourths of the cattle and hogs are killed in the yards, and sent
out in the form of meat. About thirty thousand workers are employed by
the packing-houses. Chicago is the greatest live stock and grain market
in the world.

Among the more important general manufactures of the city may be
mentioned those of railway cars, locomotives, agricultural implements,
mining appliances, clothing, electrical apparatus, lumber products,
furniture, pianos, organs, leather, cigars, chemicals, beer, spirits,
and flour. The steel and iron industry is conducted on a large scale,
and the city has some large rolling mills. Chicago is also one of the
leading publishing centers of the United States, and is an active
jobbing center for the book trade.

As a center of railroad industry Chicago takes precedence over all
cities of the world. Twenty-six of the principal trunk-line railroads of
the United States run trains into Chicago terminals, and in addition to
these there are numerous belt transfer, terminal and industrial lines
which have either a part or all of their trackage in the city. Within
the corporate limits of the city are eight hundred miles of main line
railway and one thousand four hundred miles of auxiliary track. The
total mileage of the twenty-six roads entering Chicago approximates
ninety-seven thousand miles, or about forty-two per cent of the total
mileage of the United States. The land occupied by main line property
within Chicago represents nine thousand six hundred acres, or eight per
cent of the entire area of the city.

There are six principal passenger terminals in Chicago, located as
follows:

Baltimore & Ohio Terminal (Grand Central Station), at Fifth Avenue and
Harrison Street. Central Station, at Michigan Avenue and Twelfth Street.
Chicago & North Western Passenger Terminal, at North Clinton, West
Madison, and North Canal Streets. La Salle Street Station, with entrance
on Van Buren Street. Dearborn Station, at Dearborn and Polk Streets.
Union Passenger Station, at Adams and Canal Streets.

Present plans are under way, however, to concentrate all roads entering
Chicago in three great union stations--the North Western Station
(already built, at a cost of $25,000,000), the Illinois Central Station,
and the Pennsylvania Station, the two latter involving an expenditure of
one hundred and fifty million dollars.

The water carrying trade of Chicago is comparable to that of New York
and Boston, and exceeds that of Philadelphia, New Orleans, Baltimore,
and San Francisco.

The Chicago Tunnel System involves a labyrinth of small tunnels or
subways, six by seven and one-half feet in size, and sixty-two miles
long, forty feet under the principal business streets within the Loop
district. These tunnels connect with all railway freight depots,
passenger stations and, through their sub-basements, with a number of
the larger mercantile concerns. They also extend beyond the Loop--north,
south, and west--a distance of about two miles. They are not designed
for passenger traffic, but are used by cars laden with all sorts of
merchandise, coal, ashes, etc.

There are three underground power stations, four universal freight and
transfer stations (one of them occupying five floors below the ground),
eighty-five ordinary stations, and twelve tunnels, extending sixty feet
under the Chicago River or its branches. So far, between thirty million
and forty million dollars have been expended on construction and
equipment. The bores also contain the cables of the automatic telephone
company.

The site of Chicago was first visited by Joliet and Marquette in 1673.
The United States Government established there the frontier post of Fort
Dearborn in 1804. On October 8 and 9, 1871, occurred the memorable fire
which reduced the greater part of the city to ashes. In 1886 occurred
the Haymarket riot, in 1893 the World’s Columbian Exposition was held in
Chicago, and in 1894 the Pullman strike, the greatest in history,
centered in Chicago.

=Cincinnati= (_sin-si-nä´ti_), =Ohio=. [The “Queen City,” named in honor
of Cincinnatus, the Roman patriot.]

It is the second city of Ohio, on the north bank of the river Ohio, two
hundred and seventy miles southeast of Chicago by rail, opposite the
cities of Covington and Newport, in Kentucky. Steam ferries and six
lofty bridges connect the city with the Kentucky shore; the suspension
bridge by Roebling is two thousand two hundred and fifty feet long, and
cost one million eight hundred thousand dollars.

Cincinnati occupies an exceedingly broken and irregular site, the more
densely built parts being enclosed between the Ohio River and steep
hills. The river front is upwards of fourteen miles in length. A second
terrace is fifty or sixty feet higher, and a district between the hills
and the Miami Canal, known as “over the Rhine,” is occupied by the large
German colony.

The main portion of the city is regularly laid out and its streets are
well paved. The chief shopping district is bounded by Fourth, Main,
Seventh, and Elm Streets. The best residential quarters are on the
surrounding highlands, built on a succession of irregular hills, by
whose steepness they are broken into a series of some five and twenty
villages, interspersed with parks.

Fountain Square, an expansion of Fifth Street, may, perhaps, be called
the business center of the city and from it start most of the street
railway lines. In the middle of the square stands the Tyler Davidson
Fountain, cast at the Royal Bronze Foundry at Munich. To the north, at
the corner of Fifth Street and Walnut Street, is the United States
Government Building containing the Post Office, Custom House, and United
States Law Courts, erected at a cost of five million dollars. It is of
sawed freestone in the Corinthian style.

By following Fifth Street to the west and turning to the left down Vine
Street, we pass the entrance to the Emery Arcade and reach, at the
corner of the busy Fourth Street, the Chamber of Commerce. Opposite, at
the northeast corner of Fourth and Vine Streets, stands the Ingalls
Building. On the north side of Fourth Street, between Vine and Race
Streets, is the fine Third National Bank.

Following Fourth Street towards the west, we soon reach Plum Street,
which we may follow to the right to St. Paul’s Protestant Cathedral, at
the corner of Seventh Street; the Roman Catholic Cathedral of St. Peter,
at the corner of Eighth Street, and the Synagogue, opposite the last. In
the block bounded by Central Avenue and Eighth, Ninth and Plum Streets
is the City Hall, a large red building in a Romanesque style, with a
lofty tower, constructed of brown granite and red sandstone at a cost of
one million six hundred thousand dollars. A little to the east, in Vine
Street, between Sixth and Seventh Streets, is the Public Library. To the
north of this point, “over the Rhine,” is Washington Park, with the
Springer Music Hall and the Exposition Building.

Among other buildings may be mentioned the County Court House, St.
Xavier’s College, the Oddfellows’ Temple and the Cincinnati Hospital.
Recent buildings of the modern type include the Traction Building, the
Mercantile Library, the Union Trust Building, and the First National
Bank.

The chief park of Cincinnati is Eden Park, which lies on the hills to
the east and affords fine views of the city and river. It contains the
Art Museum, a storage reservoir of the City Water Works, and the Water
Tower. The top of the last affords the best view of the city and its
environs, the river, and the Kentucky Highlands.

The Art Museum is a handsome group of buildings on a hill-top, some in a
Romanesque, others in a Grecian style. Adjacent is the Art Academy. Both
are maintained by a private corporation.

There are more than two hundred and fifty churches, including a Roman
Catholic cathedral; besides many handsome theaters, hotels, and public
halls, hospitals and asylums, and schools.

The educational institutions are of the highest order. They include the
University of Cincinnati, which has associated with it the Cincinnati
Hospital and the Cincinnati Observatory, the Ohio and Miami Medical
Colleges, St. Joseph’s and St. Xavier’s Jesuit Colleges, the Law
Theological Seminary, Cincinnati Conservatory of Music and the Ohio
Mechanics’ Institute.

Cincinnati is a center of musical and art culture, and its decorative
pottery and wood-carving have a national reputation. It has a large
river and canal traffic, and many railways converge here.

Among the factories are clothing factories, foundries, machine shops,
coach-works, works for the manufacture of furniture, tobacco, shoes,
leather, etc. There is some boat-building and printing; and the
slaughter-houses, stockyards, and grain elevators are very extensive.

Cincinnati was settled by white men in 1780, was incorporated as a city
in 1819, and early attained the name of “the Queen City of the West;” as
also that of “Porkopolis,” from its great trade in pork. Great riots
occurred in 1884, and were with difficulty suppressed by the military.

=Cleveland, Ohio.= [The “Forest City;” named in honor of General Moses
Cleveland of Connecticut, who had charge of the surveying of this
region, acting as general agent for the Connecticut Land Company.]

It is the largest city of Ohio, and is situated on the south shore of
Lake Erie, three hundred and fifty miles by rail east of Chicago. The
city is built mainly upon a plain from sixty to one hundred and fifty
feet above the lake, and five hundred and eighty feet above sea-level.
It is divided into the East and West Sides by the tortuous valley of the
Cuyahoga River, which is crossed by two high-level bridges--one mainly
of stone, and one of iron, three thousand nine hundred and thirty-one
feet long. The former, one thousand and seventy feet long, was completed
in 1878 at a cost of two million two hundred thousand dollars. There are
three other similar viaducts in different parts of the city.

The chief business street is Superior Avenue, a really fine and wide
thoroughfare, the west end of which is lined with substantial business
blocks, such as the Perry-Payne Building. A little farther on the street
expands into Monumental Park or the Public Square, containing a
Soldiers’ Monument and a statue of General Moses Cleveland. The new
Federal Building, at the northeast corner of the square, contains the
Post Office, the Custom House, and the Court House.

This building is the first of several public buildings comprised in the
so-called “Group Plan,” the others being the City Hall, County Building,
Public Library, and Union Station. A broad mall connects all these
buildings.

At the northwest corner is the Old Court House, adjoined by the American
Trust Building. On the north side of the square, at the corner of
Ontario Street, is the handsome building of the Society for Savings,
established in 1849, and now having deposits of upwards of fifty million
dollars. Adjacent is the Chamber of Commerce, containing a handsome
auditorium, with a library and reading room. In Superior Avenue, beyond
the Federal Building, is the massive City Hall, which is adjoined by the
temporary building of the Public Library. A little to the north of this
point is the huge Central Armory.

Euclid Avenue, which begins at the southeast angle of the Public Square,
is, at its east end, also an important artery of business, and farther
out becomes one of the most beautiful residence streets in America, with
each of its handsome houses surrounded by pleasant grounds and shady
trees. At the northeast corner of the Square and Euclid Avenue is the
Williamson Building; a little farther on, also on the north side of the
Avenue, is the handsome First National Bank; on the right is the tall,
narrow building of the Guardian Savings & Trust Co. To the left is the
Arcade, four hundred feet long, one hundred and eighty feet wide, and
one hundred and forty-four feet high, with a fine five-balconied
interior, running through to Superior Avenue; and to the right is the
Colonial Arcade, running through to Prospect Avenue. At the corner of
East Sixth Street are the tall Garfield and New England Buildings.
Nearly opposite the New England Building is the new Taylor Arcade, just
east of which is the Hippodrome Building. Farther on, near east Ninth
Street, is the Citizens Building, with the offices of the Citizens
Savings & Trust Co., and at the corner is the Schofield Building.
Directly opposite the latter, at the southeast corner of East Ninth
Street and Euclid Avenue, is the Cleveland Trust Co. At the corner of
East Twelfth Street is the handsome Union Club. Farther on are several
fine churches. About four and one-half miles from the Public Square
Euclid Avenue reaches University Circle, with a statue of Senator M. A.
Hanna by Saint-Gaudens, and one of Kossuth, erected by the Hungarians of
Cleveland. To the right is the building of the Western Reserve
Historical Society, to the left is the Elysium, an artificial ice
skating rink. Just beyond the Circle is the entrance to Wade Park, which
contains statues of Commodore Perry, and a Goethe-Schiller Monument.
Opposite the Park are the buildings of the Western Reserve University
(including Adelbert College, Woman’s College, Law, Medical, and Dental
Schools, and a Library School, in addition to the graduate department)
and the Case School of Applied Science. About one mile farther on the
avenue passes Lake View Cemetery, containing the Garfield Memorial, the
Rockefeller Monolith, the graves of Senator Hanna and John Hay, and the
Wade Memorial Chapel.

Prospect Avenue, which runs parallel to Euclid Avenue on the south, is
little inferior to it in beauty.

Cleveland’s rapid growth is due mainly to the fact that nowhere else can
the rich iron ores of Lake Superior, the coal of Northern Ohio, and the
limestone of the Lake Erie islands, be brought together so cheaply; its
position at the north terminus of the Ohio Canal being very
advantageous, and seven railways terminate here.

The chief industries of the city are the various manufactures of iron,
including steel rails, forgings, wire, bridges, steel and iron ships,
engines, boilers, nails, screws, sewing machines, agricultural
implements and machinery of all kinds, the refining of petroleum,
wood-work, and other manufactures of endless variety. Cleveland is the
greatest iron ore receiving point in America, one of the largest lumber
markets and extensively engaged in the automobile industry.

Cleveland was founded in 1796 by General Moses Cleveland, under the
direction of the Connecticut Land Company. In 1814 Cleveland was
incorporated as a village with less than one hundred inhabitants. The
opening of the Ohio land served as an impetus to growth, and in 1836
Cleveland was incorporated as a city. Its great prosperity dates from
its connection by rail with the cities of the East and the manufacturing
establishments set up during the Civil War.

=Des Moines= (_dē-moin´_), =Iowa=. [This name was applied by the Indians
to a place in the form of Moingona, which the French shortened into
Moin, calling the river “rivière des Moins.” Finally, the name became
associated with the Trappist monks, and the river by a spurious
etymology was called “la rivière des moines,” “the river of the monks.”]

The capital and largest city of Iowa, it is an important manufacturing
and commercial city, and noted especially for its extensive insurance
interests and exceptional railroad facilities. It has many important
buildings, among them the Capitol, built at a cost of three million
dollars, the United States Government Building, the State Arsenal, a
State Historical Building, completed in 1908 at a cost of five hundred
thousand dollars, Drake University, Highland Park College, Des Moines
College, and a state library. A new city hall at a cost of four hundred
thousand dollars, and a great coliseum to seat ten thousand are recent
additions.

The city has nearly one hundred churches of all denominations. Half a
dozen bridges over the two rivers connect the different parts of the
town, and there is a public park, with fine groves of forest trees.

Vast bituminous coal fields have contributed to the growth of the
manufacturing industries. These include typewriters, wagons, sleighs,
cotton and woolen goods, pottery, furniture, and electrical appliances.
The city was one of the first to adopt the electric car system.

Des Moines was settled in 1846, incorporated as the town of Fort Des
Moines, 1851, chartered as a city and became the capital of the State in
1857. In 1907 Des Moines adopted the commission form of government and
attained wide celebrity as a leader in progressive municipal government.

=Denver, Colo.= [The “Queen City of the Plains”; named after James W.
Denver, ex-Governor of Kansas, upon the consolidation in 1860 of the
towns of St. Charles and Aurora.]

The capital of Colorado, it is situated on the South Platte River, nine
hundred and twenty-two miles west of St. Louis. It lies on a level
plain, five thousand one hundred and ninety-six feet above the sea,
beyond which rise the snow-capped peaks and deep blue shoulders of the
Rocky Mountains.

The Union Depot lies at the foot of Seventeenth Street, one of the chief
business thoroughfares, and electric cars start from here for all parts
of the city. Near the station is a large bronze Arch, bearing the work
“Welcome.” The route up Seventeenth Street and Seventeenth Avenue by
electric car to the City Park and then across to Colfax (or Fifteenth)
Avenue and return traverses the chief features of the city. On the way
out is passed the Equitable Building, the roof of which affords a superb
view.

The Rocky Mountains are seen to the west in an unbroken line of about
one hundred and seventy miles, extending from beyond Long’s Peak on the
north to Pike’s Peak on the south. Among the loftiest of the intervening
summits are Grey’s Peak, Torrey’s Peak, and Mount Evans. The bird’s-eye
view of the city in the immediate foreground includes the State Capitol
and the fine residences of Capitol Hill on the east.

At the corner of Seventeenth and Glenarm Streets is the Denver Club, and
at the corner of Sherman Avenue are the University Club and the Central
Presbyterian Church. In returning through Colfax (or Fifteenth) Avenue
the following buildings may be observed: the State Capitol, an imposing
structure erected at a cost of two million five hundred thousand
dollars; the new Public Library, between Acoma and Bannock Streets; the
United States Mint, at the corner of Cherokee street, and the West Side
Court House. The County Court House occupies the block bounded by Court
Place and Fifteenth, Sixteenth and Tremont Streets. The Custom House and
Post Office, on Sixteenth Street, is another imposing building. In
Fourteenth Street is a handsome Auditorium used by the Democratic
Convention in 1908.

The other important buildings of the city include the Denver High
School, Stout Street, between Nineteenth and Twentieth Streets; the City
Hall, corner Fourteenth and Larimer Streets; the Mining Exchange; the
Chamber of Commerce; Baptist College (Montclair); the Tabor Opera House
Block; the Broadway Theater; the Denver Athletic Club; Trinity Church,
Broadway and Eighteenth Street; the Church of Christ, Scientist,
Fourteenth and Logan Avenues; the Y. M. C. A., Lincoln and Sixteenth
Avenues; Mystic Shrine Temple, Sherman and Eighteenth Avenues; the
Westminster University of Colorado, and the Jesuit College of the Sacred
Heart (College Avenue, corner of Homer Avenue). On Capitol Hill are the
new buildings of St. Mary’s Cathedral (Roman Catholic) and St. John’s
Cathedral (Episcopalian). The Art Museum, in Montclair, contains a
collection of paintings and other objects of art. The Museum in the City
Park includes an interesting collection of Colorado animals. In
University Park, eight miles to the southeast of the Union Depot, is the
University of Denver.

The city is the center of a great agricultural and mining district, and
has a large trade in cattle, hides, wool, and tallow. It is chiefly,
however, to its position as the center of a great mining region that
Denver owes its marvelous progress; the discovery, in 1878, of the
fabulous wealth of the Leadville Hills attracted capital and emigration
from all parts of the continent. It has a United States assaying mint,
is an important ore market, and is noted for its smelting and refining
works, foundry and machine shops.

Denver has an abundant water supply, and the clear invigorating air and
dry climate of Denver are famous. It was founded on a barren waste, dry
and treeless, in 1858, and the following year incorporated as a city by
the Provisional Legislature.

=Detroit= (_dē-troit´_), =Mich.= [The “City of the Straits”; named from
the river or strait on which the city is built. Derived from two French
words, _detroit_, “the narrows.”]

It is situated on the Detroit River, eighteen miles from Lake Erie, at
an altitude of six hundred feet. The river, sometimes called the
“Dardanelles of the New World,” is here the boundary between the United
States and Canada. It affords a splendid harbor, with a water-front of
about nine miles. Ferries connect with the Canadian side. Many beautiful
islands, with those of Lake St. Clair, are popular as places of summer
residence and resort.

One of these, Belle Isle, is about seven hundred acres in extent and
forms a beautiful public park, with fine trees, and still retaining many
of its natural features unimpaired. It contains a statute of Schiller, a
small zoological collection, a large aquarium and horticultural
building, and a casino.

Woodward Avenue, the principal thoroughfare, divides the city into two
very nearly equal parts. It is also the main business street, and at its
northern end has many of the city’s most prominent buildings. Its
expansion, about half a mile from the river, is known as the Campus
Martius, adorned with a handsome fountain, from which Michigan and
Gratiot Avenues diverge to the left and right. To the left stands the
City Hall, the tower of which contains a clock with a dial eight and
one-half feet in diameter. In front of the City Hall is the Soldiers’
Monument.

In Gratiot Avenue, near the Campus Martius, is the Public Library,
containing two hundred and twenty thousand volumes and some historical
relics. The Chamber of Commerce, at the corner of Griswold and State
Streets, is thirteen stories high. The Post Office, in Fort Street,
adjoining the site of the old Fort Lernoult, is a handsome building. In
the same street, at the southeast corner of Shelby Street, is the State
Savings Bank, and adjoining it on the east is the tall Penobscot
Building.

Just to the east of the Campus Martius, in Cadillac Square, stands the
County Building. It is in a plain renaissance style with a Corinthian
portico over the main entrance, sculptures in the pediment, and a tower
surmounted by a gilded dome. In front of it is the Cadillac Chair,
erected in 1901 to commemorate the two hundredth anniversary of the
city’s foundation.

A little farther on Woodward Avenue reaches Grand Circus Park, a square
with trees, fountains, and a statue of ex-Governor Pingree. To the
north, at the corner of Adams Street, is the Central Methodist Church,
with a richly decorated interior. One block to the east, between Adams
and Elizabeth Streets, is the new building of the Y. M. C. A. At the
corner of Edmund Place, one-half mile farther on, are the First
Unitarian and First Presbyterian churches, two fine Romanesque buildings
of red stone. Between Erskine and Eliot Streets, to the right, is the
Temple Bethel, an effective Jewish synagogue. Also to the right, at the
head of Martin Place, is the handsome Harper Hospital; and Grace
Hospital is also seen to the right (corner of Willis Avenue and John R.
Street) a little farther on. To the left, a little higher up, is the
Detroit Athletic Club. The north end of Woodward Avenue and the
adjoining streets form the principal residence quarter.

Jefferson Avenue, which runs at right angles to Woodward Avenue,
crossing it one-fifth mile from the river, contains many of the chief
wholesale houses, and toward its northeast end has also many pleasant
residences. The site of Fort Pontchartrain was at the corner of
Jefferson Avenue and Griswold Street, two squares to the west of
Woodward Avenue. To the east, on the left side of the street, are the
Roman Catholic Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul and the Jesuit
College, and on the right side the Academy of the Sacred Heart. On the
same side, at the corner of Jefferson Avenue and Hastings Street, about
one-half mile to the east of Woodward Avenue, stands the Museum of Art,
containing paintings, sculptures and oriental curiosities.

The commerce of Detroit is enormous, a number of conditions favoring it
as a commercial and industrial center. Its geographical position brings
it into relation with an immense lake traffic and with the Canadian
trade. About three-fourths of the total trade is with Canada. The
principal exports are grain, wool, pork, lard, hides, and copper. It has
important lumbering interests and large tanneries.

The manufactures include stoves, freight cars, drugs, varnish, paint,
furniture, carriages, cigars, and matches. Other industries are those of
iron and steel, foundry and machine shop products, and the manufacture
of malt liquors.

The site of Detroit was visited by a party of Frenchmen as early as
1610, and again by La Salle in 1670, but no permanent settlement was
made until 1701, when Sieur de la Mothe Cadillac, the first Governor of
the French territory in this vicinity, built Fort Pontchartrain and
established a small trading village. In 1815 Detroit was incorporated as
a village, and in 1824 was chartered as a city by the Legislature of
Michigan Territory. It was the capital of the Territory from 1805 to
1837, and of the State from 1837 to 1847.

=Hartford, Conn.= [Named from Hertford, England.] It is the capital of
Connecticut, on the right bank of the Connecticut River, fifty miles
from its mouth, and one hundred and twelve by rail northeast of New
York. It is a handsome city, finely situated on the navigable
Connecticut River, at its confluence with the Park River. The Union
Depot is near the center of the town. To the southwest of it, beyond the
Park River, lies Bushnell Park, containing the handsome white marble
Capitol, a conspicuous object in most views of the town.

The fine sculptural embellishment of the north facade of the Capitol was
done under the supervision of Paul W. Bartlett and partly by his own
hand. The Senate Chamber contains a good portrait of Washington, by
Stuart, and an elaborately carved chair, made from the wood of the
“Charter Oak.” In the Library are the Charter of Connecticut and
portraits of Connecticut governors. In the east wing of the ground floor
is a statue of Nathan Hale, and in the west wing are the tombstone of
General Putnam and a statue of Governor Buckingham.

The gateway to the park was erected as a Soldiers’ Memorial.

Following Capitol Avenue to the east and then turning to the left, along
Main Street, is the Wadsworth Athenæum, containing a gallery and
libraries with one hundred and fifty thousand volumes, and the
collections of the Historical Society. Adjacent are the buildings of the
Ætna Life Insurance, the Ætna Fire Insurance, and the Travelers
Insurance Co. A little farther on is the Post Office, adjoined by the
interesting Old State House, erected by Chas. Bulfinch. Opposite is the
Connecticut Mutual Life Insurance Co. The State Arsenal is also on Main
Street farther along.

Near the State House are the High School, the Hartford Orphan Asylum,
and the Hartford Theological Institute. About a mile to the south is
Trinity College, with fine buildings and equally fine location. The Colt
Firearms factory is in the southeast part of the city, and near it is
the handsome Church of the Good Shepherd, erected in memory of Colonel
Colt, inventor of the revolver, by his wife.

A tablet at the corner of Charter Oak Place marks the site of the
“Charter Oak,” where, in 1687, the charter of Connecticut was concealed
to save it from Sir Edmund Andros, a tyrannical British governor.
Charter Oak Park is famous for its trotting races. Elizabeth Park has a
fine show of flowers.

Among other large buildings are the Retreat for the Insane, the Deaf and
Dumb Asylum, the Old Folks Home, the City Hospital, and St. Joseph’s
Roman Catholic Cathedral. The last is in Farmington Avenue, which, with
its continuation, Asylum Street, contains many fine private residences.

Hartford is a prominent commercial and manufacturing city, and is
particularly noted for the importance of its insurance companies, rating
third in this regard among the cities of the United States. It is the
farthest point, at present, to which large steamers can ascend the
Connecticut River. Among the manufactures are firearms--the celebrated
Colt manufactory is here--typewriters, rubber goods, especially tires,
electrical supplies, automobiles, bicycles, sewing-machines, hardware,
tools, carriages, silver plate, woven wire mattresses, book binding
machinery, cash registers, knit goods, etc.

The site of a Dutch fort in 1633, and of a colony of Massachusetts
settlers as early as 1635-1636, Hartford was incorporated as a city in
1784. Here (January 14, 1639) was adopted the first constitution in
writing ever proclaimed by a people organizing a government, therefore
Hartford is called the birthplace of American democracy. In 1687
occurred the famous attempt of Governor Andros to seize the charter of
Connecticut. Hartford was the capital of Connecticut until 1701,
thenceforth until 1873 it divided the responsibility with New Haven.
Since 1875 it has been sole capital. Here in 1814 took place the famous
meeting of New England delegates known as the Hartford Convention.

About 1780 the “Hartford wits,” of whom Joel Barlow was one, made the
city a literary center. Since that time it has been the residence of a
large number of literary men and women; among them Harriet Beecher
Stowe, Whittier, Trumbull, Charles Dudley Warner, and Samuel L. Clemens.
Noah Webster, Henry Barnard, Frederick Law Olmsted, and John Fiske were
born here.

=Indianapolis= (_in-di-a-nap´o-lis_), =Ind.= [Literally, the City of
Indiana, from _Indiana_ and _polis_, city.]

It is the capital of Indiana, on the west fork of White River, in a
level plain one hundred and ninety-five miles southeast of Chicago by
rail. It is a regularly built and beautiful city.

The focus of the city is the circular Monument Place, from which four
wide avenues run diagonally to the four corners of the city. The other
streets, many of them one hundred feet wide, are laid out at right
angles to each other. In the center of this place rises the Soldiers and
Sailors’ Monument, two hundred and eighty-five feet high, by Bruno
Schmitz of Berlin. Round the monument are statues of General G. R.
Clark, Governor Whitcomb, President W. H. Harrison, and Governor Morton.
A little to the west is the State Capitol, a large building with a
central tower and dome, erected at a cost of two million dollars. At the
east entrance to the Capitol is a statue of Governor Morton and near by
is that of Governor Hendricks. The Marion County Court House, also an
imposing edifice, lies to the east of Monument Place, while to the north
of it is the United States Court House and Post Office, erected in
1902-1904. To the southwest of the former is a statue of General H. W.
Lawton, by A. O’Connor. In University Park is a statue of Benjamin
Harrison, erected in 1908.

The John Herron Art Institute, at the corner of Pennsylvania Avenue and
Sixteenth Street, contains a School of Art and a collection of modern
paintings. Other large and important buildings are the Blind Asylum; the
Propylæum, owned and controlled by a stock company of women for literary
purposes; the Deaf and Dumb Asylum; the Union Railway Station; the City
Hall; the Public Library; the Masonic Temple; the Oddfellows Building;
the Deutsche Haus, a German club-house; the Mænnerchor Building, and
several churches. The Winona Technical Institute is installed in
buildings erected for the United States Arsenal. The Central Hospital
for the Insane lies one and one-half miles to the west of the city,
beyond the White River. The Riverside, Broad Ripple, Brookside,
Fairview, and Garfield Parks deserve mention.

Indianapolis is one of the chief railroad centers of the United States,
fifteen main lines converging here. It is also a great center of
electric railways, which radiate hence in all directions, two hundred
and fifty cars leaving the terminal station daily. The trade in
agricultural produce is very considerable. Pork-packing is the leading
industry, but there are also large flour and cotton and woolen mills,
numerous foundries, and manufactories of furniture, carriages, tiles,
etc.

Indianapolis was first settled in 1819, the city founded in 1821, became
the seat of the state government in 1825, was incorporated as a town in
1836, and received its city charter in 1847. In the same year the first
railroad in the state was opened.

=Los Angeles= (_los an´je-les_, Sp. pron. _lōs äng´_h_e-lās_), =Cal.=
[Named by the Spaniards Pueblo de la Reina de los Angeles, “The Town of
the Queen of the Angels,” hence Los Angeles, “the angels.”]

It is the metropolis of southern California, lies on the Los Angeles
River, twenty miles above its mouth and fifteen miles in a direct line
from the Pacific Ocean, and four hundred and eighty-three miles
southeast of San Francisco by the Southern Pacific Railroad.

It is a splendid city of wide streets and spacious sidewalks, with an
extensive residential quarter, one hundred and thirty churches, over
sixty public schools, and about one thousand seven hundred
manufactories. It publishes newspapers in seven languages.

The city, especially the residential quarters, is embowered in plants,
among the characteristic features of which are the swift-growing
eucalyptus, the graceful pepper-tree, many palms, Norfolk Island pines,
live-oaks, india-rubber trees, orange trees, roses, geraniums, yuccas,
century plants, bananas, calla lilies, and pomegranates. A distinguished
French traveler pronounces Los Angeles one of the few really beautiful
cities in the United States.

Broadway, running parallel to Main Street, is the dividing line for east
and west, as First Street is for north and south. Among the many
substantial buildings in Main Street are the City Hall, between Second
and Third Streets, and the new Chamber of Commerce. The latter contains
an interesting collection of California products, the Palmer collection
of Indian antiquities, and the Coronel collection, illustrating the
Spanish period. Here is also the first cannon brought to California by
Padre Junipero Serra in 1769. In Temple Street, near Broadway, stands
the County Court House. The Public Library is at the southeast corner of
Broadway and Third Street.

Other edifices worthy of mention are the Women’s Club, in the
Mission-Renaissance style (940 South Figueroa Street), the State Normal
School (corner Grand Avenue and Fifth Street), the Security Savings Bank
(corner Spring and Fifth Streets), the Union Trust and Hellman Buildings
(opposite corners of Spring and Fourth Streets), the Auditorium (corner
Fifth and Olive Streets), the Y. M. C. A. (Hope Street, between Seventh
and Eighth Streets), the Y. W. C. A. (corner Hill and Third Streets),
the Farmers and Merchants National Bank (corner Fourth and Main
Streets), the Grant Building (corner Broadway and Fourth Street),
Hamburger’s (corner Broadway and Eighth Street), Merchants Trust (207
Broadway), and the International Bank (corner Temple, Spring and Main
Streets). The viaduct of the Electric Railway, in San Fernando Street,
spanning the railway tracks on the east side of the city, is an
interesting piece of engineering.

Los Angeles also contains many parks, including the Griffith Park of
three thousand acres, and the Eastlake Park and Westlake Park, each with
a small lake. The University of Southern California is situated at
Wesley Avenue and Thirty-fifth Street.

The small plaza, with the Old Mission Church, at the north end of the
business-town, is interesting as a survival of the ancient settlement.
Just beyond is a genuine Chinatown, keeping many of the original adobe
structures. An excellent view of the city can be obtained from the tower
at “Angel’s Flight,” corner Hill and Third Streets. Opposite Eastlake
Park is an Ostrich Farm, with some two hundred adult birds.

Los Angeles is the center of the orange-growing industry. The residents
are principally occupied in the cultivation and export of oranges,
grapes, and other fruits, as well as the manufacture of wine. There are
rich oil-wells in and near the city and this district now forms part of
one of the richest petroleum fields in the world. Many invalids resort
to Los Angeles in the winter because of its mild and equable climate.
The city has a harbor on the coast, eighteen miles off.

It is one of the oldest towns in the Western states, and was already a
thriving place when the Franciscan fathers established a mission there
in 1781. Under Mexican rule Los Angeles alternated with Monterey as the
capital of California. From 1835 to 1847 it was the capital of the State
of California. In 1846 it was occupied by the United States forces. For
the first century of its history Los Angeles was only a small pueblo
constructed mainly of adobe in the Mexican style, but the advent of the
railroad brought a sudden impetus. It was the first city in the United
States to be lighted with electricity.

=Louisville= (_lōō´ĭ-vĭl_, or _lōō´ĭs-vĭl_), =Ky.= [The “Falls City”;
named by act of the Virginian Legislature in 1780, in honor of Louis
XVI. of France, then assisting the American colonies in their
revolutionary struggle.]

It is the largest city of Kentucky, and is situated on the Ohio River,
one hundred and thirty miles by water southwest of Cincinnati. The river
is here crossed by two railroad bridges, and forms a series of
rapids--the “Falls of Ohio”--descending twenty-six feet in two miles.

Louisville covers about forty square miles of a plain, and is nearly
enclosed by hills. It is handsomely built and extends for nearly eight
miles along the river. Its well-shaded streets are from sixty to one
hundred and twenty feet wide, and slope up from the river.

Perhaps the most prominent building in Louisville is the Custom House,
in Chestnut Street between Third and Fourth Streets. The Court House is
in Jefferson Street between Fifth and Sixth Streets, and is adjoined by
the City Hall, with its square clock-tower.

The Louisville Public Library, at the corner of Fourth and York Streets,
contains also an art gallery and a small museum, including the Troost
Collection of Minerals.

The Farmers’ Tobacco Warehouse, in Main Street, is the center of the
tobacco trade and has a large storage capacity. The University of
Louisville, at corner of Eighth and Chestnut Streets, is housed in a
handsome building. The Lincoln Bank, corner of Fourth and Market
Streets, is fifteen stories high, with a splendid view from upper
windows and roof.

Fourth Avenue, with many pleasant residences, leads south, passing the
pretty little Central Park, to the Racecourse. Louisville possesses
three fine parks: Iroquois Park, Cherokee Park, and Shawnee Park, to the
south, east and west of the city. The First Regiment Armory has an
enormous drill-hall and can seat fifteen thousand persons.

The Louisville Bridge, one mile long, crossing to the west end of
Jeffersonville, was built in 1868-1872 and has twenty-seven iron spans
supported by limestone piers. The Kentucky and Indiana Bridge, leading
to New Albany, is one-half mile long. A third bridge, also leading to
Jeffersonville, was constructed in 1892.

President Zachary Taylor (1784-1850) is buried near his old home, five
miles to the east of Louisville.

Louisville is the greatest market for tobacco in the world, and has
large pork-packing establishments, distilleries, and tanneries, with
manufactories of plows, furniture, castings, gas and water pipes,
machinery, flour, cement, cotton seed oil and cake, steam railroad cars,
and carriages and wagons.

It was founded in 1778 and in 1780 named in honor of Louis XVI. of
France, whose troops were then assisting the Americans. A great part of
the town, including the tobacco-market and the city hall, was destroyed
by a cyclone in March, 1890. Since the Civil War, Louisville has rapidly
grown in importance as one of the chief gateways to the southwest.

=Milwaukee= (_mĭl-wau´kē_), =Wis.= [Named from the river, called by the
Algonquins Minnwaukee, or Me-ne-wau-kee, “good earth, good country, rich
or beautiful country.”]

It is the largest city in Wisconsin, and is situated on the west shore
of Lake Michigan at the common mouth of three improved and navigable
rivers, which, with a canal, supply twenty-four miles of dockage. An
excellent harbor has been formed by the erection of huge breakwaters,
and the river admits the largest lake-vessels to the doors of the
warehouses.

The city is well built, largely of a light-colored brick, and many of
its streets are lined with beautiful shade trees, recalling some of the
older eastern cities. Among the finest residence streets are Grand
Avenue, Prospect Avenue, Waverly Place, Juneau Avenue, Marshall Street
and Astor Street. About two-thirds of the inhabitants are Germans, which
may account for its successful cultivation of music and art. There are
no fewer than seventy-five musical societies in the city.

Grand Avenue, which runs east and west, contains many of the chief
buildings and best shops, while Wisconsin Street and East Water Street
are also busy thoroughfares. Among the most prominent buildings is the
Federal Building, a handsome structure of granite in a turreted baronial
style, occupying the block bounded by Jefferson, Jackson, Michigan and
Wisconsin Streets, and containing the Post Office, Custom House and
United States Court House. The interior is finely finished in marbles,
mosaics, mahogany, and oak. The County Court House, a brown sandstone
edifice, is in the square bounded by Jefferson, Jackson, Oneida, and
Biddle Streets. The tall Wells Building, at the corner of Milwaukee and
Wisconsin Streets; the Chamber of Commerce, Michigan Street; Plymouth
Church, a massive building at the corner of Van Buren and Oneida
Streets, and St. Paul’s Church, Marshall Street, are other important
structures. The Auditorium, in Cedar Street, can accommodate ten
thousand people.

The Layton Art Gallery, a well-lighted structure at the corner of
Jefferson and Mason Streets, has some interesting pictures and statues.
The paintings include examples of Rosa Bonheur, Constable, Corot,
Millet, Achenbach, Alma-Tadema, Clays, Inness, Kensett, Mauve, Holmberg,
Pradilla, Mesdag, Munkácsy, Van Marcke, and other modern masters. In the
Sculpture Hall are works by Hiram Powers and Romanelli. The magnificent
Public Library in Grand Avenue, between Eighth and Ninth Streets,
contains two hundred thousand volumes and a free museum of natural
history, palæontology, etc.

The curiously thin looking City Hall, with one of the largest bells in
the world and an illuminated clock-dial, visible for two miles at night,
occupies a triangular site bounded by East Water, Market and Biddle
Streets.

Other notable structures in the business district are the Germania
Building, the Evening Wisconsin Building, the Sentinel, the New
Insurance Building, the Mitchell Building and the Pabst Building.

Among the public monuments are statues of Washington, near Ninth Street,
and the Soldiers’ Monument.

Juneau Park, laid out on a bluff overlooking Lake Michigan, contains
statues of Solomon Juneau, the earliest white settler, and Leif Ericson;
it commands fine views. Lake Park, farther to the north, also overlooks
the lake. Near it is the North Point Pumping Station, with a tall and
graceful water tower. The Forest Home Cemetery, at the southwest corner
of the city, deserves notice. The attractions of Washington Park, on the
west limits of the city, include a large herd of deer.

The great breweries, such as Pabst’s, which covers thirty-four acres, or
Schlitz’s, are wonderfully interesting plants, while the grain
elevators, the flour mills, the coal docks, the International Harvester
Co., and the workshops of the C. M. St. P. Railway are also great
concerns. To the south are the rolling mills of the Illinois Steel Co.,
covering one hundred and fifty-four acres of ground. To the southwest,
chiefly in the valley of the Menomonee, are the large brick yards that
produce the light colored bricks which give Milwaukee the name of “Cream
City.” To the north, along the Milwaukee River, are extensive cement
works.

Sheridan Drive, skirting the lake to the south for two miles, is
intended to be prolonged so as ultimately to meet the boulevard of that
name running from Chicago to Fort Sheridan.

The other industries include manufactories of leather, machinery, iron
and steel goods, tobacco, clothing, stoves, tinware, brick, furnaces,
cars, steel and malleable iron. Pork packing is also carried on
extensively.

Milwaukee became a village in 1835 and received a city charter in 1846.
Its growth has been rapid, particularly in the last twenty-five years.

=Minneapolis= (_min-e-ap´ō-lis_), =Minn.= [The “Flour City”; named from
Dakota Indian words, _Minni_, “water,” _ha_, “curling,” and the Greek
word _polis_, “a city,” namely “city of the curling water,” alluding to
the Falls of St. Anthony.]

It is the largest city of Minnesota, adjoins the capital, St. Paul, and
is situated on both sides of the Mississippi, which is here crossed by
numerous bridges. The Falls of St. Anthony, with a perpendicular descent
of sixteen feet, afford a water power which has been a chief source of
the city’s prosperity.

At the corner of Second Avenue South and Third Street stands the
Metropolitan Life Building, erected at a cost of one million six hundred
thousand dollars. Adjacent is the Post Office, in a Romanesque style.

On Hennepin Avenue, at the corner of North Fifth Street, is the imposing
Lumber Exchange. To the right are the West Hotel and the Masonic Temple.
At the corner of Eighth Street is the private art gallery of Mr. T. B.
Walker, containing good specimens of British portrait painters and of
the Barbison school and also works by or ascribed to Raphael, Michael
Angelo, Rubens, Rembrandt, Van Dyck, Holbein, and Murillo.

Farther on, at the corner of Tenth Street, is the Public Library and Art
Gallery, an ornate Romanesque structure.

At the corner of Sixteenth Street is the new Roman Catholic Cathedral.

Other prominent churches are the First Unitarian Church, at the corner
of Mary’s Place and Eighth Street; the Westminster Presbyterian Church,
Nicollet Avenue; the Church of the Redeemer; the Fowler Methodist
Episcopal Church, on Lowry Hill; the Second Church of Christ, Scientist;
Plymouth Church, and St. Mark’s Cathedral.

At the other end of Hennepin Avenue is the Union Depot. Among other
prominent buildings in the business quarter are the Court House and City
Hall, a handsome building in Fourth Street, completed at a cost of three
million dollars, with a tower three hundred and forty-five feet high;
the New York Life Insurance Building, Fifth Street and Second Avenue,
with an elaborate interior; the Northwestern National Bank; the First
National Bank; the Andrus Building; Donaldson’s Glass Block Store; the
Security Bank Building, and the Chamber of Commerce, Fourth Street South
and Fourth Avenue.

The University of Minnesota lies on the left bank of the river, between
Washington and University Avenues, and occupies various well-equipped
buildings.

Other notable institutions are the Augsburg Theological School,
Minneapolis Normal School, and a Conservatory of Music.

Within the urban limits of Minneapolis are fourteen wooded lakes, while
the gorges of the Mississippi and the Minnehaha Creek are very
picturesque. These natural features have been made the basis of a fine
system of boulevards. From the southeast side of Lake Harriet the road
runs to the east along the Minnehaha Creek, passing Lake Amelia, to
Minnehaha Park, containing the graceful Falls of the Minnehaha, fifty
feet high and immortalized by Longfellow.

The most delightful resort near Minneapolis or St. Paul is Lake
Minnetonka (eight hundred and twenty feet above the sea), which lies
fifteen miles to the west. The lake is singularly irregular in outline,
and with a total length of twelve to fifteen miles has a shore line of
perhaps one hundred and fifty miles.

Minneapolis is the foremost city in the world in flour and lumber
products. The flour mills, perhaps its most characteristic sight, are
congregated on the banks of the Mississippi, near St. Anthony’s Falls.
Other important industries are the manufacture of agricultural
implements and machinery, bread and baking products, cars and general
shop construction, food preparations, foundry products, furniture, fur
goods, dressed fur, malt liquors, patent medicines, and printing and
publishing.

The Falls of St. Anthony were named in 1680 by Father Hennepin. In 1819
Fort Snelling was built by the United States government. Though a large
mill was built as early as 1822, it was not till 1850 that a permanent
settlement was made. In 1856 Minneapolis was incorporated as a town on
the west bank of the river, and in 1867 it was incorporated as a city.
St. Anthony on the east bank was annexed in 1872.

=Nashville, Tenn.= [The “Rock City”; first named as a settlement,
Nashborough, in honor of Francis Nash of North Carolina, a
brigadier-general in the Continental Army. In June, 1784, changed to
Nashville.]

It is the capital of Tennessee, on the navigable Cumberland River, two
hundred miles above the Ohio, and one hundred and eighty-five miles by
railroad southwest of Louisville. The city, which is one of the
principal railroad centers in the Southern states, is built mainly on
the left bank of the river, which is crossed by a suspension bridge and
a railroad drawbridge to the suburb of Edgefield. Nashville is a
handsome, well-built town, and it is, perhaps, the most important
educational center in the South.

The most prominent building in the city is the State Capitol,
conspicuously situated on a hill. In its grounds are a bronze equestrian
statue of Andrew Jackson, and the tomb of President Polk, whose home
stood at the corner of Vine and Union Streets. Among the other chief
buildings are the Court House, the Custom House, the Parthenon, used for
exhibitions of art, Greek plays by students, etc., the Vendome and Bijou
Theaters, the Carnegie Library, the Board of Trade, the First National
Bank, and the Stahlman Building.

At the head of the educational institutions stands Vanderbilt
University, endowed by Cornelius Vanderbilt with one million dollars. In
the campus is a colossal statue of the founder, by Moretti. Other
well-known institutions are the Peabody Teachers’ College, Boscobel
College, Belmont College, the Saint Cecilia Academy, Radnor College,
Buford College and Ward’s Seminary.

There are also several large colleges for colored students.

Among the places of interest near Nashville are the Hermitage, the home
of General Andrew Jackson, eleven miles to the east.

Nashville occupies a foremost place among the manufacturing centers of
the country. It is the fifth boot and shoe market in the United States,
the largest candy and cracker manufacturing city in the South, and does
an enormous wholesale dry goods, grocery, and drug business. It carries
on an extensive trade in cotton and tobacco; while its manufactures,
which are rapidly extending, include cotton, flour, oil, paper,
furniture, timber, leather, iron, and spirits. The iron interests of the
South are largely controlled here.

Nashville was settled in 1780, received its charter in 1806, and in 1843
was made the permanent capital.

=New Haven, Conn.= [The “City of Elms”; named by the original settlers
the “new haven.” The original Indian name was Quinnippac. The present
name substituted “by the court” September 5, 1640.]

It is the chief city and seaport of Connecticut, at the head of New
Haven Bay, is situated four miles from Long Island Sound, seventy-three
miles by railroad northeast of New York and thirty-five miles southwest
of Hartford.

The city is situated on a level plain, with a background of hills. Its
broad streets are shaded with elms, and the public squares, parks, and
gardens, with its handsome public and private edifices, make it one of
the most beautiful of American cities.

From the large Union Station, which adjoins the harbor, Meadow Street
leads north to the Public Green, on which are the City Hall, three
churches, the Second National Bank, and the Free Public Library, United
States Court House and Post Office. At the southeast corner of the Green
is the Bennett Fountain, designed by John F. Weir after the monument of
Lysicrates at Athens.

In College Street are most of the substantial buildings of Yale
University, which, besides the Academic Department, has schools of
Science, Theology, Medicine, Law, Forestry, Music, and Fine Arts, and
also a Graduate School.

From the Public Green the university “campus” or quadrangle is entered
by an imposing tower-gateway known as Phelps Hall. Among the buildings
in the campus are the Art School, containing a good collection of
Italian, American, and other paintings and sculptures; Connecticut Hall,
the oldest Yale building (1750); Osborn Hall; Battell Chapel; Vanderbilt
Hall; Alumni Hall; Dwight Hall, and the College Library. At the corner
of Elm and High Streets is the Peabody Museum of Natural History, in
which the mineralogical collections are especially fine.

Other important buildings of the university are the buildings of the
Sheffield Scientific School, the Schools of Law, Medicine, and Divinity,
the Chemical and Physical Laboratories, Memorial and other large halls.

Hillhouse Avenue is especially noted for its trees, and Chapel Street,
the principal promenade, for the gardens surrounding many of the
residences.

The parks have an aggregate area of one thousand two hundred acres.
Besides the Green are the parks at East Rock (three hundred and sixty
feet high) and West Rock (four hundred feet high), two masses of trap
rock near the city which afford fine views. East Rock is surmounted by a
soldiers’ monument. West Rock is famous for a cave in which the
regicides Goffe and Whalley were for a time concealed. Savin Rock,
Morris Cove, and Momaugin are shore resorts accessible from the city by
electric car lines.

The railway lines from New Haven to New York City are the only ones of
consequence that have been completely electrified.

New Haven is an important industrial city and has considerable commerce.
The harbor has a jetty and a breakwater surmounted by a lighthouse, and
the port has a large coasting trade. But it is of more consequence as a
manufacturing town, employing many thousands of workers producing
hardware, wire, locks, clocks, cutlery, firearms, corsets, india-rubber
goods, carriages, furniture, paper, matches, musical instruments, etc.

New Haven was settled in 1638 by a company chiefly from London. In 1639
a government was established under a written constitution, and
Theophilus Eaton, the pastor of the colony, was chosen and continued in
the governorship until 1658. Church membership was a qualification for
suffrage and eligibility to office. The New Haven colony was founded in
1643 by the union of Milford, Guilford and Stamford with New Haven. In
the same year it became a member of the confederacy of the United
Colonies of New England. The charter of Charles II. for Connecticut
(1662) included the New Haven colony, but the latter, supported by
Massachusetts and Plymouth, stubbornly opposed absorption and was only
forced to accede in 1664. Yale College, founded in Saybrook, was removed
to New Haven in 1717. The town was captured by the British under Tryon
and Garth, July 5, 1779. It was incorporated as a city in 1784. Joint
capital with Hartford from 1701; the government was removed from New
Haven altogether in 1873.

=New Orleans= (_nū ôr’lē-ănz_), =La.= [The “Crescent City”; its name is
a translation of the French name _Nouvelle Orleans_, given by them in
honor of the Duc d’Orleans, then Regent of France.]

It is the chief city of Louisiana, a great port and mart, and is
situated on both sides of the Mississippi River--the greater portion on
the east bank--one hundred and seven miles from its mouth, and one
thousand one hundred and ninety miles southwest of New York. The
Mississippi makes two bends here, whence the city was called “The
Crescent City,” but it is now shaped like the letter S. The river is
from six hundred to one thousand yards wide, and sixty to two hundred
and forty feet deep. The bar at its mouth was removed in 1874-1879 by
the Eads jetties in South Pass, and vessels of thirty feet now easily
reach New Orleans.

A great part of the city is below the level of the river during the high
flood tides, which last for a few days each year, and is protected by a
levee or embankment, fifteen feet wide and fourteen feet high. The city
is laid out with considerable regularity, and many of the chief streets
are wide and shaded with trees. The most important business thoroughfare
is Canal Street, which runs at right angles to the river and divides the
French Quarter, or “Vieux Carré” on the northeast, from the New City, or
American Quarter, on the southwest. The finest residences are in St.
Charles Avenue, and in Esplanada Avenue, where the wealthy Creoles have
their homes. Of the total population about one-quarter are negroes,
while the remaining three-fourths include large proportions of French,
German, Irish, Italian and Spanish blood.

While it possesses few imposing buildings, New Orleans is a picturesque
city. There are several parks, little improved, but with handsome
monuments or statues of Jackson, Lee, Franklin, and others. The custom
house of granite cost four million five hundred thousand dollars, and is
the largest and most imposing building in the city. It is a large
granite building in Canal Street, near the river, and contains a large
Marble Hall.

Just below the Custom House, Canal Street ends at the Levee, which
extends along the west bank of the Mississippi for about six miles and
presents a very animated and interesting scene. At the left is Jackson
Square, the old Place d’Armes, which retains its ancient iron railing,
and contains a statue of General Andrew Jackson, by Mills. It is
adjoined by the Cathedral of St. Louis, a good specimen of the
Spanish-Creole style, built in 1792-1794, on the site of the first
church in Louisiana, but altered in 1850. It contains some paintings and
interesting tombs.

The buildings to the right and left are Court Houses, that to the south
having been built for the Cabildo, or City Council of the Spanish
régime. In it and in front of it were held the ceremonies attending the
cession of Louisiana by the French Government to the United States in
1803.

In Orleans Street, near the east end of the Cathedral, is a Convent of
Colored Nuns, which contains what was formerly the famous Quadroon
Ballroom, mentioned by Cable, the scene of many celebrated festivities.

On the Levee, just beyond Jackson Square, is the French Market, which
often reveals a scene of the greatest picturesqueness and animation. A
little farther on, at the foot of Esplanade Avenue, is the United States
Branch Mint, a large building in the Ionic style. In Royal Street, four
blocks from Canal Street, is the new Court House, a handsome structure
of white marble and terra cotta.

In the fine French Quarter the chief promenades are Esplanade Avenue,
Rampart Street and Bourbon, Toulouse, Conti and Royal Streets. At the
corner of Chartres and Hospital Streets is the Archbishop’s Residence,
in the unchanged Ursuline Convent, built in 1730.

Following St. Charles Avenue from Canal Street to the south, is the St.
Charles Hotel and the Orpheum and, just beyond, Lafayette Square, around
which are grouped the City Hall, the new Post Office, St. Patrick’s
Church, the First Presbyterian Church, and the Odd Fellows’ Hall. In the
square are a statue of Franklin, by Hiram Powers, a monument to John
McDonough, and a statue of Henry Clay. Farther on is Lee Circle, with a
monument to General Robert E. Lee. At the corner of Camp Street and
Howard Avenue, adjoining Lee Circle, stands the Howard Library, the last
work of H. H. Richardson, who was a native of Louisiana. Adjacent are
Memorial Hall, a museum of Confederate relics, and the new building of
the Public Library. To the southwest, in Carondelet Street, is the
Jewish Temple Sinai. The monument to Margaret Haughery, the “Orphans’
Friend,” is said to have been the first statue of a woman erected in the
United States.

Tulane Avenue, named in honor of the chief benefactor of Tulane
University, and its continuation Common Street, contain the Law
Department of Tulane University, the House of Detention, the Jesuit
Church of the Immaculate Conception in a singular Moorish style, the
Parish Prison and Criminal Courts, the Hôtel Dieu, and the large Charity
Hospital, originally established in 1784. The large Cotton Exchange is
at the corner of Carondelet and Gravier Streets; the Produce Exchange is
in Magazine Street, and the Sugar Exchange is at the foot of Bienville
Street. The United States Marine Hospital lies near the river.

St. Charles Avenue, extending in a crescent from Lee Circle past Audubon
Park to the river, is lined with oaks and magnolias and contains many
old and admirable private residences. Among its public buildings are
Christ Church, the New Orleans University, the Academy of the Sacred
Heart, the Jewish Orphan Home, and the Harmony Club. At the point where
the avenue crosses Audubon Park are the newer buildings of the Tulane
University, an important and well-equipped institution. A department of
Tulane University is the H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College for Women,
founded in 1886. A legacy of John McDonough has built and equipped
thirty handsome school houses in different parts of the city.

The City Park, on the Metairie Ridge, is one hundred and fifty acres in
extent. The Audubon Park, in which the Great Exhibition of 1884-1885 was
held, and which now holds the “Sugar Experimental Station” of the State
of Louisiana, is a long segment extending back from the river, being the
ground in which the sugar cane was first grown in this state. Both parks
contain fine live-oaks.

New Orleans is the largest cotton market in the world except Liverpool,
handling annually two million bales. The manufacturing products include
machinery, cotton goods, boots and shoes, and amount in a year to sixty
million dollars. As the outlet of the Mississippi Valley it commands a
large export trade.

The site of New Orleans was first visited in 1699 by Bienville, who in
1718 laid the foundations of the city, and in 1726 made it the capital.
In 1763 it was ceded to Spain by France, with the rest of Louisiana; but
when in 1765 the Spanish governor attempted to take possession, he was
driven out, and the people established a government of their own till
1769, when the Spaniards occupied it. It was ceded to France in 1802,
and transferred to the United States a few days later. Incorporated as a
city in 1804, it was divided in 1836-1852 into three separate
municipalities, in consequence of the jealousies between the Creoles and
the Americans. Other outstanding events have been the defeat of the
British by Andrew Jackson in 1815; the capture in 1862 by the Federal
fleet; serious political troubles with fighting in 1874 and 1877; and
the lynching in 1891 of eleven Italian maffiosi. In 1880 the capital of
Louisiana was removed from New Orleans to Baton Rouge.

=Newport, R. I.= [The “City of Mansions”; named in honor of the English
admiral Christopher Newport (under James I.).]

It was, until 1900, one of the capitals of Rhode Island, and lies on the
west shore of the island, in Narragansett Bay, five miles from the
ocean, and sixty-nine miles by railroad southwest of Boston. It has a
deep and excellent harbor, defended by Fort Adams.

The town is noted for fine scenery, and is one of the most fashionable
watering-places in America, containing some of the finest mansions in
the United States. Bathing facilities are unrivaled, and there are many
fashionable promenades.

The chief attractions are Touro Park, and the Old Mill, Cliff Walk,
Bailey’s Beach, and the Ocean Drive.

The central point of Old Newport is Washington Square, or the Parade,
within a few minutes’ walk of the railway station and steamboat wharf.
Here are the State House, with portrait of Washington, by Stuart; the
old City Hall (new one in Broadway, corner of Bull Street); a statue of
Commodore O. H. Perry, the hero of Lake Erie; the Perry Mansion, and the
Roman Catholic Church, with an Ionic portico.

Following Touro Street, to the southeast, is the Synagogue built in 1762
and the oldest in the United States; the Newport Historical Society;
and, a little beyond, the picturesque Hebrew Cemetery. Touro Street ends
here and Bellevue Avenue, the fashionable promenade, begins, running to
the south.

The fine Fern-leaf Beech is at the corner of Bellevue Avenue and Redwood
Street. Nearly opposite this is Touro Park, containing the Round Tower
or Old Stone Mill, the origin of which is still somewhat of a mystery.
Some authorities believe that it was built by Governor Arnold in the
seventeenth century as a wind-mill, while others regard it as very
possibly the central part of a church built by the Norsemen in the
eleventh century. Longfellow mentions it in his _Skeleton in Armor_. The
park also contains statues of M. C. Perry and W. E. Channing; and
opposite its south side stands the Channing Memorial Church.

A few hundred paces farther on, Bath Road leads to the left from
Bellevue Avenue to the First Beach.

Bellevue Avenue soon passes the Casino, a long, low, many-gabled
building, containing a club, a theater, etc. The Lawn Tennis
Championship of America is decided in the courts attached to the Casino.
Farther on, the avenue passes between a series of magnificent villas,
and then turns sharply to the right and ends at Bailey’s Beach.

First or Easton’s Beach, a strip of smooth hard sand, three-fourths mile
long, affords some of the best and safest surf-bathing on the Atlantic
coast. From the east end of the beach a road leads round Easton’s Point
to Purgatory, a curious fissure in the conglomerate rocks, one hundred
and fifty feet long, seven to fourteen feet wide, and fifty feet deep.

At the west end of Easton’s Beach begins the famous Cliff Walk, which
runs along the winding brow of the cliffs for about three miles, with
the ocean on one side and the smooth lawns of handsome homes on the
other. Here are summer residences, owned by the wealthiest society
people of Boston, New York, and other cities.

Across the hill is Bailey’s Beach, a small bay with a long row of
bathing-houses, which has become the fashionable bathing-resort of the
Newport cottagers.

From Bailey’s Beach begins the beautiful Ocean or Ten Mile Drive, which
skirts the coast of the peninsula to the south of the town for about ten
miles, commanding magnificent views.

The locality of Newport has many natural curiosities, including the
Hanging Rocks, Spouting Cave, and the Glen, or “Purgatory,” already
referred to. Newport is the seat of the United States Naval War College,
United States Training Station, Torpedo Station, Naval Hospital, Newport
Hospital, and Hazard Memorial School.

The manufactures are flour, cotton goods, copper, brass, oil, etc.

Newport was settled in 1638 by eighteen adherents of Roger Williams, and
was an important commercial town prior to the Revolutionary war, which
effected its ruin and transferred its trade to New York. During the war
it was occupied for three years by the British, and for a while by the
French under Rochambeau. It was the birthplace of Commodore Perry and
William Ellery Channing, and for a while the place of residence of
Bishop Berkeley, the English philosopher.

=New York City, N. Y.= [The “Empire City”; also “Gotham”; named from the
State which was named in honor of James, Duke of York, afterwards James
II.]

It is the largest and most important city on the American continent, the
second wealthiest on the globe, and, next to London, the most populous
in the world. Situated on New York Bay at the confluence of the Hudson
and East Rivers, about twelve miles from the Atlantic Ocean, it consists
of the boroughs of Manhattan, The Bronx, Brooklyn, Queens, and Richmond,
which have a joint area of three hundred and twenty-six square miles.
Its extreme length, north and south, is thirty-five miles, its extreme
width nineteen miles.

Manhattan, or New York proper, consists mainly of Manhattan Island, a
long and narrow tongue of land bounded by the Hudson or North River on
the west and the East River (part of Long Island Sound) on the east and
separated from the mainland on the north and northeast by the narrow
Harlem River and Spuyten Duyvil Creek; but also includes several small
islands in New York Bay and the East River.

Manhattan Island is thirteen and one-half miles long, with an average
breadth of one and three-fifths miles, and with the exception of a
small, wild, and rocky portion, which is utilized for ornamental
purposes, the entire island is laid out in avenues and streets. It
includes several greens and parks, and its area has been considerably
extended by filling in on the two river-sides.

The strikingly beautiful landlocked harbor of New York includes the
lower bay, the upper bay, the East River, and the North, or Hudson
River. Ocean steamships enter it from the sea by Sandy Hook through the
Narrows, and coasting ships from the north through Long Island Sound.
The North River averages a mile wide; the East River is not so wide, but
both are deep enough for the largest ships, and furnish many miles of
wharfage. The Harlem River, at the north end of Manhattan Island,
connects the two great rivers.

The bar at Sandy Hook, eighteen miles south of the city, which divides
the Atlantic Ocean from the outer or lower bay, is crossed by two
ship-channels, from twenty-one to thirty-two feet deep at ebb-tide. The
lower bay covers eighty-eight square miles. The Narrows, through which
all large ships pass on their way to the inner harbor, is a strait
between Long Island and Staten Island, about a mile in width, and like
other approaches is defended by forts. New York’s harbor or inner bay
covers about fourteen square miles; it is one of the amplest, safest,
and most picturesque on the globe, open all the year round.

Liberty Island, for a long time known as Bedloe’s Island, is situated in
the harbor, about one and three-fourths miles from the lower end of the
city. In 1886 the famous Bartholdi statue was erected on this spot, and
occupies its central surface. It is a colossal bronze female figure one
hundred and fifty-one feet in height, on a pedestal one hundred and
fifty-five feet high, and holding aloft a torch which is lit by
electricity at night.

Immense bridges span the East River and Harlem River, and there are some
thirty steam-ferries.

The New York and Brooklyn Suspension Bridge, opened in 1883, which cost
twenty million dollars, was soon found inadequate for the enormous
traffic, and a second bridge from Canal Street to Brooklyn was opened in
1909.

The Williamsburg Suspension Bridge, between Manhattan and Williamsburg,
was opened in 1903. It cost twelve million dollars.

The Queensboro Bridge, of cantilever type, between Long Island and
Fifty-ninth Street, was opened in 1909. Its cost was twenty million
dollars.

In 1909 another bridge from Manhattan to Brooklyn, built at a cost of
twenty-six million dollars, was completed.

The Harlem River is crossed by several bridges, of which the Washington
is noteworthy as being one of the finest in America.

Hell Gate Arch Bridge spans the East River at Hell Gate, between Ward’s
Island and Astoria, Long Island. It was designed and built by Gustav
Lindenthal for the New York Connecting Railroad to connect the
Pennsylvania and New York, New Haven systems, at a cost, including
approaches, of twenty-five million dollars. It is the longest arch in
the world. The span is one thousand and sixteen feet ten inches between
tower faces. The upper chord of the arch is three hundred feet above
mean high water at the center and one hundred and eighty feet at the
ends of the span; the lower chord is two hundred and sixty feet above
mean high water at the center and forty feet at the ends; the roadway is
one hundred and forty feet above mean high water.

Old New York is laid out very irregularly. Here the money interests and
wholesale traffic are centered; Wall, New, and Broad Streets being the
great centers of banking and speculative enterprises.

The newer part of the city, from Fourteenth Street to the end of the
island, northward, is divided into twelve great avenues and several
smaller ones, from seventy-five to one hundred and fifty feet in width,
running north and south. These are crossed at right angles by streets,
mostly sixty feet in width, running from river to river.

Fifth Avenue, the great modern central thoroughfare, divides the city
into eastside and westside. Here or hereabout are the largest banks,
churches, museums, libraries, shops, palaces, and tenements in America.

Fifth Avenue below Fifty-ninth Street is now largely occupied by store
and office buildings where once were palatial private houses; and
between Madison Square and Fifty-ninth Street contains many hotels and
clubs, and the New York Public Library.

The original great thoroughfare, Broadway, runs a northwesterly course
through the regular cross street arrangement, making some slight
deflections, quite through the middle of the island.

For a distance of two and one-half miles from Fifty-ninth to One Hundred
and Tenth Street, Central Park divides the city into two parts.

Other parks are Van Cortlandt, one thousand and sixty-nine acres; Pelham
Bay, one thousand seven hundred acres; and Bronx Park, six hundred and
sixty-one and sixty-one hundredths acres, containing the Botanical and
Zoological Gardens. Prospect Park, Brooklyn, contains five hundred and
sixteen and one-quarter acres. A recreation course, skirting the Harlem
River, and reserved for fast driving, is the “Speedway,” and extending
along the Hudson for three miles is Riverside Drive, with its striking
views of the Palisades. On an abrupt elevation is Morningside Park, on
which are located the new buildings of Columbia University, St. Luke’s
Hospital, and the Cathedral of St. John the Divine. Beyond Morningside
Park is a rocky ridge known as Washington Heights.

The most thickly settled part of Brooklyn borough is in the north, and
the business portion is that part fronting on East River and the upper
harbor. The southern part is largely marshland. At the southwestern
extremity of Long Island, in this borough, stretches a sandbar known as
Coney Island, on which are the widely-known popular summer resorts.
Queensboro has several large population centers, among them Long Island
City and Flushing. Richmond borough (Staten Island) contains numerous
villages.

Communication throughout the city is afforded by an extensive system of
electric surface, electric elevated roads, the great subway railroad
system, and by ferries plying between the boroughs.

The subway has, for part of its course, four tracks, two of which are
for express trains. It begins at the City Hall and traverses the whole
length of Manhattan Island. The first length of eight miles to
Washington Heights was opened in 1904. The following year the line was
extended to the Battery, and also under the Harlem River into Bronx. In
1908 a further extension was opened between the Battery and Brooklyn by
way of a tunnel. In 1909, a double-tube tunnel, the McAdoo, connected
the city at Sixth Avenue and Twenty-third Street with Hoboken, N. J.

In 1910 several tunnels under the Hudson and East Rivers were opened.
Other great works of development are almost constantly in progress to
deal with the traffic requirements, including further subways, a number
of river tunnels, and additional railroad terminals. A recent gigantic
railway enterprise is the construction of the Pennsylvania tunnel under
the Hudson River.

Some of the larger features of New York call for more detailed notice.

The architecture of New York exhibits great contrasts, including styles
as diverse as the quaint old Dutch houses, and skyscrapers of
twenty-five and thirty stories.

At the extreme south end of the island is the Custom House, a large
quadrangular granite building, in the French Renaissance style, which
occupies the site of Fort Amsterdam. The facade toward Bowling Green is
adorned with colossal groups of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, and
with twelve heroic figures representing the great sea-powers.

In Whitehall Street, opposite the Custom House, is the Produce Exchange,
a huge brick and terra cotta structure in the Italian Renaissance style,
containing numerous offices and a large hall. The tower, two hundred and
twenty-five feet high, commands a fine view of the city and harbor.

Broadway begins at the Bowling Green, extending hence all the way to
Yonkers, a distance of nineteen miles. Up to Thirty-third Street,
Broadway is the scene of a most busy and varied traffic, which reaches
its culminating point in the lower part of the street during
business-hours. This part of the street is almost entirely occupied by
wholesale houses, insurance offices, banks, and the like; but farther up
are numerous fine shops. Broadway is no longer the broadest street in
New York, but it is still the most important. The number of immensely
tall office buildings with which it is now lined give it a curiously
canyon-like appearance.

No. 1 Broadway, to the left, is the Washington Building, which is
adjoined by the Bowling Green Building (sixteen stories), designed by
English architects. Other conspicuous business buildings in the lower
part of Broadway are the large Welles and Standard Oil Co. Buildings,
Nos. 18, 26, the 42 Broadway Building, twenty stories, and Aldrich
Court, on the site of the first habitation of white men on Manhattan
Island. At Nos. 64-68 is the Manhattan Life Insurance Co., the tower of
which is three hundred and sixty feet high. To the left, at the corner
of Rector Street, is the imposing Empire Building, twenty stories, the
hall of which forms a busy thoroughfare between Broadway and the Rector
Street “L” station.

[Illustration: =FAR-FAMED BROADWAY AT NIGHT=]

Wall Street diverging from Broadway to the right, at this point, is the
great financial street of New York, the financial barometer of the
country. On this street stands the United States Sub-Treasury, a marble
structure with a Doric portico, occupying the site of the old Federal
Hall, in which the first United States Congress assembled, and
Washington was inaugurated as President; the Drexel Building, a white
marble structure in the Renaissance style, occupied by J. Pierpont
Morgan & Co.; the National City Bank, largest in the country, occupying
the old Custom House.

Trinity Church, on the west side of Broadway, is a handsome Gothic
edifice of brown stone, with a spire two hundred and eighty-five feet
high. The present building dates from 1839-1846, but occupies the site
of a church of 1696. The church owns property to the value of at least
twenty million dollars used in the support of several subsidiary
churches and numerous charities.

Just above Trinity Church are the enormous Trinity and United States
Realty buildings, two dignified structures, the former with an admirable
facade in a modified Gothic style, and nearly opposite are the Union
Trust Co. and the twenty-three story building of the American Surety
Co., the latter containing the United States Weather Bureau (“Old
Probabilities”). On the same side, between Pine Street and Cedar Street,
is the office of the Equitable Life Insurance Co.

The block to the left, between Liberty Street and Cortland Street, is
occupied by the buildings of the Singer Manufacturing Co., the City
Realty Co., and the City Investing Co. The tower of the Singer Building,
with its forty-one stories, rises to a height of six hundred and twelve
feet. Between Broadway and Park Row is the Post Office, a large
Renaissance building.

City Hall, containing the headquarters of the Mayor of Greater New York
and other municipal authorities, is a well-proportioned building of
marble in the Italian style, with a central portico, two projecting
wings, and a cupola clock tower.

To the north of the City Hall is the Court House, a large building of
white marble, with its principal entrance, garnished with lofty
Corinthian columns, facing Chambers Street. The interior, which contains
the State Courts and several municipal offices, is well fitted up. This
building, one of the “Tweed ring” structures, is said to have cost
twelve million dollars. Opposite the Court House, in Chambers Street,
are various City Offices. These include the new Register Office or Hall
of Records, a handsome building in the French Renaissance style, erected
at a cost of six million dollars and faced with granite. The facade is
adorned with sculptures, and the interior is also elaborately decorated.
To the southwest of the City Hall, facing Broadway, is a statue of
Nathan Hale.

Park Row, bounding the southeast side of the City Hall Park, contains
the offices of many of the principal New York newspapers, the Pulitzer
Building, with the World office, Tribune Building, New York Press, and
Park Row Building with its lofty towers. Opposite the newspaper offices,
in Printing House Square, is a bronze statue of Benjamin Franklin, and
in front of the Tribune Building is a seated bronze figure of its famous
founder, Horace Greeley.

Beyond Astor Place, Broadway passes the large building occupied by John
Wanamaker, but originally erected for A. T. Stewart & Co. With its new
annexes, it is heralded as the largest department store in the world.

Broadway now inclines to the left. At the bend rises Grace Church,
which, with the adjoining rectory, chantry, and church-house, forms one
of the most attractive ecclesiastical groups in New York. The church is
of white limestone and has a lofty marble spire. The interior is
well-proportioned, and all the windows contain stained glass.

At Fourteenth Street Broadway reaches Union Square, which is beautified
with pleasure grounds, statues, and an ornamental fountain. At the
corner of East Sixteenth Street is the massive office building of the
Bank of Metropolis. Near the southeast corner is a good equestrian
statue of Washington, in the center of the south side is a bronze
statue of Lafayette, in the southwest corner is a statue of Abraham
Lincoln, and on the west side is the James Fountain.

Broadway, between Union Square and Madison Square, is one of the chief
shopping-resorts of New York, containing many fine stores for the sale
of furniture, dry goods, etc. At Twenty-third Street it intersects Fifth
Avenue and at the point of intersection stands the daring Fuller
Building, generally known as the “Flat-iron Building” on account of its
strange triangular shape. It is two hundred and ninety feet high, has
twenty stories, and cost four million dollars.

Broadway now skirts the west side of Madison Square, a prettily laid out
public garden, containing a bronze statue of Admiral Farragut, an
obelisk to the memory of General Worth, a statue of Roscoe Conkling, a
statue of President Arthur, and a statue of William H. Seward. The
statue of Farragut is among the finest in New York, and the imaginative
treatment of the pedestal is very beautiful. On the west side of the
square is the new Fifth Avenue Building.

On the east side is the new Appellate Court House, a handsome building,
perhaps somewhat overloaded with ornamentation.

On the east side of the square, between Twenty-third and Twenty-fourth
Streets, is the enormous building of the Metropolitan Life Insurance
Co., the tower of which has fifty stories and reaches a height of six
hundred and ninety-three feet. Two elevators run to a height of five
hundred and forty-four feet. Adjacent is the Madison Square Presbyterian
Church, with its massive dome. At the southeast corner of Twenty-sixth
Street stands the Manhattan Club, and at the northeast corner is the
huge Madison Square Garden, with its Moorish tower capped by a fine
statue of Diana.

The Herald Office, a Venetian palace, stands at Broadway and
Thirty-fifth Street, in Herald Square.

West of Herald Square, at Seventh Avenue and Thirty-third Street, is the
magnificent station of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, covering an
area four hundred and fifty by one thousand eight hundred feet, the
largest structure of the kind in the world, connected by tunnels under
the Hudson River with New Jersey, and under the East River with Long
Island. The tracks are forty feet below the level of the city streets.

The Metropolitan Opera House, opened in 1883 and rebuilt ten years
later, after a fire, stands between Thirty-ninth and Fortieth Streets.

At Forty-second Street and Broadway is the Times Building, an ornamental
structure sixteen stories high, upon a triangle of ground.

To the east of Madison Avenue is the Grand Central Station, the terminus
of the New York Central, the New York, New Haven and Hartford, and the
Harlem Railways. Opposite the station is the Belmont Hotel, twenty-two
stories high.

The corner at Broadway and Forty-second Street is the recent heart of
the theatrical and hotel district, for clustered there are a dozen
hotels, the immense Astor and Knickerbocker among them, and there are
twenty theaters within half a mile, six of them almost side by side on
Forty-second Street.

Beyond Times Square, Broadway is rather uninteresting, but there are
some lofty specimens of apartment houses or French flats farther up.
From Forty-fifth Street on, Broadway is largely occupied by automobile
stores and garages. At the corner of Fifty-sixth Street is the new
Broadway Tabernacle and at Fifty-ninth Street Broadway reaches the
southwest corner of Central Park and intersects Eighth Avenue.

At the intersection, the so-called Circle, stands the Columbus Monument
by Gaetano Russo, erected in 1892, and consisting of a tall shaft
surmounted by a marble statue, in all seventy-seven feet high. Beyond
Seventy-eighth Street, Broadway, now a wide street with rows of trees,
is usually known as the Boulevard. From One Hundred and Eighth Street to
One Hundred and Sixty-second Street it coincides with Eleventh Avenue,
at One Hundred and Sixteenth Street it passes Columbia University, and
from One Hundred and Sixty-second Street it, as Kingsbridge Road, runs
on to Yonkers.

Fifth Avenue, the chief street in New York from the standpoint of wealth
and fashion, begins at Washington Square to the north of West Fourth
Street and a little to the west of Broadway, and runs north to the
Harlem River, a distance of six miles. Below Forty-seventh Street the
Avenue has now been largely invaded by shops, tall office buildings, and
hotels. The avenue has been kept sacred from the marring touch of the
street railway or the elevated railroad, and is traversed by a line of
motor omnibuses. The avenue is wide and well-paved, and many of the
buildings are of brown sandstone. On a fine afternoon Fifth Avenue is
alive with carriages and horsemen on their way to and from Central Park
and it is, perhaps, seen at its best on a fine Sunday.

At Twenty-third Street the Avenue intersects Broadway and skirts Madison
Square. To the right is the Flat-iron Building. At Twenty-sixth Street
is the Café Martin.

The whole block between Thirty-third and Thirty-fourth Streets, to the
left, is occupied by the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel, a huge double building
of red brick and sandstone in a German Renaissance style. The
restaurants and other large halls in the interior are freely adorned
with mural paintings by American artists.

The Union League Club, the chief Republican club of New York, is a
handsome and substantial building at the corner of Thirty-ninth Street.

Between Fortieth Street and Forty-second Street, to the left, on the
site of the old reservoir of the Croton Aqueduct, stands the New York
Public Library, a very dignified and imposing structure of white marble,
built at a cost of ten million dollars.

A little to the east of this point, in Forty-second Street, is the Grand
Central Station already referred to. At the southeast corner of
Forty-second Street rises the tasteful Columbia Bank. The Temple
Emanu-El, or chief synagogue of New York, at the corner of Forty-third
Street, is a fine specimen of Moorish architecture with a richly
decorated interior.

At the northeast corner of Forty-fourth Street is Delmonico’s
Restaurant, a substantial building with elaborate ornamentation; and at
the southwest corner is Sherry’s, a rival establishment, equally
patronized by the fashionable world.

The Collegiate Church of St. Nicholas (Dutch Reformed), at the corner of
Forty-eighth Street, is one of the handsomest and most elaborately
adorned ecclesiastical edifices in the city. It is in decorated Gothic
style and has a spire two hundred and seventy feet high. Just below
Fiftieth Street, on the right, is the Democratic Club, the stronghold of
Tammany and popularly known as “Tamany Hall” or the “Wigwam.”

Between Fiftieth and Fifty-first Streets, to the right, stands St.
Patrick’s Cathedral, an extensive building of white marble in the
decorated Gothic style, and the most important ecclesiastical edifice in
the United States. It is four hundred feet long, one hundred and
twenty-five feet wide and one hundred and twelve feet high, and the two
beautiful spires are three hundred and thirty-two feet high. The
building, which was designed by James Renwick, was erected in 1850-1879,
at a cost of three million five hundred thousand dollars.

Adjoining the cathedral, to the right, is the handsome Union Club, and
at the corner of Fifty-fourth Street is the University Club, adorned
with carvings of the seals of eighteen American colleges. The library
contains admirable mural paintings, adapted from Pinturicchio’s work in
the Borgia apartments of the Vatican. At the corner of Fifty-fifth
Street are the St. Regis Hotel and the Gotham Hotel. The Fifth Avenue
Presbyterian Church has one of the loftiest spires in the city.

Between Fifty-ninth and One Hundred and Tenth Streets Fifth Avenue
skirts the east side of Central Park, having buildings on one side only.
Among these, many of which are very handsome, is the Metropolitan Club.

At Fifty-ninth Street, where Fifth Avenue reaches Central Park, are
three huge hotels: the New Plaza, the Savoy, and the Netherland. In the
middle of the Plaza rises a bronze-gilt equestrian statue of General
Sherman, of fine artistic merit.

Mt. Sinai Hospital is between One Hundredth and One Hundred and First
Streets.

In Central Park, close to Fifth Avenue at Eighty-second Street, is the
Metropolitan Museum of Art.

At One Hundred and Twentieth Street Fifth Avenue reaches Mount Morris
Square, the mound in the center of which commands good views. Beyond Mt.
Morris Square the Avenue is lined with handsome villas, some of them
surrounded by gardens. It ends in a district of tenements and small
shops at the Harlem River.

New York has many public parks, the finest of which is the Central Park.
The district in which it is located was once a wilderness of rocks and
swamps. Plans by Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux were so
admirably carried out as to make the Central Park in ten years one of
the most beautiful pleasure-grounds in the world.

Of its eight hundred and forty acres, four hundred are wooded. There are
nine miles of drives, with thirty miles of paths, several lakes used for
boats in summer and for skating in winter, immense lawns for baseball,
tennis, etc., a zoological garden, and conservatories.

The chief promenade is the Mall, near the Fifth Avenue entrance, which
is lined with fine elms and contains several statues and groups of
sculpture, including Shakespeare, Scott, Burns, Halleck, Columbus, and
the Indian Hunter. From the Terrace, at the north end of the Mall,
flights of steps descend to the Bethesda Fountain and to the Lake, used
for boating in summer and skating in winter. The most extensive view in
the park is afforded by the Belvedere, which occupies the highest point
of the Ramble, to the north of the Lake.

The North Park, beyond the Croton Reservoir, has fewer artificial
features than the South Park, but its natural beauties are greater, and
the Harlem Mere, of twelve acres, is very picturesque. Near the
southeast corner of the park (nearest entrance in Sixty-fourth Street)
are the Old State Arsenal and a small Zoological Garden. On the west
side of the park is the American Museum of Natural History, and on the
east side is the Metropolitan Museum of Art. To the west of the latter
museum rises Cleopatra’s Needle, an Egyptian obelisk from Alexandria,
presented by Khedive Ismail Pasha to the City of New York in 1877. The
obelisk is of red syenite, is sixty-nine feet high and weighs two
hundred tons. Among the other monuments in the park are statues of
Webster, Bolivar, Hamilton and Morse, allegorical figures of Commerce
and the Pilgrim, and several busts and animal groups. Just outside the
park, beside the Sixth Avenue entrance, is a statue of Thorwaldsen.

In Manhattan Square, on the west side of Central Park, between
Seventy-seventh and Eighty-first Streets, stands the American Museum of
Natural History, which contains collections of natural history,
paleontology and ethnology.

[Illustration: =CENTRAL PARK TERRACE, NEW YORK=]

The Metropolitan Museum contains paintings, statuary, ivories,
tapestries, porcelains, Greek, Roman, and Egyptian antiquities.
Beginning with one structure erected by the city at a cost of five
hundred thousand dollars in 1880, it now comprises a series of buildings
which cost several million dollars. The collections of paintings,
sculpture, antiquities, porcelains, jades, armor, etc., are valued at
ten million dollars, most of which has been contributed by art lovers of
the city. In 1903 the institution received a bequest of six million
dollars from the well-known locomotive builder John T. Rogers, which has
enabled it to compete with other great museums.

At the corner of Morningside Avenue and One Hundred and Twelfth Street
is the new Episcopal Cathedral of St. John the Divine, designed by Heins
and La Farge, the corner-stone of which was laid in 1892, but the
building of which has not progressed very far. The Crypt, including the
curious Tiffany Chapel of mosaic glass, and the Belmont or St. Saviour’s
Chapel are the only portions completed. To the north of this, in the
block bounded by Morningside Avenue, Tenth Avenue, One Hundred and
Thirteenth Street, and One Hundred and Fourteenth Street, is the large
building of St. Luke’s Hospital, constructed of white marble and white
pressed brick, with a tower and clock over the main entrance.

To the northwest of this point, on a magnificent site extending from One
Hundred and Fourteenth Street to One Hundred and Twenty-first Street,
one hundred and ten to one hundred and fifty feet above the Hudson
River, are the new buildings of Columbia University, the oldest,
largest, and most important educational institution in New York. The
finest building in the center of the group is the Low Memorial Library,
built at a cost of one million dollars.

On a commanding site bounded by One Hundred and Thirty-eighth Street,
Amsterdam Avenue, One Hundred and Fortieth Street, and St. Nicholas
Terrace, are the imposing new buildings of the College of the City of
New York, erected in 1903-1908 by Mr. George B. Post, in the low-arch
Gothic style, at a cost of nearly five million dollars, and notable for
their uniformity of design and symmetry of grouping.

Among other educational institutions are the Normal College, at
Sixty-ninth Street and Park Avenue; the College of Physicians and
Surgeons; the New York University; Cooper Union, in which nearly all the
courses are free; St. John’s (Fordham), Manhattan, and St. Francis
Xavier, Roman Catholic colleges; the National Academy of Design; Society
of American Artists; the Art Students’ League; Chase Art School; New
York Institute of Music, and various theological schools.

Riverside Drive or Park, skirting the hills fronting on the Hudson from
Seventy-second Street to One Hundred and Twenty-seventh Street, affords
beautiful views of the river and is one of the most striking roads of
which any city can boast. It has become, perhaps, the most attractive
residential quarter of New York, though a great architectural
opportunity has been lost in the buildings that border it, these
consisting largely of apartment hotels, remarkable mainly for their
size.

Near the north end of the drive, on Claremont Heights (West One Hundred
and Twenty-second Street), is the Tomb of General Ulysses S. Grant, a
huge and solid mausoleum of white granite, erected in 1891-1897 at a
cost of six hundred thousand dollars, from a design by J. H. Duncan. The
monument consists of a lower story in the Doric style, ninety feet
square, surmounted by a cupola borne by Ionic columns. The total height
is one hundred and fifty feet.

John Verrazani, a Florentine navigator, was the first European who
entered New York Bay (1525). In 1614 the Dutch built a fort on Manhattan
Island, and in 1623 a permanent settlement was made, named Nieuw
Amsterdam. In 1674 Manhattan Island came into the possession of Great
Britain. At the Revolution the population was less than that of
Philadelphia or Boston. It was evacuated by the forces of Great Britain
in 1783, and from 1785 to 1789 was the seat of government of the United
States. The opening of the Erie Canal in 1825 gave a vast impetus to New
York City’s growth. The city by 1874 had extended beyond the Harlem
River and a part of Westchester County was incorporated in it. In 1896 a
law was passed consolidating with New York City, Brooklyn (Kings
County), Long Island City, Staten Island, Westchester, Flushing,
Newtown, Jamaica, and parts of Eastchester, Pelham, and Hempstead. By
the charter adopted in 1897 this territory was divided into the boroughs
of Manhattan, Brooklyn, Bronx, Richmond, and Queens. A new charter was
secured in 1907 under which the mayor presides over the entire city,
with absolute power of appointment and removal of the heads of all city
departments. In 1911 a new charter was drawn up which evoked
considerable opposition, as it seemed to place still greater powers in
the hands of the mayor.

[Illustration: =GRANT’S TOMB, RIVERSIDE DRIVE, NEW YORK=]

=Philadelphia= (_fĭl-ȧ-del´fĭ-ȧ_), =Pa.= [The “Quaker City”; named from
two Greek words meaning “loved or friendly,” and “brother,” applied as
“brotherly love.” The Indian name of the locality was _Coaquannok_,
“grove of tall pine trees.”]

The chief city of Pennsylvania and the third city in population and
importance of the United States, it is situated on the Delaware River,
about one hundred miles by ship-channel (via Delaware Bay) from the
Atlantic Ocean, ninety miles by railroad southwest of New York City, and
one hundred and thirty-six miles northeast of Washington.

The city occupies mainly a broad plain between the Delaware and the
Schuylkill Rivers. It is twenty-two miles long from north to south and
five to ten miles wide, covering one hundred and thirty square miles,
and is laid out with chessboard regularity. The characteristic
Philadelphia house is a two-storied or three-storied structure of red
pressed brick, with white marble steps. The two rivers give it about
thirty miles of water-front for docks and wharfage, and it is the
headquarters of two of the greatest American railways--the Pennsylvania
and the Reading.

The great wholesale business thoroughfare is Market Street, running east
and west between the two rivers, while Chestnut Street, parallel with it
on the south, contains the finest shops, many of the newspaper offices,
etc. Broad Street is the chief street running north and south. Among the
most fashionable residence quarters are Rittenhouse Square and the west
parts of Walnut, Locust, Spruce, and Pine Streets. Eighth Street is the
great district for shops and amusements.

The City Hall (or Public Buildings) is in the center of the city at the
intersection of Broad and Market Streets. The structure is the largest
exclusively municipal building in the world. It is built of white marble
upon a granite base, in French Renaissance style, and covers an area of
four hundred and eighty-six by four hundred and seventy feet. The height
of the tower and dome is five hundred and thirty-seven feet four and
one-half inches; or five hundred and seventy-three feet four and
one-half inches with the colossal figure of Penn (thirty-six feet), to
surmount the whole. The entire cost, when completely furnished for
occupancy, was estimated at twenty-five million dollars.

The broad pavement round the City Hall is adorned with statues of
General Reynolds, General McClellan, Stephen Girard, John C. Bullitt,
President McKinley, and Joseph Leidy, the naturalist, and with the
“Pilgrim” by Saint-Gaudens.

On the west side of City Hall Square, opposite the City Hall, is the
enormous Broad Street Station of the Pennsylvania Railroad. The
waiting-room contains a large allegorical relief, while one wall is
covered with a mammoth railway map of the United States. On the north
side of the square, at the corner of Broad Street and Filbert Street, is
the Masonic Temple, a huge granite structure with a tower two hundred
and fifty feet high and an elaborately carved Norman porch.

On the east side of the square, occupying the block bounded by the
square, Market Street, Thirteenth Street, and Chestnut Street, is
Wanamaker’s Store, one of the largest in the United States. On the south
side of the square is the Betz Building, with heads of the Presidents of
the United States in the bronze cornice above the third-story windows.

Chestnut Street is the chief street of Philadelphia, containing many of
the handsomest and most interesting buildings. To the left, at the
corner of Broad Street and adjoining the Betz Building, is the Franklin
National Bank, while to the right rises the fine office of the Real
Estate Trust Co. At the corner of Twelfth Street is the tall
Commonwealth Trust Building, and at the corner of Tenth Street, on the
same side, is the New York Mutual Life Insurance Co.

Between Tenth and Ninth Streets, to the left, are the Mortgage Trust
Co., the Penn Mutual Life Building, with an elaborate facade, and the
office of the _Philadelphia Record_. At the corner of Ninth Street,
extending on the north to Market Street, is the Post Office, a large
granite building in the Renaissance style, erected at a cost of five
million dollars. It also contains the United States Courts and the
offices of various Federal officials. In front of the Post Office is a
colossal seated figure of Benjamin Franklin. Between Eighth and Seventh
Streets is the ornamented front of the Union Trust Co. This
neighborhood contains several newspaper offices. At the corner of Sixth
Street, on the Public Ledger Building, is another statue of Franklin.

In Seventh Street, a little to the north of Chestnut Street, is the
Franklin Institute with a library, museum and lecture-hall.

Between Fifth and Sixth Streets is Independence Hall, or the old State
House, a modest brick edifice (1732-1735), which is in some respects the
most interesting building in the United States. Here the Continental
Congress met during the American Revolution (1775-1781), and here, on
July 4th, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was adopted. In
1897-1898 the whole building was restored as far as possible to its
original condition.

The Custom House, with a Doric portico, was originally erected in
1819-1824 for the United States Bank. It is copied from the Parthenon,
and considered one of the best examples of Doric architecture in the
world.

A lane diverging to the right between Fourth and Third Streets, opposite
the Fidelity Trust Co., leads to Carpenters’ Hall, where the First
Colonial Congress assembled in 1774. It contains the chairs used at the
Congress, various historical relics, and the inscription: “Within these
walls Henry, Hancock, and Adams inspired the delegates of the colonies
with nerve and sinew for the toils of war.” Chestnut Street ends at the
Delaware River.

Walnut Street runs parallel to Chestnut Street, one block to the south.
In this street, at the intersection of Dock Street and Third Street, is
the Stock Exchange, formerly the Merchants Exchange, with a
semi-circular portico facing the river. Near it, in Third Street, is the
Girard Bank, built for the first United States Bank and long owned by
Stephen Girard. At Fourth Street is the building of the Manhattan
Insurance Co.

Walnut Street now crosses Broad Street, to the west of which it consists
mainly of private residences. Between Eighteenth and Nineteenth Streets
we pass Rittenhouse Square, a fashionable residence quarter.

At the corner of Broad and Chestnut Streets are the white marble
building of the Girard Trust Co., with a rotunda, and the tall Land
Title Building.

North Broad Street, beginning on the north side of the City Hall Square,
a handsome street one hundred and thirteen feet wide, contains in its
upper portion many of the finest private residences in Philadelphia. To
the right, at the corner of Filbert Street, is the Masonic Temple, which
is adjoined by the Arch Street Methodist Episcopal Church. On the
opposite side of the street are the tall buildings of the United Gas
Improvement Co. and the Fidelity Mutual Life Association. To the right
is the Odd Fellows’ Temple.

To the left, at the corner of Cherry Street, is the Pennsylvania Academy
of the Fine Arts, a building in the Venetian style of architecture. The
Academy was founded in 1805. Besides its collections it supports an
important art-school, the lecture hall of which is adorned with
effective decorations by the pupils. Its collections include five
hundred paintings, numerous sculptures, several hundred casts, and fifty
thousand engravings. The early American school is especially well
represented.

On the west side of Broad Street, between Race and Vine Streets, are the
Hahnemann College and Hospital, one of the chief homœopathic
institutions of the kind. To the right, at the corner of Spring Garden
Street, is the Spring Garden Institute for instruction in drawing,
painting, and the mechanic arts. Opposite are the Baldwin Locomotive
Works, a highly interesting industrial establishment.

A little farther on is the Boys’ Central High School, an unusually large
and handsome structure, and the Synagogue Rodef Shalom, in a Moorish
style.

Farther up Broad Street are numerous handsome private houses, churches,
and other edifices. At the northwest corner of Broad Street and Girard
Avenue is the handsome Widener Mansion, presented to the city and used
as a branch of the Free Library. Beyond Master Street, to the left, is
the elaborate home of the Mercantile Club. Beyond this Broad Street runs
out to Germantown, six miles from the City Hall.

Girard Avenue runs west from North Broad Street to Girard College, one
of the richest and most notable philanthropic institutions in the United
States. It was founded by Stephen Girard, a native of France, for the
education of male orphans. The original bequest of over five million
dollars has increased to about thirty-five million dollars.

The main building is a dignified marble structure in the Corinthian
style, resembling the Madeleine at Paris. In the vestibule are a statute
of Stephen Girard, and his sarcophagus. A room on the ground floor
contains several relics of him.

Market Street is the chief wholesale business thoroughfare of the city.
A little to the east of City Hall Square it passes the Philadelphia &
Reading Railway Station, a tall Renaissance building with a train shed
little smaller than that of the Pennsylvania Railroad. The department
store of Gimbel Brothers, on the south side of the street, between
Eighth and Ninth Streets, is one of the largest in the world. The Penn
National Bank, at the corner of South Seventh Street, occupies the site
of the house in which Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence.

South Broad Street leads to the south from City Hall Square. Its
intersection with Chestnut Street, just to the south of the City Hall,
is environed with tall office buildings. To the right is the annex of
the Land Title Building, extending to Sansom Street. Opposite, adjoining
the Real Estate Trust Co., is the North American Building, named after
the newspaper which occupies it. Below is the Union League Club, the
chief Republican club of Pennsylvania. On the same side is the large
Bellevue-Stratford Hotel, the leading hotel of Philadelphia, and one of
the great hostelries of the country. Farther on, to the right, is the
Art Club, in the Renaissance style, in which exhibitions of paintings,
concerts, and public lectures are held. At Locust Street, to the right,
is the Academy of Music, while to the left is the Pennsylvania School of
Industrial Art, incorporated in 1876, with a special view to the
development of the art industries of Pennsylvania. A characteristic
feature is the department of weaving and textile design. The Industrial
Museum Hall is connected with this excellent institution.

Below Pine Street, Broad Street contains few important buildings. Of
special note, however, is the Ridgway Library, which stands to the left,
between Christian and Carpenter Streets, nearly one mile from the City
Hall. This handsome building was erected with a legacy of one million
five hundred thousand dollars left by Dr. Rush in 1869, as a branch of
the Philadelphia Library. Adjoining the main hall is the tomb of the
founder.

Broad Street ends, four miles from the City Hall, at League Island Park,
three hundred acres in extent. League Island itself, in the Delaware,
contains a United States Navy Yard.

WEST PHILADELPHIA, the extension of the city beyond the Schuylkill,
contains many of the chief residence streets and several public
buildings and charitable institutions.

The University of Pennsylvania, founded in 1740, and removed to West
Philadelphia in 1872, occupies a group of more than thirty buildings
scattered over an area of sixty acres bounded by Woodland and Cleveland
Avenues and Pine and Thirty-second Streets.

The College, the Medical School, Dental School, and Law School, are all
provided with spacious and well-equipped buildings. Houston Hall, behind
College Hall, is the social center of the University student life. The
Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology is recognized as the
headquarters of anatomical research in the United States and contains
the first museum of human anatomy founded in America. The Morgan
Laboratory of Physics, the Harrison Laboratory of Chemistry, the
Gymnasium, and the Dormitories are all notable structures. Franklin
Field, adjoining Thirty-third Street, is the athletic ground of the
University and contains a large stadium.

The Museum of Science and Art occupies a tasteful building in South
Street, owing part of its inspiration to the Certosa at Pavia, and is
divided into five sections. Its value is largely due to the fact that
many of its contents were found by expeditions organized by the
University itself.

A little to the northeast, at the corner of Chestnut Street and
Thirty-second Street, is the Drexel Institute, founded by A. J. Drexel,
and opened in 1892. The total cost of buildings and equipment was four
million five hundred thousand dollars.

Fairmount Park, the chief park of Philadelphia, is one of the largest in
the world, and covers an area of three thousand three hundred and forty
acres. The park proper extends along both banks of the Schuylkill for
about four miles, and the narrow strip along the Wissahickon, six miles,
and one of the noted drives of the world, is also included in the park
limits. The principal entrances are at the end of Green Street, which is
connected with the City Hall by the wide Park Boulevard, and at Girard
Avenue.

In this park, in 1876 was held the Centennial Exhibition; and in its
environs are the Zoological Garden, the Fairmount Waterworks, which
supply to the city one hundred million gallons of water daily, the
beautiful Horticultural Hall and Memorial Hall, built as part of the
Centennial Exhibition of 1876 at a cost of one million five hundred
thousand dollars, and now containing a permanent collection of art and
industry known as Pennsylvania Museum of Industrial Art.

At Sackamaxon, in Beach Street, is the small Penn Treaty Park, supposed
to occupy the spot where Penn made his treaty with the Indians in 1682,
under an elm that has long since vanished, a treaty, in the words of
Voltaire, “never sworn to and never broken.”

In its manufacturing products Philadelphia ranks next to New York. There
are upward of twenty thousand manufacturing establishments, the combined
output of which amounts to more than eight hundred million dollars. The
chief products are locomotives, sugar and molasses, men’s clothing,
foundry and machine-shop products, carpets and rugs, hosiery and knit
goods, woolen and cotton goods, malt liquors, morocco, chemicals, packed
meat, refined petroleum and silk, and silk goods. The great Cramp
ship-building yards are on the Delaware River. The Baldwin Locomotive
Works are the largest in the world.

Philadelphia was founded by William Penn in 1682, the year after was
made the capital of Pennsylvania, and soon became a place of importance.
It was the central point in the War of Independence, where the first
Continental Congress met, September 4, 1774, and where the Declaration
of Independence was adopted in 1776. At Philadelphia, also, the Federal
Union was signed, in 1778; and here, too, the Constitution of the United
States was framed, in 1787. An interest of another kind attaches to the
fact that the Protestant Episcopal Church of North America was organized
here in 1786. From 1790 to 1800 Philadelphia was the Federal Capital;
and the first mint was established here in 1792. Later events have been
the holding of the Centennial Exhibition, in 1876, and the commemoration
of Penn’s landing in 1882.

=Pittsburgh, Pa.= [The “Smoky City,” “Iron City”; named in 1758, when
the French had been driven out by Washington; Fort Pitt, after William
Pitt, Earl of Chatham, the name Pittsburgh being adopted in 1769.]

It is the second city of Pennsylvania and one of the chief industrial
centers of the United States, and occupies the tongue of land between
the Monongahela and the Allegheny, which here unite to form the Ohio,
and also a strip of land on the south side of the Monongahela. The
sister city, Allegheny, situated on the north bank of the Allegheny and
extending down to the Ohio, was incorporated with Pittsburgh in 1907 and
is now known as the North Side. The rivers are crossed by numerous
bridges.

Smithfield Street, diverging from Liberty Avenue, not far from the Union
Station, leads to the river Monongahela, on the other side of which,
from Washington Heights, may be obtained a fine view of the city. On
Liberty Avenue, to the right, is the City Hall a fine structure of white
sandstone. A little farther on, to the left, is the Post Office. At the
bridge are the Monongahela Hotel and the Baltimore & Ohio Station.

Crossing the Smithfield Street Bridge, Mt. Washington (three hundred and
seventy feet) may be ascended by one of the three inclined railways on
this side. These interesting, but at first somewhat startling, pieces of
apparatus are worked by cables and transport horses and carriages as
well as persons.

The finest building in Pittsburgh is the Allegheny County Court House,
in Grant Street, a splendid example of H. H. Richardson’s treatment of
Romanesque, erected in 1888 at a cost of two million five hundred
thousand dollars. The massive Prison is connected with the Court House
by a finely handled stone bridge. The main tower is three hundred and
twenty feet high. The government building cost one million five hundred
thousand dollars.

Other buildings of importance are the Frick Building, a granite office
structure of twenty stories at the corner of Fifth Avenue and Grant
Street; the Carnegie Building and the Farmers’ Bank Building (these two
also in Fifth Avenue); the Union National Bank Building and the
Commonwealth Trust Co. Building, in Fourth Avenue; the First
Presbyterian Church, in Sixth Avenue; the Fulton Building, and the
Bessemer Building (the last two at the corner of Sixth Street and
Duquesne Way).

More to the east are the Academy of Our Lady of Mercy and the new
Calvary Episcopal Church (at the corner of Shady Avenue and Walnut
Street), a beautiful example of thirteenth century Gothic. The Roman
Catholic Cathedral of St. Paul stands in Fifth Avenue, at the corner of
Craig Street.

To the east of the city lies Schenley Park, containing the fine Phipps
Conservatory and the Hall of Botany. Near the Forbes Street entrance to
the Park is the great central building of the Carnegie Library of
Pittsburgh, in which are housed not only the main collection of the
library, but also two of the three departments of the Carnegie
Institute. The structure, originally built in the Italian Renaissance
style at a cost of eight hundred thousand dollars, was remodeled and
enlarged in 1904-1907 at an additional cost of five million dollars. The
city is also the seat of Pittsburgh University, Holy Ghost College, and
Penn’s College for Women. The great iron and steel works have made the
prosperity and reputation of Pittsburgh. Among these are the Edgar
Thomson Steel Works, the Homestead Steel Works, the Duquesne Steel
Works, the American Bridge Co., the Jones & Laughlin Works, the Oliver
Iron & Steel Co., the Crescent Steel Works, and the Pressed Steel Car
Co.

Its manufactures include everything, indeed, which can be made of iron,
from a fifty-eight-ton gun to nails and tacks; steel in its various
applications; electrical machinery and appliances; all descriptions of
glass and glassware; silver and nickel-plated ware; Japan and Britannia
ware; pressed tin, brass, copper, bronzes; Portland cement, earthenware,
crucibles, fire-pots, bricks; furniture, wagons and carriages; brushes,
bellows, mechanical supplies of all kinds; natural-gas fittings, and
tools for oil and gas wells. Pittsburgh has, also, the largest
manufactory of cork, and the largest pickling and preserving
establishment in the world.

In 1754 a few English traders built a stockade here, but were driven
away by the French. The latter replaced the stockade by a fort, which,
in honor of the Governor of Canada, they called Duquesne. In 1758 it was
taken by the English, who next year commenced a large and strong
fortification, which, in honor of the elder Pitt, then Prime Minister,
they called Fort Pitt. The settlement became a borough in 1804, and in
1816 was incorporated as the city of Pittsburgh. In 1872 the limits of
the city were extended across the Monongahela, and by 1906 it extended
over twenty-eight square miles. In 1907 Allegheny City (in spite of the
opposition of a large majority of its inhabitants) was annexed; the
Supreme Court of the United States declared the act valid, and thus
Allegheny became the North Side of the present Pittsburgh.

=Richmond, Va.= [Named from Richmond-on-the-Thames, a suburb of London;
the name suggested owing to analogy in situation.]

It is the capital of Virginia, on the left bank of the James River, at
the head of tide water, one hundred and fifty miles from its mouth, and
one hundred and sixteen miles by rail south of Washington. It is a port
of entry, and vessels drawing sixteen feet of water can come up to the
lower end of the city, where there are large docks. Richmond is
picturesquely situated on a group of hills, and fine water power is
afforded by the James River, which descends one hundred and sixteen feet
in nine miles.

Near the center of the city, on Shockoe Hill, is Capitol Square, a
tree-shaded area of twelve acres. The Capitol, or State House, partly
designed after the Maison Carrée at Nîmes, France, occupies the highest
point of the square and dates from 1785. The wings were added in 1906.

In the Central Hall, surmounted by a dome, are Houdon’s statue of
Washington (which Washington himself is said to have seen in its present
position) and a bust of Lafayette by the same artist. The Senate
Chamber, to the right, was used as the Confederate House of
Representatives during the Civil War. The House of Delegates, to the
left, contains portraits of Chatham and Jefferson, and was the scene of
Aaron Burr’s trial for high treason in 1807, and of the State Secession
Convention in 1861.

Capitol Square also contains a fine equestrian statue of Washington,
with figures of Patrick Henry, George Mason, Thomas Jefferson, Thomas
Nelson, Andrew Lewis, and Chief Justice Marshall round the pedestal; a
statue of Stonewall Jackson; a statue of Hunter Holmes McGuire, the most
noted surgeon of the South; and a statue of Henry Clay. At the
northeast corner of the square stands the Governor’s Mansion.

On the north side, in Broad Street, is the City Hall, a handsome Gothic
structure with a clock-tower. To the east of the Capitol is the State
Library. In Twelfth Street, at the corner of Clay Street, a little to
the north of Capitol Square, is the Jefferson Davis Mansion, or “White
House of the Confederacy,” occupied by Mr. Davis as President of the
Southern Confederacy. It is now fitted up as a Museum of Confederate
Relics.

St. John’s Church, erected in 1740, but since much enlarged, is at the
corner of Broad and Twenty-fourth Streets. The Virginia Convention was
held in this church in 1775, and it was here that Patrick Henry made his
famous “give me liberty or give me death” speech.

On Monument Avenue (a prolongation of Franklin Street) is the equestrian
statue of General Lee. Adjacent is an equestrian statue of General J. E.
B. Stuart, and a half mile farther on, at the west end of the avenue, is
the Jefferson Davis Monument, consisting of a semi-circular colonnade
with a pillar supporting an allegorical female figure and inscribed “Deo
Vindice,” with a heroic statue of the ex-president in front. A little to
the east of the Lee Statue is Richmond College, a leading educational
institution of Virginia.

Among other points of interest in Richmond are the Westmoreland Club, at
the corner of Grace and Sixth Streets; the Commonwealth Club, at the
corner of Franklin and Madison Streets; the Virginia Club, 2311 East
Grace Street; Chief Justice Marshall’s House; the Tobacco Exchange,
Shockoe Slip; the University College of Medicine; the Medical College of
Virginia; the National Cemetery, two miles to the northeast of the city;
the Sheltering Arms Hospital, and Idlewood Park, a favorite
summer-resort, close to the city on the west.

Hollywood Cemetery is the most interesting of the cemeteries. Near the
west gate of the cemetery is the Confederate Monument, a rude pyramid of
stone ninety feet high, erected as a memorial to the sixteen thousand
Confederate soldiers buried here. On President’s Hill, in the southwest
corner of the cemetery, overlooking the river, are the graves of Monroe
and Tyler, two of the seven presidents born in Virginia. John Randolph,
Jefferson Davis, General Pickett, General J. E. B. Stuart and Commodore
Maury are also buried here. Patrick Henry is buried in St. John’s
Churchyard.

During the last three years of the Civil War (1862-1865) battles raged
all round Richmond, and remains of the fortified lines constructed to
protect the city are visible in various parts of the environs.

The leading industry is the manufacture of tobacco. Other important
products are lumber and planing-mill supplies, foundry and machine-shop
products (including locomotives), fancy and paper boxes, packing boxes,
saddlery and harness, carriages and wagons, confectionery, flavoring
extracts, patent medicines and compounds, etc. There are also large
railroad repair shops, establishments for grinding and roasting coffee,
etc. Richmond was formerly noted as a center of the flour-milling
industry.

Richmond was settled in 1733 and incorporated in 1742. Captain John
Smith’s settlement of “None Such” in 1609 and Fort Charles, erected in
1645, were both near the site of the present city. In 1779 it became the
capital of the state. During the American Revolution the place was taken
by a British force under Benedict Arnold, January 5, 1781, and the
warehouses and public buildings were burned. The following year the city
was chartered. Richmond, as the capital of the Confederacy, was the main
objective of Federal operations during the Civil War. It was evacuated
April 2, 1865. The warehouses and a considerable part of the business
section of the city were burned by the Confederates.

=Salt Lake City, Utah.= [The “City of the Saints;” named for the famous
lake of that state.]

It is the chief town and ecclesiastical capital of the State of Utah,
and is situated on the river Jordan, eleven miles from Great Salt Lake.
It is built at the base of the Wasatch Mountains, four thousand three
hundred and thirty-four feet above sea-level. The valley is world-famed
for its beauty, resources, climate, and health-giving properties. By
rail it is thirty-six miles south of Ogden, on the Union Pacific
Railroad; eight hundred and thirty-three miles from San Francisco, and
one thousand and thirty-one miles from Omaha.

The city is regularly laid out and the streets are wide and shaded with
trees. Each house in the residence quarters stands in its own garden.

Temple Block, “the sacred square of the Mormons,” covering ten acres, is
the center of the city. Here are the Great Temple, and the Tabernacle,
the latter one hundred and fifty by two hundred and fifty feet, with a
self-supporting roof shaped like a tortoise shell, supported by
forty-four sandstone pillars, and having a seating capacity of eight
thousand, accommodations for twelve thousand, and one of the finest pipe
organs in America.

A little to the east of the Tabernacle is the Temple, a large and
handsome building of granite, erected at a cost of over four million
dollars. At each end are three pointed towers, the loftiest of which, in
the center of the east or principal facade, is two hundred and ten feet
high and is surmounted by a colossal gilded figure (twelve and one-half
feet high) of the Angel Moroni, by C. E. Dallin. The interior is
elaborately fitted up and artistically adorned.

The Assembly Hall, to the south of the Tabernacle, is a granite building
with accommodation for three thousand people, intended for divine
service.

At the corner of North Temple and Main Streets stands the Latter-Day
Saints University. At the southeast corner of Temple Square is the
Pioneer Monument, surmounted by a copper statue of Brigham Young, which
was unveiled in 1897.

On South Temple Street towards the east is the Deseret News Block, a
large brown-stone building where the oldest newspaper to the west of the
Missouri is published. To the left are the Tithing Office and Tithing
Storehouse where the Mormons pay their tithes in kind. A little farther
on, also to the left, are the Lion House, one of the residences of
Brigham Young; the office of the president of the Mormon Church; and the
Beehive House, another of Brigham Young’s houses. On the opposite side
of the street are the huge shoe-factory and warehouse of Zion’s
Coöperative Mercantile Institution; the office of the Juvenile
Instructor; the office of the Historian of the Mormon Church; and the
Gardo House, or Amelia Palace, opposite the Beehive House.

A little farther to the northeast, through the Eagle Gate, is Brigham
Young’s grave, surrounded by an ornamental iron railing.

The imposing City and County Building is in Washington Square, and the
Federal Building is in Main Street, between Third and Fourth South
Streets. A new Capitol is in contemplation in Capitol grounds, near
Prospect Hill. Among the educational establishments are the Utah State
University, to the east of the city, near Fort Douglas, and the High
School, in Union Square. The Roman Catholic Cathedral and several other
religious edifices also are represented, including Presbyterian,
Congregationalist, and Methodist churches. St. Mark’s Cathedral is a
handsome building. Other noteworthy edifices are those of the museum,
the Mining Institute, St. Mary’s Hospital, the University of Utah, and
the theaters and opera house.

The city is more important as a trading center than for manufactures.
The leading industries are beet-sugar refining, smelting, salt making,
and the manufacture of boots and shoes, glass, woolens, paper, cutlery,
pottery, etc. A large business is done in bullion and mining stocks. The
city has a large jobbing trade, being the distributing center for an
immense mining agricultural and stock raising region in Utah, West
Wyoming, South Idaho, and East Nevada.

Salt Lake City was founded in 1847 by Brigham Young and incorporated in
1851. Until 1870 it was almost wholly a Mormon city.

=San Antonio= (_săn ăn-to´nĭ-ō_), =Texas=. [Named for the Roman Catholic
mission, San Antonio de Valero, otherwise the Alamo.]

After Dallas it is the largest city in the state, and is located on the
San Antonio River, two hundred and ten miles by railroad west of
Houston, one hundred and eighty-eight miles west of Galveston, on both
banks of the San Antonio Creek, at the mouth of San Pedro River. Built
on a level plateau, with an elevation of six hundred and sixty feet
above the sea, it includes the old Mexican town of San Fernando, west of
San Pedro Creek, inhabited chiefly by Americans and largely rebuilt
since 1860. The San Antonio River winds for thirteen miles through the
city, and San Pedro Creek for ten miles. These are spanned by numerous
little bridges. It is one of the most interesting in the United States.

The first object of interest in San Antonio is the Church of the Mission
del Alamo, situated in the Alamo Plaza, in the quarter to the east of
the San Antonio River. The church, which seems to have derived its name
from being built in a grove of alamo or cottonwood trees, is a low and
strong structure of adobe, with very thick walls. It was built in 1744,
but has lost many of its original features. It is now preserved as a
national monument for its historical interests.

At the north end of the Alamo Plaza, in Houston Street, is the handsome
Federal Building. On the west side of the plaza is the building
containing the San Antonio Club and the Grand Opera House.

Houston Street towards the west crosses the San Antonio and reaches
Soledad Street, which leads to the left to the Main Plaza (Plaza de Las
Yslas), pleasantly laid out with gardens. On its south side rises the
imposing Court House and on its west side stands the Cathedral of San
Fernando, dating in its present form mainly from 1868 to 1873, but
incorporating parts of the earlier building, where Santa Ana had his
headquarters in 1836. To the west of the Cathedral is the Military Plaza
(Plaza de Armas), with the City Hall.

The Military Post (Fort Sam Houston), on Government Hill, one mile to
the north of the city, costing over two million dollars, is one of the
largest in the United States and deserves a visit. The tower
(eighty-eight feet high), in the center of the quadrangle, commands a
splendid view of the city and its environs.

The old Spanish Missions near the city most often visited are the First
and Second Missions, but, the Third and Fourth Missions have much
interest also.

The Mission of the Conception, or First Mission, lies about two and a
quarter miles to the south of the city (reached via Garden Street),
dates from 1731 to 1752, and is well preserved. The church has two
towers and a central dome. The Mission San Jose de Aguayo, or Second
Mission, four miles to the south of the city, dates from 1720 to 1731
and is the most beautiful of all.

[Illustration: =OLD SPANISH CHURCH OF THE ALAMO, SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS=

During the war of Texan independence, the Alamo, then converted into a
fort, was the scene of an extraordinary conflict, the fort being held by
Colonel David Crockett and Colonel James Bowie. Though almost
continually assailed from February 23 to March 6, 1836, it only yielded
when the defenders were all slain but five; these were captured by the
Mexicans and cruelly slain. “Remember the Alamo,” thereafter became a
war cry, and the place itself has been called the “Thermopylæ of
America.”]

Among the educational institutions are St. Louis College (Roman
Catholic), St. Mary’s Hall, St. Mary’s College, Wolfe Memorial School,
and the Ursuline Convent and School.

San Antonio is the natural trading center for an immense area, its
jobbing houses have an extensive trade in Mexico as well as in Texas.
The industrial establishments are machine shops, foundries, breweries,
flour mills, binderies, cotton presses, ice plants, tanneries, marble
works, cement works, and manufactories of brooms, carriages and wagons,
candy, soda and mineral waters, mattresses, bricks and tiles. It is a
leading cattle, horse, and mule market, ships large quantities of
cotton, wool, and hides; and is the financial center of the largest
stock raising interests of the Southwest. The surrounding district,
irrigated by water, obtained from deep artesian wells, is extensively
engaged in truck farming for Northern markets.

Although the Spaniards built a fort at San Antonio in 1689, its real
settlement began in 1714. In 1718 the Franciscan mission of San Antonio
de Valero was founded, and, about 1722, on another site was built the
Alamo, the “cradle of Texans’ liberty,” in which in 1836 a garrison of
about one hundred and eighty men, among them Davy Crockett and James
Bowie, for eleven days resisted General Santa Ana’s Mexican army,
numbering thousands of men. Eight battles for independence were fought
in or near San Antonio between 1776 and 1836, successively under
Spanish, French, Mexican, and Texan flags. It received a city charter in
1873.

=San Francisco, Cal.= [The “City of the Golden Gate”; said by some to
have been named for the old Spanish mission of San Francisco de Assisi,
by others to have been named for the founder of the order to which
Father Junipero, the discoverer of the bay, belonged.]

It is grandly situated at the north end of a peninsula thirty miles
long, separating the Pacific Ocean from San Francisco Bay, two thousand
four hundred and thirty-four miles west of St. Louis, and three thousand
four hundred and fifty-two miles from New York. The city lies mainly on
the shore of the bay and on the steep hills rising from it, but is
gradually extending across the peninsula (here six miles wide) to the
ocean. On the north it is bounded by the famous Golden Gate, the narrow
entrance (one mile across and about five miles long) to San Francisco
Bay. The commercial part of the town is fairly level and lies along the
bay. The chief business thoroughfare is Market Street, three and
one-half miles long, with which the streets from the north and west
hills intersect. This feature gives the city a striking skyline.

San Francisco Bay, a noble sheet of water, gives San Francisco one of
the finest harbors in the world and affords numerous charming
excursions. It gives the city much of its commercial importance, also,
and extends from Fort Point past the city in a southerly direction for
about fifty miles, varying in width from six to twelve miles. Northward
this bay connects by a strait with San Pablo Bay, ten miles in length,
having at its northerly end Mare Island and the United States Navy Yard.

Across the bay are Oakland, Alameda, and Berkeley.

In 1906 a large part of the city was destroyed by earthquake and fire,
the estimated loss reaching over three hundred million dollars. The
business district has since been largely rebuilt, and many costly
buildings of marble, granite, and terra cotta, and iron and steel-framed
“skyscrapers” have been constructed. Before the earthquake of 1906 the
most conspicuous public buildings were the City Hall, erected at a cost
of six million dollars, and which occupied twenty-five years in
building; the Post Office, completed at a total cost of five million
dollars; the Hall of Justice, the Custom House, a Mint and a
Sub-treasury; the building of the Society of California Pioneers, and
stock and merchants’ exchanges; and the Ferry Building containing a
display of the mineral resources of California.

[Illustration: =NIGHT VIEW, SHOWING ILLUMINATION OF SOUTH GARDENS AND
MAIN ENTRANCE, PANAMA-PACIFIC INTERNATIONAL EXPOSITION, SAN FRANCISCO,
1915=

The Panama-Pacific International Exposition at San Francisco was open
from February 20 to December 4, 1915. The total attendance was
18,871,957. The last day made the record, 458,558 persons having passed
through the turnstiles. The Fine Arts Palace remained open until May 1,
1916.]

Market Street, the chief business thoroughfare, extends to the southwest
from the Union Ferry Depot, a handsome structure, with a tower two
hundred and fifty feet high, to a point near the twin Mission Peaks, a
distance of about three and one-half miles.

Following Market Street towards the southwest, at the intersection with
Battery Street is the Labor Monument, a vigorous bronze group dedicated
to the memory of Peter Donahue of the Union Iron Works. At the southwest
corner of Market and Montgomery Streets stands the Palace Hotel,
opposite which is the Union Trust Building, the first of the buildings
whose steel and concrete frame withstood the fire. Close by, at the
corner of Montgomery and Post Streets, are the Crocker Building, another
survivor, and the new stone structure of the First National Bank.

At the corners of Kearney and Third Streets rise the Chronicle Building
and the tall Spreckels or Call Building, the top of either of which
affords a good bird’s-eye view of the city.

Market Street, towards the southwest from the Chronicle Building,
contains many large office buildings, including the tall Humboldt
Savings Building. At the corner of Fourth Street is the Pacific
Building, a huge structure of re-enforced concrete, with a facade of
green and brown tiles. In the same block is the Emporium, which has been
rehabilitated since the disaster of 1906. On the right, at the corner of
Powell Street, is the large Flood Building, another survivor of the
fire. It is chiefly occupied by railway offices.

Powell Street leads to Union Square, with the St. Francis Hotel and a
Naval Monument commemorating the exploits of the United States fleet in
the Philippines during the war with Spain (1898).

At the junction of Market Street with Mason Street is a monument
commemorating the admission of California to the Union (1850). To the
left, at the corner of Seventh Street, we catch a glimpse of the long
frontage of the Post Office with its fine granite carvings. Just beyond
this corner, in a small triangular park, is the large Californian
Monument, presented to the city by James Lick. The stately monument
erected in honor of the achievements of the navy in the Spanish-American
war remains uninjured.

The district containing the United States Appraisers Stores and the
large new Custom House was spared by the great fire.

The United States Branch Mint, in Fifth Street, at the corner of Mission
Street, contains interesting machinery and a collection of coins and
relics. The effect of the fire may be clearly seen on the granite at the
north end of the building.

Montgomery Street and the southern part of Sansome Street, form the
center of the banking district. On the former is the Union Trust
Building, and a series of large office buildings, of which the most
important are the Mills Building, corner of Montgomery and Bush Streets;
the Merchants Exchange, California Street, near Montgomery Street; Kohl
Building, corner Montgomery and California Streets; Italian-American
Bank, a one-story building with Doric columns, corner Montgomery and
Sacramento Streets; and the Bank of Italy, corner Montgomery and Clay
Streets. At the northeast corner of Sansome and California Streets rises
the tall Alaska Commercial Building, with the handsome Bank of
California opposite.

Nob Hill was the name given about 1870 to that section of California
Street, between Powell Street and Leavenworth Street, containing many of
the largest private residences in San Francisco. Most of these were of
wood, and no expense was spared to make them luxurious dwellings, but
with unfortunate architectural results. Few relics of these are now
extant. The hill is crowned by the huge Fairmont Hotel, opposite which
is the Hopkins Institute of Art.

The present fashionable residential quarter is on Pacific Heights,
including the western parts of Jackson Street, Washington Street,
Pacific Avenue, and Central Avenue.

The educational institutions of San Francisco, include the Academy of
Sciences, endowed by James Lick; the Hopkins Art Academy, situated on
Nob Hill; Memorial Museum, in Golden Gate Park; Mechanics’ Institute,
which contains property valued at two million dollars, and a library of
seventy thousand volumes. Other fine libraries are the Sutro library of
two hundred thousand volumes, the public library of one hundred thousand
volumes, while the California Historical Society, San Francisco Medical
Society, the San Francisco Law Library; the French and Mercantile
libraries all have collections of more than thirty thousand volumes. The
California School of Mechanical Arts, Cooper Medical College, Cogswell
Polytechnic School, College of Notre Dame, Sacred Heart Academy, Irving
Institute, the medical and law faculties of the University of
California, are also located here.

The city was always conspicuous for its fine churches. The most
prominent of these were the Roman Catholic Cathedral, the Jesuit Church
of St. Ignatius, and the Mission Dolores, a survival of Spanish
occupation.

The largest of the city parks is Golden Gate Park, covering more than
one thousand acres and redeemed from a waste of sand-dunes, now one of
the most beautiful in the country. It extends from Stanryan Street to
the Pacific Ocean, a distance of three miles. Its fine trees and
shrubbery, semi-tropical plants and flowers, artificial lakes and
Japanese tea gardens combine to make it a veritable wonderland. Through
the park a broad, smooth, and well-kept speedway runs out to the ocean
beach, and the famous old Cliff House, the Sutro Heights, on the hills
of the west or ocean side, from which is a magnificent view of the Seal
Rocks and Pacific Ocean.

To the north of the park, beyond the intervening Richmond district, lies
the Presidio, the United States military reservation. Here are the
harbor fortifications with their big and powerful rapid fire machine
guns, the officers’ quarters with picturesque gardens and hedgerows, and
the hospital and barracks for the soldiers, while down at the water’s
edge is old Fort Mason, a circular brick structure now used as a
storehouse.

The population is very heterogeneous, every European nationality being
represented here, to say nothing of the Mexicans, Chinese, Japanese,
Negroes (relatively few), Filipinos, Hawaiians, and other non-European
races.

The Chinese Quarter, rebuilt since the fire, is still one of the most
interesting and characteristic features of San Francisco. It lies,
roughly defined, between Stockton, Sacramento, Kearney, and Pacific
Streets, and now consists mainly of large modern store buildings in a
modified Oriental style, and of tall tenements, swarming with Chinese
occupants. Chinatown contains about ten thousand inhabitants.

To the north of Chinatown, spreading about the base of Telegraph Hill,
is the so-named Latin Quarter, peopled by Italians, Greeks and Mexicans.
Their houses, shops, and restaurants are most characteristic. The
Japanese Quarter is bounded by Van Ness, Fillmore, Geary, and Pine
Streets.

In the pretty park that separates busy Kearney Street from Chinatown,
the beautiful golden galleon monument to Robert Louis Stevenson still
stands.

San Francisco as the western terminus of the great continental railroads
and of many short lines, has important steamship communication with the
ports of the world. The bay is accessible to the largest vessels. It is
one of the most important grain ports in the United States; and gold and
silver, wine, fruit, and wool are exported. There are large sugar
refineries, foundries, shipyards, cordage works, wood factories, woolen
mills, and many others.

A Spanish post and mission station were established on the site of San
Francisco in 1776. The mission was secularized in 1834, and a town was
laid out in 1835. A United States man-of-war took possession of it in
1846, and it became an important place in 1849 on account of the
discovery of gold (1848). It was devastated by fires, 1849-1851. In 1850
it was incorporated as a city. The original name of the place was Yerba
Buena (Spanish, “good herb”). It was changed to San Francisco in 1847.
In 1869 railway connection was established with the eastern United
States. In 1877 Denis Kearney began a violent agitation against the
competition of Chinese labor. This was known as the “sand lots”
movement, from the name of the place where the meetings were held. On
April 18, 1906, the city was visited with a severe shock of earthquake,
and the resultant fires destroyed much of the business section and
one-third of the residence portion of the city.

Berkeley, across the Bay from San Francisco, is the seat of the Colleges
of Letters and Science of the University of California. The University,
founded in 1868, has played a very important part in the educational
development of California and of the Pacific Slope. Its other
departments are at San Francisco and the Lick Observatory, with the
great telescope, is at Mt. Hamilton.

A number of the buildings at Berkeley are handsome, and the picturesque
grounds, two hundred and fifty acres in extent, command a splendid view
of the Golden Gate and San Francisco. The very interesting open-air
Greek Theater, built in 1903 on the general type of the theater at
Epidaurus, accommodates twelve thousand spectators and is used for
university meetings, commencement exercises, and concerts. The museums,
the library, and the laboratories are admirably adapted to their uses.

At Palo Alto, thirty-four miles south of San Francisco, one mile from
the station is the Leland Stanford, Jr. University, founded by Mr. and
Mrs. Leland Stanford in memory of their only son and endowed by them
with upwards of thirty million dollars. The buildings were mainly
designed by H. H. Richardson, who took the motif of their architecture
from the cloisters of the San Antonio Mission. The material is buff,
rough-faced sandstone, surmounted by red-tiled roofs, producing
brilliant effects of color in conjunction with the live oak, white oak,
and eucalyptus trees outside, and tropical plants in the quadrangle, and
the blue sky overhead. In the earthquake of 1906 the buildings suffered
severely, the damage done being estimated at nearly two million dollars.
Much, however, has been restored or rebuilt. The buildings include a low
quadrangle, enclosing a court five hundred and eighty-six feet long and
two hundred and forty-six feet wide, with a beautiful colonnade on the
inner side; an outer, two-storied quadrangle, with cloisters on the
outside; a Chapel; various dormitories; an Art Museum; a mechanical
department; and a village of professors’ houses.

=Seattle= (_sē-ăt´t´l_), =Wash.= [Named for the chief of the Duwamish
tribe of Indians, _See-aa-thl_.]

It is finely situated on Elliot Bay, an arm of Puget Sound, one thousand
eight hundred and twenty-eight miles from St. Paul. It occupies a series
of terraces rising from the shore of the Sound, with steep hills rising
from the water, the heights commanding superb views of the snow-crowned
Olympic Mountains and the Cascades, including Mounts Rainier and Baker.

The residence streets run up the slope of a hill, with the business
portion built on the level ground at the foot, stretching along the
excellent harbor, with its many wharves.

Among the finest edifices are the Roman Catholic Cathedral, the Union
or King Street Passenger Station, with Carnegie Library, the American
Bank, and the Alaska, Lowman, White, Central, and Empire Buildings.

Its notable buildings include, also, the County Court House, County
Almshouse, Opera House, High School, and Hospital. The city is
beautified with monuments and statues, unique among which is the Totem
Pole, in Pioneer Square, near the Union Station, which was brought from
Alaska and is one of the best examples of its kind. There is a good
statue of Wm. H. Seward, by Richard Brooks, and in the campus of the
University of Washington is a colossal statue of Washington, by Lorado
Taft.

The University has grounds three hundred and fifty-five acres in extent,
and furnished the site for the Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition of 1909.

Other leading educational institutions are Seattle Seminary (Methodist),
Seattle Female College, College of the Immaculate Conception and Academy
of the Holy Name (both Roman Catholic).

There are several fine parks connected, together with the lakes, by a
system of boulevards. Fort Lawton, a military post, is within the city
limits.

The harbor, which is in Lake Washington and is four miles long and two
miles wide, admits the largest vessels at all times. As the terminal of
two transcontinental railroads and as an oceanic seaport, Seattle has
extraordinary commercial advantages. It has direct steamship lines to
Japan, China, the Philippines, and to Honolulu, and is also connected
with European and South American ports. It is the chief outfitting port
for the Yukon and Alaskan gold fields, and the chief trading center for
the numerous ports on the extensive coast-line of Puget Sound. It has
abundant electric power generated by falls in the rivers of the Cascades
at a very low cost. Snoqualnite Falls, nineteen miles distant, are one
hundred and twenty-six feet higher than Niagara, and supply an immense
power.

Seattle largely owes its phenomenal growth to the lumber trade. The
manufactures include beside, flour, iron and steel products, boots and
shoes, beer, etc. Other industries are bridge-works, shipyards,
meat-packing, and fish-canning. The city has also smelting and refining
works, and a United States assay office. The chief exports are lumber,
coal, meats, fruits, wheat, and hops.

Seattle was first settled in 1852. The place was laid out in 1853 and
was incorporated in 1865 as a town and in 1880 as a city. In 1889 it was
almost wiped out by fire, but one business building escaping
destruction. From June 1 to November 30, 1909, the Alaska-Yukon-Pacific
Exposition was held here, the average daily attendance being
twenty-eight thousand. In the spring of 1910 a Municipal Plans
Commission of twenty-one members was created by an amendment to the city
charter of Seattle, and in 1911 their report was issued containing
sketches and plans illustrating their proposals for the beautification
and future growth of the city.

=St. Louis= (_sānt lōō´ĭs_ or _lōō´ĭ_), =Mo.= [Named in honor of Louis
XV. of France; the name originally applied to a depot established at
this point February 15, 1764, by Pierre Láclede Liguest.]

It is the principal city of Missouri, and is located on the west bank of
the Mississippi River, twenty-one miles south of the mouth of the
Missouri River, and by rail one thousand one hundred and eight miles
southwest of New York, two thousand four hundred and thirty-four miles
east of San Francisco, and six hundred and ninety-six miles north of New
Orleans. It has a frontage of nearly twenty miles on the river and rises
from it in three terraces, the third of which is about two hundred feet
above the river level.

The city is regularly laid out, on the Philadelphia plan, Market Street
running east and west, being the dividing line between north and south.
The streets running north and south are numbered, though many of them
are also known by names. Broadway or Fifth Street is the chief shopping
thoroughfare, while other important business streets are Fourth Street,
Olive Street, Washington Avenue, Third Street, and First Street (or
Main) and Second Streets. The city is also divided into a north and
south section by the valley of Mill Creek (now filled in), which is
spanned by seven bridges. The city has recently extended greatly to the
west, and commerce is steadily encroaching on the residential quarters.

The Court House, in Broadway, between Market and Chestnut Streets, is a
substantial building in the form of a Greek Cross. It is surmounted by a
dome, one hundred and seventy-five feet high, the gallery of which
commands an excellent view of the city and river. A little to the east,
in Third Street, corner of Chestnut Street, is the Merchants’ Exchange,
the main hall of which, with a painted ceiling, is two hundred and
twenty feet long. The grand ball of the Veiled Prophet is held here. The
Cotton Exchange is at the corner of Main and Walnut Streets.

By following Market Street to the west from the Court House, the square,
named Washington Park, is reached, and also the City Hall. A little to
the south, in the square enclosed by Clark Avenue and Spruce, Eleventh
and Twelfth Streets, are the so-called Four Courts, built on the model
of the Louvre, in Paris, with a large semi-circular jail at the back. A
little to the north of the City Hall runs the busy Olive Street, which
toward Broadway, passes the Post Office on the left. Among the numerous
substantial business buildings in this part of Olive Street are the
Star, Century, Frisco, Chemical, Missouri Trust, Commercial, Laclede,
Commonwealth Trust, National Bank of Commerce, and Third National Bank,
a large and very fine structure. In Broadway, at the corner of Locust
Street, is the Mercantile Library, which contains one hundred and fifty
thousand volumes, statues by Harriet Hosmer, and others.

Other important buildings in this business section of the city are the
Security Building (at the southwest corner of Fourth and Locust
Streets); the Mercantile Trust Co., at the northeast corner of Eighth
and Locust Streets (with vaults closed by a circular steel door of
marvelous mechanism weighing four and one-half tons); the St. Louis
Union Trust Co., at the northwest corner of Fourth and Locust Streets;
the Mercantile Club, southeast corner of Seventh and Locust Streets; the
Public Library, Locust Street, corner of Ninth Street; the Lincoln Trust
and Wainwright Buildings, corner of Seventh and Chestnut Streets; and
the Missouri Pacific Building, northwest corner of Market and Seventh
Streets.

On the block between Thirteenth, Fourteenth, Olive and St. Charles
Streets is the new Carnegie Central Library, erected at a cost of one
million dollars.

At the corner of Locust and Nineteenth Streets is the handsome School of
Fine Arts, which is connected with Washington University.

The Episcopal Cathedral, the Roman Catholic Cathedral, old and new, and
many of the new Protestant churches in the West End are architecturally
striking.

The parks of St. Louis are among the most notable in the United States,
and their area (two thousand three hundred acres) is exceeded by those
of Philadelphia alone. The finest are Forest Park (one thousand three
hundred and seventy acres); Tower Grove Park (two hundred and sixty-six
acres); Carondelet Park, O’Fallon Park, and the Missouri Botanical
Garden, which is one of the foremost in North America.

To the west of Forest Park is the new home of Washington University,
forming one of the most successful and appropriate groups of collegiate
buildings in the New World. They were designed by Messrs. Cope &
Stewardson in a Tudor-Gothic style and enclose several quadrangles. The
material is red Missouri granite. Among the buildings already completed
are University Hall, the Chemical and Physical Laboratories, the
Architectural and Engineering Buildings, the Chapel (resembling King’s
College Chapel at Cambridge, England), the library (with a fine reading
room), various dormitories, and the gymnasium. The university grounds
are one hundred and ten acres in extent.

The other institutions of higher education are St. Louis University, the
College of the Christian Brothers, Maria Consilia Convent, training
school for nurses, several medical colleges, dental college, the
theological seminaries, manual training school, the State School for the
Blind, and the St. Louis Day School for Deaf Mutes.

In Forest Park, not far from the University, is the handsome Museum of
Fine Arts, originally erected as the Fine Arts Building of the Louisiana
Purchase Exposition. In front of the entrance is a colossal equestrian
bronze statue of St. Louis.

The great St. Louis or Eads Bridge, across the Mississippi, is
deservedly one of the monuments of the city. It was designed by Capt.
James B. Eads and was constructed in 1869-1874 at a cost of ten million
dollars. It consists of three steel spans (center five hundred and
twenty feet, others five hundred and two feet each) resting on massive
limestone piers. The total length is two thousand and seventy yards. The
bridge is built in two stories, the lower for the railway, the upper for
the roadway and foot passengers. Trains enter the lower track by a
tunnel, one thousand six hundred and thirty yards long, beginning near
the corner of Twelfth and Cerre Streets. The highest part of the arches
is fifty-five feet above the water.

The Merchants’ Bridge, three miles farther up the river, is a steel
truss bridge, and was built in 1889-1890, at a cost of three million
dollars. It is used by railways only. It has three spans, each five
hundred feet long and seventy feet high.

St. Louis ranks fourth among the manufacturing cities of the United
States. It is the largest tobacco manufacturing city in the world, and
also has a large production of malt liquors, flour, boots and shoes,
hardware, stoves, railways and electric cars, woodenware, brick,
biscuit, crackers, etc. The city is also the largest mule mart in the
world, and noted as a drug market.

Founded from New Orleans in 1764, by Pierre Làclede-Liguest and Auguste
Chouteau, St. Louis remained a fur-trading post until the Louisiana
Purchase of 1803. Its first era of marked development began with the
arrival of the first steamboat, 1817. Steam navigation of its river
connection made it the most important point in the settlement of the
trans-Mississippi West. It had repeatedly doubled its population before
the first period of German immigration, following the German revolution
of 1848. In 1875 St. Louis was separated from the County of St. Louis
and given an independent government of its own. In 1896 the city was
swept by a destructive tornado. In 1903 an exposition was held in St.
Louis to celebrate the Louisiana Purchase.

Its population of American birth heavily predominates, but its German
population is large and every element of European population is
represented, with a recent increase from Southern Europe and Russia in
excess of all other elements.

=St. Paul, Minn.= [Named from the Chapel of St. Paul, a log chapel
erected here by Roman Catholics. Indian name, _imnijaska_, “white rock,”
a reference to the sandstone bluff on which the city stands.]

It is the capital of Minnesota, and located on both banks of the
Mississippi River, immediately below Minneapolis, the suburbs of the
“Twin Cities” being contiguous.

It has a picturesque site at an elevation of six hundred and seventy to
eight hundred and eighty feet above sea level on a series of terraces,
the highest of which is two hundred and sixty-six feet above the river.
The two divisions of the city are connected by three municipal bridges.
In addition to these there are a number of railway bridges and scores of
smaller bridges over ravines, valleys, railway crossings, etc. The
municipal limits include the suburbs of Merriam, St. Anthony, Union,
Groveland, Macalester, and Desnoyer Parks, Arlington Hills, and others.

Of the three plateaus, the first contains the railway yards, Union
Station, wholesale houses and factories. Above the flats are the
business section and part of the residential district; still higher are
the bluffs, the most fashionable residential quarter, with extensive
views of the river and the lower terraces.

The business part of the town is well built and regularly laid out, and
the suburban quarters contain many fine streets and handsome residences.

The new State Capitol, erected in 1898-1906, at a cost of four million
five hundred thousand dollars, is a large and handsome edifice of
granite and Georgia marble, with an unusually successful central dome.

The most impressive parts of the interior are the central rotunda, the
two great staircases, the Supreme Court, and the Senate Chamber. The
dominant note in the color scheme is furnished by Minnesota yellow
limestone. The mural paintings are by La Farge, Simmons, Blashfield,
Garnsey, Kenyon Cox, and H. O. Walker. In the Governor’s reception room
are paintings by F. P. Millet, Howard Pyle, Douglas Volk, and others.
The State Law Library and that of the State Historical Society are both
housed in the Capitol.

Four blocks to the south of the Old Capitol are the Custom House and the
City Hall, the latter a handsome building erected at a cost of one
million dollars. Among other important buildings in the business quarter
are the Public Library; the Auditorium, a hall for meetings and
theatrical performances; the new Y. M. C. A. Building; the New York Life
Insurance Building, corner Sixth and Minnesota Streets; the Roman
Catholic Cathedral of St. Paul, Sixth Street, corner of St. Peter
Street; the High School, corner Tenth and Minnesota Streets; the Globe
Building, Fourth Street, corner Cedar Street; the Germania Life
Insurance Office; the former Bank of Minnesota, now used for various
offices; the Manhattan Building, corner of Fifth and Robert Streets; the
Gilfillan Building; the Endicott Arcade; the Central Presbyterian
Church; the Bethel Hotel, resembling the Mills House of New York; the
Minnesota Club House; the People’s Church; the Field, Mahler & Co.
Building, Fourth Street; and the Great Northern and the Northern Pacific
Railway Offices.

The finest residence street is Summit Avenue. It begins at Wabasha
Street and runs from Summit Park along a high ridge. The most prominent
dwelling is the large brown stone mansion of the late James J. Hill,
containing a good collection of paintings by Corot, Delacroix, Courbet,
Troyon, Decamps, etc.

A Roman Catholic Cathedral is being erected at Summit Park; and to the
west of the town, near the west end of Summit Avenue, by the river, is
the extensive Roman Catholic Seminary of St. Thomas Aquinas. On the
bluff above, at the end of Grand Avenue (parallel to Summit Avenue) are
the various buildings of the Hill Seminary.

It is also the seat of Hamline University (Methodist Episcopal),
Concordia College (Lutheran), Macalester College (Presbyterian), several
medical colleges, a State Reform School, and an Academy of Natural
Sciences.

St. Paul has a park system of remarkable beauty. Como and Phalen Parks
have picturesque lakes, and Indian Mound Park is said to have views
unsurpassed anywhere else on the Mississippi River. Harriet Island, in
the river opposite the business district, is provided with public baths.
There are twenty-two miles of park and boulevard driveways, not
including the River Boulevard. The total park area is one thousand two
hundred and four acres. Fort Snelling, attractively located at the mouth
of the Minnesota River, occupies a large tract adjacent to the city on
the southwest.

The manufactures of St. Paul include machinery, farming implements,
furniture, carriages, boots and shoes, and malt liquors. Here also are
located the extensive meat packing plants of Swift & Co., and quarries
of fine limestone. It is the center of the wholesale grocery and
dry-goods business in Minnesota. It is also an important printing and
publishing center, and has large car shops, lumber and planing mills,
and breweries.

In 1841 Father Galtier, a French Canadian, induced the settlers, chiefly
French Catholic hunters and traders in furs and whiskey, to build a log
church which was dedicated to St. Paul. In 1849 the town became the
capital of the newly organized territory of Minnesota, and was
incorporated. It received its city charter in 1854.

[Illustration: =WASHINGTON, AMERICA’S CITY BEAUTIFUL=

1. THE CAPITOL

2. MEMORIAL TO LINCOLN

3. THE WHITE HOUSE, (SOUTH FRONT)

4. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS]

=Washington, D. C.= [The “City of Magnificent Distances,” from its being
laid out on a large and regular scale; originally named Georgetown, but
when selected in 1790 as the Federal Capital was re-named Washington in
honor of the first President of the United States.]

The City of Washington, the Capital of the United States, lies on the
left bank of the Potomac River, in the District of Columbia, one hundred
and fifty-six miles from Chesapeake Bay, one hundred and eighty-five
miles from the Atlantic Ocean, two hundred and twenty-six miles
southwest of New York, one hundred and thirty-six miles of Philadelphia,
and forty miles of Baltimore.

The city lies on a plain with slight elevations and surrounded by hills,
and is generally accepted as the most beautiful in the United States,
being finely laid out, with wide asphalted streets, opening up vistas of
handsome public buildings, monuments, or leafy squares, with the Capitol
and the Washington Monument dominating the entire view.

The original plan of Washington City was made by L’Enfant, a French
engineer, who had adopted America as his residence. Based largely upon
the topography of Versailles, its characteristic features are the
crossing of the rectangular streets by frequent broad transverse
avenues, one hundred and twenty to one hundred and sixty feet wide,
lined with trees and named for various States of the Union. The streets
running north and south are numbered, those running east and west are
named by the letters of the alphabet. The circles formed by the
intersection of the streets and avenues are one of the most charming
features of the city.

Pennsylvania Avenue, between the Capitol and the White House (a distance
of one and one-third miles), is the chief thoroughfare, and other
important business streets are Seventh Street, Fourteenth Street, Ninth
Street, and F Street. Among the finest residence streets are New
Hampshire Avenue, Massachusetts Avenue, Vermont Avenue, Connecticut
Avenue, and Sixteenth Street.

The new Union Railway Station, completed in 1908 at a cost of fifteen
million dollars, including grounds and tunnels, is undoubtedly one of
the most successful buildings in the country. It is situated at the
junction of Massachusetts and Delaware Avenues, about one-third of a
mile, and in full view of the Capitol. In front is a large plaza,
embellished with shrubbery, fountains, and the finely sculptured
Columbus monument.

The Capitol, splendidly situated on a hill ninety feet above the level
of the Potomac, dominates the entire city with its soaring dome and
ranks among the most beautiful buildings in the world. It stands in a
park of about fifty acres, is seven hundred and fifty-one feet in length
and one hundred and twenty-one to three hundred and twenty-four feet
wide, and consists of a main edifice of sandstone, painted white, and of
two wings of white marble. The building covers an area of three and
one-half acres.

The cornerstone was laid by Washington in 1793. The main building, with
its original low-crowned dome, was completed in 1827; the wings and the
new iron dome were added in 1851-1865. The general style is classic,
with Corinthian details. The principal facade looks towards the east, as
the city was expected to spread in that direction, and the Capitol thus
turns its back upon the main part of the city and on the other
government buildings.

A fine marble terrace, eight hundred and eighty-four feet long,
approached by two broad flights of steps, has been constructed on the
west side of the Capitol and adds great dignity to this view of the
building. The dome, which is two hundred and sixty-eight and one-half
feet high, is surmounted by a figure of Liberty, nineteen and one-half
feet high. The total cost of the building has been sixteen million
dollars.

The front or east facade is preceded by three porticos, the main
entrance being in the center. To the right of the central portico is the
Settlement of America, a marble group by Greenough; to the left is the
Discovery of America, a figure of Columbus by Persico. In the pediment
above the portico is a relief of the Genius of America, by Persico; and
in the pediment above the north portico is a group representing the
Civilization of the United States, by Crawford.

The inauguration of the Presidents of the United States takes place on
the broad steps in front of the main doorway.

In the interior beside the rotunda with its historical paintings, are
the Senate Chamber in the north wing; the House of Representatives in
the south wing, the Supreme Court in the central building, and the old
Hall of Representatives, now used for historical statues.

To the north and south of the Capitol and connected with it by subways
are the Senate and House of Representatives office buildings, two white
marble edifices in a classic style, containing offices for senators and
representatives.

To the southeast of the Capitol stands the Library of Congress, an
enormous structure in the Italian renaissance style, four hundred and
seventy feet long and three hundred and forty feet wide, erected in
1888-1897, at a cost of six million one hundred and eighty thousand
dollars. It is in the form of a quadrangle, enclosing four courts and a
central rotunda surmounted by a flat gilded dome and lantern. The main
entrance, on the west side, is preceded by a broad flight of steps and a
granite terrace, against the retaining wall of which is an effective
fountain.

The interior of the Congressional Library is sumptuously adorned with
paintings, sculptures, colored marbles, and gilding. To the right and
left are massive marble staircases, richly adorned with sculptures and
with bronze figures as lamp-bearers. The ceiling of the hall,
seventy-two feet above the marble flooring, is resplendent in blue,
green, and yellow.

The reading room rotunda is perhaps the finest and most thoroughly
satisfactory part of the whole building. The chamber, which is one
hundred feet in diameter and one hundred and twenty-five feet in height,
accommodates about three hundred readers, is richly adorned with dark
marble from Tennessee, red marble from Numidia, and yellow marble from
Siena. The eight massive piers are surmounted by symbolical female
figures.

At the foot of the flights of steps descending from the terrace on the
west side of the Capitol is an heroic statue of Chief Justice Marshall,
by Story. The broad walk to the north leads to the Naval or Peace
Monument, by Simmons. The walk to the south leads to the statue of
President Garfield, by J. Q. A. Ward.

Diagonally to the southwest and northwest extend two grand avenues as
far as eye can see--Maryland Avenue to the left leading down to the
Potomac and carrying the line of the Pennsylvania Railroad to the river,
where it crosses over the Long Bridge into Virginia; and Pennsylvania
Avenue to the right stretching to the distant colonnade of the Treasury
Building and the tree covered park south of the Executive Mansion.
Between these diverging avenues and extending to the Potomac, more than
a mile away, is the Mall, a broad inclosure of lawns and gardens. Upon
it in the foreground is the government Botanical Garden, and behind this
the spacious grounds surrounding the Smithsonian Institution; and the
National Museum; while beyond, near the river bank, rises the tall,
white shaft of the Washington Monument with its pointed apex; on either
side spreads out the city, the houses bordering the foliage lined
streets and having at frequent intervals the tall spires of churches and
the massive marble, granite, and brick edifices that are used for
government buildings.

The Smithsonian Institution is a red stone building in the late Norman
style, erected in 1847-1856 at a cost of four hundred and fifty thousand
dollars. The loftiest of the nine towers is one hundred and forty-five
feet high. In front of it is a statue of Prof. Joseph Henry, the first
secretary of the Institution, by Story.

[Illustration: =CORCORAN ART GALLERY, WASHINGTON=]

New buildings for the National Museum, on the Mall between Ninth and
Twelfth Streets, and the new one million five hundred thousand dollar
marble building of the Department of Agriculture, west of the
Smithsonian grounds, are notable. The former, originally established to
exhibit the rich contributions given to the government by various
countries from the Centennial at Philadelphia in 1876, has become a most
extensive and instructive collection of antiquities, ethnology, geology,
and natural history generally; and there are many museums, libraries and
art galleries.

The Bureau of Engraving and Printing, where the paper money, bonds and
stamps of the United States are printed, is at the corner of B Street
and the Mall, southwest.

The national monument to Washington, popularly known as the “Washington
Monument,” is a towering obelisk of white marble, on the bank of the
Potomac, erected at a cost of one million two hundred and thirty
thousand dollars. It has a total height of five hundred and fifty-five
feet, an area at the foundation of sixteen thousand feet, and a weight
of thirty-six thousand nine hundred and twelve gross tons. The apex has
an aluminum point, and there is an elevator and an iron stairway of nine
hundred steps in the interior of the shaft.

From the Washington Monument the Treasury Department at Pennsylvania
Avenue and Fifteenth Street comes into full view. It is an immense
edifice, five hundred and ten feet long and two hundred and eighty feet
wide, with an Ionic colonnade on the east front and porticos on the
other three sides. The materials are freestone and granite, and it cost
seven million dollars to erect the edifice. Among the chief objects of
interest are the United States Cash Room, in the north corridor; the
Redemption Division, in the basement; the Silver Vaults, containing
bullion and coin to the value of hundreds of millions of dollars; and
the Secret Service Division, with its collection of forged money and
portraits of forgers.

On the south, opposite the Treasury, is the fine equestrian monument of
General Sherman, by Rohl-Smith, erected in 1903. The pedestal is
embellished with bronze reliefs, medallions, and figures of Indian
women, and at the corners are four sentinels.

Following Pennsylvania Avenue towards the west, Lafayette Square, is
approached. Here are bronze statues of General Andrew Jackson, by Clark
Mills; the Rochambeau Monument, by F. Hamar; and the Lafayette
Monument, by Falguiére and Mercié. On the east side of the square is the
Belasco Theater, occupying the site of the house in which an attempt was
made to assassinate Secretary Seward in 1865.

Opposite Lafayette Square is the entrance to the White House or
Executive Mansion of the President of the United States. The White House
is a two-story stone building, painted white, one hundred and seventy
feet long and eighty-six feet deep, with an Ionic portico. It was first
built in 1792, occupied by President Adams in 1800, burned by the
British in 1814, and rebuilt in 1818. In 1902-1903 the whole building
was admirably restored, within and without. The esplanade or terrace on
the west side connects the house with the new Executive Offices and
Cabinet Room. The large East Room (eighty by forty by twenty-two feet)
is open to the public from ten to two. The Reception Rooms, which
contain portraits of Presidents and valuable gifts, and the handsome
Dining Room are shown by special order only. The rest of the house is
private. The grounds surrounding the house are seventy-five acres in
extent.

To the west of the White House is the huge building of the State, War,
and Navy Departments, enclosing two courts and measuring five hundred
and sixty-seven feet in length by three hundred and forty-two feet in
breadth. It is a granite building, in Renaissance style, the largest
public edifice in Washington, covering four and one-half acres, has five
hundred and sixty-six rooms, and cost eleven million dollars. The north
and west wings are occupied by the War Department. The Navy Department
is in the eastern part of the building.

The Department of State occupies the southern part of the building.
Among the finest rooms are the Diplomatic Reception Rooms, containing
portraits of the Secretaries of State from 1789 to the present day, and
the Library, with Jefferson’s original draft of the Declaration of
Independence and other relics.

In Seventeenth Street, to the southwest of the State Building, between
New York Avenue and E Street, is the Corcoran Gallery of Art, built and
endowed by the late W. W. Corcoran. The present building, erected in
1894-1897, is a handsome white marble structure in a Neo-Grecian style,
by Ernest Flagg. The semicircular hall at the north end is used for
occasional exhibitions, while the rest of this part of the building is
occupied by a School of Art. The steps to the main entrance are flanked
by colossal bronze lions, modeled after those by Canova at the tomb of
Pope Clement XIII. The Gallery contains more than two hundred paintings,
the finest collection of Barye bronzes, Power’s Greek Slave, and Vela’s
Dying Napoleon in marble.

Also in Seventeenth Street, south of the Corcoran Gallery, are the new
Continental Hall, built by the Daughters of the American Revolution, and
the new building of the International Bureau of the American Republics,
erected at a cost of one million dollars by Andrew Carnegie.

The Interior Department occupies an entire square in the heart of the
city, and is constructed of white marble in pure Doric, costing three
million dollars. The General Land Office opposite is a Corinthian marble
edifice.

In Judiciary Square on the north side stands the Pension Office, an
enormous structure of brick, four hundred feet long and two hundred feet
wide. It is surrounded by a terra cotta frieze illustrating military and
naval operations. The interior, with its mammoth columns (seventy-five
feet high), can accommodate about twenty thousand people at an
inauguration ball, or other occasions.

[Illustration: =ST. JOHN’S CHURCH, WASHINGTON=]

Nearby, in B Street, is the large Census Bureau, in which a large staff
is constantly at work. The enumerating machines are especially
interesting.

To the northeast of this point, at the corner of North Capitol and H
Streets, is the Government Printing Office, a twelve-story building
erected at a cost of two million dollars.

Ford Theater, in which President Lincoln was assassinated by Booth on
April 14, 1865, is in Tenth Street. A house opposite bears a tablet
stating that Lincoln died there, and contains a collection of Lincoln
relics.

On the south side of Pennsylvania Avenue, between Eleventh and Twelfth
Streets, is the Post Office Department, with a tower three hundred feet
high. At the corner of Pennsylvania Avenue and Fourteenth Streets is the
new District or Municipal Building, a fine marble structure completed in
1908, and occupied by the District Commissioners and other officials of
the local government.

At the intersection of Massachusetts Avenue and New York Avenue is Mt.
Vernon Square, containing the Public Library, a white marble building,
presented by Mr. Andrew Carnegie.

Beyond the Capitol to the southeast are the Washington Barracks, at the
junction of the Potomac and its Eastern Branch, an artillery post, and
the War College, a fine brick building, erected 1903-1908. In front of
the latter is a statue of Frederick the Great by T. Uphues, presented to
the United States by Emperor William II.

About one mile to the northeast, on the Anacostia River, is the
Washington Navy Yard, with a museum, an important gun foundry, and
manufactories of naval stores.

There are more than two hundred and fifty churches in Washington, of
which the more important are St. John’s (the “President’s Church”), and
St. Thomas’ Episcopal; the New York Avenue, and Church of the Covenant,
Presbyterian; the Metropolitan and Foundry, Methodist; St. Matthew’s and
St. Aloysius’, Roman Catholic; Calvary, Baptist; Garfield Memorial,
Christian; and Mount St. Sepulchre, with its reproduction of the sacred
places of the Holy Land.

The National Soldiers’ Home, two miles above the city, founded in 1851,
has six hundred acres of park and forest, which serve as a public
driving park and rural resort. To the north lies the National Military
Cemetery, with the graves of General Logan, General Kearney, and seven
thousand soldiers. On the west this is adjoined by Rock Creek Cemetery,
containing Saint-Gauden’s beautiful monument to Mrs. Henry Adams. To the
east of the Soldiers’ Home Park is the important Catholic University of
America, around which has grown up a somewhat remarkable group of
ecclesiastical establishments, including a Franciscan Convent, houses of
the Dominicans, Paulists and Marists, and Trinity College for young
women. The university has a number of fine stone buildings of striking
architectural effect. The other colleges of note are: George Washington
University, with academic, scientific, graduate, medical, and
technological departments, and a famous law school; Georgetown
University, a Jesuit institution with academic and professional schools;
American University, for graduate instruction only; and the National
Deaf-Mute College, founded in 1864, a government institution for the
education of deaf and dumb pupils from the army, the navy, and the
District of Columbia. Its fine stone buildings lie just north of the
city.

Among the more important private buildings may be mentioned those of the
Washington Post and Evening Star, and the Munsey buildings, all on
Pennsylvania Avenue; the Riggs National Bank, American Security and
Trust Company, Washington Loan and Trust, Union Trust and Storage
Company, and the National Metropolitan Bank. The larger office buildings
are the Bond, the Colorado, the Ouray, the Southern, and Woodward
buildings. The Masonic Temple, the Scottish Rite Temple, and the Y. M.
C. A. buildings, are important structures.

More and more Washington is becoming the home of a class of wealthy
Americans, many of whom have erected beautiful residences, and among
those of conspicuous architectural value are the Leiter, Townsend,
Walsh, McLean, Belmont, Hale, Anderson, Boardman, Patterson, Thomas
Nelson Page, Wayne McVeagh, Henderson, and Gale houses. Of similar
interest are the embassy buildings of the British, Chinese, French,
Russian, and other nations. The Metropolitan, the Cosmos, the Army and
Navy, University, National Press, and the Washington (for women) are the
principal clubs, and have homes of their own.

An elaborate park system is in course of development, which will
ultimately surround the city with parks and connecting boulevards. The
principal park is Rock Creek Park, to the north of the city, containing
two thousand acres extending along both sides of Rock Creek. Its natural
beauties are very great. On Mt. St. Alban, near Woodley, to the
northwest of Georgetown, is the Peace Cross, a large Celtic cross
erected at the close of the war with Spain (1898) on the grounds of the
new Episcopal Cathedral, of which the cornerstone was laid in 1907. It
affords a fine view of Washington. On the Chevy Chase Road, to the
northwest of the Zoölogical Park, are the National Bureau of Standards
and the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution, the
administration building of which latter is in Sixteenth Street.

South of Rock Creek Park, on Rock Creek, lies the National Zoölogical
Park of one hundred and seventy acres, reached from Washington in a half
hour.

On a commanding site overlooking Rock Creek, north of Georgetown, in
handsome grounds, is the United States Naval Observatory, of white
marble, with its twenty-six-inch equatorial telescope.

Scattered throughout the city are numerous squares, circles, and small
parks, nearly all of which contain statues.

Of bronze statues erected in honor of famous men, Washington has an
abundance--mainly to military characters. Equestrian statues of
Washington, Jackson, Greene, Scott, Thomas, and McPherson are erected,
besides full-length statues of Lafayette, Luther, Franklin, Chief
Justice Marshall, Lincoln, Garfield, Professor Henry Farragut, General
Rawlins, and Admiral Dupont.

[Illustration: =ARLINGTON HOUSE, HOME OF GENERAL ROBERT E. LEE=]

At Arlington, across the river from Washington, on commanding heights,
is the National Cemetery containing the graves of about sixteen thousand
soldiers. Arlington House, in the middle of the grounds, two hundred
feet above the river, was once the residence of George Washington Parke
Custis (step-grandson of Washington) and afterwards of General Robert
Lee, who married Miss Custis. Near the house are the graves of General
Sheridan, Admiral Porter, General Lawton, General Wheeler, and other
distinguished officers.

To the south is a tomb containing the remains of two thousand one
hundred and eleven unknown soldiers. The sailors destroyed by the
blowing up of the “Maine” in 1898 and other victims of the war with
Spain are buried in the southern part of the cemetery.

The cornerstone of a splendid military memorial or Hall of Fame was laid
here in 1916, to be erected in classic style, of marble, and to cost
several millions of dollars.

[Illustration: =MOUNT VERNON=]

[Illustration: =WASHINGTON’S TOMB, MT. VERNON=]

MOUNT VERNON, Washington’s home and burial place, is in Fairfax County,
Va., about fifteen miles below the city. It is in full view, standing
among the trees on the top of a bluff rising about two hundred feet
above the river. As the steamboat approaches, its bell is tolled, this
being the universal custom on nearing or passing Washington’s tomb. The
estate was originally a domain of about eight thousand acres, and
Augustine Washington, dying in 1743, bequeathed it to Lawrence
Washington, who, having served in the Spanish wars under Admiral Vernon,
named it Mount Vernon in his honor. General Washington, in 1752,
inherited Mount Vernon from Lawrence. After his death the estate passed
to his nephew, Bushrod Washington, subsequently descending to other
members of the family.

Congress repeatedly endeavored to have Washington’s remains removed to
the crypt under the rotunda of the Capitol, originally constructed for
their reception, but the family always refused, knowing it was his
desire to rest at Mount Vernon.

In 1856 the mansion and surrounding property were saved from the
auctioneer’s hammer, and secured as a national possession by the Ladies’
Mount Vernon Association, assisted principally by Edward Everett, at a
cost of two hundred thousand dollars.

Washington, originally called Federal City, was named after Washington
in 1791, and became the capital in 1800. In 1814 the Capitol, White
House, and other public buildings, were burned by the British.


LEADING EVENTS IN THE COLONIAL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES IN THE FORM
OF PARALLEL OUTLINES


I. PERIOD OF AUTHENTIC DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION, FROM 1492 TO 1607

  Preceding this Period there are some legendary accounts of
  discoveries by Norsemen, Irish missionaries and even Asiatics.
  Little importance attaches to any except those of the Norse
  discoverers, chief of which was Lief Ericsson and his brother
  Thorwald who came upon the mainland of North America about 1000 to
  1004. The discoveries of Columbus and Vasco da Gama opened a new
  era, during which the Spaniards explored and settled the West
  Indies, Mexico, and the southern part of the present United States;
  while the English and French explored, claimed, and made
  unsuccessful attempts at settlement in the North.

  +-------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
  |=Dates=| =Spanish Explorers and Rulers= |    =Portuguese Explorers and   |
  |       |                                |             Rulers=            |
  +-------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
  |       |=Ferdinand and Isabella, 1474-  |=Emanuel I., the Great, 1469-   |
  |       |1516.=                          |1521.=                          |
  |       |                                |                                |
  | =1492=|1492. CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, an  |                                |
  |       |Italian, supported by Ferdinand |                                |
  |       |and Isabella, set sail from     |                                |
  |       |Palos, Spain (August 3), and    |                                |
  |       |discovered America (October 12),|                                |
  |       |landing at one of the Bahamas,  |                                |
  |       |which he named San Salvador.    |                                |
  |       |During the following three      |                                |
  |       |months he visited the islands of|                                |
  |       |Cuba and Hayti.                 |                                |
  |       |                                |                                |
  |       |1498. Columbus made a THIRD     |                                |
  |       |voyage, discovering the island  |                                |
  |       |of Trinidad and the mainland of |                                |
  |       |South America, near the mouth of|                                |
  |       |the Orinoco River.              |                                |
  |       |                                |                                |
  |       |1499-1507. Amerigo Vespucci     |1499. VASCO DA GAMA DOUBLED THE |
  |       |wrote a letter to a friend      |CAPE OF GOOD HOPE AND REACHED   |
  |       |claiming to have discovered a   |INDIA. Another route to India   |
  |       |part of the South American coast|was thus revealed.              |
  |       |in 1499, and an account of this |                                |
  | =1500=|voyage was published. The new   |1500. Cortereal, a Portuguese,  |
  |       |continent, therefore, was named |explored the coast from Labrador|
  |       |after him by the German geo-    |to Nova Scotia.                 |
  |       |grapher Waldseemüller, who had  |                                |
  |       |read the account.               |                                |
  |       |                                |                                |
  |       |1502. Columbus made a FOURTH    |                                |
  |       |voyage. He explored the coast of|                                |
  |       |Central America and Panama, re- |                                |
  |       |turned to Spain discouraged and |                                |
  |       |died four years later in the    |                                |
  |       |belief that he had discovered   |                                |
  |       |India by sailing west.          |                                |
  | =1510=|                                |                                |
  |       |1512. PONCE DE LEON, seeking a  |                                |
  |       |legendary fountain of youth,    |                                |
  |       |DISCOVERED FLORIDA, so named be-|                                |
  |       |cause he landed on Easter Sun-  |                                |
  |       |day, the Spanish “Feast of      |                                |
  |       |Flowers.”                       |                                |
  |       |                                +--------------------------------+
  |       |1513. BALBOA crossed the Isthmus|  =French Explorers and Rulers= |
  |       |of Panama and discovered THE    +--------------------------------+
  |       |PACIFIC, which he took posses-  |                                |
  |       |sion of, with its coast and     |                                |
  |       |islands, for Spain.             |                                |
  |       |                                |                                |
  |       |=Charles I. of Spain and Charles|                                |
  |       |V. of Germany, Emperor. 1516-   |                                |
  |       |1556.=                          |                                |
  |       |                                |                                |
  |       |1519-1521. CORTEZ CONQUERED     |=Francis I., 1515-1547.=        |
  |       |MEXICO for Spain. This conquest |                                |
  |       |led to the establishment of     |                                |
  |       |Spain’s Empire in the new world.|                                |
  |       |The mines brought great wealth  |                                |
  |       |to Spain and formed thebasis of |                                |
  |       |Spanish prosperity in the       |                                |
  |       |following years.                |                                |
  |       |                                |                                |
  | =1520=|1520. MAGELLAN, a Portuguese in |                                |
  |       |Spain’s service, discovered the |                                |
  |       |strait named after him. He      |                                |
  |       |reached and named the PACIFIC   |                                |
  |       |OCEAN.                          |                                |
  |       |                                |                                |
  |       |1521. Magellan discovered the   |                                |
  |       |PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. His fol-    |1524. VERRAZANO, sailing in the |
  |       |lowers, after his death, con-   |service of France, traced the   |
  |       |tinued westward and completed   |American coast northward from   |
  |       |the first circumnavigation of   Cape Fear, and discovered New    |
  |       |the globe in 1522.              |York harbor.                    |
  | =1530=|                                |                                |
  |       |                                |1535. Cartier, in search of a   |
  |       |1539. Coronado and a force of   |northwest passage, ascended the |
  |       |Spaniards marched northward from|St. Lawrence to Lachine Rapids  |
  |       |Mexico to Colorado and Kansas   |and Mont Réal (Montreal).       |
  | =1540=|and discovered the GRAND CANON  |                                |
  |       |OF THE COLORADO RIVER.          |1541. Roberval and Cartier made |
  |       |                                |an unsuccessful attempt to es-  |
  |       |DE SOTO, at the same time, led  |tablish a French colony on the  |
  |       |an army of about a thousand into|St. Lawrence.                   |
  |       |northwest Florida. HE REACHED   |                                |
  | =1550=|THE MISSISSIPPI in 1541.        |                                |
  |       |                                |                                |
  |       |=Philip II., 1556-1598.=        |                                |
  | =1560=|                                |=Charles IX., 1560-1574.=       |
  |       |                                |                                |
  |       |                                |1562. Jean Ribault establishes a|
  |       |                                |Huguenot settlement at Port     |
  |       |                                |Royal.                          |
  |       |                                |                                |
  |       |1565. The Spaniards, under      |1565. The Huguenot settlement   |
  |       |MENENDEZ, founded ST. AUGUSTINE,|destroyed by Menendez.          |
  |       |Florida.                        |                                |
  | =1570=|                                |                                |
  | =1580=|                                |                                |
  |       |1582. Spanish monks planted     |                                |
  |       |missions in New Mexico and      |                                |
  |       |Arizona.                        |                                |
  | =1590=|                                |                                |
  |       |1598. A Spanish settlement was  |=Henry IV., 1589-1610.=         |
  | =1600=|planted by OÑATE near SANTA FE, |                                |
  |       |New Mexico.                     |1603. CHAMPLAIN entered the St. |
  |       |                                |Lawrence. THE FRENCH OCCUPATION |
  |       |                                |OF CANADA began with Champlain. |
  |       |                                |His maps, reports, and settle-  |
  |       |                                |ments stimulated French enter-  |
  |       |                                |prise.                          |
  |       |                                |                                |
  |       |                                |1605. Champlain founded PORT    |
  |       |                                |ROYAL (Annapolis, N. S.), and   |
  |       |                                |sailed in an exploring expedi-  |
  |       |                                |tion as far south as Cape Cod.  |
  +-------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+

  +-------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
  |=Dates=| =English Explorers and Rulers= |        =European Events=       |
  +-------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+
  |       |=Henry VII., 1485-1509=         |                                |
  | =1492=|                                |1492. End of the Moorish domin- |
  |       |                                |ion in Spain. Death of Lorenzo  |
  |       |                                |de Medici, the “Magnificent” at |
  |       |                                |Florence.                       |
  |       |                                |                                |
  |       |                                |1494. Beginning of a series of  |
  |       |1497. JOHN CABOT, an Italian in |Italian wars, lasting till 1539.|
  |       |the service of Henry VII. of    |                                |
  |       |England discovered the coast of |                                |
  |       |NORTH AMERICA, probably at      |                                |
  |       |Labrador. He was accompanied by |                                |
  |       |his son, Sebastian.             |                                |
  |       |                                |                                |
  |       |1498. Sebastian Cabot, on a     |                                |
  |       |SECOND voyage, probably explored|1499. The Swiss gain their inde-|
  |       |the Atlantic coast from Labrador|pendence from the Emperor       |
  |       |to Carolina. These voyages were |Maximilian.                     |
  | =1500=|not followed by any attempt at  |                                |
  |       |colonization.                   |1502. Outbreak of war between   |
  |       |                                |France and Spain in Italy.      |
  | =1510=|                                |                                |
  |       |                                |1511. Pope Julius II. forms the |
  |       |                                |Holy League against France and  |
  |       |                                |Spain.                          |
  |       |                                |                                |
  |       |                                |1513. James IV. of Scotland in- |
  |       |                                |vades England, and is killed at |
  |       |                                |battle of Flodden Field.        |
  |       |=Henry VIII., 1509-1547.=       |                                |
  |       |                                |1515. Wolsey appointed Chancel- |
  |       |                                |lor by Henry VIII. of England.  |
  |       |                                |                                |
  |       |                                |1519. The German Empire, Spain, |
  |       |                                |Netherlands, Two Sicilies and   |
  |       |                                |the Spanish Indies united under |
  |       |                                |Charles V.                      |
  | =1520=|                                |                                |
  |       |                                |1521. Beginning of the wars be- |
  |       |                                |tween Charles V. of Germany and |
  |       |                                |Francis I. of France.           |
  |       |                                |                                |
  |       |1527. Captain John Rut explores |1527. Expulsion of the Medici   |
  |       |the coast of North America.     |from Florence.                  |
  | =1530=|                                |                                |
  |       |                                |1535. Henry VIII. of England    |
  |       |                                |assumes the title of supreme    |
  |       |                                |head of the Church in England.  |
  |       |                                |                                |
  | =1540=|                                |1543. England enters into an    |
  |       |                                |alliance with Charles V. against|
  | =1550=|                                |France.                         |
  | =1560=|=Elizabeth 1558-1603.=          |                                |
  |       |                                |1562. Beginning of the Huguenot |
  | =1570=|                                |wars.                           |
  |       |1576-1578. FROBISHER, in the    |                                |
  |       |interest of England, made three |                                |
  |       |attempts to find a northwest    |                                |
  |       |passage to Asia.                |                                |
  |       |                                |                                |
  |       |1578. DRAKE explored the Pacific|                                |
  | =1580=|coast as far north as the state |                                |
  |       |of Washington. He had previously|1581. Declaration of indepen-   |
  |       |doubled Cape Horn. He claimed   |dence by the Dutch.             |
  |       |the land for England.           |                                |
  |       |                                |Queen Elizabeth was financially |
  |       |1583. HUMPHREY GILBERT landed at|interested in many of the expe- |
  |       |St. John’s, Newfoundland, and   |ditions which followed, and she |
  |       |took possession of the country  |knighted most of the men who    |
  |       |for England.                    |commanded expeditions.          |
  |       |                                |                                |
  |       |1584. SIR WALTER RALEIGH sent   |                                |
  |       |out an expedition under Captain |                                |
  |       |Arthur Barlow. The expedition   |                                |
  |       |landed at Pamlico Sound and the |                                |
  |       |region was named VIRGINIA in    |                                |
  |       |honor of Elizabeth.             |                                |
  |       |                                |                                |
  |       |1587. Raleigh despatched another|1587. Execution of Mary, Queen  |
  |       |expedition, consisting of two   |of Scots.                       |
  |       |ships with one hundred and fifty|                                |
  |       |men and women, to Roanoke       |1588. Battle of the Spanish     |
  |       |Island. John White was the      |Armada.                         |
  | =1590=|Governor. Virginia Dare, the    |                                |
  |       |first white child born in Ameri-|1595. France declares war       |
  |       |ca, was born here.              |against Spain.                  |
  | =1600=|                                |                                |
  |       |1602. GOSNOLD, an English mer-  |                                |
  |       |chant, made a settlement at     |                                |
  |       |Buzzard’s Bay, R. I.            |                                |
  |       |                                |                                |
  |       |=James I., 1603-1625.=          |                                |
  |       |                                |                                |
  |       |1603. Martin Pring enters the   |                                |
  |       |present harbor of Plymouth.     |1604. Charles IX. ascends throne|
  |       |                                |of Sweden.                      |
  |       |                                |                                |
  |       |                                |1606. In England there was orga-|
  |       |                                |nized the VIRGINIA COMPANY for  |
  |       |                                |the purpose of establishing     |
  |       |                                |trading colonies in America.    |
  +-------+--------------------------------+--------------------------------+


=II. THE COLONIAL PERIOD OF UNITED STATES HISTORY, INCLUDING ITS
SETTLEMENT (1607 TO 1689); AND ITS CONSOLIDATION (1689 TO 1763)=

  The real history of the United States begins with this period.
  Within it the original Thirteen Colonies were established; New
  England and Virginia grew in influence and population; the Indian
  power in the East was subdued; the Colonies increased in strength
  and self-reliance, and the struggle between England and France for
  control of the New World was settled in favor of the English.

  +--------------------------------------------------------------------------+
  |                          =THE SOUTHERN COLONIES=                         |
  +--------------------------------------------------------------------------+
  |                                 =Virginia=                               |
  +--------------------------------------------------------------------------+
  |1607. The London Company made THE FIRST PERMANENT ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN   |
  |AMERICA, AT JAMESTOWN, VIRGINIA (MAY 13). Jamestown was named after the   |
  |English King, James I.                                                    |
  |                                                                          |
  |1619. Virginia settlers establish the _FIRST REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY IN   |
  |AMERICA_, called _The House of Burgesses_.                                |
  |                                                                          |
  |The FIRST SLAVES were sold in Virginia.                                   |
  |                                                                          |
  |1622. An Indian attack was made on Jamestown.                             |
  |                                                                          |
  |1624. Virginia was made into a _royal colony_.                            |
  |                                                 +------------------------+
  |                                                 :       =Maryland=       |
  |                                                 +------------------------+
  |                                                 :1632. Lord Baltimore ob-|
  |                                                 :tained a charter to     |
  |                                                 :Maryland.               |
  |                                                 :                        |
  |                                                 :1634. First permanent   |
  |                                                 :settlement made at ST.  |
  |                                                 :MARY’S by CALVERT.      |
  |1642-1652. William Berkeley governor of          :                        |
  |Virginia, which became a refuge for Cavaliers    :1645. Maryland Catholics|
  |from England.                                    :and Virginia Puritans   |
  |                                                 :engaged in rebellion.   |
  |                        +------------------------+                        |
  |                        :       =Carolinas=      :1649. The Maryland      |
  |1652. Puritan Commis-   +------------------------+Assembly passed a       |
  |sioners with an army    :1653. Settlement of     :TOLERATION Act.         |
  |compelled Virginia to   :ALBEMARLE, North        :                        |
  |accept the rule of the  :Carolina, by Virginia   :                        |
  |Puritan Commonwealth.   :pioneers.               :                        |
  |                        :                        :                        |
  |1660. The restoration of:                        :                        |
  |Charles II. in England  :                        :1661. Charles Calvert   |
  |brought about the return:1663. Carolina granted  :appointed governor.     |
  |of Berkeley in Virginia.:to a company of pro-    :                        |
  |                        :prietors.               :                        |
  |The restoration was wel-:                        :                        |
  |comed by the Cavaliers  :1669. John Locke drafts :                        |
  |of Virginia, but the    :a constitution for      :                        |
  |Massachusetts Puritans  :Carolina.               :                        |
  |delayed a year before   :                        :                        |
  |proclaiming Charles     :1670. CHARLESTON, S. C.,:                        |
  |king. A SECOND INFLUX OF:settled and territory   :                        |
  |PURITAN IMMIGRANTS FOL- :divided into North and  :                        |
  |LOWED THE RESTORATION.  :South Carolina.         :                        |
  |                        :                        :                        |
  |1676. BACON’S REBELLION :                        :                        |
  |broke out in Virginia.  :                        :                        |
  |                        :                        :                        |
  |1689-1697. KING WILLIAM’S WAR. The FIRST INTER-COLONIAL WAR. This marked  |
  |the beginning of a contest which continued with little intermission until |
  |the downfall of French power in America.                                  |
  |                        :                        :                        |
  |1702-1714. QUEEN ANNE’S WAR. The SECOND INTER-COLONIAL WAR began between  |
  |France and England. This war was confined mainly to the east; the French  |
  |attacking New England, and the New Englanders retaliating.                |
  |                        :                        :                        |
  |                        :1721-1729. The Carolinas:                        |
  |1728. Boundary estab-   :are royal colonies.     :                        |
  |lished between Virginia :                        :                        |
  |and North Carolina.     :1729. North and South   :1729. BALTIMORE founded.|
  |                        :Carolina permanently    :                        |
  |                        :divided into two pro-   :                        |
  |                        :vinces.                 :                        |
  |                        +------------------------+                        |
  |                        :        =Georgia=       :                        |
  |                        +------------------------+                        |
  |                        :1733. Last of the thir- :                        |
  |                        :teen original colonies  :                        |
  |                        :settled by Oglethorpe at:                        |
  |                        :SAVANNAH.               :                        |
  |                        :                        :                        |
  |                        :1742. Spaniards attacked:                        |
  |                        :Georgia; defeated by    :                        |
  |                        :Oglethorpe.             :                        |
  |                        :                        :                        |
  |1744-1748. KING GEORGE’S WAR. The THIRD INTER-COLONIAL WAR broke out      |
  |between England and France. Louisburg was restored to France, much to the |
  |dissatisfaction of the New England colonists.                             |
  |                        :                        :                        |
  |                        :                        :1744. Treaty with the   |
  |                        :1749. First English ship:“Six Nations.”          |
  |                        :reaches Georgia.        :                        |
  |1753. GEORGE WASHINGTON :                        :1753. The Potomac River |
  |was sent by Governor    :                        :explored to its source. |
  |Dinwiddie to order the  :                        :                        |
  |French out of the Ohio  :                        :                        |
  |valley.                 :                        :                        |
  |                        :                        :                        |
  |1754-1763. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. The FOURTH and LAST INTER-COLONIAL  |
  |WAR broke out between the French and English, which was ended by THE      |
  |TREATY OF PARIS in 1763.                                                  |
  +--------------------------------------------------------------------------+

  +---------------------------------------------------------------------------+
  |                           =NEW ENGLAND COLONIES=                          |
  +---------------------------------------------------------------------------+
  |                               =Massachusetts=                             |
  +---------------------------------------------------------------------------+
  |1607. The Plymouth Company established a colony on the Kennebec River, in  |
  |Maine under Sir Ferdinando Gorges. The colony failed.                      |
  |                                                                           |
  |1620. The Pilgrim Fathers landed at Cape Cod November 11, and formed the   |
  |FIRST SETTLEMENT IN NEW ENGLAND AT PLYMOUTH (December 22), under the FIRST |
  |REPUBLICAN FORM OF GOVERNMENT IN AMERICA.                                  |
  |                                                        +------------------+
  |                                                        :  =New Hampshire= |
  |                                                        +------------------+
  |                                                        :1623. First       |
  |1628. The permanent settlement of Massachusetts Bay     :settlement on     |
  |Colony began by the settlement of SALEM under JOHN      :Piscataqua River, |
  |ENDICOTT.                                               :by John Mason.    |
  |                                                        :                  |
  |1629-1640. The “Great Migration” of Puritans to Massa-  :                  |
  |chusetts.                                               :                  |
  |                                     +------------------+                  |
  |1630. BOSTON WAS FOUNDED by the En-  :   =Connecticut=  |                  |
  |glish Puritans. The first general    +------------------+                  |
  |court in New England met there       :1633. Settled at  :                  |
  |October 19.                          :Windsor by        :                  |
  |                                     :Pilgrims.         :                  |
  |                                     :                  :                  |
  |                  +------------------+1633-1636. Coloni-:                  |
  |                  :  =Rhode Island=  :zation of         :                  |
  |                  +------------------+Connecticut River :                  |
  |                  :1636. Roger       :valley.           :                  |
  |                  :Williams settles  :                  :                  |
  |                  :at Providence.    :1637. =Pequot     :                  |
  |                  :                  :Indian War.=      :                  |
  |                  :1638. Ann         :                  :                  |
  |                  :Hutchinson settled:                  :                  |
  |                  :in Rhode Island.  :                  :                  |
  |                  :                  :                  :                  |
  |                  :1639. Newport     :                  :                  |
  |                  :founded.          :                  :1640. Provisional |
  |1641. Massachu-   :                  :                  :government estab- |
  |setts Bay Colony  :                  :                  :lished at Dover.  |
  |adopted laws known:                  :                  :                  |
  |as the _Body of   :                  :                  :                  |
  |Liberties_.       :                  :                  :                  |
  |                  :                  :                  :                  |
  |1643. THE FIRST INTER-COLONIAL UNION IN New England. It was formed for     |
  |protection.                                                                |
  |                  :                  :                  :                  |
  |1658. Massachu-   :                  :1662. Charter     :                  |
  |setts made it a   :1663. Charter     :granted to        :                  |
  |capital offense   :granted to Rhode  :Connecticut.      :                  |
  |for Quakers to    :Island.           :                  :                  |
  |return to the     :                  :                  :                  |
  |colony after ex-  :                  :                  :                  |
  |pulsion.          :                  :                  :                  |
  |                  :                  :                  :                  |
  |1675. KING PHILIP’S WAR broke out in New England.                          |
  |                  :                  :                  :                  |
  |1677. Maine became:                  :                  :                  |
  |part of Massachu- :                  :                  :1680. New Hamp-   |
  |setts by purchase.:                  :                  :shire declared a  |
  |                  :                  :                  :royal province.   |
  |1684. Massachu-   :                  :                  :                  |
  |setts becomes a   :                  :                  :                  |
  |royal colony.     :                  :                  :                  |
  |                  :                  :                  :                  |
  |1686-1689. Andros :                  :                  :                  |
  |governor of all   :                  :                  :                  |
  |New England by    :                  :                  :                  |
  |royal appointment.:                  :                  :                  |
  |                  :                  :                  :                  |
  |1689-1697. KING WILLIAM’S WAR. The FIRST INTER-COLONIAL WAR. This marked   |
  |the beginning of a contest which continued with little intermission until  |
  |the downfall of French power in America.                                   |
  |                  :                  :                  :                  |
  |1691-1693. Salem  :                  :                  :                  |
  |witchcraft.       :                  :                  :                  |
  |                  :                  :                  :                  |
  |1702-1714. QUEEN ANNE’S WAR. The SECOND INTER-COLONIAL WAR began between   |
  |France and England. This war was confined mainly to the east; the French   |
  |attacking New England, and the New Englanders retaliating.                 |
  |                  :                  :                  :                  |
  |1702. Joseph      :                  :                  :                  |
  |Dudley appointed  :                  :1728-1731. Final  :                  |
  |governor.         :1734. Assembly    :boundaries estab- :                  |
  |                  :meets for first   :lished with New   :1740. Boundaries  |
  |1742. Peter       :time at Greenwich.:York and Rhode    :of New Hampshire  |
  |Faneuil builds    :                  :Island.           :determined.       |
  |“Faneuil Hall.”   :                  :                  :                  |
  |                  :                  :                  :                  |
  |1744-1748. KING GEORGE’S WAR. The THIRD INTER-COLONIAL WAR broke out       |
  |between England and France. Louisburg was restored to France, much to the  |
  |dissatisfaction of the New England colonists.                              |
  |                  :                  :                  :1744. George      |
  |                  :                  :1745. One thousand:Whitefield        |
  |1749. Famous      :                  :men sent against  :preaches in New   |
  |Indian treaty re- :1754. Providence  :Louisburg.        :Hampshire.        |
  |newed at Falmouth.:library chartered.:                  :                  |
  |                  :                  :                  :                  |
  |1754-1763. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. The FOURTH and LAST INTER-COLONIAL   |
  |WAR broke out between the French and English, which was ended by THE TREATY|
  |OF PARIS in 1763.                                                          |
  +---------------------------------------------------------------------------+

  +---------------------------------------------------------------------------+
  |                           =THE MIDDLE COLONIES=                           |
  +---------------------------------------------------------------------------+
  |                                 =New York=                                |
  +---------------------------------------------------------------------------+
  |1609. HENRY HUDSON, employed by the Dutch East India Company, SAILED UP THE|
  |HUDSON RIVER searching for a passage to the Indies.                        |
  |                                                                           |
  |1614. The DUTCH established trading stations on Manhattan Island and at    |
  |Fort Orange (Albany) on the Hudson. They called their possessions NEW      |
  |NETHERLAND.                                             +------------------+
  |                                                        |   =New Jersey=   |
  |                                                        +------------------+
  |1623. The Dutch founded a settlement on Manhattan Island:1623. Ft. Nassau  |
  |which they called NEW AMSTERDAM (later New York City).  :(now Gloucester,  |
  |                                                        :N. J.) established|
  |1626. Peter Minuit, director-general of New Netherland, :by the Dutch.     |
  |purchased Manhattan Island from the Indians for $24.    :                  |
  |                                     +------------------+                  |
  |                                     :    =Delaware=    :                  |
  |                                     +------------------+                  |
  |                                     :1627. Swaanendael :                  |
  |1629. Establishment of the patroon   :(now Lewis, Del.) :                  |
  |system to encourage settlement in New:founded.          :                  |
  |Netherland.                          :                  :                  |
  |                                     :                  :                  |
  |1636. Wealthy colonists from Holland :                  :                  |
  |settle at Ft. Orange.                :1638. A Swedish   :                  |
  |                                     :settlement was    :1640. English     |
  |1647-1664. Peter Stuyvesant governor :made near Wilming-:settlements begun |
  |of New Netherland.                   :ton, on the       :on Salem Creek.   |
  |                                     :Delaware.         :                  |
  |                                     :                  :                  |
  |                                     :1655. The Swedish :                  |
  |1657. Proclamation issued against the:settlements on the:                  |
  |Quakers.                             :Delaware conquered:                  |
  |                                     :by the Dutch.     :                  |
  |                                     :                  :                  |
  |                                     :1664. Delaware    :1664. New Jersey  |
  |1670. Staten Island purchased from   :passes under En-  :granted to        |
  |the Indians.                         :glish rule.       :Berkeley and      |
  |                  +------------------+                  :Carteret.         |
  |                  :  =Pennsylvania=  :                  :                  |
  |                  +------------------+                  :                  |
  |                  :1681. Grant of    :                  :                  |
  |                  :Pennsylvania to   :                  :                  |
  |                  :William Penn.     :                  :                  |
  |                  :                  :                  :                  |
  |                  :1682. Philadelphia:1682. Delaware be-:                  |
  |1683. First       :laid out by Penn, :comes part of     :                  |
  |Assembly in New   :and Quaker emigra-:Pennsylvania.     :                  |
  |York under English:tion encouraged.  :                  :                  |
  |rule.             :                  :                  :                  |
  |                  :Penn’s treaty with:                  :                  |
  |1689-1690.        :the Indians.      :                  :                  |
  |Leisler’s re-     :                  :                  :                  |
  |bellion in New    :                  :                  :                  |
  |York.             :                  :                  :                  |
  |                  :                  :                  :                  |
  |1689-1697. KING WILLIAM’S WAR. The FIRST INTER-COLONIAL WAR. This marked   |
  |the beginning of a contest which continued with little intermission until  |
  |the downfall of French power in America.                                   |
  |                  :                  :                  :                  |
  |                  :1701. Penn granted:                  :                  |
  |                  :a CHARTER OF      :                  :                  |
  |                  :PRIVILEGES to     :                  :                  |
  |                  :Pennsylvania which:                  :                  |
  |                  :remained in force :                  :                  |
  |                  :until 1776.       :                  :                  |
  |                  :                  :                  :                  |
  |1702-1714. QUEEN ANNE’S WAR. The SECOND INTER-COLONIAL WAR began between   |
  |France and England. This war was confined mainly to the east; the French   |
  |attacking New England, and the New Englanders retaliating.                 |
  |                  :                  :                  :                  |
  |                  :                  :                  :1702. New Jersey  |
  |                  :                  :1703. Delaware is :becomes a royal   |
  |                  :                  :made a separate   :province under the|
  |                  :                  :colony.           :governor of New   |
  |                  :                  :                  :York.             |
  |                  :                  :                  :                  |
  |                  :1733. Treaty with :1733. Delaware    :                  |
  |1735. Zenger’s    :the “Six Nations.”:boundaries defined:                  |
  |trial and acquit- :                  :after twenty      :1738. Separate    |
  |tal in New York,  :                  :years’ litigation.:charter granted to|
  |establishes free- :                  :                  :New Jersey.       |
  |dom of the press. :                  :                  :                  |
  |                  :                  :                  :                  |
  |1743. Sir George  :                  :                  :                  |
  |Clinton, governor.:                  :                  :                  |
  |                  :                  :                  :                  |
  |1744-1748. KING GEORGE’S WAR. The THIRD INTER-COLONIAL WAR broke out be-   |
  |tween England and France. Louisburg was restored to France, much to the    |
  |dissatisfaction of the New England colonists.                              |
  |                  :                  :                  :                  |
  |                  :1746. Thomas and  :                  :                  |
  |                  :Richard Penn sole :1750. Trenton     :                  |
  |1754. Convention  :proprietors of    :public library    :                  |
  |at Albany to con- :Pennsylvania.     :founded.          :                  |
  |sider a colonial  :                  :                  :                  |
  |confederacy.      :                  :                  :                  |
  |                  :                  :                  :                  |
  |1754-1763. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. The FOURTH and LAST INTER-COLONIAL   |
  |WAR broke out between the French and English, which was ended by THE TREATY|
  |OF PARIS in 1763.                                                          |
  +---------------------------------------------------------------------------+

  +-------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
  |      =Progress and Population=      |      ENGLISH RULERS AND EVENTS      |
  +-------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+
  |                                     |1603-1625. =James I.=                |
  |                                     |                                     |
  |                                     |1603. Union of England and Scotland. |
  |1616. Tobacco first cultivated by the|                                     |
  |English in Virginia.                 |1625-1649. =Charles I.=              |
  |                                     |                                     |
  |                                     |1627. War with France, over the      |
  |1636. First college in America       |Huguenots.                           |
  |founded by Massachusetts. Two years  |                                     |
  |later it is named HARVARD in honor of|                                     |
  |John Harvard.                        |                                     |
  |                                     |                                     |
  |1639. First press in America set up  |                                     |
  |at Cambridge. Stephen Daye was the   |                                     |
  |printer, and THE FIRST AMERICAN BOOK |                                     |
  |was _The Bay Psalm Book_.            |                                     |
  |                                     |                                     |
  |1640. =Whole number of emigrants to  |1640. Meeting of the Long Parliament.|
  |New England previous to this time    |                                     |
  |about 21,200.=                       |1642. Civil war begins.              |
  |                                     |                                     |
  |1645. Massachusetts established free |                                     |
  |schools supported by the State.      |1649. Execution of Charles I.        |
  |                                     |                                     |
  |                                     |1649-1660. The Commonwealth under    |
  |                                     |Cromwell.                            |
  |                                     |                                     |
  |                                     |1660. Restoration of the Stuarts.    |
  |                                     |                                     |
  |                                     |1660-1685. =Charles II.=             |
  |1661. Eliot’s “Indian Testament”     |                                     |
  |printed at Cambridge.                |                                     |
  |                                     |                                     |
  |1664. Eliot’s “Indian Bible” printed |                                     |
  |at Cambridge.                        |1668. Triple alliance of England,    |
  |                                     |Sweden and Holland against France.   |
  |1676. =Population of New England     |                                     |
  |estimated at 60,000.=                |                                     |
  |                                     |                                     |
  |1680. John Buckner brings a printing |                                     |
  |press to Virginia and prints the     |1685-1689. =James II.=               |
  |session laws.                        |                                     |
  |                                     |1688-1689. The “Glorious Revolution.”|
  |                                     |                                     |
  |1689. First American newspaper       |1689-1702. =William III. and Mary.=  |
  |published in Boston; suppressed by   |                                     |
  |Massachusetts government.            |                                     |
  |                                     |                                     |
  |1692. THE COLLEGE OF WILLIAM AND MARY|                                     |
  |was established in Virginia.         |                                     |
  |                                     |                                     |
  |1700. =Population of colonies about  |                                     |
  |260,000.=                            |                                     |
  |                                     |                                     |
  |1701. YALE COLLEGE was established in|1701. War of the Spanish succession. |
  |Connecticut.                         |                                     |
  |                                     |1702-1714. =Queen Anne.=             |
  |                                     |                                     |
  |                                     |1702. Queen Anne war against France  |
  |1704. Appearance of “The Boston News |and Spain.                           |
  |Letter,” the first newspaper in      |                                     |
  |America.                             |                                     |
  |                                     |                                     |
  |1710. First post office in America at|                                     |
  |New York.                            |1714-1727. =George II.=              |
  |                                     |                                     |
  |                                     |1718. War with Spain.                |
  |1719. First Spinning-wheel and       |                                     |
  |_cultivation of potatoes_ introduced |                                     |
  |by the settlers of Londonderry, N. H.|                                     |
  |                                     |                                     |
  |1720. Tea begins to be used in New   |                                     |
  |England.                             |1727-1760. =George II.=              |
  |                                     |                                     |
  |1729. “Pennsylvania Gazette” started |                                     |
  |by Franklin.                         |                                     |
  |                                     |                                     |
  |1736. Appearance of “The Virginia    |                                     |
  |Gazette,” first newspaper in the     |                                     |
  |South.                               |                                     |
  |                                     |1739. War with Spain.                |
  |1740. University of Pennsylvania     |                                     |
  |founded.                             |                                     |
  |                                     |                                     |
  |1741. Moravians first settle in      |                                     |
  |United States at Bethlehem.          |1744. War between England, France and|
  |                                     |Austria.                             |
  |1746. New Jersey College, afterwards |                                     |
  |PRINCETON.                           |                                     |
  |                                     |                                     |
  |1749. =White population of the       |                                     |
  |colonies 1,046,000.=                 |                                     |
  |                                     |                                     |
  |1752. _English Bible_ first printed  |                                     |
  |in America.                          |                                     |
  |                                     |                                     |
  |Franklin experiments in electricity. |                                     |
  |                                     |                                     |
  |1754. King’s College (now COLUMBIA), |                                     |
  |New York City, founded.              |1756-1763. Seven Years’ war.         |
  +-------------------------------------+-------------------------------------+


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES

When first visited by Europeans, the country now comprised within the
United States was exclusively inhabited by the race commonly called
American Indians.

=Period of Discovery.=--According to the Scandinavian sagas, Leif, a
Norwegian, sailed about 1001 from Iceland for Greenland, but was driven
southward by storms till he reached a country called Vinland, which is
supposed to have been Rhode Island or some other part of the coast of
New England.

It is possible that some vague rumors of the Norse journeys had come to
Christopher Columbus when he set out on Friday, August 3, 1492, to
discover the western route to India. He sighted one of the Bahama
Islands on October 12, and landed the following day. After cruising
about for some time, he returned to Spain. He made in all four voyages
to the New World for treasure-getting and discovery. His discoveries, it
should be remembered, did not extend to the territory now occupied by
the United States, but were confined to certain of the West India
Islands, and parts of Central, and possibly, South America. (See
further, under Outlines of American History.)

Among the earliest of his followers was Amerigo Vespucci, who in
1497-1498 explored the coasts of the Gulf of Mexico, and who has given
his name to the whole continent.

In 1497, about five years after the discovery of America by Columbus,
John Cabot sailed westward from Bristol, England, and on June 24
discovered land (Labrador), along which he coasted to the southwest
nearly one thousand miles. In 1498 his son, Sebastian Cabot, sailed from
the same port in search of a northwest passage to China, but finding the
ice impenetrable, he turned to the south and coasted as far as
Chesapeake Bay.

In 1513 the Spaniard Ponce de Leon discovered Florida. In 1539 took
place the expedition of the Spaniard De Soto, who in the course of two
years penetrated overland from Tampa Bay on the west coast of Florida to
a point two hundred miles beyond the Mississippi.

[Illustration: =FOREFATHERS’ ROCK, PLYMOUTH, MASS.=

Plymouth is of abiding interest as the landing place of the Pilgrim
Fathers (December 21st, 1620) and the site of the first settlement in
New England. Pilgrim Hall contains numerous interesting relics of the
Pilgrims, paintings of their embarkation and landing, old portraits,
etc. North Street leads to the so-called Plymouth Rock, a granite
boulder enclosed by a railing and covered with a canopy. This, however,
is only a fragment (broken off in 1774) of the flat rock where the
Pilgrims landed, which lies nearer the sea and is now covered by a
wharf. Cole’s Hill, opposite the rock, was the burial-place of the early
settlers (1620-1621). Leyden Street was the site of the first house.
From the Town Square a path ascends to the right to the ancient Burial
Hill, with the graves of many of the early settlers, including Governor
Bradford. A fortified church was erected here in 1622. To the south is
Watson’s Hill, where the Pilgrims made a treaty with Massasoit in 1621.
The National Monument to the Pilgrims, consisting of a granite pedestal
forty-five feet high, surmounted by a figure of Faith, thirty-six feet
high, and surrounded by seated figures twenty feet high, representing
Law, Morality, Freedom and Education is about one-fourth mile from the
railway station, on Allerton Street. The three hundredth anniversary of
the landing of the Pilgrims will be elaborately celebrated here in
1920.]

=Period of Settlement.=--In 1565 the Spaniards founded St. Augustine,
the first permanent settlement in the United States. In 1585 an
expedition sent by Sir Walter Raleigh made a settlement on Roanoke
Island, N. C., which failed. In 1607 the English founded Jamestown on
James River, Virginia, their first permanent settlement.[11] The master
spirit of this enterprise was Captain John Smith. Plymouth, Mass., was
founded in 1620 by the “Pilgrim Fathers,” a body of Puritans led by John
Carver and others, who sailed from England in the Mayflower. Salem was
settled by John Endicott in 1628. In 1630 John Winthrop settled Boston.
In 1692 Plymouth colony was united to Massachusetts. Portsmouth and
Dover, in New Hampshire, were settled in 1623. The first permanent
English settlements in Maine were made about the same time. These
settlements ultimately fell under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts.
Connecticut was colonized in 1635-1636 by emigrants from Massachusetts,
who settled at Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield. Rhode Island was
first settled at Providence in 1636 by Roger Williams. In 1623 permanent
settlements were made by the Dutch at Fort Orange (now Albany) and at
New Amsterdam on the present site of New York. The Swedes settled on the
Delaware in 1638, and were expelled in 1655 by the Dutch army. The
English seized New Amsterdam in 1664, and with it the whole of New
Netherland, which they named New York from the Duke of York, to whom it
had been granted by Charles II. New Jersey at this time acquired its
distinctive name. In 1681 the territory west of the Delaware was granted
to William Penn, who colonized it chiefly with Friends or Quakers, and
founded Philadelphia in 1682. Maryland was settled in 1634 by Roman
Catholics sent out by Lord Baltimore. The first permanent settlement in
North Carolina appears to have been made about 1663, on Albemarle Sound,
by emigrants from Virginia. The first permanent settlement in South
Carolina was made in 1670 by colonists from England on the Ashley River,
near the site of Charleston, which began to be settled about the same
time. Georgia was settled by General James Oglethorpe, who in 1733
founded Savannah.

  [11] Jamestown is seven miles from Williamsburg, formerly the
  ancient capital of Virginia and seat of the colonial governor. The
  only remains of the ancient town are the tower of the church (in
  which Pocahontas was married in 1614; church itself rebuilt in 1907)
  and a few tombstones.

=How Europe First Divided the American Colonies.=--It will thus be seen
that what is now the territory of the United States has been derived
from six European nations. Resting on the discovery by Columbus and the
bulls of the popes, Spain claimed the whole continent, but has been in
actual possession only of the Gulf coast from Florida to Texas, and of
the interior from the Mississippi to the Pacific. The Swedes once had
settlements on the Delaware. The Dutch, following up the voyage of
Hudson to the river bearing his name, claimed and held the country from
the Delaware to the Connecticut. The French discovered the St. Lawrence
and explored and held military possession of the valleys of the
Mississippi and Ohio and the Great Lakes. The English, by virtue of the
voyages of the Cabots, claimed the Atlantic coast, and there founded the
colonies which grew into the thirteen United States.

In the course of the struggle, sometimes peaceful, often bloody, by
which the rule of these nations has been thrown off, the Dutch conquered
the Swedes; the English conquered the Dutch and the French; the United
States expelled the English, and in time, by purchase or conquest, drove
out the Spaniards and the Mexicans.

=Struggle of England and France for America.=--The first serious
struggle for possession occurred in the middle of the eighteenth
century, when the English, moving westward, met the French moving
eastward at the source of the river Ohio. In that struggle, which has
come down to us as the “French and Indian war,” France was worsted, and,
retiring from this continent, divided her possessions between England
and Spain. To England she gave Canada and the islands and shores of the
Gulf of St. Lawrence, and, entering what is now the United States, drew
a line down the middle of the Mississippi River, and gave all to the
east of that line (save the island on which is the city of New Orleans)
to Great Britain, and all to the west of it to Spain; Spain at the same
time gave Florida to England as the price of Cuba.

=Oppression of the Colonies under British Rule.=--Having thus come into
possession of all the country to the east of the Great River, King
George determined to send out an army of ten thousand men to defend the
colonies, and have the latter bear a part of the expense. This part he
attempted to collect by duties on goods imported, and by a Stamp Tax
(1765) on legal documents and printed matter. No tax for revenue had
before been laid on America by act of Parliament. The colonists,
therefore, resisted this first attempt, and raising the cry, “No
taxation without representation,” they forced Parliament to repeal the
Stamp Tax in 1766. The right to tax was at the same time distinctly
asserted, and in 1767 was again used, and duties laid on paints, oils,
lead, glass, and tea. Once more the colonists resisted, and, by refusing
to import any goods, wares, or merchandise of English make, so
distressed the manufacturers of England that Parliament repealed every
tax save that on tea. All the tea needed in America was now smuggled in
from Holland. The East India Company, deprived of the American market,
became embarrassed, and, calling on Parliament for aid, was suffered to
export tea, a privilege never before enjoyed.

Selecting commissioners in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and
Charleston, cargoes of tea were duly consigned to them by the East India
Company; but the people agreed not to buy any of this tea or allow it to
be sold. At Boston men disguised as Indians boarded the tea ships,
overcame the guards, and destroyed the tea by throwing the boxes into
the harbor. This has gone down in history as the “Boston Tea Party.”

=The Continental Congress and the Revolution.=--As a punishment for
this, Parliament shut the port of Boston and deprived the people of
Massachusetts of many functions of local government. The Assembly of
Massachusetts thereupon called for a General Congress to meet at
Philadelphia on September 5, 1774. The colonies gladly responded and
this congress, having issued a Declaration of Rights and Addresses to
the king, to Parliament, and to the people of England, adjourned to
await the result.

The day for the reassembling of Congress was May 10, 1775; but, before
that day came, the attempt of General Gage to seize military stores
brought on a fight at Lexington, April 19, 1775. The fight at Lexington
was followed by the siege of the British in Boston, by the formation of
the “Continental Army,” by the appointment of George Washington to
command it, by the battle of Bunker Hill, June 17, 1775, and by an
expedition against Quebec, which came to naught, on the last day of the
year.

General William Howe meantime had succeeded Gage in command of the
British at Boston, and, finding himself hard pressed by Washington,
evacuated the city and sailed for Halifax. Believing New York was to be
attacked, Washington now hurried to Long Island, where, August 27, 1776,
Howe defeated him, took possession of New York, and drove him first up
the Hudson and then southward across New Jersey.

=American Independence Declared.=--Congress, which, July 4, 1776, at
Philadelphia, had declared the colonies to be free and independent
states, now fled from that city to Baltimore. But Washington, turning in
his retreat, surprised and captured the British outpost at Trenton.
Cornwallis instantly hurried toward that town, but Washington, passing
around the British rear, attacked and captured at Princeton, January 3,
1777, a detachment on its march to Trenton, and then went into winter
quarters at Morristown.

With the return of spring Howe, finding that he could not reach
Philadelphia by land without passing in front of the Continental army
stretched out on a strongly intrenched line across New Jersey, went by
sea. Washington met him at Chadd’s Ford on the Brandywine, was defeated,
and on September 25, 1777, Howe entered Philadelphia. In the attempt to
dislodge him Washington fought and lost the battle of Germantown,
October 4, 1777; the loss of Philadelphia was more than made good by the
capture of Burgoyne and his army at Saratoga, October 17, 1777, while on
his way from Canada to New York City.

The fruits of this victory were the recognition of the independence of
the United States by France, the treaty of alliance with France,
February 8, 1778, and the evacuation of Philadelphia by General Clinton,
who had succeeded Howe. Washington, who had spent the winter at Valley
Forge, instantly followed, and overtaking Clinton at Monmouth fought and
won the battle at that place, June 29, 1778. Clinton escaped to New
York, and Washington, drawing his army in a circle about the city from
Morristown on the south to West Point on the north, awaited further
movements.

=PRINCIPAL CAMPAIGNS AND BATTLES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION=

The leading battles are indicated in =bold-face=; successful commanders
in _italics_

  =====================+===================================+==============
    =Names, Dates and  |            =Commanders=           |   =Engaged=
   Places of Campaigns +-----------------------------------+-------+------
       and Battles=    |    =American=   |    =British=    |=Amer.=|=Brit-
                       |                 |                 |       | ish=
  ---------------------+-----------------+-----------------+-------+------
       =1775-1776=     |                 |                 |       |
       =Campaign in    |                 |                 |       |
       New England=    |                 |                 |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  =Lexington, Concord= |Barret and       |_Smith_ and      |    ...| 1,700
  (April 19, 1775)     |Butterick        |_Lord Percy_     |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  Ticonderoga (May 10, |_Ethan Allen_ and|Delaplace        |     83|    48
  1775)                |_Eaton_          |                 |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  =Bunker Hill= (June  |Warren, Prescott |_Howe_ and       |  3,000| 4,500
  17, 1775)            |and Putnam       |_Pigot_          |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  Quebec (December 6-  |Schuyler, Mont-  |_M’Lean_ and     |    900| 1,200
  31, 1775)            |gomery and Arnold|_Carleton_       |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  Norfolk, Va. (Dec. 9,|Woodford         |Lord Dunsmore    |    ...|   ...
  1775)                |                 |                 |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  Boston (March 17,    |The British evacuate the city and  |       |
  1776)                |harbor.                            |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  Charleston (Ft.      |_Moultrie_, _Lee_|Clinton          |    400| 4,000
  Moultrie) (June 28,  |and _Armstrong_  |                 |       |
  1776)                |                 |                 |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
       =1776-1778=     |                 |                 |       |
   =Campaign in Middle |                 |                 |       |
        States=        |                 |                 |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  Brooklyn, L. I. (Aug.|Green and        |_Howe_,          | 10,000|20,000
  26, 1776)            |Sullivan         |_Clinton_, and   |       |
                       |                 |_Cornwallis_     |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  Harlem Plains, N. Y. |Washington       |...              |    ...|   ...
  (Sept. 16, 1776)     |                 |                 |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  =White Plains, N. Y.=|Washington       |_Howe_           |  1,600| 2,000
  (Oct. 28, 1776)      |                 |                 |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  Fort Washington,     |Magaw            |_Howe_           |  3,000| 5,000
  N. Y. (Nov. 16, 1776)|                 |                 |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  =Trenton, N. J.=     |_Washington_     |Lord Cornwallis  |  2,400| 1,000
  (Dec. 26, 1776)      |                 |and Rahl         |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  =Princeton, N. J.=   |_Washington_     |Mawhood          |  3,000| 1,800
  (Jan. 3, 1777)       |                 |                 |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  =Bennington, Vt.=    |_Stark_ and      |Baum and Beyman  |    ...| 1,200
  (Aug. 15, 16, 1777)  |_Warner_         |                 |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  Brandywine, Pa.      |Washington       |_Howe_           | 11,000|18,000
  (Sept. 11, 1777)     |                 |                 |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  =Bemis Heights,      |_Gates_          |Burgoyne         |  2,500| 3,000
  N. Y.= (Sept. 19,    |                 |                 |       |
  1777)                |                 |                 |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  Germantown, Pa. (Oct.|Washington       |_Howe_           | 11,000|15,000
  4, 1777)             |                 |                 |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  =Stillwater=         |_Gates_          |Burgoyne         |  8,000| 6,000
  (Saratoga) (Oct. 7,  |                 |                 |       |
  1777)                |                 |                 |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  =Monmouth, N. J.=    |_Washington_     |Sir Henry Clinton| 12,000|11,000
  (June 28, 1778)      |                 |                 |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
       =1778-1781=     |                 |                 |       |
    =Campaign in the   |                 |                 |       |
         South=        |                 |                 |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  Savannah, Ga. (Dec.  |Robert Howe      |_Campbell_       |    900| 2,000
  29, 1778)            |                 |                 |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  Brier Creek, Ga.     |Ashe             |_Prevost_        |  1,200| 1,800
  (Mar. 3, 1779)       |                 |                 |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  Stony Point, N. Y.   |_Wayne_          |Clinton          |  1,200|   600
  (July 16, 1779)      |                 |                 |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  Chemung, N. Y. (Aug. |_Sullivan_       |Brant            |  4,000| 1,500
  29, 1779)            |                 |                 |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  Savannah, Ga. (Oct.  |Lincoln          |_Prevost_        |  4,500| 2,900
  9, 1779)             |                 |                 |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  Charleston, S. C.    |Lincoln          |_Clinton_        |  3,700| 9,000
  (May 12, 1780)       |                 |                 |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  Camden, S. C.        |Gates            |_Cornwallis_     |  3,000| 2,200
  (Sanders Creek) (Aug.|                 |                 |       |
  15, 1780)            |                 |                 |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  =King’s Mountain,    |_Campbell_       |Ferguson         |    900| 1,100
  S. C.= (Oct. 7, 1780)|                 |                 |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  =Cowpens, S. C.=     |_Morgan_         |Cornwallis and   |    900| 1,100
  (Jan. 17, 1781)      |                 |Tarleton         |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  Guilford C. H., N. C.|Greene           |_Cornwallis_     |  4,400| 2,400
  (Mar. 15, 1781)      |                 |                 |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  Hobkirk’s Hill, S. C.|Greene           |_Rawdon_         |  1,200|   900
  (April 25, 1781)     |                 |                 |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  New London, Conn.,   |Ledyard          |_Benedict Arnold_|    150|   800
  Fort Griswold (Sept. |                 |and _Eyre_       |       |
  6, 1781)             |                 |                 |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  =Eutaw Springs, S.   |_Greene_         |Lord Rawdon      |  2,000| 2,800
  C.= (Sept. 8, 1781)  |                 |                 |       |
                       |                 |                 |       |
  =Yorktown, Va.= (Oct.|_Washington_     |Cornwallis       | 16,000| 7,500
  17-19, 1781)         |                 |                 |       |
  ---------------------+-----------------+-----------------+-------+------

=Treason of Arnold and Execution of André.=--Turning towards the
Southern states, the British commander now dispatched an expedition
which took Savannah and overran the State of Georgia. The year which
followed (1779) is memorable for the capture of Stony Point by Anthony
Wayne; for the treason of Benedict Arnold; for the execution of Major
John André; for the capture of the “Serapis” by Paul Jones after one of
the most desperate naval battles on record, and by the failure of an
attempt by the Americans to retake Savannah. In 1780 Clinton led an
expedition from New York to Charleston, took the city, swept over South
Carolina, and, leaving Cornwallis in command, hurried back to New York.
Gates, who now attempted to dislodge the British, was beaten. Greene now
succeeded Gates, and Morgan, the commander of his light troops, won the
battle of the Cowpens, January 17, 1781. This victory brought up
Cornwallis, who chased Greene across the State of North Carolina to
Guilford Court House, where Greene was beaten and Cornwallis forced to
retreat to Wilmington. Moving southward, Greene was again beaten in two
pitched battles, but forced the British to withdraw within their lines
at Charleston and Savannah.

Cornwallis meantime moved from Wilmington into Virginia and took
possession of Yorktown. And now Washington, who had long been watching
New York, again took the offensive, hurried across New Jersey and
Pennsylvania, and, while a French fleet closed the Chesapeake Bay, he
besieged Cornwallis by land, till, October 19, 1781, the British general
surrendered. This practically ended the war.

The treaty of peace, at Paris, in 1783, actually ended it, secured the
independence of the United States, and fixed her boundaries, roughly
speaking, as the Atlantic Ocean on the east, the Mississippi on the
west, New Brunswick, the St. Lawrence, and the Great Lakes on the north,
and the parallel of thirty-one degrees on the south.

=Articles of Confederation and their Weakness.=--While the war was still
raging Congress had framed an instrument of government, which the states
ratified and put in force on March 1, 1781. This instrument of
government which bound the thirteen states in perpetual union was known
as the Articles of Confederation, and established a government as bad as
any yet devised by man. There was no executive, no judiciary, and only
the semblance of a legislature. The Congress consisted of not more than
seven nor less than two delegates from each state; sat in secret
session; was presided over by a president elected from its own members;
and could not pass any law unless the delegates of nine states assented.
It could wage war, make treaties, and borrow money; but it could not lay
a tax of any kind whatsoever; nor regulate commerce between the states,
or with foreign powers; and was dependent entirely on the liberality of
the states for revenues. This defect proved fatal. Inability to regulate
foreign commerce by duties stripped the country of its specie. Lack of
specie forced the states to issue paper money. Paper money was followed
by tender acts and force acts, and in some places by a violent stoppage
of justice to the debtor class. A commercial and financial crisis
followed and the people of the states, reduced to desperation, gladly
acceded to a call for a national trade convention, which met in
Philadelphia in May, 1787. The instructions of the delegates bade them
suggest amendments to the Articles of Confederation. But the convention,
considering the Articles too bad to be mended, framed the Constitution,
which the people, acting through conventions in the various states,
ratified during 1787 and 1788.

=Adoption of the Constitution and Organization of Parties.=--On March 4,
1789, the Constitution became the supreme law of the land. In the first
Congress no trace of party lines is visible. But the work of
establishing government had not gone far when differences of opinion
sprang up; when the cry of partial legislation was raised, and the
people all over the country began to divide into two great
parties--those who favored and those who opposed a liberal construction
of the language of the Constitution and the establishment of a strong
national government.

The friends of national government took the name of Federalists, and
under the lead of Alexander Hamilton, who as Secretary of the Treasury
marked out the financial policy of the administration, they funded the
foreign and domestic debt occasioned by the war for independence,
assumed the debts incurred by the states in that struggle, set up a
national bank with branches, and laid a tax on distilled liquors.

Each one of these acts was met with violent opposition, as designed to
benefit a class, as unconstitutional, and as highly detrimental to the
interests of the South. Against the Federalists were now brought charges
of a leaning towards monarchy and aristocracy. Great Britain, it was
said, has a funded debt, a bank, and an excise. These things are,
therefore, monarchial institutions. But the Federalists have introduced
them into the United States. The Federalists, therefore, are
aristocrats, monarchists, and monopolists.

Of all who believed these charges, none believed them more sincerely
than Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of State. Seeing in these acts a wide
departure from the true principles of democracy, he set himself to work
to organize a party of opposition, and was soon looked up to as the
recognized leader of the Federal Republicans.

Hardly had the two parties thus been called into existence by difference
of opinion on questions of home affairs, when they were parted yet more
widely, and the dispute between them intensely embittered by questions
of foreign affairs.

=Effect of the French and English Affairs Upon the New Nation.=--In 1793
the French Republic declared war against England, and sent a minister to
the United States. As the United States was bound to France by the
treaty of alliance and by a treaty of amity and commerce, and was not
bound to Great Britain by any commercial treaty whatever, it seemed not
unlikely that she would be dragged unwillingly into the war. But
Washington, with the advice of his secretaries, proclaimed neutrality,
and from that time every Republican was the firm friend of France and
every Federalist the ally of England. Then began a seven years’ struggle
for neutrality. France threw open her colonial ports to neutral
commerce; Great Britain asserting the “Rule of the War of 1756,” a rule
prescribing that no neutral should have in time of war a trade it did
not have in peace, declared this trade was contraband, and seized the
ships of the United States engaged in it. The Republicans denounced
neutrality and attempted to force a war. The Federalists in alarm
dispatched John Jay, the Chief Justice, to London, with offers of a
commercial treaty. England responded and on February 29, 1796, the first
treaty of amity and commerce between her and the United States became
law. At this France took offense, rejected the new minister (C. C.
Pinckney) from the United States, and drove him from her soil, suspended
the treaties, insulted a special commission (sent out in the interest of
peace), with demands for bribes and tribute, and almost brought on war.

Never since the days of Bunker Hill had the country been so stirred as
this act of the French Directory stirred it in the summer of 1798. Then
was written our national song, “Hail Columbia.” Then was established the
department of the navy. Then, under the cry, “Millions for defense; not
a cent for tribute,” went forth that gallant little fleet which humbled
the tri-color in the West Indies and brought France to her senses.

=Causes and Events of the War of 1812.=--With the elevation of Napoleon
to the First Consulship came peace in 1800. In that same year the
Federalists fell from power, never to return. Once in power, the
Republicans began to carry out the principles they had so long preached.
They reduced the national debt; they repealed the internal taxes. They
sold the navy; boldly assaulted the Supreme Court; and in 1811, when the
charter of the National Bank expired, refused to renew it. Their
doctrine of strict construction, however, was ruined, when, in 1803,
they bought the Province of Louisiana from France and added to the
public domain that splendid region which lies between the Mississippi
and the Rocky Mountains.

At that moment it seemed as if the people were about to enter on a
career of unwonted prosperity. But Napoleon suddenly made war on
England, and by 1806 the United States was involved in a desperate
struggle of nine years, both with France and England, for commercial
independence. Great Britain searched our ships, impressed our sailors,
violated the neutrality of our ports, and by the decisions of her
admiralty courts and by orders in council sought to ruin our neutral
commerce with Europe, unless carried on through her ports and under her
license. Napoleon attacked us with his decrees of Berlin and Milan, and
sought to ruin our neutral commerce with England. The United States
retaliated by means of the embargo and non-intercourse, and, in 1812,
declared war.


CAMPAIGNS AND BATTLES OF THE WAR OF 1812-1815


=Principal Land Battles=

=1812.=--August 16, the surrender of Detroit by Hull to Brock.

October 13, defeat of Van Rensselaer by Brock at Queenstown.

=1813.=--January 18-22, the Americans were defeated at Frenchtown by
General Proctor, whose Indians massacred the wounded Americans.

April 27, York (Toronto) was captured by the Americans under General
Pike.

October 5, General Harrison forced General Proctor to retreat into
Canada, and October 5 at the battle of the Thames routed the British and
their Indian allies. Tecumseh was killed, the territory lost by Hull
regained, and Upper Canada was retained to the end of the war.

November 11, the Americans moved on Montreal, but were defeated at
Chryslers Field, and retreated.

=1814.=--July 25, Winfield Scott again invaded Canada and gained
victories at Chippewa (July 5) and at Lundy’s Lane.

August 24, capture of Washington and burning of the Capitol, the White
House, and other buildings.

=1815.=--January 8, a large body of English veterans were landed in
Louisiana, and attacked New Orleans; in this battle, which took place
before the news of the treaty of peace reached the combatants, Jackson
won a decisive victory.


=Principal Naval Battles=

=1812.=--August 19, the _Constitution_ destroys the British _Guerriere_,
in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

October 18, the American _Wasp_ captures the _Frolic_.

October 25, Captain Decatur in the _United States_ took the
_Macedonian_.

December 29, the _Constitution_ captures the _Java_.

=1813.=--February 24, the American _Hornet_ captures the _Peacock_.

June 1, the _Chesapeake_ is captured by the British _Shannon_.

September 10, Commodore Perry with a fleet of nine vessels destroys the
British squadron of six vessels on Lake Erie.

=1814.=--September 3, naval attack on Fort McHenry by the British fails.

September 11, Captain Macdonough, on Lake Champlain, completely defeated
a British fleet stronger than his own; this checked a serious invasion
of the enemy.


=Treaty and Results of the War=

December 24, 1814, a treaty of peace was made at Ghent, the end of the
Napoleonic wars having removed the cause for England’s offensive policy
at sea.

The provisions included:

(1) A return of captured territory.

(2) Nothing was said about impressment.

(3) No compensation was secured by the Americans for ships captured
previous to 1812.

The results of the war were:

(1) An increase of debt.

(2) An outburst of national patriotism.

(3) The removal of America from participation in European politics.

(4) The development of manufacturing.

(5) The establishment of the protective tariff policy.

=With the Cessation of Hostilities Another Epoch in Our History
Begins.=--From the day when Washington proclaimed neutrality in 1793, to
the day when the people celebrated, with bonfires and with fireworks,
and with public dinners, the return of peace, in 1815, the political and
industrial history of the United States is deeply affected by the
political history of Europe. It was questions of foreign policy, not of
domestic policy, that divided the two parties, that took up the time of
Congress, that raised up and pulled down politicians. But after 1815
foreign affairs sank into insignificance, and for the next thirty years
the history of the United States is the history of political and
economic development of the country to the east of the Mississippi
River.

=Fall of the Federalists, or Pro-British Party.=--The opposition which
the Federalists made to the war completed their ruin. In 1816 for the
last time they put forward a presidential candidate, carried three
states out of nineteen, and expired in the effort. During the eight
years of Monroe’s administration (1817-1825) but one great and
harmonious party ruled the political destinies of the country. This
remarkable period has come down to us in history as the “era of good
feelings.” It was indeed such an era, and so good were the feelings that
in 1820 when Monroe was re-elected no competitor was named to run
against him. Every state, every electoral vote save one was his. Even
that one was his. But the elector who controlled it threw it away on
John Quincy Adams lest Monroe should have the unanimous vote of the
presidential electors, an honor which has been bestowed on no man save
Washington.

=Rise of the Protective Tariff Policy.=--In the midst of this harmony,
however, events were fast ripening for a great schism. Under the
protection offered by the commercial restrictions which began with the
embargo and ended with the peace, manufactures had sprung up and
flourished. If they were to continue to flourish they must continue to
be protected, and the question of free trade and protection rose for the
first time into really national importance.

The rush of population into the West led to the admission of Indiana
(1816), Mississippi (1817), Illinois (1818), Alabama (1819), and
Missouri (1820) into the Union, and brought up for serious discussion
the uses to be made of public lands lying within them.

The steamboat, which had been adopted far and wide, had produced a
demand for some improved means of communication by land to join the
greater water highways of the country and opened the era of internal
improvements.

The application of Missouri for admission into the Union brought up the
question of the admission of slavery to the west of the Mississippi. A
series of decisions of the Supreme Court, setting aside acts of the
state legislatures, gave new prominence to the question of state rights.

=A Decade of Great Political Contests.=--The Missouri question was
settled by the famous Compromise of 1820 (the first great political
compromise), which drew the line thirty-six degrees thirty minutes from
the Mississippi to the hundredth meridian, and pledged all to the north
of it, save Missouri, to freedom. But the others were not to be settled
by compromise, and in the campaign of 1824 the once harmonious
Republican party was rent in pieces. Each of the four quarters of the
Republic put a candidate in the field and “the scrub-race for the
presidency” began.

The new manufacturing interests of the East put forward John Quincy
Adams. The West, demanding internal improvements at public expense, had
for its candidate Henry Clay. William H. Crawford of Georgia (nominated
by a caucus of Congressmen) represented the old Republican party of the
South. Andrew Jackson of Tennessee stood for the new Democracy, for the
people, with all their hatred of monopolies and class control, their
prejudices, their half formed notions, their violent outbursts of
feeling.

Behind none of them was there an organized party. But taking the name of
“Adams men” and “Clay men,” “Crawford men” and “Jackson men,” the
friends of each entered the campaign and lost it. No candidate secured a
majority of the electoral college, and the House of Representatives
chose John Quincy Adams.

=The Triumph of Democracy and Industrial Expansion.=--Under the
administration of Adams (1825-1829) the men who wished for protection
and the men who wished for internal improvements at government expense
united, took the name first of National Republicans, and then of Whigs,
and, led on by Henry Clay and Daniel Webster, carried through the high
protection tariffs of 1828 and 1832. The friends of Jackson and Crawford
took the name of Democrats, won the election of 1829, and during twelve
years governed the country.

In the course of these years the population of the United States rose to
seventeen million, and the number of states to twenty-six. Steam
navigation began on the ocean; two thousand miles of railroad were built
in the land; new inventions came into use; and the social and industrial
life of the people was completely revolutionized. The national debt was
paid; a surplus accumulated in the Treasury; the sale of public lands
rose from three million dollars in 1831 to twenty-five million dollars
in 1836; and the rage for internal improvements burned more fiercely
than ever. A great financial panic spread over the country; the charter
of the National Bank expired, a hundred “wild-cat banks” sprang up to
take its place, and the question of the abolition of slavery became
troublesome.

=Early Troubles in Our System of Public Finance.=--On the great
questions which grew out of this condition of affairs the position of
the two parties was well defined. The Democrats demanded a strict
construction of the Constitution; no internal improvements at public
expense; a surrender of the public lands to the state in which they lay;
no tariff for protection; no National Bank; no agitation of the question
of the abolition of slavery; the establishment of subtreasuries for the
safe keeping of the public funds, and the distribution of the surplus
revenue. The Whigs demanded a recharter of the National Bank; a tariff
for protection; the expenditure of the surplus on internal improvements;
the distribution of the money derived from the sale of public lands; a
limitation of the veto power of the President; and no removals from
office for political reasons.

The Democrats, true to their principles, and having the power, carried
them out. They destroyed the Bank; they defeated bill after bill for the
construction of roads and canals; they distributed thirty-eight million
dollars of the surplus revenue among the states, and by the cartage of
immense sums of money from the East to the far distant West, hastened
that inevitable financial crisis known as the “panic of 1837.”

Andrew Jackson had just been succeeded in the presidency by Martin Van
Buren (1837-1841) and on him the storm burst in all its fury. But he
stood it bravely, held to a strict construction of the Constitution,
insisted that the panic would right itself without interference by the
Government, and stoutly refused to meddle. Since the refusal of Congress
to recharter the Bank of the United States, whose charter expired in
1836, the revenue of the Government had been deposited in certain “pet
banks” designated by the Secretary of the Treasury. Every one of them
failed in the panic of 1837. Van Buren therefore recommended “the
divorce of Bank and State,” and after a struggle of three years his
friends carried the “subtreasury” scheme in 1840. This law cast off all
connection between the state banks and the Government, put the
collectors of the revenue under heavy bonds to keep the money safely
till called for by the Secretary of the Treasury, and limited payments
to or by the United States to specie.

=National Conventions and Rise of Slavery Issue.=--The year 1840 was
presidential year, and is memorable for the introduction of new
political methods; for the rise of a new and vigorous party; and for the
appearance of a new political issue. The new machinery consisted in the
permanent introduction of the national convention for the nomination of
a president, now used by the Democrats for the second time, and by the
Whigs for the first; in the promulgation of a party platform by the
convention, now used by the Democrats for the first time; and in the use
of mass meetings, processions, songs, and all the paraphernalia of a
modern campaign by the Whigs.

The new party was the Liberty Party, and the new issue the “absolute and
unqualified divorce of the general Government from slavery, and the
restoration of equality of rights among men.” The principles of that
party were: slavery is against natural right, is strictly local, is a
state institution, and derives no support from the authority of
Congress, which has no power to set up or continue slavery anywhere;
every treaty, every act, establishing, favoring, or continuing slavery
in the District of Columbia, in the territories, on the high seas, is,
therefore, unconstitutional.

=The Short-lived Era of the Whigs.=--The candidate of this party was
James Gillespie Birney. The Democrats nominated Martin Van Buren. The
Whigs put forward William Henry Harrison and elected him. Harrison died
one month after his inauguration, and John Tyler, the Vice-President and
a Democrat of the Calhoun wing, became President.

The Whig policy as sketched by Clay was the repeal of the Subtreasury
Act; the charter of a National Bank; tariff for protection; and the
distribution of the sales of public lands. To the repeal of the
Subtreasury Act Tyler gladly assented. To the establishment of a bank
even when called “Fiscal Corporation,” he would not assent, and, having
twice vetoed such bills, was read out of the party by a formal manifesto
issued by Whig congressmen.

It mattered little, however, for the question of the hour was not the
bank, nor the tariff, nor the distribution of the sales of lands, but
the annexation of the republic Texas. Joined to the demand for the
reoccupation of Oregon, it became the chief plank in the Democratic
platform of 1844. The Whig platform said not a word on the subject, and
the Liberty Party, turning with loathing from the cowardice of Clay,
voted again for Birney, gave the State of New York to the Democrats, and
with it the presidency.

=The Annexation of Texas, and Wilmot Proviso.=--Accepting the result of
the election as “instruction from the people,” Congress passed the
needed act and Tyler in the last hours of his administration declared
Texas annexed.

The boundary of the new state was ill-defined. Texas claimed to the Rio
Grande. Mexico would probably have acknowledged the Nueces River. The
United States attempted to enforce the claim of Texas, sent troops to
the Rio Grande, and so brought on the Mexican war.

At the close of the Mexican war the boundary of the United States was
carried south from forty-two degrees to the Gila River, and what is now
California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and more than half of
Wyoming and Colorado were added to the public domain. While the war was
still raging, Polk, who had succeeded Tyler, asked for two million
dollars to aid him in negotiating peace. Well knowing that the money was
to be used to buy land from Mexico, David Wilmot moved in the House of
Representatives that from all territory bought with the money slavery
should be excluded. This was the famous Wilmot proviso. It failed of
adoption and the territory was acquired in 1848, with its character as
to slavery or freedom wholly undetermined.

=The Preliminary Struggle over the Slave Problem.=--And now the old
parties began to break up. Democrats who believed in the Wilmot proviso,
and Whigs who detested the annexation of Texas, the war with Mexico, and
the extension of slavery went over in a body to the Liberty Party,
formed with it the Freesoil Party, nominated Martin Van Buren, and gave
him three hundred thousand votes. In their platform they declared that
Congress had no more power to make a slave than to make a king; that
they accepted the issue thrust on them by the South; that to the demand
for more slave states and more slave territories they answered, no more
slave states, no more slave territories; and that on their banner was
inscribed “Free Soil, Free Speech, Free Labor, and Free Men.” As the
defection of Whigs to the Liberty Party in 1844 gave New York state to
the Democrats and elected Polk, so the defection of Democrats to the
Free Soilers in 1848 gave New York to the Whigs and elected Taylor. As
Harrison, the first Whig president, died one month after taking office,
so Taylor, the second Whig president, died suddenly when a little over
one year in office, just as the great Whig compromise of 1850 was
closing. The imperative need of civil government in the new territory,
the discovery of gold in California, the rush of men from all parts of
the earth to the Pacific Coast forced Congress to establish organized
territories. The question was: shall they be opened or closed to
slavery? But, as the soil had been free when acquired from Mexico, the
question really was: shall the United States establish slavery?


THE MEXICAN WAR, 1846-1848


Causes of the War

(1) Long-standing irritation over claims of American citizens upon
Mexico, which the latter refused to pay.

(2) The annexation by the United States of Texas, which Mexico claimed
as still a part of her territory.

(3) Disputes as to whether the Rio Grande or Nueces River was the
boundary of Texas.


Results of the War

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, in 1848, closed the war. Its chief
provisions were:

(1) The Rio Grande was made the boundary between Texas and Mexico.

(2) California and New Mexico were ceded to the United States.

(3) The United States paid Mexico $15,000,000, and assumed $3,500,000
due American citizens.

The slavery question was intensified in American politics.

=PRINCIPAL BATTLES=

_NOTE: The Americans were victorious in every conflict._

  ==============+==============+========================+===============
     =Place of  |   =Dates=    |      =Commanders=      |   =Engaged=
      Battle=   |              |----------+-------------+-------+-------
                |              |=American=|  =Mexican=  |=Ameri-|=Mexi-
                |              |          |             |  can= | can=
  --------------+--------------+----------+-------------+-------+-------
  Bracite       |Dec.  25, 1846|Doniphan  |Ponce de Leon|    500|  1,200
  Buena Vista   |Feb.  23, 1847|Taylor    |Santa Anna   |  4,700| 17,000
  Cerro Gordo   |April 18, 1847|Scott     |Santa Anna   |  8,500| 12,000
  Chapultepec   |Sept. 13, 1847|Scott     |Santa Anna   |  7,200| 25,000
  Contreras     |Aug.  20, 1847|Scott     |Valencia     |  4,000|  7,000
  Churubusco    |Aug.  20, 1847|Scott     |Santa Anna   |  8,000| 25,000
  Huamantla     |Oct.   9, 1847|Lane      |Santa Anna   |    500|  1,000
  Mexico        |Sept. 14, 1847|Scott     |Santa Anna   |  6,000|    ...
  Molino del Rey|Sept.  8, 1847|Worth     |Alverez      |  3,500| 14,000
  Monterey      |Sept. 24, 1846|Taylor    |Ampudia      |  6,600| 10,000
  Palo Alto     |May    8, 1846|Taylor    |Arista       |  2,300|  6,000
  Resaca de la  |May    9, 1846|Taylor    |Arista       |  2,000|  5,000
  Palma         |              |          |             |       |
  Sacramento    |Feb.  28, 1847|Doniphan  |Trias        |    900|  4,000
  Vera Cruz     |Mar.  27, 1847|Scott     |Landero      | 12,000|  6,000
  --------------+--------------+----------+-------------+-------+-------

  The only naval engagements of importance during the war with Mexico
  were the bombardment of Vera Cruz, by Commodore Conner, which lasted
  four days, and the bombardment of Monterey, Commodore Sloat, both
  cities being forced to surrender.

The Democrats, holding that slaves were property, claimed the right to
take them into any territory, and asserting the principle of “squatter
sovereignty,” claimed the right of the people living in any territory to
settle for themselves whether it should be slave or free. The Free
Soilers demanded that the soil having been free when a part of Mexico,
should be free as a part of the United States. Between these two Clay
now stepped in to act as pacificator. Taking up the grievances of each
side, he framed and carried through the measure known as the Compromise
of 1850, the third great political compromise in our history. The fruit
of this was the admission of California as a free state; the passage of
a more stringent law for the recovery of fugitive slaves; the abolition
of the slave trade in the District of Columbia; and the organization of
Utah and New Mexico on the basis of “squatter sovereignty.”

This done, senators and representatives of all parties joined in a
manifesto declaring that the issues resting on slavery were dead issues,
and that they would neither vote for, nor work for any man who thought
otherwise. But thousands did think otherwise. The action of Clay pleased
none. Anti-slavery men deserted him in the North; pro-slavery men
deserted him in the South; and in 1852 the Whig party carried but four
states out of thirty-one and perished. Even its two great leaders, Clay
and Webster, were, by that time, in their graves.

Excited by such success, the Democrats, led on by Stephen A. Douglas,
now broke through the compromise of 1820 and in 1854 applied “squatter
sovereignty” to the organization of the territories of Kansas and
Nebraska. Against this violation state legislatures, the people, the
pulpit, and the press protested vigorously, for every acre of Kansas and
Nebraska lay to the north of 36° 30′ and was solemnly pledged to
freedom. But the Democratic leaders would not listen and drove from
their ranks another detachment of voters. The effect was soon manifest.
The little parties began to unite and when, in 1856, the time came to
elect another president, the Republican Party of to-day was fully
organized and ready. Once more and for the last time for twenty-eight
years the Democrats won.

=Buchanan’s Administration the Prelude to the Civil War.=--The
administration of James Buchanan (1857-1861) marks an epoch. The
question before the country was that of the extension of slavery into
the new territories. Hardly had he been inaugurated when the Supreme
Court handed down a decision on the case of Dred Scott, which denied the
right of Congress to legislate on slavery, set aside the compromises of
1820 and 1850 as unconstitutional, and opened all the territories to
slavery.

=Rise of the Republican Party and Election of Lincoln.=--From that
moment the Whig and Democratic parties began to break up rapidly till,
when 1860 came, four parties and four presidential candidates were in
the field. The Democratic party, having finally split at the national
convention for nominating a president and vice-president, the southern
wing put forward Breckenridge and Lane and demanded that Congress should
protect slavery in the territories. The northern wing nominated Stephen
A. Douglas and declared for squatter sovereignty and the compromise of
1850. A third party, taking the name of “Constitutional Union,” declared
for the Constitution and the Union at any price and no agitation of
slavery, nominated Bell and Everett, and drew the support of the old
Whigs of the Clay and Webster school. The Republicans, declaring that
Congress should prohibit slavery in the territories, nominated Abraham
Lincoln and Hannibal Hamlin and won the election.

=Secession, and the Formation of the Confederacy.=--The State of South
Carolina immediately seceded and before the end of February, 1861, was
followed by Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and
Texas. Taking the name of the Confederate States of America, they formed
first a temporary and then a permanent government, elected Jefferson
Davis president, raised an army, and besieged Fort Sumter in Charleston
Harbor. The attempt to relieve the fort brought on the bombardment and
surrender (April 19, 1861). The Confederate States were now joined by
Virginia, North Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee. Richmond was made the
capital, and the Civil war opened.

=Civil War between the Union and the Confederacy.=--The line of
separation between the states then became the Potomac River, the Ohio
River, and a line across southern Missouri and Indian Territory to New
Mexico. Along this line the troops of the Union were drawn up in many
places under many commanders. Yet there were in the main but three great
armies. That of the East or Potomac under General McClellan, that of the
Center or the Ohio under General Buell, that of the West or Missouri
under General Halleck. In command of all as Lieutenant-General was
Winfield Scott. Confronting them were the troops of the Confederacy,
drawn up in three corresponding armies: that of North Virginia under
Johnston and Lee, that of the Cumberland under Albert Sidney Johnston,
and that of the trans-Mississippi under McCulloch and Price.

Yielding to the demand of the North for the capture of Richmond before
the Confederate Congress could meet there (July 20, 1861), McDowell
went forth with thirty-eight thousand three-months volunteers to the
ever memorable field of Bull Run.

=The Union Successes in the Southwest.=--But the serious campaigning did
not begin until January, 1862. Then the whole line west of the
Alleghanies (made up of the armies of Ohio and Missouri), turning on
Pittsburgh as a center, swept southward, captured Forts Henry and
Donelson, defeated the Confederates at Shiloh, captured Corinth, took
Island Number 10, and drove them from Fort Pillow. Meantime Farragut
entered the Mississippi from the Gulf, passed Forts Jackson and St.
Philip, captured New Orleans, and sent Commodore Davis up the river to
take Memphis. Memphis fell June 6, 1862, and, save for Vicksburg, the
Mississippi was open for navigation. When the year closed the
Confederates had been driven to the east into the mountains of
Tennessee, where, December 31, 1862 to January 2, 1863, was fought the
desperate and bloody battle of Murfreesboro. The Union troops won, and
the Confederate army fell back to Chattanooga.

=The Peninsular Campaign Favors Confederate Arms.=--With the Army of the
Potomac meantime all had gone ill. The affair at Bull Run in July, 1861,
had been followed by the transfer of the army to McClellan. But
McClellan wasted time, wore out the patience of the North, and forced
Lincoln to issue General Order Number One for the forward movement of
all armies on February 22, 1862. Obedient to this McClellan began his
Peninsular Campaign against Richmond, was out-generaled by Lee, and in
the second battle of Bull Run suffered so crushing a defeat that Lee
ventured to cross the Potomac and enter Maryland, and encountered
McClellan, on the field of Antietam. In that battle Lee was beaten and
fled across the Potomac. But McClellan failed to follow up the victory
and was removed, the command of the Army of the Potomac passing to
Burnside. Burnside led it across the Potomac and the Rappahannock and on
December 13, 1862, lost the battle of Fredericksburg. For this he was
replaced by Hooker, who, May 1-4, 1863, fought and lost the battle of
Chancellorsville.

=The Turning Point of the War.=--Lee now again took the offensive,
crossed the Potomac, entered Pennsylvania, and at Gettysburg met the
Army of the Potomac under Meade. On that field was fought the decisive
battle of the war. Then (July 1-4, 1863) the backbone of the Confederacy
was broken, and the two armies returned to their old positions in
Virginia.

While Meade was beating Lee at Gettysburg, Grant captured Vicksburg,
July 1-3, 1863. For this he was sent to command the army of Rosecrans,
then besieged by Bragg at Chattanooga. Again success attended him, and
in November he stormed Lookout Mountain, defeated Bragg in the famous
“Battle above the Clouds,” and drove him in disorder through the
mountains. For these signal victories he was raised to the rank of
Lieutenant General in 1864, and placed in command of the armies of the
United States.

That year is memorable for the great march of Sherman to the east from
Chattanooga to the sea, for the victories of Sheridan in the valley of
the Shenandoah, for the Wilderness Campaign of Grant, the shutting up of
Lee in Richmond, and by the re-election of Lincoln. His competitor was
General McClellan, whom the northern Democrats put forward on the
platform that the war was a failure, and that peace should be made with
the South. In the spring of 1865 came the retreat of Lee from Richmond,
and, on April 9, his surrender at Appomattox Court House.

=THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR, 1861-1865=

  ===================+==============================+===================
  =Causes of the War=|     =Influencing Events=     |  =Results of the
                     |                              |        War=
  -------------------+------------------------------+-------------------
  _Real, but remote:_|The invention of the cotton   |The Union was pre-
                     |gin, 1793.                    |served.
  (1) The doctrine of|                              |
  popular sovereign- |Fugitive slave laws, 1793 and |Slavery was
  ty. Different con- |1850.                         |abolished.
  structions of the  |                              |
  Constitution.      |Protective tariff laws.       |Secession as a
                     |                              |working program was
  (2) Slavery. Dif-  |Missouri compromise, 1820.    |shown to be imprac-
  ferent systems of  |                              |ticable.
  labor in the North |Nullification act in South    |
  and the South.     |Carolina, 1832.               |The war cost the
                     |                              |lives of nearly one
  (3) Lack of inter- |Annexation of Texas, 1845.    |million able-bodied
  course between the |                              |men.
  North and the      |Omnibus bill, 1850.           |
  South.             |                              |The national debt
                     |Kansas-Nebraska bill, 1854    |was increased to
  (4) The increase of|                              |$2,750,000,000.
  territory.         |Dred Scott decision, 1857.    |
                     |                              |An incalculable
  _Immediate:_       |Personal liberty bills, 1857. |amount of property
  The secession of   |                              |was destroyed.
  the states.        |John Brown raid, 1859.        |
                     |                              |
                     |Anti-slavery papers, books,   |
                     |and speeches.                 |
                     |                              |
                     |New England Anti-Slavery So-  |
                     |ciety was organized, 1832.    |
                     |                              |
                     |Anti-slavery parties:         |
                     |  Liberty party, 1840-1848.   |
                     |  Free-Soil party, 1848-1856. |
                     |  Republican party, 1854.     |
  -------------------+------------------------------+-------------------

=CAMPAIGNS AND BATTLES=

Naval engagements are printed in _italics_; names of victorious
commanders in =bold-face= type.

=LAND AND SEA ENGAGEMENTS=

  ===================+==================+=================================
    =Name, Location  |   =Commanders=   |          =Casualties=
       and Date      |                  +----------------+----------------
      of Battle=     |                  |    =Union=     |  =Confederate=
                     |                  +--------+-------+--------+-------
                     |                  |=Killed=|=Wound-|=Killed=|=Wound-
                     |                  |        |  ed=  |        |  ed=
  -------------------+------------------+--------+-------+--------+-------
  =1861=             |                  |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Bombardment of    |=Gen. Beauregard= |   No casualties on either side
  Fort Sumter= (April|vs. Maj. Anderson.|        |       |        |
  13-14)             |                  |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Bull Run=,        |=Gen. Beauregard= |     481|  1,011|     362|  1,390
  Virginia (July 21) |and =Gen.         |        |       |        |
                     |Johnston= vs. Gen.|        |       |        |
                     |McDowell.         |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Wilson Creek=,    |=Gen. Price= vs.  |     223|    721|     331|    764
  Missouri (August   |Gen. Lyon.        |        |       |        |
  10)                |                  |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =1862=             |                  |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Pea Ridge=,       |=Gen. Curtis= and |     203|    972|   1,040|  3,638
  Arkansas (March 6- |=Gen. Franz Sigel=|        |       |        |
  8)                 |vs. Gen. Van Dorn.|        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  _Monitor and Merri-|=Lt. J. L. Worden=|       0|      1|       0|      2
  mac_, Hampton      |vs. Capt. Franklin|        |       |        |
  Roads, Virginia    |Buchanan.         |        |       |        |
  (March 9)          |                  |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Fort Donelson=,   |=Gen. Grant= vs.  |     560|    746|     466|  1,534
  Tennessee (February|Gen. Floyd, Gen.  |        |       |        |
  15)                |Pillow and Gen.   |        |       |        |
                     |Buckner.          |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Shiloh, or Pitts- |=Gen. Grant= vs.  |   1,735|  7,882|   1,128|  8,012
  burg Landing=,     |Gen. Johnston and |        |       |        |
  Tennessee (April 6-|Gen. Beauregard.  |        |       |        |
  7)                 |                  |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Drury’s Bluff=,   |=Gen. Beauregard= |     422|  2,380|     514|  1,086
  Virginia (May 15)  |vs. Gen. Butler.  |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Seven Pines, or   |=Gen. Johnston=   |     891|  3,627|   1,987|  2,233
  Fair Oaks=,        |vs. Gen.          |        |       |        |
  Virginia (May 31)  |McClellan.        |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Gaines Mill=,     |=Gen. A. Elzey=   |   3,000|  4,500|   2,000|  4,000
  Virginia (June 27) |vs. Gen. F. J.    |        |       |        |
                     |Porter.           |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Malvern Hill=,    |=Gen. McClellan=  |   2,860|  3,500|   3,023|  4,077
  Virginia (July 1)  |vs. Gen. Lee.     |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Cedar Mountain=,  |=Gen. Jackson= vs.|     450|    660|     223|  1,060
  Virginia (August 8-|Gen. Banks.       |        |       |        |
  9)                 |                  |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Bull Run No. 2, or|=Gen. Lee= and    |     798|  4,023|   1,090|  6,154
  Manassas=, Virginia|=Gen. Jackson= vs.|        |       |        |
  (August 29-30)     |Gen. Pope.        |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Antietam=, Mary-  |=Gen. McClellan=  |   2,010|  9,416|   1,842|  9,399
  land (September 16-|vs. Gen. Lee.     |        |       |        |
  17)                |                  |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Corinth=, Missis- |=Gen. Rosecrans=  |     315|  1,812|   1,423|  5,692
  sippi (October 3-4)|vs. Gen. Van Dorn.|        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Perrysville=,     |=Gen. Buell= vs.  |     916|  2,943|     980|  1,520
  Kentucky (October  |Gen. Bragg.       |        |       |        |
  8)                 |                  |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Fredericksburg=,  |=Gen. Lee= vs.    |   1,152|  9,101|     505|  4,061
  Virginia (December |Gen. A. E.        |        |       |        |
  11-13)             |Burnside.         |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Murfreesboro, or  |=Gen. Rosecrans=  |   1,533|  7,245|   1,384|  6,892
  Stone River=,      |vs. Gen. Bragg.   |        |       |        |
  Tennessee (December|                  |        |       |        |
  30, 1862, to       |                  |        |       |        |
  January 2, 1863)   |                  |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =1863=             |                  |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Chancellorsville=,|=Gen. Lee= and    |   1,512|  9,518|   1,718| 10,563
  Virginia (April 30 |=Gen. Jackson= vs.|        |       |        |
  to May 4)          |Gen. Hooker.      |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Vicksburg=, Mis-  |=Gen. Pemberton=  |   1,848|  2,378|   1,420|  2,151
  sissippi (May 19-  |vs. Gen. Grant.   |        |       |        |
  25)                |                  |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Gettysburg=, Penn-|=Gen. George G.   |   2,834| 13,709|   4,000| 14,000
  sylvania (July 1-3)|Meade= vs. Gen.   |        |       |        |
                     |Lee.              |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Chickamauga=,     |=Gen. Bragg= vs.  |   1,644|  9,262|   6,000| 10,000
  Georgia (September |Gen. Rosecrans.   |        |       |        |
  18-20)             |                  |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Chattanooga, in-  |=Gen. Grant=,     |     757|  4,529|     850|  2,150
  cluding Orchard    |=Gen. Sherman= and|        |       |        |
  Knob, Lookout Moun-|=Gen. Hooker= vs. |        |       |        |
  tain and Missionary|Gen. Bragg.       |        |       |        |
  Ridge=, Tennessee  |                  |        |       |        |
  (November 23-25)   |                  |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =1864=             |                  |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Wilderness=,      |=Gen. Grant= vs.  |   2,309| 12,188|   1,956| 10,444
  Virginia (May 5-7) |Gen. Lee.         |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Spottsylvania=,   |=Gen. Grant= vs.  |   3,288| 19,278|   3,342| 20,187
  Virginia (May 8-11)|Gen. Lee.         |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Spottsylvania=,   |=Gen. Grant= vs.  |   2,031|  7,956|   1,752|  7,248
  Virginia (May 18)  |Gen. Lee.         |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Bermuda Hundreds=,|=Gen. Butler=, vs.|     201|    998|     864|  2,136
  Virginia (May 26-  |Gen. D. H. Hill.  |        |       |        |
  30)                |                  |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Cold Harbor=,     |=Gen. Lee= vs.    |   1,905| 10,570|     364|  1,336
  Virginia (June 2-3)|Gen. Grant.       |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Petersburg=,      |=Gen. Lee= vs.    |   1,298|  7,474|     984|  6,721
  Virginia (June 15- |Gen. Smith, Gen.  |        |       |        |
  19)                |Hancock and Gen.  |        |       |        |
                     |Burnside.         |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Petersburg=,      |=Gen. Grant= vs.  |     112|    506|     801|  1,417
  Virginia (June 20- |Gen. Lee.         |        |       |        |
  30)                |                  |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Peach Tree Creek=,|=Gen. Thomas= vs. |     301|  1,411|     880|  3,916
  Georgia (July 20)  |Gen. Hood.        |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Atlanta=, Georgia,|=Gen. Logan= vs.  |     499|  2,142|   1,162|  7,337
  =Hood’s First      |Gen. Hood.        |        |       |        |
  Sortie= (July 22)  |                  |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Petersburg=,      |=Gen. Grant= vs.  |     419|  2,076|     799|  4,023
  Virginia (from July|Gen. Lee.         |        |       |        |
  1, exclusive of    |                  |        |       |        |
  losses at the      |                  |        |       |        |
  Crater and Deep    |                  |        |       |        |
  Bottom) (July 31)  |                  |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Petersburg=,      |=Gen. Grant= vs.  |      87|    484|     101|    605
  Virginia (August 1-|Gen. Lee.         |        |       |        |
  31)                |                  |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Opequan=, Virginia|=Gen. Sheridan=   |     653|  3,719|   1,632|  3,868
  (September 19)     |vs. Gen. Early.   |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Cedar Creek=,     |=Gen. Sheridan=   |     588|  3,516|     961|  3,239
  Virginia (October  |vs. Gen. Early.   |        |       |        |
  19)                |                  |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Fair Oaks=,       |=Gen. McClellan=  |     120|    783|     150|    301
  Virginia (October  |vs. Gen. Johnston.|        |       |        |
  27-28)             |                  |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Petersburg=,      |=Gen. Grant= vs.  |     170|    822|     240|    761
  Virginia (Sept. 1  |Gen. Lee.         |        |       |        |
  to Oct. 30)        |                  |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Franklin=, Tennes-|=Gen. Hood= vs.   |     189|  1,033|   1,141|  5,113
  see (November 30)  |Gen. Schofield.   |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Nashville=, Ten-  |=Gen. Thomas= vs. |     399|  1,741|     584|  3,021
  nessee (December   |Gen. Hood.        |        |       |        |
  15-16)             |                  |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =1865=             |                  |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Petersburg=,      |=Gen. Grant= vs.  |     298|  2,565|     341|  3,092
  Virginia (April 2) |Gen. Lee.         |        |       |        |
                     |                  |        |       |        |
  =Appomattox=,      |=Gen. Grant= vs.  |     203|    297|     189|    386
  Virginia (April 9) |Gen. Lee.         |        |       |        |
  -------------------+------------------+--------+-------+--------+-------

=Lincoln Assassinated, and Beginning of Reconstruction.=--On April 14,
1865, Lincoln was assassinated and Andrew Johnson became president. With
the succession of Johnson the era of reconstruction, political and
social, begins. The outcome of political reconstruction was the
thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth amendments to the Constitution of
the United States, the impeachment of Andrew Johnson, and a long list of
acts to protect and assist the freedmen of the South. The outcome of
social reconstruction was the rise of the Ku Klux Klan, the passage and
use of the Force Act, and the dreadful condition of affairs which ruined
the South for a decade.

In the North the effect of such measures was to split the Republican
party and put seven presidential candidates in the field in 1872. One
represented the Temperance party; another the Labor party, denouncing
Chinese labor and the non-taxation of Government land; a third was the
Liberal Republican, demanding union, amnesty, and civil rights, accusing
Grant of packing the Supreme Court in the interests of corporations, and
calling for a repeal of the Ku Klux laws. The Liberal Republicans
having chosen Horace Greeley as their candidate, the Democrats accepted
and indorsed him. But he pleased neither party, and the discontented
Liberals and the discontented Democrats each chose a candidate of their
own. The Republicans nominated Grant and elected him.

=Election of Hayes Decided by an Electoral Commission.=--His second term
(1873-1877) was the nadir of our politics, both state and national, and
ended with the disputed election and the rise of the Independent or
“Greenback party,” demanding the repeal of the act for the resumption of
specie payments and the issue of the United States “greenback” notes,
convertible into bonds, as the currency of the country. Double returns
and doubtful returns from the Southern states put the votes of thirteen
electors in dispute. As the House was Democratic and the Senate
Republican, the joint rule under which the electoral votes had been
counted since 1865 could not be adopted. A compromise was necessary, and
on January 29, 1877, the Electoral Commission of five Senators, five
Representatives, and five judges of the Supreme Court was created to
decide on the doubtful returns. Of the fifteen, eight were Republicans
and seven Democrats, and by a strict party vote the thirteen electoral
votes were given to the Republicans and Rutherford B. Hayes declared
elected.

=Resumption of Specie Payments by the Government.=--The memorable events
of his term (1877-1881) were the resumption of specie payments on
January 1, 1879; the passage of the Bland Silver Bill, restoring the
silver dollar to the list of coins, making it legal tender, and
providing for the coinage of not less than two million nor more than
four million each month; and the rapid growth of the National or
Greenback Labor party. Hayes was followed in 1881 by James A. Garfield,
whose contest with the Senators from New York over the distribution of
patronage led to his assassination by the hand of a crazy applicant for
office. Chester A. Arthur then became President, was followed in 1885 by
Grover Cleveland, who was succeeded in 1889 by Benjamin Harrison, who
was in turn succeeded in 1893 by Grover Cleveland.

The presidential campaign of 1896 was one of the most exciting and
important that has ever taken place. It was a contest respecting
principles, and party platforms never received more attention. The
amount of financial and political literature distributed and read was
enormous, and political speeches, almost without number, were delivered.
The cooperation of very many gold standard Democrats greatly increased
the Republican strength and McKinley and Hobart were elected by a large
majority of the electoral votes and by a plurality of over six hundred
thousand of the popular vote.

=McKinley and the Spanish-American War.=--The administration of
President McKinley was notable in many respects, and marked a new era in
the foreign policy of the United States. Chief of the events was the
Spanish-American war, which was precipitated in 1898, largely through
the cruel treatment of the Cuban people by the mother country, Spain.
Public opinion in the United States had been much divided in regard to
the Cuban difficulties, but the division was in no sense sectional and a
majority believed that war was not only justifiable but inevitable.

On February 15, 1898, the United States battleship _Maine_ was destroyed
in Havana harbor, and many believed this to have been the work of the
Spaniards. Thereupon a congress was held, and a resolution passed
demanding the withdrawal of Spain from Cuba. But before the message
could be delivered, the American minister in Madrid received his
passports and the Spanish government declared war. On April 22,
Rear-Admiral Sampson began the blockade of Havana and the northern coast
of Cuba with his North Atlantic squadron.

Meanwhile Dewey, who had been stationed at Hong-Kong with the American
squadron, was ordered to begin operations, and sailed to Manila Bay in
the Philippines. He entered Manila Bay early Sunday morning, May 1,
1898. The Spanish fleet lying in the harbor was protected by the guns of
the batteries at Cavité, a few miles from Manila.

The Spaniards knew that he had left Hong-Kong, but he came sooner than
he was expected and caught them unawares. He had planned to do this so
that he might choose his own time for attack. As soon as he reached
Manila Bay he opened upon the Spanish fleet a terrible fire of shot and
shell. His fire was answered vigorously from the war vessels and the
shore batteries, but the guns of the enemy were not well aimed and their
shot did little damage. After a sharp fight of about two hours Dewey
withdrew his fleet, in order, it is said, to give his men time for
breakfast, but more likely to see how his ammunition was holding out.

After three hours he returned to the attack. By this time most of the
Spanish vessels were in flames. An hour later the Spanish batteries
“were silenced and the ships sunk or burned and deserted.” In the
conflict the Spaniards lost every vessel and hundreds of men were
killed, wounded, and missing. No American was killed and but seven
wounded; while no American vessel was seriously damaged.

The battle of Manila is one of the great naval actions of history; never
before had so much been won with so little loss of life and ships.
Congress made Dewey a Rear Admiral, gave him a vote of thanks, and voted
him a sword. Soon after the war he was made Admiral, the highest rank in
the navy.

About the same time the Spanish Admiral, Cervera, had left the Cape
Verde Islands en route for Santiago, where he arrived on May 19. Strict
watch was kept by Sampson to prevent the escape of the enemy, and the
_Merrimac_ was sunk at night to block the Spanish squadron in the
harbor, but the ship drifted too far to prevent Cervera’s exit. This
difficult feat was intrusted to Ensign Richmond P. Hobson and six men.
They performed their dangerous task, notwithstanding a severe fire from
the Spanish land batteries. They were captured, but Admiral Cervera was
so moved by their bravery that he sent word to the Americans that they
were safe and would be well treated.

=SUMMARY OF SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR, 1898=

               =Causes=                     =Treaty and Results=

  _Underlying:_                       The Treaty of Paris, December 10,
                                      1898, stipulated as follows:
  Sympathy for the oppressed Cubans.
  The “reconcentrados,” people driven Spain gives up title to Cuba.
  into the towns by Weyler, died by
  thousands, and Americans who aided  Spain cedes Porto Rico, Guam and
  them are arrested and their         the Philippines to the United
  property destroyed.                 States.

  The proximity of Cuba and its geo-  The United States gives Spain
  graphical position make its situa-  $20,000,000.
  tion of great importance to the
  United States.                      The direct cost of the war to the
                                      United States is about
  Destruction of American property.   $130,000,000.

  Publication of a letter of the      Soldiers killed, 430. A large
  Spanish Minister, in which he       number die of disease.
  speaks slightingly of President
  McKinley.                           The United States becomes the
                                      guardian of Cuba.
  _Immediate:_
                                      An increase in our navy and stand-
  The blowing up of the battleship    ing army.
  _Maine_.
                                      The war in the Philippines.

                                      The question of territorial expan-
                                      sion in our politics.

=LAND AND SEA ENGAGEMENTS=

  =====================+==================+=================================
   =Name, Location and |   =Commanders=   |         =Casualties=
     Date of Battle=   |                  +----------------+----------------
                       |                  |=United States= |  =Spanish=
                       |                  +--------+-------+--------+-------
                       |                  |=Killed=|=Wound-|=Killed=|=Wound-
                       |                  |        |  ed=  |        |   ed=
  ---------------------+------------------+--------+-------+--------+-------
  =THE ARMY=           |                  |        |       |        |
                       |                  |        |       |        |
    =Guantanamo= (June |...               |      6 |    16 |    ... |   ...
    11-20, 1898)       |                  |        |       |        |
                       |                  |        |       |        |
    =Bombardment of    |...               |    ... |   ... |    ... |   ...
    Santiago= (June 22,|                  |        |       |        |
    1898)              |                  |        |       |        |
                       |                  |        |       |        |
    =Las Guasimas=,    |=Gen. Wheeler= vs.|     16 |    50 |     28 |   124
    Cuba (June 24,     |Gen. Linares.     |        |       |        |
    1898)              |                  |        |       |        |
                       |                  |        |       |        |
    =El Caney=, Cuba   |=Gen. Lawton= and |     88 |   356 |    120 |   400
    (July 1, 1898)     |=Gen. Chaffee= vs.|        |       |        |
                       |Gen. Vara de Rey. |        |       |        |
                       |                  |        |       |        |
    =San Juan=, Cuba   |...               |    151 | 1,007 |    204 | 1,340
    (July 1-3, 1898)   |                  |        |       |        |
                       |                  |        |       |        |
    =Santiago=, Cuba   |=Gen. Shafter.=   |      2 |    13 |    ... |   ...
    (July 10-12, 1898) |                  |        |       |        |
                       |                  |        |       |        |
    =Santiago Campaign=|=Gen. Shafter= vs.|    260 | 1,341 |    ... |   ...
    (June 21 to July   |Gen. Toral.       |        |       |        |
    17, 1898)          |                  |        |       |        |
                       |                  |        |       |        |
    =Porto Rico Cam-   |=Gen. Miles.=     |      3 |    40 |    ... |   ...
    paign= (July 25-28,|                  |        |       |        |
    1898)              |                  |        |       |        |
                       |                  |        |       |        |
    =The Reduction of  |=Gen. Merritt.=   |     17 |   106 |    ... |   ...
    Manila= (August 13,|                  |        |       |        |
    1898)              |                  |        |       |        |
                       |                  |        |       |        |
  =THE NAVY=           |                  |        |       |        |
                       |                  |        |       |        |
    =Manila Bay=,      |American Command- |American Casualties:
    Philippine Islands |er: =Geo. Dewey.= |Seven men slightly injured. No
    (May 1, 1898).     |                  |damage to ships.
    American Vessels:  |Spanish Commander:|
    _Olympia_,         |Admiral Montijo.  |Spanish Casualties:
    _Baltimore_,       |                  |All ships destroyed. 450 men
    _Raleigh_,         |                  |killed and wounded.
    _Boston_,          |                  |        |       |        |
    _Concord_,         |                  |        |       |        |
    _Petrel_.          |                  |        |       |        |
    Spanish Vessels:   |                  |        |       |        |
    _Reina Cristina_,  |                  |        |       |        |
    _Castella_, _Don   |                  |        |       |        |
    Antonio de Ulloa_, |                  |        |       |        |
    _Isla de Luzon_,   |                  |        |       |        |
    _Isla de Cuba_,    |                  |        |       |        |
    _General Lezo_,    |                  |        |       |        |
    _Marquis de Duero_,|                  |        |       |        |
    _Cano Velasco_,    |                  |        |       |        |
    _Isla de Mindanao_,|                  |        |       |        |
    _Sandoval_, _José  |                  |        |       |        |
    Garcia_, _Leyte_   |                  |        |       |        |
    and torpedo boat   |                  |        |       |        |
    _Barcelona_.       |                  |        |       |        |
                       |                  |        |       |        |
    =Bombardment of    |By torpedo boat   |      1 |    11 |        |
    Cienfuegos=, Cuba  |_Winslow_.        |        |       |        |
    (May 11, 1898).    |                  |        |       |        |
                       |                  |        |       |        |
    =Bombardment of San|=Admiral Sampson.=|      1 |     7 |        |
    Juan= (May 12,     |                  |        |       |        |
    1898)              |                  |        |       |        |
                       |                  |        |       |        |
    =Before Santiago=  |American Command- |American Casualties:
    (July 3, 1898)     |er: =Winfield     |One man killed.
    American Vessels:  |Schley.=          |_Brooklyn_ struck thirteen times,
    _Brooklyn_,        |                  |_Texas_ once, but neither badly
    _Texas_, _Oregon_, |Spanish Commander:|damaged.
    _Iowa_,            |Admiral Cervera.  |
    _Gloucester_.      |                  |Spanish: All ships destroyed,
    Spanish Vessels:   |                  |more than 600 men killed and
    _Almirante_,       |                  |wounded, and rest surrendered.
    _Oquendo_,         |                  |
    _Christobal Colon_,|                  |
    _Vizcaya_, _Infanta|                  |
    Maria Teresa_, and |                  |
    torpedo boats      |                  |
    _Pluton_ and       |                  |
    _Furor_.           |                  |
  ---------------------+------------------+---------------------------------

The total number of vessels captured from Spain during the war of 1898
was 58.

On June 21, Major-General Shafter arrived off Santiago and successfully
landed his troops at Baiquiri, and three days later the Spaniards were
driven back from Sevilla. General Shafter then began his attack on
Santiago, whither the Spaniards had retreated. Operations began on July
1. The severest fighting took place at San Juan Hill and El Caney, a
garrisoned post, where a body of five hundred Spaniards offered a
desperate resistance for some hours. By sundown the hills on which the
enemy were posted, including San Juan, were occupied by the Americans.
The attacking force consisted of regular infantry and dismounted
cavalry, with an irregular corps of mounted men known as the Rough
Riders. The latter, under the command of Colonels Leonard Wood and
Roosevelt, took a prominent part in the fight. On July 4 the city was
summoned to surrender, but without success. In the meanwhile Admiral
Cervera’s squadron had been ordered to sea by the Madrid government. He
accordingly left Santiago harbor the same day at nine a. m. with the
object of effecting its escape by keeping close to the western shore.
The American fleet, temporarily under Schley’s command, at once engaged
the Spaniards, and by two o’clock succeeded in burning, beaching, or
capturing all the enemy’s vessels. After this Santiago surrendered, July
17, and Spain sued for peace. It was arranged that Spain should evacuate
Cuba, should cede Porto Rico to the United States, as well as her
islands in the Antilles, and one of the Ladrones, and should leave the
United States in the possession of Manila. In 1899 a treaty was signed,
and Spain evacuated Cuba, the Philippines, and other islands for an
indemnity of twenty million dollars.

=Insurrection in the Philippine Islands.=--A day or two after the final
vote on the treaty a body of Philippines under Amilio Aguinaldo, a
native of great ability, attacked the American defenses at Manila. The
next day the Americans returned the attack, and for nearly a year there
was a resistance to the American rule on the part of the tribes which
Aguinaldo represented. These tribes belonged to the Tagals, a Malay
race. They are in a minority as regards the whole population, but are
among the most intelligent. By the close of the year 1899 the organized
resistance on the part of the Tagals appeared to be nearly ended, and
the army of Aguinaldo reduced to marauders and bandits, and the
insurrection against the authority and sovereignty of the United States
was ended in July, 1902, after the capture and surrender of the
insurgent leader.

=Assassination of McKinley and Succession of Roosevelt.=--Shortly after
his re-election to a second term, on September 6, 1901, the country was
shocked by the assassination of President McKinley by an anarchist named
Czolgosz. This was the third time in the history of the country that the
chief executive was stricken down by the hand of an assassin. The
Vice-President, Theodore Roosevelt, then succeeded to the presidency and
continued, in all essential details, the policy of his lamented
predecessor.

Under President Roosevelt, a champion of administrative reform and the
regulation of commercial trusts, the status of Cuba was settled;
progress was made in the Philippines; the navy was very greatly
strengthened; the Isthmian Canal question was solved in favor of the
Panama route, and the Republic of Panama recognized; and the President
reasserted with emphasis the Monroe Doctrine as the key to foreign
policy. The Alaska boundary was fixed by a mixed commission. The United
States took part with the European powers in armed intervention at
Peking in 1899; and an arbitration treaty with Great Britain and other
countries was arranged for.

In a second term (1905-1909) President Roosevelt maintained his
popularity by the same policy. In 1906 an insurrection broke out in
Cuba, and in October American troops again took possession of the
island. When confidence had been restored the United States authorities
withdrew.

=President Taft and the Rise of the Progressives.=--In 1908 the
Republican, Taft, defeated Bryan, the Democratic candidate. Mr.
Roosevelt had refused to be a candidate again and was instrumental in
securing Mr. Taft’s nomination. President Taft was elected on a
Rooseveltian programme of anti-trust legislation and promises of a
reduced tariff. In 1910-1911 attempts were made at a Reciprocity of
Duties Treaty with Canada, so as to establish freer trade between the
two countries. The Canadian general election of 1911 gave an emphatic
negative to the proposal.

During the latter part of 1912 a renewed insurrection in Mexico brought
about strained diplomatic relations with that country.

In Ohio, Minnesota, and Indiana, however, Democratic governors were
elected, and these results pointed to a political reaction in the West,
largely owing to supposed inequities in the tariff and to the dominance
of trusts.

In 1910 an “insurgent” or progressive section, to which Mr. Roosevelt
adhered, formed itself within the Republican party; and the state
elections in November resulted in a Democratic triumph without a
parallel since that of the year 1890.

=Democrats Restored to Power under Leadership of Woodrow Wilson.=--In
1913 Woodrow Wilson swept the country on a Democratic programme, having
a clear majority over the two Republican ex-presidents (Roosevelt and
Taft) opposed to him. His election was fought chiefly on the tariff
question, his main argument being that some industries were receiving
unfair protection at the expense of others.

Shortly after the inauguration of President Wilson (May 31, 1913), the
Seventeenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States,
providing for the direct election of Senators by the people of the
states, instead of by their respective legislatures, became effective.
On October 3, of the same year, the Underwood Tariff Act became a law.
Following this, on December 23, the Currency and Banking Bill, providing
regional reserve banks throughout the country, was signed.

In 1914 the continued insurrectionary conditions in Mexico led to the
seizure of the custom house at Vera Cruz by a United States fleet,
resulting in an American loss of eighteen marines killed and seventy
wounded. Subsequently diplomatic representatives of the republics of
Argentina, Brazil, and Chile (popularly known as the “A B C powers”)
offered their services as mediators, were accepted by the United States
and the troops withdrawn. The temporary lull, however, thus brought
about was soon succeeded by a series of struggles between the
provisional Mexican government and the insurrectionists, led by
Francisco Villa, which have ever since continued with little abatement.
In 1916 the border raids of the Mexican bandits resulted in so many
outrages upon American lives and property that the President was
compelled to order United States troops to the Rio Grande for the
protection of our citizens, and finally a detachment under General
Pershing was sent into Mexican territory.

The important La Follette Seaman’s bill, to promote the welfare of
American seamen and provide for their safety at sea, was approved March
4, 1915; and, in the same year (February 20), the Panama-Pacific
Exposition was opened at San Francisco. On November 12, the United
States assumed a protectorate of the Republic of Hayti.

[Illustration: =PRESIDENT WILSON LEAVING THE EXECUTIVE OFFICES=]

During 1916 the Republic of Santo Domingo likewise passed under an
American protectorate and the Rural Credits Bill became a law, whereby
a system of Farm Loan Banks was created.

From the very beginning of the European war the administration of
President Wilson was brought face to face with numerous intricate and
several critical diplomatic situations growing out of that titanic
conflict. The relationship of the United States, as a neutral nation, to
the belligerent countries engaged in this war gave rise to more
difficult and significant issues than any other president was compelled
to meet since the time of Lincoln, if indeed, it has not been
unprecedented in our entire history.

=President Wilson Re-elected and His Policies Approved=.--At the
national election, in November, 1916, President Wilson was re-elected
over his opponent, Charles E. Hughes. Following his re-election
(December, 1916) the President proffered the services of this government
to the belligerent powers of Europe in an effort to re-establish peace
between these great contending coalitions. In spite of foreign
complications, the year 1916 closed a period of unparalleled industrial
and commercial prosperity for the United States, and more than ever
confirmed its position as a great world power, with an immense field of
new possibilities and corresponding duties.

On January 2, 1917, Congress re-assembled and began the consideration of
important questions of national defense, railroads, and foreign policy
growing out of the European war. In February, diplomatic relations were
severed by the United States with Germany, and was succeeded in March by
a declaration of armed neutrality on the part of our government.

Meanwhile great activity characterized all departments of the national
government along lines of military preparedness, supported by
unprecedented appropriations by Congress.

The supreme national industrial event of the Wilson administration,
however, was the opening of the Panama Canal for navigation on August
14, 1914, and its use since that time as an instrumentality of world
traffic.

  PANAMA CANAL.--This gigantic engineering project was designated by
  Count de Lesseps, of France, in 1879, and actual work began by the
  French Panama Canal Company, in 1881. Negotiations extending from
  1901 to 1904 resulted in the taking over of the holdings of the
  French company by the United States, and work was started by United
  States government engineers in May of the latter year. Since that
  time the project has been steadily carried forward to completion.

  The Canal is about fifty miles in length from deep water in the
  Caribbean Sea to deep water in the Pacific Ocean. The channel ranges
  in width from three hundred to one thousand feet. The average bottom
  width of the channel in this project is six hundred and forty-nine
  feet, and the minimum width is three hundred feet. The Canal has a
  minimum depth of forty-one feet. The time required for the passage
  of a ship of medium size through the entire length of the Canal is
  estimated at from nine and one-half to ten hours, and for larger
  vessels from ten and one-half to eleven hours.

  The actual construction cost at present estimated for completing the
  Canal is $325,201,000, which includes $20,053,000 for sanitation and
  $7,382,000 for civil administration. These figures do not include
  the $50,000,000 paid to the New French Canal Company and to the
  Republic of Panama for property and franchises. Hence it is
  estimated that the total construction cost of the Canal to the
  United States will approximate $375,000,000.

[Illustration: =CONTOUR MAP OF THE PANAMA CANAL AND CONNECTIONS=

This map shows the general direction of the canal to be north and south;
how it is brought into direct communication with the ports of the United
States; and how it facilitates shipping to all parts of the world.]

=TABLE OF STATE AND TERRITORIAL GOVERNMENT=

  In all the States except Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho,
  Kansas, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington and Wyoming and
  the Territory of Alaska, the right to vote at general elections is
  restricted to males of twenty-one years of age and upward. Women in
  Illinois, Iowa and Michigan have a restricted vote and in several
  States may vote at school elections.

  =============================+========================================
     STATES AND POPULAR NAME   |   REQUIREMENTS AS TO CITIZENSHIP
                               | PERSONS EXCLUDED FROM SUFFRAGE (_in
                               |                italic_)
  -----------------------------+----------------------------------------
  =Alabama= “Lizard”           |Citizen of United States or alien who
                               |has declared intention.
                               |_Convicted of treason or other felonies,
                               |idiots, vagrants, insane._
  =Alaska=                     |Citizen of the United States, male or
                               |female.
                               |_Aliens and Indians._
  =Arizona=                    |Citizen of the United States, male or
                               |female.
                               |_Idiot, insane, felon_* (_b_).
  =Arkansas= “Bear”            |Citizen of the United States or alien
                               |who has declared intention.
                               |_Idiots, insane, convicted of felony,
                               |failure to pay poll tax._
  =California= “Golden”        |Citizen, male or female, by nativity,
                               |naturalization 90 days prior to elec-
                               |tion (_d_).
                               |_Idiots, insane, embezzlers of public
                               |moneys, convicted of infamous crime._*
  =Colorado= “Centennial”      |Citizen, native or naturalized, male or
                               |female.
                               |_Felons, insane._
  =Connecticut= “Nutmeg”       |Citizen of the United States.
                               |_Convicted of heinous crime._
  =Delaware= “Diamond”         |Citizen of the United States.
                               |_Insane, paupers, felons._*
  =Dist. of Col.=              |See foot note on following page.
  =Florida= “Flower”           |Citizen of the United States.
                               |_Idiots, duelists, felons._
  =Georgia= “Cracker”          |Citizen of the United States.
                               |_Felons, idiots and insane._
  =Hawaii=                     |Citizen of the United States.
                               |_Idiots, insane, felons_ (_j_).
  =Idaho=                      |Citizen of the United States, male or
                               |female.
                               |_Idiots, insane, felons, bigamists._
  =Illinois= “Prairie”         |Citizen of the United States (_e_).
                               |_Convicted of crime._
  =Indiana= “Hoosier”          |Citizen of the United States or alien
                               |who has declared intention (_g_).
                               |_Convicted of infamous crime._ (_b_)
  =Iowa= “Hawkeye”             |Citizen of the United States (_k_).
                               |_Idiots, insane, felons._
  =Kansas= “Sunflower”         |Citizen of the United States, male or
                               |female, or alien who has declared inten-
                               |tion.
                               |_Convicted of treason or felony, in-
                               |sane._
  =Kentucky= “Blue Grass”      |Citizen of United States (_a_).
                               |_Felons, idiots and insane._
  =Louisiana= “Creole”         |Citizen of United States (_c_).
                               |_Idiots, insane, felons._*
  =Maine= “Pine Tree”          |Citizen of the United States.
                               |_Paupers, insane, Indians._*‡
  =Maryland= “Old Line”        |Citizen of the United States.
                               |_Felons, lunatics, bribers._
  =Massachusetts= “Bay”        |Citizen (_a_).
                               |_Paupers._*
  =Michigan= “Wolverine”       |Citizen of the United States or alien
                               |who declared intention two years and six
                               |months prior to November 8, 1894 (_c_).
                               |_Indians with tribal relations._
  =Minnesota= “North Star”     |Citizen of United States (_a_).
                               |_Felons, insane, Indians._‡
  =Mississippi= “Bayou”        |Citizen of the United States.
                               |_Insane, idiots, Indians not taxed,
                               |felons, bigamists._*
  =Missouri=                   |Citizen of the United States or alien
                               |who has declared intention.
                               |_Felons_ (_b_).
  =Montana= “Mountain”         |Citizen of the United States, male or
                               |female.
                               |_Felons, idiots, insane_‡ (_b_).
  =Nebraska=                   |Citizen of the United States or alien
                               |who has declared intention (_a_).
                               |_Felons, insane._
  =Nevada= “Silver”            |Citizen of the United States, male or
                               |female.
                               |_Idiots, insane, felons._
  =New Hampshire= “Granite”    |Citizen of United States (_a_).
                               |_Paupers, insane, idiots, felons._
  =New Jersey= “Jersey Blue”   |Citizen of the United States.
                               |_Idiots, paupers, insane, felons_ (_b_).
  =New Mexico=                 |Citizen of United States (_a_).
                               |_Idiots, insane, felons._†
  =New York= “Empire”          |Citizen who shall have been a citizen
                               |for ninety days prior to election.
  =North Carolina= “Old North” |Citizen of the United States.
                               |_Idiots, lunatics, felons._
  =North Dakota= “Sioux”       |Citizen of United States (_a_).
                               |_Felons, insane, tribal Indians._
  =Ohio= “Buckeye”             |Citizen of United States (_a_).
                               |_Idiots, insane, and felons_ (_b_).
  =Oklahoma=                   |Citizen of United States (_a_).
                               |_Felons, idiots, insane_*‡
  =Oregon= “Sunset”            |Citizen of the United States, male or
                               |female, or alien who declared intention
                               |more than one year prior to election.
                               |_Idiots, insane, convicted of felony,
                               |U. S. soldiers and sailors._
  =Pennsylvania= “Keystone”    |Citizen of the United States at least
                               |one month.
                               |_Felons, non-taxpayers._
  =Porto Rico=                 |Citizen of United States (_f_).
                               |_Felons, insane_ (_b_).
  =Rhode Island= “Little Rhody”|Citizen of the United States.
                               |_Paupers, lunatics, felons._
  =South Carolina= “Palmetto”  |Citizen of United States (_h_).
                               |_Felons, insane, paupers._
  =South Dakota= “Coyote”      |Citizen of the United States or alien
                               |who has declared intention.
                               |_Insane, felons, U. S. soldiers, seamen
                               |and marines._
  =Tennessee= “Volunteer”      |Citizen of the United States.
                               |_Felons, failure to pay poll tax._
  =Texas= “Lone Star”          |Citizen of the United States or alien
                               |who has declared intention.
                               |_Idiots, lunatics, felons, U. S.
                               |soldiers, marines and seamen._
  =Utah=                       |Citizen of the United States, male or
                               |female.
                               |_Idiots, insane, felons_ (_b_).
  =Vermont= “Green Mountain”   |Citizen of the United States.
                               |_Those lacking approbation of local
                               |board of civil authority._
  =Virginia= “Old Dominion”    |Citizen of the United States.
                               |_Idiots, lunatics, paupers_ (_b_) (_i_).
  =Washington= “Evergreen”     |Citizen of the United States, male or
                               |female.
                               |_Idiots, lunatics, felons._‡
  =West Virginia= “Panhandle”  |Citizen of the United States.
                               |_Idiots, lunatics, felons._
  =Wisconsin= “Badger”         |Citizen of United States (_a_).
                               |_Insane, felons, tribal Indians._
  =Wyoming=                    |Citizen of the United States, male or
                               |female.
                               |_Idiots, insane, felons, unable to read
                               |State Constitution._
  -----------------------------+----------------------------------------

  =============================+===============================+=============
    STATES AND POPULAR NAME    |  PREVIOUS RESIDENCE REQUIRED  |  GOVERNORS
                               +-------+--------+------+-------+------+------
                               |   In  |   In   |  In  |  In   | Sala-|Length
                               | State |   Co.  | Town | Pre-  | ries | Term
                               |       |        |      | cinct |      | Years
  -----------------------------+-------+--------+------+-------+------+------
  =Alabama= “Lizard”           |2 years| 1 year| 3 mos.| 3 mos.|$7,500|   4
  =Alaska=                     |1 year |...    |30 days|30 days| 7,000|   4
  =Arizona=                    |1 year |30 days|30 days|30 days| 4,000|   2
  =Arkansas= “Bear”            |1 year | 6 mos.|30 days|30 days| 5,000|   2
  =California= “Golden”        |1 year |90 days|...    |30 days|10,000|   4
  =Colorado= “Centennial”      |1 year |90 days|30 days|10 days| 5,000|   2
  =Connecticut= “Nutmeg”       |1 year |...    | 6 mos.|...    | 5,000|   2
  =Delaware= “Diamond”         |1 year | 3 mos.|...    |30 days| 4,000|   4
  =Dist. of Col.=              |...    |...    |...    |...    |   ...| ...
  =Florida= “Flower”           |1 year | 6 mos.| 6 mos.| 6 mos.| 6,000|   4
  =Georgia= “Cracker”          |6 mos. | 6 mos.|...    |...    | 5,000|   2
  =Hawaii=                     |1 year |...    |...    | 3 mos.| 7,000|   4
  =Idaho=                      |6 mos. |30 days|...    |...    | 5,000|   2
  =Illinois= “Prairie”         |1 year |90 days|30 days|30 days|12,000|   4
  =Indiana= “Hoosier”          |6 mos. |...    |60 days|30 days| 8,000|   4
  =Iowa= “Hawkeye”             |6 mos. |60 days|10 days|10 days| 5,000|   2
  =Kansas= “Sunflower”         |6 mos. |30 days|30 days|10 days| 5,000|   2
  =Kentucky= “Blue Grass”      |1 year | 6 mos.|...    |60 days| 6,500|   4
  =Louisiana= “Creole”         |2 years| 1 year|...    | 6 mos.| 5,000|   4
  =Maine= “Pine Tree”          |3 mos. | 3 mos.| 3 mos.| 3 mos.| 3,000|   2
  =Maryland= “Old Line”        |1 year | 6 mos.| 6 mos.| 1 day | 4,500|   4
  =Massachusetts= “Bay”        |1 year | 6 mos.| 6 mos.| 6 mos.|10,000|   1
  =Michigan= “Wolverine”       |6 mos. |20 days|20 days|20 days| 5,000|   2
  =Minnesota= “North Star”     |6 mos. |30 days|30 days|30 days| 7,000|   2
  =Mississippi= “Bayou”        |2 years| 1 year| 1 year| 1 year| 5,000|   4
  =Missouri=                   |1 year |60 days|60 days|...    | 5,000|   4
  =Montana= “Mountain”         |1 year |30 days|...    |...    | 5,000|   4
  =Nebraska=                   |6 mos. |40 days|10 days|10 days| 2,500|   2
  =Nevada= “Silver”            |6 mos. |30 days|30 days|30 days| 7,000|   4
  =New Hampshire= “Granite”    |6 mos. | 6 mos.| 6 mos.| 6 mos.| 3,000|   2
  =New Jersey= “Jersey Blue”   |1 year | 5 mos.|...    |...    |10,000|   3
  =New Mexico=                 |1 year |90 days|...    |30 days| 5,000|   5
  =New York= “Empire”          |1 year | 4 mos.|30 days|30 days|10,000|   2
  =North Carolina= “Old North” |2 years| 6 mos.| 4 mos.| 4 mos.| 5,000|   4
  =North Dakota= “Sioux”       |1 year | 6 mos.|90 days|90 days| 5,000|   2
  =Ohio= “Buckeye”             |1 year |30 days|20 days|20 days|10,000|   2
  =Oklahoma=                   |1 year | 6 mos.|...    |30 days| 4,500|   4
  =Oregon= “Sunset”            |6 mos. |30 days|...    |30 days| 5,000|   4
  =Pennsylvania= “Keystone”    |1 year |...    |...    | 2 mos.|10,000|   4
  =Porto Rico=                 |1 year |...    | 1 year|...    | 8,000|   4
  =Rhode Island= “Little Rhody”|2 years|...    | 6 mos.|...    | 3,000|   2
  =South Carolina= “Palmetto”  |2 years| 1 year| 4 mos.| 4 mos.| 3,000|   2
  =South Dakota= “Coyote”      |6 mos. |30 days|10 days|10 days| 3,000|   2
  =Tennessee= “Volunteer”      |1 year | 6 mos.|...    |...    | 4,000|   2
  =Texas= “Lone Star”          |1 year | 6 mos.| 6 mos.|...    | 4,000|   2
  =Utah=                       |1 year | 4 mos.|...    |60 days| 6,000|   4
  =Vermont= “Green Mountain”   |1 year | 3 mos.| 3 mos.| 3 mos.| 2,500|   2
  =Virginia= “Old Dominion”    |2 years| 1 year| 1 year|30 days| 5,000|   4
  =Washington= “Evergreen”     |1 year |90 days|30 days|30 days| 6,000|   4
  =West Virginia= “Panhandle”  |1 year |60 days|60 days|...    | 5,000|   4
  =Wisconsin= “Badger”         |1 year |...    |10 days|10 days| 5,000|   2
  =Wyoming=                    |1 year |60 days|10 days|10 days| 4,000|   4
  -----------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------+------

  =============================+=============================+===========+=====
    STATES AND POPULAR NAME    |  LEGISLATURES               |MEMBERS’   |ELEC-
                               |                             |TERMS      |TORAL
                               +-----+-------+---------------+-----+-----+VOTE,
                               | Ann.| Limit |  Salaries of  |Sena-| Re- |1916
                               |  or |   of  |    Members    |tors | pre-|
                               |Bien.|  Ses- |               |     | sen-|
                               |     |  sion |               |     | ta- |
                               |     |       |               |     |tives|
  -----------------------------+-----+-------+---------------+-----+-----+-----
  =Alabama= “Lizard”           |Quad.|50 days|$4.00 per diem |   4 |   4 |  12
  =Alaska=                     |Bien.|60 days|$15.00 per diem|   4 |   2 |   0
  =Arizona=                    |Bien.|60 days|$7.00 per diem |   2 |   2 |   3
  =Arkansas= “Bear”            |Bien.|60 days|$6.00 per diem |   4 |   2 |   9
  =California= “Golden”        |Bien.|None   |$1,000 term    |   4 |   2 |  13
  =Colorado= “Centennial”      |Bien.|90 days|$1,000 term    |   4 |   2 |   6
  =Connecticut= “Nutmeg”       |Bien.|None   |$300 term      |   2 |   2 |   7
  =Delaware= “Diamond”         |Bien.|60 days|$5.00 per diem |   4 |   2 |   3
  =Dist. of Col.=              |...  |...    |...            | ... | ... |   0
  =Florida= “Flower”           |Bien.|60 days|$6.00 per diem |   4 |   2 |   6
  =Georgia= “Cracker”          |Ann. |50 days|$4.00 per diem |   2 |   2 |  14
  =Hawaii=                     |Bien.|60 days|$600 session   |   4 |   2 |   0
  =Idaho=                      |Bien.|60 days|$5.00 per diem |   2 |   2 |   4
  =Illinois= “Prairie”         |Bien.|None   |$3,500 annum   |   4 |   2 |  29
  =Indiana= “Hoosier”          |Bien.|61 days|$6.00 per diem |   4 |   2 |  15
  =Iowa= “Hawkeye”             |Bien.|None   |$1,000 session |   4 |   2 |  13
  =Kansas= “Sunflower”         |Bien.|50 days|$3.00 per diem |   4 |   2 |  10
  =Kentucky= “Blue Grass”      |Bien.|60 days|$10.00 per diem|   4 |   2 |  13
  =Louisiana= “Creole”         |Bien.|60 days|$5.00 per diem |   4 |   4 |  10
  =Maine= “Pine Tree”          |Bien.|None   |$300 annum     |   2 |   2 |   6
  =Maryland= “Old Line”        |Bien.|90 days|$5.00 per diem |   4 |   2 |   8
  =Massachusetts= “Bay”        |Ann. |None   |$1,000 annum   |   1 |   1 |  18
  =Michigan= “Wolverine”       |Bien.|None   |$800 annum     |   2 |   2 |  15
  =Minnesota= “North Star”     |Bien.|90 days|$1,000 session |   4 |   2 |  12
  =Mississippi= “Bayou”        |Bien.|None   |$500 session   |   4 |   4 |  10
  =Missouri=                   |Bien.|70 days|$5.00 per diem |   4 |   2 |  18
  =Montana= “Mountain”         |Bien.|60 days|$10.00 per diem|   4 |   2 |   4
  =Nebraska=                   |Bien.|60 days|$10.00 session |   2 |   2 |   8
  =Nevada= “Silver”            |Bien.|60 days|$600 term      | 2-4 |   2 |   3
  =New Hampshire= “Granite”    |Bien.|None   |$200 term      |   2 |   2 |   4
  =New Jersey= “Jersey Blue”   |Ann. |None   |$500 annum     |   3 |   1 |  14
  =New Mexico=                 |Bien.|60 days|$5.00 per diem |   4 |   2 |   3
  =New York= “Empire”          |Ann. |None   |$1,500 annum   |   2 |   1 |  45
  =North Carolina= “Old North” |Bien.|60 days|$4.00 per diem |   2 |   2 |  12
  =North Dakota= “Sioux”       |Bien.|60 days|$5.00 per diem |   4 |   2 |   5
  =Ohio= “Buckeye”             |Bien.|None   |$1,000 annum   |   2 |   2 |  24
  =Oklahoma=                   |Bien.|60 days|$6.00 per diem |   4 |   2 |  10
  =Oregon= “Sunset”            |Bien.|40 days|$3.00 per diem |   4 |   2 |   5
  =Pennsylvania= “Keystone”    |Bien.|None   |$1,500 session |   2 |   2 |  38
  =Porto Rico=                 |Ann. |60 days|$5.00 per diem |   4 |   2 |   0
  =Rhode Island= “Little Rhody”|Ann. |60 days|$5.00 per diem |   2 |   2 |   5
  =South Carolina= “Palmetto”  |Ann. |40 days|$200 term      |   4 |   2 |   9
  =South Dakota= “Coyote”      |Bien.|60 days|$5.00 per diem |   2 |   2 |   5
  =Tennessee= “Volunteer”      |Bien.|75 days|$4.00 per diem |   2 |   2 |  12
  =Texas= “Lone Star”          |Bien.|90 days|$5.00 per diem |   4 |   2 |  20
  =Utah=                       |Bien.|60 days|$4.00 per diem |   4 |   2 |   4
  =Vermont= “Green Mountain”   |Bien.|None   |$4.00 per diem |   2 |   2 |   4
  =Virginia= “Old Dominion”    |Bien.|60 days|$500 session   |   4 |   2 |  12
  =Washington= “Evergreen”     |Bien.|60 days|$5.00 per diem |   4 |   2 |   7
  =West Virginia= “Panhandle”  |Bien.|45 days|$4.00 per diem |   4 |   2 |   8
  =Wisconsin= “Badger”         |Bien.|None   |$500 annum     |   4 |   2 |  13
  =Wyoming=                    |Bien.|40 days|$8.00 per diem |   4 |   2 |   3
  -----------------------------+-----+-------+---------------+-----+-----+-----

  Note.--Residents of the District of Columbia never had the right to
  vote therein for national officers, or on other matters of national
  concern after the territory embraced in it was ceded to the United
  States and became the seat of the general Government.

  * Or persons unable to read and write in English. † Or citizens of
  Mexico who desire to become citizens of Arizona under treaties of
  1848 and 1854. ‡ Indians who have not severed tribal relations.
  (_a_): Women can vote in school elections. (_b_): Also soldiers,
  sailors and marines in United States service. (_c_): Women taxpayers
  can vote on tax propositions. (_d_): Or by Queretaro treaty. (_e_):
  Women can vote in all elections except those pertaining to
  Constitutional officers or Constitutional propositions. (_f_): Males
  born in Porto Rico who formally renounced allegiance to a foreign
  power. (_g_): One year’s residence in the United States prior to
  election is required. (_h_): Who has paid six months before election
  all taxes then due, and can read and write any section of the State
  Constitution, or can show that he owns and has paid all taxes due
  the previous year on property in the State assessed at $300 or more.
  (_i_): Failure to pay poll tax. (_j_): Or those unable to speak,
  read and write the English or Hawaiian language. (_k_): Women can
  vote in school and city elections. (_l_): Offenders against elective
  franchise rights, guilty of bribery, betting on elections, and
  persons convicted of a felony and not restored to citizenship by the
  Executive. Convicts in House of Refuge or Reformatory not
  disqualified. (_m_): All of the States and Territories pay mileage
  also, except New Jersey, but free transportation is accorded in New
  Jersey by all railroads to members by law.

=GOVERNMENTS OF THE UNITED STATES, BRITISH EMPIRE, GERMANY, AND FRANCE
ARRANGED IN PARALLEL COLUMNS=

             =UNITED STATES=                      =BRITISH EMPIRE=

  _Form of Government:_ Republic. The   _Form of Government._--Monarchy in
  general plan of the government of the form, but republic in practice. The
  United States is determined by the    monarchy is constitutional and
  Constitution. The central government  limited.
  is limited to the exercise of the     The British Empire consists of the
  powers specifically enumerated in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
  Constitution, or implied therein,     Ireland, the Empire of India, and
  while the remaining governmental      the British Dominions beyond the
  powers, not denied to the states by   Seas, including the self-governing
  the Constitution, are reserved to the Dominions, and the Crown Colonies,
  states. The general government is in  Protectorates, and other Dependen-
  three fairly well defined parts, the  cies, the whole forming one Empire.
  legislative, executive, and judicial.

  =I. Constitution.=--The present Con-  =I. Constitution.=--The British
  stitution was adopted September 17,   Constitution is mainly unwritten and
  1787.                                 customary, but its development is
                                        marked by certain outstanding and
  _Ratification of the Constitution._-- fundamental laws, of which the prin-
  The Constitution was ratified by the  cipal are: Magna Charta, 1215; the
  thirteen original States in the fol-  Habeas Corpus Act, 1679; the Act of
  lowing order:                         Settlement, 1701; the Act of Union
    Delaware, Dec. 7, 1787, unanimous-  with Scotland, 1707; the Act of Union
    ly.                                 with Ireland, 1800; and the Parlia-
    Pennsylvania, Dec. 12, 1787, vote   ment Act, 1911. The first secured
    46 to 23.                           annual parliaments and the equal ad-
    New Jersey, Dec. 18, 1787, unani-   ministration of justice; the second
    mously.                             established the liberty of the per-
    Georgia, Jan 2, 1788, unanimously.  son; the third provided for the Prot-
    Connecticut, Jan 9, 1788, vote 128  estant succession to the throne; the
    to 40.                              fourth and fifth created the United
    Massachusetts, Feb. 6, 1788, vote   Kingdom; and the last enabled the
    187 to 168.                         Commons to pass certain Acts without
    Maryland, April 28, 1788, vote 63   the adherence of the other Chamber.
    to 12.
    South Carolina, May 23, 1788, vote
    149 to 73.
    New Hampshire, June 21, 1788, vote
    57 to 46.
    Virginia, June 25, 1788, vote 89 to
    79.
    New York, July 26, 1788, vote 30 to
    28.
    North Carolina, Nov. 21, 1789, vote
    193 to 75.
    Rhode Island, May 29, 1790, vote 34
    to 32.

  _Amendments._--Congress may, by two-
  thirds vote of both Houses, propose
  amendments to the Constitution, or
  upon application of the Legislatures
  of two-thirds of the several States,
  shall call a convention for proposing
  amendments, which, in either case,
  must be ratified by the Legislatures
  of three-fourths of the several
  States, or by conventions in three-
  fourths thereof.

  =II. The President.=                  =II. The Sovereign.=

  _How Elected._--The several steps in  _How Designated._--The King’s legal
  the election of the President are:    title rests upon the Act of Settle-
                                        ment, in 1701, under William III., by
  State Electors are chosen at a Gener- which the succession to the Crown of
  al Election held on the _Tuesday fol- Great Britain and Ireland was settled
  lowing the first Monday of November_  on the Princess Sophia of Hanover and
  of every fourth year; the number of   the “heirs of her body, being Protes-
  Electors of each State being equal to tants.” The throne is hereditary in
  the number of Senators and Represen-  the English house of Saxe-Coburg-
  tatives to which the State is en-     Gotha with mixed succession, the sons
  titled in Congress.                   of the Sovereign and their descen-
                                        dants having precedence of daughters,
  The Electors meet in their respective but daughters and their descendants
  States on the _second Monday in       preference over lateral lines. The
  January_ following their election,    Sovereign is designated King (or
  and vote by ballot for President and  Queen) of Great Britain and Ireland,
  Vice-President; and at the same time  and Emperor (or Empress) of India.
  make certificates of their vote and
  transmit the same to the President of
  the Senate.

  The Senate and House of Representa-
  tives meet together on the _second
  Wednesday of February_ next ensuing,
  and count the votes of the State
  Electors, when, if there is an elec-
  tion, the President of the Senate
  declares who is elected President and
  Vice-President.

  In case there is no choice by the
  State Electors, the President is
  elected by the House of Representa-
  tives from the three candidates who
  received the most electoral votes for
  President; in which election the vote
  is taken by States, each State having
  but one vote, and a majority of all
  the States being necessary to a
  choice.

  _Term of Office._--Four years.        _Term of Office._--Holds office for
                                        life, by hereditary title, and cannot
                                        be removed.
  _Eligibility._--A natural born citi-
  zen; resident of the United States
  fourteen years; minimum age thirty-
  five years.

  _Salary._--Fixed by law at $75,000    _Salary or Civil List._--The Civil
  per year.                             List Act, 1910, gave the King
                                        $2,350,000. Provision for other mem-
                                        bers of the Royal Family, $730,000.
                                        The Prince of Wales, as the income
                                        of the Duchy of Cornwall, $435,000.
                                        The King in addition to his Civil
                                        List receives the revenues of the
                                        Duchy of Lancaster amounting to
                                        $320,000.

  _Powers and Duties of the President._ _Powers and Duties._--Has command of
  --Commander-in-Chief of the Army and  army and navy.
  Navy. Communicates with Congress by
  message. Approves or disapproves      Parliament cannot be assembled, pro-
  Acts of Congress. Makes treaties      rogued, or dissolved except by the
  with advice and consent of the        express command of the Sovereign.
  Senate. Appoints Public Officers with
  the advice and consent of the Senate. At the commencement of a new Parlia-
  Commissions Public Officers of the    ment must deliver, either in person
  United States. Grants reprieves and   or by a commission authorized for
  pardons for offenses against the      that purpose, a speech declaring the
  United States.                        cause of the summons.

  _The Vice-President._--Elected by     Bills passed by Parliament must re-
  State Electors the same as the Presi- ceive the assent of the Sovereign in
  dent; or by the Senate, in case there order to become law.
  is no choice by the State Electors.
  Term of office same as for the Presi- Has legally a veto power; but, be-
  dent. Eligibility same as required of cause the influence of the Executive
  the President. Salary fixed by law at over legislation has passed into the
  twelve thousand dollars per year.     hands of the Ministers, the veto of
                                        the Crown has been disused since
  _The Presidential Succession._--In    1707.
  case of the removal, death, resigna-
  tion, or inability of the President,  Has power to appoint all officers in
  the Vice-President takes the Presi-   the army and navy, judges, ambas-
  dent’s place.                         sadors, colonial governors, bishops
                                        and archbishops of the Established
  In case of the removal, death, resig- Church, and grants all degrees of
  nation, or inability of both Presi-   nobility.
  dent and Vice-President the heads of
  the Executive Departments succeed to  May make treaties of any kind.
  the Presidency in the order in which
  the Executive Departments are named   May grant pardon to any particular
  below; but such officer must be con-  offender.
  stitutionally eligible to the Presi-
  dency, must have been appointed to    _The Privy Council._--The King in
  the cabinet by the advice and with    Council is the supreme executive
  the consent of the Senate, and be not authority in the realm. The Privy
  under impeachment. The Secretary of   Council meets as a whole at the be-
  Agriculture and the Secretary of Com- ginning of a new reign and on other
  merce and Labor are ineligible to the occasions of state and ceremony, pos-
  presidency by reason of the fact that sesses certain administrative powers,
  these two cabinet offices were        and is the Supreme Court of the Em-
  created subsequent to the passage of  pire. Its personnel includes the
  the act of the forty-ninth Congress   royal princes and the archbishops,
  in which provision was made for the   Members of the Cabinet and of the
  presidential succession.              royal household, the Speaker of the
                                        House of Commons, the ambassadors,
                                        the principal colonial governors,
                                        colonial statesmen, certain judges,
                                        and members of both political parties
                                        who have never been in office.

                                        The important functions of the Coun-
                                        cil are the bringing into operation
                                        by means of orders in council of the
                                        provisions of many statutes which
                                        Parliament leaves to the executive to
                                        enforce, temporarily or permanently,
                                        at such time or times as it may deem
                                        necessary and desirable. These orders
                                        have all the force and validity of
                                        law.

      THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS               THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS

  _Acts of Congress_ become laws:--
  When signed (approved) by the Presi-
  dent; or, by his failure to make ob-
  jection in writing (veto) within ten
  days after any act is submitted to
  him, unless Congress by adjournment
  within that time prevents its return;
  but Congress has power to pass a law
  over the President’s veto by a vote
  of two-thirds of each House.

            THE CABINET                            THE MINISTRY

  _Composed_ of the heads of the        _The Cabinet_, or Inner Council,
  executive departments.                under the presidency of the Prime
                                        Minister, consists of Ministers,
  _Appointed_ by the President with the drawn from the ranks of the party in
  advice and consent of the Senate.     power and appointed by the Sovereign
                                        on the advice of the Prime Minister.
  _Salary._--Secretary of State,
  $12,000; all other cabinet members,
  twelve thousand dollars annually.

         HEADS OF DEPARTMENTS           _Members_ (As reconstituted in June,
                                        1915) and their salaries.
  _Department of State._--Has charge of
  foreign affairs.                      _Prime Minister and First Lord
                                        of the Treasury_              $25,000
  _Treasury Department._--Has charge of
  fiscal affairs.                       _Lord High Chancellor_ (and
                                        $20,000 as speaker of the
  _Department of War._--Has charge of   House of Lords)                50,000
  the Army and military affairs.
                                        _Minister without Portfolio_   unpaid
  _Department of Justice._--Has charge
  of the legal affairs of the Govern-   _Lord President of the Council_10,000
  ment.
                                        _Lord Privy Seal_              unpaid
  _Post-office Department._--Has charge
  of postal affairs.                    _First Lord of the Admiralty_  22,500

  _Navy Department._--Has charge of the _Secretaries of State:_
  Navy and naval affairs.                 _Home Affairs_               25,000
                                          _Foreign Affairs_            25,000
  _Department of the Interior._--Has      _Colonies_                   25,000
  charge of domestic affairs, including   _War_                        25,000
  public lands, pensions, patents,        _India_                      25,000
  Bureau of Education, etc.
                                        _Chancellor of the Exchequer_  25,000
  _Department of Agriculture._--Has
  charge of agricultural affairs, in-   _Minister of Munitions_        25,000
  cluding Weather Bureau, etc.
                                        _Secretary for Scotland_       10,000
  _Department of Commerce and Labor._--
  Has charge of domestic and foreign    _Chief Secretary to the Lord
  affairs, relating to commerce, trans- Lieutenant of Ireland_         21,125
  portation, Department of Labor, etc.
                                        _Presidents of Committees of the
                                        Council:_
                                          _Board of Trade_             25,000
                                          _Local Government Board_     25,000
                                          _Board of Education_         10,000

                                        _First Commissioner of Works_  10,000

                                        _Attorney-General_             35,000

                                        _Board of Agriculture_         10,000

                                        _Relations to Parliament._--The Chief
                                        of the Cabinet and of the Ministry is
                                        called the Prime Minister or Premier.
                                        He is the leader of the House of Par-
                                        liament of which he is a member. He
                                        dispenses the greater portion of the
                                        patronage of the Crown. Other members
                                        of the Cabinet are the leaders of
                                        Parliament, shaping and directing the
                                        business of the Houses.

  _Tenure of Office._--Dependent upon   _Tenure of Office._--Dependent upon
  the will or favor of the President.   the favor of the House of Commons;
                                        for if not sustained, they must all
                                        resign. When a Ministry resigns it is
                                        the function of the sovereign to call
                                        upon some statesman to form another
                                        administration. There is no restric-
                                        tion upon the Royal choice, but the
                                        statesman usually selected is the
                                        leader of the opposing party in one
                                        of the two Houses.

  _Powers and Duties._--As stated       _Powers and Duties._--All real
  above, but under the direction of the authority is with the Cabinet. The
  President.                            executive government is nominally in
                                        the Crown, but practically in the
                                        Cabinet. The Ministers are at the
                                        heads of the administrative depart-
                                        ments. The Sovereign does not sit
                                        with the Cabinet.

                                        _Other Ministers._--The Ministry in-
                                        cludes a number of minor posts whose
                                        occupants have no seat in the
                                        Cabinet.

  =III. Congress.=--Consisting of both  =III. Parliament.=--Parliament con-
  the Senate and the House of Represen- sists of two Houses, the House of
  tatives as co-ordinate bodies.        Lords and the House of Commons. The
                                        Sovereign alone has the power of sum-
  _Duration._--The term of each         moning or proroguing or dissolving
  Congress is for two years, commencing Parliament, and gives the Royal
  March 4th of the odd years.           Assent to measures which have passed
                                        both Houses. Unless it be dissolved
  _Regular Sessions._--Annual, begin-   by the Crown, Parliament exists five
  ning the first Monday in December.    years from the date on which it was
                                        first to meet. The demise of the
  _Special Sessions._--At the call of   Crown does not dissolve Parliament,
  the President.                        but, on the contrary, renders an im-
                                        mediate assembling of the two Houses
  _Membership._--Each House is the      necessary; and if there be no Parlia-
  judge of the elections and qualifica- ment in existence, the old Parliament
  tions of its own members.             must reassemble, and may sit again
                                        for six months, if it be not within
  _Congress has General Powers of       that time dissolved by the new
  Legislation._--To provide for the     Sovereign.
  raising and disbursement of revenue.
  To borrow money; to coin money and to All British dominions are subject
  regulate its value; and to fix the    (except as regards taxation) to the
  standard of weights and measures. To  legislation of the British Parlia-
  regulate foreign and interstate com-  ment; but no Act of Parliament af-
  merce. To declare war, and to main-   fects a colony unless that colony is
  tain an army and navy. To establish   specially mentioned. If the legis-
  post-offices and post roads. To enact lature of a colony enacts a law which
  patent and copyright laws. To enact   is repugnant to an imperial law af-
  uniform naturalization and bankruptcy fecting the colony, it is to the ex-
  laws. To provide for the punishment   tent to which it is repugnant abso-
  of crimes against the United States.  lutely void.
  To establish courts inferior to the
  Supreme Court. To provide for orga-
  nizing and calling out the militia.
  To admit new States into the Union.
  To provide for the governments of the
  Territories. To exercise exclusive
  jurisdiction over the District of
  Columbia, public lands, public build-
  ings, forts, and navy yards. To enact
  all laws necessary and proper for
  carrying into execution all the
  powers vested by the Constitution in
  the government of the United States.

  _THE SENATE._--Composed of two        _THE HOUSE OF LORDS._--The House at
  Senators from each State (ninety-six  present consists of three Princes of
  in 1917), chosen by popular vote for  the Blood, two Archbishops, twenty-
  six years, one-third retiring every   one Dukes, twenty-six Marquesses, one
  two years.                            hundred and twenty-one Earls, forty-
                                        six Viscounts, twenty-four Bishops,
                                        three hundred and fifty-six Barons,
                                        sixteen Scottish Representative Peers
                                        elected for each Parliament, and
                                        twenty-seven Irish Representative
                                        Peers elected for life. The members
                                        hold their seats by virtue of heredi-
                                        tary title; by creation of the
                                        Sovereign; by virtue of office
                                        (English bishops); by election for
                                        life (Irish peers); by election for
                                        duration of Parliament (Scottish
                                        peers).

  _Qualifications._--Must be at least   _Qualifications._--Must be at least
  thirty years of age, must have been a twenty-one years of age.
  citizen of the United States for nine
  years, and must be an inhabitant of
  the State which he represents.

  _Remuneration._--Members receive      _Remuneration._--Receive no pay.
  seven thousand five hundred dollars,
  with mileage.

  _Organization._--The Vice-President   _Organization_--_Quorum._--Three, in-
  of the United States is the Presi-    cluding the Lord Chancellor; thirty
  dent of the Senate. Is elected by the for final vote on a bill. The Lord
  Electoral College. Votes only in case Chancellor, who is a member of the
  of a tie.                             Cabinet, presides. He is appointed by
                                        mere delivery of the Great Seal to
  _Quorum._--A majority of members.     him by the Sovereign and is principal
                                        legal adviser of the Crown. His
                                        patronage is very extensive. He
                                        nominates the puisne judges and
                                        county court judges; the holder of
                                        the office may not be a Roman Catho-
                                        lic.

  _Committees._--Members are divided    _Committees._--Special committees are
  into standing committees, chosen by   appointed to make investigations, and
  the Senate itself, which act in the   report on matters which could not be
  preliminary examination, and shaping  undertaken by the whole House.
  of measures to be voted on.

  _Powers and Duties._--In concurrence  _Powers and Duties._--In concurrence
  with the House of Representatives, it with the House of Commons, makes the
  makes the laws. It also has power to  laws, having a revising power over
  confirm or reject all appointments to all bills proposed by the House of
  office by the President of the United Commons, except those relating to
  States, and all treaties. The members public revenue and expenditure, which
  constitute a high court for the trial it must pass or reject without amend-
  of impeachments. Elects Vice-Presi-   ment.
  dent of the United States if regular
  election fails.                       It is the highest appellate court of
                                        the United Kingdom. It may in certain
                                        cases try members of its own body; it
                                        tries any person who may be impeached
                                        by the House of Commons, and it also
                                        decides claims to the peerage.

  _HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES._--         _HOUSE OF COMMONS._--This body
  Composed (in 1917) of four hundred    consists of six hundred and seventy
  and thirty-five members elected every elected members representing county,
  second year for two years by the      borough, and university constituen-
  people of the States in the propor-   cies. Roughly speaking, about one-
  tion of one Representative for every  sixth of the population are electors.
  211,877 inhabitants. Each State, how-
  ever, is entitled to at least one mem-
  ber, whatever its population.

  _Qualifications._--Must be at         _Qualifications._--Must be at
  least twenty-five years of age, must  least twenty-one years of age.
  have been seven years a citizen of    Clergymen are disqualified from sit-
  the United States, and must be an in- ting as members, also English and
  habitant of the State from which he   Scottish peers, government contrac-
  is chosen.                            tors, and sheriffs and returning
                                        officers for the localities for which
                                        they act.

  _Organization_--_Quorum._--A majority _Organization_--_Quorum._--Forty mem-
  of members. Elects its own presiding  bers, including the Speaker. Elects
  officer, who is called the Speaker,   its own presiding officer, who is
  salary twelve thousand dollars per    called the Speaker, who has a resi-
  year.                                 dence in the Palace of Westminster,
                                        and receives a salary of $25,000 per
                                        annum.

  _Remuneration._--Members receive      _Remuneration._--$2,000 per year
  seven thousand five hundred dollars   (since 1911).
  and mileage.

  _Powers of the House of Representa-   _Powers and Duties._--May originate
  tives._--Elects its Speaker (pre-     and, in concurrence with the House of
  siding officer) and its other offi-   Lords, pass resolutions and bills;
  cers. Elects President of the United  but bills relating to the imposition
  States if the regular election fails. of taxes and the granting of supplies
  Prosecutes impeachments before the    for the service of the State must be
  Senate. Originates all bills for      originated in the House of Commons.
  raising revenue.

  _Committees._--Almost all the acts of _Committees._--The business of the
  the House are under the control of    House is almost entirely under the
  Standing Committees, appointed by the direction of the Ministry; however,
  Speaker.                              commissions and select committees are
                                        from time to time appointed to make
                                        investigations and report on matters
                                        which could not be undertaken by the
                                        House.

  =IV. The Judicial Department.=        =IV. Judicial Departments=, or Courts
                                        of Law.
  JUDGES OF THE UNITED STATES COURTS
                                        _Privy Council._--The Judicial Com-
  _Appointed_ by the President with the mittee of the Privy Council (which
  advice and consent of the Senate.     hears appeals from Colonial and
                                        Indian Courts, and also from Ecclesi-
  _Tenure of Office._--During life or   astical Courts) consists of the Lord
  good behavior; but may retire on full Chancellor, Lord President, ex-Lords
  salary after reaching the age of      President, the Lords of Appeal in
  seventy years, and after ten years’   Ordinary, and such other members of
  service on the bench.                 the Privy Council as shall from time
                                        to time hold or have held “high judi-
     THE SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED    cial office.” No dissenting judgments
                 STATES                 are allowed, but the Judicial Commit-
                                        tee can grant special leave to
  _Members._--A Chief Justice and Eight appeal.
  Associate Justices.
                                        The English courts of law having
  _Salaries._--Chief Justice, fifteen   jurisdiction in actions between
  thousand dollars; Associate Justices, parties are:
  each fourteen thousand five hundred
  dollars.                                        HOUSE OF LORDS

  _Terms of Court._--One each year, be- _Lord High Chancellor_ and such peers
  ginning on the second Monday in       of Parliament as are holding or have
  October.                              held high judicial office. This is
                                        the ultimate Court of Appeal from all
  _Original Jurisdiction._--In all      the courts in the United Kingdom.
  cases affecting Ambassadors,
  Ministers, and Consuls. In all cases
  in which a State is a party.

  _Appellate Jurisdiction._--In cases
  of law and equity where the Inferior
  Courts have original jurisdiction,
  with such exceptions and regulations
  as Congress has made.

  _The Chief Justice._--Presides over
  the Senate when it sits as a Court of
  Impeachmenet for the trial of the
  President.

           INFERIOR COURTS              There are two Courts of Appeal below
                                        these divisions:
  _Jurisdiction._--In cases between
  citizens of different States. In      _Lords of Appeal in Ordinary._-- Con-
  cases in which the United States is   sisting of six Justices.
  a party. In cases of admiralty and
  maritime jurisdiction. In trials for  _Court of Appeal._--Ex-Officio
  crimes against the United States; but Judges, the Lord High Chancellor, the
  the trial of crimes must be by jury,  Lord Chief Justice of England, the
  and must be held in the State where   Master of the Rolls, and the President
  the crime was committed.              of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty
                                        Division.
  _Appeals to the Supreme Court_ may be
  had in all cases of law and equity,   _The High Court_ comprises the King’s
  with such exceptions and regulations  Bench, Chancery, and Probate, Divorce
  as Congress has made.                 and Admiralty Divisions.

       KINDS OF INFERIOR COURTS         _High Court of Justice, Chancery Di-
                                        vision._--(Administration of trusts,
  _United States Circuit Courts of      company cases, mortgages, patents,
  Appeals._--Organized in 1891 to re-   etc.). Consists of the Lord High
  lieve the United States Supreme Court Chancellor and six other Justices.
  in Appellate Cases. Number: One in
  each Judicial Circuit. Members: Three _High Court of Justice, King’s Bench
  judges selected from the District     Division._--(Contracts, torts, bank-
  Courts.                               ruptcy, etc.). Consists of the Lord
                                        Chief Justice of England and fifteen
  _Number._--One in each Judicial       other Justices.
  Circuit.
                                        _High Court of Justice, Probate, Di-
  _Members._--Three judges selected     vorce and Admiralty Division._--
  from the District Courts.             (Wills, matrimonial cases, and mari-
                                        time cases). Consists of two
  _United States Circuit Courts._--     Justices.

  _Number of Circuits._--Nine.          _Court of Criminal Appeal._--All the
                                        Judges of King’s Bench Division.
  _Number of Judges._--Each Circuit has
  two, three, or four Circuit Judges,   _Court of Arches._--An ecclesiastical
  and a Justice of the Supreme Court is court unites the powers of the _jus
  assigned to each Circuit. The         canonicum_ with new powers conceded
  District Judge also may sit in a Cir- by the Church Discipline Act, 1841,
  cuit Court.                           and the similar statute of 1874,
                                        exercising authority in both pro-
  _Salary of Circuit Judges._--Fixed by vinces. The Judicial Committee of
  law at seven thousand dollars per     Privy Council is the Court of Final
  year.                                 Appeal in ecclesiastical causes.

  _United States District Courts._--    _Bankruptcy Court._--Consisting of
                                        one Justice.
  _Number of Districts._--One or more
  in each State. At present there are
  seventy-three Judicial Districts.

  _Salary of District Judge._--Fixed by
  law at seven thousand dollars per
  year.

  _United States Court of Claims._--

  _Jurisdiction._--Claims against the
  United States, including all claims
  which may be referred to it by
  Congress.

  _Members._--One Chief Justice and
  four Associate Justices.

  _Salaries._--Chief Justice, six
  thousand five hundred dollars;
  Associate Justices, each six thousand
  dollars.

  In addition to the above named
  courts, Congress has established
  courts of local jurisdiction in the
  District of Columbia and in the
  Territories.


               =GERMANY=                             =FRANCE=

  _Form of Government._--The Empire,    _Form of Government._--France, since
  according to the Constitution of      the overthrow of Napoleon III., in
  April 16, 1871, is a Confederate      1870, has been a republic governed by
  League, bearing the name German Em-   a President and two Chambers under
  pire, under the hereditary presi-     the Constitution.
  dentship of the King of Prussia, who
  holds the title of German Emperor,
  and whose eldest son is styled His
  Imperial and Royal Highness.

  =I. Constitution.=                    =I. Constitution.=

  _Adoption._--Present Constitution     _Adoption._--Present Constitution
  adopted April 16, 1871. The Constitu- adopted February 25, 1875. It has
  tion of the German Empire is sub-     undergone but slight modifications.
  stantially that of the North German   The present French Constitution re-
  Confederation, which came into force  mains a mixture of monarchical and
  in 1867, and which was adopted by the republican institutions, and it has
  Empire in 1871, after the southern    fully maintained its strong and old-
  states of Germany had combined with   established centralization. The
  the northern.                         Constitution of 1875 is based on uni-
                                        versal suffrage. It was revised in
                                        1875, 1884, 1885 and 1889.

  _Amendments._--Amendments to the      _Amendments._--Whenever the two
  Constitution can be proposed by       Houses agree that revision is neces-
  either of the legislative bodies, are sary, and also agree upon particular
  passed by ordinary legislative pro-   points that should be revised, the
  cess, requiring for their passage a   National Assembly, composed of the
  majority simply of the votes of the   Senate and the Chamber of Deputies,
  Reichstag, but they fail if fourteen  sitting as one body, convenes at Ver-
  votes are cast against them in the    sailles, and acts upon the amendments
  Bundesrath.                           proposed, the vote of an absolute
                                        majority being decisive. The National
                                        Assembly also elects the President of
                                        the republic.

  =II. Chief magistrate=, styled the    =II. Chief Magistrate=, or President
  Deutscher Kaiser.                     of the Republic.

  _How Designated._--The election of    _Term of Office._--Elected for seven
  Wilhelm I., King of Prussia, as       years by the National Assembly, and
  German Emperor (1871) was by vote of  is re-eligible.
  the Reichstag of the North German
  Confederation, on the initiative of   The National Assembly meets for the
  all the reigning Princes of Germany.  purposes of this election, as for the
  The Imperial dignity is hereditary    revision of the Constitution, at Ver-
  in the House of Hohenzollern, and     sailles. The revision of the Consti-
  follows the law of primogeniture in   tution and the election of President
  the male line. He must be occupant of are its only functions.
  the throne of Prussia under the pro-
  visions of Prussian law.              _Qualifications._--Must be a citizen,
                                        not a member of any family which has
  _Term of Office._--Holds office for   occupied the throne of France.
  life,and cannot be removed.

  _Salary or Income._--Royal Civil List _Salary._--$140,000.
  of Emperor, $3,700,000.
                                        _Responsibilities._--May be impeached
                                        by the Chamber of Deputies, and tried
                                        by the Senate, in case of high
                                        treason.

  _Powers and Duties._--Commander-in-   _Powers and Duties._--Has command of
  Chief of the imperial army.           the army and navy.

  Summons, opens, adjourns, and closes  May convene the Chambers on extraordi-
  the two Houses. He may dissolve the   nary occasions.
  Reichstag upon advice of the Bundes-
  rath.                                 May adjourn the Chambers at any time
                                        for a period not exceeding one month.
  All measures passed by the Bundes-    Can close a regular session of the
  rath are presented to the Reichstag   Chambers at his discretion after it
  in the name of the Emperor.           has continued five months; an extra
                                        session when he pleases. Can with the
  Bills passed by the two Houses must   consent of the Senate dissolve the
  be promulgated by the Emperor.        Chamber of Deputies even before the
                                        expiration of five months. This puts
  In cases where he regards them as in- an end to the session of the Senate
  volving a change in the Constitution, also, but not to its life. The Presi-
  he need not promulgate them if four-  dent must order a new election in
  teen votes have been cast against     case of dissolution.
  them in the Bundesrath.
                                        At the commencement of a new session
  All official acts of the Emperor re-  of the Chambers the President of the
  quire the counter-signature of the    republic sends a message, which is
  Chancellor.                           read by one of the Ministers.

  Appoints and may, at his pleasure,    Bills passed by the Chambers must be
  remove the Imperial Chancellor. Ap-   signed by the President, and counter-
  points and may, with the counter-     signed by one of his Ministers.
  signature of the Chancellor, remove
  all minor officers in the imperial    Has no veto power, but is authorized
  service.                              to demand a reconsideration of any
                                        measure by the Chambers.
  May declare war if defensive, and
  make treaties and peace; but for de-  Has power to appoint and remove all
  claring offensive war the consent of  officers of the public service, sub-
  the Bundesrath must be obtained.      ject to the counter-signature of the
                                        Minister whose department is affected
  Has power to grant pardons.           in each case.

                                        May make treaties of peace, alliance
                                        and commerce, but cannot declare war
                                        without the advice of the Chambers.

                                        Has power to grant pardons.

                                        _Succession._--In case of his death,
                                        resignation, or removal, the Council
                                        of Ministers act until the National
                                        Assembly can meet and elect a new
                                        President.

      THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS              THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS

  _Imperial Chancellor_.--He has no     _Powers and Duties._--As a Cabinet,
  counterpart in any other constitu-    the Ministers represent the adminis-
  tional government. He is the Em-      tration in the Chambers; as a Coun-
  peror’s responsible proxy, control-   cil, they exercise a general over-
  ling the politics of the Empire.      sight of the administration of the
                                        laws, with a view of giving unity of
  _Appointment and Tenure of Office._-- direction to the affairs of the
  Appointed by the Emperor. Must be one State. The President may be present
  of Prussia’s seventeen representa-    at all Council meetings.
  tives in the Bundesrath. His term is
  dependent upon the pleasure of the    _Cabinet and Council of Ministers._--
  Emperor.                              Both the Cabinet and the Council con-
                                        sist of the same persons. The Cabinet
  _Responsibility._--Does not consist   is a political body; the Council, an
  in a liability to be forced to re-    administrative body.
  sign, but consists simply in amena-
  bility to the laws.                   _Appointment._--Chosen by the Presi-
                                        dent, generally from among the mem-
                                        bers of the Chambers.

  _Powers and Duties._--Must give an    _Members of the Cabinet._--Membership
  account of the administration to the  may vary somewhat:
  Reichstag, and submits the annual
  budget. He is the center and source   _Premier and Foreign Minister._
  of all the administrative depart-
  ments, dominating the entire imperial _Ministers of State._
  service. He superintends the ad-
  ministration of the laws of the Em-   _Minister of Justice and Vice-
  pire by the States. As chairman of    President of the Council._
  the Bundesrath he is simply a
  Prussian representing the King of     _Minister of War._
  Prussia, as the Emperor has no place
  in the Bundesrath.                    _Minister of Marine._

  The army and navy, however, are not   _Minister of the Interior._
  directly controlled by him, but by
  the General Field-Marshal.            _Minister of Finance._

  The following are the imperial        _Minister of Agriculture._
  authorities or Secretaries of State;
  they do not form a Ministry or        _Minister of Public Works._
  Cabinet, but act independently of
  each other, under the general super-  _Minister of Commerce._
  vision of the Chancellor:
                                        _Minister of Colonies._
  _Chancellor of the Empire._
                                        _Minister of Instruction and
  _Secretary for Foreign Affairs._      Minister of Inventions affecting
                                        National Defense._
  _Imperial Home Office_ and
                                        _Council of State._--Gives advice on
  _Representative of the Chancellor._   all projects of law which the Cham-
                                        bers or the Government wish to submit
  _Imperial Admiralty._                 to it, and on administrative regula-
                                        tions and by-laws. Its decision is
  _Imperial Secretary of Justice._      final in all disputes arising in
                                        matters of administration.
  _Imperial Treasury._
                                        Is presided over by the Minister of
  _Imperial Post-Office._               Justice, and is composed of Council-
                                        lors, Masters of Requests, and
  _Secretary for the Colonies._         Auditors, all appointed by the Presi-
                                        dent of the republic.
  And, in addition, the following
  presidents of imperial bureaus:       _Relations to the Chambers._--Are the
                                        leaders of the Chambers.
  _Railways._
                                        Whether members of the Chambers or
  _Imperial Exchequer._                 not, they have as Ministers the right
                                        to attend all sessions of the Cham-
  _Imperial Bank._                      bers and take a specially privileged
                                        part in the debate.
  _Imperial Debt Commission._
                                        _Tenure of Office._--Dependent upon
  _Administration of Imperial Rail-     the favor of the Chambers; for, if
  ways._                                not sustained, they must all resign.

  _Imperial Court Martial._

  Acting under the direction of the
  Chancellor of the Empire, the Bundes-
  rath represents also a supreme ad-
  ministrative and consultative board,
  and as such has twelve standing com-
  mittees--namely, for army and forti-
  fications; for naval matters; tariff,
  excise and taxes; trade and commerce;
  railways, posts and telegraphs; civil
  and criminal law; financial accounts;
  foreign affairs; for Alsace-Lorraine;
  for the Constitution; for the
  standing orders; and for railway
  tariffs.

  =III. The Government.=                =III. The Chambers.=--Consist of the
                                        Senate and House of Deputies.
  The legislative functions of the
  Empire are vested jointly in the Bun-
  desrath or Federal Council which re-
  presents the several states, and by
  the Reichstag or Diet of the Realm,
  which represents the German nation.
  The Emperor has no veto on laws
  passed by these bodies. All laws for
  the Empire must receive the votes of
  an absolute majority.

  The consent of the Federal Council
  and Reichstag is necessary in regard
  to certain specified treaties. The
  Emperor has the right to summon,
  open, adjourn, and close the Reichs-
  tag. The Federal Council and Reichs-
  tag must be summoned to meet every
  year; the Reichstag cannot be sum-
  moned without the adherence of the
  Federal Council.

  _BUNDESRATH, or Federal Council_, is  _THE SENATE_ is composed of three
  composed of sixty-one votes repre-    hundred members chosen by the Depart-
  senting the individual states. They   ments and Colonies for nine years,
  are appointed by the governments      one-third of the members retiring
  (_i. e._ the Executives) of the       every three years.
  States for each session.
                                        Until 1884 the Senate contained
  The apportionments of representa-     seventy-five life members, the life
  tion in the Bundesrath among the      list having been originally made up
  States of the Empire is as follows:   by election by the National Assembly
  Prussia seventeen votes, Bavaria six, of 1875, and vacancies being filled
  Saxony and Würtemberg four each,      by the Senate itself. In 1884 this
  Baden, Hesse and Alsace-Lorraine each arrangement was abolished, and since
  three, Mecklenburg-Schwerin and       that year vacancies in the life roll
  Brunswick each two, the other States  have been filled by ordinary nine-
  (seventeen) one apiece.               year Senators.

                                        _Qualifications._--Must be a French-
                                        man, and at least forty years of age.

  _Remuneration._--Receive no pay.      _Remuneration._--15,000 francs
                                        ($3,000).

  _Organization_--_Quorum._--The Im-    _Organization_--_Quorum._--A majority
  perial Chancellor or his substitute   of members. Elects its own President
  (at regular meeting). The Imperial    and Vice-Presidents.
  Chancellor presides. Votes with the
  other Prussian representatives, whose
  votes must be undivided; and, in case
  of a tie, Prussia’s vote decides.

  _Committees._--There are three        _Committees._--Each month the members
  standing committees and eight commis- are divided by lots into “Bureaux.”
  sions, two of which are appointed by  These select all the special commit-
  the Emperor, five wholly by the Bun-  tees to which bills are referred,
  desrath, and one in part by the Bun-  except when the House chooses itself
  desrath, being made up principally of to elect a committee.
  members _ex-officio_.

  Each commission consists of represen-
  tatives of at least five States of
  the Empire.

  _Powers and Duties._--May originate   _Powers and Duties._--In concurrence
  bills to be sent to the Reichstag.    with the Chamber of Deputies, makes
  Its consent is indispensable to the   the laws, and has in law-making the
  validity of all legislation. Members  same prerogatives as the Chamber,
  may speak on the floor of the Reichs- except that bills relating to revenue
  tag. Acting under the direction of    originate with the Chamber. It is a
  the Imperial Chancellor, it is the    court of justice for trying the
  supreme administrative board. It is   President of the republic and the
  in some cases the highest court of    Ministers. It may originate, and, in
  the Empire. Is the court of appeal    concurrence with the Senate, pass
  between two or more States of the     resolutions and bills; but bills re-
  Empire.                               lating to finance must be originated
                                        by the Chamber of Deputies. Has power
                                        to bring accusations against the
                                        President of the republic and the
                                        Ministers.

  _REICHSTAG, or Imperial Diet_, is     _THE CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES_ is composed
  composed (in 1917) of three hundred   (in 1917) of five hundred and eighty-
  and ninety-seven members, and         four Deputies, distributed among the
  elected for five years by universal   Departments and certain colonies in
  suffrage.                             the proportion of one Deputy to
                                        seventy thousand inhabitants. The
                                        Deputies are chosen for a term of
                                        four years by universal suffrage, the
                                        Arrondissements serving as electoral
                                        districts.

  _Qualifications._--Must be at least   _Qualifications._--Must be a citizen
  twenty-five years of age, and have    of France, and at least twenty-five
  lived at least one year in one of the years of age.
  German States.

  _Organization_--_Quorum._--A majority _Organization_--_Quorum._--A majority
  of members. Elects its own presiding  of members. Chooses its own Presi-
  officer, who is called the President. dent, Vice-President and other
                                        officers.

  _Remuneration._--3,000 marks ($750)   _Remuneration._--15,000 francs
  per session, with deduction of twenty ($3,000).
  marks ($5.00) for each day’s absence;
  they have free passes over German
  railways during session.

  _Powers and Duties._--Has power to    _Powers and Duties._--May originate,
  originate and, with the advice and    and, in concurrence with the Senate,
  consent of the Bundesrath, to enact   pass resolutions and bills; but bills
  the laws. It also exerts a control-   relating to finance must be origi-
  ling influence through its power to   nated by the Chamber of Deputies. Has
  give or withhold its sanction to      power to bring accusations against
  certain ordinances to whose validity  the President of the republic and
  the Constitution makes its concur-    Ministers.
  rence necessary, through its right to
  inquire into the conduct of affairs;
  and in many other ways not suscepti-
  ble of enumeration.

  _Committees._--There are no standing  _Committees._--Each month the members
  committees, but select committees are are divided by lot into eleven
  occasionally appointed by election    “Bureaux,” which select all the
  from the seven “Sections” into which  special committees to which bills are
  the members are divided by lot for    referred, except when the Chamber
  committee work.                       chooses to appoint a committee di-
                                        rectly.

  =IV. Judicial Department.=            =IV. Judicial Department.=

  The laws of the Empire take prece-    The judicial system is under direct
  dence of the Federated States within  control of the government. All Judges
  the scope of the Constitution of the  are nominated by the President of the
  Empire; they are compulsory on all    republic. They can be removed only by
  Governments of the Empire.            a decision of the Court of Cassation
                                        constituted as the _Conseil
  A uniform system of law courts exists Supérieur_ of the magistracy.
  throughout the Empire, though, with
  the exception of the Reichsgericht,          THE COURT OF CASSATION.
  all courts are directly subject to
  the Government of the special State   _The Court of Cassation_, which sits
  in which they exercise jurisdiction,  at Paris, is the highest court for all
  and not to the Imperial Government.   criminal cases tried by jury, so far
  The appointment of the judges is also as regards matters of law.
  a State and not an Imperial function.
  The Empire enjoys uniform codes of    _Courts of Appeal._--The highest
  commercial and criminal law.          courts are the twenty-six Courts of
                                        Appeal, composed each of one presi-
        IMPERIAL SUPREME COURT.         dent and a variable number of mem-
                                        bers, for all criminal cases which
  _Reichsgericht_ (Imperial Supreme     have been tried without a jury.
  Court), to which there is a right of
  appeal from all inferior courts, sits _Court of Assizes._--In all cases of
  at Leipzig, and consists of one       a _délit_ or a crime the preliminary
  hundred judges, appointed by the      inquiry is made in secrecy by an
  Kaiser on the recommendation of the   examining magistrate (_juge d’in-
  Bundesrath.                           struction_), who may either dismiss
                                        the case or send it for trial before
  _The Oberlandesgerichte_ (Supreme     a court where a public prosecutor
  Court), which are the first courts of (procureur) endeavors to prove the
  the second instance, have original    charge. The Court of Assizes is
  jurisdiction in serious offenses, and assisted by twelve jurors, who decide
  are presided over by seven judges.    by simple majority on the fact with
                                        respect to offenses amounting to
  _The Landgerichte_ (County Courts)    crimes.
  have a fairly extensive jurisdiction
  in civil and criminal cases and in
  divorce proceedings. There are five
  judges in the criminal chamber of a
  Landgericht, four votes being re-
  quired to make a conviction valid.
  Three judges from such a court pre-
  side at intervals over jury courts
  (Schwurgerichte), and juries do not,
  therefore, form a permanent part of
  the system.

  Not the least important work of the
  Landgerichte is to revise the deci-
  sions of the Amtsgerichte, which are
  the lowest courts of the first in-
  stance, being controlled by single
  judges, who are competent to hear
  only petty civil and criminal cases.

  _The Amtsgerichte_ (Police or Dis-    _Justices of the Peace_ (_juges de
  trict Courts) are the lowest courts,  paix_) are the courts of lowest
  each with a single judge competent to jurisdiction in France. They try
  try petty civil and criminal cases,   small civil cases and act also as
  divorce cases, etc.                   judges of Police Courts, where all
                                        petty offenses (_contraventions_) are
                                        disposed of. The Correctional Courts
                                        pronounce upon all graver offenses
                                        (_délits_), including cases involving
                                        imprisonment up to five years. They
                                        have no jury, and consist of three
                                        judges belonging to the civil tri-
                                        bunals of first instance.

                                        For commercial cases there are, in
                                        two hundred and twenty-six towns,
                                        Tribunals of Commerce and Councils of
                                        Experts (prud’hommes). In the towns
                                        are police courts.


=IMPORTANT BIOGRAPHICAL FACTS RELATING TO THE PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED
STATES=

                     =TABLE I. BIRTH AND PARENTAGE=

  ===============================+=======================================
       =NAMES OF PRESIDENTS=     |                 =BORN=
                                 +----------------------+----------------
                                 |        =Date=        |  =Birthplace=
  -------------------------------+----------------------+----------------
   1. =George Washington=        |Fri.,   Feb.  22, 1732|Bridges Creek,
                                 |                      |near Fredericks-
                                 |                      |burg, Va.
   2. =John Adams=               |Wed.,   Oct.  30, 1735|Quincy, Mass.
   3. =Thomas Jefferson=         |Tues.,  April 13, 1743|Shadwell, Va.
   4. =James Madison=            |Fri.,   Mar.  16, 1751|Port Conway, Va.
   5. =James Monroe=             |Fri.,   April 28, 1758|Westmoreland
                                 |                      |Co., Va.
   6. =John Quincy Adams=        |Sat.,   July  11, 1767|Quincy, Mass.
   7. =Andrew Jackson=           |Sun.,   Mar.  15, 1767|Union County,
                                 |                      |N. C.
   8. =Martin Van Buren=         |Thurs., Dec.   5, 1782|Kinderhook,
                                 |                      |N. Y.
   9. =William Henry Harrison=   |Tues.,  Feb.   9, 1773|Berkeley, Va.
  10. =John Tyler=               |Mon.,   Mar.  29, 1790|Charles City
                                 |                      |Co., Va.
  11. =James Knox Polk=          |Mon.,   Nov.   2, 1795|Mecklenburg Co.,
                                 |                      |N. C.
  12. =Zachary Taylor=           |Tues.,  Nov.  24, 1784|Orange Co., Va.
  13. =Millard Fillmore=         |Tues.,  Jan.   7, 1800|Summerhill,
                                 |                      |N. Y.
  14. =Franklin Pierce=          |Fri.,   Nov.  23, 1804|Hillsborough,
                                 |                      |N. H.
  15. =James Buchanan=           |Sat.,   April 23, 1791|Cove Gap, Pa.
  16. =Abraham Lincoln=          |Sun.,   Feb.  12, 1809|Nolin Creek, Ky.
  17. =Andrew Johnson=           |Thurs., Dec.  29, 1808|Raleigh, N. C.
  18. =Ulysses Simpson Grant=    |Sat.,   April 27, 1822|Point Pleasant,
                                 |                      |Ohio
  19. =Rutherford Birchard Hayes=|Fri.,   Oct.   4, 1822|Delaware, Ohio
  20. =James Abram Garfield=     |Sat.,   Nov.  19, 1831|Orange Township,
                                 |                      |Ohio
  21. =Chester Alan Arthur=      |Tues.,  Oct.   5, 1830|Fairfield, Vt.
  22. =Grover Cleveland=         |Sat.,   Mar.  18, 1837|Caldwell, N. J.
  23. =Benjamin Harrison=        |Tues.,  Aug.  20, 1833|North Bend, Ohio
  24. =Grover Cleveland=         |Sat.,   Mar.  18, 1837|Caldwell, N. J.
  25. =William McKinley=         |Sun,    Jan.  29, 1843|Niles, Ohio
  26. =Theodore Roosevelt=       |Wed.,   Oct.  27, 1858|28 East 20th
                                 |                      |St., New York
                                 |                      |City
  27. =William Howard Taft=      |Tues.,  Sept. 15, 1857|Cincinnati, Ohio
  28. =Woodrow Wilson=           |Sun.,   Dec.  28, 1856|Staunton, Va.
  -------------------------------+----------------------+----------------

  ===============================+=====================+=======+=========
       =NAMES OF PRESIDENTS=     |       =PARENTS=     |=Pater-|=Father’s
  -------------------------------+----------+----------+nal An-|Business=
                                 | =Father= | =Mother= |cestry=|
  -------------------------------+----------+----------+-------+---------
   1. =George Washington=        |Augustine |Mary Ball |English|Planter
   2. =John Adams=               |John      |Susanna   |English|Farmer
                                 |          |Boylston  |       |
   3. =Thomas Jefferson=         |Peter     |Jane      |Welsh  |Planter
                                 |          |Randolph  |       |
   4. =James Madison=            |James     |Nellie    |English|Planter
                                 |          |Conway    |       |
   5. =James Monroe=             |Spence    |Eliza     |Scotch |Planter
                                 |          |Jones     |       |
   6. =John Quincy Adams=        |John      |Abigail   |English|Lawyer
                                 |          |          |       |
   7. =Andrew Jackson=           |Andrew    |Elizabeth |Scotch-|Farmer
                                 |          |Hutchinson|Irish  |
   8. =Martin Van Buren=         |Abraham   |Maria Hoes|Dutch  |Farmer
   9. =William Henry Harrison=   |Benjamin  |Elizabeth |English|Statesman
                                 |          |Bassett   |       |
  10. =John Tyler=               |John      |Mary      |English|Jurist
                                 |          |Armistead |       |
  11. =James Knox Polk=          |Samuel    |Jane Knox |...    |Farmer
  12. =Zachary Taylor=           |Richard   |Sarah     |Scotch-|...
                                 |          |Strother  |Irish  |
  13. =Millard Fillmore=         |Nathaniel |Phebe     |English|Farmer
                                 |          |Millard   |       |
  14. =Franklin Pierce=          |Benjamin  |Anna      |English|Farmer
                                 |          |Kendrick  |       |
  15. =James Buchanan=           |James     |Elizabeth |Scotch-|Merchant
                                 |          |Speer     |Irish  |
  16. =Abraham Lincoln=          |Thomas    |Nancy     |English|Farmer
                                 |          |Hanks     |       |
  17. =Andrew Johnson=           |Jacob     |Mary      |English|Sexton
                                 |          |McDonough |       |
  18. =Ulysses Simpson Grant=    |Jesse Root|Harriet   |Scotch |Farmer
                                 |          |Simpson   |       |
  19. =Rutherford Birchard Hayes=|Rutherford|Sophia    |Scotch |Merchant
                                 |          |Birchard  |       |
  20. =James Abram Garfield=     |Abram     |Eliza     |English|Farmer
                                 |          |Ballou    |       |
  21. =Chester Alan Arthur=      |William   |Malvina   |Scotch-|Clergyman
                                 |          |Stone     |Irish  |
  22. =Grover Cleveland=         |Richard   |Anne      |English|Clergyman
                                 |Falley    |Neale     |       |
  23. =Benjamin Harrison=        |John Scott|Elizabeth |English|Farmer
                                 |          |Findlay   |       |
                                 |          |Irwin     |       |
  24. =Grover Cleveland=         |Richard   |Anne      |English|Clergyman
                                 |Falley    |Neale     |       |
  25. =William McKinley=         |William   |Nancy C.  |Scotch-|Iron Mnfr.
                                 |          |Allison   |Irish  |
  26. =Theodore Roosevelt=       |Theodore  |Martha    |Dutch  |Merchant
                                 |          |Bullock   |       |
  27. =William Howard Taft=      |Alphonso  |Louise M. |English|Lawyer
                                 |          |Torrey    |       |
  28. =Woodrow Wilson=           |Jos.      |Jessie    |Scotch-|Clergyman
                                 |Ruggles   |Woodrow   |Irish  |
  -------------------------------+----------+----------+-------+---------

          =TABLE II. EDUCATION, PROFESSION, RELIGION AND POLITICS=

  ========================+================+========+=======+=========+======
    =NAMES OF PRESIDENTS= |  =Educational  | =Early | =Pro- |=Reli-   |=Poli-
                          |   Advantages=  |  Voca- |  fes- |gious    | tics=
                          |                |  tion= | sion= |Connec-  |
                          |                |        |       |tion=    |
  ------------------------+----------------+--------+-------+---------+------
   1. =George Washington= |Common School   |Surveyor|Planter|Episcopa-|Feder-
                          |                |        |       |lian     |alist
   2. =John Adams=        |Harvard         |Teacher |Lawyer |Unitarian|Feder-
                          |College, 1755   |        |       |         |alist
   3. =Thomas Jefferson=  |College of      |Lawyer  |Lawyer |Liberal  |Repub-
                          |William and     |        |       |         |lican
                          |Mary, 1762      |        |       |         |[12]
   4. =James Madison=     |Princeton       |Lawyer  |Lawyer |Episcopa-|Repub-
                          |College, 1771   |        |       |lian     |lican
   5. =James Monroe=      |Entered College,|Lawyer  |Politi-|Episcopa-|Repub-
                          |William and Mary|        |cian   |lian     |lican
   6. =John Quincy Adams= |Harvard College,|Lawyer  |Lawyer |Unitarian|Repub-
                          |1787            |        |       |         |lican
   7. =Andrew Jackson=    |Self Taught     |Lawyer  |Lawyer |Presbyte-|Demo-
                          |                |        |       |rian     |crat
   8. =Martin Van Buren=  |Academy         |Lawyer  |Lawyer |Reformed |Demo-
                          |                |        |       |Dutch    |crat
   9. =William Henry      |Entered Hampden-|Medicine|Army   |Episcopa-|Whig
      Harrison=           |Sidney College  |        |       |lian     |
  10. =John Tyler=        |College, William|Lawyer  |Lawyer |Episcopa-|Demo-
                          |and Mary, 1806  |        |       |lian     |crat
  11. =James Knox Polk=   |University of   |Lawyer  |Lawyer |Presbyte-|Demo-
                          |North Carolina  |        |       |rian     |crat
  12. =Zachary Taylor=    |Common School   |Soldier |Army   |Episcopa-|Whig
                          |                |        |       |lian     |
  13. =Millard Fillmore=  |Public School   |Tailor  |Lawyer |Unitarian|Whig
  14. =Franklin Pierce=   |Bowdoin College,|Lawyer  |Lawyer |Episcopa-|Demo-
                          |1824            |        |       |lian     |crat
  15. =James Buchanan=    |Dickinson       |Lawyer  |Lawyer |Presbyte-|Demo-
                          |College, 1809   |        |       |rian     |crat
  16. =Abraham Lincoln=   |Self Taught     |Farmer  |Lawyer |Liberal  |Repub-
                          |                |        |       |         |lican
  17. =Andrew Johnson=    |Self Taught     |Tailor  |Politi-|Liberal  |Repub-
                          |                |        |cian   |         |lican
  18. =Ulysses Simpson    |West Point Mili-|Tanner  |Army   |Methodist|Repub-
      Grant=              |tary Academy,   |        |       |         |lican
                          |1843            |        |       |         |
  19. =Rutherford Birchard|Kenyon College, |Lawyer  |Lawyer |Methodist|Repub-
      Hayes=              |Ohio, 1842      |        |       |         |lican
  20. =James Abram        |Williams        |Teacher |Lawyer |Disciples|Repub-
      Garfield=           |College, 1856   |        |       |         |lican
  21. =Chester Alan       |Union College,  |Teacher |Lawyer |Episcopa-|Repub-
      Arthur=             |1848            |        |       |lian     |lican
  22. =Grover Cleveland=  |Common School   |Teacher |Lawyer |Presbyte-|Demo-
                          |                |        |       |rian     |crat
  23. =Benjamin Harrison= |Miami Universi- |Lawyer  |Lawyer |Presbyte-|Repub-
                          |ty, Ohio, 1851  |        |       |rian     |lican
  24. =Grover Cleveland=  |Common School   |Teacher |Lawyer |Presbyte-|Demo-
                          |                |        |       |rian     |crat
  25. =William McKinley=  |Entered Alleghe-|Lawyer  |Lawyer |Methodist|Repub-
                          |ny College      |        |       |         |lican
  26. =Theodore Roosevelt=|Harvard, 1880   |Publi-  |Publi- |Reformed |Repub-
                          |                |cist    |cist   |Dutch    |lican
  27. =William Howard     |Yale, 1878      |Lawyer  |Lawyer |Unitarian|Repub-
      Taft=               |                |        |       |         |lican
  28. =Woodrow Wilson=    |Princeton, 1879 |Lawyer  |Educa- |Presbyte-|Demo-
                          |                |        |tor    |rian     |crat
  ------------------------+----------------+--------+-------+---------+------

  [12] The _first_ Republican party, founded by Jefferson, later
  developed into the Democratic party of today.

      =TABLE III. MARRIAGE, CHILDREN AND ELECTION TO THE PRESIDENCY=

  =======+=============+=====+===========================+==============
  =Terms=|   =Name=    |=Mar-|       =Wife’s Name=       |  =Children=
         |             |ried=|                           +------+-------
         |             |     |                           |=Boys=|=Girls=
  -------+-------------+-----+---------------------------+------+-------
    1-2  |=Washington= |1759 |Martha (Dandridge) Custis  |   0  |   0
         |             |     |(1732-1802), widow with two|      |
         |             |     |children                   |      |
     3   |=Adams=      |1764 |Abigail Smith (1744-1818)  |   3  |   2
    4-5  |=Jefferson=  |1772 |Martha (Wayles) Skelton    |   0  |   6
         |             |     |(1748-1782), widow of      |      |
         |             |     |Bathurst Skelton           |      |
    6-7  |=Madison=    |1794 |Dolly (Payne) Todd (1772-  |   0  |   0
         |             |     |1849), widow               |      |
    8-9  |=Monroe=     |1786 |Elisa Kortwright (1768-    |   0  |   2
         |             |     |1830)                      |      |
    10   |=Adams, J.Q.=|1797 |Louisa Catherine Johnson   |   3  |   1
         |             |     |(1775-1852)                |      |
   11-12 |=Jackson=    |1791 |Rachel (Donelson) Robards  |   3  |   0
         |             |     |(1767-1828), divorced wife |      |
         |             |     |of Captain Robards         |      |
    13   |=Van Buren=  |1807 |Hannah Hoes (1783-1819)    |   4  |   0
    14   |=Harrison=   |1795 |Anna Symmes (1775-1864)    |   6  |   4
         |=Tyler=      |1813 |(1) To Letitia Christian   |   3  |   4
         |             |     |(1790-1842)                |      |
         |             |1844 |(2) To Julia Gardiner      |   4  |   2
         |             |     |(1820-1889)                |      |
    15   |=Polk=       |1824 |Sarah Childress (1803-1891)|   0  |   0
    16   |=Taylor=     |1810 |Margaret Smith (1788-1852) |   1  |   3
         |=Fillmore=   |1826 |(1) Abigail Powers (1798-  |   1  |   1
         |             |     |1853)                      |      |
         |             |1858 |(2) Caroline (Carmichael)  |   0  |   0
         |             |     |McIntosh (1813-1881), a    |      |
         |             |     |widow                      |      |
    17   |=Pierce=     |1834 |Jane Means Appleton (1806- |   3  |   0
         |             |     |1863)                      |      |
    18   |=Buchanan=   | ... |Unmarried                  | ...  | ...
   19-20 |=Lincoln=    |1842 |Mary Todd (1818-1882)      |   4  |   0
    20   |=Johnson=    |1827 |Eliza McCardle (1810-1876) |   3  |   2
   21-22 |=Grant=      |1848 |Julia Dent (1826-1902)     |   3  |   1
    23   |=Hayes=      |1852 |Lucy Ware Webb (1831-1889) |   7  |   1
    24   |=Garfield=   |1858 |Lucretia Rudolph (1832-    |   4  |   1
         |             |     |----)                      |      |
         |=Arthur=     |1859 |Ellen Lewis Herndon (1837- |   1  |   1
         |             |     |1880)                      |      |
    25   |=Cleveland=  |1886 |Frances Folsom (1864-      |   2  |   3
         |             |     |----)                      |      |
    26   |=Harrison=   |1853 |(1) Caroline Scott (1832-  |   1  |   1
         |             |     |1892)                      |      |
         |             |1896 |(2) Mary Scott (Lord)      |   0  |   1
         |             |     |Dimmick (1858- ----)       |      |
    27   |=Cleveland=  | ... |Frances Folsom (1864-      |  ... | ...
         |             |     |----)                      |      |
   28-29 |=McKinley=   |1871 |Ida Saxton (1844-1907)     |   0  |   2
   29-30 |=Roosevelt=  |1883 |(1) Alice Lee (1861-1884)  |   0  |   1
         |             |1886 |(2) Edith Kermit Carow     |   4  |   1
         |             |     |(1861- ----)               |      |
    31   |=Taft=       |1886 |Helen Herron (1861- ----)  |   2  |   1
    32   |=Wilson=     |1885 |(1) Helen Louise Axsen     |   0  |   3
         |             |     |(1860-1914)                |      |
         |             |1915 |(2) Edith Bolling Galt     | ...  | ...
         |             |     |(1872- ----)               |      |
  -------+-------------+-----+---------------------------+------+-------

          =TABLE IV. TERM OF OFFICE, DEATH AND PLACE OF BURIAL=

  =======+=============+=========+===============+=========+===============
  =Terms=|   =Name=    | =Elected|=Residence When|=Age When|  =Term of
         |             |  Presi- |    Elected=   | Inaugu- |   Office=
         |             |  dent=  |               |  rated= |
  -------+-------------+---------+---------------+---------+---------------
    1-2  |=Washington= |   1789  |Mt. Vernon, Va.|    57   |April 30, 1789-
         |             |         |               |         |Mar.   4, 1797
     3   |=Adams=      |   1796  |Quincy, Mass.  |    62   |Mar.   4, 1797-
         |             |         |               |         |Mar.   4, 1801
    4-5  |=Jefferson=  |   1800  |Monticello, Va.|    58   |Mar.   4, 1801-
         |             |         |               |         |Mar.   4, 1809
    6-7  |=Madison=    |   1808  |Montpelier, Va.|    58   |Mar.   4, 1809-
         |             |         |               |         |Mar.   4, 1817
    8-9  |=Monroe=     |   1816  |Oakhill, Va.   |    59   |Mar.   4, 1817-
         |             |         |               |         |Mar.   4, 1825
    10   |=Adams, J.Q.=|   1824  |Quincy, Mass.  |    58   |Mar.   4, 1825-
         |             |         |               |         |Mar.   4, 1829
   11-12 |=Jackson=    |   1828  |Hermitage,     |    62   |Mar.   4, 1829-
         |             |         |Tenn.          |         |Mar.   4, 1837
    13   |=Van Buren=  |   1836  |Kinderhook,    |    55   |Mar.   4, 1837-
         |             |         |N. Y.          |         |Mar.   4, 1841
    14   |=Harrison=   |   1840  |North Bend,    |    68   |Mar.   4, 1841-
         |             |         |Ohio           |         |April  4, 1841
         |=Tyler=      |    ...  |Williamsburg,  |    51   |April  6, 1841-
         |             |         |Va.            |         |Mar.   4, 1845
    15   |=Polk=       |   1844  |Nashville,     |    50   |Mar.   4, 1845-
         |             |         |Tenn.          |         |Mar.   4, 1849
    16   |=Taylor=     |   1848  |Baton Rouge,   |    65   |Mar.   4, 1849-
         |             |         | La.           |         |July  10, 1850
         |=Fillmore=   |    ...  |Buffalo, N. Y. |    50   |July  10, 1850-
         |             |         |               |         |Mar.   4, 1853
    17   |=Pierce=     |   1852  |Concord, N. H. |    49   |Mar.   4, 1853-
         |             |         |               |         |Mar.   4, 1857
    18   |=Buchanan=   |   1856  |Wheatland, Pa. |    66   |Mar.   4, 1857-
         |             |         |               |         |Mar.   4, 1861
   19-20 |=Lincoln=    |   1860  |Springfield,   |    52   |Mar.   4, 1861-
         |             |         |Ill.           |         |April 15, 1865
    20   |=Johnson=    |    ...  |Greeneville,   |    57   |April 15, 1865-
         |             |         |Tenn.          |         |Mar.   4, 1869
   21-22 |=Grant=      |   1868  |Washington,    |    47   |Mar.   4, 1869-
         |             |         |D. C.          |         |Mar.   4, 1877
    23   |=Hayes=      |   1876  |Fremont, Ohio  |    54   |Mar.   4, 1877-
         |             |         |               |         |Mar.   4, 1881
    24   |=Garfield=   |   1880  |Mentor, Ohio   |    49   |Mar.   4, 1881-
         |             |         |               |         |Sept. 19, 1881
         |=Arthur=     |    ...  |New York City  |    51   |Sept. 20, 1881-
         |             |         |               |         |Mar.   4, 1885
    25   |=Cleveland=  |   1884  |Buffalo, N. Y. |    48   |Mar.   4, 1885-
         |             |         |               |         |Mar.   4, 1889
    26   |=Harrison=   |   1888  |Indianapolis,  |    55   |Mar.   4, 1889-
         |             |         |Ind.           |         |Mar.   4, 1893
    27   |=Cleveland=  |   1892  |Buffalo, N. Y. |    56   |Mar.   4, 1893-
         |             |         |               |         |Mar.   4, 1897
   28-29 |=McKinley=   |   1896  |Canton, Ohio   |    54   |Mar.   4, 1897-
         |             |         |               |         |Sept. 14, 1901
   29-30 |=Roosevelt=  |   1904  |Oyster Bay,    |    43   |Sept. 14, 1901-
         |             |         |N. Y.          |         |Mar.   4, 1909
    31   |=Taft=       |   1908  |Cincinnati,    |    51   |Mar.   4, 1909-
         |             |         |Ohio           |         |Mar.   4, 1913
    32   |=Wilson=     |   1912  |Princeton,     |    56   |Mar.   4, 1913-
         |             |         |N. J.          |         |...
  -------+-------------+---------+---------------+---------+---------------

  =======+=============+======+=========+======+===============+============
  =Terms=|    =Name=   |=Died=|=Cause of| =Age |   =Place of   | =Place of
         |             |      |  Death= |  at  |     Death=    |  Burial=
         |             |      |         |Death=|               |
  -------+-------------+------+---------+------+---------------+------------
    1-2  |=Washington= | 1799 |Pneumonia|  67  |Mt. Vernon, Va.|Mt. Vernon,
         |             |      |         |      |               |Va.
     3   |=Adams=      | 1826 |Natural  |  90  |Quincy, Mass.  |Unitarian
         |             |      |decline  |      |               |ch., Quincy,
         |             |      |         |      |               |Mass.
    4-5  |=Jefferson=  | 1826 |Chronic  |  83  |Monticello, Va.|Monticello,
         |             |      |diarrhœa |      |               |Albemarle
         |             |      |         |      |               |Co., Va.
    6-7  |=Madison=    | 1836 |Natural  |  85  |Montpelier, Va.|Montpelier,
         |             |      |decline  |      |               |Hanover Co.,
         |             |      |         |      |               |Va.
    8-9  |=Monroe=     | 1831 |Natural  |  73  |New York City  |Hollywood,
         |             |      |decline  |      |               |Richmond,
         |             |      |         |      |               |Va.
    10   |=Adams, J.Q.=| 1848 |Paralysis|  80  |Washington,    |Unitarian,
         |             |      |         |      |D. C.          |Quincy,
         |             |      |         |      |               |Mass.
   11-12 |=Jackson=    |  1845|Consump- |  78  |Hermitage, near|Hermitage,
         |             |      |tion     |      |Nashville,     |near Nash-
         |             |      |         |      |Tenn.          |ville, Tenn.
    13   |=Van Buren=  | 1862 |Asthma   |  79  |Kinderhook,    |Kinderhook,
         |             |      |         |      |N. Y.          |N. Y.
    14   |=Harrison=   | 1841 |Pleurisy |  68  |White House,   |North Bend,
         |             |      |fever    |      |Washington,    |Ohio
         |             |      |         |      |D. C.          |
         |=Tyler=      | 1862 |Bilious  |  71  |Ballard House, |Hollywood,
         |             |      |attacks  |      |Richmond, Va.  |Richmond,
         |             |      |with     |      |               |Va.
         |             |      |bronchi- |      |               |
         |             |      |tis      |      |               |
    15   |=Polk=       |  ... |Chronic  |  53  |Nashville,     |Nashville,
         |             |      |diarrhœa |      |Tenn.          |Tenn.
    16   |=Taylor=     | 1850 |Cholera  |  65  |White House,   |Springfield,
         |             |      |morbus   |      |Washington,    |Ky.
         |             |      |and      |      |D. C.          |
         |             |      |typhoid  |      |               |
         |             |      |fever    |      |               |
         |=Fillmore=   | 1874 |Paralysis|  74  |Buffalo, N. Y. |Forest Lawn,
         |             |      |         |      |               |Buffalo,
         |             |      |         |      |               |N. Y.
    17   |=Pierce=     | 1869 |Dropsy   |  64  |Concord, N. H. |Concord,
         |             |      |and in-  |      |               |N. H.
         |             |      |flamma-  |      |               |
         |             |      |tion of  |      |               |
         |             |      |stomach  |      |               |
    18   |=Buchanan=   | 1868 |Rheumatic|  77  |Lancaster, Pa. |Woodward
         |             |      |gout     |      |               |Hill, Lan-
         |             |      |         |      |               |caster, Pa.
   19-20 |=Lincoln=    | 1865 |Assassi- |  56  |Washington,    |Oak Ridge,
         |             |      |nated by |      |D. C.          |Springfield,
         |             |      |Booth    |      |               |Ill.
    20   |=Johnson=    | 1875 |Paralysis|  66  |Greeneville,   |Greeneville,
         |             |      |         |      |Tenn.          |Tenn.
   21-22 |=Grant=      | 1885 |Cancer of|  63  |Mt. McGregor,  |Riverside,
         |             |      |the      |      |N. Y.          |New York
         |             |      |tongue   |      |               |City
    23   |=Hayes=      | 1893 |Neuralgia|  70  |Fremont, Ohio  |Fremont,
         |             |      |of heart |      |               |Ohio
    24   |=Garfield=   | 1881 |Assassi- |  49  |Elberon, Long  |Lake View
         |             |      |nated by |      |Branch, N. J.  |Cemetery,
         |             |      |Guiteau  |      |               |Cleveland,
         |             |      |         |      |               |Ohio
         |=Arthur=     | 1886 |Bright’s |  56  |New York, N. Y.|Rural
         |             |      |disease  |      |               |Cemetery,
         |             |      |         |      |               |Albany,
         |             |      |         |      |               |N. Y.
    25   |=Cleveland=  |  ... |...      | ...  |...            |...
    26   |=Harrison=   | 1901 |Pneumonia|  67  |Indianapolis,  |Crown Hill
         |             |      |         |      |Ind.           |Cemetery,
         |             |      |         |      |               |Indiana-
         |             |      |         |      |               |polis, Ind.
    27   |=Cleveland=  | 1908 |Heart    |  71  |Princeton,     |Princeton,
         |             |      |failure  |      |N. J.          |N. J.
   28-29 |=McKinley=   | 1901 |Assassi- |  58  |Buffalo, N. Y. |Cemetery,
         |             |      |nated by |      |               |Canton, Ohio
         |             |      |Czolgosz |      |               |
   29-30 |=Roosevelt=  |  ... |...      | ...  |...            |...
    31   |=Taft=       |  ... |...      | ...  |...            |...
    32   |=Wilson=     |  ... |...      | ...  |...            |...
  -------+-------------+------+---------+------+---------------+------------

             =TABLE V. LATER CAREER, WRITINGS AND SOBRIQUETS=

  =============+========================================================
      =Name=   |        =Career After Leaving the Presidency=
  -------------+--------------------------------------------------------
  =Washington= |Agricultural pursuits; appointed commander-in-chief
               |(1798) because of threatened war with France.
  =Adams=      |Member of the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention of
               |1820.
  =Jefferson=  |Retired to his plantation at Monticello, Va.; devoted
               |much time to the University of Virginia.
  =Madison=    |Retired to Montpelier, Va.; contributed large service to
               |University of Virginia; served in the Virginia Constitu-
               |tional Convention, 1829.
  =Monroe=     |Retired to private life in Virginia; served as a member
               |of the Virginia Constitutional Convention in 1830.
  =Adams, J.Q.=|Was returned to Washington as a member of the House of
               |Representatives; served from 1830 to his death.
  =Jackson=    |Retired to the “Hermitage,” near Nashville, Tenn.;
               |always took a deep interest in public affairs.
  =Van Buren=  |Was renominated in 1840, 1844, and 1848 for the
               |presidency.
  =Harrison=   |Died in office.
  =Tyler=      |Retired to his estate in Virginia; presided at the peace
               |convention held in Washington in 1861.
  =Polk=       |Died in office.
  =Taylor=     |...
  =Fillmore=   |Was candidate for president in 1852 and in 1856; spent
               |his remaining years at Buffalo, N. Y.
  =Pierce=     |Traveled in Europe; retired to Concord, N. H.
  =Buchanan=   |Retired to Lancaster, Pa.; devoted himself to writing
               |defense of his administration.
  =Lincoln=    |Died in office.
  =Johnson=    |Retired to home in Greeneville, Tenn.; chosen United
               |States Senator in 1875.
  =Grant=      |Made tour of the world and retired to private life in
               |New York.
  =Hayes=      |Was president of the Board of Freedmen, and president of
               |the National Prison association.
  =Garfield=   |Died in office.
  =Arthur=     |Died the year following his retirement.
  =Cleveland=  |Retired to New York to practice law; at the end of
               |second term retired to Princeton, N. J.
  =Harrison=   |Professor of International law at Leland Stanford Uni-
               |versity, California; afterward practiced law.
  =McKinley=   |Died in office.
  =Roosevelt=  |In March, 1909, headed a scientific expedition to
               |Africa, organized in the interest of the Smithsonian
               |Institution; resumed literary work and politics.
  =Taft=       |Kent Professor of Law at Yale University.
  =Wilson=     |...
  -------------+--------------------------------------------------------

  =============+========================================================
      =Name=   |               =Writings of the Presidents=
  -------------+--------------------------------------------------------
  =Washington= |_Maxims_; _Transcripts of Revolutionary Correspondence_.
  =Adams=      |_Essay on Canon and Feudal Laws_; _Defense of the Ameri-
               |can Constitution_.
  =Jefferson=  |_A Summary View of the Rights of America_; _The Declara-
               |tion of Independence_; _Act for Freedom of Religion_.
  =Madison=    |_Reports of Debates During the Congress, of the Con-
               |federation and Federal Congress_; _Essays_.
  =Monroe=     |_A View of the Conduct of the Executive_; _The People_;
               |_The Sovereign_.
  =Adams, J.Q.=|_Poems of Religion and Society_; _Lectures on Rhetoric
               |and Oratory_; _Criticisms of Paine’s “Rights of Man;”_
               |_Defense of Washington’s Policy of Neutrality_
  =Jackson=    |...
  =Van Buren=  |_Inquiry Into the Origin and Causes of Political Parties
               |in the United States_.
  =Harrison=   |_A Discourse on the Aborigines of the Valley of the
               |Ohio_.
  =Tyler=      |...
  =Polk=       |...
  =Taylor=     |...
  =Fillmore=   |...
  =Pierce=     |...
  =Buchanan=   |_Résumé of My Administration_.
  =Lincoln=    |_Orations_.
  =Johnson=    |_Speeches_.
  =Grant=      |_Shiloh_; _Vicksburg_; _Chattanooga_; _The Wilderness_;
               |_The Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant_.
  =Hayes=      |...
  =Garfield=   |_Discovery and Ownership of the Northwestern Territory_;
               |_Garfield’s Words_.
  =Arthur=     |...
  =Cleveland=  |_Writings and Speeches_.
  =Harrison=   |_Speeches_; _This Country of Ours_; _Views of an Ex-
               |President_.
  =McKinley=   |_Speeches_.
  =Roosevelt=  |_The Naval War of 1812_; _Essays on Practical Politics_;
               |_The Winning of the West_; _Hero Tales From American
               |History_; _American Ideals_; _Life of Oliver Cromwell_;
               |_African Game Trails_.
  =Taft=       |...
  =Wilson=     |_Congressional Government_; _The State_; _An Old Master,
               |and Other Political Essays_; _Mere Literature and Other
               |Essays_; _George Washington_; _A History of the American
               |People_.
  -------------+--------------------------------------------------------

  =============+========================================================
      =Name=   |=Presidential Sobriquets=
  -------------+--------------------------------------------------------
  =Washington= |“Father of his Country;” “American Fabius.”
  =Adams=      |“Colossus of Independence;” “Son of Liberty.”
  =Jefferson=  |“Sage of Monticello,” “Long Tom.”
  =Madison=    |“Father of the Constitution.”
  =Monroe=     |“Last Cocked Hat.”
  =Adams, J.Q.=|“Old Man Eloquent.”
  =Jackson=    |“Old Hickory;” “Cæsar of the White House.”
  =Van Buren=  |“Little Magician;” “Wizard of Kinderhook.”
  =Harrison=   |“Tippecanoe.”
  =Tyler=      |“Young Hickory.”
  =Polk=       |Also “Young Hickory.”
  =Taylor=     |“Rough and Ready;” “Old Buena Vista.”
  =Fillmore=   |“The American Louis Philippe.”
  =Pierce=     |“Purse.”
  =Buchanan=   |“Old Public Functionary;” “Bachelor President.”
  =Lincoln=    |“Honest Old Abe;” “Rail-splitter;” “Great Emancipator.”
  =Johnson=    |“Sir Veto.”
  =Grant=      |“Unconditional Surrender;” “Old Three Stars.”
  =Hayes=      |“President de Facto.”
  =Garfield=   |“The Martyr President;” “The Dark Horse.”
  =Arthur=     |“Our Chet;” “America’s First Gentleman.”
  =Cleveland=  |“Man of Destiny;” “The Claimant.”
  =Harrison=   |“Son of His Grandfather;” “Hoosier President.”
  =McKinley=   |“Prosperity’s Advance Agent;” “Bonaparte of Politics.”
  =Roosevelt=  |“Teddy;” “The Rough Rider;” “T. R.;” “Our Strenuous
               |President.”
  =Taft=       |“The Globe Trotter;” “The Judicial President.”
  =Wilson=     |“The Scholar in Politics.”
  -------------+--------------------------------------------------------


=CANADA.=--What is known as the Dominion of Canada is a confederation of
the colonies of British North America, constituted in 1867 by the
British North America Act of that year. Upper and Lower Canada, Nova
Scotia, and New Brunswick were the first to unite under the provisions
of that statute, and the Dominion of Canada now includes the whole of
the British North American possessions excepting Newfoundland.

Canada is nearly as large as the whole of Europe, and about 750,000
square miles larger than the United States without Alaska. The census
figures for 1911 were:

                               Area      Popula-
                              sq. mi.     tion
  Prince Edward Island         2,184       93,728
  Nova Scotia                 21,428      492,338
  New Brunswick               27,985      351,889
  Quebec                     351,873    2,002,712
  Ontario                    260,862    2,523,274
  Manitoba                    73,732      455,614
  British Columbia           355,855      392,480
  Alberta                    255,285      374,663
  Saskatchewan               251,700      492,432
  Yukon (Territory)          207,076        8,512
  Northwest Territories    1,921,685       17,196
                           ---------    ---------
  Total                    3,729,665    7,204,838

In 1912 parts of the Northwest Territories were transferred to Manitoba,
Ontario, and Quebec.

NEWFOUNDLAND.--The island of Newfoundland, on the northeast side of the
Gulf of St. Lawrence, has a total area of 42,750 square miles, with a
population (1911) of 238,670. Attached to the government of the island
is a coastal strip of the Labrador peninsula 120,000 square miles
(population 3,949).

=Physical Features.=--Both the Atlantic and Pacific shores abound in
deep indentations forming magnificent harbors and sheltered bays. On the
Atlantic the principal bay is the Bay of Fundy, remarkable for its high
and rushing tide, the water rising from twelve to seventy feet. There is
also the Hudson Bay, connected with the Atlantic by Hudson Straits,
really an inland sea with an area of three hundred and fifty thousand
square miles, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, eighty thousand square miles
in extent.

The most striking physical features of Canada are the Rocky Mountains,
the Laurentian Range, and the chain of immense fresh water lakes forming
part of the boundary with the United States.

The Laurentian Range extends along the north side of the St. Lawrence,
the Ottawa River, and then stretches away to Lake Superior and the
north, the length of the range being about three thousand five hundred
miles. It forms the watershed between Hudson Bay and the St. Lawrence,
and varies in height from one to three thousand feet.

The eastern portions of Canada are generally well timbered, and the same
is true of British Columbia, and the region north of the Saskatchewan.
Westward of the Red River, between the forty-ninth and fifty-fifth
parallels, there is an immense fertile plain, suitable for general
agriculture and grazing, extending nearly to the Rocky Mountains.

This range consists of triple chains with valleys between; the most
easterly has the greatest elevation near the fifty-second parallel, the
highest peaks being Mounts Brown, Murchison, Hooker, Columbia, Forbes,
Bryce, Alberta, and Freshfield. The average height of the chain is from
seven thousand to eight thousand feet. In the north, adjoining Alaska,
is Mt. Logan, and, on the dividing line, St. Elias. (See Mountains of
the World for elevations.)

=Lakes and Rivers.=--Canada is well watered, the country presenting a
network of lakes and rivers. The system of the St. Lawrence alone, with
the great lakes Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario (between
the last are the celebrated falls of Niagara), drains an area in Canada
of three hundred and thirty thousand square miles. (See North America
and United States.)

Other important lakes are Winnipeg, Winnipegosis, Manitoba, Lake of the
Woods, Great Slave, Great Bear, and Athabasca.

Next to the St. Lawrence the chief rivers are the Saskatchewan and the
Winnipeg, flowing into Lake Winnipeg, and the Nelson, flowing from it
into Hudson Bay; the Assiniboine and the Red River, which join their
waters to flow into Lake Winnipeg; the Albany and the Churchill,
emptying into Hudson Bay; the Athabasca and the Peace Rivers, flowing
into Lake Athabasca, and the Slave River, from it into Great Slave Lake;
the Mackenzie, fed from both the Great Slave and the Great Bear lakes,
and emptying into the Arctic Ocean; the Fraser and Thompson, in British
Columbia, emptying into the Pacific; and in the eastern provinces, the
Ottawa, chief tributary of the St. Lawrence, itself fed by the Gatineau
and Matawan; the Saguenay, emptying Lake St. John into the St. Lawrence;
and the St. John, which flows into the Bay of Fundy, in New Brunswick,
which it partly separates from the State of Maine.

The principal islands of the Dominion are: on the east, Cape Breton,
Prince Edward and Magdalen Islands, and Anticosti, in the Gulf of St.
Lawrence; and on the west coast, Vancouver Island and Queen Charlotte
Island. Lying along the north in the great Arctic Archipelago are
immense islands, all of which, excepting Greenland, belong to Canada.

=Climate.=--The cold winter and the heat in summer are frequently
extreme, but the climate is a healthy one. The winter may be said to
continue from the middle of November to the end of March, or about four
and a half months. British Columbia probably possesses the finest
climate in North America.

In some inland parts of Canada the maximum temperature may be from
ninety to ninety-six degrees, and the minimum from twenty to twenty-six
degrees below zero. But although there are these extremes, the air is
always dry, bracing, and exhilarating.

=Products and Industries.=--The chief industries of Canada are those of
agriculture, stock-raising, dairy-farming, “lumbering” or timber trade
and forestry, shipbuilding, fisheries, and mining. An extensive trade is
maintained with the United States and England, the exports being timber,
fish, and furs, with dairy produce and live stock; wheat and wheat
flour, barley, and other agricultural products, cod and other fish,
coal, and minerals.

The minerals are chiefly coal, silver, nickel, gold, copper, iron,
asbestos, lead, salt, mineral oils and gypsum. Gold is or has been
worked in Nova Scotia, Quebec, and Ontario, and largely in Yukon
(Klondike) and British Columbia, where there are yet immense fields to
open up. Silver mines are worked in Ontario; those at Cobalt (producing
also cobalt, nickel and arsenic) have been the richest yet discovered in
Canada. Iron ore is found all over the Dominion. Copper has been mined
to a considerable extent both in Quebec and Ontario, and the deposits of
the ore are of great extent. There are very large coal deposits in Nova
Scotia. The coast of British Columbia is rich in coal of a good quality.
Coal is known to exist over a vast region, stretching from one hundred
and fifty to two hundred miles east of the Rocky Mountains, and north
from the frontier for about one thousand miles.

The forest products of Canada constitute one of her most important
sources of wealth. They find their way to all parts of the world--to the
United States, to the United Kingdom, and to the Australian
commonwealth.

Great progress has recently been made in the development of
manufactures. The “national policy” comprises a high protective system,
but since 1901 gives a preference to Britain.

Quebec has tanning industries and manufactures boot and shoes, the
manufactures of woolen and cotton goods are increasing, and there are
sugar refineries in Halifax and Montreal. Such wooden articles as doors,
window sashes, etc., are manufactured in large numbers.

=People.=--The province of Ontario is thickly settled on the south,
along the river and the lake shores, by a population which is mainly of
British descent, with a considerable infusion of Germans. The province
of Quebec is peopled in great part by descendants of the original French
settlers; they are called _habitans_; many of them speak an archaic
French dialect and keep up peculiar manners and customs, and they are
Roman Catholic in religion.

The principal nationalities represented are English, Irish, Scotch,
French, German and Indian, though there are also some few Dutch,
Russian, Chinese, Welsh, Italians, Jews, half-breeds, etc.

Though English is the general language of Canada, the French language is
by statute an official language in the Dominion parliament and in
Quebec, but not now in any other province. Members of the Quebec and
Manitoba parliaments may also address the House in either English or
French.

RELIGION AND EDUCATION.--There is no state religion in Canada, and
absolute toleration is there an accomplished fact. Roman Catholics,
Methodists, Presbyterians, the Church of England, Baptists, Lutherans,
and Congregationalists are all represented.

Canada has long been in the enjoyment of free education, and the control
of the system is in the hands of the provinces, except where the Act of
Confederation secures the permanence of the denominational schools which
existed at the time of confederation. Teachers are trained at provincial
normal schools.

In Ontario and Quebec there are separate schools for Protestants and
Roman Catholics.

The principal universities of Canada with the dates of their foundation
are as follows:

=PRINCIPAL UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES OF CANADA=

  =====+========+=============+=========+=============+======+=====+=======
  Orga-|Colleges|   Location  | Control | President or|  In- | Stu-|Volumes
  nized|        |             |         | Chairman of |struc-|dents|in
       |        |             |         |   Faculty   | tors |     |Library
  -----+--------+-------------+---------+-------------+------+-----+-------
   1881|Alma    |St. Thomas,  |Methodist|Robt. I.     |   21 |  200|  2,500
       |College |Ont.         |         |Warner, D.D. |      |     |
   1838|Arcadia |Wolfville,   |Baptist  |Geo. Barton  |   24 |  250|  2,500
       |Univer- |N.S.         |         |Cutten, D.D. |      |     |
       |sity    |             |         |             |      |     |
   1818|Dal-    |Halifax, N.S.|Non-Sect.|A. Stanley   |   86 |  417| 28,000
       |housie  |             |         |MacKenzie,   |      |     |
       |        |             |         |B.A.         |      |     |
   1894|Havergal|Toronto, Ont.|...      |N. W. Hoyles,|   65 |  350|  1,000
       |Ladies’ |             |         |Kc.          |      |     |
       |College |             |         |             |      |     |
   1789|Kings   |Windsor, Ont.|Prot.    |Rev. T.W.    |   13 |   91|    ...
       |Univer- |             |Epis.    |Powell. D.D. |      |     |
       |sity    |             |         |             |      |     |
   1844|Knox    |Toronto, Ont.|Pres-    |Rev. Alfred  |    9 |  140| 22,000
       |Theo.   |             |byt’n.   |Gandier, D.D.|      |     |
       |College |             |         |             |      |     |
   1907|Mac-    |A. de Belle- |Non-Sect.|F.C.         |   50 |  407|  9,000
       |donald  |vue, Q.      |         |Harrison,    |      |     |
       |College |             |         |D.Sc.        |      |     |
   1906|McGill  |Vancouver,   |Non-Sect.|Geo. E.      |   24 |  340|  1,600
       |Univ.   |B.C.         |         |Robinson     |      |     |
       |Col.    |             |         |(Act.)       |      |     |
   1821|McGill  |Montreal,    |Indepen. |Wm. Peterson,|  280 |2,104|140,000
       |Univer- |Can.         |         |M.A.         |      |     |
       |sity    |             |         |             |      |     |
   1887|McMaster|Toronto, Ont.|Baptist  |A.L.         |   30 |  300| 20,000
       |Univer- |             |         |McCrimman,   |      |     |
       |sity    |             |         |M.A.         |      |     |
   1873|Montreal|Montreal,    |Prot.    |E.I. Rexford,|    5 |   30|  7,000
       |Diocesan|Can.         |Epis.    |M.A.         |      |     |
       |Theo.   |             |         |             |      |     |
   1863|Mt.     |Sackville,   |Methodist|Byron C.     |   21 |  250| 12,000
       |Allison |N.B.         |         |Borden, D.D. |      |     |
       |Univer- |             |         |             |      |     |
       |sity    |             |         |             |      |     |
   1874|Ontario |Whitby, Ont. |Methodist|Rev. J.J.    |   22 |  185|  7,000
       |Ladies’ |             |         |Hare, M.A.   |      |     |
       |College |             |         |             |      |     |
   1867|Presby- |Montreal,    |Pres-    |John         |   21 |   80| 20,000
       |terian  |Can.         |byt’n.   |Scringer,    |      |     |
       |College |             |         |D.D.         |      |     |
   1855|Provin- |Truro, N.S.  |State    |David Soloam,|   20 |  425|  4,000
       |cial    |             |         |LL.D.        |      |     |
       |Nor.    |             |         |             |      |     |
       |College |             |         |             |      |     |
   1847|Queen’s |Kingston,    |Non-Sect.|Very Rev.    |  125 |1,610| 67,000
       |Univer- |Ont.         |         |D.M. Gordon  |      |     |
       |sity    |             |         |             |      |     |
   1888|Ridley  |St. Cath’n’s.|Anglican |Rev. J.O.    |   15 |  160|  2,500
       |College |Ont.         |         |Miller, M.A. |      |     |
   1899|St.     |Toronto, Ont.|...      |Rev. D.B.    |   18 |  250|    ...
       |Andrew’s|             |         |Macdonald,   |      |     |
       |College |             |         |M.A.         |      |     |
   1851|Trinity |Toronto, Ont.|Prot.    |Rev. T.C.S.  |   24 |  180| 15,000
       |College |             |Epis.    |Macklem      |      |     |
   1845|Univ. of|Lennoxville, |Prot.    |Rev. R.A.    |    9 |   60| 11,500
       |Bishop’s|Que.         |Epis.    |Parrock      |      |     |
       |Col.    |             |         |             |      |     |
   1912|Univ. of|Calgary, Alb.|Non-Sect.|F.H. Dougall |   11 |  268|    ...
       |Calgary |             |         |(Act.)       |      |     |
   1852|Univer- |Quebec       |Non-Sect.|Mgr. Amedee  |   70 |  474|100,000
       |site    |             |         |Gosselin,    |      |     |
       |Laval U.|             |         |M.A.         |      |     |
   1877|Univ. of|Winnipeg,    |State    |James A.     |   43 |  881| 12,790
       |Manitoba|Man.         |         |MacLean,     |      |     |
       |        |             |         |Ph.D.        |      |     |
   1800|Univ. of|Fredericton, |State    |Cecil C.     |   18 |  165| 10,000
       |New     |N.B.         |         |Jones (Chan.)|      |     |
       |Bruns-  |             |         |             |      |     |
       |wick    |             |         |             |      |     |
   1907|Univ. of|Saskatoon,   |State    |Walter C.    |   41 |  381|    ...
       |Sas-    |Sask.        |         |Murray, M.A. |      |     |
       |katche- |             |         |             |      |     |
       |wan     |             |         |             |      |     |
   1855|U. of   |Antigonish,  |Catholic |H.P.         |   19 |  225| 22,000
       |St.     |N.S.         |         |MacPherson,  |      |     |
       |Fran.   |             |         |D.D.         |      |     |
       |Xav.    |             |         |             |      |     |
       |Col.    |             |         |             |      |     |
   1841|Victoria|Toronto, Ont.|Methodist|Rev. R.P.    |   28 |  610| 25,080
       |Col. and|             |         |Bowles, M.A. |      |     |
       |Univ.   |             |         |             |      |     |
   1873|Wesleyan|Montreal,    |Methodist|Rev. J.      |    4 |  100|  5,000
       |Theo.   |Can.         |         |Smyth, B.A.  |      |     |
       |Col.    |             |         |             |      |     |
   1877|Wycliffe|Toronto, Ont.|Prot.    |Thos. R.     |    8 |  118|    ...
       |College |             |Epis.    |O’Meara,     |      |     |
       |        |             |         |LL.D.        |      |     |
  -----+--------+-------------+---------+-------------+------+-----+-------

=Government.=--Canada is a self-governing dominion created by an Act of
the British Parliament in March, 1867, known as the British North
America Act. The Act provides that the Constitution of the Dominion
shall be similar in principal to that of the United Kingdom; that the
executive authority shall be vested in the Sovereign of Great Britain
and Ireland, and carried on in his name by a Governor-General and Privy
Council; and that the legislative power shall be exercised by a
Parliament of two Houses, called the “Senate” and the “House of
Commons.”

Therefore, the executive government of Canada is vested in the king, who
is represented by a Governor-General appointed by him for a term of five
years. The emoluments of the Governor-General are, however, paid out of
Canadian revenues.

The Governor-General has a right, which is, of course, very seldom
exercised, to disallow or reserve bills for imperial consent. The
Constitution of Canada cannot be altered save by the Imperial
Parliament, but to all intents and purposes Canada has complete
autonomy.

=The Legislature.=--The legislative power is a Parliament, consisting of
an Upper House, styled the Senate, and a House of Commons.

The Senate consists at present of eighty-seven members, distributed
between the various provinces thus: twenty-four for Ontario, twenty-four
for Quebec, ten for Nova Scotia, ten for New Brunswick, four for Prince
Edward Island, three for British Columbia, four for Manitoba, four for
Alberta, and four for Saskatchewan. The members of the Senate are
appointed for life by the Crown on the nomination of the Ministry for
the time being; each nominee must be thirty years old, a resident in the
province for which he is appointed, a natural born or naturalized
subject of the king, and the owner of property amounting to four
thousand dollars.

The House of Commons is chosen every five years at longest, and consists
of two hundred and thirty-one members, elected as follows: eighty-two
being elected for Ontario, sixty-five for Quebec, sixteen for Nova
Scotia, eleven for New Brunswick, fifteen for Manitoba, eleven for
British Columbia, three for Prince Edward Island, twelve for Alberta,
fifteen for Saskatchewan, and one for Yukon. The House of Commons is
also composed of natural born or naturalized subjects of the king; no
property qualification is necessary, and its members are elected upon a
very wide suffrage. The members of the House themselves elect their
Speaker, and twenty, including the Speaker, form a quorum.

Each province has also a separate Legislature and administration, with a
Lieutenant-Governor, appointed by the Governor-General, at the head of
the Executive.

=The Judicature.=--Justice is administered, as in England, by judges,
police magistrates, and justices of the peace, of whom the first named
are appointed by the Governor-General, for life, from among the foremost
men at the Bar in the several provinces. The highest court is the
Supreme Court of Canada, composed of a Chief Justice and five associate
judges, and holding three sessions in the year at Ottawa. The only other
Dominion Court, viz., the Exchequer Court of Canada, is presided over by
a separate judge, and its sittings may be held anywhere in Canada. The
Provincial Courts include the Court of Chancery, Court of King’s Bench,
Court of Error and Appeal, Superior Courts, County Courts, General
Sessions, and Division Courts. The duties of coroners are generally
analogous to those in force in England, as are also methods of civil and
criminal procedure, while trial by jury prevails.

=Cities.=--The capital and seat of government of the Canadian Dominion
is at Ottawa, population, 1911, 87,062.

Montreal, however, is the largest city of Canada, 470,480. It has
extensive trade and manufactures, and from it the magnificent Victoria
tubular bridge carries the Grand Trunk Railway of Canada across the St.
Lawrence, which is here two miles wide.

Quebec, 79,910, the capital of the lower province, is the great shipping
place for the Lower St. Lawrence, and is a picturesque old town, with
walls and fortifications. Near it are the memorable Plains of Abraham.

Toronto, 376,538, on the northwest shore of Lake Ontario, is the local
capital of the western provinces and the educational center of the
Dominion, possessing a university and numerous schools.

Other cities include: Winnipeg, Man., 136,035; Vancouver, B. C, 100,401;
Hamilton, Ont., 81,969; Quebec, Que., 78,910; Halifax, N. S., 46,619;
London, Ont., 46,300.

=Ottawa= is situated upon the south bank of the Ottawa River, one
hundred and twenty miles from its junction with the St. Lawrence at
Montreal. The river here forms the splendid Chaudière Falls (two hundred
yards wide and forty feet high), above which a suspension bridge spans
the river, and which supply the motive-power for the numerous lumber
mills, flour mills and factories.

East of the city the River Rideau forms a second fall. The Rideau Canal
passes through the center of the city, and connects with the Rideau
Lakes, and so with the great lakes beyond. Opposite the city, to the
northeast, the Gatineau River joins the Ottawa.

It is a city of stately public buildings, of turfed drives and wooded
pleasure grounds, and there is a constant round of social and official
events connected with the meetings of Parliament and other public
functions. The Grand Trunk system has added to the attractions of the
city by building the Chateau Laurier, which enjoys a continent-wide
reputation as being in the first rank of famous hotels.

The parliamentary buildings, constructed in the Italian Gothic style
after 1860, are on a bluff on the river bank. They include the handsome
library building and the Victoria Tower (one hundred and eighty feet).
Adjoining buildings on Parliament Hill are devoted to departments of the
Dominion government. The residence of the Governor-General--an old
fashioned building, called Rideau Hall--is about a mile from the city.
The post-office, city hall, banks and telegraph offices are handsomely
built of stone.

Ottawa is the place of residence of the bishop of Ontario (Church of
England), and of the Roman Catholic bishop of Ottawa, who has a
cathedral here. There are a normal school and a collegiate institute, a
very large college conducted by the Oblate Fathers, a ladies’ college, a
musical academy, an art school, a well-equipped geological museum, and
the parliamentary library, with three hundred thousand volumes.

The industries of Ottawa are mostly connected with lumber. In the winter
thousands of men are engaged in cutting timber and drawing it to the
streams, and in the spring the freshets carry the rafts down to the
mills. Flour, iron wares, bricks, leather, and matches are also
manufactured.

The city was begun in the last years of the eighteenth century by a
settler named Wright, of Boston, Massachusetts, who built a residence
near the Chaudière, and called the village which he founded Hull. The
construction of the Rideau Canal stimulated the settlement, which was
called Bytown. In 1854 its name was changed to Ottawa, and the town was
created a city. In 1858 Ottawa was chosen as the administrative capital
of Canada. The first parliament met here in 1865.

=History.=--In 1534 Jacques Cartier landed on the Gaspé coast of Quebec,
of which he took possession in the name of Francis I., king of France.
Little was done by way of settlement till 1608, when Champlain founded
Quebec. From this time till 1763 Canada, from Acadia (Nova Scotia) to
Lake Superior and down the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico, was held
to be French territory.

The struggle between Great Britain and France for supremacy was long and
bitter, but ended in 1763 with the treaty of Paris, by which all the
French dominions in Canada were ceded to Britain, save the small islands
of St. Pierre and Miquelon, retained by France as fishing stations.
Hudson Bay territory, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland had passed to
England by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713.

Through the American War of Independence, what is now Minnesota,
Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois was lost in 1783 to the
United States, no longer British colonies. Quebec was in 1791 divided
into Lower and Upper Canada. A rebellion took place in 1837-1838, and
the provinces were reunited in 1840. Prince Edward Island and New
Brunswick were separated from Nova Scotia in 1770 and 1784. British
Columbia was made a crown colony in 1858, and Vancouver Island joined to
it in 1866. The confederation of all the British North American
provinces--except Newfoundland--took place in 1867-1871, and the
prosperity of the Dominion was only temporarily disturbed by the Red
River rebellion of 1869.

The fishery rights have repeatedly been a source of controversy between
Canada and Great Britain on the one hand and the United States on the
other, and the dispute about sealing in Behring Sea and off the Alaskan
coasts was only settled by arbitration in 1893. The Alaska boundary
dispute was settled in 1903.

A proposed reciprocity agreement with the United States in the year 1911
saw the decisive defeat at the polls of the Laurier policy and the
Liberal party. In October Robert L. Borden took over the reins of
government, as Premier, and Earl Grey was succeeded as Governor-General
by the Duke of Connaught. In 1916 the Duke of Devonshire succeeded as
Governor-General.

The great European war of 1914 and following brought Canada to the
vigorous support of Great Britain and the Entente Allies, and has done
much toward the political, military and economic solidarity of the
Dominion.


=MEXICO= (or _Méjico_; Span. pron. _Meh´hē-co_, from a native word), a
federal republic of North America, embraces twenty-seven states, a
federal district, and four territories. It extends between the United
States and Guatemala, with an extreme length of nearly two thousand
miles; its breadth varies between one thousand and (in the Isthmus of
Tehuantepec) one hundred and thirty miles. It has a coast-line of almost
six thousand miles, but with scarcely a safe harbor beyond the noble
haven of Acapulco. On the Atlantic side, with its sand banks and
lagoons, there are only open roadsteads, or river-mouths generally
closed to ocean vessels by bars and shallows; harbor works, however,
have been constructed at Vera Cruz and Tampico.

From the southeast and northwest extremities of the republic there
extend the peninsulas of Yucatan and Lower California, enclosing the
Gulfs of Campeche and California, respectively. In area (751,300 square
miles) Mexico almost equals Great Britain and Ireland, France, Germany
and Austria-Hungary together.

=Surface.=--For the most part Mexico consists of an immense tableland,
which commences in the United States, and rises to over eight thousand
one hundred feet at Marquez, seventy-six miles north by west of Mexico
City; at El Paso, on the northern frontier, the elevation is only three
thousand seven hundred and seventeen feet. The most important mountain
range is the Sierra Madre (over ten thousand feet, and extending from
Tehuantepec into the United States); parallel with this run the Sierras
of the east coast and of Lower California.

The surface of the country is also much broken up by short cross-ridges
and detached peaks. There are numerous volcanoes, but only a few of them
are more or less active. The more prominent are Orizaba (Citlaltepetl,
“star mountain”), Popocatepetl (“smoking mountain”); Ixtaccihuatl
(“white woman”); Nevada de Toluca, and Malinche.

On the Atlantic side the plateau descends abruptly to the narrow strip
(about sixty miles) of gently sloping coast land; toward the Pacific,
where the coast lands vary in width from forty to seventy miles, the
descent is more gradual.

=Rivers and Lakes.=--From their rapid fall the rivers of such a
mountainous region could never be of value for transport or
communication. The Rio Grande del Norte, the boundary river, is only
navigable for sixty miles up from the Gulf of Mexico, and the largest
interior river--the Rio Grande de Santiago, flowing west to the
Pacific--is barred across by many waterfalls, though its upper course
expands to form Lake Chapála, the largest sheet of water in Mexico,
fully fifty miles in length.

=Climate and Landscape.=--Though Mexico lies just on the border of the
torrid zone, the climate is governed to a far greater extent by
elevation than by position in latitude, and distinct climates are
recognized at different stages just as in the plateau of Abyssinia.

The low coast land and the maritime region below an elevation of two
thousand feet, called the Tierra Caliente, presents all the
characteristics of tropical lands.

Above an elevation of two thousand feet, and up the slopes of the
mountains to a height of about five thousand feet, a climate is found in
which the landscape takes the aspect of that of the temperate zone.

This stage is known as the Tierra Templada.

[Illustration: =NATIONAL PALACE, CITY OF MEXICO=]

Still higher, above five thousand feet, a cool region is reached, which
is known as the Tierra Fria. This includes the summit of the tableland
and the pine covered slopes of the mountains up to the height at which
some of the peaks are capped with perennial snows. Much of this high
tableland is valuable only for pasture; towards the north and northeast,
where the plateau is wider, the landscape becomes bare and dry, and salt
lakes like those of the plateau region of the western United States
appear. Deeply cut “cañons” or “barrancas,” gorges with steep walls
furrowed out by the mountain torrents, are characteristic of the
plateau.

=Production and Industry.=--The vegetation of Mexico has the same wide
range as the climate. In the lowlands dye woods and valuable timbers
abound in the virgin forests, as well as medicinal plants, india rubber,
palms, etc.; and oranges and bananas, many varieties of cactus, agave,
sisal, olives, sugar, coffee, cocoa, rice, indigo, cotton and tobacco,
besides the omnipresent maize, all thrive. The vine flourishes in some
districts, especially near El Paso, Durango, and Parras, in Coahuila,
where a good wine is made; and mulberry plants have been imported from
Europe to develop the silk industry. In Lower California a good deal of
archil is collected, and chicle gum is extracted and prepared in the
forests along the coast.

Agriculture in Mexico is steadily developing. Silver mining has been an
important industry ever since the conquest. Gold is also produced.
Copper is largely mined in some sections, being found in a pure state in
Chiapas and Guanajuato, and elsewhere associated with gold. Other
important minerals are iron, including enormous masses of meteoric iron
ore, and the mountain a mile from Durango, the Cerro de Mercado, a solid
mass of magnetic iron ore; lead, found associated with silver; and
sulpher, zinc, quicksilver, platinum, cinnabar, asphalt and petroleum,
besides salt, marble, alabaster, gypsum, and rock salt in great
quantities. There are also said to be large deposits of coal, some of
excellent quality.

Mexico is the original home of the “cattle range” business, and there
vast herds of horses, cattle, and sheep form the principal wealth of the
people.

Woolen and cotton spinning and weaving, and other branches of industry
are encouraged by high protective duties.

=People.=--The population of Mexico consists mainly of the indigenous
Indian race, and of the dominant Spaniards or their descendants.
Spaniards born in Europe are now very few in number, but the government
of the country is in the hands of the “Creoles,” or people of Spanish
descent born in Mexico. They number about twenty per cent, mixed
Hispano-Americans, or mestizos, forty-three per cent, and full blood
Indians thirty-five per cent of the whole population. The mestizos are
the farmers and rancheros, the muleteers and servants. Whites and
mestizos speak Spanish.

The Roman Catholic is the religion of the country, but all beliefs are
tolerated, and education, now free and compulsory, is making steady
progress.

=Government.=--The Mexican constitution is closely modeled upon that of
the United States. The president, who is assisted by secretaries of
state, is elected for four years, and can be re-elected for a second
term. The legislative power is vested in a Congress, consisting of a
Senate of fifty-six members, and a Chamber of Deputies of two hundred
and thirty-three members. The judicial system occupies the same position
as that of the United States; and the several states have elective
governors and legislatures.

Owing to revolutionary conditions the civil government was practically
suspended in September, 1914. (See under History of Mexico.)

[Illustration: =THE CATHEDRAL, CITY OF MEXICO=]

=Cities.=--The principal cities are Mexico City, the capital, population
470,000. Puébla, east of the capital, among the mountains, is the second
town and the most industrious place in Mexico. Guadalajara, northwest,
is also a city of magnificent palaces and churches. Vera Cruz, founded
by Cortez, is the only port on the Atlantic. On the Pacific side the
chief seaports are Mazatlan and Acapulco, with a fine harbor. Other
important towns are Oaxaca, Puebla, and Durango.

The railway system joins that of the United States at El Paso on the Rio
Grande.

=Mexico City= is situated seven thousand four hundred and ten feet above
the sea at the lowest level of the great basin (fourteen hundred square
miles) of the Anahuac plateau.

All the main streets converge on the Plaza Mayor, where the site of the
old teocalli is occupied by the no less famous Cathedral. The walls of
this imposing building, forming a cross four hundred and twenty-six by
two hundred and three feet, alone cost nearly two million dollars, and
the interior with its twenty chapels and elaborate ornamentation, much
more. Built into the foot of one of the two open towers (two hundred and
eighteen feet) is the famous “Aztec” (Toltec) calendar stone.

Facing the cathedral is the Municipal Palace, and on the sides of the
plaza are the National Palace (the old vice-regal residence), the
national Monte de Piedad, the postoffice, and the national museum.

Other noteworthy buildings are the national picture gallery and library
(two hundred and fifty thousand volumes), the national observatory, the
school of mines, the mint, the Iturbide hotel, and the former palace of
the Inquisition, now a medical college; and, mostly in secularized
ecclesiastical edifices, there are also schools of law and engineering,
a conservatory of music, and an academy of fine arts.

Among the monuments of the city are the noble Columbus monument, the
statue of Cuauhtemotzin, the last of the Aztec emperors, and that of the
engineer Martinez.

The principal streets are broad, clean, and well paved and lighted, with
houses of stone gaily painted in bright colors. In addition to the
alameda, with its stately beaches, Mexico is remarkable for the extent
and beauty of its paseos, or raised paved roads, planted with double
rows of trees, which diverge far into the country from every quarter;
and there are still on Lakes Chalco and Xochimilco, where a line of
steamers runs, a few of the floating gardens for which the ancient city
was so celebrated.

Attempts had long been made to drain the valley of Mexico. The federal
government finally undertook the work, and operations begun in 1890 were
completed in 1898 at a cost of about sixteen million dollars. Extensive
drainage and sanitation works have since been carried out at a cost of
five million seven hundred and fourteen thousand nine hundred and
eighty-two dollars.

In 1905 a sumptuous legislative palace, a national Pantheon for the
ashes of the great men of Mexico, and a monument to perpetuate the
heroes of the independence were under construction, at a cost of thirty
million dollars.

The trade of Mexico is chiefly a transit trade, but it has now extensive
cotton and linen factories, paper mills, tobacco and cigars, gold and
silver work, pottery, silverware, cork, bricks, and soap--many of them
due to foreign enterprise.

=History of Mexico.=--The history of ancient Mexico exhibits two
distinct and widely differing periods--that of the Toltecs and that of
the Aztecs. Both were Nahua nations, speaking a language which survives
in Mexico to this day.

The eighth century is the traditional date when the Toltecs are related
to have come from the north, from some undefined locality, bringing to
Anahuac, or Mexico, its oldest and its highest native civilization,
about 1325. A hundred years later, under the reign of Montezuma II.,
they had attained a suzerainty over all the tribes from the Atlantic to
the Pacific.

On the coming of the Spaniards under Cortez in 1519, Aztec rule was
finally overthrown, chiefly by means of the assistance the Spaniards
received from those peoples whom the Aztecs had held in cruel bondage.

In 1540 Mexico was united with other American territories--at one time
all the country from Panama to Vancouver’s Island--under the name of New
Spain, and governed by viceroys (fifty-seven in all) appointed by the
mother country, Spain. For nearly three centuries it may be said to have
lain in sullen submission beneath its cruel conqueror’s heel, till in
1810 the discontent, which had been gaining ground against the
vice-regal power during the war of Spain with Napoleon, broke into open
rebellion under the leadership of a country priest named Hidalgo.

In 1822 General Iturbide had himself proclaimed emperor; but the
guerilla leader Guerrero, his former ally, and General Santa Anna raised
the republican standard, and in 1823 he was banished to Italy with a
pension. Returning the following year he was taken and shot, and the
federal republic of Mexico was finally established.

For more than half a century after this (till 1876) the history of
Mexico is a record of chronic disorder and civil war. In 1836 Texas
secured its independence, for which it had struggled for several years,
and which Mexico was compelled to recognize in 1845. In that year Texas
was incorporated with the United States, and after the Mexican war of
1848 Mexico ceded half a million square miles to the United States.

The Emperor Napoleon III. declared war against the president, Juarez, in
1862; the Austrian Emperor of Mexico, Maximilian, imposed by the French,
was executed in 1867, and the republic re-established. Diaz was
re-elected president for the eighth time in 1910, but, being too
autocratic, had to resign under pressure of revolution in 1911. In the
ensuing welter of revolts and conspiracies President Madero was set
aside and killed, and the United States applied pressure to eliminate
President Huerta. From this time on the relations of the United States
with Mexico became more strained. During 1915-1916, following repeated
attacks made by bands of Mexican bandits upon American border towns and
assaults by Mexicans upon Americans and other foreigners in Mexico, the
relations between the two countries approached a crisis. Early in 1916
nineteen men, nearly all of them Americans, were taken from a train near
Chihuahua and killed by a band of bandits.

Conditions became still more tense when, on March 9, several hundred
bandits led by Villa raided and burned the town of Columbus, N. M.,
killing nine American civilians and eight United States soldiers. On
March 10 President Wilson ordered five thousand United States troops
into Mexico to catch Villa, and two days later the first troops crossed
the border. On March 16 the first clash occurred between Villa outposts
and the American expeditionary force. On June 18 the war department
ordered all the state militia mobilized, and within the next two weeks
fifty thousand of the state soldiers had been rushed to the border.

President Wilson later in the year named an American commission at the
suggestion of General Carranza, which, jointly with a Mexican
commission, began its sessions at New London, Conn. The sessions
continued until November 24, when a protocol was signed providing for
the withdrawal of the United States troops from Mexico in forty days,
conditioned upon the Carranza Government showing within that time that
it could protect the border and prevent raids by bandits upon American
territory.

Two days before the signing of this protocol Villa, at the head of a
strong force, attacked Chihuahua City, and after a battle lasting
several days captured the city.

Carranza forces regained control of Chihuahua City December 3, and
Villa’s forces fled to the mountains west of the city, where they were
later reported to be gathering new recruits in preparation for more
extensive operations.

The year 1917 was ushered in with the struggle between the Carranza and
Villa factions still in progress.


LEADING COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA


=ARGENTINA=, or =ARGENTINE REPUBLIC=, takes its name from the river La
Plata (“River of Silver”). After Brazil, it is the largest state of
South America. Its territory reaches from the Pilcomayo River, on the
borders of Bolivia, southward for two thousand four hundred miles to
Staten Island, off the southeastern extremity of Tierra del Fuego; and
from the slope of the Andes on the west to the Uruguay River and the
Atlantic in the east.

=Physical Features.=--Excepting on the northwest, where the spurs of the
Andes reach down into the state, the surface of Argentina presents vast
monotonous and level plains, broken only by the detached ridges of
Córdova and San Luis, in the western interior. In the north the portion
of the region called the Gran Chaco, within the frontier, is partly
forest covered, but all the central and southern region presents only
vast treeless plains or “pampas,” covered at most seasons with coarse
grass, which is green in the winter months, but which dries up in summer
so as to give an aspect of aridity to the plains. Some portions of the
interior, called “Salinas,” are barren and white throughout the year.

=Rivers.=--The great watercourse of the country is the Paraná, formed by
the union of the Upper Paraná and Paraguay rivers near the northeastern
corner of the state. This is a noble river, in all parts of its course
through Argentine territory scarcely ever less than a mile in width, and
in some places spreading out in lateral channels, or “riachos,” to a
breadth of ten miles.

The Pilcomayo, which forms part of the northern boundary, has now been
explored throughout its length, and is navigable at high water; the
Vermejo, the next river southward, has of late years become a regularly
navigated highway from the Paraguay up to the northeastern provinces;
the Salado, farther south, flowing directly to the Paraná, is also an
important river; but the remaining streams which tend eastward to the
Paraná have not strength of water sufficient to resist evaporation in
crossing the dry plains, and terminate for the most part in marshes and
salt lakes.

=Climate.=--The climate in the extreme north is very hot, for it lies
north of the tropic of Capricorn. The more remote southern territories
have an extremely disagreeable climate, but are not really so cold as
might be expected from their relatively high latitude. But the country
in general enjoys an equable, temperate, and healthful climate. Stormy
southwest winds, called “pamperos,” sweep over the plains at times, and
raise great clouds of dust, which fly across the plains.

=Production and Industry.=--The principal productions are wheat, maize,
oats, linseed, sugar, wool, hides, cattle, sheep, and horses.

The great wealth of the state, however, lies in its countless herds of
cattle and horses and flocks of sheep, which are pastured on the
“pampas,” and which multiply there very rapidly. The rearing and tending
of these herds is the great and characteristic industry of the country;
these also yield enormous quantities of hides, horns, and salted beef.

The northwestern provinces of the Argentine Republic, crossed by the
lower ramifications of the Andes, are rich in metals, including gold,
silver, nickel, copper, tin, lead, and iron, as well as in several kinds
of marble, jasper, and precious stones. On the Rio Vermejo petroleum
wells have recently been discovered.

The export of frozen beef and mutton is an important industry. The
exports are made up entirely of pastoral and agricultural products, with
the exception of quebracho, copper, manganese, and wolfram.

=People.=--The people of the country are mostly Spanish in their
language and descent, although there are many Italians, French,
Americans, Swiss, and Germans. The Gauchos, or herdsmen of the plains,
are a hardy and spirited, but ignorant race, often of partial Indian
descent. Some of the Indians of the remote districts have become skilled
in the rearing of flocks and herds.

The religion is Roman Catholic. The government is closely modeled upon
that of the United States.

EDUCATION.--Primary education is secular, free and nominally compulsory
from the ages of six to fourteen. Schools are maintained by provincial
taxation, and controlled by provincial boards (except in the capital,
where there is a National Council), with grants from the Federal
Government. Secondary education is controlled by the Federal Government
in lyceums and normal schools. There are also Special Government
Schools--one naval, one military, one mining, and one agriculture. There
are National Universities at Cordoba and Buenos Aires, and Provincial
Universities at La Plata, Santa Fé, and Paraná.

=Government.=--The Constitution vests the executive power in the hands
of a President, who is also Commander-in-chief of the troops, elected by
representatives of the provinces for six years, not being immediately
re-eligible; and the legislative authority in that of a Senate of thirty
members, two chosen by the capital and two by the legislature of each
province, and a House of Deputies of one hundred and twenty members
elected for four years by the people, one-third of the Senate retiring
every three years, and one-half of the House retiring every two years.

The Judicial system consists, like that of the United States, of a
Federal Supreme Court and Courts of Appeal, with Provincial Courts in
each state for non-national or single state cases.

=Cities.=--The chief seaport is Buenos Aires, the capital and largest
city, with a population of 1,315,000 in 1911. La Plata lies twenty-five
miles to the southeast of the Federal capital, and, although founded in
only 1882, already numbers 80,000 inhabitants. A canal joins it to the
vast docks of Ensenada.

Córdova (53,000), nearly in the center of the state, is the seat of the
chief observatory of the Republic.

Rosario (135,000), on the right bank of the Paraná, more than two
hundred miles up from the La Plata inlet, is a substantially built town,
and a great outlet of the animal produce of the interior plains.

Tucuman (55,000) and Salta in the northwestern mountain region, and
Mendoza (32,000) at the eastern base of the Andes, where they are
crossed to enter Chile, with Corrientes (18,000) on the Paraná, are
other important places.

=Buenos Aires= (_bwā´nōs ī´rez_; Sp. pron. _bwā´nōs ī´res_; Eng. pron.
usually _Bonos Ai´rez_) stands on the right bank of the Plata, which
here, at a distance of one hundred and fifty miles from the open sea, is
twenty-eight miles across.

The city is partitioned into blocks of about one hundred and fifty yards
square. The streets are regularly laid out at right angles to each other
and well lighted. Many are planted with trees, and there are numerous
open squares and several fine parks, the most famous being Palermo Park
(eight hundred and forty acres). The main buildings are the Roman
Catholic Cathedral, the chapel of Santa Felicitas, the Casa Rosada, or
Government House, the university, the Opera House, and various
government and municipal buildings. Much of the town has lately been
rebuilt on European lines. It is the terminus of six railway lines, and
has excellent street car, cable, and telephone services. There are
manufactories of furniture, machinery, carriages, leather, hats,
textiles, boots, tobacco, liquors, etc., and the trade is very large.

An elaborate system of harbor works was carried out between the years
1887 and 1895 at a cost of twenty million dollars; it includes an
advanced river wall, a north and south basin, and a series of four
docks, which connects two channels of the Rio de La Plata, and so brings
large vessels up to the wharfs. About half of the inhabitants are of
European birth or descent. Among the Europeans the vast majority are
Italian; the rest are principally Spanish, French and British.
Newspapers are published in French, English, Italian, and German, as
well as in Spanish.

=History.=--The river La Plata was visited by the Spaniards in 1516, and
the country was colonized in 1535, when Buenos Aires was founded. For
many years the country was regarded as a part of Peru. The progress of
the colony was not more hindered by the bloody wars which prevailed with
the natives for a hundred years than by unwise legislation at Madrid.

In 1776 Buenos Aires became the capital of a new viceroyalty. In 1806
that capital was occupied by a British force under General Beresford,
but the town was soon besieged and compelled to surrender. In 1808 the
British forces under Whitlock assaulted the town, but after very severe
loss were themselves compelled to capitulate.

In 1810 the colonists founded a local provisional government. A
sanguinary war for independence followed, which did not cease till 1824.
Spain acknowledged the independence of the country in 1842. The first
half-century of Argentine autonomy was much disturbed by revolutions.

The Brazilian-Argentine war against Paraguay (1865-1870) was interrupted
and followed by renewed revolts at home. For a time the great material
progress of the country was accompanied by an equally remarkable
movement in favor of stability of government and the repression of
factions. But once more dissensions and an insurrection in Buenos Aires
led to civil war (1890), which again was followed by a disastrous
financial panic (1891); and political and commercial crises, with riots
and risings in various parts of the country, continued to succeed one
another and to prevent progress. In May, 1910, the Argentine celebrated
its centenary of independence.


=BRAZIL= (_brä-zil´_; Portuguese pron. _brä-zēl´_), a republic of South
America, of which it covers nearly half, is little less in area than the
whole of Europe, its area being 3,300,000 square miles, including the
Acrá territory bought from Bolivia in 1902. It has a length of 2,660
miles, and a breadth of 2,705 miles between extreme points. It borders
on every state in South America except Chile. The name was given by
early explorers from thinking that the red dyewood (brazil-wood) found
here was identical with the East Indian dyewood known to them as Brasil.

=Surface.=--This vast territory presents two contrasted regions. First,
the wide, low lying, and humid forest plain of the Amazon River in the
north; second, the uplands in the south, which are traversed by
radiating hills and mountain ridges, and which present wide grass plains
between woods and bush-covered country.

The northern coast is bordered by low, alluvial bottom lands and sandy
plains, full of lakes, and in places very sterile; while the southern
angle of the country is rolling campo land, bordered by a low sandy
coast. Above its eastern angle a large area of coastlands and
neighboring plateau is subject to periodical devastating drought.

The highest mountain ranges of Brazil rise in the center of the
southeastern uplands, where the Montes Pyrenéos rise to nine thousand
five hundred feet, but the coast range, or Serra do Mar, to the south of
the beautiful Gulf of Rio de Janeiro, hardly yield to these, for within
it the Itatiaiossu is scarcely six hundred feet lower, while the Organ
Mountains, at the back of Rio, have summits which reach up to seven
thousand five hundred feet.

=Rivers.=--Brazil possesses three great river-systems--the Amazon, La
Plata, and San Francisco.

The Amazon and its tributaries drain fully a half of the country. To the
east of the Madeira these tributaries are tableland rivers, broken by
rapids and freely navigable for comparatively short distances. West of
the Madeira they are lowland rivers, sluggish, bordered by extensive
flood plains, and afford free navigation for long distances. The La
Plata system drains nearly one-fifth of the country through its three
branches--the Paraguay, Paraná, and Uruguay.

The first of these is a lowland river, freely navigable for a long
distance, while the other two are tableland rivers, full of
obstructions, and without free outlets for their upper level navigation.

The San Francisco is a tableland river, flowing northeast between the
Goyaz and maritime mountains, and then, breaking through the latter,
southeast to the Atlantic. It is not freely navigable because of the
Paulo Affonso Falls. The other coast rivers are generally short.

=Climate.=--Brazil lies almost wholly within the tropics, and is still
in great part unexplored and unsettled. The climate of Brazil varies
greatly--the lowlands of the Amazon and a great part of the coast being
hot, humid, and unhealthy, while the tablelands and some districts of
the coast swept by the trade winds are temperate and healthy.

=Production and Industry.=--The minerals are very considerable and
valuable, comprising gold, silver, iron, diamonds, topazes, and other
precious stones. Its forests are immense, abounding in the greatest
variety of useful and beautiful woods adapted for dyeing, cabinet work,
or ship-building; among these are mahogany, logwood, rosewood,
brazil-wood, etc.

Its agricultural produce is abundant; maize, beans, cassava root, and
nuts are very generally cultivated; also, in some parts, wheat and other
European cereals.

Cattle raising is an important industry, the number being computed at
eighteen million. Cotton is being largely cultivated for export, and is
being used for home manufactures. Sugar cane is grown in large and
increasing quantities in the northern provinces, Pernambuco being the
center of the sugar-producing zone.

India rubber comes from the more northern provinces, especially the
valley of the Amazon, and is shipped from Pará and Manáos; and coffee,
though also grown in the north, comes chiefly from Rio de Janeiro,
Minas, São Paulo, and Esperito Santo. Tobacco and cocoa are grown
largely, especially in Bahia. The exports consist solely of the raw
produce of the soil.

=People.=--The inhabitants of Brazil, as of other parts of South
America, present three great elements--that of the aboriginal Indians,
that of the European conquerors and colonists and their descendants, and
that of the Africans introduced as slaves. The most important section
of the Brazilians are the descendants of the Portuguese settlers. There
are, however, several flourishing German and Italian colonies in the
southern states.

The number of pure white people is very small in proportion to those who
have some mixture of Indian or African blood, and the Brazilians
themselves have developed into a number of more or less distinct
physical types in the widely separated provinces of the republic.
Formerly about one-half of the entire population of Brazil was formed of
negro slaves.

The Roman Catholic is the established religion, and is supported by the
state; but all other sects are tolerated. There are, however, very few
Brazilians who are not Roman Catholics.

Education is still in a very backward condition. The language is
Portuguese, with dialectal varieties.

=Government.=--According to the new Constitution of 1890, the empire was
abolished and the Brazilian nation is constituted a Federal Republic
under the title of the United States of Brazil, each of the twenty
provinces forming a separate state with local self-government. At the
head of the federation is a president with executive authority, elected
by the people for six years. The National Congress with legislative
functions comprises a Senate and Chamber of Deputies, the senators being
chosen three for each state, for nine years, the deputies for three
years in the proportion of one to every seventy thousand of the
population. The franchise extends to all citizens not under twenty-one
years of age.

=Cities.=--The capital city is Rio de Janeiro, the second largest in
South America. Next in importance is the city and seaport of Bahia
(230,000), finely placed on an inlet of the Atlantic, the oldest city of
Brazil. Pernambuco, also called Recife from a reef of rock which forms
the natural breakwater of its harbor, is the fourth in population, being
now surpassed by São Paulo, which ranks next to the capital (332,000).
Maranhão, on an island of the north coast; Pará, in the Tocantins
estuary; Rio Grande, and Santos are the other notable places along the
Atlantic. In the interior the principal towns are Ouro Preto, in the
gold mining region, and Diamantina, the center of the diamond fields.
Cuyabá, in the interior, is important as being at the head of the
regular navigation into Brazil by way of the Paraná and Paraguay rivers.

=Rio de Janeiro= (_Ree´o deh Zha-nay´e-ro_) stands on the west side of
one of the most magnificent natural harbors in the world. An inlet of
the Atlantic, the bay of Rio de Janeiro runs fifteen miles northwards,
varying in width from two miles to seven; it is girdled on all sides by
picturesque mountains (one thousand five hundred to three thousand
feet), covered with tropical vegetation. The entrance, less than a mile
wide, passes between two bold headlands, one of them called the
Sugar-loaf (one thousand two hundred and seventy feet).

The city and its suburbs stretch nearly ten miles along the shore. About
three miles southwest of the city stands the precipitous cone of
Corcovado (two thousand three hundred and thirty-six feet), with a
cog-railway up to the top. Public institutions are the vast hospital of
La Misericordia; the national library with three hundred thousand
volumes; the national museum; the large lunatic asylum; the botanical
gardens, with a celebrated avenue of palms; the observatory; the
Geographical and Historical institute; the former royal palace at Sāo
Christovão, the arsenal, the naval dockyards, the academy of fine arts,
a cadet-school, a school of medicine, a conservatory of music, a
polytechnic school, etc. A good water supply, chiefly by an aqueduct
twelve miles long, and a new system of sewage draining, much improved
the city health; but surrounding hills shut out the breezes, and the
heat grows intense in summer.

The population includes many foreigners: Portuguese, British, French,
and Germans.

Rio de Janeiro is also the commercial capital, sending out one-sixth of
the total exports of Brazil, and bringing in forty-five per cent of the
imports. The chief export is coffee.

The whole sea frontage of the city is lined with quays, and has been
improved by extensive new harbor works, embracing a dock of seventy-five
acres, a breakwater three thousand two hundred yards long, an elevated
railway, hydraulic cranes, warehouses, etc.

The city possesses cotton, jute, and silk mills, tobacco and hat
factories, machine shops and tanneries.

=History of Brazil.=--As early as 1480, expeditions sailed from Europe
in search of the island of Brasil, rumored to exist in the western seas.
Brazil was discovered on January 26, 1500, by Vincent Yañez Pinzon, who
landed at Cape St. Augustine, near Pernambuco, and then followed the
coast north to the Orinoco. In the same year a Portuguese expedition to
the East Indies, under Pedro Alvarez Cabral, discovered the Brazilian
coast near Porto Seguro on April 25 (April 22, Cazal). Cabral took
formal possession, and named his new discovery “Terra de Vera Cruz.” Two
Portuguese expeditions were sent out in 1501 and 1503, the first
exploring the coast, and the second planting a colony and bringing back
a rich cargo of brazil-wood, which gave a name to Portugal’s new
possession.

In 1530 the Portuguese government resolved upon the definite settlement
of Brazil. Many of the earliest colonies failed through lack of means,
and from inability to hold their ground against the natives. In 1567 a
Huguenot colony, established on the bay of Rio de Janeiro twelve years
before, was overthrown by the Portuguese, who then founded the present
capital of Brazil.

The discovery of gold in Minas Geraes in 1693, and of diamonds in 1729,
gave a new impetus to the growth of the country, one result of which was
the removal of the colonial capital from Bahia to Rio de Janeiro. The
cultivation of cotton, tobacco, and sugar cane had already attained
great prominence and prosperity.

In 1808 the royal family of Portugal was expelled by the French and took
refuge in Brazil, and the very first act of Dom João VI. was to open
Brazilian ports to foreign commerce. He then removed various
restrictions on domestic industries, founded a printing office and
library, created new courts, and opened various schools and public
institutions. All these acts greatly stimulated the growth of the
country.

In 1821 he returned to Portugal, leaving his eldest son in Brazil as
prince regent. Personal ambition, and the advice of men opposed to
government from Lisbon, led the young prince to declare for Brazilian
independence, September 7, 1822. He was proclaimed and crowned emperor
as Dom Pedro I. before the end of the year, the small Portuguese force
in the country being quickly and easily expelled. The constitution was
ratified and sworn to early in 1825, and some amendments were added in
1835.

The new empire, however, did not start smoothly, nor was the reign of
Dom Pedro I. a fortunate one. Vexed with the opposition encountered, he
in 1831 voluntarily abdicated in favor of his eldest son, and withdrew
to Portugal. During the next nine years Brazil was governed by
regencies, but in 1840 a popular agitation led to the declaration of the
young prince’s majority, at fifteen years of age, and to his coronation
the following year as Dom Pedro II. The reign was one of almost unbroken
peace, interrupted by two wars--one with Buenos Aires in 1852, and the
other with Paraguay in 1865-1870.

At the revolution of November, 1889, the empire became a republic, and
Dom Pedro and his family were exiled. Under the new and enlightened
constitution and a succession of patriotic presidents, Brazil has
enjoyed a season of peace and prosperity such as it has not experienced
since its colonial times. In 1904 the third Pan-American congress was
held in Brazil, and did much to bind closer the bonds existing between
her and the other American republics.


=CHILE= (_Tchee´lee_; Span. _Chile_, pron. _Tchee´lay_), is one of the
republics of South America, on the west coast, and borders on Peru,
Bolivia, and Argentina. It reaches from the southern boundary of the
coast line of Peru to the southern extremity of Tierra del Fuego,
through a distance of about two thousand eight hundred miles, rising
inland to the summits of the Andes, which here form a single chain at a
distance of about one hundred miles from the ocean. The Strait of
Magellan is by treaty considered neutral as between Chile and Argentina.
Its breadth varies from forty to two hundred miles.

=Physical Features.=--The range of the Andes, visible from the sea all
along the coast of Chile, towers up in a series of volcanic cones and
snowclad peaks; the loftiest summit, that of Aconcagua, being probably
the highest point of all the South American continent.

Numbers of streams descend from the range, and have furrowed deep
valleys across the width of the country. The most considerable of these
are the Maypú near the center of Chile, and the Maule and Biobio in the
south, both of which are to some extent navigable.

In the south are also many deep lakes. Mineral waters, chiefly saline
and sulphureous, are abundant. The most important islands are those
constituting the southern province of Chiloé; Juan Fernandez also
belongs to Chile.

=Climate.=--This long strip of maritime country presents remarkable
gradations of climate from north to south. Nearest the Peruvian frontier
the coast-land of Tacna, Tarapacá and Atacama is a hot, rainless, sandy
desert without sign of vegetation. Southward is found a temperate
climate which enjoys a moderate rainfall. This central belt is the most
valuable and the most productive agricultural region of Chile. Farther
south the westerly winds blow toward the mountains from over the wide
Pacific and bring with them such quantities of moisture that the
rainfall is excessive; here, in southern Chile, in consequence of the
abundant moisture, the mountain slopes are densely covered with
evergreen forest.

=Production and Industry.=--Agriculture and mining are the principal
occupations. Wheat, maize, barley, oats, beans, peas, lentils, wines,
tobacco, flax, hemp, Chile pepper, and potatoes are grown extensively;
the vine and all fruit trees flourish. The live stock includes cattle,
sheep, horses, goats, and pigs. The mineral wealth is considerable, the
country being extremely rich in copper ore, and some rich gold mines
have been discovered. The rainless north yields more especially nitrate
of soda, iodine, borate of soda, gold and silver, a large number of
mines yielding both being in actual work in Tarapacá, Guanaco, and
Cachinal in Atacama, and Caracoles in Antofagasta; the center, copper
and silver; and the south, iron and coal. The nitrate exports are
extremely valuable. There are smelting works for copper and silver,
tanneries, corn and saw mills, starch, soap, biscuit, rope, cloth,
cheese, furniture, candle, and paper factories, breweries and
distilleries; and the domestic industry furnishes cloth, embroideries,
baskets, and pottery. The many ports favor commerce, and six lines of
steamers connect the country with Panama and the Magellan Strait. The
staple articles of export are nitrate of soda, iodine, copper bars and
ores, silver ores, corn, flour, hides, and guano.

=People.=--The inhabitants of northern and central Chile are, for the
most part, descendants of the intermixed Spaniards and native Indians.
In the upper classes the race has been kept more purely Spanish than in
any other South American country.

Chile is a Roman Catholic country, but other religions are tolerated.
Education receives much attention. There is a first class university at
Santiago, and a lyceum in every provincial capital. The language spoken
in Chile is Spanish, but with many local words of Indian origin.

=Government.=--Under the constitution voted in 1833, Chile is governed
by a president who is elected for five years by delegates nominated by
ballot, who is not re-eligible. A Senate and Chamber of Deputies form
the legislature. The Senate, of thirty-two members, is elected by the
provinces for six years; the Chamber, of ninety-four members, by the
departments for three years, by electors over twenty-one, and able to
read and write.

=Cities.=--Santiago, the capital, has 350,000 inhabitants; Valparaiso,
180,000; Concepcion, Iquique, Talca, Chillan, Antofagasta, over 30,000.

=Santiago= (_San-tee-âh´go_) stands near the western base of the Andes,
one thousand seven hundred feet above sea-level, and one hundred and
fifteen miles by rail east by southeast of Valparaiso. The snow-capped
mountains seem to enclose it on the north and east; while in the east of
the city rises the picturesque park, Cerro de Santa Lucia (eight hundred
feet above the plain), dotted with grottoes, statues, kiosks,
restaurants, an historical museum, and an observatory. The small but
turbulent stream, the Mapocho, is crossed by five bridges.

The city is regularly laid out, lighted with gas and electric light, and
has electric railways in all directions. Most of the houses are of one
story only, owing to the earthquakes (the most serious occurred in 1575,
1647, 1730, 1822, 1835, 1906).

On the great Plaza Independencia are the government palaces, the Grand
English Hotel, the cathedral, and the archbishop’s palace. On the site
of the Jesuit church, burned down in 1863, a monument was erected in
memory of the two thousand worshipers who perished in the fire.

Santiago boasts a noble Alameda, or boulevard, adorned with four rows of
poplars and statues. Facing it are the University and the National
Institute. The city has also a military school, schools of arts and
agriculture, a conservatory, a national library with one hundred and two
thousand volumes; botanical and zoological gardens, etc.

The manufactures include cloth, ship’s biscuits, beer, brandy, etc., and
it has also an ice factory, a fruit-conserving establishment, and
copper-smelting works.

Santiago was founded by Pedro de Valdivia in 1541.

=History of Chile.=--The name Chile is supposed to be derived from an
ancient Peruvian word signifying “snow.” The first European to land in
Chile was the Portuguese discoverer Magellan, after his famous voyage
through the strait which now bears his name. He landed at Chiloé in
1520.

After the conquest of Peru by Pizarro, an expedition was made to Chile
from that country overland under the leadership of Diego de Almagro in
1535. This expedition penetrated as far as the Rio Clano, but returned
unsuccessful. Another was sent under command of Pedro Valdivia in 1540,
which succeeded in annexing the territory as far as the River Maipu.
Santiago, the capital, was founded by Valdivia in 1542. During the
colonial period the governors of Chile were appointed by the viceroys of
Peru.

In 1810 a revolt against the Spanish power broke out, in which Don
Bernardo O’Higgins, son of one of the last viceroys of Peru, but a
native of Chile, played a conspicuous part, and finally became the first
dictator of the new republic. The first constitutional president was
General Blanco Encalada. The government was unsettled until 1847. A
revolution broke out in 1851, but since then there has been no serious
attempt to overturn the government by force of arms.

In 1864 Chile gave Peru very valuable support in her war with Spain.
Valparaiso was bombarded by the Spaniards in 1866. In 1879 Chile
declared war against Bolivia, and immediately thereafter against Peru,
with which Bolivia was allied. For a time the Peruvian fleet kept the
Chileans in check, but in August, 1879, the Peruvian ironclad _Huascar_
was captured by the Chilean men-of-war _Cochrane_ and _Blanco Encalada_,
both armor plated. After this event the success of the Chileans was
uninterrupted--Peruvian towns were bombarded, warships captured, and
Lima taken by storm June 21, 1881. The Chileans occupied Lima and Callao
until 1883, when a treaty of peace was signed.

President Balmaceda’s unconstitutional government led to civil war in
1891, when the congressionalists were victorious. The decisive battle
was fought near Valparaiso on August 28, and Balmaceda committed
suicide.

In September, 1910, the centennial celebration of the first declaration
of independence from the Spanish crown took place, many foreign
governments sending special delegations.


LEADING COUNTRIES OF ASIA


=CHINA=, or more accurately the Chinese Republic, is an extensive
dominion of Eastern Asia of which China proper constitutes the principal
portion. For centuries this dominion has been known as the Chinese
Empire, and it is still frequently referred to as such, although the
form of government is now republican. China includes a number of
dependencies or subject territories, viz.: Manchuria, Mongolia, Tibet,
East Turkestan, and the small territories between Mongolia and Tibet.

By its natives China is never so called, but usually by the Chinese
words for “The Middle State,” or “The Republic of the Middle Flower.”
The name China (_Chi-na_, land of Chin) comes to us from India through
Buddhism. Various old names are Serica and Cathay, and in the Bible
“Land of Sinim.”

China and its dependent territories have an area of 4,300,000 square
miles. The population of the whole is variously estimated at from
300,000,000 to 440,000,000. The great bulk of this falls to the
provinces of China proper: the population of all the dependencies
(Manchuria, Tibet, Mongolia, East Turkestan), making but some 16,000,000
or 25,000,000 of the total.

=Surface.=--Occupying all the central and eastern portion of the
continent of Asia, the limits are for the most part very distinctly
marked out by great natural features. The boundary with Russian Siberia
on the north runs along the Amur River and the crests of the Sayan and
Altai Mountains; towards western Turkestan the alpine heights of the
Thian Shan and the Pamir form the limit; the snow clad Himalaya range
separates China from the hot plains of India in the south, and the
mountains of Yunnan continue the natural frontier eastward again to the
coasts of the Pacific.

Within these wide exterior limits China includes a number of regions,
some of which are strongly contrasted with one another in their natural
features and in the character of their population. Along the eastern or
maritime border, where the rivers flowing down from the mountain region
of the interior have spread out in wide alluvial plains next the sea,
lie China proper and Manchuria, filled with a teeming population of busy
agriculturists and townsfolk. Within, on the high plateau of Central
Asia, the region of bare steppes and deserts, and the mountain skirts
round it, are the countries of Mongolia, Eastern Turkestan, and Tibet,
thinly peopled for the most part by nomadic pastoral tribes.

CHINA PROPER may be described as sloping from the mountainous regions of
Tibet and Nepal toward the shores of the Pacific on the east and south.
The most extensive mountain range in it is the Nan Ling or Southern
Range, a far extending spur of the Himalayas. Commencing in Yunnan, it
bounds Kwangsi, Kwangtung, and Fukien, on the north, and, passing
through Chekiang, enters the sea at Ningpo.

[Illustration: =HUNCHBACK BRIDGE, NEAR PEKING, CHINA=]

North of this long range, and west of the one hundred and thirteenth
meridian, on to the borders of Tibet, the country is mountainous, while
to the east and from the great wall on the north to the Po-yang Lake in
the south, there is the Great Plain, comprising the greater part of the
provinces of Chihli, Shantung, Honan, Anhui, and Kiangsu. The Great
Plain extends on both sides of the lower Hoang-ho, between the great
cities of Peking and Nanking, over an area more than three times as
extensive as England. Sedulously irrigated or drained, and cultivated in
every corner, this great plain supports the densest agricultural
population in the world.

[Illustration: =BRIDGE AT YUEN-MING-YUEN, CHINA=]

In the provinces west from Chihli--Shansi, Shensi and Kansu--the soil is
formed of what are called the loess beds, which are extremely fertile,
the fields composed of it hardly requiring any other manure than a
sprinkling of its own fresh loam. The husbandman in this way obtains an
assured harvest two and even three times a year. This fertility,
provided there be a sufficient rainfall, seems inexhaustible.

=Seas, Rivers and Canals.=--The semi-mediterranean seas and gulfs of the
Pacific along the coasts of China are distinguished by separate names.
In the north, between the Korean peninsula and the mainland of China, is
the Hoang Hai or Yellow Sea, three hundred miles wide, named from the
lemon color of its waters, filled with the alluvium brought down to it
by the Hoang-ho, and so shallow that its muddy bed is frequently
furrowed by passing vessels. Within or northward lie the Bay of Korea
and the Gulfs of Pechihli and Liaotung, the two last separated almost
entirely from the outer China Sea by the projecting promontories of
Shantung and Liaotung. South of the Yellow Sea, between the mainland and
southern Japan, with the chain of the Luchu Islands and Formosa, extends
the wider Tunghai or Eastern Sea; and from this the Fukien Channel,
between Formosa and the coast of China, one hundred miles wide, leads
into the great mediterranean called the Nanhai or South Sea of China,
which is almost completely shut in by Borneo and the Philippine Islands.
The coasts of the Yellow Sea bordering on the great plain are low and
flat; southward thence to the Island of Hainan the shores of China rise
steep, and are dotted round with rocky islets.

[Illustration: =GREAT CHINESE WALL,=

erected to protect the ancient empire from the inroads of nomadic
Tartars about 214 B.C. The main substance of the wall is earth or
rubbish, retained on each side by a strong casing of stone and brick,
and terraced by a platform of square tiles. The thickness of the wall at
the base is often as much as twenty-five feet. (See full description
below.)]

The rivers of China--called for the most part _ho_ in the north, and
_chiang_ (_kiang_) in the south, are one of its most distinguishing
features.

Two of them stand out conspicuous among the great rivers of the world:
the Ho, Hoang-ho, or Yellow River, and the Chiang, or Yang-tze-kiang.
They rise not far from each other among the mountains of Tibet. The Ho
pursues a tortuous course seaward through North China; the Chiang or
Yang-tze through Central China. The terrible calamities caused by the
inundations of the Hoang-ho have procured for it the name of “China’s
Sorrow.” The Ho is not much under the Chiang in length--somewhat over
three thousand miles.

Besides these may be noted the Pei-ho, which gathers the waters of the
northern portion of the great plain, and forms a highway of
communication between the capital city of Peking and the port of
Tien-tsin, thirty-five miles above its mouth; the Min, the river of the
province of Fukien, by which the Bohea teas are brought down to the port
of Fu-chou; and the Si-kiang, the largest river of southern China, one
of the delta branches of which forms the Chu-kiang, or river of the
great port of Canton.

The three largest lakes of China lie immediately south of the course of
the Yang-tze. The Tung-ting-hu, seventy miles long, and the Poyang-hu,
nearly as large, are expansions of the mouths of the chief southern
tributaries of the Yang-tze in Central China; the third, the Tai-hu,
lies south of the estuary.

CANALS.--Greatest of all the public works in China is the Grand Canal,
which traverses the great plain for a distance of seven hundred miles,
passing from Tientsin, on the Pei-ho, in the north, across the course of
the Hoang-ho to the lower course of the Yang-tze, connecting a system of
water communications which extends from the capital to the chief parts
of the empire. It is but the greatest sample of the system of canals,
great and small, which form a network over all parts of the lowlands of
China. Steam communication, however, all along the eastern seaboard from
Canton to Tientsin has now very much superseded its use.

The glory of making this canal is due to Kublai, the first sovereign of
the Yüan dynasty.

[Illustration: =PAGODA, NEAR PEKING, CHINA=

The Pagoda, or “idol temple,” in China, usually distinguishes the
Buddhist from the Confucian temple. It is a tapering tower, always with
an odd number of stories. First-class pagodas have seven, nine, or
thirteen stories, minor ones have three or five. The most famous was the
Porcelain Tower of Nanking, erected in the beginning of the fifteenth
century; only nine of the proposed thirteen stories, cased in white
porcelain, were completed, and the height never exceeded about two
hundred and sixty feet. It was destroyed by the Taipings in 1856.]

After the Grand Canal, as a gigantic achievement, comes the Great Wall,
on the north side next Mongolia. Not so useful as the canal, and having
failed to answer the purpose for which it was intended--to be a defense
against the incursions of the northern tribes, there it still stands,
the most remarkable artificial bulwark in the world.

It was in 214 B. C. that Shih Hwang Ti determined to erect a grand
barrier all along the north of his vast empire. The wall commences at
the Shanhai Pass and extends westward continuously almost into the heart
of the continent for a distance of one thousand five hundred miles, over
mountain and valley, and across rivers and ravines. It is a rampart of
earth, ten to thirty feet high, broad enough at the top to admit of
several horsemen passing abreast, and was formerly cased on the sides
and top with bricks and stones, and was flanked by numerous projections
or towers, gates being left at intervals for the passage of travelers
and the collection of customs. Now it has fallen in many places, and its
gates are negligently guarded, and northward of Peking the growing
Chinese population has spread and settled the country to a considerable
distance beyond its barrier.

=Climate.=--The climatic conditions naturally vary considerably over so
large a stretch of country. In the lofty Tibetan plateau and the less
elevated plains of Mongolia, the climate is exceedingly dry, and is
marked by great extremes of hot and cold. The basins of the two great
rivers, being nearer the Pacific, are moister and more equable. In this
part of China proper the dry season lasts from November to February, the
remaining months, particularly May, being extremely wet. The rainfall is
of a copious tropical nature.

Generally speaking, China is a cold country in comparison with other
regions in the same latitude. From July to September, however, the
weather is intensely hot, and the heat is accompanied by typhoons, which
are much dreaded for their violent and devastating effects.

=Production and Industry.=--Agricultural pursuits occupy the majority of
the people, the chief products being tea, silk, indigo, cotton, cereals,
rice, and sugar. Agriculture is held in higher estimation here than in
any other land in the world. The land is freehold, and is held by
families in small holdings.

There is much coal in all the provinces, and iron ore is also plentiful
in Shansi. Copper ore is plentiful in Yunnan. Southern Yunnan also
furnishes a variety of precious stones--rubies, amethysts, sapphires,
topazes, opals, besides malachite, and the steatite or soapstone, in
which the Chinese carve figures of all sorts.

The much prized Yu, or _jade_, brought formerly from Turkestan, comes
now from the Hoang-ho valley; lapis lazuli (for the preparation of
ultramarine) is found in the mountains of Che-kiang, in the east coast
region. Large beds of porcelain clay occur in this province also, and in
its neighboring one of Kiang-si.

About one-fourth of the world’s supply of new silk comes from China.
Cotton and wool mills, flour and rice mills are important industries.

Before European manufactures had reached their higher development, fine
“Nankeen” calico was largely imported from China to Europe. “China
ware,” or porcelain, was first made by the Chinese, and so ignorant were
the early Portuguese traders of its value, that they called it
“porcellana,” believing it perhaps to be made of shells; the secret of
its manufacture was not discovered till the beginning of the eighteenth
century. In the province of Kiang-si, not far from Yao-chou, there are
porcelain factories which were founded by an emperor in 1004 A. D.

The Chinese also excel in carpentry; paper making from the bamboo was
invented among them as early as the second century B. C. They are highly
skilled in the use of metals; bronze vases exist which date from 1760 B.
C., and the great bells on the towers of Peking, cast during the Ming
dynasty, are still perfect; the sonorous gong metal alloy is as yet a
Chinese secret; in their delicate embroideries, carvings in ivory,
engravings on wood and stone, lacquered wares, and rich silks and
satins, they show astonishing handicraft.

[Illustration: =VIEW OF THE ROCK-HEWN TEMPLES AT LUNG-MEN=

Here, as early as the seventh century, Chinese artists sculptured
religious figures in the recesses of precipitous cliffs--similar to
those of Upper Egypt--and turned them into hundreds of quarried temples.
The huge Buddha and attendant figures in the central recess can be
clearly seen. Many smaller figures and decorations in other recesses can
also be discerned.]

=People, Religion and Education.=--The Chinese, as we have seen in the
Book of Races, belong to the Mongolian race. They are stout and muscular
as compared with other eastern peoples, temperate, industrious,
cheerful, and easily contented; but they are addicted to gambling.

The dress of the poor is very much alike in both sexes; and though it is
regulated for all classes by sumptuary laws, it is varied among the
wealthy by the richness of the materials and the various ornamentation.

The three chief religions of China are Confucianism, Tâoism, and
Buddhism. It is difficult to estimate the comparative number of their
adherents. To claim a majority for those of any one of them is very
absurd. As a matter of fact, Confucianism represents the intelligence
and morality of China; Tâoism its superstitions; and Buddhism is
ritualism and idolatry, while yet it acknowledges no God.

Besides these three national systems, Mohammedanism has numerous
adherents in the northern and western provinces.

There are temples of Confucius in every great town, and twice a year, in
spring and autumn, sacrifices of animals, fruit, and wine are offered in
honor of the sage.

The majority of the Tâoists, or followers of Laotse, imitate the
Buddhists in their monastic life, and many of them live as hermits in
the mountain caves of the upper Yang-tze, or in the most romantic spots
of the mountains of China.

The Grand Lama of Tibet is the pope of the Buddhist Church, but the
priests in China have no political power, and are viewed with contempt
by the literary and governing classes. In Peking, however, several large
monasteries of Tibetan and Mongolian Buddhists are supported at the
expense of the government.

The native Roman Catholics of China are said to number more than a
million, but Protestants are very few.

In 1906, after the Russo-Japanese war, a new system of compulsory
primary education was established. The curriculum is largely based upon
the Japanese. Modern sciences, history, geography, and foreign languages
are taught. Special schools have been established (technical,
agricultural, normal, language, etc.). Thousands of temples have been
converted to educational purposes. Old style examination halls have
been pulled down, and colleges built on the sites. The educational
facilities are, however, very inadequate. Girls’ schools, formerly
non-existent, are still very few in number. The only government medical
school is an army one, but the government has recognized the Union
Medical College, opened in Peking by the Protestant missions there. Many
Chinese students have proceeded to Japan, America, and Europe to study
there. The government is using the money returned by the American
government from the Boxer indemnity to send students to America.

[Illustration: =ROYAL OBSERVATORY, PEKING, CHINA=

The Chinese were among the very earliest observers of the heavens,
though the Hindus, Chinese, Chaldeans, and Egyptians each claim the
honor of having been the first students of astronomy. The Chinese have
astronomical annals claiming to go back two thousand eight hundred and
fifty-seven years B. C. These record little but the appearance of comets
and solar eclipses. Professional astronomers were compelled to predict
every eclipse under pain of death. The popular idea was that an eclipse
was a monster having evil designs on the sun, and it was customary to
make a great noise, by shouting, etc., in order to frighten it away. At
an early period the Chinese appear to have been acquainted with the
luni-solar Metonic cycle of nineteen years, and they had also divided
the year into three hundred and sixty-five and one-fourth days. To the
burning of all scientific books by one of their princes
(Tsin-Chi-Hong-Ti), 221 B. C., the Chinese attribute the loss of many
theories and methods previously in use.]

There is a university in Peking and a number of colleges under foreign
management. In 1911 there were five hundred and forty-five foreigners
employed in educational work.

=Government.=--Until February 12, 1912, China was a monarchy, in
practice almost absolute. Since that day it has been a republic under a
president who holds office for a term of five years. Many changes were
made at the time of the revolution. A cabinet was substituted for the
old grand council, grand secretariat, and government council; the
cabinet being composed of a prime minister, two associate ministers, the
various ministers of state, and the heads of various boards. A privy
council was also formed. Administration is carried on by the following
ministries: (1) Of Foreign Affairs; (2) Interior; (3) Finance; (4)
Education; (5) War; (6) Marine; (7) Justice; (8) Agriculture, Works, and
Commerce; (9) Posts and Communications; (10) Colonies. There are also a
large number of minor boards and offices, divided into twenty-two
provinces for local administration.

=Cities.=--There were in 1910 about twenty-three towns with populations
exceeding 50,000, but all figures are based upon estimates.

  Peking       1,000,000
  Canton       1,250,000
  Hankow         900,000
  Tientsin       850,000
  Shanghai       700,000
  Fuchow         650,000
  Chungking      600,000
  Suchow         500,000
  Ningpo         450,000
  Hangchow       400,000
  Nanking        300,000
  Changsha       250,000
  Chinkiang      200,000
  Antung         150,000
  Wuhu           130,000
  Amoy           120,000
  Wenchow        100,000
  Swatow          90,000
  Chefoo          90,000
  Shasi           85,000
  Ichang          70,000
  Kongmun         60,000
  Wuchow          60,000
  Niuchwang       50,000

=Peking, or Pei-Ching= (“Northern Capital”) is situated in a sandy
plain, and is surrounded by walls with sixteen gates, each surmounted by
towers one hundred feet high; and it consists, in fact, of two
cities--the inner and the outer--known also as the Manchu or Tartar and
the Chinese, the northern and the southern.

The walls of the Manchu city average fifty feet in height, and are fully
sixty feet wide at the bottom; those of the Chinese city (rectangular
in plan) are thirty feet high and twenty-five feet wide. The circuit of
the two cities measures twenty-one miles, including an area of nearly
twenty-six square miles.

The Manchu or Inner City is divided into three portions; and at the
heart of it are two enclosures, into the innermost of which entrance is
forbidden to all except such as have official claims to admission. It is
called the “Purple Forbidden City,” is very nearly two and one-quarter
miles in circuit, and in it are the palaces of the former emperors and
other members of the imperial family.

The T’âi Ho, or “Hall of Grand Harmony,” is built of marble on a terrace
twenty feet high, and rising itself an additional one hundred and ten
feet; its principal apartment is two hundred feet long and ninety feet
wide. Surrounding the Forbidden City is the “August City,” about six
miles in circuit, and encompassed by a wall twenty feet high. In the
western part of the “August City” is the “Western Park” with a large
artificial lake, a summer-house, gardens, the copper statue of Buddha
(sixty feet high), and the temple of “Great Happiness.”

In the General City are the principal offices of the government, the
observatory, the Provincial Hall for literary examinations, the Colonial
Office, and the “National Academy.” In the northeastern corner is the
Russian mission, and west from it the “Palace of Everlasting Harmony,” a
grand monastery for over a thousand Mongol and Tibetan monks. A little
farther west stands, amidst cypresses, the temple of Confucius. To the
“Temple of Emperors and Kings,” near the south wall, the emperors went
to worship the spirits of nearly two hundred predecessors. The great
Tutelary Temple of the capital is grimy, and full of fortune-tellers.
All the foreign legations and Christian missions are within the Inner
City. The new Roman Catholic Cathedral is conspicuous.

The Chinese or Outer City is very sparsely populated; much of the ground
is under cultivation or wooded.

The “Altar to Heaven,” with its adjunct, the “Altar of Prayer for
Grain,” and the “Altar of Agriculture,” are both near the southern wall.
The “Altar to Heaven” stands on a splendid triple circular terrace of
white marble, richly carved, in a grove of fine trees. The “Altar of
Prayer for Grain,” was burned down in 1889.

The principal streets of the Chinese City are more than one hundred feet
wide, but the side streets are mere lanes. The streets are seldom paved
and are deep either in mud or in dust. In the smaller streets the houses
are miserable shanties; in the main streets both private houses and
shops are one-story brick edifices, the shops gay with paint and
gilding.

There are three Catholic cemeteries (Portuguese, French, and native) and
a Russian one; and there are mission buildings, Russian and others, and
hospitals.

=History.=--Chinese historical documents begin with the reigns of Yâo
and Shun. In 403 B. C. we find only seven great states, all sooner or
later claiming to be “the kingdom,” and contending for the supremacy,
till Ts’in (Ch’in) put down all the others, and in 221 B. C. its king
assumed the title of Hwang Tî, or emperor. From that year dates the
imperial form of the Chinese government, which thus existed for more
than two thousand one hundred years.

The changes of dynasty were many, two or more sometimes ruling together,
each having but a nominal supremacy over the whole nation. The greater
dynasties have been those of Han (206 B. C.-220 A. D.), T’ang
(618-906), Sung (960-1279), Yüan (the Mongol, 1280-1367), the Ming
(1368-1643), and the Ch’ing (Manchû-Tartar, from the Manchû conquest of
China in 1643 to the 1912 revolution).

It was not till after the Cape of Good Hope had been doubled, and the
passage to India discovered by Vasco da Gama in 1497, that intercourse
between any of the European nations and China was possible by sea. It
was in 1516 that the Portuguese first made their appearance at Canton;
and they were followed at intervals of time by the Spaniards, the Dutch,
and the English in 1635. The Chinese received none of them cordially;
and Chinese dislike of them was increased by their mutual jealousies and
collisions with one another. In the meantime trade gradually increased,
and there grew up the importation of opium from India. From the measures
of the Chinese to prevent the import of opium came the first English war
with China in 1840; the result of which was the opening of Canton, Amoy,
Fûchâu, Ningpo, and Shanghâi to commerce, and the cession of Hongkong to
Great Britain. A second war, in 1857, France being allied with Great
Britain, ended in the opening of five more treaty ports. A third war
(1860) and the march on Peking did even more to open China to the world.

After a war in 1884-1885 France secured permanent control of Tongking
and Annam.

In 1894 Japan, reviving old claims on Korea, drove the Chinese out of
Korea, and after victories on land and at sea, captured Port Arthur and
Wei-hai-wei. By the treaty of 1894 Japan secured as indemnity Formosa
and the Liao-tung peninsula; but the protests of Russia, Germany, and
France made Japan resign Liao-tung. Russia obtained a lease of Port
Arthur and Talienwan, with railway and other privileges in Manchuria;
Germany obtained Kiao-chau and concessions in Shantung; and Great
Britain, as an offset, obtained a lease of Wei-hai-wei and sought to
secure trading freedom in the Yang-tze-kiang valley.

Russia’s refusal to evacuate Manchuria and her movements in Korea led to
war with Japan in 1903, the defeat of the Russian armies in Manchuria,
the destruction of the Russian fleet, and the fall of Port Arthur
(1905), China being nominally neutral. By the peace (1905) Japan secured
dominance in Korea, the Russian leases in Liao-tung, and great influence
in southern Manchuria and on China generally.

A series of far-reaching reforms, promoted by a nationalist reform party
in 1898, were summarily cancelled by the dowager empress, who assumed
supreme authority. The reactionary and anti-foreign “Boxer” association
(“The Fist of Righteous Harmony”), encouraged by the court, made
extermination of foreigners its war cry in that year, and besieged the
legislations in Peking. After a two months’ siege by an army of
Japanese, Russians, British, Americans, French, and Germans this
condition was relieved. The constitutional movement began in 1911,
followed by a revolution. The leader of the revolt at Han-kau was the
able general, Li Yuan-hung, but the inspirer of the revolution was Dr.
Sun Yat-sen, at that moment in America.

On October 13 the rebels proclaimed a republic in the province of
Hu-peh, with Li Yuan-hung as president, and notified the foreign consuls
that the property and persons of foreigners would be respected.

On February 12, 1912, the throne issued three edicts, in which it
announced its will to abide by the decision of the National Convention
and accept the republic, entrusting Yuan with the task of bringing about
the new constitution in conjunction with the Nan-king government, and,
after exhorting all to peacefully accept the new order, announced the
abdication of the dynasty.

A constitution of seventy clauses was promulgated; the emperor was to
retain his title and receive a pension, and be accorded the civility due
to a foreign sovereign. On February 27 the Nan-king Assembly endorsed
this decision by electing Yuan president, and he was formally installed
on March 10.

Yuan’s administration was hampered by the movements in Mongolia and
Tibet towards autonomy, movements countenanced by Russia and Great
Britain respectively. Difficulties were also put in the way of China by
the European powers in the matter of a development loan, but President
Yuan, supported by Dr. Sun Yat-sen, seems to have laid securely the
foundations of the largest republic the world has yet seen.

President Yuan Shi-ki was assassinated in 1916, and succeeded by Li
Yuan-hung.


=INDIA,= the Indian Empire of the British crown, is an extensive region
of southern Asia, and next after China the most populous area in the
world. It occupies the central peninsula of southern Asia, and has a
length of some nineteen hundred miles, a breadth of sixteen hundred, and
an area, inclusive of Burma, of 1,766,650 square miles. The natural
boundaries of this vast region are, on the north, the range of the
Himalaya Mountains, which separates it from Tartary, China, and Tibet;
on the west, the mountainous frontiers of Afghanistan and, farther
south, of Persia; on the southwest and south the Arabian Sea and the
Indian Ocean; on the east the hill ranges which border upon Burma and
the Bay of Bengal.

=Surface.=--The region presents a diversified surface and scenery. It
has indeed been called “an epitome of the whole earth,” consisting as it
does of mountains far above the level of perpetual snow, broad and
fertile plains bathed in intense sunshine, arid wastes, and impenetrable
forests.

The most prominent feature in the relief of India is the great range of
snowy peaks named the _Himalaya_, or “abode of snow,” which rises on the
edge of the Tibetan plateau, above the northern plains, stretching out
in a continuous chain for nearly eighteen hundred miles. The mean height
of this portion of the borders of the Tibetan plateau, defined very
clearly by the channels of the Indus and the Bramaputra, is estimated at
thirteen thousand feet; the mean breadth of its base is about one
hundred and fifty miles. Its summits rise to twenty-nine thousand feet,
and most of the difficult passes ascending from the valleys and gorges
of the Indian side are not lower than about sixteen thousand feet.

Southward from the bases of the Himalaya and the Sulaiman mountains the
great plain of northern India spreads out, reaching across the whole
breadth of Hindustan from the Arabian Sea to the Gulf of Bengal.

Southward of the great plain the land begins to rise again. The first
elevations reached in this direction are those of the long range of the
Aravali hills, which extend for four hundred miles from northeast to
southwest, marking the edge of the western section of the great plain.
It is bold and precipitous on that side which falls toward the Indian
desert, but less so on the southeast; its average height is about three
thousand feet, Mount Abu, being the highest point.

Behind the Aravali hills lie the plateaus of Malwa and Bundelkhand,
extending over the country generally termed central India; These are
fertile tablelands of uneven surface elevated from one thousand five
hundred to two thousand feet above the sea level, and traversed by a
number of minor hill ridges.

The greater part of south India is occupied by the wide tableland of the
Deccan. The name _ghat_ was originally applied by the natives to the
passes in the outer slopes of the ranges which run parallel with the two
coasts of the southern portion of the great promontory of India
enclosing the Deccan, and which had to be ascended to reach the high
interior country from the coast; but this name Ghat has been transferred
to these ranges or outer edges of the tableland themselves.

The western Ghats, about eight hundred miles in length, clothed with
magnificent teak forests, form by far the boldest and most continuous
escarpment of the Deccan plateau, ascending abruptly from a low base,
generally at a distance of about thirty miles from the sea.

The eastern Ghats differ from the western in being much lower, in rising
at a much greater distance from the coast of the Bay of Bengal, and with
a gentle slope, giving access by wide openings to the interior. Their
average height is about fifteen hundred feet, the highest point, near
Madras, only about three thousand feet above the sea. The Deccan plateau
between these supporting buttresses has thus a gradual eastward slope,
and is characterized by undulating treeless plains, ridges and isolated
flat-topped hills capped with basalt. Large portions of it are also
covered with jungle, often overgrowing the ruins of former towns and
temples, but there is no extent of forest.

Between the eastern Ghats and the sea lies the extensive maritime plain
generally named the Karnatic, reaching back from the Coromandel coast
for about fifty miles. The soil of this plain proves abundantly fertile
when it is watered, but there are few streams, and a supply of water for
irrigation has to be stored in reservoirs.

=Rivers.=--The river system of India consists of three great rivers: the
Indus, the Ganges, the Bramaputra.

The Indus rises on the northern slopes of the Himalayas, sweeps round
and enters at the western extremity of the range, and waters the
Punjab.

The Ganges is formed by the amalgamation of the streams which drain the
southernmost slopes of the Himalayas.

The Bramaputra rises also within easy distance of the Indus in the
northern slopes of the Himalayas, flows east for some considerable
distance, and then enters India at the extreme eastern point of the
Himalayas. It is therefore to be noticed that the river system, of such
vast importance to the people of India, is the drainage of both the
northern and the southern slopes of the Himalayas.

The Ganges is the sacred river of the Hindus, rises in a snow-field of
the southern face of the Himalayas at an elevation of nearly fourteen
thousand feet above the sea, rushing down as a torrent to the highest
accessible point on its banks (ten thousand three hundred feet), where
the temple of Gangotri is built. To the Hindu a bath or a drink of the
sacred water at this point has wonderful atoning virtues, and those who
cannot themselves make the pilgrimage hither are supplied with flasks of
the holy element bottled by the priests of Gangotri. At Allahabad the
Jumna, which has followed a parallel course from the mountains, adds its
strength; thence, by Benares and Patna, it passes eastward to weave its
many mouths with those of the Bramaputra, and to wage a battle twice
daily with the inflowing tide among the malarious islands of the
Sundarbans. One of the westerly delta branches, the Hugli, on which
Calcutta stands, is the most frequented highway to the sea.

=Climate.=--The whole country has three well-marked seasons--the cool,
the hot, and the rainy. The cool months are November, December, January,
and a part of February; the dry hot weather precedes, and the moist hot
weather follows the periodical rains. The rainy season falls in the
middle of summer and is called monsoon. It is the occasional failure of
the monsoons that causes the periodical famines to which the country is
liable.

The central tableland is cool, comparatively, but the alternations of
heat and cold differ greatly elsewhere.

In the northwest there is burning heat with hot winds in summer, and
frost at night in winter.

In the south the heat is more tempered, but the winter is cool only, and
not cold.

The fall of rain varies greatly in different parts of the country. In
the northeastern and other outlying parts it exceeds seventy-five
inches. In the Deccan, in the upper basins of the Ganges and the Indus,
it is thirty, and in the lower regions of the Indus less than fifteen
inches. The remainder of India is placed between the extremes
represented by these damp and dry belts.

=Production and Industry.=--The large majority of the population of
India are engaged in agricultural pursuits, nearly 200,000,000 being
either engaged in tilling the soil or dependent upon those so engaged.
Great irrigation works have been carried out, the area irrigated being
42,486,724 acres.

The principal crops cultivated are rice, wheat, millet, pulse, and other
food grains, oil-seeds, tea, cotton, sugar-cane, tobacco, and indigo.

Tea is grown largely under European supervision in the Eastern
Himalayas, and already surpasses the China teas. Coffee is grown in the
south, but with checkered success. Among the dyes, indigo and lac (red)
are noteworthy. The indigenous flowers are not rich, the water lilies
being the best; the flowering shrubs are very fine.

Of trees in the plains near the coasts the palm order with its several
varieties strikes the observer. Inland the mango fruit-tree and the
orange, the umbrageous banyan, the sacred peepul, and the bamboo are
features in the landscape. In the hills the teak and other useful timber
trees are obtained. In the Himalayas are the cedar, the pine, the fir,
the juniper.

The cultivation of opium is a government monopoly and heavy duties are
levied on the exports of opium, a duty being also paid to the Indian
treasury.

Almost all the metals and minerals are represented in India, but of the
useful metals, excepting iron, the quantity is not known to be large.
Coal exists in many parts, especially in the northeast--at Bardwan, near
Calcutta, and in Assam. Gold is found in Mysore, and in the sands of
many streams; copper near Delhi and elsewhere; salt is obtained in large
quantity from the mines in the northwest of the Punjab, and by
evaporation from the coast lagoons all round India, and from salt lakes
in Rajputana. Most of the precious gems, including diamonds, rubies,
sapphires, and emeralds, are found, some abundantly, some rarely, though
the supply of the once famous diamonds of Golconda seems to have ceased.

Metal and textile workers, glass and pottery workers, with their
dependants, number close on twenty millions, and there are large numbers
employed in service.

The textile manufactures of India were famous in long past centuries
throughout the civilized world; such were the gold brocades of Delhi,
brought thence to imperial Rome, the muslins of Dacca, made for the
Mongol court, and the pattern colored cloths of Calicut (calico), the
shawls of Kashmir, and the silks and carpets of Multan. All these
home-made fabrics, however, have declined before the products of the
great factories.

=Peoples.=--The broad division of the peoples of India includes a
northern group of Aryan nations, occupying the great plains and the
northern seaboard on each side, and the non-Aryan inhabitants of the
Deccan plateau in southern India. This division also corresponds to that
of the languages of India, separating those related to the Sanscrit, the
language of the Aryan conquerors of the north, from the Dravidian and
Kolarian of the south. (See Book of Races.)

LANGUAGES.--Though nearly a hundred and fifty languages, derived from
nearly twenty linguistic families, are spoken in India, three
of those families--the Aryo-Indian, the Dravidian, and the
Tibeto-Burman--represent the speech of ninety-seven per cent of the
inhabitants.

Hindustani, a dialect of Hindi, has become the literary language of
Hindustan, and is the _lingua franca_ of India. English is understood by
many.

RELIGIONS.--The chief religions are Hinduism (218,000,000 in 1911),
Mohammedans (66,000,000), Buddhists (11,000,000), Animists (10,000,000),
and Christians (4,000,000).

=Government.=--India is a dependency of Great Britain, consisting partly
of territory under the direct administration of British officials, and
partly of native states, all subordinate, in varying degrees of
relationship, to British authority.

The nine great provinces are Madras, Bombay, Bengal, the United
Provinces of Agra and Oudh, the Punjab, Burma, Eastern Bengal and Assam,
the Central Provinces, and the Northwestern Frontier Province.

In accordance with the Royal Titles Act of 1876 the King of Great
Britain and Ireland assumes the additional title of Emperor of India.
The Parliament of the United Kingdom is supreme over India; but all the
statutes relating to India are in the nature of either constitutional
enactments or financial provisions.

In India the supreme authority, both executive and legislative, is
vested in the governor-general in council. The governor-general, or
viceroy, who generally holds office for five years, receives a salary of
eighty-five thousand dollars a year, and has power to overrule his
council in cases of emergency. The council is composed of six ordinary
members, all appointed, like the governor-general himself, by the crown
for a period of five years. Since 1909 one of the members has been a
native of India.

The work of the council is distributed among the departments of finance,
commerce, home and foreign affairs, revenue and agriculture, army,
legislation, education, and public works. The foreign department is
under the special care of the viceroy.

The seat of the supreme government of India is Delhi, with an annual
migration to the hill-station of Simla for the hot season.

=Cities.=--The capital, Delhi, has a population (1911) of 391,828. The
other chief cities are: Calcutta (1,216,514), Bombay (972,930), Madras
(517,335), Hyberabad (499,840), Rangoon (293,316), Lucknow (260,621),
Lahore (228,318), Ahmedabad (215,448), Benares (204,222). In addition
there are twenty cities with populations exceeding 100,000.

=Delhi= (_Del´lee_), since 1912 the capital of the Indian Empire is
located on the right bank of the Jumna, nine hundred and fifty-four
miles northwest of Calcutta. It was the capital of the Afghan or Pathan,
and afterwards of the Mogul, empire. It is the terminus of the East
Indian and Rajputana railways, the former crossing the Jumna by a fine
iron bridge.

Delhi is walled on three sides, has ten gates, and stands on high
ground, the famous palace of Shah Jehan, now the fort, looking out over
the river and a wide stretch of wooded and cultivated country. To the
north, about a mile distant, rises the historic “ridge,” crowned with
memorials of the Indian mutiny, and commanding a fine view of the city,
the domes and minarets of which overtop the encircling groves.

The palace buildings comprise the cathedral-like entrance hall, the
audience hall, and several lesser pavilions, covering in all an area of
one thousand six hundred feet by three thousand two hundred feet,
exclusive of gateways. The beautiful inlaid work and carving of these
buildings are the admiration of the world, and is worthy of its famous
inscription: “If there is a heaven on earth, it is this--it is this!”

In the heart of the city stands the Jama Masjid (“great mosque”), one of
the largest and finest structures of the kind in India, which also owes
its origin to Shah Jehan. Among the notable monuments in the
neighborhood are the imperial tombs, including that of Hamayun, second
of the Mogul dynasty; the old Kala Masjid, or black mosque; and the
thirteenth century Kutab Minar, ten miles to the south, which is two
hundred and thirty-eight feet high, and tapers gracefully from a
diameter of forty-seven feet at the base to nine feet at the summit.

Modern Delhi is noted for its broad main streets, the chief being the
Chandni Chauk, or Silver Street, with its high clock tower, and the
institute and museum.

Delhi has a large trade in wheat and other produce, and its bazaars are
noted for gold and silver work, precious stones, shawls, and costly
fabrics.

=Simla=, since 1864 the summer headquarters of the British government in
India, stands on the slopes (seven thousand feet) of the Himalayas, in a
beautiful situation, one hundred and seventy miles north of Delhi. Its
first house was built in 1819, and it was first visited officially by
the Indian government in 1827. There are two vice-regal residences,
handsome government buildings, and a fine town hall. Population sixteen
thousand in winter, and considerably more in summer.

=Calcutta=, on the left bank of the Hughly, the largest and westernmost
branch of the Ganges delta, is about eighty miles from the sea. The
government buildings, Bishop’s College (now an engineering school), High
Court, town hall, bank, museum, university, St. Paul’s cathedral, and
many other English buildings have earned for it the name “City of
Palaces.” The native quarters, though improved, are still squalid, the
houses of mud or bamboo. An esplanade, numerous quays, an excellent
water-supply, gas, and tramway services, add to the amenities. There are
extensive dockyards, warehouses, ironworks, timber yards, and jute
mills. Extensive railway and steamboat communications make it the chief
emporium of commerce in Asia.

=Bombay= stands on an island, connected with the coast by a causeway,
and has a magnificent harbor and noble docks. It is rapidly surpassing
Calcutta in trade, and is one of the greatest of seaports; its position
promises to make it the most important commercial center in the East, as
it already is in the cotton trade of the world. It swarms with people of
every clime, and its merchandise is mainly in the hands of the Parsees,
the descendants of the ancient fire worshippers. It is the most English
town in India. It came to England from Portugal as dowry with Catherine
of Braganza, wife of Charles II., who leased it to the East India
Company for fifty dollars a year. Its prosperity began when the Civil
war in the United States afforded it an opening for its cotton.

=Benares=, the most sacred city of the Hindus, and an important town in
the Northwest Provinces, is on the Ganges, four hundred and twenty miles
by rail northwest of Calcutta. It presents the amazing array of one
thousand seven hundred temples and mosques with towers and domes and
minarets innumerable. The bank of the river is laid with continuous
flights of steps whence the pilgrims bathe; but the city itself is
narrow, crooked, crowded, and dirty. Many thousands of pilgrims visit it
annually. It is a seat of Hindu learning; there is also a government
college. The river is spanned here by a magnificent railway bridge.
There is a large trade in country produce, English goods, jewelry, and
gems; while its brass work “Benares ware,” is famous.

=Agra=, a city in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, is on the
Jumna, one hundred and thirty-nine miles southeast of Delhi by rail, and
eight hundred and forty-one miles northwest of Calcutta. The ancient
walls embrace an area of eleven square miles, of which about one-half is
now occupied. The houses are mostly built of red sandstone, and, on the
whole, Agra is the handsomest city in upper India.

Some of the public buildings, monuments of the house of Timur, are on a
scale of striking magnificence. Among these are the fortress built by
Akbar, within the walls of which are the palace and audience hall of
Shah Jehan, the Moti Masjid or Pearl Mosque, and the Jama Masjid or
Great Mosque.

Still more celebrated is the white marble Taj Mahal, situated without
the city, about a mile to the east of the fort. This extraordinary and
beautiful mausoleum was built by the Emperor Shah Jehan for himself and
his favorite wife, who died in 1629, and is remarkable alike for the
complexity and grace of the general design, and the elaborate perfection
of the workmanship. In the center, on a raised platform, is the
mausoleum, surmounted by a beautiful dome, with smaller domes at each
corner, and four graceful minarets (one hundred and thirty-three feet
high). Of British edifices the principal are the Government House, the
Government College, three missionary colleges, the English church, and
the barracks.

The climate, during the hot and rainy seasons (April to September), is
very trying; but the average health of the city is equal to that of any
other station in the United Provinces.

The principal articles of trade are cotton, tobacco, salt, grain, and
sugar. There are manufactories of shoes, pipe stems, and gold lace, and
of inlaid mosaic work, for which Agra is famous.

=History.=--It is impossible to speak positively as to the aboriginal
prehistoric populations of India; probably the most primitive peoples
now left--the Dravidian hill-tribes--represent waves of invasion from
the north. The history of civilization in India may, however, be traced
from the invasion--probably one thousand years or more B. C.--of the
Aryan race from central Asia, a race of the Indo-Germanic type in
physique and speech. Their language was Sanskrit, their religion and
civilization that of the Vedas, or ancient Hindu scriptures.

Out of the union of the Aryans with the earlier inhabitants the modern
races of India have sprung. Buddhism arose in India with the teaching of
Budda about 500 B. C, and for a while superseded the Vedic faith,
corrupted as it had been by the degraded aboriginal superstitions; and
India was substantially Buddhist till the revival of Hinduism, in its
modern or Brahmanic form (more idolatrous and superstitious than the
ancient faith), in the sixth century A. D.

In 1001 A. D. came the first wave of Mohammedanism, and soon all India
fell under Mohammedan domination, though the bulk of the people clung to
the Hindu religion. By the beginning of the eighteenth century a new
Hindu power, that of the Mahrattas, arose, and seriously weakened the
Moslem emperor, the Grand Mogul. The Dutch, Portuguese, and French, as
well as the British, established themselves in the empire; in the
eighteenth century the French more than rivaled the British in power.
But the power of the British East India Company, originally traders,
became dominant after the battle of Plassey in 1757.

Gradually English power as represented by the company, its diplomatists,
and its soldiers, extended over a great part of India, and the
governors--Clive, Warren Hastings, Wellesley, Amherst, Bentinck,
Dalhousie, Canning--consolidated what was really the empire of Great
Britain in the East. Then in 1857 came the great mutiny, stamped out in
blood, and the government was assumed by the British crown in 1858.
British rule in India has been steadily consolidated, but no great
annexation has since taken place, except that of Upper Burma in 1886.

After the mutiny, India settled down to a period of peace, broken only
by the constant suspicion of Russian intrigue in Afghanistan. This led
in 1878 to the second Afghan war. The Amir was deposed, and his
successor promised to receive a British resident, who was in a short
time murdered, as was also his escort. This resulted in the famous march
of General Roberts from Kabul to Kandahar, and eventually an Amir who
was favorable to the British was set up. This Amir reigned until 1901,
and his successor remained friendly to the British.

Finally, in 1907, a convention between Russia and Britain was signed,
and later an agreement as to the line of delimitation of their
respective spheres of influence in Persia was arrived at in 1912. Quetta
and the southeastern districts of Afghanistan were annexed after the
second Afghan war, and the purchase of the Suez Canal was of great use
in the defense of India. British supremacy over the Afghan tribes was
also recognized.

After his coronation in 1911, George V. of Great Britain visited India
and held a Coronation Durbar at the beginning of 1912 in India itself,
this being the first visit of an English raj to the Indian empire, and
the capital of India was officially proclaimed as Delhi.


=JAPAN=, an island empire off the east coast of Asia, separated from
Siberia by the Sea of Japan. The name Japan is a corruption of
_Zipangu_, itself a corruption of the Chinese pronunciation of the
native name _Nihon_ or _Nippon_ (“Land of the Rising Sun”).

Japan comprises four large islands, Honshu (the Japanese mainland),
Shikoku, Kiushu, and Yezo or Hakkaido; the Luchu Islands, Formosa,
divided from China by the Formosa Channel; and Korea (annexed in 1910
and renamed Chosen). A small group of islands, Bonia, six hundred miles
southeast of Tokio, also belongs to Japan.

The Kwantung province, including Port Arthur and Darien, was leased to
Japan by Russia (with the consent of China) in 1905, while the southern
portion of Sakhalin (ceded to Russia in 1875) became once more Japanese.

The empire includes also nearly four thousand small islands.

The islands comprising the Japanese Empire have been likened to the
British Isles in their position relative to the Continent, the Sea of
Japan and the Strait of Korea resembling the North Sea and Strait of
Dover. In their general extent of surface the comparison also holds
good. The three contiguous islands of Japan proper are, however,
considerably larger than Great Britain, while the northern possession
of Yezo is three thousand square miles larger than Ireland.

The empire with its dependencies comprises an area of 235,886 square
miles, with a population of 67,142,798.

=Surface Characteristics.=--The islands are eminently volcanic, and
eighteen of the summits are still active; the chief of these, Fuji-san,
or Fuji-yama, the loftiest and most sacred mountain of Japan, about
sixty miles from Tokio, has been dormant since 1707. Japan is also
liable to frequent, and occasionally disastrous, earthquakes.

The country is very mountainous, and not more than one-sixth of its area
is available for cultivation. The numerous ranges extend in directions
parallel to the length of the group, giving varied and picturesque
landscapes of hill and valley. Their irregular coast-line is indented
with splendid natural harbors, such as the Bay of Yedo on the southeast
coast; the beautiful “inland sea” of Japan, with its intricate channel
between hundreds of islets, separates the island of Shikoku from the
larger one of Hondo, and the enclosed Suwonada and Bugo Channel, divide
the southwestern island of Kiushu from both of these.

=Lakes and Rivers.=--From the mountainous character of the long narrow
islands the rivers are generally impetuous, and of small economic
importance, except for irrigation. Among the most important may be noted
the Yodo-gawa, which flows from the fiddle-shaped Lake Biwa, the largest
fresh water expanse in Japan, thirty-five miles long, to the “inland
sea;” the broad and rapid Ten-riu-gawa, or “River of the Heavenly
Dragon,” which flows south from the central mountains of Nippon; and the
Tone-gawa, which enters the Pacific, but sends a branch to the Bay of
Yedo, which is crossed within the capital by the Nippon Bassi, or bridge
of Japan, from which, as a starting point, all distances throughout the
kingdom are measured.

=Climate.=--The islands of Japan have a climate that may be compared
with that of South Britain. The extremes, however, are greater, summer
being hotter, and winter colder, than in England, increasing to almost
Siberian rigor in the north. June, July, and August form the Satkasi, or
rainiest period; the autumn succeeding is the pleasantest and most
genial season of the year. Hurricanes, storms, and fogs, are frequent in
the seas round Japan, where warm and cold ocean currents also bring
about great differences of sea temperature.

=Products and Industries.=--The islands have a very beautiful flora,
including many ornamental plants. The great feature of the vegetation is
the intermixture of tropical growths, such as the bamboo, palms,
tree-ferns, and bananas, with those of temperate regions, the pine, oak,
beech, chestnut and maple. Characteristic are the paper mulberry, the
vegetable-wax tree, the camphor and lacquer trees. The cultivated crops
are rice, maize, wheat, barley, tobacco, tea, and cotton.

Japan is also very rich in minerals. Gold, silver, and copper are
especially abundant in the north, and coal and iron beds seem to extend
throughout the group. Petroleum is also being produced in large
quantities, especially in the Province of Echigo.

=People.=--With the exception of the wilds of Yezo, peopled by eighteen
thousand Ainos, the Japanese islands are inhabited by a single race
speaking various dialects of the same tongue. Probably the Japanese are
the issue of the intermarriage of victorious Tartar settlers, who
entered Japan from the Korean peninsula, with Malays in the south and
Ainos in the main island. See Book of Races.

There are two prevailing religions in Japan--Shintoism, the indigenous
faith; and Buddhism, introduced from China in 552 and still the dominant
religion among the people. Francis Xavier introduced Christianity in
1549, and the Roman Catholic Church and the Greek Church both carry on a
flourishing work in Japan. Of the Protestant missions there are also
many actively at work.

In education, as well as in matters of religion, enormous changes and
advances have been made in recent years. Education is in the lower
grades free and compulsory. Secondary schools are state aided, and
prepare for a three years’ course at the universities, which is largely
devoted to the study of European languages. There are high schools for
girls, and the technical and special schools are well attended. There
are three State Universities, at Tokio, Kyoto, and Tohoku.

=Production and Industry.=--Agriculture is the chief occupation of the
Japanese, and they are excellent and careful farmers. In the mechanical
arts also they excel; especially in the use of metals, in the
manufacture of porcelain and glass lacquered wares, and silk fabrics.
The chief manufactures are silk and cotton, cotton yarn, matches, paper,
glass, lacquer ware, porcelain, and bronze, and ship building is an
important industry in the yards.

The chief exports are silk, cotton, yarns, rice, tea, fish, copper,
matches, coal, camphor, straw plaits, porcelain, earthenware,
lacquer-ware, and marine products.

The commercial development of Japan has of late been marvelous. There
were five thousand nine hundred and eighty-five miles of railroad open
in 1914, in addition to eight hundred and thirty-six miles open in
Korea, while the South Manchurian Railway (China) is under Japanese
control.

=Government and Administration.=--The government is an hereditary
monarchy, the succession being now exclusively in the male line. The
Cabinet consists of ten Ministers of State, presided over by a Minister
President.

The Upper House, or House of Peers, consists of about three hundred and
thirty members--male members of the royal house, life peers, peers
elected either for life or for seven years, and other persons nominated
by the emperor. The lower house, or House of Representatives, has three
hundred and sixty-nine members, who serve for four years, elected by
citizens paying taxes of not less than ten yen (five dollars) per annum.
The first general election took place in 1890.

Penal and civil codes have been drafted on a European basis, and with a
commercial code were published in 1890, and came into force in 1893.

=Cities.=--The capital of the Japanese Empire, Tôkiô, formerly called
Yedo, is the residence of the emperor; population, 2,186,079. Other
cities are: Osaka, 1,226,590; Kiôto, the ancient capital, 442,462;
Nagoya, 378,231; Kōbe, 378,197; Yokohama, 394,303; Hiroshima, 142,763;
Nagasaki, 176,480; Kanazawa, 110,994; Kure, 100,679. The chief ports are
Yokohama, Kōbe, Osaka, Nagasaki, and Hakodate.

=Tokio, or Tokei= (“Eastern Capital”), is the chief city of the Japanese
Empire. Until 1868, when the emperor removed his court thither from
Kyōtō, it was known as Yedo (“Estuary Gate”). Its position at the mouth
of the rivers which drain the largest plain of Japan, fits it to be a
national center. The lower portion of the city, which is flat and
intersected by canals, stretches between the two parks of Ueno (north)
and Shiba (south), famous for their shrines. Midway rises the castle or
palace, a fine structure in Japanese style, furnished in European
manner, and lighted with electricity, within a double ring of high walls
and broad moats. In spring-time the city is gay with plum and cherry
blossoms. The immense enclosures, formerly inhabited by the nobles and
their retainers, are gradually disappearing, and handsome modern
buildings in brick for the use of the various government departments are
taking their place. Of the fifteen city divisions the northern, Hongo
and Kanda, are mostly educational, and contain the buildings of the
Imperial University, Law School and other institutions. The student
population is astonishingly large. The seaward districts of Nihonbashi,
Kyobashi, and Asakusa are industrial and commercial, while the
government offices are located in Kojimachi ku.

Yokohama is the port of entry (seventeen miles off), and a great harbor
scheme to cost twenty million dollars was planned in 1911-1912. The city
is subject to disastrous fires; that of April, 1892, burned four
thousand houses in one morning. Tokio has three railway termini and a
system of electric railways. Almost every phase of modern civilization
is to be found within its vast area.

=History.=--Before 500 A. D. Japanese history is mere legend. Buddhism
was introduced from Korea in 552; and in the next century Chinese
civilization strongly influenced Japan. About the end of the twelfth
century, the weakness of the emperor led the military head (Shogun) to
assume a large share of the supreme power, and he handed it on to his
descendants. Hence the statement often made that Japan had a Mikado or
spiritual emperor who reigned but did not govern, and a “Tycoon”
(Shogun) who did govern though he paid homage to the nominal sovereign.
The military caste was now dominant until the reign of Iyeyasu (c.
1600), whose descendants reigned till 1868.

Total exclusion of foreigners was the rule till 1543, when the
Portuguese effected a settlement; but in 1624 all foreigners were
expelled and Christianity interdicted. The policy of isolation was
rigidly pursued from 1638 till 1853, when Commodore Perry of the United
States Navy steamed into a Japanese harbor, and effected a treaty with
the Shogun. Soon sixteen other nations followed the American example,
and free ports were opened to foreign commerce.

In 1867-1868 a sharp civil war broke the feudal power of the daimios or
territorial magnates, suppressed the Shogunate, and unified the
authority under the Mikado. In a very few years Japanese students took a
place of their own in western science; and how thoroughly the Japanese
had laid to heart what they had learned abroad in the military and naval
arts was partially revealed by the swift and complete success of the war
with China about Korea in 1894, and more impressively by their amazing
triumph over the great military empire of Russia, in 1904-1905, whom
they defeated in a succession of bloody battles, took Port Arthur, and
utterly destroyed the Russian fleet. By the peace that followed the
Russians not only evacuated southern Manchuria, but recognized Japan’s
preponderance in Korea, and gave up to Japan the “leases” of Port Arthur
and the Liao-tung peninsula Russia had wrested from China.

A conspiracy against the life of the emperor was discovered in
September, 1910. The same year saw the passing of a bill enabling
foreigners to own land in Japan proper, under certain restrictions. But
the principal event of 1910 in Japanese history was the formal
annexation of Korea, the treaty with the emperor of Korea being
promulgated on August 29. According to the new commercial treaty with
the United States, ratified by the Senate on February 24, 1911, the
clause in the old treaty was omitted, wherein each side reserved the
right of regulating immigration from one country to the other. In 1910
and 1911 important agreements were also made with Russia with special
reference to Manchuria.

Japan entered the European war on August 23, 1914, on the side of the
Entente Allies, and immediately began the blockade and siege of the
German colony at Kiao-Chow on the Shantung promontory of China. In
November, 1915, the present emperor, Yoshihito, was crowned.


=THE COLONIAL DIVISIONS OF THE WORLD=

The following tables show how the colonies of the world have been
divided among the various nations:

                                COLONIES IN AFRICA
  ==========================+========================+=========+============
           =Colony=         |   =Governing Country   |  =Area  |  =Popula-
                            | and Form of Government=| Sq. M.= |   tion=
  --------------------------+------------------------+---------+------------
  Algeria                   |French Colony           |  184,474|  4,739,300
  Algerian Sahara           |French Possession       |  123,500|     50,000
  Angola                    |Portuguese Possession   |  484,800|  4,119,000
  Ascension                 |British Crown Colony    |       35|        430
  Azores and Madeira Islands|Portuguese Province     |    1,510|    407,002
  Basutoland                |British Crown Colony    |   10,293|    264,100
  Bechuanaland              |British Protectorate    |  286,200|    100,500
  British East Africa       |British Protectorate    |1,000,000|  2,500,000
  British Central Africa    |British Protectorate    |   42,217|    900,615
  British South Africa      |British Protectorate    |  425,728|  1,075,000
  (Rhodesia)                |                        |         |
  Canary Islands            |Spanish Province        |    2,808|    334,521
  Cape Colony               |British Protectorate    |  276,775|  2,433,000
  Cape Verde Islands        |Portuguese Province     |    1,480|    147,424
  Ceuta                     |Spanish Province        |       13|      5,090
  Comoro Islands            |French Protectorate     |      620|     47,000
  Congo Inland Straits      |Belgian Protectorate    |  900,000| 30,000,000
  Dahomey                   |French Possession       |   60,000|  1,000,000
  Egypt                     |Turkish Tributary       |  400,000|  9,734,405
  Eritrea, etc.             |Italian Possession      |   42,000|    329,516
  Fernando Po, etc.         |Spanish Possession      |      850|     23,709
  French Congo              |French Possession       |1,160,000| 10,000,000
  Gambia                    |British Crown Colony    |       69|     13,500
  German East Africa        |German Protectorate     |  384,180|  8,000,000
  German Southwest Africa   |German Protectorate     |  322,450|    200,000
  Gold Coast                |British Crown Colony    |   40,000|  1,500,000
  Guinea, French            |French Possession       |   95,000|  2,200,000
  Guinea, Portuguese        |Portuguese Possession   |    4,440|    820,000
  Ivory Coast               |French Possession       |  116,000|  2,000,000
  Kamerun                   |German Protectorate     |  191,130|  3,500,000
  Lagos                     |British Crown Colony    |    3,460|     85,600
  Madagascar                |French Possession       |  227,950|  2,505,240
  Mauritius, etc.           |British Crown Colony    |      729|    378,040
  Mayotte                   |French Possession       |      140|     11,640
  Military Ter’s            |French Possession       |  700,000|  4,000,000
  Portuguese East Africa    |Portuguese Possession   |  301,000|  3,120,000
  Natal and Zululand        |British Institutions    |   34,019|    902,365
  Nigeria                   |British Protectorate    |  400,000| 25,000,000
  Nossi-Be                  |French Possession       |      130|      9,500
  Orange River              |British Possession      |   48,330|    207,500
  Princes and St. Thomas    |Portuguese Possession   |      360|     42,103
  Islands                   |                        |         |
  Reunion                   |French Possession       |      966|    173,200
  Rio de Oro and Adrar      |Spanish Possession      |  243,000|    100,000
  Sahara                    |French Possession       |1,544,000|  2,550,000
  St. Helena                |British Crown Colony    |       47|      3,342
  St. Marie                 |French Possession       |       64|      7,670
  Senegal                   |French Possession       |   80,000|  1,800,000
  Seychelles                |British Crown Colony    |      148|     19,343
  Sierra Leone              |British Crown Colony    |    4,000|     77,000
  Somali Coast, British     |British Protectorate    |   75,000|        ...
  Somali Coast, French      |French Possession       |   45,000|    200,000
  Somali Coast, Italian     |Italian Possession      |  100,000|    400,000
  Togoland                  |German Protectorate     |   33,700|    900,000
  Transvaal Colony          |British Possession      |  119,140|  1,094,100
  Tripoli                   |Turkish Tributary       |  398,000|    800,000
  Tristanda Cuhna           |British Crown Colony    |       45|        100
  Tunis                     |French Protectorate     |   51,000|  1,900,000
  Uganda                    |British Protectorate    |  140,000|  3,000,000
  Zanzibar and Pemba        |British Protectorate    |    1,020|    200,000
  --------------------------+------------------------+---------+------------
                                COLONIES IN ASIA
  ==========================+========================+=========+============
           =Colony=         |   =Governing Country   |  =Area  |  =Popula-
                            | and Form of Government=| Sq. M.= |   tion=
  --------------------------+------------------------+---------+------------
  Aden and Perim            |British Crown Colony    |       80|     41,222
  Anam                      |French Protectorate     |   52,100|  6,124,000
  Bahrein Islands           |British Protectorate    |      273|     68,000
  Baluchistan               |British Protectorate    |  130,000|    500,000
  Bokhara                   |Russian Dependency      |   92,000|  1,250,000
  Cambodia                  |French Protectorate     |   37,400|  1,500,000
  Ceylon                    |British Institutions    |   25,365|  3,578,333
  Cochin China              |French Possession       |   22,000|  2,968,600
  Cypress                   |British Administration  |    3,584|    227,900
  East Turkestan            |Chinese Dependency      |  550,340|  1,200,000
  Formosa                   |Japanese Dependency     |   13,455|  2,745,000
  Goa                       |Portuguese Possession   |    1,390|    494,836
  Hong Kong                 |British Crown Colony    |      407|    386,159
  India, British            |British Crown Colony    |1,087,404|231,898,807
  India, French             |French Possession       |      196|    273,000
  India, Portuguese         |Portuguese Possession   |    1,558|    572,290
  Jungaria                  |Chinese Dependency      |  147,950|    600,000
  Kiauchau Bay              |Japanese Possession     |      200|     60,000
  Khiva                     |Russian Possession      |   22,320|    800,000
  Kwang Tung                |Russian Possession      |      ...|        ...
  Macao                     |Portuguese Possession   |        4|     78,627
  Malay Federated States    |British Protectorate    |   27,500|    512,342
  Manchuria                 |Chinese Dependency      |  363,610|  8,500,000
  Mongolia                  |Chinese Dependency      |1,367,600|  2,580,000
  Pescadores Islands        |Japanese Dependency     |       85|     52,400
  Samos                     |Turkish Tributary       |      180|     54,830
  Sikkim                    |British Protectorate    |    2,818|     30,458
  Straits Settlements       |British Crown Colony    |    1,472|    572,249
  Tibet                     |Chinese Dependency      |  463,200|  6,430,000
  Tonquin and Laos          |French Possession       |  144,400|  7,641,900
  --------------------------+------------------------+---------+------------
                               COLONIES IN EUROPE
  ==========================+========================+=========+============
           =Colony=         |   =Governing Country   |  =Area  |  =Popula-
                            | and Form of Government=| Sq. M.= |   tion=
  --------------------------+------------------------+---------+------------
  Bosnia and Herzegovina    |Austro-Hungarian        |   23,262|  1,568,092
                            |Protectorate            |         |
  Crete                     |Turkish Suzerainty      |    3,326|    303,543
  Faroe Islands             |Danish Colony           |      512|     15,230
  Gibraltar                 |British Crown Colony    |        2|     27,460
  Iceland                   |Danish Province         |   39,756|     78,470
  Malta and Gozo            |British Institutions    |      117|    188,141
  --------------------------+------------------------+---------+------------
                           COLONIES IN NORTH AMERICA
  ==========================+========================+=========+============
           =Colony=         |   =Governing Country   |  =Area  |  =Popula-
                            | and Form of Government=| Sq. M.= |   tion=
  --------------------------+------------------------+---------+------------
  Alaska                    |United States Territory |  599,446|     63,592
  Bahamas                   |British Institutions    |    4,470|     54,358
  Barbadoes                 |British Institutions    |      166|    195,600
  Bermudas                  |British Institutions    |       20|     17,535
  Canada                    |British Dependency      |3,048,710|  5,371,315
  Curacao, etc.             |Dutch Possession        |      403|     52,301
  Danish West Indies        |United States Possession|      138|     32,786
  Greenland                 |Danish Possession       |   46,740|     10,516
  Guadeloupe, etc.          |French Possession       |      688|    182,110
  Honduras, British         |British Crown Colony    |    7,560|     37,650
  Leeward Islands           |British Institutions    |      700|    127,440
  Jamaica and Turks Islands |British Crown Colony    |    4,370|    771,900
  Martinique                |French Possession       |      380|    203,780
  Newfoundland and Labrador |British Dependency      |  162,200|    217,100
  Porto Rico                |United States Possession|    3,606|    953,243
  St. Pierre and Miquelon   |French Possession       |       92|      6,250
  Trinidad and Tobago       |British Crown Colony    |    1,868|    279,700
  Windward Islands          |British Institutions    |      500|    162,800
  --------------------------+------------------------+---------+------------
                           COLONIES IN SOUTH AMERICA
  ==========================+========================+=========+============
           =Colony=         |   =Governing Country   |  =Area  |  =Popula-
                            | and Form of Government=| Sq. M.= |   tion=
  --------------------------+------------------------+---------+------------
  Falkland Islands          |British Crown Colony    |    7,500|      2,076
  Guiana, British           |British Institutions    |  104,000|    294,000
  Guiana, French            |French Colony           |   30,500|     32,910
  Guiana, Dutch             |Dutch Possession        |   46,060|     68,968
  --------------------------+------------------------+---------+------------
                              COLONIES IN OCEANIA
  ==========================+========================+=========+============
           =Colony=         |   =Governing Country   |  =Area  |  =Popula-
                            | and Form of Government=| Sq. M.= |   tion=
  --------------------------+------------------------+---------+------------
  Bismarck Archipelago      |German Possession       |   20,000|    188,000
  Borneo, British N.        |British Protectorate    |   31,106|    175,000
  Borneo, Dutch             |Dutch Possession        |  212,737|  1,180,578
  Caroline Islands and      |German Possession       |      810|     42,000
  Palaos                    |                        |         |
  Celebes Islands           |Dutch Possession        |   71,470|  1,197,860
  Fiji and Rotumah Islands  |British Crown Colony    |    7,740|    120,950
  Guam                      |United States Possession|      150|      9,000
  Hawaii                    |United States Territory |    6,449|    154,000
  Java and Madura           |Dutch Possession        |   50,554| 28,745,698
  Kaiser Wilhelm Land       |German Protectorate     |   70,000|    110,000
  Marianne Islands          |German Possession       |      250|      2,000
  Marquesas Islands         |French Possession       |      480|      4,280
  Marshall Islands          |German Possession       |      150|     13,000
  New Caledonia             |French Possession       |    7,650|     51,415
  New Guinea, British       |British Crown Colony    |   90,540|    350,000
  New South Wales           |British Dependency      |  310,370|  1,397,700
  New Guinea, Dutch         |Dutch Possession        |  195,653|    599,208
  New Zealand               |British Dependency      |  104,470|    787,660
  Philippine Islands        |United States Possession|  119,542|  8,000,000
  Queensland                |British Dependency      |  668,500|    510,520
  Samoan Islands (Savaii and|German Possession       |    1,000|     29,100
  Upolu)                    |                        |         |
  Samoan Islands (Tutuila   |United States Possession|       79|      5,800
  and Manua)                |                        |         |
  Society Islands, etc.     |French Possession       |    1,520|     29,000
  Solomon Islands           |German Possession       |    4,200|     45,000
  South Australia           |British Dependency      |  903,700|    364,800
  Sumatra                   |Dutch Possession        |  161,612|  3,209,067
  Tasmania                  |British Dependency      |   26,215|    174,230
  Timor, Dutch              |Dutch Possession        |   44,374|    978,267
  Timor, Portuguese         |Portuguese Possession   |    7,458|    300,000
  Victoria                  |British Dependency      |   87,890|  1,208,710
  West Australia            |British Dependency      |  975,920|    194,800
  --------------------------+------------------------+---------+------------

NOTE.--Practically all the German colonial possessions throughout the
world are at this date (1917) in military possession of the Entente
Allies, and will be so held pending the terms of the final treaty of
peace at the close of the present European war.


THE GREAT FOREIGN WARS OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY

  In the various wars the victorious contestants are indicated in
  =bold face= type, as are also the victorious leaders and the battles
  won by them. The figures prefixed show with which of the warring
  parties the leaders are identified, and who were the victors in the
  battles named. Naval battles are shown in _italics_. Consult the
  Table of Foreign Battles for details concerning the more important
  military actions.

=TROJAN WAR= (Partly mythical).--1193-1184 B. C.

  (1) =Greeks= vs. (2) Trojans.

  CAUSE: Greeks avenge the abduction of Helen of Troy by Paris.

  LEADERS: (1) =Agamemnon=, =Achilles=, =Ulysses=; (2) Hector.

  CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Siege of Troy.=

  RESULTS: Capture and destruction of Troy, or Ilium.

=FIRST MESSENIAN WAR.=--743-724 B. C.

  (1) =Spartans= vs. (2) Messenians.

  CAUSE: Spartans covet Messenian land.

  LEADER: (2) Aristodemus.

  CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Siege of Mount Ithome.=

  RESULTS: Messenians become tributary of Sparta and their land is, in
  part, confiscated.

=SECOND MESSENIAN WAR.=--645-628 B. C.

  (1) =Spartans= vs. (2) Messenians.

  CAUSE: Spartan oppression causes Messenian revolt.

  LEADERS: (1) =Tyrtaeus= (poet); (2) Aristomenes.

  CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Eira.=

  RESULTS: Greater part of Messenians flee to Sicily. Those remaining
  become helots (Spartan serfs).

=FIRST SACRED WAR.=--600-590 B. C.

  (1) =Amphictyonic League= vs. (2) Crisæans.

  CAUSE: People of the city of Crisa (port of Delphi) oppress pilgrims
  to the oracle.

  LEADER: (1) =Cleisthenes of Sicyon.=

  CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Siege of Crisa.=

  RESULTS: For the first time Greek cities join in an effective
  league. Crisa destroyed.

=PERSIAN WARS.=--500-479 B. C.

  (1) =Persians= vs. (2) Greeks.

  CAUSE: Aid given by Athens and Eretria to revolting Ionic Greek
  cities, leading to burning of Sardis, 497 B. C.

  a. First Persian Expedition--493 B. C.

  LEADER: (1) =Mardonius.=

  CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Three hundred ships lost by storm off Mt. Athos.=

  RESULTS: Partial success against Macedonians and Thracians.
  Continued plans of Darius for subjugating Greece.

  b. Second Persian Expedition--490 B. C.

  LEADERS: =Datis,= (1) =Artaphernes;= (2) Miltiades.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Naxos=, =Eretria=; (2) Marathon (490 B. C.)

  RESULTS: The Athenians are victorious and the Persians retreat to
  Asia Minor.

  c. Third Persian Expedition--481-480 B. C.

  Xerxes desires to avenge his father’s defeat.

  LEADERS: (1) =Xerxes=; (2) Leonidas, Eurybiades, Themistocles.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Thermopylæ=, _Salamis_, =Artemisium=, =Athens
  burned.=

  RESULTS: Xerxes retreats to Persia after his defeat at Salamis.

  d. Fourth Persian Expedition--479 B. C.

  War continued by troops which Xerxes left behind.

  LEADERS: (1) =Mardonius=; (2) Pausanias, Aristides.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) Athens laid waste; (2) =Platæa=, =Mycale.=

  RESULTS: All Persian invasions and attempts to subjugate Greece
  cease.

=THIRD MESSENIAN WAR.=--464-456 B. C.

  (1) =Helots of Messenian descent= vs. (2) Spartans.

  CAUSE: Confusion following earthquake gives Helots courage to
  revolt.

  CHIEF ACTION: (2) Mt. Ithome besieged. Sparta sent home her Athenian
  allies.

  RESULTS: Messenians capitulate and are allowed to leave the
  Peloponnesus never to return. Athens retaliates by settling them at
  Naupactus.

=PELOPONNESIAN WAR.=--431-404 B. C.

  (1) =Sparta and Allies= vs. (2) Athens and Allies.

  a. First Period--431-421 B. C.

  CAUSE: Envy of Sparta and her allies at Athens’ growing power and
  influence. Discontent among some of the Athenian subject states.

  LEADERS: (1) =Archidamus=, =Agis=, =Brasidas=; (2) Demosthenes,
  Cleon, Nicias.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Invasion of Attica=, =Plague in Attica=, =Siege
  of Platæa=, =Delium=, =Amphipolis.= (2) Mitylene, Sphacteria.

  RESULTS: By the peace of Nicias (421 B. C.) both sides are to
  restore conquests and prisoners but terms are imperfectly carried
  out.

  b. Second Period or Decelean War--413-404 B. C.

  CAUSE: Sparta takes advantage of Athens’ weakness, resulting from
  the failure of the expedition to Syracuse, to renew the war.

  LEADERS: Alcibiades serves Athens, Sparta and Athens in turn. (1)
  =Lysander=; (2) Conon.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Decelea occupied.= =Attica ravaged.= =Many
  subject states of Athens revolt.= =Notium, Ægospotami, Surrender of
  Athens=; (2) Abydos, Cyzicus, Arginusæ.

  =Results=: The Spartans tear down the walls of Piræus and Athens.
  Athens loses her foreign possessions and fleet but becomes an
  independent ally of Sparta. Sparta is now supreme in Greece.

=GAULS’ INVASION OF ITALY.=--390 B. C.

  (1) =Gauls= vs. (2) Romans.

  CAUSE: Roman people refuse to surrender Roman ambassadors who had
  aided the Etruscans against the Gauls.

  LEADERS: (2) M. Manlius, Capitolinus, Camillus.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Battle of the Allia.= =Sack of Rome.=

  RESULTS: Gauls retire on payment of ransom. The overthrow of Rome
  had no permanent effect on her fortunes.

=SECOND SACRED WAR.=--c. 355-346 B. C.

  (1) =Phocians= vs. (2) Amphictyons.

  CAUSE: Phocians seize and plunder Delphi because of fine imposed by
  Amphictyonic Council.

  LEADERS: (1) =Onomarchus=; (2) Philip of Macedon.

  RESULTS: Thebans and Thessalians invite aid of Philip against
  Phocians and he takes their place in the Amphictyonic Council.

=THIRD SACRED WAR.=--339-338 B. C.

  (1) =Macedonians= vs. (2) Athenians, Thebans.

  CAUSE: Amphictyons call in Philip to punish Amphissa, whereupon he
  seizes Elatea, thereby threatening Athens. Athenians aroused by
  Demosthenes.

  LEADERS: (1) =Philip of Macedon.=

  CHIEF ACTIONS: =Chæronea.=

  RESULTS: Philip gains leadership of Greece. Henceforth Greece is
  under the control of Macedonia.

=SAMNITE WARS.=--343-290 B. C.

  (1) =Romans= vs. (2) Samnites.

  a. First Samnite War--343-341 B. C.

  CAUSE: A duel between two rival races for supremacy in Italy.
  Campanians implore aid of Romans against Samnites who are laying
  waste their territories in revenge for aid given the Sidicini of
  Teanum.

  LEADERS: (1) =Marcus Valerius Corvus=, =P. Decius Mus.=

  RESULTS: Capua is retained by the Romans and Teanum surrendered to
  Samnites.

  b. Second or Great Samnite War--326-304 B. C.

  CAUSE: The occupation of Palaeopolis by the Samnites. In 311 B. C.
  the Etruscan cities joined in the war against Rome.

  LEADERS: (1) =Papirius Cursor=; (2) Fabius Rullianus Gavius Pontius.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Fregellæ=, =Sutrium=, =Lake Vadimonis=,
  =Bovianum=; (2) Caudine Forks.

  RESULTS: Samnites sue for peace. They resign all their conquests but
  retain their independence within their native mountains.

  c. Third Samnite War--298-290 B. C.

  CAUSE: While Romans are engaged with the Gauls the Samnites enter
  Lucania and refuse to withdraw.

  LEADERS: (1) =Q. Fabius Rullianus=, =P. Decius Mus= (=son=); (2)
  Gellius Egnatius, Gavius Pontius.

  CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Sentinum.=

  RESULT: Samnites defeated but not crushed.

=WARS OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT IN ASIA=--334-328 B. C.

  (1) =Greeks= vs. (2) Persians, Egyptians, Bactrians, Indians
  (Hindus).

  CAUSE: A war of conquest, a scientific expedition and a journey of
  discovery.

  LEADERS: (1) =Alexander the Great=, =Nearchus=; (2) Darius III.,
  Memnon.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Granicus=, =Issus=, =Siege of Tyre=, =Arbela.=

  RESULTS: Alexander conquers Asia from the Mediterranean Sea to the
  Indus River and from the Arabian Sea to the Jaxartes River and
  begins the Hellenizing of the East. Founds Alexandria in Egypt. The
  empire breaks up after Alexander’s death 323 B. C.

=ROMAN WAR WITH TARENTUM AND EPIRUS.=--282-272 B. C.

  (1) =Romans= vs. (2) Tarentum and King Pyrrhus.

  CAUSE: The people of Tarentum capture Roman ships and insult Roman
  embassy. They call in King Pyrrhus of Epirus.

  LEADERS: (1) =Manius Curius=; (2) Pyrrhus.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Beneventum=, =Tarentum=; (2) Heraclea, Asculum.

  RESULTS: Pyrrhus returns to Epirus and his allies one by one submit
  to Rome, which is left supreme from Straits of Messina to the River
  Arno and the headland of Ancona.

=FIRST PUNIC WAR.=--264-241 B. C.

  (1) =Romans= vs. (2) Carthaginians.

  CAUSES: A struggle for supremacy in Sicily. Pretext, Campanian
  mercenaries, having seized Messina, appeal to Rome for aid.

  LEADERS: (1) =C. Duilius=, =M. Atilius Regulus=, =P. Claudius
  Pulcher=, =C. Lutatius Catulus=; (2) Hamilcar Barca, Himilco, Hanno.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Agrigentum=, =Mylæ=, =Ecnomus=, =Panormus=,
  =Ægadian Islands=; (2) Siege of Lilybæum, Drepana.

  RESULTS: Carthaginians surrender Sicily and pay a war indemnity.
  Carthage retains the Western Mediterranean and Rome is launched on
  her career of conquest.

=SECOND PUNIC WAR.=--218-201 B. C.

  (1) =Romans= vs. (2) Carthaginians.

  CAUSES: A duel to the death between East and West. Pretext,
  Hannibal’s attacks on Saguntum in Spain.

  LEADERS: (1) =Q. Fabius Maximus=, =Publius Scipio=, =P. Cornelius
  Scipio Africanus=; (2) Hannibal, Hasdrubal.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Syracuse=, =Capua=, =Metaurus=, =Zama=; (2)
  Ticinus, Trebia, Trasimene, Cannæ.

  RESULTS: Hannibal succumbs as a result of the loyalty of Italy.
  Carthage forced to give up Spain, to pay an annual tribute, to
  surrender her fleet, and to agree not to go to war without the
  permission of Rome.

=FOUR MACEDONIAN WARS.=--214-146 B. C.

  (1) =Romans= vs. (2) Greeks.

  CAUSE: Alliance of Philip, King of Macedon with Carthage.

  LEADERS: (1) =T. Quinctius Flaminius=, =L. Aemilius Paulus=; (2)
  Philip of Macedon, Perseus.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Cynoscephalæ=, =Pydna.=

  RESULT: Macedonia becomes a Roman province.

=THIRD PUNIC WAR=--149-146 B. C.

  (1) =Romans= vs. (2) Carthaginians.

  CAUSE: War of Carthage with Massinissa gives Rome the pretext for
  completing the destruction of Carthage.

  LEADERS: (1) =Scipio=, =Æmilianus=, =Africanus=.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Siege of Carthage=.

  RESULT: Carthage destroyed. Most of her territory becomes a Roman
  province of Africa.

=JUGURTHINE WAR.=--111-105 B. C.

  (1) =Romans= vs. (2) Jugurtha of Numidia.

  CAUSE: Jugurtha, disregarding intervention of Rome, captures Citra
  and massacres male population.

  LEADERS: (1) =C. Marius=; (2) Jugurtha.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Muthul=, =Citra=.

  RESULTS: Numidia divided. The war reveals the corruption and
  incapacity of the Senatorial government of Rome.

=MARSIAN OR SOCIAL WAR.=--90-88 B. C.

  (1) =Romans= vs. (2) Italian Allies.

  CAUSE: Italian socii (allies) are denied the right of Roman
  citizenship.

  LEADER: (1) =C. Marius=, =Sulla=.

  CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Asculum=.

  RESULT: Italians form a Federal republic, Italia, with capital at
  Corfinium. Roman citizenship granted to all Italian residents.

=FIRST ROMAN CIVIL WAR=--88-82 B. C.

  (1) =Optimates= vs. (2) Democrats.

  CAUSE: Reform measures of Sulpicius are carried by means of
  violence. Command of army of Asia is transferred from Sulla to
  Marius.

  LEADERS: (1) =Sulla=, =Pompey=; (2) Marius, Cinna, Sertorius, Carbo.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: =Sacriportis=, =Colline=, =Gate=, =Sulla’s
  proscriptions=; (2) Marius’s Reign of Terror.

  RESULT: Sulla is appointed dictator.

=THREE MITHRIDATIC WARS=--88-63 B. C.

  (1) =Romans= vs. (2) Pontines and Armenians.

  CAUSES: Ambition of Mithridates VI. and Roman interference.

  LEADERS: (1) =Sulla=, =Lucullus=, =Pompey=; (2) Mithridates
  (Pontus), Tigranus (Armenia).

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Chæronea=, =Orchomenus=, =Cabira=,
  =Tigranocerta=; (2) Massacre of Italians in Asia.

  RESULTS: Reorganization of the East; Pontus, Syria and Cilicia
  become Roman provinces.

=GLADIATORIAL AND THIRD SERVILE WAR.=--73-71 B. C.

  (1) =Romans= vs. Revolted Gladiators and Slaves.

  CAUSE: Uprising of a band of gladiators, escaped from Capua and
  joined by many slaves of southern Italy.

  LEADERS: (1) =Crassus=, =Pompey=; (2) Spartacus.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Silarus=; (2) Mt. Vesuvius.

  RESULTS: Revolt put down with cruelty, six thousand crucified.

=GALLIC WAR=--58-51 B. C.

  (1) =Romans= vs. (2) Tribes of Gaul.

  CAUSE: Desire to extend the Roman empire.

  LEADERS: (1) =Julius Cæsar=; (2) Vercingetorix, Ariovistus.

  CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Siege of Alesia.=

  RESULTS: Conquest and organization of Gaul by Cæsar. Gauls
  Romanized; boundaries of the old world enlarged (Cæsar’s expedition
  to Britain 55-54 B. C.); means acquired for changing Rome into a
  monarchy.

=SECOND ROMAN CIVIL WAR.=--49-31 B. C.

  First period, 49-45 B. C.

  (1) =Followers of Cæsar= (=democrats=) vs. (2) Followers of Pompey
  (republican aristocrats).

  CAUSE: Struggle for mastery between Cæsar, conqueror of Gaul, and
  Pompey, conqueror of the East.

  LEADERS: (1) =Cæsar=; (2) Pompey and his sons.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) “=Crossing the Rubicon=,” =Pharsalus=, =Thapsus=,
  =Munda.=

  RESULT: Cæsar is appointed dictator for life. He is the founder of
  the new monarchy at Rome.

  Second period--43-42 B. C.

  (1) =Friends of Cæsar= (=Second Triumvirate=) vs. (2) Cæsar’s
  Assassins.

  CAUSE: Assassination of Cæsar, 44 B. C.

  LEADERS: (1) =Antony=, =Octavius=, =Lepidus=; (2) Brutus, Cassius,
  Sextus Pompey.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =New proscription= (=Murder of Cicero=),
  =Philippi=.

  RESULT: Brutus and Cassius, defeated, commit suicide.

  Third period--31-30 B. C.

  (1) =Octavius= vs. (2) Antony.

  CAUSE: A continued struggle for supreme power.

  LEADERS: (1) =Octavius=; (2) Antony, Cleopatra.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Actium.=

  RESULTS: Triumph of Octavius, grand nephew of Julius Cæsar. End of
  the republic and beginning of the empire.

=JEWISH WAR=--A. D. 66-70.

  (1) =Romans= vs. (2) Jews.

  CAUSE: Revolt of the Jews against Rome.

  LEADER: (1) =Titus, son of Emperor Vespasian.=

  CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Siege of Jerusalem.=

  RESULT: Destruction of Jerusalem and the temple.

=DACIAN WARS.=--86-90, 101-102, 105-107.

  (1) =Romans= vs. (2) Dacians.

  CAUSE: Rome desires to extend her conquests.

  LEADERS: (1) =Domitian=, =Trajan=; (2) Decebalus.

  RESULTS: Dacia is made a Roman province. Roman conquest and empire
  reaches its highest point.

  =CIVIL WARS OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.=--193-284.

  CAUSES: Contests for the throne among rival generals (barrack
  emperors).

  RESULT: Reorganization of empire by Diocletian (284-305).

=WARS OF CONSTANTINE THE GREAT FOR THE EMPIRE.=--310-323.

  (1) =Constantine= vs. (2) Others, Augusti.

  CAUSES: Confusion following abdication of Diocletian.

  LEADERS: (1) =Constantine=; (2) Maxentius, Maximinus, Licinius.

  CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Turin.=

  RESULTS: Constantine becomes sole ruler of Roman empire. He
  redistricts the empire, moves the capital to Constantinople and
  recognizes Christianity.

=INVASION OF ROMAN EMPIRE BY NORTHERN BARBARIANS=--375-493.

  (1) =Romans= vs. (2) Teutons and (Huns), Teutonic Tribes; Visigoths,
  Vandals, Suevi, Franks, Burgundians, Ostrogoths, Alemanni, Jutes,
  Saxons, Angles, Lombards.

  CAUSES: The Huns (Mongolians) press upon the Teutons, who are forced
  to seek new lands within the boundaries of the Roman empire.

  LEADERS: (1) =Valens=, =Stilicho Ætius=, =Leo= (=bishop of Rome=);
  (2) Alaric; Walja (Visigoth); Genseric (Vandal); Hengist and Horsa
  (Saxons); Attila (Hun); Theodoric the Great (Ostrogoth).

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Battle near Chalons= (=451=); (2) Adrianople,
  Sack of Rome.

  RESULTS: Visigothic kingdom of Tolosa (Toulouse) (415-507). Vandals
  settle in Africa (429-534). Carthage (439).

  Burgundians occupy Rhone Valley (443).

  Angles, Saxons and Jutes invade England (449), Huns and Ostrogoths
  ravage Gaul.

  Huns destroy Aquileia and Venice founded (452).

  Vandals plunder Rome (455).

  Odoacer gains ascendency in Rome. The fall of the Roman empire
  (476).

  Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy (493-555).

  Overthrow of the Roman empire in the West, though it continued in
  the East until 1453. This blending of Roman and Teutonic elements
  under the influence of the Christian religion and what remained of
  classic civilization formed the civilization of the middle ages.

=WARS OF JUSTINIAN=--533-534.

  (1) =Eastern Empire= vs. (2) Vandals in Africa and (3) Ostrogoths in
  Italy--535-555.

  CAUSE: Desire to restore West to Eastern empire.

  LEADERS: (1) =Belisarius=, =Narses=; (3) Vitiges Totila.

  CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Battle of Taginae= (=552=).

  RESULTS: Destruction of Vandal power in Africa and of the
  Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy. Exarchate established at Ravenna.

=WARS OF THE FRANKS=--486-814.

  (1) =Franks= vs. (2) Neighboring Peoples.

  CAUSES: Desire to extend the limits of Frankish territory and to
  ward off attacks from without.

  LEADERS: (1) =Clovis= (=486-511=), =Charles Martel= (=814-741=),
  =Pepin the Short= (=751-768=), =Charlemagne= (=768-814=).

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Soissons= (=486=), =Clovis conquers Alemanni and
  becomes a Catholic Christian= (=496=), =Battle of Tours= (=732=),
  =Conquest of Burgundy= (=534=), =Charlemagne conquers Lombards=
  (=774-776=), =Saxons= (=772-804=), =Bavarians= (=788=), =Avars=
  (=791=), =Northern Spain= (=778=).

  RESULTS: Franks become leading power in the West and revive the
  Western Empire. (Christmas day, 800).

=HEPTARCHIC WARS IN ENGLAND=--588-828.

  CAUSES: Struggle for supremacy among the seven Teutonic kingdoms.

  LEADERS: Ethelbert (Kent), Edwin (Northumbria), Offa (Mercia),
  Egbert (Wessex).

  CHIEF EVENTS: The supremacy was successively held by kings of Kent,
  Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex, Maserfield (642), Ellandun (825).

  RESULT: All England at last united under Egbert, king of Wessex
  (802-837).

=SARACEN OR MOHAMMEDAN WARS=--632-1492.

  CAUSE: Saracens are ambitious to found a world wide Mohammedan
  empire.

  LEADERS: (1) =Omar=, =Amru=, =Hassan=, =Mousa=, =Tarik=,
  =Abderrahman=, =Mohammed II.=, =Abdallah=; (2) Yezdegerd (Persia),
  Leo the Isaurian, Charles Martel, Constantine, Palæologus, Ferdinand
  of Aragon.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Yarmouk= (=Syria=), =Damascus Jerusalem Cadesia=
  (=Persia=), =Alexandria=, =Carthage= (=697=), =Xeres= (=Spain=),
  =Granada=, =Toledo=; (2) Constantinople (716), Tours, Jerusalem, Las
  Navas de Tolosa (1212).

  (1) =Constantinople= (1453).

  (2) Granada (1492).

  RESULTS: The Saracens attempted to conquer and convert Europe at
  three different times between 710 and 1492. Their power began to
  wane from the latter date.

=NORTHMEN INVASIONS=--Ninth and Tenth Centuries.

  (1) =Northmen= vs. (2) People of Western and Southern Europe.

  CAUSES: Opportunity for plunder and conquest and later the driving
  out of adventurous spirits by the organization of settled kingdoms
  in the north.

  LEADERS: (1) =Hastings=, =Rolf=, =Sweyn=, =Canute=; (2) Alfred
  (England), Odo (France).

  CHIEF EVENTS: In England--Treaty of Wedmore, Massacre of Danes
  (1002).

  In France: Siege of Paris. Grant of Normandy to Rolf (977).

  RESULTS: The Northmen are the last swarm of Teutonic conquerors.
  They readily assimilate civilization and infuse new energy into
  western Europe.

=NORMAN CONQUEST=--1066.

  (1) =Normans= vs. (2) English.

  CAUSE: William, duke of Normandy wishes to increase his territory
  and his power.

  LEADERS: (1) =William the Conqueror=; (2) Harold, king of England.

  CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Hastings.=

  RESULTS: The king received added power and a modified feudalism
  introduced into England. Southern Italy and Sicily were also
  conquered by bands of Normans in the eleventh century and the
  kingdom of Naples founded.

=CRUSADES=--1096-1270.

  (1) =European Christians= vs. (2) Turks and Moslems.

  First Crusade--1096-1099.

  CAUSES: The appeal of the eastern emperor for aid, the desire to
  recover the Holy Sepulcher from the infidels, the love of adventure,
  and hope of gain.

  LEADERS: (1) =Peter the Hermit=, =Godfrey of Bouillon=, =Bohemond of
  Tarentum=, =Robert of Normandy.=

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Nicæa=, =Antioch=, =Jerusalem.=

  RESULTS: Jerusalem is subdued and a transient kingdom is founded at
  Jerusalem.

  Second Crusade--1147-1149.

  CAUSE: The conquest of Edessa by the Moslems threatens Jerusalem.
  Preaching of Saint Bernard.

  LEADERS: (1) =Conrad III. of Germany=, =Louis VII. of France.=

  CHIEF ACTION: Unsuccessful attack on Damascus.

  RESULTS: Armies almost annihilated by hunger, disease and the enemy.

  Third Crusade--1189-1192.

  CAUSE: Capture of Jerusalem by Saladin.

  LEADERS: =Richard I. of England=, =Philip Augustus of France=,
  =Frederick Barbarossa of Germany=; (2) Saladin.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Acre.=

  RESULTS: The Latin Christians secure by treaty the privilege of
  visiting the tomb of Christ for three years without molestation.

  Fourth Crusade--1201-1204.

  (1) =Crusaders= vs. (2) Eastern Empire.

  CAUSES: Appeals of Innocent III. Through influence of the Venetians
  the Crusaders turn aside to attack Constantinople.

  LEADERS: (1) =Dandolo, Doge of Venice=, =Baldwin of Flanders.=

  CHIEF ACTION: (1) Sack of Constantinople.

  RESULTS: Division of eastern empire. The Venetians get the monopoly
  of trade and most of the islands and coast lands of the Ægean and
  Ionian seas. The remainder is erected into a feudal state, the Latin
  empire.

  Children’s Crusade (legendary)--1212.

  CAUSES: Ignorant enthusiasm aroused by visions and miraculous tales.

  LEADER: A shepherd lad, Stephen of Vendome.

  CHIEF EVENTS: Thousands of children, women and peasants march from
  France and Germany to the Mediterranean.

  RESULTS: Only a small number return home; the others perish on the
  way or are sold into slavery by French merchants.

  Fifth Crusade--1228-1229.

  CAUSE: Vow of Frederick II. of Germany. He goes under pope’s
  excommunication.

  LEADER: (1) =Frederick II.=

  RESULTS: Frederick, by treaty with the sultan, secures a truce for
  ten years and the restoration of Bethlehem, Nazareth and Jerusalem
  to the Christians; Jerusalem is finally lost in 1244.

  Sixth Crusade--1248-1254.

  CAUSE: Louis IX. of France starts on a crusade via Egypt.

  LEADERS: (1) =Louis IX.=, later =St. Louis=.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Damietta=; (2) Expedition to Cairo.

  RESULT: Louis is captured in battle and released on payment of heavy
  ransom and evacuation of Damietta.

  Last, Seventh Crusade--1270-1291.

  CAUSES: Louis IX. goes against Mohammedans of Tunis, Prince Edward
  of England to Syria.

  LEADER: (1) =Louis IX.=, =Prince Edward=.

  CHIEF EVENTS: Death of Louis by the plague; (2) Acre, last Christian
  stronghold in Syria, falls (1291).

  RESULTS: The results of the crusades were development of commerce,
  introduction of new customs, products and manufactures, increase in
  freedom of lower classes, especially townsmen, and the power of the
  crown.

=WAR OF THE EMPIRE=--1158-1183.

  (1) =Empire= vs. (2) Italian Communes.

  CAUSE: Frederick Barbarossa’s attempt to restore imperial rights
  over the cities of northern Italy.

  LEADERS: (1) =Frederick I. Barbarossa=; (2) Pope Alexander III.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Milan= (1162); (2) Legnano (1176).

  RESULTS: By treaty of Constance (1183) the cities of Lombardy are
  recognized as practically self-governing republics, the barest
  overlordship remaining to the emperor.

=WARS OF THE BARONS IN ENGLAND=--1215-1265.

  (1) =Barons= vs. (2) Kings John and Henry III.

  CAUSES: Misgovernment of John and Henry III.

  LEADERS: (1) =Stephen Langton=, =Simon de Montfort=;

  (2) King John, Prince Edward, later Edward I.

  CHIEF EVENTS: (1) =Signing of Magna Charta=, =Lewes=, =Simon de
  Montfort’s Parliament=; (2) Evesham.

  RESULTS: The beginning of constitutional monarchy--henceforth the
  king is below the law, not above it.

=HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR=--1337-1453.

  (1) =English= vs. (2) French.

  CAUSES: The conflict of interests of the French and English kings in
  Guienne, Flanders and Scotland. Edward III. advances claim by
  descent to the throne of France.

  LEADERS: (1) =Edward III.=, =Edward the Black Prince=, =Prince Henry
  V., Duke of Bedford=; (2) Du Guesclin, Charles V., Joan of Arc.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Crécy=, =Calais=, =Poitiers=, =Peace of
  Bretigny=, =Agincourt=, =Treaty of Troyes=; (2) Orleans (1429),
  Castillon (1453).

  RESULTS: England loses all her land in France except Calais. During
  the earlier stage of this war about one-third of the population of
  western Europe perished from the Black Death.

=AUSTRO-SWISS WAR=--1315-1388.

  (1) =House of Hapsburg= vs. (2) Swiss Confederation.

  CAUSES: Hapsburgs assert feudal rights over the peasants of the
  Swiss cantons.

  LEADERS: (1) =Leopold III. of Austria=; (2) Arnold von Winkelried.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (2) Morgarten, Sempach, Näfels.

  RESULT: Independence of Swiss secured.

=HUSSITE WAR=--1419-1436.

  (1) =Bohemian Followers of John Huss= vs. (2) Catholic Europe.

  CAUSES: Execution of John Huss, the Bohemian religious reformer, by
  the council of Constance.

  LEADERS: (1) =Ziska=, =Procopius the Great=; (2) Emperor Sigismund,
  Cardinal Cesarini, Frederick of Brandenburg.

  CHIEF EVENTS: Revolt of Prague. Four crusades repulsed.

  RESULTS: After the overthrow of the radical Hussites (Taborites) by
  the conservative Hussites (Calixtines) in the battle of Lipan a
  Catholic reaction set in which culminated in 1462 with the
  revocation of the compacts made by the Council of Basel with the
  Hussites.

=WARS OF THE ROSES=--1455-1485.

  (1) =Yorkists= (=White Rose=); vs (2) Lancastrians (Red Rose).

  CAUSES: Misgovernment under Henry VI. encourages Richard, duke of
  York, representing the second line of descent from Edward III., to
  claim the throne against Henry VII. (third line).

  LEADERS: (1) =Richard, duke of York=, =Edward IV.=, =Richard III.=;
  (2) Duke of Somerset, Queen Margaret, Earl of Warwick
  (“King-maker”), first a Yorkish and then a Lancastrian, Henry VII.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =St. Albans=, =Northampton=, =Mortimer’s Cross=,
  =Towton=, =Barnet=, =Tewkesbury=; (2) Wakefield, Bosworth Field.

  RESULTS: Henry Tudor (Lancastrian in the female line) secures throne
  as Henry VII. By his marriage with Elizabeth of York he unites the
  warring factions and establishes an almost despotic rule in England.

=WARS FOR CONTROL OF ITALY=--1494-1529.

  (1) =French= vs. (2) Spanish.

  CAUSES: Conflicting claims to the throne of Naples and to the duchy
  of Milan.

  LEADERS: (1) =Charles VIII.=, =Louis XII.=, =Bayard=, =Francis I.=;
  (2) Ferdinand of Aragon, Charles V., duke of Bourbon, Fürstenburg.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: Invasion of Italy by Charles VIII. (1494), League
  Cambray (1508), Holy League (1511).

  (1) =Marignano=; (2) Pavia.

  RESULTS: All the leading powers of western Europe were drawn into
  this struggle. By the peace of Cambraes (1529), France renounced her
  claims to Italy. One effect of these wars was to tie the hands of
  Charles V. so as to prevent his putting down Lutheranism in Germany.

=SCHMALKALDIC WAR=--1546-1547.

  (1) =Charles V.= (2) League of Schmalkalden.

  CAUSES: Charles V. attempts to crush Protestantism in Germany.

  LEADERS: (1) =Emperor Charles V.=, =Duke Maurice of Saxony=; (2)
  John Frederic, Elector of Saxony, Philip, Landgrave of Hesse.

  CHIEF ACTION: (1) =Mühlberg.=

  RESULTS: Protestantism temporarily crushed. Its recovery in 1552 was
  followed by the religious peace of Augsburg 1555.

=RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE=--1562-1598.

  (1) =Catholics= vs. (2) Huguenots (Protestants).

  CAUSE: Massacre of Huguenots at Vassy is a signal for uprising.

  LEADERS: (1) =Duke of Guise=, =Henry III.=; (2) Catherine de Medici,
  Conde, Coligny, Henry of Navarre (Henry IV.)

  CHIEF EVENTS: (1) =Massacre of St. Bartholomew= (1572); (2) Siege of
  Paris, Ivry (1590), Henry of Navarre becomes a Catholic (1593).
  Riots of Image Breakers. Council of Blood.

  RESULTS: By the edict of Nantes (1598) the Huguenots are given equal
  political rights with Catholics, limited freedom of worship, the
  possession of La Rochelle and other strong places as cities of
  refuge.

=WAR OF LIBERATION IN THE NETHERLANDS=--1568-1648.

  (1) =Spain= vs. (2) Revolted provinces in the Netherlands.

  CAUSES: Political and religious tyranny of Spain. Duke of Alva
  enforces the Inquisition.

  LEADERS: (1) =Duke of Alva=, =Alexander of Parma=; (2) William of
  Orange, Jan van Oldenbarneveldt, Maurice of Nassau.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Mechlin=, =Haarlem=; (2) Brill, Siege of Leyden,
  “Spanish Fury” at Antwerp, Pacification of Ghent (1576), Union of
  Utrecht (1579), Declaration of Independence (1581).

  RESULTS: By the Peace of Westphalia (1648) the independence of the
  seven northern provinces, the United Netherlands, is recognized. The
  ten southern provinces continue under Spanish rule until 1713.

=THIRTY YEARS’ WAR=--1618-1648.

  (1) =German Protestants and their Allies=, =England=, =Holland=,
  =Sweden and France= vs. (2) Imperial German Catholics and their
  Allies, Spain, Italy.

  CAUSES: Disputes over interpretation of peace of Augsburg (religious
  and political disputes leading to the revolt of Bohemia). The war
  passes through four phases: (1) Bohemian-Palatinate, (2) Danish, (3)
  Swedish, (4) Swedish-French.

  LEADERS: (1) =Frederick=, =Elector Palatine=, =Mansfield=, =Gustavus
  Adolphus= (=Sweden=), =Turenne and Conde= (=France=); (2) Emperor
  Ferdinand II., Maximilian of Bavaria, Tilly, Wallenstein.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Stralsund=, =Edict of Restitution=,
  =Breitenfeld=, =Lützen=; (2) White Hill, Magdeburg, Nōrdlingen.

  RESULTS: This war is closed by the peace of Westphalia. Alsace
  thereby goes to France, Switzerland is separated from the empire and
  the Palatinate is divided. The secularized lands of northern Germany
  are secured to Protestantism, while leaving to Catholicism Austria,
  Bohemia and Bavaria. Germany is left desolate.

=CIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND=--1642-1649.

  (1) =Royalists= (=Cavaliers=) vs. (2) Parliamentarians (Roundheads)
  allied with Scots (to 1647).

  CAUSES: Charles I. attempts to force a personal government on
  England. His disputes with Parliament covered (1) taxation, (2)
  privileges of Parliament, (3) religion, (4) control of the militia.

  LEADERS: (1) =Charles I.=, =Prince Rupert=, =Montrose=; (2)
  Cromwell, Essex, Fairfax, Leslie.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (2) Marston Moor, Naseby, Preston.

  RESULTS: The second civil war (1648) determines the army leaders to
  bring Charles I. to trial and execution (1649). A Commonwealth was
  then established without King or House of Lords but with Oliver
  Cromwell as Protector (1653 to 1659). The son of Charles I. restored
  in 1660 as Charles II.

=FIRST THREE WARS OF LOUIS XIV.=--1667-1697.

  (1) =France= vs. a. Spanish Netherlands; b. Dutch republic; c. Grand
  Alliance (German States, England, Holland).

  CAUSES: Louis XIV.’s passion for fame and desire to increase French
  territory in Europe.

  LEADERS: (1) =Turenne=, =Conde=, =Luxembourg=; (2) William III., De
  Ruyter.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Ravaging of Palatinate=, =Steenkirke=,
  =Neerwinden=; (2) Sasbach, La Hogue, Namur.

  RESULT: Extension of boundaries of France to the northeast.

=SPANISH SUCCESSION (in America), QUEEN ANNE’S WAR=--1701-1714.

  (1) =France=, =Spain and Bavaria= vs. (2) Austria, England, Holland,
  Portugal, Savoy.

  CAUSES: Acceptance by Louis XIV. of the bequest of the Spanish
  dominion to his grandson, Philip of Anjou, in violation of the
  partition treaty to which he had consented.

  LEADERS: (1) =Vendome Villars=, =Leopold of Dessau=; (2) Duke of
  Marlborough, Eugene of Savoy, Heinsius.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (2) Gibraltar, Blenheim, Ramillies, Turin, Oudenarde,
  Malplaquet.

  RESULTS: By the peace of Utrecht in 1713 and that of Rastadt in 1714
  Spain and the Indies go to Philip of Anjou; Naples, Milan, Sardinia
  and former Spanish Netherlands to the Austrians. England receives
  Newfoundland, Acadia and Hudson Bay Territory from France and
  Gibraltar from Spain.

=NORTHERN WAR=--1700-1721.

  (1) =Sweden= vs. (2) Russia, Poland, Denmark, Saxony.

  CAUSES: Peter the Great joins Poland, Denmark and Saxony for the
  purpose of despoiling Sweden, the first power of the north, of her
  Baltic ports.

  LEADERS: (1) =Charles XII.=; (2) Peter the Great (Russia), Augustus
  II. of Saxony.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Invasion of Denmark=, =Narva=, =Invasion of
  Saxony=; (2) Pultava.

  RESULTS: By the peace of Nystadt (1721) Sweden cedes large
  territories to Russia. Russia takes the place of Sweden as the
  foremost power of the north.

=WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION=--1740-1748.

  (1) =Austria, supported by Hungary=, =Bohemia=, =England=, =Holland
  and Saxony= vs. (2) Prussia, France, Spain, Bavaria.

  CAUSES: When Maria Theresa succeeded her father, Charles IV. of
  Austria, Frederick the Great of Prussia seized Silesia. This
  precipitated a struggle for Austrian territories. At the death of
  Charles VI. of Austria the right of Maria Theresa to the throne is
  contested chiefly by Frederick the Great of Prussia, who seizes
  Silesia.

  LEADERS: (1) =Maria Theresa=, =George II. of England=, =Charles of
  Lorraine=; (2) Frederick the Great of Prussia, Emperor Charles VII.,
  Schwerin.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Dettingen=; (2) Mollwitz, Chotusitz, Prague,
  Fontenoy, Hohenfriedburg, Soor.

  RESULTS: By the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle Silesia is secured to
  Prussia, which state now becomes a great European power. This war is
  one phase of the long rivalry between France and Great Britain for
  sea power and dominion in America and India.

=SEVEN YEARS’ WAR, OR THIRD SILESIAN WAR=;

  In America: =FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR=--1756-1763.

  (1) =England=, =Prussia= vs. (2) France, Austria, Russia and Spain,
  Sweden.

  CAUSES: Maria Theresa wishes to regain Silesia. Hostilities between
  French and English in America and India. George II.’s concern for
  his ancestral territory of Hanover.

  LEADERS: (1) =Frederick the Great=, =Duke of Cumberland=, =Wolfe=
  (=America=), =Robert Clive= (=India=); (2) Daun (Austria), Charles
  of Lorraine, Montcalm (America).

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Dresden=, =Rossbach=, =Leuthen=, =Zorndorf=,
  =Minden=; (2) Kolin, Hohkirchen, Kunersdorf.

  In America: (1) =Louisburg=, =Fort Duquesne=, =Quebec.=

  In India: (1) =Plassey=, =Wandewash.=

  RESULTS: The peace of Paris (1763) gives England Canada, the
  supremacy in India and certain islands, especially in the West
  Indies. Prussia retains Silesia. This war really founded the British
  empire which is based on sea power and colonial dominion.

=WARS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION=--1792-1802.

  (1) =Revolutionary France= vs. (2) Coalitions of England, Austria,
  Prussia, Holland and Spain. The Empire, Russia.

  a. First Coalition--1792-1797.

  CAUSES: Intrigues of emigrés; horror of Europe at the execution of
  the king; French offer of aid to revolutionists in other countries.

  LEADERS: (1) =Dumouriez=, =Kellermann=, =Jourdan=, =Hoche=,
  =Pichegru=, =Napoleon Bonaparte=, =Moreau=; (2) Duke of Brunswick,
  Coburg, Charles of Austria.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Valmy=, =Occupation of Nice and Savoy=,
  =Jemmapes=, =Execution of king= (=1793=), =Annexation of Belgium=,
  =Fleurus=, =Lodi=, =Siege of Mantua=; (2) Mainz, Neerwinden,
  Kaiserslautern, Wurzburg.

  RESULTS: By peace of Campo Formio (1797) the French frontier is
  advanced to the Rhine, Venice is given to Austria and the Cisalpine
  and Ligurian republics founded in Italy under French control.

  b. Bonaparte’s Egyptian Expedition--1798-1799.

  CAUSES: Bonaparte aims to prepare the way to attack Great Britain’s
  power in India and dreams of rivaling early conquerors of the east.

  LEADERS: (1) =Napoleon Bonaparte=; (2) Nelson (England).

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Battle of the Pyramids=; (2) Battle of the Nile
  at Aboukir, Acre.

  RESULTS: Nelson’s victory removes a serious menace to British power
  in India, cuts off the French in Egypt and deprives France of
  communication with its best troops and ablest general.

  c. Second Coalition--1799-1802.

  CAUSES: The mistakes of the government of the Directory and the
  prestige of Nelson’s victory enable Great Britain to form the Second
  Coalition.

  LEADERS: (1) =Napoleon=, =Joubert=, =Moreau=; (2) Suvaroff, Melas,
  Archduke John.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Marengo=, =Hohenlinden=; Napoleon’s passage of
  the Alps (Great St. Bernard); (2) Novi.

  RESULTS: The Peace of Presburg ends the contest between France and
  Austria. Much harsher terms are imposed on Austria. Peace of
  Luneville with Austria (1801); Peace of Amiens with England (1802);
  Surrender of England’s conquests except Trinidad and Ceylon; Malta
  to be restored to Knights of Malta.

=NAPOLEONIC WARS=--1802-1815.

  (1) =France under Napoleon= vs. (2) European Powers led by England.

  a. Third Coalition--1805.

  CAUSES: Neither England nor France regarded the peace of Amiens as
  more than a truce. Among the many causes of friction leading to
  renewal of war, chief place was given to England’s refusal to
  restore Malta.

  LEADERS: (1) =Napoleon=; (2) Nelson, Mack, Alexander I. (Russia),
  Kutusoff.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Ulm=, =Austerlitz=; (2) Trafalgar.

  RESULTS: As a result of his brilliant successes, Napoleon, in 1802
  becomes consul for life and in 1804 took the title emperor of the
  French. Confirmation of treaty of Campo Formio, with the recognition
  of Batavian, Helvetian, Cisalpine and Ligurian republics.

  b. (Fourth) War with Prussia and Russia--1806-1807.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Double battle of Jena and Auerstädt=, =Berlin
  decree=, =Eylau= (=indecisive=), =Friedland.=

  RESULTS: By the treaties of Tilsit (1807) Russia recognizes
  Napoleon’s relatives as kings of Naples, Holland and Westphalia and
  consents to the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine and the
  grand duchy of Warsaw under Napoleon’s control. Alexander and
  Napoleon combine to dominate Europe. Prussia cedes territories
  containing half her population.

  c. Peninsular War--1808-1814.

  CAUSES: Rebellion of Spain against Joseph Bonaparte, whom Napoleon
  had placed on the throne.

  LEADERS: (1) =Soult=, =Massena=; (2) Duke of Wellington.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Corunna=; (2) Talavera, Lines of Torres Vedras,
  Albuera, Salamanca, Vittoria, Toulouse.

  RESULTS: French expelled from the peninsula.

  d. Fifth War with Austria--1809.

  LEADERS: (1) =Napoleon=; (2) Archduke Charles.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Aspern,=, =Wagram.=

  RESULTS: Austria cedes thirty-two thousand square miles of
  territory, containing three and one-half million inhabitants.

  e. Invasion of Russia--1812.

  CAUSE: Alexander’s refusal to enforce Napoleon’s continental system,
  and other causes of dispute.

  LEADERS: (1) =Napoleon=, =Marshal Ney=; (2) Kutusoff, Barclay de
  Tolly.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Smolensk=, =Borodino.= Burning of Moscow,
  Retreat from Moscow, Passage of the Beresina.

  RESULT: Less than twenty thousand of the half million men in
  Napoleon’s army recrossed the Russian frontier.

  f. War of Liberation--1813-1814.

  CAUSES: The disastrous Russian campaign, together with the steady
  progress of the British in the peninsular war encouraged the
  oppressed states of Germany to rise against Napoleon’s tyranny,
  Prussia taking the lead.

  LEADERS: (1) =Napoleon,=, =Ney=, =Macdonald=; (2) Frederick, William
  III., Francis I., Alexander I., Schwarzenberg, Blücher, Bernadotte.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Lützen=, =Bautzen=, =Dresden=; (2) Dennewitz,
  Leipzig, (Battle of the Nations). Allies enter Paris.

  RESULTS: Driven from Russia in 1812, from Germany in 1813, Napoleon
  in 1814 was forced to surrender France itself. By the treaty of
  Fontainebleau he was given the Island of Elba and an annual revenue
  of two million francs.

  g. Waterloo Campaign--1815.

  CAUSES: Quarrels among the allies and dissatisfaction of French with
  Louis XVIII. tempt Napoleon to return from Elba.

  LEADERS: (1) =Napoleon=, =Ney=; (2) Wellington, Blücher.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: Napoleon lands at Cannes (March 1); enters Paris
  March 20.

  (1) =Ligny=; (2) Quatre Bras, Waterloo (June 18).

  RESULTS: Waterloo marks the final downfall of Napoleon. He is
  transported to the island of St. Helena, where he died in 1821. In
  the Congress of Vienna the allies reconstructed Europe, restoring in
  general the legitimate rulers and erecting barriers against
  democratic movements and liberal ideas.

=WAR OF GRECIAN INDEPENDENCE=--1821-1829.

  (1) =Greeks, aided by England, Russia and France= vs. (2) Turks.

  CAUSES: Revived feeling of Greek nationality, stimulated by a
  widespread secret society working for a restoration of a Greek
  empire at Constantinople.

  LEADERS: (1) =Ypsilanti=, =Diebitsch= (Russia), =Codrington=
  (England), =Byron= (England); (2) Ibrahim, Pasha.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: Massacre of Greeks at Chios.

  (1) =Navarino=, =Adrianople=; (2) Missolonghi.

  RESULTS: The treaty of Adrianople, 1829, compelled Turkey to
  acknowledge the independence of Greece, which chose as king the
  Bavarian prince Otto I.

=CRIMEAN WAR=--1854-1856.

  (1) =Russia= vs. (2) Turkey aided by Great Britain, France and
  Sardinia.

  CAUSES: The question of the political status and future of the lands
  of the Turkish empire. Immediate cause, the claim of Russia to a
  protectorate over all Greek Christians living under the sultan’s
  rule.

  LEADERS: (1) =Mentchikoff=, =Gortchakoff=; (2) Canrobert, Pelissier
  (France), Raglan, Simpson (England).

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Balaclava=; (2) Alma, Siege of Sebastopol,
  Inkermann.

  RESULTS: In the peace of Paris (1856) Russia’s claim to a
  protectorate is disallowed, the Danube is opened to navigation and
  the Black Sea is closed to war vessels of all powers.

=SEPOY MUTINY=--1857-1858.

  (1) =Sepoys= vs. (2) English.

  CAUSES: Uneasiness created by the rapid progress of British ways and
  rule causes a revolt of native Sepoy troops of India. Immediate
  cause the rumor that cartridges furnished troops were greased with a
  mixture of hog and beef fat--the one animal an object of loathing to
  Mohammedans, the other of religious worship to the Hindu.

  LEADERS: (1) =Nana Sahib=; (2) Nicholson, Havelock, Campbell.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: Mutiny of Sepoys at Meerut.

  (1) =Massacre at Cawnpore=; (2) Delhi, Relief of Lucknow.

  RESULTS: Following the suppression of the mutiny the charter of the
  East India company is revoked and India passes directly under the
  crown, a secretary of state for India being added to the British
  ministry.

=WAR OF ITALIAN LIBERATION=--1859.

  (1) =Sardinia-Piedmont and France= vs. (2) Austria.

  CAUSES: Since 1848 Sardinia-Piedmont had been the center of the
  movement for Italian unity. Following promises of aid from Napoleon
  III. Cavour traps Austria into declaring war over the question of
  disarmament.

  LEADERS: (1) =Victor Emmanuel=, =Napoleon III.=, =Garibaldi=; (2)
  Francis Joseph II., Gyulay.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Montebello=, =Magenta=, =Solferino.= Peace
  signed at Zurich, November 10, 1859.

  RESULTS: By this war Victor Emmanuel gained Lombardy. In 1860
  Tuscany, Parma, Modena and the papal legations were added. In 1861
  he gained Sicily and Naples, together with the title King of Italy.
  Venetia followed as a result of alliance with Prussia in 1866 and
  the addition of Rome in 1871 completed the unification of Italy.

=DANISH WAR=--1864.

  (1) =Austria and Prussia= vs. (2) Denmark.

  CAUSES: Incorporation of the duchy of Schleswig with Denmark in
  violation of treaty of 1852.

  LEADERS: (1) =Gablenz= (=Austria=), =Prince Frederick=, =Charles=
  (=Prussia=); (2) Dermeza, Gerlach.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Invasion of Jutland=, =Storming of Düppel.=

  RESULTS: Denmark gives up Schleswig-Holstein, which is jointly
  administered by Austria and Prussia.

=AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR=--1866.

  (1) =Prussia with smaller North German States and Italy= vs. (2)
  Austria, Hanover, Saxony, and South German States.

  CAUSES: Friction over Schleswig-Holstein enables Bismarck to force
  Austria into a war for supremacy in Germany.

  LEADERS: (1) =William I.=, =Prince Frederick=, =Charles=, =Moltke=,
  =Victor Emmanuel=; (2) Benedek, Archduke Albert, Gablenz, Prince
  Charles of Bavaria.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: In Bohemia: (1) =Soor=, =Koniggrätz or Sadowa=; (2)
  Trautenau. _In the West_: (1) =Aschaffenburg=; (2) Langensala. _In
  Italy_: (2) Custozza, Lissa.

  RESULTS: Closed with the peace of Prague, August 23, 1866, which
  authorized the re-establishment of the federated German states,
  excluding Austria; Austria ceded Venetia to Italy, and her rights in
  Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia. Hanover, Hesse, Nassau are also
  annexed to Prussia.

=FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR=--1870-1871.

  (1) France vs. (2) =Prussia= supported by all German States.

  CAUSES: Jealousy of France at Prussian gains and friction over
  Hohenzollern candidacy for the throne of Spain. Bismarck’s
  falsification of the “Ems dispatch” tricked France into a
  declaration of war.

  LEADERS: Napoleon III., MacMahon, Bazaine; (2) =William I.=,
  =Moltke=, =Prince Frederick Charles=, =Crown Prince Frederic
  William.=

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Saarbrucken=; (2) Weissenberg, Wörth, Vionville,
  Gravelotte, Sedan, Capitulation of Metz, Orleans, Capitulation of
  Paris.

  RESULTS: Closed in 1871 with the treaty of Versailles with the
  following results: (1) The French military power was destroyed; (2)
  the western frontier of Germany was rendered secure; (3) The German
  empire was established; (4) Germany acquired Alsace and Lorraine. In
  France Napoleon III. is deposed and the Third Republic established,
  1870.

=RUSSO-TURKISH WAR=--1877-1878.

  (1) =Russia= vs. (2) Turkey.

  CAUSES: Turkish misgovernment and revolts in her Christian subject
  provinces, which were barbarously put down (“Bulgarian atrocities”)
  arouse all Europe but Russia alone declares war.

  LEADERS: (1) =Grand Duke Nicholas=, =Gurka=, =Grand Duke Michael=,
  =Alexander II.=; (2) Suleiman Pasha, Osman Pasha, Mukhitar Pasha.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Passages of the Danube at Shitova=, =Shipka
  Pass=, =Plevna=, =Storm of Kars.=

  RESULTS: By the peace of San Stefano as revised in the congress of
  the powers at Berlin, Montenegro, Servia and Roumania become
  independent; Bulgaria remains tributary but receives a Christian
  prince; Russia obtains large indemnity and part of Armenia and also
  Bessarabia.

=CHINESE-JAPANESE WAR=--1894-1895.

  (1) =Japan= vs. (2) China.

  CAUSES: Rival claims to suzerainty over Korea.

  LEADERS: (1) =Ito=, =Yamagata=, =Oyama=, =Nogi=; (2) Tso, Yeh, Wei.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: =Yalu River=, =Port Arthur=, =Wei-hai-wei=,
  =Niuchwang.=

  RESULTS: Treaty of Shimonoseki, signed April 17, 1895, removed Korea
  from Chinese influence; ceded Formosa and the Pescadores to Japan,
  and awarded to the latter an indemnity of $180,000,000.

=SOUTH AFRICAN OR BOER WAR=--1899-1902.

  (1) =Great Britain= vs. (2) Transvaal, Orange Free State.

  CAUSES: Resistance by the Boers to the British form of government in
  the Transvaal.

  LEADERS: (1) =Sir George White Buller=, =Methuen=, =Roberts=,
  =Kitchener=, =French=; (2) Cronje, Botha, De Wet, Delarey.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Siege of Ladysmith=, =Paardeberg=; (2) Colenso,
  Spion Kop, Vaal Krantz, Magersfontein.

  RESULT: Boers surrendered May 31, 1902; are granted the right of
  self-government under British sovereignty, and united with other
  self-governing British colonies in South Africa, in 1910, to form
  the Union of South Africa.

=RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR=--1904-1905.

  (1) =Japan= vs. (2) Russia.

  CAUSES: Russian encroachments in Manchuria, and their fortification
  of Port Arthur.

  LEADERS: (1) =Togo=, =Kuroki=, =Oku=, =Nodzu=, =Oyama=, =Nogi=; (2)
  Kuropatkin, Alexieff, Makaroff, Stoessel, Stakelberg, Linievitch.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Port Arthur and Chemulpo=, =Vladivostok=, =Yalu
  River=, =Dalny=, =Siege of Port Arthur=, =Mukden=, =Sea of Japan.=

  RESULTS: Closed September 5, 1905, by treaty of Portsmouth by which
  Korea passes under control of Japan, China regains Manchuria, and
  Japan is granted important railroad rights.

=BALKAN WAR=--1912-1913.

  (1) =Montenegro=, =Bulgaria=, =Servia and Greece= vs. (2) Turkey.

  CAUSES: Discontent with Turkish rule in Macedonia.

  LEADERS: (1) =Savoff=, =Dimitrieff=, =Putnik=, =Constantine=; (2)
  Nazim Pasha, Mukhtar Pasha, Abdullah Pasha.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: (1) =Kirk Kilisseh=, =Lule Burgas=, =Monastir.=

  RESULTS: Turkey appealed to the powers, November 3, 1912, for
  intervention, and an armistice was signed December 3, 1912, ending
  one of the shortest and most sanguinary wars in history. The treaty
  of peace was signed May 30, 1913.

  (2) =Servia=, =Greece=, =Roumania=, =Turkey= vs. Bulgaria.

  CAUSES: Disputes over the division of Macedonia.

  CHIEF ACTIONS: Mainly astounding atrocities and the re-occupation of
  Adrianople by Turkey.

  RESULTS: Reorganization of the Balkan states. Albania was made
  independent under an international commission of control; Crete was
  ceded to Greece; Macedonia was divided among Greece, Servia, and
  Bulgaria; and Roumania gained a strip from the northwest of
  Bulgaria. On September 17, 1913, an agreement between Bulgaria and
  Turkey provided that the latter retain Adrianople, Kirk Kilisseh,
  and Dimotika. September 28 the treaty between Bulgaria and Turkey
  was signed at Constantinople.

=EUROPEAN WAR=--1914-1917.

  (1) Entente Allies (Great Britain, France, Russia, Italy, Belgium,
  Servia, Montenegro, Roumania, Portugal, Japan) vs. (2) Teutonic
  Allies (Germany, Austro-Hungary, Turkey, Bulgaria).

  CAUSES: (1) The immediate occasion of this great conflict was the
  murder of the Crown Prince and Crown Princess of the
  Austro-Hungarian empire, on June 28, 1914, at Sarajevo, Bosnia,
  through the alleged instigation of a Servian revolutionary society,
  called the Narodna Odbrana, which had for its purpose the disrupting
  of the Austro-Hungarian empire, particularly those parts inhabited
  largely by Servians and other Slavic races, followed by a demand on
  the part of the Austro-Hungarian government that Servia suppress the
  criminal organization and permit the former to co-operate in the
  inquiry as to the accomplices on Servian territory in the murders of
  the Prince and Princess. This demand was refused by Servia, which
  immediately received the support of Russia, France and Great
  Britain, while Austria-Hungary received the support of Germany, and,
  later, of Turkey.

  (2) The underlying causes were the following:

  (a) The policy of Russia (popularly known as Pan-Slavism), an
  age-long political creed of Russian ambition, to dominate the Balkan
  countries and extend her dominions to the Bosphorus, the Ægean and
  the Adriatic.

  (b) The ambition of France to regain Alsace-Lorraine, lost to her by
  the Franco-Prussian war.

  (c) The determination of Great Britain to check the growth of
  Germany, politically, industrially, and especially commercially.

  (3) More remote causes, and more specious ones, are alleged to be:

  (a) The European political doctrine of the “Balance of Power,” which
  was the outgrowth of the Napoleonic wars, and received its first
  stamp of approval at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, which settled
  the important boundaries of the map of Europe for more than half a
  century afterward. Subsequently, the “great powers” of Europe
  assumed the point of view that any acquisition of power, territory
  or population by any one of them entitled all the others to
  compensation; so that the relative strength and importance might not
  be disturbed. This rule has been applied to every important war
  since Napoleon’s time, and any threatened disturbance of this
  “balance” has always had in it the germ of a general conflict. Hence
  arose the historic “alliances,” known as the Triple Alliance, on the
  one hand, and the Triple Entente, comprising France, Russia and
  Great Britain, on the other.

  (b) Militarism, so-called, with its attendant jealousies and
  obstacles to social and economic reforms, and which might be said to
  be the direct fruits of the “balance of power” doctrine, as is also
  the doctrine of the “guaranteed neutrality” of certain small
  countries of Europe, which astute European diplomacy created for the
  purpose of “buffer” states.

  MILITARY LEADERS: (1) Kitchener, French, Haig, Joffre, Grand Duke
  Nicholas, Kouropatkin, Brusiloff, Admirals Fisher and Jellicoe; (2)
  Emperor William, Hindenburg, Mackensen, Kluck, Falkenhayn, Archduke
  Frederick, Hoetzendorf, Crown Prince Frederick William, Admiral
  Tirpitz, Crown Prince Rupprecht, Enver Pasha.

  CHIEF THEATERS OF ACTION: (1) Belgium; (2) Northern France; (3)
  Poland; (4) Dardanelles; (5) Servia and Balkans; (6) Roumania; (7)
  Austro-Italian Front; (8) Lithuania; (9) North Sea and Inlets; (10)
  Mediterranean; (11) German Colonial Possessions throughout the
  world.

  RESULTS: Except for the loss of Germany’s Colonial Possessions, the
  results of the war to date (1917) largely preponderate in favor of
  the Teutonic Allies--the land campaigns being almost overwhelmingly
  in their favor. (See further Great Battles of the World.)

  CHRONOLOGY OF GREAT EVENTS:

  =1914=

  June 28.--Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and the Duchess of
  Hohenberg at Sarajevo, Bosnia, by Servian student.

  July 28.--Austria declares war on Servia, and hostilities commence,
  after Germany and Austria refuse England’s invitation to a
  conference.

  August 1.--Germany formally declares war on Russia, and troops are
  ordered mobilized.

  France mobilizes.

  August 3.--Germany declares war on France. German troops enter
  Belgium.

  August 4.--War declared by England on Germany.

  August 6.--Austria declares war against Russia.

  August 9.--Servia declares war on Germany.

  August 11.--Montenegro declares war on Germany.

  August 12.--France declares war on Austria-Hungary.

  August 12.--England declares war on Austria.

  August 23.--Japan in state of war with Germany.

  August 25.--Austria declares war on Japan.

  August 29.--Austria declares war on Belgium.

  August 30.--Paris prepares for a siege.

  September 5.--England, France and Russia agree not to treat for
  peace separately.

  October 30.--Russia declares state of war exists with Turkey.

  November 5.--Great Britain officially announces state of war with
  Turkey.

  Servia severs diplomatic relations with Turkey.

  =1915=

  February 17.--Germans begin submarine campaign by sinking British
  collier without warning.

  February 24.--Britain closes Irish and North channels to all
  navigation.

  March 1.--Great Britain declares virtual blockade of German coast.

  March 15.--British council order prohibits all traffic to and from
  Germany.

  May 23.--Italy declares war on Austria-Hungary.

  October 14.--Bulgaria declares war on Servia.

  =1916=

  August 27.--Italy declares war on Germany.

  Roumania entered the war on the side of the allies.

  October 11.--Upon demand of Great Britain and France the entire
  Greek fleet and sea-coast forts were turned over to the allies or
  dismantled.

  December 7.--David Lloyd George accepted British post of Prime
  Minister and First Lord of the Treasury.

  December 8.--Roumanian army trapped in Prahova Valley, surrendered
  to General von Mackensen’s forces.

  December 12.--Chancellor von Bethmann-Hollweg announced to the
  Reichstag that Germany and her allies proposed to enter forthwith
  into peace negotiations.

  =1917=

  February.--The chief occurrences in the opening months of this year
  were the blockade declared by Germany against the Entente Allies,
  and the announcement of unrestricted submarine warfare upon neutral
  shipping to the nations composing that alliance. This course was
  justified by the German government as a retaliation against the
  starvation blockade instituted by Great Britain and her allies.


GREAT AMERICAN AND FOREIGN BATTLES.

  This table includes those battles of decisive or far-reaching
  importance upon the destinies of the contestants. The dates are
  according to the Old Style, or Julian, calendar down to 1582; after
  that date, according to the New Style, or Gregorian, calendar. The
  victors in the various battles are printed in =bold-face= type.
  Details of minor American battles will be found in connection with
  the Outline Tables of American History. †Naval battles. *Indecisive
  results.

  ========================+========================+========================
  =Name of Battle; Approx-|   =Contesting Nations  |   =Results and Marked
    imate Location; Date= |       or Parties=      |Features of the Contest=
  ------------------------+------------------------+------------------------
   =Abensberg= (_ä´bens-  |=French and Bavarians=  |About 90,000 engaged on
   berg_), Bavaria, April |vs. Austrians           |each side.
   20, 1809               |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Aboukir= (_ä-bōō-     |=English= vs. French    |Nelson cut off
   kêr´_), =Battle of the |                        |Napoleon’s return to
   Nile=, Egypt, August 1,|                        |Europe.
   1798                   |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Aboukir=, Egypt, July |=French= vs. Turks      |Two-thirds of Turkish
   25, 1799               |                        |troops killed.
                          |                        |
  †=Abydos= (_ȧ-bī´dos_), |=Athenians= vs.         |...
   Hellespont, B. C. 411  |Peloponnesians          |
                          |                        |
   =Acragas= (_ak´ra-     |=Carthaginians= vs.     |The citizens evacuated
   gas_), =Siege of=,     |Greeks                  |the fortress.
   Sicily, B. C. 406      |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Acre= (_ä´ker_ or     |=Christians= vs.        |Richard the Lion Hearted
   _ā´ker_), =Siege of=,  |Saracens                |won renown by this
   Syria, 1189-1191       |                        |siege.
                          |                        |
   =Acre, Siege of=,      |=Turks= vs. French      |...
   Syria, March 17, 1799  |                        |
                          |                        |
  †=Actium= (_ak´shi-um_),|=Augustus= vs. Antony   |At the critical moment
   Greece, September 2,   |                        |Antony and Cleopatra
   B. C. 31               |                        |sail away.
                          |                        |
   =Adowa= (_ä´dō-wä_),   |=Ethiopians= vs.        |Italians routed with
   Northeast Africa, March|Italians                |enormous loss.
   1, 1896                |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Adrianople= (_ad-ri-  |=Constantine= vs.       |Constantine gained
   an-ō´pl_), Thrace, July|Licinius                |empire.
   3, 323                 |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Adrianople=, Thrace,  |=Visigoths= vs. Romans  |Emperor Valens defeated
   378                    |                        |and slain.
                          |                        |
   =Adwalton= (_ad´wal-   |=Royalists= vs.         |...
   ton_) =Moor=, England, |Parliamentarians        |
   January 30, 1643       |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Ægadian Islands= (_ē- |=Romans= vs.            |This victory put an end
   gā´di-an_), Sicily,    |Carthaginians           |to the first Punic war.
   B. C. 241              |                        |
                          |                        |
  †=Ægospotami= (_ē-gos-  |=Spartans= vs. Athenians|Virtually ended
   pot´a-mī_), Thrace,    |                        |Peloponnesian war.
   B. C. 405              |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Aghrim= (_ô´grim_),   |=William III.= vs.      |Irish savagely
   Ireland, July 12, 1691 |James II.               |slaughtered.
                          |                        |
   =Agincourt= (_ȧ-zhan-  |=English= vs. French    |Great victory for Henry
   kōōr_); E. (_aj´in-    |                        |V.
   kört_), France, October|                        |
   25, 1415               |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Agnadello= (_ä-nyä-   |=French= vs. Venetians  |One of the most
   del´lō_), Italy, May   |                        |disastrous battles in
   14, 1509               |                        |the history of Venice.
                          |                        |
   =Agrigentum= (_ag-ri-  |=Romans= vs.            |...
   jen´tum_), =Siege of=, |Carthaginians           |
   Sicily, B. C. 262      |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Alamo= (_ä´lȧ-mō_),   |=Mexicans= vs. Texans   |Survivors put to the
   =Storming of the=,     |                        |sword.
   Texas, U. S., February |                        |
   22, 1836               |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Albuera= (_äl-bwā´    |=British= vs. French    |Heavy losses on both
   rā_), Spain, May 16,   |                        |sides.
   1811                   |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Aleppo= (_ä-lep´ō_),  |=Moslems= vs. Syrians   |Last serious resistance
   Syria, 638             |                        |in Syria to the invading
                          |                        |Moslems.
                          |                        |
   =Alexandria= (_ä-leks- |=Moslems= vs. Egyptians |Left Moslems masters of
   än´dri-ä_), =Siege of=,|                        |Egypt.
   Egypt, 638             |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Alexandria,           |=English= vs. Arabi     |Forts totally destroyed.
   Bombardment of=, Egypt,|Pasha                   |English occupy Egypt.
   July 11-12, 1882       |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Algiers= (_al-jērz´_),|=English and Dutch= vs. |Dey agreed to total
   =Bombardment of=,      |Dey of Algeria          |abolition of Christian
   Algeria, 1816          |                        |slavery in his dominion.
                          |                        |
   =Allia= (_al´i-ä_),    |=Brennus and his Gauls= |Rome left defenseless.
   Italy, B. C. 390       |vs. Romans              |
                          |                        |
   =Alma= (_äl´ma_),      |=English and French= vs.|British carried heights
   Crimea, September 20,  |Russians                |at the point of the
   1854                   |                        |bayonet.
                          |                        |
   =Almansa= (_äl-män´    |=French= vs. British and|Spain lost to the
   sä_), Spain, April 25, |Portuguese              |allies.
   1707                   |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Amphipolis= (_am-fip´ |=Spartans= vs. Athenians|Both Brasidas and Cleon
   ō-lis_), =Siege of=,   |                        |fell.
   Thrace, B. C. 422      |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Anaquito= (_ä-nä-kē´  |=Pizarro= vs. Viceroy   |Government of Peru fell
   tō_), Peru, 1546       |Menez                   |into Pizzaro’s hands.
                          |                        |
   =Angora= (_an-gō´rȧ_), |=Tartars= vs. Turks     |Tamerlane said to have
   Asia Minor, 1402       |                        |had eight hundred
                          |                        |thousand men.
                          |                        |
   =Antietam= (_an-tē´    |*=Confederates= vs.     |Heavy losses on both
   tam_), Maryland, U. S.,|U. S.                   |sides. Lee’s army
   September 17, 1862     |                        |greatly outnumbered.
                          |                        |
   =Antioch, Siege of=,   |=Crusaders= vs. Saracens|Defenders massacred.
   Syria, 1097-1098       |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Antwerp= (_ant´wirp_),|=Spaniards= vs. Walloons|Massacre of inhabitants
   Belgium, 1576          |                        |known as the “Spanish
                          |                        |Fury.”
                          |                        |
   =Appomattox= (_ap-pō-  |=U. S.= vs. Confederates|Marked the close of the
   mat´oks_), Virginia,   |                        |American Civil war, and
   U. S., April 9, 1865   |                        |surrender of General
                          |                        |Lee.
                          |                        |
   =Aquae Sextiae= (_ā´   |=Romans= vs. Teutons    |Caius Marius annihilates
   kwe seks´ti-ē_) Gaul,  |                        |the barbarian army.
   B. C. 102              |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Arbela= (_är-bē´lä_), |=Macedonians= vs.       |This victory made
   Persia, B. C. 331      |Persians                |Alexander master of
                          |                        |Asia.
                          |                        |
   =Arcola= (_är´kō-lā_), |=French under Napoleon= |Napoleon prevented the
   Italy, November 15-17, |vs. Austrians           |junction of two Austrian
   1796                   |                        |armies.
                          |                        |
   =Arcot= (_är-kot´_),   |=English and Sepoys= vs.|Robert Clive held out
   =Siege of=, India,     |French                  |ten weeks against a far
   August 31- November 15,|                        |superior force before
   1751                   |                        |being relieved.
                          |                        |
  †=Arginusae= (_är-ji-nū´|=Athenians= vs.         |Command of the sea
   sē_), Asia Minor, B. C.|Peloponnesians          |temporarily restored to
   406                    |                        |Athens.
                          |                        |
  †=Armada= (_är-mä´dä_), |=English= vs. Spanish   |Beginning of English
   =The Invincible=,      |                        |sea-power.
   English Channel, July, |                        |
   1588                   |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Arsuf= (_ar-suf_),    |=English Crusaders= vs. |Great victory of Richard
   Syria, September 7,    |Saracens                |the Lion Hearted over
   1191                   |                        |Saladin.
                          |                        |
  †=Artemisium= (_ār-te-  |*=Persians= vs. Greeks  |Fought at the same time
   mish´um_), Eubœa, B. C.|                        |as the battle of
   480                    |                        |Thermopylæ.
                          |                        |
   =Ascalon= (_as´ka-     |=Crusaders= vs. Saracens|Moslem resistance to
   lon_), Syria, 1099     |                        |Christians ended for a
                          |                        |time.
                          |                        |
   =Asculum= (_as´ku-     |=Pyrrhus= vs. Romans    |Pyrrhus, though
   lum_), Italy, B. C. 279|                        |victorious, suffered
                          |                        |great loss.
                          |                        |
   =Aspern= (_äs´pern_),  |*=Austrians= vs. French |Napoleon retired. Each
   Austria, May 21-22,    |                        |side lost about 20,000
   1809                   |                        |men.
                          |                        |
   =Assaye= (_ä-sī´_),    |=English= vs. East      |Sir Arthur Wellesley
   India, September 23,   |Indians                 |(later duke of
   1803                   |                        |Wellington) defeated
                          |                        |forces almost ten times
                          |                        |as numerous.
                          |                        |
   =Austerlitz= (_ous´ter-|=French= vs. Russians,  |The Battle of the Three
   lits_), Austria,       |Austrians               |Emperors: Napoleon,
   December 2, 1805       |                        |Alexander I., Francis I.
                          |                        |
  †=Azores= (_ȧ-zōrz´_),  |=Spanish= vs. English   |Gallant fight made by
   Atlantic Ocean, 1591   |                        |Sir Richard Grenville in
                          |                        |the _Revenge_.
                          |                        |
   =Balaclava= (_bäl-ä-   |=Russians= vs. English  |“Charge of the Light
   klä´vä_), Crimea,      |                        |Brigade” celebrated by
   October 25, 1854       |                        |Tennyson.
                          |                        |
   =Bannockburn= (_ban´ok-|=Scots= vs. English     |Bruce drives back
   burn_), Scotland, June |                        |English invaders with
   24, 1314               |                        |great slaughter.
                          |                        |
   =Barnet= (_bär´net_),  |=Yorkists= vs.          |Earl of Warwick (“King-
   England, April 4, 1471 |Lancastrians            |maker”) slain.
                          |                        |
   =Bautzen= (_bout´sen_),|=French= vs. Prussians, |The allies lost 15,000
   Germany, May 20-21,    |Russians                |killed and wounded.
   1813                   |                        |
                          |                        |
  †=Beachy Head=, England,|=French= vs. English,   |The French had been sent
   June 30, 1690          |Dutch                   |to create a diversion in
                          |                        |favor of James II. in
                          |                        |Ireland.
                          |                        |
   =Belgrade= (_bel-      |=Hungarians= vs. Turks  |John Hunyady’s last
   grād´_), =Siege of=,   |                        |exploit.
   Servia, April, 1456    |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Beneventum= (_ben-e-  |=Romans= vs. Pyrrhus    |Pyrrhus’ last serious
   ven´tum_), Italy, B. C.|                        |attack against the
   275                    |                        |Romans.
                          |                        |
   =Beresina= (_ber-yā´zē-|=Russians= vs. French   |A most terrible disaster
   nä_), =Crossing of     |                        |on the retreat from
   the=, Russia, November |                        |Moscow.
   28, 1812               |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Bergen-op-Zoom=       |=French= vs. English,   |French lost heavily in
   (_berch´en-op-zōm´_),  |Dutch                   |this siege.
   =Siege of=, Nether-    |                        |
   lands, 1747            |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Bibracte= (_bi-brak´  |=Romans= vs. Helvetians |A defeat would have
   tē_), Gaul, B. C. 58   |                        |meant destruction to
                          |                        |Cæsar.
                          |                        |
   =Blenheim= (_blen´im_),|=British and Imperi-    |Brilliant victory of
   Bavaria, August 13,    |alists= vs. French and  |Marlborough and Prince
   1704                   |Bavarians               |Eugene.
                          |                        |
   =Borodino= (_bor-o-dyē-|*=French= vs. Russians  |One of the most bloody
   nô´_) commonly Angli-  |                        |battles on record.
   cized, (_bor-ō-dē´nō_) |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Bosworth Field=,      |=Lancastrians= vs.      |Richard III. slain;
   England, August, 1485  |Yorkists                |Henry Tudor becomes
                          |                        |Henry VII. of England.
                          |                        |
   =Bouvines= (_bö-vēn´_) |=French= vs. Flemish,   |Secures the position of
   Flanders, 1214         |English and Germans     |Philip Augustus on the
                          |                        |throne of France.
                          |                        |
   =Bovianum= (_bö-vi-ä´  |=Romans= vs. Samnites   |End of second Samnite
   num_), =Siege of=,     |                        |war.
   Italy, B. C. 305       |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Boyne= (_boin_)       |=William III.= vs.      |Irish under James II.
   =river=, Ireland, July |James II.               |totally defeated.
   1, 1690                |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Breitenfeld= (_brīt´  |=Swedes and Saxons= vs. |Brilliant victory of
   en-felt_), Germany,    |Imperialists            |Gustavus Adolphus over
   September 7, 1631      |                        |Tilly.
                          |                        |
   =Breitenfeld=, Germany,|=Swedes= vs.            |Victory of Tortenson
   1642                   |Imperialists            |over Piccolomini.
                          |                        |
   =Brill, Seizure of=,   |=Netherlanders= vs.     |The first success of the
   Holland, 1572          |Spanish                 |Netherlanders.
                          |                        |
   =Buena Vista= (_bwā´nä |=Americans= vs. Mexicans|General Zachary Taylor
   vēs´tä_), Mexico,      |                        |victorious over much
   February 22-23, 1847   |                        |larger force.
                          |                        |
   =Bull Run=, Virginia,  |=Confederates= vs.      |The first important
   U. S. A., July 21, 1861|Federals                |battle of the Civil war.
                          |                        |
   =Bunker’s Hill=,       |=British= vs. Americans |Though dislodged from
   Massachusetts,         |                        |their position, the
   U. S. A., June 17, 1775|                        |Americans won a
                          |                        |practical victory.
                          |                        |
   =Byzantium= (_bi-zan´  |=Constantine= vs.       |Byzantium refounded as
   shi-um_), =Siege of=,  |Licinius                |Constantinople, the
   Thrace, 323            |                        |capital of the empire.
                          |                        |
  †=Cadiz= (_kā´diz_, Sp. |=English= vs. Spanish   |Here Drake “singed the
   _kä´dēth_), Spain, 1587|                        |King of Spain’s beard.”
                          |                        |
   =Calais= (Fr. _kȧ-     |=English= vs. French    |Calais remained in
   lä´_), =Siege of=,     |                        |English possession until
   France, 1346-1347      |                        |1558.
                          |                        |
  †=Camperdown= (_kam-per-|=British= vs. Dutch     |The Dutch fleet, allied
   doun´_), Holland,      |                        |with France, was
   October 11, 1797       |                        |practically destroyed.
                          |                        |
   =Cannæ= (_kan´ē_),     |=Carthaginians= vs.     |Hannibal inflicts one of
   Italy, B. C. 216       |Romans                  |the most disastrous
                          |                        |defeats the Romans ever
                          |                        |suffered.
                          |                        |
  †=Cape St. Vincent=,    |=British= vs. Spanish   |Spanish fleet, allied
   Portugal, February 14, |                        |with France, beaten by
   1797                   |                        |Admiral Jervis.
                          |                        |
   =Capua= (_kap´ū-a_; It.|=Romans= vs. Capuans and|Hannibal was unable to
   _kä´pŏŏ-ä_), =Siege    |Carthaginians           |break through Roman
   of=, Italy, B. C. 211  |                        |lines and relieve the
                          |                        |city.
                          |                        |
   =Carrhæ= (_kar´ē_),    |=Parthians= vs. Romans  |Crassus, one of the
   Mesopotamia, B. C. 53  |                        |triumvirs, defeated and
                          |                        |shortly after slain.
                          |                        |
   =Carthage= (_kär´      |=Romans= vs.            |Carthage razed to the
   thij_), =Siege of=,    |Carthaginians           |ground.
   North Africa, B. C. 146|                        |
                          |                        |
   =Castillon= (_käs-te-  |=French= vs. English    |This victory ended the
   yôn´_), France, July   |                        |Hundred Years’ war.
   17, 1453               |                        |
                          |                        |
  †=Catana= (_kä-tän´ä_), |=Carthaginians= vs.     |Syracusans utterly
   Sicily, B. C. 387      |Syracusans              |routed. Carthaginians
                          |                        |besieged Syracuse.
                          |                        |
   =Caudine= (_kâ´din_)   |=Samnites= vs. Romans   |The whole Roman army was
   =Forks=, Italy, B. C.  |                        |“sent under the yoke.”
   321                    |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Cawnpore= (_kân´pōr_),|=British= vs. Mutineers |Sir Colin Campbell routs
   India, December 6, 1857|                        |mutineers.
                          |                        |
   =Chæronea= (_ker-ō-    |=Macedonians= vs.       |Philip of Macedon wins
   nēȧ_), Greece, B. C.   |Athenians and Thebans   |hegemony of Greece.
   338                    |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Chalons= (_shä-lôn´_),|=Romans and Visigoths=  |Attila retreated and
   France, 451            |vs. Huns                |western Europe was saved
                          |                        |from the Huns.
                          |                        |
   =Chattanooga= (_chat-ȧ-|=Federals= vs.          |The “Battle above the
   nōō´gȧ_) Tennessee,    |Confederates            |Clouds” fought on
   U. S. A., November 24- |                        |Lookout Mountain.
   27, 1863               |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Chickamauga= (_chik-ȧ-|=Confederates= vs.      |Federal losses 16,000;
   mô´-gȧ_), Tennessee,   |Federals                |Confederate about
   U. S. A., Sept. 19-20, |                        |12,000.
   1863                   |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Chioggia= (_kyod´jā_),|=Venetians= vs. Genoese |Loss of this city broke
   =Blockade of=, Venetia,|                        |the power of the Genoese
   January to June, 1380  |                        |republic for many years.
                          |                        |
   =Chotusitz= (_chō´tö-  |=Prussians= vs.         |This victory led Austria
   zits_) (=Caslau=),     |Austrians               |to sign the peace of
   Bohemia, May 17, 1742  |                        |Breslau, June 11, 1742.
                          |                        |
   =Clusium= (_klōō´shi-  |=Gauls= vs. Romans      |Romans said to have lost
   um_), Italy, B. C. 225 |                        |25,000.
                          |                        |
  †=Cnidus= (_nī´dus_),   |=Athenians and Persians=|Sparta lost her recently
   Asia Minor, B. C. 394  |vs. Spartans            |gained maritime
                          |                        |ascendency.
                          |                        |
   =Colenso= (_kō-len´    |=Boers= vs. British     |First action in Buller’s
   sō_), South Africa,    |                        |campaign for the relief
   December 15, 1899      |                        |of Ladysmith.
                          |                        |
   =Colline= (_kol´in_)   |=Optimates= vs.         |Sulla’s victory ended
   =Gate=, Rome, B. C. 82 |Democrates and Samnites |the Roman civil war.
                          |                        |
  †=Constantinople= (_kon-|=Crusaders and          |Baldwin of Flanders
   stan-ti-nō´pl_), =Siege|Venetians= vs. Greek    |becomes Latin emperor of
   of=, Thrace, 1204      |Empire                  |the East.
                          |                        |
   =Constantinople, Siege |=Turks= vs. Greeks      |Final overthrow of Greek
   of=, Thrace, April 26- |                        |Empire.
   May 29, 1453           |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Copenhagen= (_kō-pen- |=British= vs. Danish    |England forces surrender
   hā´gen_), =Bombardment |                        |of Danish fleet to save
   of=, Denmark, 1807     |                        |it from Napoleon.
                          |                        |
   =Coronea= (_kor-ŏ-nē´  |=Sparta= vs. Thebes,    |Agesilaus, Spartan king,
   ȧ_), Greece, B. C. 394 |Corinth, Argos and      |compelled to evacuate
                          |Athens                  |Bœotia.
                          |                        |
   =Corunna= (_kō-run´ȧ_),|=British= vs. French    |Sir John Moore killed.
   Spain, January 16, 1809|                        |French kept at bay while
                          |                        |British embarked.
                          |                        |
   =Courtral= (_kŏŏ-      |=Flemish= vs. French    |“Battle of the Spurs.”
   trā´_), Flanders, July |                        |Great carnage among
   11, 1302               |                        |French knighthood.
                          |                        |
   =Crécy= (_krā´sē_),    |=English= vs. French    |Victory due to English
   France, August 26, 1346|                        |archers.
                          |                        |
   =Crimisus= (_kri-mī´   |=Sicilians= vs.         |Secured Greek towns of
   sus_), =the river=,    |Carthaginians           |Sicily peace for many
   Sicily, B. C. 340      |                        |years.
                          |                        |
   =Culloden= (_ku-lō´den_|=British= vs. Scots     |Last attempt of the
   or _-lod´en_), Scot-   |under Young Pretender   |Stuarts to recover
   land, April 16, 1746   |                        |British throne.
                          |                        |
   =Cunaxa= (_kū-nak´sȧ_),|=Cyrus and the “Ten     |Cyrus was slain and the
   Babylonia, B. C. 401   |Thousand”= vs. Persians |Greeks made the
                          |                        |“Anabasis” to the sea.
                          |                        |
   =Custozza= (_kös-tōd´  |=Austrians= vs. Italians|Though defeated, the
   zā_), Italy, June 24,  |                        |Italians gained Venetia
   1866                   |                        |through Prussia.
                          |                        |
   =Cynoscephalae= (_sī-  |=Romans= vs. Macedonians|Philip V. forced to
   nō-sef´ȧ-lē_ or _sin-  |                        |abandon the hegemony of
   ō_), Greece, B. C. 197 |                        |Greece.
                          |                        |
  †=Cyzicus= (_siz´i-     |=Athenians= vs.         |Alcibiades surprised and
   kus_), Propontis, B. C.|=Peloponnesians=        |practically annihilated
   410                    |                        |the Peloponnesian fleet.
                          |                        |
   =Dardanelles= (_där-dȧ-|=Turks= vs. British and |British and French with-
   nelz´_) =Campaign=,    |French                  |drew after a loss of
   Turkey, March 18, 1915,|                        |115,000, killed, wounded
   to January 9, 1916     |                        |or prisoners.
                          |                        |
   =Delhi= (_del´i_),     |=British= vs. Mutineers |Delhi was the real
   =Siege of=, India, June|                        |center of the Indian
   8 to September 20, 1857|                        |mutiny.
                          |                        |
   =Delium= (_dē´li-um_), |=Bœotians= vs. Athenians|Decisive and disastrous
   Greece, B. C. 424      |                        |defeat for Athenians.
                          |                        |
   =Dennewitz= (_den´ne-  |=Russians, Prussians,   |Victory of Bernadotte
   vits_), Germany,       |Austrians and Swedes,   |(afterward Charles XIV.
   September 6, 1813      |Allies=, vs. French     |of Sweden) over Ney.
                          |                        |
   =Deorham= (_de-or´     |=West Saxons= vs. Welsh |Wessex extended to
   häm_), England, 577    |                        |Bristol channel,
                          |                        |severing Welsh into two
                          |                        |parts.
                          |                        |
   =Dessau= (_des´ou_),   |=Imperialists= vs.      |Wallenstein totally
   Germany, 1626          |Protestants             |routed Mansfeld.
                          |                        |
   =Dettingen= (_det´ing- |=British= vs. French    |Last battle in which a
   en_), Germany, June 27,|                        |British sovereign
   1743                   |                        |engaged in person.
                          |                        |
   =Douro= (_dō´rŏŏ_,     |=British= vs. French    |French driven out of
   Span. _dwā´rō_), =the  |                        |Oporto.
   river=, Portugal, May  |                        |
   12, 1809               |                        |
                          |                        |
  †=Downs, The=, North    |*=Dutch= vs. English    |English fleet took
   Sea, June 11-14, 1666  |                        |shelter in the Thames;
                          |                        |Dutch too crippled to
                          |                        |pursue.
                          |                        |
  †=Drepana= (_drep´a-    |=Carthaginians= vs.     |This and other defeats
   nä_), Sicily, B. C.    |Romans                  |led Romans to abandon
   249                    |                        |the sea temporarily.
                          |                        |
   =Dresden= (_drez´den_; |=French= vs. Russians,  |Napoleon’s last great
   Ger. _drās´den_),      |Prussians, and Austrians|victory on German soil.
   Germany, August 26, 27,|                        |
   1813                   |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Drogheda= (_drô´he-dȧ_|=British and            |Cromwell put the
   or _drô´e-dȧ_), =Storm |Parliamentarians= vs.   |garrison to the sword.
   of=, Ireland, Sept. 12,|Royalists               |
   1649                   |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Dunbar= (_dun-bär´_), |=Parliamentarians= vs.  |Cromwell’s victory
   Scotland, Sept. 3, 1650|Scottish Royalists      |followed by the
                          |                        |surrender of Edinburgh
                          |                        |and Glasgow.
                          |                        |
   =Ebersberg= (_ā´bers-  |=French= vs. Austrians  |A horrible combat in
   berg_), =Storm of=,    |                        |which thousands were
   Bavaria, May 3, 1809   |                        |burned in the ruined
                          |                        |village.
                          |                        |
  †=Ecnomus= (_ek´no-     |=Romans= vs.            |Romans laid waste
   mus_), Sicily, B. C.   |Carthaginians           |Carthaginian territory
   256                    |                        |in Africa.
                          |                        |
   =Edgehill=, England,   |*=Royalists= vs.        |The first battle of the
   October 23, 1642       |Parliamentarians        |Civil war. Royalists
                          |                        |march on London.
                          |                        |
   =El Caney= (_el kä-    |=Americans= vs.         |The chief battle of the
   nā´_), Cuba, July 1,   |Spaniards               |war in Cuba.
   1898                   |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Ellandun= (_el´lan-   |=West Saxons= vs.       |The West Saxon Egbert
   dön_), England, 825    |Mercians                |becomes overlord of all
                          |                        |the English.
                          |                        |
   =Evesham= (_ēvz´ham_), |=Prince Edward= vs.     |This defeat ended the
   England, August 4, 1265|Simon Montfort          |war. Simon de Montfort
                          |                        |fell.
                          |                        |
   =Eylau= (_ī´lau_),     |*=Russians and          |The bloodiest and most
   Prussia, February 8,   |Prussians= vs. French   |desperate battle of a
   1807                   |                        |century.
                          |                        |
   =Falkirk= (_fôl´kerk_; |=English= vs. Scotch    |Edward I. utterly routed
   Scot., _fô´kerk_),     |                        |Wallace.
   Scotland, July 22, 1298|                        |
                          |                        |
   =Fehrbellin= (_fār-bel-|=Brandenburgers= vs.    |The first great victory
   lēn´_), Brandenburg,   |Swedes                  |of Brandenburg, Prussia.
   June 18, 1675          |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Flodden= (_flod´n_),  |=English= vs. Scots     |The Scottish king
   England, September 9,  |                        |perished, with the
   1513                   |                        |bravest of his nobility.
                          |                        |
   =Fontanet= (_fôn-tän-  |=Louis and Charles= vs. |Followed by the famous
   ā´_), France, June 20, |Lothaire (Grandsons of  |Partition of Verdun
   841                    |Charlemagne)            |(843).
                          |                        |
   =Fontenoy= (_fôn-t´-   |=French= vs. British,   |Last great victory of
   nwä´_), Belgium, May   |Dutch and Austrians     |France under the Old
   11, 1745               |                        |Regime.
                          |                        |
   =Fornovo= (_for-no´    |=French= vs. Italians   |Charles VIII. enabled to
   vō_), Italy, July 6,   |                        |continue his retreat
   1495                   |                        |following his conquest
                          |                        |of Naples.
                          |                        |
   =Friedland= (_frēt´    |=French= vs. Russians   |This defeat induced the
   länt_ or _frēd´länt_), |                        |Czar to conclude the
   Prussia, June 14, 1807 |                        |peace of Tilsit.
                          |                        |
   =Gettysburg= (_get´iz- |=Federals= vs.          |One of the bloodiest
   bûrg_), Pennsylvania,  |Confederates            |battles of the war,
   U. S. A., July 1-3,    |                        |forcing Lee from
   1863                   |                        |northern soil.
                          |                        |
   =Gibraltar= (_ji-brâl´ |=British= vs. French and|The last formidable
   tär_), =Siege of=,     |Spanish                 |attack upon Gibraltar
   Spain, 1779-1782       |                        |(British since 1704).
                          |                        |
   =Granada= (_grä-nä´dä_;|=Spaniards= vs. Moors   |Completes the overthrow
   Sp. _grä-nä´thä_),     |                        |of the Moorish power in
   =Capitulation of=,     |                        |Spain.
   Spain, January 2, 1492 |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Granicus= (_grä-nī´   |=Alexander the Great=   |Destroyed the only army
   kus_) =River=, Asia    |vs. Persians and Greek  |opposed to Alexander in
   Minor, B. C. 334       |Mercenaries             |Asia Minor.
                          |                        |
   =Granson= (_gran-sôn´_)|=Swiss= vs. Burgundians |First of the three great
   Switzerland, March 2,  |                        |victories of the Swiss
   1476                   |                        |over Charles the Bold.
                          |                        |
   =Gravelotte= (_gräv-   |=Prussians= vs. French  |The first great victory
   lot´_), Lorraine,      |                        |of the Prussians in the
   August 18, 1870        |                        |war.
                          |                        |
   =Guinegate= (_gēn-     |=English and            |Called the “Battle of
   gȧt´_), France, August |Imperialists= vs. French|the Spurs” from the
   16, 1513               |                        |French haste in flight.
                          |                        |
   =Haarlem= (_här´lem_), |=Spaniards= vs. Dutch   |30,000 Spaniards against
   =Siege of=, Holland,   |                        |4,000 Dutch; 2,000 Dutch
   Dec. 9-July 14, 1572-  |                        |massacred.
   1573                   |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Halidon= (_hal´i-dn_),|=Edward III. of England=|Won by combination of
   =Hill=, England, July  |vs. Scots               |archers and dismounted
   19, 1333               |                        |men-at-arms.
                          |                        |
  †=Hampton= (_hämp´tn_)  |=Monitor= (=Federal=)   |After this wooden ships
   =Roads=, Virginia,     |vs. Merrimac            |give way to ironclads in
   U. S. A., March 8, 1862|(Confederate)           |naval warfare.
                          |                        |
   =Hastenbeck=, Germany, |=French= vs.            |Followed by the
   July 26, 1757          |Hanoverians             |convention of Closter-
                          |                        |Zeven, which George II.
                          |                        |repudiated.
                          |                        |
   =Hastings= (_hās´      |=Normans= vs. English   |Harold fell; William the
   tingz_), England,      |                        |Conqueror became king of
   October 14, 1066       |                        |England.
                          |                        |
   =Heraclea= (_her-ȧ-klē´|=King Pyrrhus= vs.      |“One more such victory
   ȧ_ or _-klī´ȧ_), Italy,|Romans                  |and I shall be ruined.”
   B. C. 280              |                        |--Pyrrhus.
                          |                        |
   =Hexham= (_hek´sam_),  |=Yorkists= vs.          |The Lancastrian cause
   England, May 15, 1464  |Lancastrians            |was completely crushed
                          |                        |by this defeat.
                          |                        |
   =Himera= (_him´er-ȧ_), |=Syracuse and           |Hamilcar slain.
   Sicily, B. C. 480      |Agrigentum= vs.         |Carthaginians purchased
                          |Carthaginians           |peace for 2,000 talents.
                          |                        |
   =Himera, Siege of=,    |=Carthaginians= vs.     |Town sacked and
   Sicily, B. C. 409      |Sicilian Greeks         |prisoners sacrificed to
                          |                        |the shade of Hamilcar.
                          |                        |
   =Höchst= (_hûkst_),    |=Imperialists= vs.      |Practically ends the
   Germany, June 20, 1622 |Palatinate troops       |Bohemian-Palatinate
                          |                        |phase of the Thirty
                          |                        |Years’ war.
                          |                        |
   =Hohenfriedburg= (_hō´ |=Prussians= vs.         |One of Frederick the
   ēn-frēd´-berg_),       |Austrians and Saxons    |Great’s victories; due
   Germany, June, 1745    |                        |partly to Austrian
                          |                        |overconfidence.
                          |                        |
   =Hohenlinden= (_hō-en- |=French= vs. Austrians  |The crowning event of
   lin´den_), Bavaria,    |                        |the winter campaign; won
   December 3, 1800       |                        |by Moreau.
                          |                        |
   =Hohkirchen= (_hō´     |=Austrians= vs.         |Frederick the Great,
   kirch-en_), Germany,   |Prussians               |though surprised by a
   October 14, 1758       |                        |night attack, made good
                          |                        |his retreat.
                          |                        |
   =Homildon= (_hom´l-    |=English= vs. Scots     |Another great victory
   dn_), =Hill=, England, |                        |due to the prowess of
   September 14, 1402     |                        |the English longbowmen.
                          |                        |
   =Hydaspes= (_hī-das´   |=Greeks= vs. Asiatics   |The last important
   pēz_) =River=, India,  |                        |battle in the eastward
   B. C. 326              |                        |advance of Alexander the
                          |                        |Great.
                          |                        |
   =Inkermann= (_ing-ker- |=British and French= vs.|A series of hand-to-hand
   män´_), Crimea,        |Russians                |combats fought in a
   November 5, 1854       |                        |dense fog.
                          |                        |
   =Inverlochy= (_in-ver- |=Royalist Highlanders=  |Power of the Campbells
   lock´i_), Scotland,    |vs. Campbells and       |in the Highlands broken
   February 2, 1645       |Lowland Covenanters     |for many years.
                          |                        |
   =Ipsus= (_ip´sus_),    |=Seleucus= vs. Antigonus|Chief battle between
   Asia Minor, B. C. 301  |                        |Alexander’s generals
                          |                        |over the partition of
                          |                        |his empire.
                          |                        |
   =Issus= (_is´us_), Asia|=Macedonians= vs.       |Alexander’s brilliant
   Minor, B. C. 333       |Asiatics                |victory over an immense
                          |                        |horde of Persians.
                          |                        |
   =Ivry= (_ēv-rē´_),     |=Huguenots= vs.         |Henry IV. gained a
   France, March 14, 1590 |Catholics               |complete victory and
                          |                        |invested Paris, his
                          |                        |capital.
                          |                        |
   =Jarnac= (_zhär-nak´_),|=Catholics= vs.         |Prince de Condé slain.
   France, March 13, 1569 |Huguenots               |
                          |                        |
   =Jemmapes= (_zhe-      |=French= vs. Austrians  |Followed by annexation
   mäp´_), Belgium,       |                        |of the Austrian
   November 6, 1792       |                        |Netherlands to France.
                          |                        |
   =Jena= (_yā´nä_),      |=French= vs. Prussians  |Napoleon advanced thence
   Germany, October 14,   |                        |to Berlin and issued the
   1806                   |                        |decree for a continental
                          |                        |blockade.
                          |                        |
   =Jerusalem= (_jē-rōō´  |=Jews= vs. Romans       |Titus destroyed the city
   sȧ-lem_) =Siege of=,   |                        |and massacred or sold
   Syria, 70              |                        |into slavery its
                          |                        |inhabitants.
                          |                        |
   =Jerusalem, Storm of=, |=Crusaders= vs. Moslems |A terrible massacre;
   Syria, July 15, 1099   |                        |feudal kingdom
                          |                        |established under
                          |                        |Godfrey of Bouillon.
                          |                        |
  †=Jutland=, Baltic Sea, |=Germans= vs. British   |British admitted the
   May 31, 1916           |                        |loss of six large
                          |                        |cruisers and destroyers,
                          |                        |the Germans a battle-
                          |                        |ship, a cruiser, four
                          |                        |light cruisers and five
                          |                        |destroyers. The loss of
                          |                        |life totaled 9,500 and
                          |                        |the battle ended with
                          |                        |the withdrawal of the
                          |                        |German fleet.
                          |                        |
   =Kappel= (_käp´pel_),  |=Swiss Catholic Cantons=|Zwingli, the Swiss
   Switzerland, October   |vs. Zurichers           |Protestant reformer,
   11, 1531               |                        |fell in this battle.
                          |                        |
   =Kars= (_kärs_), =Storm|=Russians= vs. Turks    |Russian success caused
   of=, Armenia, November |                        |angry negotiations
   17-18, 1877            |                        |between England and
                          |                        |Russia.
                          |                        |
   =Katzbach= (_käts´     |=Prussians= vs. French  |A decisive victory of
   ba_K), Germany, August |                        |Blücher over one of
   26, 1813               |                        |Napoleon’s marshals.
                          |                        |
   =Khartoum= (_kär-      |=Mahdi= vs. Gordon      |“Chinese” Gordon killed;
   töm´_), =Siege of=,    |                        |the Soudan evacuated by
   Soudan, March 12-      |                        |the Anglo-Egyptian
   January 26, 1884-1885  |                        |government.
                          |                        |
   =Killiecrankie= (_kil- |=Highland Jacobites= vs.|The Jacobite victory was
   i-krang´ki_), Scotland,|Royalists               |nullified by the fall of
   July 17, 1689          |                        |their leader, Dundee.
                          |                        |
   =Kimberley= (_kim´ber- |=British= vs. Boers     |The brilliant defense of
   li_), =Siege of=, South|                        |Kimberley was a notable
   Africa, October 15,    |                        |feature of the war.
   1899 to February 15,   |                        |
   1900                   |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Kin-chau= (_kin-      |=Japanese= vs. Russians |General Oku opened the
   chow´_), Manchuria, May|                        |way for the land in-
   26, 1904               |                        |vestment of Port Arthur.
                          |                        |
   =Koniggrätz= (_kû´nich-|=Prussians= vs.         |This victory gave the
   gräts´_), (=or         |                        |supremacy in Germany to
   Sadowa=), Germany, July|                        |Prussia, unity to North
   3, 1866                |                        |Germany.
                          |                        |
   =Kolin= (_kō-lēn´_),   |=Austrians= vs.         |Following this defeat,
   Bohemia, June 18, 1757 |Prussians               |Frederick the Great
                          |                        |evacuated Bohemia.
                          |                        |
   =Kossova= (_kos´ō-vō_),|=Turks= vs. Christian   |A battle famed in the
   Servia, June 15, 1389  |Slavs                   |history, legend and
                          |                        |literature of Servia.
                          |                        |
   =Kossova=, Servia,     |=Turks= vs. Christians  |The hero, John Hunyady,
   October 17-19, 1448    |                        |overcome at the cost of
                          |                        |40,000 Turkish lives.
                          |                        |
   =Kotzim= (_cho-tem´_), |=Poles= vs. Turks       |John Sobieski, by sheer
   Russia, November 11,   |                        |personal ascendency,
   1673                   |                        |stems tide of Turkish
                          |                        |advance.
                          |                        |
   =Kulm= (_kōōlm_),      |=Austrians, Russians and|7,000 French capitulate;
   Germany, August 29-30, |Prussians= vs. Napoleon |“The Caudine Forks of
   1813                   |                        |modern war.” Conduces to
                          |                        |the defeat at Leipzig.
                          |                        |
   =Kunersdorf= (_kōō´    |=Austrians and Russians=|Inactivity of the allies
   ners-dorf_), Germany,  |vs. Prussians           |saved Frederick the
   August 12, 1759        |                        |Great from annihilation.
                          |                        |
  †=Lade= (_lā´dē_), Asia |=Persians= vs. Ionian   |This defeat put an end
   Minor, B. C. 494       |Greeks                  |to the Ionian revolt.
                          |                        |
   =Ladysmith= (_lā´di-   |=British= vs. Boers     |Like the siege of
   smith_), =Siege of=,   |                        |Kimberley, a notable
   South Africa, November |                        |incident of the war.
   2, 1899 to February,   |                        |
   1900                   |                        |
                          |                        |
  †=La Hogue= (_lä hōg_), |=English and Dutch= vs. |Overthrew the hopes of
   Northwestern France,   |French                  |James II. of recovering
   May 10-20, 1692        |                        |his throne.
                          |                        |
  †=Lake Erie=, Lake Erie,|=Americans= vs. British |“We have met the enemy
   September 10, 1813     |                        |and they are ours.”--
                          |                        |Perry.
                          |                        |
  †=La Rochelle= (_lä rō- |=French and Spaniards=  |Control of the sea
   shel´_), France, June  |vs. English             |passes for a time to the
   22-23, 1372            |                        |side of the French.
                          |                        |
   =La Rochelle, Siege    |=Richelieu= vs.         |Huguenots no longer an
   of=, France, November  |Huguenots and English   |armed political party
   1, 1627 to October 28, |                        |but a tolerated sect.
   1628                   |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Lechfeld= (_lech´     |=Otto I.= vs. Hungarians|A crushing defeat
   feld_), Germany, August|                        |inflicted on the waning
   10, 955                |                        |power of the Hungarians.
                          |                        |
   =Lech= (_lech_), =the  |=Gustavus Adolphus= vs. |Tilly mortally wounded.
   river=, Germany, April |German Catholic League  |
   15, 1632               |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Legnano= (_len-yä´    |=Lombard League= vs.    |In the peace of
   nō_), Italy, May 29,   |Frederick Barbarossa    |Constance (1183),
   1176                   |                        |Frederick renounced all
                          |                        |regal privileges over
                          |                        |the cities.
                          |                        |
   =Leipzig= (_līp´sik_), |=Swedes and Saxons= vs. |Brilliant victory of
   Saxony, September 17,  |Catholic Imperialists   |Gustavus Adolphus saves
   1631                   |                        |Protestant cause.
                          |                        |
   =Leipzig=, Saxony,     |=Allies= vs. Napoleon   |This disaster lost
   October 16, 18-19, 1813|                        |Germany to Napoleon.
                          |                        |
   =Le Mans= (_le mon´_), |=Prussians= vs. French  |French army almost
   France, January 6-12,  |                        |annihilated.
   1871                   |                        |
                          |                        |
  †=Lepanto= (_le-pan´    |=Don John of Austria=   |One of the most splendid
   tō_), Gulf of Corinth, |vs. Turks               |naval victories ever
   October 7, 1751        |                        |achieved.
                          |                        |
   =Leuctura= (_lūk´tra_),|=Thebans= vs. Spartans  |Epaminondas’ overthrow
   Greece, B. C. 371      |                        |of Sparta gives Thebes
                          |                        |the hegemony in Greece.
                          |                        |
   =Leuthen= (_loi´ten_), |=Prussians= vs.         |This battle “would alone
   Germany, December 5,   |Austrians               |make Frederick immortal
   1757                   |                        |and rank him among the
                          |                        |greatest generals.”--
                          |                        |Napoleon.
                          |                        |
   =Lewes= (_lū´is_),     |=Simon de Montfort= vs. |Simon de Montfort’s
   England, May 14, 1264  |Henry III. and Prince   |victory followed by
                          |Edward                  |Parliament, the first to
                          |                        |which borough represen-
                          |                        |tatives were called
                          |                        |(1265).
                          |                        |
   =Leyden= (_lī´den_),   |=Dutch= vs. Spaniards   |Prince of Orange cut the
   =Siege of=, Holland,   |                        |dikes to bring the fleet
   May 26 to October 3,   |                        |to the relief of the
   1574                   |                        |city.
                          |                        |
   =Liegnitz= (_lēch´     |=Prussians= vs.         |Frederick prevented the
   nits_), Germany, August|Austrians               |union of the Austrians
   15, 1760               |                        |and Russians.
                          |                        |
   =Ligny= (_lēn-yē´_),   |=Napoleon= vs. Blücher  |Napoleon’s last victory;
   Belgium, June 16, 1815 |                        |Blücher joined
                          |                        |Wellington at Waterloo
                          |                        |on the 18th.
                          |                        |
   =Lille= (_lēl_), =Siege|=Imperialists= vs.      |France now lay open to
   of=, France, August 12 |French                  |the advance of the
   to October 22, 1708    |                        |allies.
                          |                        |
   =Lilybæum= (_lil-i-bē´ |=Carthaginian= vs.      |One of the most
   um_), =Siege of=,      |Romans                  |protracted sieges in
   Sicily, B. C. 250-241  |                        |history, surrendered
                          |                        |only with Sicily at
                          |                        |close of war.
                          |                        |
   =Linkoping= (_lēn´chû- |=Swedes= vs. Poles under|Led to perpetual
   ping_), Sweden,        |King Sigismund          |hostility between Sweden
   September 25, 1598     |                        |and Poland in
                          |                        |seventeenth century.
                          |                        |
  †=Lissa= (_lis´a_),     |=Austrians= vs. Italians|The only battle between
   Adriatic, July 20, 1866|                        |ironclads fought in
                          |                        |European waters.
                          |                        |
   =Lobositz= (_lō´bō-    |*=Prussians= vs.        |18,000 Saxons besieged
   zits_), Bohemia,       |Austrians               |at Pirna were now forced
   October 1, 1756        |                        |into the Prussian army.
                          |                        |
   =Lodi= (_lō´dē_),      |=Napoleon Bonaparte= vs.|This success gave the
   =Bridge of=, Italy, May|Austrians               |whole of Lombardy to the
   10, 1796               |                        |French.
                          |                        |
   =Loigny-Poupry= (_lwän-|=Prussians= vs. French  |Prevented the French
   ye´ poo-pree´_),       |                        |from relieving Orleans.
   France, December 2,    |                        |
   1870                   |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Louisburg= (_lö´ē-    |=British= vs. French    |Destruction of one of
   berg_), =Siege of=,    |                        |the strongest fortresses
   Canada, June 8 to July |                        |in North America.
   27, 1758               |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Lucknow= (_luk´nou_), |=British= vs. Sepoy     |The turning of the tide;
   =Siege of=, India,     |mutineers               |next year the mutiny was
   March 19, 1857 to July |                        |totally quelled.
   1, 1858                |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Lutter= (_löt´ter_),  |=Catholics and          |Christian of Denmark,
   Germany, August 26,    |Imperialists= vs. Danes |severely defeated,
   1626                   |and Protestant Germans  |retires into Holstein
                          |                        |and Mecklenburg.
                          |                        |
   =Lützen= (_lüt´sen_),  |=Swedes and Protestant  |Gustavus Adolphus slain
   Saxony, November 16,   |Germans= vs. Catholics  |in winning his third
   1632                   |and Imperialists        |great victory.
                          |                        |
   =Lützen=, Saxony, May  |=Napoleon= vs. Allies   |The first battle in the
   2, 1813                |                        |great German War of
                          |                        |Liberation.
                          |                        |
   =Luzzara= (_löt-sä´    |*=French= vs.           |Followed by French
   rä_), Italy, August 15,|Imperialists            |ascendency in Italy
   1702                   |                        |until 1706.
                          |                        |
   =Macalo= (_mäk-ä´lo_), |=Venice= vs. Milan      |Carmagnola gained a
   Italy, October 11, 1427|                        |brilliant victory over
                          |                        |the famous condottieri,
                          |                        |Sforza, Piccinino and
                          |                        |Malatesta.
                          |                        |
   =Madras= (_mä-dras´_), |=English= vs. French    |Failure to take Madras
   =Siege of=, India, Dec.|                        |was a great blow to
   12, 1758 to Feb. 16,   |                        |French power in India.
   1759                   |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Maestricht= (_mäs´    |=Spaniards= vs.         |Inhabitants and garrison
   tricht_), =Siege of=,  |Netherlanders           |massacred.
   Belgium, March 12 to   |                        |
   June 29, 1579          |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Mafeking= (_maf´e-    |=British= vs. Boers     |Baden Powell’s
   king_), =Siege of=,    |                        |resistance aroused
   South Africa, Oct.,    |                        |world-wide enthusiasm.
   1899 to May 17, 1900   |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Magdeburg= (_mäg´de-  |=Catholics and          |The sack of Magdeburg is
   bŏŏrch_), =Storm of=,  |Imperialists= vs.       |one of the darkest spots
   Germany, May 20, 1631  |inhabitants             |on the pages of history.
                          |                        |
   =Magenta= (_mä-jen´    |=French and Piedmontese=|Napoleon III. and Victor
   tä_), Italy, June 4,   |vs. Austrians           |Emmanuel entered Milan.
   1859                   |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Magnesia= (_mag-nē´   |=Romans= vs. Antiochus  |The kingdom of the
   shȧ_), Asia Minor,     |the Great               |Seleucidæ dismembered.
   B. C. 190              |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Malaga= (_mä´lä-gä_), |=Spaniards= vs. Moors   |The inhabitants were
   Spain, May 8 to August |                        |sold into slavery.
   18, 1487               |                        |
                          |                        |
  †=Malaga=, Spain, August|*=English and Dutch= vs.|French fleet prevented
   24, 1704               |French                  |from uniting with
                          |                        |Spanish which was
                          |                        |besieging Gibraltar.
                          |                        |
   =Malakoff= (_mä-lä´    |=French= vs. Russians   |Loss of this and other
   kof_), =Storm of=,     |                        |earthworks led that
   Crimea, September 8,   |                        |night to the evacuation
   1855                   |                        |of Sebastopol.
                          |                        |
   =Malo-Jaroslavitz=     |*=Russians= vs. French  |Napoleon was obliged to
   (_mä´lō yä-rō-slä´     |                        |abandon southerly line
   vets_), Russia, October|                        |of retreat from Moscow.
   24, 1812               |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Malplaquet= (_mȧl-plȧ-|=British and            |Bloodiest battle of this
   kā´_), France,         |Imperialists= vs. French|war; “carnage, not a
   September 11, 1709     |                        |battle.”
                          |                        |
  †=Manila= (_mȧ-nil´ȧ_)  |=Americans= vs.         |Admiral Dewey totally
   =Bay=, Philippines, May|Spaniards               |destroyed the Spanish
   1, 1898                |                        |fleet.
                          |                        |
   =Mansurah= (_män-sōō´  |*=French Crusaders= vs. |The last of the great
   rä_), Egypt, April 8,  |Saracens                |pitched battles of the
   1250                   |                        |crusaders. Shortly after
                          |                        |Louis IX. was captured
                          |                        |and ruinously ransomed.
                          |                        |
   =Mantineia= (_man-ti-  |=Spartans= vs. Athenians|The Spartans regained
   nē´ȧ_), Greece, B. C.  |and Argives             |their supremacy in
   418                    |                        |Peloponnesus.
                          |                        |
   =Mantineia=, Greece,   |=Thebans= vs. Spartans  |The death of Epaminondas
   B. C. 362              |                        |in this battle ends
                          |                        |Theban supremacy.
                          |                        |
   =Mantua= (_man´tū-ȧ_), |=French= vs. Austrians  |The close of Napoleon’s
   =Siege of=, Italy,     |                        |marvelous first Italian
   June, 1796, to February|                        |campaign.
   2, 1797                |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Marathon= (_mär´ȧ-    |=Athenians and          |Miltiades’ victory
   thon_), Greece, B. C.  |Plataeans= vs. Persians |causes Persians to
   490                    |                        |abandon their first ex-
                          |                        |pedition against Greece.
                          |                        |
   =Mardia= (_mär´di-ä_), |=Licinius= vs.          |Licinius lost all his
   Thrace, 315            |Constantine the Great   |European territory
                          |                        |except Thrace.
                          |                        |
   =Marengo= (_mä-reng´   |=French= vs. Austrians  |Won for Napoleon largely
   gō_), Italy, June 14,  |                        |by General Desaix.
   1800                   |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Marignano= (_ma-rēn-  |=French= vs. Swiss      |Francis I. reconquered
   yä´nō_), Italy,        |                        |Milan by this brilliant
   September 13, 14, 1515 |                        |victory.
                          |                        |
   =Marne= (_märn_), a    |=Allies= vs. Germans    |Germans forced to
   river in France,       |                        |retreat and capture of
   September 5-7, 1914    |                        |Paris averted.
                          |                        |
   =Marsaglia= (_mär-säl´ |=French= vs. Duke of    |French infantry with
   yä_), Italy, October 4,|Savoy                   |bayonets charged the
   1693                   |                        |cavalry, a new maneuver.
                          |                        |
   =Marston Moor=,        |=Parliamentarians= vs.  |This victory, due to
   England, July 2, 1644  |Royalists               |Cromwell’s Ironsides,
                          |                        |gave the north to
                          |                        |parliament.
                          |                        |
   =Maserfield= (_mä´ser- |=Mercians= vs.          |Mercia becomes a
   feld_), England, 642   |Northumbrians           |competitor with
                          |                        |Northumbria for English
                          |                        |hegemony.
                          |                        |
   =Maxen= (_mäks´en_),   |=Austrians= vs.         |The capitulation of
   Germany, November 20,  |Prussians               |Finck with 12,000
   1759                   |                        |Prussian soldiers
                          |                        |disastrous to Frederick.
                          |                        |
   =Maypu= (_mä´pö_),     |=Chilians= vs. Spaniards|Established the
   Chili, April 5, 1818   |                        |independence of Chili.
                          |                        |
   =Medellin= (_mā-tnel-  |=French= vs. Spaniards  |Spaniards mercilessly
   yēn´_), Spain, March   |                        |sabered in the pursuit,
   28, 1809               |                        |losing 18,000.
                          |                        |
   =Megalopolis= (_meg-ȧ- |=Macedonians= vs.       |Antipater, in absence of
   lop´ō-lis_), Greece,   |Spartans                |Alexander, puts down
   B. C. 331              |                        |revolted Spartans in a
                          |                        |bloody battle.
                          |                        |
   =Mentana= (_men-tä´    |=Garibaldians= vs.      |Garibaldians routed
   nä_), Italy, November  |French and Papal troops |after defeating papal
   3, 1867                |                        |forces.
                          |                        |
  †=Messina= (_mes-sē´    |=Sicilians and          |Charles of Anjou
   nä_), Sicily, September|Aragonese= vs. French   |evacuated Sicily, which
   28, 1282               |                        |his descendants never
                          |                        |recovered.
                          |                        |
   =Metaurus= (_mā-tau´   |=Romans= vs.            |Italy saved by pre-
   rus_), Italy, B. C. 207|Carthaginians           |venting the junction of
                          |                        |Hasdrubal with Hannibal.
                          |                        |
   =Metz= (_mets_), =Siege|=Prussians= vs. French  |The release of the
   of=, Lorraine, August  |                        |besieging army for
   19 to October 27, 1870 |                        |service elsewhere was
                          |                        |fatal to the French
                          |                        |cause.
                          |                        |
   =Milazzo= (_mē-lät´    |=Garibaldians= vs.      |This completes the
   sō_), Sicily, July 20, |Neapolitans             |expulsion of the
   1860                   |                        |Neapolitans from Sicily.
                          |                        |
   =Minden= (_min´den_),  |=English, Hessians and  |The French were
   Prussia, August 1, 1759|Hanoverians= vs. French |decisively beaten and
                          |                        |driven from Hesse.
                          |                        |
   =Miraflores= (_mē-rä-  |=Chilians= vs. Peruvians|Practically ended the
   flō´res_), Argentina,  |                        |war of the Pacific
   January 13 and 15, 1883|                        |(1879-1884) between
                          |                        |Chili, and Bolivia and
                          |                        |Peru.
                          |                        |
   =Missolonghi= (_mis-ō- |=Turks= vs. Greeks      |Greek heroism excited
   long´gē_), =Siege of=, |                        |sympathy throughout
   Greece, April 27, 1825 |                        |Europe. (Byron died
   to April 22-23, 1826   |                        |here, 1824.)
                          |                        |
   =Mitylene= (_mit-i-lē´ |=Athenians= vs. Revolted|Prisoners killed, walls
   nē_), =Siege of=,      |inhabitants             |pulled down, fleet
   Lesbos, B. C. 428-427  |                        |forfeited, annual
                          |                        |tribute imposed.
                          |                        |
   =Modder= (_mod´er_)    |=British= vs. Boers     |Lord Methuen drives
   =River=, South Africa, |                        |Cronje from his
   November 28, 1899      |                        |intrenchments after a
                          |                        |fierce fight.
                          |                        |
   =Mohacs= (_mō´häch_),  |=Turks= vs. Hungarians  |“Never was a single
   Hungary, August 29,    |                        |battle so disastrous to
   1526                   |                        |a people.”
                          |                        |
   =Mollwitz= (_mōl´      |=Prussians= vs.         |Frederick’s victory
   vitz_), Germany, April |Austrians               |forces Europe to
   10, 1741               |                        |recognize in Prussia a
                          |                        |new power.
                          |                        |
   =Montaperti= (_mon-tä- |=Florentine Ghibellines,|Secured the triumph of
   per´tē_), Italy,       |Siennese= vs. Guelphs of|the Ghibellines over all
   September 4, 1260      |Florence                |Tuscany.
                          |                        |
   =Monterey= (_mon-te-   |=Americans= vs. Mexicans|Followed by the
   rā´_), Mexico,         |                        |occupation of the whole
   September 21-23, 1846  |                        |of northern Mexico.
                          |                        |
   =Montreal= (_mont-ri-  |=British= vs. French    |Completes the British
   ôl´_), Canada,         |                        |conquest of Canada from
   September 8, 1760      |                        |France.
                          |                        |
   =Mook= (_mōk_),        |=Spaniards= vs. Dutch   |The battle terminated in
   Holland, April 14, 1574|                        |a horrible butchery of
                          |                        |the patriot army.
                          |                        |
   =Morgarten= (_mōr´gār- |=Swiss= vs. Austrians   |The first battle fought
   ten_), Switzerland,    |                        |for Swiss independence.
   November 15, 1315      |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Mortimer’s= (_môr´ti- |=Yorkists= vs.          |The Yorkist prince
   mer_) =Cross=, England,|Lancastrians            |advanced to London and
   February 2, 1461       |                        |was proclaimed king as
                          |                        |Edward IV.
                          |                        |
   =Mukden= (_mŏŏk-den´_),|=Japanese= vs. Russians |Release of Japanese from
   Manchuria, February 24 |                        |before Port Arthur
   to March 10, 1905      |                        |enables Oyama to crush
                          |                        |Kuropatkin.
                          |                        |
   =Mühlberg= (_mül´      |=Charles V. and Prince  |Maurice in 1552
   berg_), Saxony, April  |Maurice= vs. Saxony and |retrieves his treason to
   24, 1547               |Hesse                   |Protestantism by driving
                          |                        |Charles V. from Germany.
                          |                        |
   =Muhldorf= (_mül´      |=Louis of Bavaria= vs.  |The disputed imperial
   dorf_), Bavaria,       |Frederick of Austria    |election, over which
   September 28, 1322     |                        |this battle was fought,
                          |                        |began a new struggle be-
                          |                        |tween empire and papacy.
                          |                        |
   =Munda= (_mun´dä_),    |=Julius Cæsar= vs.      |Cæsar’s last battle; it
   Spain, B. C. 45        |Pompeians               |put an end to armed
                          |                        |resistance.
                          |                        |
   =Muret= (_mü-rā´_),    |=Crusaders= vs.         |Practically ends the
   France, September 12,  |Albigenses and Aragonese|Albigensian crusade;
   1213                   |                        |Toulousean territories
                          |                        |pass ultimately to the
                          |                        |French crown.
                          |                        |
   =Mycale= (_mik´ȧ-lē_), |=Greeks= vs. Persians   |This battle and that of
   Asia Minor, B. C. 479  |                        |Platæa end the Persian
                          |                        |wars against Greece.
                          |                        |
  †=Mylæ= (_mī´lē_),      |=Romans= vs.            |First naval victory of
   Sicily, B. C. 260      |Carthaginians           |Romans; due to boarding
                          |                        |bridges.
                          |                        |
   =Näfels= (_nā´fels_),  |=Swiss= vs. Austrians   |Hapsburgs renounced all
   Switzerland, April 9,  |                        |feudal claims over the
   1388                   |                        |Swiss cantons (1389).
                          |                        |
   =Nancy= (_nän-sē´_),   |=Swiss= vs. Charles the |Charles was slain,
   Lorraine, January 5,   |Bold                    |leaving his motley
   1477                   |                        |territories a prey to
                          |                        |neighboring princes.
                          |                        |
   =Narva= (_när´vä_),    |=Swedes= vs. Russians   |Charles XII. won a
   Russia, November 30,   |                        |brilliant victory over
   1700                   |                        |the much larger army of
                          |                        |Peter the Great.
                          |                        |
   =Naseby= (_näz´bi_),   |=Parliamentarians= vs.  |Complete defeat of
   England, June 14, 1645 |Royalists               |Charles I., followed by
                          |                        |the general ruin of his
                          |                        |cause.
                          |                        |
  †=Naupactus= (_nô-pak´  |=Athenians= vs.         |Victory wrested from
   tus_), Gulf of Corinth,|Peloponnesians          |defeat by the genius of
   B. C. 429              |                        |Phormio, the Athenian
                          |                        |commander.
                          |                        |
  †=Navarino= (_nā-vā-rē´ |=English, French and    |Destruction of Turkish
   nō_), Greece, October  |Russians= vs. Turks     |naval power; Ibrahim
   20, 1827               |                        |retreats from Morea.
                          |                        |
   =Navas de Tolosa= (_nā´|=Spaniards= vs. Moors   |Secured forever the
   väs dā-tō-lō´sä_),     |                        |preponderance of
   Spain, July 16, 1212   |                        |Christianity in Spain.
                          |                        |
   =Neerwinden= (_nār´vin-|=French= vs. English    |The French won a
   den_), Belgium, July   |                        |brilliant but barren
   24, 1693               |                        |victory over William
                          |                        |III.
                          |                        |
   =Neville’s= (_nev´ilz_)|=English= vs. Scots     |Scots crushed at home,
   =Cross=, England,      |                        |while Edward III. was
   October 17, 1346       |                        |winning Crécy.
                          |                        |
   =New Orleans= (_ôr´li- |=Americans= vs. British |Owing to slowness of
   anz_), Louisiana,      |                        |communication, Jackson
   U. S. A., January 8,   |                        |fought this battle after
   1815                   |                        |peace had been made.
                          |                        |
   =Nicæa= (_nī-sē´ȧ_),   |=Crusaders= vs. Turks   |First conquest of
   =Siege of=, Asia Minor,|                        |crusaders in the East.
   1097                   |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Nicopolis= (_ni-kop´ō-|=Pompey= vs. Mithradates|Mithridates’ last fight
   lis_), Asia Minor,     |                        |against the legions of
   B. C. 66               |                        |Rome.
                          |                        |
   =Nördlingen= (_nerd´   |=Catholics and          |One of the most bloody
   ling-en_), Bavaria,    |Imperialists= vs. Swedes|and decisive battles of
   September 6, 1634      |and German Protestants  |the war; followed by the
                          |                        |peace of Prague.
                          |                        |
   =Northampton= (_nôrth- |=Yorkists= vs.          |Capture of Henry VI.;
   amp´tn_), England, July|Lancastrians            |flight of Queen Margaret
   10, 1460               |                        |and her son to Scotland.
                          |                        |
   =Numantia= (_nū-man´   |=Romans= vs. Celtiberian|City razed by Scipio
   shi-ȧ_), =Siege of=,   |tribes                  |Æmilianus and its
   Spain, B. C. 142-133   |                        |inhabitants sold as
                          |                        |slaves.
                          |                        |
   =Obligado= (_ōb-lē-gä´ |=British and French= vs.|Over the opening the
   thō_), =Bombardment    |Argentines              |waters of the Parana to
   of=, Argentina, Nov.   |                        |the shipping of all
   28, 1845               |                        |nations.
                          |                        |
   =Olmutz= (_ol´müts_),  |=Austrians= vs.         |General Daun forced
   =Siege of=, Moravia,   |Prussians               |Frederick the Great to
   May 27 to July 1, 1758 |                        |raise the siege and
                          |                        |retire.
                          |                        |
   =Orleans= (_or-lā-     |=French= vs. English    |Joan of Arc saves France
   än´_); Eng. (_ôr´li-   |                        |by driving back English
   anz_), =Siege of=,     |                        |and crowns Charles VII.
   France, October 13,    |                        |at Rheims.
   1428, to May 8, 1429   |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Ostend= (_ost-end´_), |=Spaniards= vs. Dutch   |Scarcely a house in the
   =Siege of=, Belgium,   |garrison and inhabitants|town left standing;
   July, 1601 to          |                        |Spaniards lost 70,000.
   September, 1604        |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Ostrolenka= (_os-tro- |=Russians= vs. Poles    |Poland becomes a
   leng´kä_), Poland, May |                        |province of the Russian
   26, 1831               |                        |Empire (1832).
                          |                        |
   =Otterburn= (_ot´er-   |=Scots= vs. English     |The ballad of Chevy
   bûrn_), England, August|                        |Chase deals with this
   10, 1388               |                        |battle.
                          |                        |
   =Otumba= (_ō-töm´bä_), |=Cortez= vs. Aztecs     |Two hundred Spanish
   Mexico, July 8, 1520   |                        |horsemen rout an immense
                          |                        |army and make good their
                          |                        |retreat.
                          |                        |
   =Oudenarde= (_ou-de-   |=English and            |One of the great
   när´de_), Belgium, July|Imperialists= vs. French|victories of Marlborough
   11, 1708               |                        |and Prince Eugene over
                          |                        |Louis XIV.
                          |                        |
   =Palmyra= (_pal-mī´    |=Roman= vs. Queen       |Palmyra destroyed and
   rȧ_), =Siege of=,      |Zenobia                 |Zenobia taken captive to
   Syria, 272-273         |                        |Rome.
                          |                        |
   =Palo Alto= (_pä´lō-äl´|=Americans= vs. Mexicans|Mexicans completely
   tō_), Mexico, May 8,   |                        |routed at small cost to
   1846                   |                        |the victors.
                          |                        |
   =Panormus= (_pa-nôr´   |=Romans= vs.            |Brilliant victory re-
   mus_), Sicily, B. C.   |Carthaginians           |stored confidence to
   251                    |                        |Romans; demonstrated
                          |                        |value of elephants in
                          |                        |warfare.
                          |                        |
   =Paris= (_par´is_),    |=Prussians= vs. French  |City reduced to
   =Siege of=, France,    |                        |desperate conditions
   Sept. 19, 1870 to Jan. |                        |through bombardment,
   28, 1871               |                        |famine and disease.
                          |                        |
   =Pavia= (_pä-vē´ä_),   |=Emperor Charles V.= vs.|The capture of Francis
   Italy, 1525            |Francis I. of France    |was followed by the
                          |                        |peace of Madrid, which,
                          |                        |however, was soon
                          |                        |repudiated.
                          |                        |
   =Pharsalus= (_fär-sā´  |=Cæsar= vs. Pompey      |The West and the new
   lus_), Greece, B. C. 48|                        |monarchy completely
                          |                        |triumphed over the East
                          |                        |and the old republic.
                          |                        |
   =Philippi= (_fi-lip´   |=Antony and Octavius=   |Cassius and Brutus
   ī_), Thrace, B. C. 42  |vs. Brutus and Cassius  |committed suicide
                          |                        |following their defeat.
                          |                        |
   =Pinkie= (_ping´ki_),  |=English= vs. Scots     |Scots thrown into the
   Scotland, September 10,|                        |arms of France and the
   1547                   |                        |little queen, Mary,
                          |                        |married to the dauphin.
                          |                        |
   =Plassey= (_pläs´ē_),  |=English= vs. Bengalese |Established English
   India, June 23, 1757   |                        |control in Bengal and
                          |                        |ultimately in all India.
                          |                        |
   =Platæa= (_pla-tē´ȧ_), |=Greeks= vs. Persians   |Won by the discipline
   Greece, B. C. 479      |                        |and prowess of the
                          |                        |Spartan hoplites.
                          |                        |
   =Plevna= (_plev´nä_),  |=Russians= vs. Turks    |Brilliant defense by
   =Siege of=, Bulgaria,  |                        |Osman Pasha, who sur-
   July 16 to December 10,|                        |rendered only after four
   1877                   |                        |desperate battles.
                          |                        |
   =Poitiers= (_pwȧ-      |=English= vs. French    |Brilliant victory by the
   tyā´_), France,        |                        |Black Prince over five
   September 19, 1356     |                        |times his numbers.
                          |                        |
   =Pollentia= (_po-len´  |=Romans= vs. Visigoths  |Alaric, attacked by
   shi-ä_), Italy, April  |                        |Stilicho on Easter
   6, 402                 |                        |Sunday, was driven out
                          |                        |of Italy.
                          |                        |
   =Pondicherry= (_pon-di-|=English= vs. French    |Destroyed French power
   sher´i_), =Siege of=,  |                        |in India.
   India, Aug., 1760 to   |                        |
   Jan., 18, 1761         |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Port Arthur, Siege    |=Japanese= vs. Russians |Port Arthur, the Sea of
   of=, Manchuria, Feb. 8,|                        |Japan and Mukden were
   1904 to Jan. 1, 1905   |                        |turning points in the
                          |                        |war.
                          |                        |
  †=Portland=, English    |=English= vs. Dutch     |This battle completely
   Channel, February 18-  |                        |restored to England the
   20, 1653               |                        |lordship of the seas.
                          |                        |
   =Potidæa= (_pot-i-dē´  |=Athenians= vs.         |Inhabitants and foreign
   ȧ_), =Siege of=,       |Potidæans and           |soldiers were allowed to
   Thrace, B. C. 432,     |Corinthians             |leave the city, which
   September 430          |                        |Athens then colonized.
                          |                        |
   =Prague= (_prāg_),     |=Catholic League= vs.   |Frederick proved but a
   (=White Hill=),        |Frederick V. and        |“Winter King” of
   Bohemia, November 8,   |Bohemian rebels         |Bohemia.
   1620                   |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Preston= (_pres´tun_),|=Cromwellians= vs.      |This second civil war
   England, August 17-19, |Scottish Royalists      |determined the army to
   1648                   |                        |put Charles I. to death.
                          |                        |
   =Pultava= (_pōl´tä-    |=Russians= vs. Swedes   |Russia takes the place
   vä_), Russia, July 8,  |                        |of Sweden as the leading
   1709                   |                        |power of the North.
                          |                        |
   =Pydna= (_pid´nä_),    |=Romans= vs. Macedonians|Brilliant triumphs of
   Macedonia, B. C. 168   |                        |Paulus Æmilius over the
                          |                        |phalanxes of King
                          |                        |Perseus.
                          |                        |
   =Pyramids=, Egypt, July|=French= vs. Mamelukes  |The crowning victory of
   21, 1798               |                        |Napoleon in Egypt.
                          |                        |
   =Pyrenees= (_pir´a-    |=British and Spaniards= |Followed by the fall of
   nēz_), =Battles of=,   |vs. French              |San Sebastian and
   Spain, July 25 to      |                        |Pampeluna, and expulsion
   August 1, 1813         |                        |of French from Spain.
                          |                        |
   =Quatre Bras= (_kātr-  |=British and Allies= vs.|The allied success here
   brä´_), Belgium, June  |French                  |was rendered fruitless
   16, 1815               |                        |by the Prussian reverse
                          |                        |at Ligny.
                          |                        |
   =Quebec= (_kwē-bek´_;  |=British= vs. French    |Wolfe was slain and
   locally often _ki-     |                        |Montcalm mortally
   bek´_), =Siege of=,    |                        |wounded in the battle of
   Canada, June to        |                        |the Plains of Abraham
   September 18, 1759     |                        |(September 13).
                          |                        |
  †=Quiberon= (_kē-brôn_),|=British= vs. French    |Hawke, with a loss of
   =Bay=, France, November|                        |forty men, captured,
   20, 1759               |                        |burned, or drove on
                          |                        |shore most of the French
                          |                        |vessels.
                          |                        |
   =Ramillies= (_rȧ-mē-   |=English and Allies= vs.|Followed by French
   yē´_), Belgium, May 23,|French                  |evacuation of the chief
   1706                   |                        |towns of the
                          |                        |Netherlands.
                          |                        |
   =Rhe= (_rā_), =Siege   |=French= vs. English    |An attempt of Buckingham
   of=, France, July 20 to|                        |to prevent the reduction
   November 8, 1627       |                        |of the Huguenot strong-
                          |                        |hold of La Rochelle.
                          |                        |
   =Rhodes= (_rōdz_), or  |=Turks= vs. Knights of  |Following the loss of
   =Rhodos= (_rō´dos_),   |Rhodes                  |Rhodes the Knights
   =Siege of=,            |                        |(Hospitallers) retired
   Mediterranean, July 28-|                        |to Malta.
   December 26, 1522      |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Rieti= (_ri-ā´tē_),   |=Austrians= vs.         |The defeat of General
   Italy, March 7, 1821   |Neopolitan rebels       |Pepe enabled Austria to
                          |                        |restore the absolute
                          |                        |monarchy.
                          |                        |
   =Rivoli= (_rē´vō-lē_), |=French= vs. Austrians  |Napoleon’s victory,
   Italy, January 14-15,  |                        |followed by surrender of
   1797                   |                        |Mantua, completed the
                          |                        |conquest of Lombardy.
                          |                        |
   =Rocrol= (_rō-krwä´_), |=French= vs. Spaniards  |This victory, won by
   France, May 19, 1643   |                        |Condé, made France the
                          |                        |first military power of
                          |                        |Europe.
                          |                        |
   =Rome, Sack of=, Italy,|=Gauls=                 |Following the battle of
   B. C. 390              |                        |the Allia, the Gauls
                          |                        |plundered and destroyed
                          |                        |city.
                          |                        |
   =Rome, Sieges of=,     |=Visigoths= vs. Romans  |Following the third
   Italy, 408, 409, 410   |                        |siege, Alaric sacked
                          |                        |city.
                          |                        |
   =Rome, Sack of=, Italy,|=Vandals=               |For fourteen days
   455                    |                        |Genseric’s Vandals
                          |                        |plundered Rome.
                          |                        |
   =Rome, Storm of=,      |=Mutinous Army of       |Marks the end of the
   Italy, May 6, 1527     |Charles V.= vs. Papal   |artistic, pleasure-
                          |troops                  |loving Rome of the
                          |                        |Renaissance.
                          |                        |
   =Rome, Siege of=,      |=French and Papalists=  |The republic, founded by
   Italy, June 4 to July  |vs. Roman Republicans   |Mazzini, overthrown and
   3, 1849                |                        |Pope Pius IX. restored.
                          |                        |
   =Roncesvalles= (_rōn-  |=Basques= vs. Franks    |Death of Charlemagne’s
   thes-väl´yes_), Spain, |                        |paladin, Roland (Chanson
   778                    |                        |de Roland).
                          |                        |
   =Roosebek= (_rös´bek_),|=French= vs. Flemings   |A great triumph for the
   Flanders, November 27, |                        |nobles against the
   1382                   |                        |cities.
                          |                        |
   =Rossbach= (_ros´bak_),|=Prussians= vs. French  |Makes Frederick the
   Saxony, November 5,    |and Austrians           |Great a national hero of
   1757                   |                        |Germany.
                          |                        |
   =Rouen= (_rŏŏ-än´_),   |=English= vs. French    |Because of its desperate
   =Siege of=, France,    |                        |resistance, Henry V.
   June, 1418 to Jan, 1419|                        |granted the city
                          |                        |honorable capitulation.
                          |                        |
   =Sacriportis= (_sak-ri-|=Optimates= vs.         |Followed by Sulla’s
   pōr´tus_), Italy, B. C.|Democrates              |reign of terror.
   82                     |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Saguntum= (_sa-gun´   |=Carthaginians= vs.     |Capture of this city by
   tum_), =Siege of=,     |Inhabitants             |Hannibal the chief cause
   Spain, B. C. 219       |                        |of the second Punic war.
                          |                        |
   =St. Albans= (_sānt ôl´|=Yorkists= vs.          |The first battle of the
   banz_), England, May   |Lancastrians            |wars of the Roses;
   22, 1455               |                        |Yorkists defeated here
                          |                        |in a second battle
                          |                        |(1460).
                          |                        |
   =Salamanca= (_sal-ȧ-   |=British= vs. French    |This rout of the French
   mang´kȧ_), Spain, July |                        |lost them all southern
   22, 1812               |                        |Spain.
                          |                        |
  †=Salamis= (_sal´ȧ-     |=Greeks= vs. Persians   |Themistocles’ great
   mis_), Greece,         |                        |victory followed by
   September 20, B. C. 480|                        |Xerxes’ withdrawal to
                          |                        |Asia.
                          |                        |
   =San Jacinto= (_san jȧ-|=Texan Rebels= vs.      |Santa Anna captured by
   sin´tō_), Texas,       |Mexicans                |General Houston.
   U. S. A., April 2, 1836|                        |
                          |                        |
  †=Santiago= (_sän-tē-ä´ |=Americans= vs.         |Fleet of Admiral Cervera
   gō_), Cuba, July 3,    |Spaniards               |totally destroyed.
   1898                   |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Saragossa= (_sä-rä-   |=British= vs. French    |An important success
   gos´ȧ_), =Siege of=,   |                        |which broke the spell of
   Spain, Dec., 1808 to   |                        |French invincibility.
   Feb. 21, 1809          |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Saratoga= (_sar-a-tō´ |=Americans= vs. British |Followed (October 17) by
   gä_), New York,        |                        |the surrender of
   U. S. A., October 7,   |                        |Burgoyne, which was the
   1777                   |                        |turning point of the
                          |                        |war.
                          |                        |
  †=Sea of Japan=, Sea of |=Japanese= vs. Russians |Russia’s naval power
   Japan, May 27-29, 1905 |                        |destroyed.
                          |                        |
   =Sebastopol= (_se-bȧs´ |=French, British and    |Brought to a close the
   tō-pōl_), =Siege of=,  |Sardinians= vs. Russians|active operations of
   Crimea, September 26,  |                        |Crimean war.
   1854, 59 September 9,  |                        |
   1855                   |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Sedan= (_sē-dan´_),   |=Prussians= vs. French  |Followed by the
   France, September 1,   |                        |surrender of Napoleon
   1870                   |                        |III. with an army of
                          |                        |84,000 men.
                          |                        |
   =Shipka= (_ship´kȧ_),  |=Russians= vs. Turks    |Russians hold this
   =Pass=, Bulgaria,      |                        |strategic position
   August 20-23, 1877     |                        |against blindfold
                          |                        |violence of the Turks.
                          |                        |
   =Sempach= (_zem´pä_K), |=Swiss= vs. Austrians   |Celebrated for the
   Switzerland, July 9,   |                        |heroic devotion of
   1386                   |                        |Arnold von Winkelried.
                          |                        |
   =Sentinum= (_sen-tī´   |=Romans= vs. Samnites   |Failure of the coalition
   num_), Italy, B. C. 295|and Gauls               |to crush Rome from the
                          |                        |north.
                          |                        |
   =Seringapatam= (_ser-  |=British= vs. Tippoo    |With Bonaparte’s failure
   ing´ga-pa-tam´_),      |Sahib                   |in Egypt, this battle
   =Siege of=, India,     |                        |foils French designs on
   April 24, to May 4,    |                        |India.
   1799                   |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Shiloh= (_shī´lō_),   |=Federals= vs.          |Defeated in the first
   Tennessee, U. S. A.,   |Confederates            |day’s fighting, Grant
   April 6 and 7, 1862    |                        |turned the tables the
                          |                        |next day.
                          |                        |
   =Shrewsbury= (_shrŏŏz´ |=Henry IV.= vs. Percies |Hotspur defeated and
   ber-i_), England, July |                        |slain.
   21, 1403               |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Silistria= (_si-lis´  |=Turks= vs. Russians    |A brilliant defense
   tri-ȧ_), =Siege of=,   |                        |conducted by the Turks
   Bulgaria, March 28 to  |                        |under three English
   June 22, 1854          |                        |officers.
                          |                        |
  †=Sinope= (_si-nō´pē_), |=Russians= vs. Turks    |Turkish fleet destroyed
   Black Sea, November 30,|                        |and crews massacred.
   1853                   |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Slivnitza= (_slēv-nēt´|=Bulgarians= vs.        |The decisive action in
   sä_), Bulgaria,        |Servians                |the Servo-Bulgarian war.
   November 17, 18, 19,   |                        |
   1885                   |                        |
                          |                        |
  †=Sluys= (_slois_),     |=English= vs. French    |Gave English control of
   Flanders, June 22, 1340|                        |the sea for thirty
                          |                        |years, enabling them to
                          |                        |land troops in France at
                          |                        |will.
                          |                        |
   =Smolensk= (_smol-     |=French= vs. Russians   |First stand of the
   yensk´_), Russia,      |                        |retreating Russians
   August 17-18, 1812     |                        |before Napoleon’s
                          |                        |advance on Moscow.
                          |                        |
   =Soissons= (_swä-      |=Franks= vs. Romans     |The first military
   sôn´_), France, 486    |under Syagrius          |exploit of Clovis.
                          |                        |
   =Solferino= (_sōl-fā-  |=French and Piedmontese=|The horrors of this
   rē´nō_), Italy, June   |vs. Austrians           |battle and Prussia’s
   24, 1859               |                        |threatening attitude
                          |                        |caused Napoleon III. to
                          |                        |make peace.
                          |                        |
   =Somme= (_som_), a     |*=Germans= vs. Allies   |During this period the
   river in northern      |                        |Germans were enduring
   France, July 1 to Sept.|                        |terrific attacks from
   15, 1916               |                        |the Allies, but lost
                          |                        |little ground.
                          |                        |
  †=Southwold= (_south´   |=English and French= vs.|A victory gained by the
   wōld_) =Bay=, North    |Dutch                   |duke of York over De
   Sea, May 28, 1672      |                        |Ruyter’s superior
                          |                        |numbers.
                          |                        |
   =Sphacteria= (_sfak-tē´|=Athenians= vs. Spartans|To the amazement of the
   ri-ä_), Greece, B. C.  |                        |Greek world, 292 Spartan
   425                    |                        |hoplites surrendered.
                          |                        |
   =Spicheren= (_spich´er-|=Prussians= vs. French  |Reveals great
   en_), Palatinate,      |                        |superiority of Prussians
   August 6, 1870         |                        |from the outset of the
                          |                        |war.
                          |                        |
   =Stamford= (_stam´     |=English= vs. Danes     |This diversion of Harold
   ferd_) =Bridge=,       |                        |to the North left
   England, September 25, |                        |William to land in
   1066                   |                        |England undisturbed.
                          |                        |
   =Standard, Battle of   |=English= vs. Scots     |For 200 years saved
   the= (=or              |                        |Yorkshire from Scottish
   Northallerton=),       |                        |invasion.
   England, August 22,    |                        |
   1138                   |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Steenkerke= (_stān´   |=French= vs. English and|Five English regiments
   kerk´e_), Netherlands, |Allies                  |utterly cut to pieces.
   July 24, 1692          |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Sterling=, Scotland,  |=Scots= vs. English     |Before the end of the
   1297                   |                        |year all Scotland threw
                          |                        |off the English yoke.
                          |                        |
   =Stralsund= (_shträl´  |=Protestant Inhabitants=|Wallenstein fails to
   zŏŏnt_), =Siege of=,   |vs. Catholic            |secure this important
   Germany, March, August |Imperialists            |Baltic port.
   3, 1628                |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Syracuse= (_sir´a-    |=Syracusans and         |The weakening of
   kūs_), =Siege of=,     |Spartans= vs. Athenians |Athenian resources in
   Sicily, B. C. 415-413  |                        |this siege was the
                          |                        |final cause of their
                          |                        |failure in the
                          |                        |Peloponnesian war.
                          |                        |
   =Syracuse, Siege of=,  |=Greeks= vs.            |The Syracusan tyrant,
   Sicily, B. C. 387      |Carthaginians           |Dionysius, connives at
                          |                        |the escape of the
                          |                        |Carthaginian Himilco.
                          |                        |
   =Syracuse, Siege of=,  |=Romans= vs.            |Syracuse captured and
   Sicily, B. C. 214-212  |Carthaginians and       |plundered by the Romans.
                          |Syracusans              |
                          |                        |
   =Talavera= (_tä-lä-vā´ |=British and Spaniards= |After this first great
   rä_), Spain, July 28,  |vs. French              |pitched battle in the
   1809                   |                        |Peninsular campaign
                          |                        |Wellesley became
                          |                        |commander-in-chief of
                          |                        |all the English troops.
                          |                        |
   =Tanagra= (_tan´ȧ-     |=Spartans and Bœotians= |The Spartans failing to
   grȧ_), Greece, B. C.   |vs. Athenians           |follow up their victory,
   457                    |                        |Athens conquered Bœotia
                          |                        |the following year.
                          |                        |
   =Tarentum= (_tȧ-ren´   |=Romans= vs. Tarentines |Tarentum, deprived of
   tum_), =Siege of=,     |and Epirots             |her army, her ships and
   Italy, B. C. 274-272   |                        |her walls, retained the
                          |                        |right of local self-
                          |                        |government.
                          |                        |
   =Tauss= (_tous_),      |=Bohemian Hussites= vs. |At Procop’s approach the
   Bohemia, August 14,    |Catholic Imperialists   |Imperialists fled in
   1431                   |                        |confusion; this was the
                          |                        |last effort to crush the
                          |                        |Hussites by force of
                          |                        |arms.
                          |                        |
   =Telamon= (_tel´ȧ-     |=Romans= vs. Gauls      |The annihilation of the
   mon_), Italy, B. C.    |                        |Gallic army was followed
   225                    |                        |by the Roman invasion
                          |                        |and conquest of
                          |                        |Cisalpine Gaul.
                          |                        |
   =Tel-el-Kebir= (_tel´  |=British= vs. Egyptian  |Arabi Pasha’s army
   el-kā-bēr´_), Egypt,   |Rebels                  |completely broken up;
   September 13, 1882     |                        |the British entered
                          |                        |Cairo the next day.
                          |                        |
   =Temesvar= (_tem´esh-  |=Austrians= vs.         |The last stand made by
   vär_), Hungary, August |Hungarians              |the Hungarians in the
   9, 1849                |                        |war; their army was
                          |                        |totally routed and
                          |                        |dispersed.
                          |                        |
   =Testry= (_tes-trē´_), |=Austrasians= vs.       |Pippin of Heristal,
   France, 687            |Neustrians              |mayor of the palace,
                          |                        |unites the Frankish
                          |                        |territories under one
                          |                        |rule.
                          |                        |
   =Tewkesbury= (_tūks´   |=Yorkists= vs.          |Ends armed opposition to
   ber-i_), England, May  |Lancastrians            |Edward IV.; Margaret of
   4, 1471                |                        |Anjou was captured and
                          |                        |her son slain.
                          |                        |
  †=Texel= (_tek´sel_),   |=British= vs. Dutch     |The command of the sea
   North Sea, June 2, 3,  |                        |fell into the hands of
   1653                   |                        |the English fleet.
                          |                        |
   =Thapsus= (_thap´sus_),|=Cæsar= vs. Followers of|The battle of Thapsus
   North Africa, February |Pompey                  |was the death-knell of
   6, B. C. 46            |                        |the Pompeian cause.
                          |                        |
   =Thermopylæ= (_ther-   |=Persians= vs. Spartans |Leonidas, with 300
   mop´i-lē_), Greece,    |and Thespians           |Spartans and 700
   B. C. 480              |                        |Thespians, defended the
                          |                        |pass to the last man
                          |                        |against overwhelming
                          |                        |forces.
                          |                        |
   =Tiberias= (_tī-bē´ri- |=Saracens= vs. Crusaders|Followed by the conquest
   ȧs_), Palestine, 1187  |                        |of Jerusalem by Saladin,
                          |                        |which led to the third
                          |                        |crusade.
                          |                        |
   =Ticinus= (_ti-sī´     |=Carthaginians= vs.     |Hannibal’s success
   nus_), Italy, B. C. 218|Romans                  |brought in numerous
                          |                        |adhesions from Gallic
                          |                        |tribes; followed by the
                          |                        |battle on the Trebia.
                          |                        |
   =Ticonderoga= (_tī-kon-|=French= vs. British and|British and Americans
   de-rō´gȧ_), New York,  |Americans               |displayed in vain prodi-
   U. S. A., July 8, 1758 |                        |gies of valor in the
                          |                        |rush on Montcalm’s
                          |                        |almost impregnable
                          |                        |position.
                          |                        |
   =Tigranocerta= (_tig-  |=Romans= vs. Armenians  |Lucullus cut to pieces
   rā-no-cer´tä_),        |                        |the huge army of
   Armenia, October 6,    |                        |Tigranes and secured
   B. C. 69               |                        |immense booty.
                          |                        |
   =Tinchebrai= (_tansh-  |=English= vs. Normans   |Henry I. defeated and
   brā_), France, 1106    |                        |captured his brother
                          |                        |Robert and annexed
                          |                        |Normandy to the crown of
                          |                        |England.
                          |                        |
   =Tolbiac= (_tol-bī´    |=Franks= vs. Alemanni   |Clovis wins lands of the
   ak_), Germany, 496     |                        |Alemanni; he and his
                          |                        |followers become Roman
                          |                        |Christians in fulfill-
                          |                        |ment of a vow taken on
                          |                        |the battlefield.
                          |                        |
   =Torgau= (_tôr´gou_),  |=Prussians= vs.         |The last pitched battle
   Saxony, November 3,    |Austrians               |of the Seven Years’ war,
   1760                   |                        |in which the Austrians
                          |                        |are said to have lost
                          |                        |20,000 men.
                          |                        |
   =Torres Vedras= (_tor´ |=British and Portuguese=|Wellington’s defense
   resh vā´dräsh_), =Lines|vs. French              |permanently arrested
   of=, Portugal, October |                        |Napoleon’s march of
   12, 1810 to March 5,   |                        |conquest and was thus
   1811                   |                        |the turning point of the
                          |                        |Peninsular campaign.
                          |                        |
   =Toulon= (_tŏŏ-lôn´_), |=French= vs. Garrison of|This siege is memorable
   =Siege of=, France,    |British, Spaniards,     |as the first important
   Sept. 18 to Dec. 17,   |Italians and French     |appearance of Napoleon,
   1793                   |Royalists               |who commanded the
                          |                        |artillery.
                          |                        |
   =Tours= (_tör_),       |=Franks= vs. Saracens   |Here Charles Martel
   France, 732            |                        |saved western Christen-
                          |                        |dom from the Moslem
                          |                        |invader.
                          |                        |
   =Towton= (_tou´ton_),  |=Yorkists= vs.          |This battle, the most
   England, March 28 and  |Lancastrians            |obstinate and bloody of
   29, 1461               |                        |the war, secured Edward
                          |                        |IV. in his possession of
                          |                        |the crown.
                          |                        |
  †=Trafalgar= (_traf-al- |=British= vs. French    |Nelson’s last and
   gär_), Spain, October  |                        |greatest victory
   21, 1805               |                        |destroyed all possibili-
                          |                        |ty of Napoleon’s
                          |                        |invading England.
                          |                        |
   =Trebia= (_trē´bi-ä_), |=Carthaginians= vs.     |By this splendid victory
   Italy, December, B. C. |Romans                  |Hannibal justified his
   218                    |                        |march into Italy; the
                          |                        |way into Etruria was now
                          |                        |open to him.
                          |                        |
   =Tunis= (_tū´nis_),    |=Moslems= vs. French    |This crusade, in which
   =Siege of=, North      |Crusaders               |Louis IX. lost his life,
   Africa, 1270           |                        |was the last.
                          |                        |
   =Turin= (_tū´rin_),    |=Prince Eugene= vs.     |The French were
   Italy, September 7,    |French                  |permanently excluded
   1706                   |                        |from Italy.
                          |                        |
   =Tyre= (_tīr_), =Siege |=Macedonians= vs.       |The greatest of
   of=, Phœnicia, January |Tyrians                 |Alexander’s triumphs;
   to August, B. C. 332   |                        |Alexandria in Egypt
                          |                        |takes the place of Tyre
                          |                        |as a commercial
                          |                        |metropolis.
                          |                        |
  †=Ushant= (_ush´ant_),  |=British= vs. French    |A brilliant victory won
   North Atlantic, June 1,|                        |by Lord Howe.
   1794                   |                        |
                          |                        |
   =Valmy= (_vȧl-mē´_),   |=French= vs. Prussians  |Goethe said that from
   France, September 2,   |                        |Valmy dates a new era.
   1792                   |                        |It showed that
                          |                        |revolutionary France
                          |                        |would and could resist
                          |                        |Europe.
                          |                        |
   =Varna= (_vär´nä_),    |=Turks= vs. Hungarians  |King Ladislas lost his
   Bulgaria, November 10, |                        |life and his army was
   1444                   |                        |scattered to the winds.
                          |                        |
   =Vercellae= (_ver-sel´ |=Romans= vs. Cimbri     |Marius and Catulus
   ē_), Italy, July 30,   |                        |utterly destroyed the
   B. C. 101              |                        |vast barbarian horde
                          |                        |which had been
                          |                        |threatening Italy with
                          |                        |invasion.
                          |                        |
   =Verdun= (_ver-dun´_), |*=Germans= vs. French   |The powerful attacks of
   =Siege of=, France,    |                        |the Germans for almost a
   from February, 1916, on|                        |year against the
                          |                        |fortress of Verdun were
                          |                        |without success.
                          |                        |
   =Vicksburg, Siege of=, |=Federals= vs.          |Grant’s success at
   Mississippi, U. S. A., |Confederates            |Vicksburg, together with
   May 19 to July 4, 1863 |                        |the battle of Gettys-
                          |                        |burg, were the turning
                          |                        |points of the war.
                          |                        |
   =Vienna= (_vē-en´ȧ_),  |=Austrians= vs. Turks   |The besieged were
   =Siege of=, Austria,   |                        |reduced to the last
   July 14 to September   |                        |extremity when Sobieski
   12, 1683               |                        |intervened and put the
                          |                        |invading Turks to
                          |                        |flight.
                          |                        |
  †=Vigo= (_vē´gō_) =Bay=,|=English and Dutch= vs. |The destruction of the
   Spain, October 12, 1702|French and Spaniards    |Spanish galleons and the
                          |                        |protecting French fleet
                          |                        |gave a blow to the
                          |                        |finances and prestige of
                          |                        |the two crowns.
                          |                        |
   =Vimiero= (_vē-mā´rō_),|=British= vs. French    |Wellesley inflicted a
   Spain, August 21, 1813 |                        |signal defeat on the
                          |                        |French, but his senior
                          |                        |officer made no use of
                          |                        |the victory.
                          |                        |
   =Vittoria= (_vē-tō´    |=British= vs. French    |This, the crowning
   rē-ä_), Spain, June 21,|                        |victory of Wellington’s
   1813                   |                        |peninsular campaign, won
                          |                        |Spain from Napoleon.
                          |                        |
   =Wagram= (_vā´gräm_),  |=French= vs. Austrians  |One of the most terrible
   Austria, July 6, 1809  |                        |and least decisive
                          |                        |battles of all time.
                          |                        |
   =Wakefield=, England,  |=Lancastrians= vs.      |Queen Margaret’s army
   December 30, 1460      |Yorkists                |completely defeated that
                          |                        |of the duke of York, who
                          |                        |was slain on the battle-
                          |                        |field.
                          |                        |
   =Wandewash= (_wän-de-  |=British= vs. French    |Coote’s victory was the
   wäsh´_), India, January|                        |death-blow to French
   22, 1760               |                        |power in India.
                          |                        |
   =Warsaw= (_wôr´sô_),   |=Russians= vs. Poles    |The fall of Warsaw ends
   =Siege of=, Poland,    |                        |the Polish insurrection
   August 19 to September |                        |and Poland becomes a
   7, 1831                |                        |province of the Russian
                          |                        |empire.
                          |                        |
   =Waterloo= (_wô-ter-   |=British and Prussians= |The final overthrow of
   lŏŏ´_), Belgium, June  |vs. French              |Napoleon by Wellington
   18, 1815               |                        |and Blücher. Napoleon
                          |                        |was transported to St.
                          |                        |Helena, where he died
                          |                        |in 1821.
                          |                        |
   =Wavre= (_vä´vr_),     |=French= vs. Prussians  |Grouchy’s victory was
   Belgium, June 18, 1815 |                        |useless, while he might
                          |                        |have saved the day for
                          |                        |Napoleon had he arrived
                          |                        |at Waterloo when
                          |                        |expected.
                          |                        |
   =Wei-hai-wei= (_wā´hī´ |=Japanese= vs. Chinese  |The Chinese admiral gave
   wā_), China, January 30|                        |up the remnant of his
   to February 12, 1894   |                        |fleet and killed
                          |                        |himself; followed by
                          |                        |negotiations for peace.
                          |                        |
   =Worcester= (_wŏŏs´    |=Cromwellians= vs.      |Followed by the submis-
   ter_), England,        |Scottish Royalists      |sion of Scotland and
   September 3, 1651      |                        |Charles II.’s adventur-
                          |                        |ous escape to France.
                          |                        |
   =Wörth= (_virt_),      |=Prussians= vs. French  |A bloody contest and a
   Bavaria, August 6, 1870|                        |decisive victory,
                          |                        |followed by the retreat
                          |                        |of the French.
                          |                        |
   =Xeres= (_hā-rās´_),   |=Moors= vs. Visigoths   |Without having to fight
   Spain, July 19, 711    |                        |any second battle, the
                          |                        |Moors under Tarik
                          |                        |mastered Spain.
                          |                        |
   =Yalu= (_yā´lōō_)      |=Japanese= vs. Chinese  |This action conferred
   =River=, Manchuria,    |                        |upon the Japanese the
   September 17, 1894     |                        |full command of the sea
                          |                        |and greatly aided the
                          |                        |land power.
                          |                        |
   =Yorktown, Siege of=,  |=Americans= vs. British |The surrender of
   Virginia, U. S. A.,    |                        |Cornwallis at Yorktown
   Sept. 30 to Oct. 19,   |                        |practically brought to
   1781                   |                        |an end the war of the
                          |                        |American Revolution.
                          |                        |
   =Ypres= (_ē´pr_),      |=Allies= vs. Germans    |A series of the most
   Belgium, October 21-31,|                        |desperate struggles of
   1914 and November 10-  |                        |the war. The German
   12, 1914               |                        |attempt to break through
                          |                        |to Calais, France,
                          |                        |failed.
                          |                        |
   =Zama= (_zä´mä_), North|=Romans= vs.            |Scipio defeated Hannibal
   Africa, B. C. 202      |Carthaginians           |and annihilated his
                          |                        |army, thus ending the
                          |                        |second Punic war.
                          |                        |
   =Zorndorf= (_tsôrn´    |=Prussians= vs. Russians|A desperate and bloody
   dorf_), Prussia, Aug.  |                        |struggle, after which
   25, 1758               |                        |the Russians retired
                          |                        |into Poland.
                          |                        |
   =Zurawno= (_tsu-raw´   |=Poles= vs. Turks       |John Sobieski made an
   no_), =Siege of=,      |                        |heroic defense against
   Austria, 1676          |                        |numbers and won an
                          |                        |honorable peace.
  ------------------------+------------------------+------------------------



BOOK OF LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE


  HOW TO SPEAK CORRECT ENGLISH

  HOW TO WRITE CORRECT ENGLISH

  ABBREVIATIONS, CONTRACTIONS AND DEGREES

  FORMS OF WRITTEN ENGLISH

  LETTER WRITING AND CORRESPONDENCE

  DICTIONARY OF CLASSIC WORDS AND PHRASES

  WORDS AND PHRASES FROM MODERN LANGUAGES

  DICTIONARY OF SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS

  ENGLISH AND AMERICAN LITERATURE

  CHARTS OF ENGLISH AND AMERICAN AUTHORS

  DICTIONARY OF LITERARY ALLUSIONS

  PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY

  CHART OF GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHS


BOOK OF LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

  HOW TO SPEAK CORRECT ENGLISH -- FUNDAMENTAL RULES -- THE ORGAN OF
  SPEECH -- VOWELS -- CONSONANTS -- TABLE OF CONSONANTS -- RULES OF
  PRONUNCIATION -- COMMON ERRORS IN PRONUNCIATION -- EXPRESSION --
  INFLECTION OF THE VOICE -- WRITTEN ENGLISH -- RULES RELATING TO
  STYLE -- GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION -- RIGHT AND WRONG USE OF WORDS IN
  SPEAKING AND WRITING -- USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS -- ABBREVIATIONS,
  CONTRACTIONS AND DEGREES -- PUNCTUATION -- RHETORICAL FIGURES OF
  SPEECH -- FORMS OF WRITTEN ENGLISH -- LETTER WRITING OR
  CORRESPONDENCE -- OFFICIAL AND TITLED SALUTATIONS -- NARRATION --
  (BIOGRAPHY -- FICTION AND DRAMA -- NEWS) -- EXPOSITION -- (ESSAY --
  EDITORIALS) -- DESCRIPTION -- ARGUMENT -- POETRY AND POETICS --
  PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF CLASSIC WORDS AND PHRASES -- PRONOUNCING
  DICTIONARY OF WORDS AND PHRASES FROM THE MODERN LANGUAGES -- ENGLISH
  AND AMERICAN LITERATURE -- OUTLINE CHARTS OF ENGLISH AND AMERICAN
  AUTHORS -- DICTIONARY OF LITERARY ALLUSIONS: FAMOUS BOOKS, POEMS,
  DRAMAS, LITERARY CHARACTERS, PLOTS, PEN NAMES, LITERARY SHRINES AND
  GEOGRAPHY, AND OTHER MISCELLANY -- PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF
  MYTHOLOGY: GODS, HEROES, AND MYTHICAL WONDER TALES -- CHART OF GREEK
  AND ROMAN MYTHS, THEIR ORIGIN, RELATIONSHIP AND DESCENT.


HOW TO SPEAK CORRECT ENGLISH

Correctly spoken English is quite as important as correctly written
English. Errors in pronunciation, modulation and general expression are
of frequent occurrence, and it sometimes seems that the erroneous
utterance of whole classes of words league the tongue and ear against
their right use. An improved standard of pronunciation, therefore, is
the safest bulwark against a permanent deterioration of our language, as
well as a positive influence in advancing individual culture of speech.

=Five Fundamental Rules.=--The essential steps toward securing the
unconscious ability to speak correctly may be set down as follows:

1. To thoroughly study the elementary sounds, and their mode of
representation.

2. To observe the current usage of the best speakers with regard to such
words as are most liable to be mispronounced.

3. To note the standard of pronunciation and expression of the best
dramatic theaters.

4. By forming the habit of frequent reference to the dictionary and
learning to interpret at sight the authorized pronunciation.

5. Ample practice in the reading and application of the leading
principles of pronunciation that give words their true spoken values.

=The Organ of Speech.=--The mouth is the organ of speech; and the manner
of production of the various sounds is of the first importance in the
cultivation of correct pronunciation.

The sound uttered depends upon the form of the mouth. Change the form
and you change the sound. Each particular sound is produced from a
particular position.

Not more than one sound can be produced from one position of the mouth.

To produce a different sound you must change the position.

Each sound should be clear and precise. There should be no slurring.

The muscles must be under perfect control so that the mouth (lips and
tongue included) may readily assume the position necessary for the
emission of the required sound.

The proper use of the lips is the great factor in fluent speech.

It is from inability to use or negligence in using the muscles of the
organ of speech that Americans are such indifferent linguists and
frequently even incapable of distinct utterance of their own language.

The manner of production of the various sounds is of the first
importance in the cultivation of correct pronunciation.

=Vowels.=--Pronounce the following words: moor; meer; merry; marry; mar;
more. The whole compass of the mouth is brought into exercise by these
words.

The first sound is produced from the lips. The second comes from a point
just inside the mouth. The third sound point is farther back still. The
last vowel is uttered from the throat.

If the sound _a_ (long) as in bare, fair, is included, we have a scale
of seven sounds produced by a gradual opening of the mouth, the sound
point receding note by note from the front of the lips to the back of
the throat, thus: moor, meer, merry, Mary, marry, mar, more.

In cultured English centers and in some parts of New England, the long
sound of _ä_, No. 4, appears in such words as dance, France, glass,
castle, cast, past, grasp, grant, etc.

In pronouncing the four words--meer merry, marry, mar--the mouth is
gradually opened. The four separate “sound points” may be clearly
recognized.

Repeat slowly:

   1          2          3         4
  meer      merry      marry      mar
  mee       mé         mâ         mä
   ee        é          â          ä

_O_ is a single sound. In conversation, however, it usually becomes
double, being combined with the sound--oo (as in too, tooth, woo)--thus:

  so is pronounced so-oo
  no is pronounced no-oo
  go is pronounced go-oo

The short _o_ sound is pronounced as in hot, pot, nod, God.

_O_ followed by a double consonant is short:

  off not awf
  office not awfice
  coffee not cawfee
  cross, dross, loss, toss

The sound _oo_ unites with the open sound _ä_ to form the double sound
in such words as--cow, how, now:

  cä-oo        cow
  nä-oo        now
  dä-oo-n      down
  ä-oo-t       out

The sound _u_ is a peculiar combination of at least three sounds. It is
really a continued flow from _ee_ to _oo_.

The letter is pronounced exactly as the word _you_. Speak the vowel very
slowly.

The intermediate sound of û may be represented thus:

  u is ee-û-oo
  duke is dee-û-oo-k
  tube is tee-û-oo-b
  mute is mee-û-oo-t

The same sounds occur in such words as few, new, mew.

The middle sound is the most important, and the first and last must be
cut very short for a good style.

_Ru_ and _lu_. When _u_ is preceded by _r_ or _l_, the first portion of
the triple sound is omitted and a double vowel sound is heard--the last
part also being cut very short.

=Consonants.=--Speak slowly and pronounce every letter.

INITIAL CONSONANTS.--Of these only two require special attention:

  _th_ and _sh_ followed by _r_.

Children frequently say:--one, two, _free_; and grown-up people will
speak of--shrimps as _srimps_.

Examples: three, shrimp; thread, shrill; throat, shrink; thrush, shroud;
through, shrew.

FINAL CONSONANTS.--The slurring or omission of final consonants is a
greater fault than the mispronunciation of vowels, for it points
directly to carelessness and indolence on the part of the speaker.

_R._ It is sometimes stated that there is no _r_ sound in English.

In singing the _r_ is always made distinct.

It should also be apparent in conversation. Thus: _father_ and _farther_
are quite distinct. So, too, _ma_ and _mar_.

The _t_ belongs to the preceding syllable and the words should be
pronounced thus: nat-ure, feat-ure, pict-ure, premat-ure, creat-ure,
fut-ure, indent-ure, nurt-ure.

The consonant values of _w_ and _y_ are never terminal in a syllable,
but are followed in the same syllable by a vowel. In attempting, for
phonic practice, to sound either of these consonants apart from its
vowel, make it continuous, not abrupt.

_H_ cannot be separated from its accompanying vowel. Pronounce _ha_,
_he_, _hi_, _ho_, _hu_, _hy_. Notice that the office of _h_ is _to cover
the following vowel with breath_. It will be seen, on careful
examination, that any attempt to sound _h_ alone will result in
whispering a vowel with it.

_Wh_ has for its initial sound simply unvocalized breath, poured through
the lips placed in position for _w_. As a whole the digraph is sounded
as it would naturally be if the order of the letters were reversed,
thus, _hw_; as, _when_, _while_, _whip_, pronounced _hwen_, _hwile_,
_hwip_.

Lisping children and Germans need to carefully observe the sounds of _s_
and _th_.

The sound of _s_ is formed by forcing unvocal breath between the tip of
the tongue and the upper gum.

_Th_ is produced by placing the tip of the tongue between the teeth or
against the upper front teeth, and forcing vocal or unvocal breath
between the tongue and the teeth. If vocal breath is used, sonant _th_
is heard, as in _this_; if unvocal breath, then non-sonant _th_ is
produced, as in _thin_--this last is the sound made for _s_ by those who
lisp (lithp).

TABLE OF CONSONANTS

  ===============+===============+=========================+========+=====
  =Name according|    =Checks=   |  =Spirants, Breathings= |  =Liq- |=Na-
    to exit of   |               |           [13]          |  uids  |sals=
      sound=     |               |                         | Trills=|
  ---------------+-------+-------+------------+------------+--------+-----
  =Name according|=Tenues|=Mediæ |=Sharp Hard=| =Flat Soft=|        |
   to quality of | Sharp | Flat  |            |            |        |
      sound=     | Hard= | Soft= |            |            |        |
  ---------------+-------+-------+------------+------------+--------+-----
    {Labials     |  p    |   b   |...         |     w      |   ...  |  m
  O {Labiodentals|...    |...    |...         |     v      |   ...  |...
  r {Dentals     |  t    |   d   |   th in    | th in this |    l   |  n
  g {            |       |       |  thunder   |            |        |
  a {            |...    |...    |{    s      |     z      |   ...  |...
  n {            |...    |...    |{           |{ j in (Fr.)|   ...  |...
  i {            |       |       |{    sh     |{   jour    |        |
  c {            |...    |...    |{           |{   s in    |   ...  |...
    {Palatals    |       |       |{           |{ pleasure  |        |
  N {            |...    |...    |{   ch in   | j in John  |    r   |...
  a {            |       |       |{   church  |            |        |
  m {            |...    |...    |{   ch in   |  y in you  |   ...  |...
  e {            |       |       |{(Germ.) ich|            |        |
  s {Gutturals   |k, q, c|g in go|ch in Scotch|g in (Germ.)|   ...  | ng
    {            |       |       |   (loch)   |    tage    |        |
  ---------------+-------+-------+------------+------------+--------+-----

  [13] Some of the _Breathings_ are often called _Aspirates_.


ACCENT OF WORDS

One syllable of every word with two or more syllables receives, in
pronouncing, _more force_ than another. This stronger force is called
ACCENT, and the syllable which receives this force is said to be
_accent´ed_.

MARKS OF ACCENT.--The primary accent is marked with a firm oblique
stroke, thus: _ob´ject_, _object´_, _discov´er_. The secondary accent is
marked by a similar but lighter stroke, or sometimes by two light
strokes, thus: _lem[´]on-ade´_ (or _lem´´on-ade´_).

UNACCENTED VOWELS.--Every vowel, when under either the primary or the
secondary accent, is distinct; that is, the exact sound of the vowel is
evident, as short _a_, long _i_, broad _o_, etc. In an unaccented
syllable, the vowel sound is sometimes doubtful; in most instances,
however, it is not. For instance, a correct speaker says: ăttĕn´tĭve,
ăn´ĕcdōte, cōmprēhĕnd´, ăllēgā´tiȯn, chăp´ĕl, prĕs´_e_nt, ĕm´ĭnĕnt,
prāi´rĭe, a̤u´dĭĕnce, căl´loŭs.


RULES OF PRONUNCIATION

RULE I.--The letter _u_ should not be sounded as _ōō_, except when
immediately preceded by the sound of _r_.

Exceptions: sure and its derivatives, also sumac, tulle, hurrah, pugh.

Pronounce rule, fruit, garrulous, ruin, sure, tūne, mūle, institūte,
constitūtion, sūture, dūty, lūcid.

RULE II.--_A_ constituting or ending an unaccented syllable is short
Italian _a_.

Examples: cȧnine´, lȧpel´, ȧgain´, ȧlas´, fȧtal´ity, al´kȧli, or´nȧment,
pal´ȧtȧble.

When the _a_ of terminal _ary_ or _any_ is immediately preceded by an
accented syllable, it has the sound of short Italian _a_; thus,
pri´mȧry, epiph´ȧny.

RULE III.--_E_ or _o_ constituting or ending a syllable is long.

Examples: ēvent, mēmentō, lōcōmōtion, sōciety, nōtōriety, sōbriety,
supērior, infērior, thēōries, cōteriē, lōcō-fōcō.

RULE IV.--_I_ constituting or ending an unaccented syllable not initial,
is always short, and is usually short even in initial syllables, if
unaccented.

Examples: Dĭvide, dĭrect, fĭnance, phĭlosophy, imĭtate, pĭazza, tĭrade,
intĭmate, indĭvisĭble, nobilĭty.

In the _initial_ syllables _i_, _bi_, _chi_, _cli_, _cri_, _pri_, _tri_,
however, _i_ is generally _long_.

Examples: īdea, īdle, īsothermal, bīology, Chīnese, chīrurgery,
clīmatic, crīterion, prīmeval, trīangular, trīpod.

RULE V.--_E_ before terminal _n_ should always be silent in participles,
and also in most other words.

Examples: given (giv n), taken (tak n), bitten (bit n), broken, spoken,
riven, fallen.

But in the following words _e_ must be sounded:

Aspĕn, chickĕn, glutĕn, kitchĕn, lichĕn, lindĕn, martĕn, mittĕn, suddĕn.

It must also be sounded in any word (not a participle) in which terminal
_en_ is immediately preceded by _l_, _m_, _n_, or _r_.

Examples: womĕn, lĭnen, omĕn, barrĕn, Helĕn, Allĕn, Ellĕn, woolĕn,
pollĕn.

RULE VI.--_E_ before terminal _l_ should usually be sounded.

Examples: levĕl, bevĕl, novĕl, nickĕl, cancĕl, vessĕl, chapĕl, gravĕl,
hovĕl, camĕl, channĕl, kernĕl, Abĕl, Mabĕl, panĕl, modĕl, funnĕl,
flannĕl.

But in the following words the _e_ before terminal _l_ must not be
sounded:

Betel (bē´tl), chattel (chat´tl), drivel, easel, grovel, hazel, mantel,
mussel, navel, ravel, shekel, shovel, shrivel, snivel, swivel, teasel,
weasel, and their derivatives.

RULE VII.--In all but the following words, _i_ before terminal _l_ or
_n_ must be sounded: devil, evil, weevil, basin, cousin, raisin.

Pronounce Latĭn, satĭn, matĭn, spavĭn, anvĭl, civĭl, cavĭl, councĭl,
perĭl, javelĭn, lentĭl, pistĭl, resĭn, fusĭl, coffĭn, codicĭl, axĭl.

RULE VIII.--The eight words, bath, cloth, lath, moth, mouth, oath, path,
wreath, and these only, require sonant _ths_ in the plural.

Pronounce m_oth_s, p_ath_s, truths, o_ath_s, heaths, cl_oth_s, b_ath_s,
l_ath_s, deaths, wr_eath_s, mo_uths_, Sabbaths, sheaths, piths, plinths,
lengths, widths, depths, breadths, earths, myths, Goths, fourths,
breaths.

RULE IX.--_O_ in a final unaccented syllable ending in a consonant,
frequently verges toward the sound of short _u_; as in custom, felon,
bigot, bishop, method, carol, Briton. But it has its regular short sound
in pentagon, hexagon, octagon, etc.

When, however, the termination _on_ is immediately preceded by _c_,
_ck_, _s_ or _t_, the _o_ is commonly suppressed.

Examples: bacon, beacon, beckon, benison, button, cotton, crimson,
damson, deacon, garrison, glutton, lesson, mason, mutton, parson,
person, poison, prison, reason, reckon, season.

RULE X.--_I_ accented in most words from the French has the sound of
long _e_.

Examples: pĭque, caprĭce, guillotĭne, quarantĭne, routĭne, suĭte,
fatĭgue, valĭse, antĭque, Bastĭle, critĭque, palanquĭn, tambourĭne,
regĭme (rā-zheem´), cuĭsĭne (kwe-zeen´), unĭque, intrĭgue, magazĭne.

RULE XI.--_Ou_ in most words from the French has the value of _ōō_, but
in Anglo-Saxon words it has the sound of _ow_, as in _cow_.

Examples: bouquet, contour, croup; out, bound, sound.

Note.--_Ou_ has also other values, as in soul, rough, adjourn, could,
ought, hough (hŏk), trough.

RULE XII.--_X_ followed by an accented vowel, or by an accented syllable
beginning with a silent _h_, has the sound of _gz_.

Examples: luxu´rious, exam´ple, exhaust´, exhale´, exhib´it, exam´ine,
exalt´, exec´utive.

RULE XIII.--The termination _tion_ is always _shun_, except when it
follows the letter _s_ or _x_, as in question (kwestyun), bastion,
combustion.

Examples: notation, completion, equation, relation, suggestion,
transition (tranzish´un).

RULE XIV.--The termination _sion_ immediately preceded by an accented
vowel is _zhun_; when not so preceded it is _shun_.

Examples: expulsion, immersion, mansion, excursion, diversion,
explosion, adhesion, delusion.

RULE XV.--_C_ is soft (_s_) before _e_, _i_ and _y_, and hard (_k_) in
other positions.

Examples: _ca_, _ce_, _ci_, _co_, _cu_, _cy_.

Exceptions: _c_ is hard (_k_) in sceptic and scirrhus; and in the
following words it has the sound of _z_: sacrifice (fīz), sice, suffice,
discern, and their derivatives. It is silent in czar, victuals, indict,
and their derivatives, and also in the termination _scle_, as in
_muscle_, _corpuscle_.

RULE XVI.--_G_ is generally soft (_j_) before _e_, _i_ and _y_, and
always hard (_g_) before other vowels.

Examples: _ga_, _ge_, _gi_, _go_, _gu_, _gy_.

Note.--The exceptions to the rule that _g_ is usually soft before _e_,
_i_ and _y_ are many; but they are nearly all common Anglo-Saxon words,
such as get, give, gild, girl, girdle, giddy, foggy, gimlet, geese, gig,
giggle, gift, gills, begin, gimp, beget, gird, gear, gizzard.

RULE XVII.--In an accented syllable of any primitive word, a vowel
before _r_ followed by a syllable beginning with a vowel or another _r_
has its short sound.

Examples: Ărab, ărabesque, ărid, Ăristotle, Săracen, bĕryl, pĕril,
delĭrious, ĭrritate, mĭracle, delĭrium, abhŏrrence, flŏrid, cŏroner,
fŏreign, tŭrret, bŭrrow, cŭrry, coŭrage, fŭrrow, py̆rrhic, empy̆real.

RULE XVIII.--_N_ ending an accented syllable has the sound of _ng_, if
immediately followed by hard _g_ or _k_, or any equivalent of _k_ (_c_,
_q_, or _x_).

Examples: co̱ṉ´gress, ga̱ṉ´grene, co̱ṉ´cord, tra̱ṉ´quil, u̱ṉ´cle,
a̱ṉ´ger, hu̱ṉ´ger, mo̱ṉ´key, sa̱ṉ´guine, si̱ṉ´gle, cla̱ṉ´gor,
exti̱ṉ´guish, bla̱ṉ´ket, twi̱ṉ´kle, co̱ṉ´course, Li̱ṉ´coln.

Exceptions: concrete, penguin, mangrove, Mongol, pancreas, and some
others.

RULE XIX.--_C_, _s_, or _t_, when immediately preceded by an accented
syllable and followed by _e_, _i_ or _u_, has usually the force of _sh_,
and is said to be “aspirated,” as in ocean, nauseate, Asiatic,
negotiation.

RULE XX.--In pronouncing the terminal syllables, _ble_, _cle_, _dle_,
_fle_, _gle_, _kle_, _ple_, _stle_, _tle_, and _zle_, no vowel sound is
heard. Terminal _cre_, however, is pronounced _kẽr_. The combination of
any of these terminations with _ing_ forms but one syllable.

Examples: quibbling, doubling, circling, meddling, huddling, ruffling,
shuffling, giggling, struggling, pickling, trickling, coupling,
rippling, battling, whittling, whistling, jostling, puzzling, muzzling,
massacring.


COMMON ERRORS IN PRONUNCIATION

1. Do not pronounce _ing_ like _in_; as _eve´nin_ for _eve´ning_,
_writ´in_ for _writ´ing_.

Pronounce the following: Speak´ing, read´ing, talk´ing, walk´ing,
stop´ping, smok´ing, suppos´ing, expect´ing, cel´ebrating.

2. Do not pronounce _ow_ like _ur_ or _uh_; as _hol´lur_ or _hol´luh_
for _hol´low_, _shad´ur_ or _shad´uh_ for _shad´ow_.

Pronounce the following: Bor´row, to-mor´row, nar´row, yel´low, fel´low,
wid´ow, pil´low, mel´lowing, swal´lowing.

3. Do not pronounce _ed_ like _id_ or _ud_; as _unit´id_ or _unit´ud_
for _unit´ed_, _provid´id_ or _provid´ud_ for _provid´ed_.

Pronounce the following: Rest´ed, resid´ed, decid´ed, regard´ed,
exhib´ited, cel´ebrated, excit´ed, delight´ed, support´ed.

4. Do not pronounce _ess_ like _iss_; as _good´niss_ for _good´ness_,
_bold´niss_ for _bold´ness_.

Pronounce the following: Hard´ness, bad´ness, harm´less, care´less,
clear´ness, ful´ness, seam´stress, host´ess, em´press.

5. Do not pronounce _el_ like _il_, nor _et_ like _it_, nor _est_ like
_ist_; as _cru´il_ for _cru´el_, _bask´it_ for _bask´et_, _for´ist_ for
_for´est_.

Pronounce the following: Fu´el, du´el, bush´el, yet, get, mark´et,
hatch´et, rock´et, rack´et, riv´ulet, hon´est, bold´est, larg´est,
small´est, young´est, strong´est.

6. Do not pronounce _ent_ like _unt_, nor _ence_ like _unce_; as
_si´lunt_ for _si´lent_, _sen´tunce_ for _sen´tence_.

Pronounce the following: Pru´dent, de´cent, mo´ment, gar´ment,
mon´ument, gov´ernment, superintend´ent, par´liament (par´lĭ-ment),
pa´tience, expe´rience, superintend´ence.

7. Do not insert the sound of short _u_ before a final _m_; as _hel´um_
for _helm_, _chas´um_ for _chasm_.

Pronounce the following: Spasm, rhythm, phan´tasm, bap´tism,
pa´triotism, elm, film, overwhelm´, worm.

8. Do not give the drawling sound _ăōō_ for _ou_ (i. e. _äōō_); as
_căōō_ for _cow_, _hăōōs_ for _house_.

Pronounce the following: How, now, ground, sound, bound, found, town,
gown, pound, confound´, around´, astound´.

9. Do not sound _sh_ before _r_ like _s_; as _srub_ for _shrub_, _srink_
for _shrink_.

Pronounce the following: Shred, shrine, shriek, shroud, shriv´el,
shrunk´en.

10. Do not sound _wh_ like _w_; as _wen_ for _when_, _wat_ for _what_.

Pronounce the following: Where, wheat, wharf, whale, whine, white,
whim´per, whis´per, whip´ping, whit´tle.

11. Do not omit to give the sound of _r_ after a vowel in the same
syllable, as in _arm_, _form_, etc., not _ahm_, _fawum_, etc.

Pronounce the following: Dark, hark, start, chart, are, tar, remark´,
course, for, nor, door, floor, lord, hon´or, do´nor, short, support´,
report´, pa´per, or´der, horse, purse, warm, alarm´ing, return´ing,
reform´ing.

12. Do not add the sound of _r_ to a final vowel or dipthong; as _lawr_
for _law_, _ide´ar_ for _ide´a_.

Pronounce the following: saw, draw, paw, claw, pota´to, toma´to, com´ma,
Em´ma.

13. Do not shorten the sound of long _o_ in certain words by leaving off
its vanishing element _ōō_.

Pronounce the following: Boat, bone, broke, choke, cloak, colt, comb,
dolt, hole, home, home´ly, hope, jolt, load, on´ly, road, rogue, smoke,
spoke, spok´en, stone, throat, toad, whole, wrote, yoke, bolster.

14. Do not omit the sound of _d_ when preceded by _n_; as _stan_ for
_stand_, _frenz_ for _friends_.

Pronounce the following: Stands, bands, wĭnds, wīnds, depends´,
defends´, demands´, blind´ness, grand´mother, grand´father, hand´ful.

15. Do not omit the sound of _d_ in the terminal letters _lds_; as
_wīlz_ for _wilds_, _fēlz_ for _fields_.

Pronounce the following: Folds, holds, scolds, builds, scalds, unfolds´,
child´s.

16. Do not omit the sound of _t_ when preceded by _c hard_ in the same
syllable; as _aks_ for _acts_, _exak´ly_ for _exact´ly_.

Pronounce the following: Facts, tracts, com´pacts, inspects´, respects´,
inducts´, instructs´, correct´ly, direct´ly, ab´stractly, per´fectly.

17. Do not omit the sound of _t_ in the terminal letters _sts_; as
_fis´s_ for _fists_, _pes´s_ for _pests_.

Pronounce the following: Posts, boasts, coasts, hosts, ghosts, accosts´.

18. Do not improperly suppress the vowel sounds in unaccented syllables;
as _ev´ry_ for _ev´er-y_, _his´try_ for _his´to-ry_.

Pronounce the following: Belief´, crock´ery, fam´ily, fa´vorite,
des´perate, des´olate, nom´inative, mis´ery, li´brary, sal´ary,
com´pany, com´fortable, perfum´ery, mem´ory, vic´tory, slip´pery,
part´iciple, sev´eral, bois´terous.

19. Do not suppress the sound of _e_ or of _i_ before _l_ or _n_ in
those words in which it should be articulated; as _lev´l_ for _lev´el_,
_civ´l_ for _civ´il_, _kitch´n_ for _kitch´en_, _Lat´n_ for _Lat´in_.

Pronounce the following: Trav´el, nov´el, bar´rel, par´cel, hov´el,
chap´el, quar´rel, sor´rel, pen´cil, chick´en, lin´en, sud´den, mit´ten,
sat´in.

20. Do not sound _e_ or _i_ before _n_ or _l_ in those words in which it
is properly silent; _e´ven_ for _e´vn_, _heav´en_ for _heav´n_, _ba´sin_
for _ba´sn_, _haz´el_ for _ha´zl_, _e´vil_ for _e´vl_.

Pronounce the following: Ha´ven, sev´en, gold´en, o´pen, short´en,
wood´en, wak´en, wid´en, fro´zen.

21. After _r_, _ch_, or _sh_ do not give the sound of long _u_ when the
simple sound of _oo_ (long or short) should be heard; as _rule_ for
_rool_, _fruit_, for _froot_.

Pronounce the following: True, truth, grew, chew, sure, sug´ar, tru´ly,
crew, brute, bru´tal, rude, through, cru´el, ru´by, ru´bicund.

22. Do not substitute the sound _oo_ for that of long _u_; as _toon_ for
_tune_, _doo´ty_ for _du´ty_.

Pronounce the following: Tube, duke, mute, nude, mu´sic, Tues´day,
du´bious, lute, blue, illume´, illude´, in´stitute.

23. The vowel _a_, when unaccented, at the end of a word has the sound
of _ä_ (as in _far_) somewhat shortened; as _com´ma_ not _com´mĭ_ nor
_commā_.

Pronounce the following: Dra´ma, da´ta, pi´ca, so´fa, al´gebra, Chi´na,
Amer´ica, dilem´ma, mi´ca, alpac´a, a´rea, neb´ula.

24. Give to the vowel _a_ in the unaccented terminal syllables _al_,
_ant_, _ance_, its short sound, but do not make it prominent.

Pronounce the following: Na´tional, par´tial, fi´nal, eter´nal,
ig´norant, ty´rant, in´stant, fla´grant, vig´ilance, ig´norance,
in´stance, fra´grance.

25. Do not give to the vowel _a_ (as in _far_), when unaccented and made
brief, the sound of short _u_; as _ŭbase´_ for _abase´_, _ŭrouse_ for
_arouse´_.

Pronounce the following: Abound´, abate´, above´, about´, abridge´,
amuse´, fanat´ic, ag´gravate, traduce´.

26. Do not give to long _e_, when unaccented and slightly abridged, the
sound of short _u_; as _ŭvent´_ for _event´_, _soci´ŭty_ for _soci´ety_.

Pronounce the following: Emo´tion, vari´ety, sobri´ety, sati´ety,
anxi´ety, impi´ety.

27. Do not give to long _o_, when unaccented and slightly abridged, the
sound of short _u_; as _ŭbey´_ for _obey´_, _prŭpose´_ for _propose´_.

Pronounce the following: Opin´ion, obe´dience, provide´, promote´,
provoke´, pota´to, tobac´co, posi´tion, soci´ety, el´oquence,
disposi´tion, mel´ody, composi´tion.

28. Do not sound short _o_, when unaccented, as short _u_; as _ŭbscure´_
for _obscure´_, _cŭmmit´tee_ for _commit´tee_.

Pronounce the following: Observe´, oppose´, command´, conceal´,
condi´tion, contain´, content´, possess´.

29. Do not lay too much stress on an unaccented syllable or a syllable
having a secondary accent; as _pri´ma´ry_ for _pri´mary_, _ex´act´ly_
for _exact´ly_.

Pronounce the following: Gigan´tic, precise´ly, salva´tion, loca´tion,
vaca´tion, ter´ritory, sec´ondary, mat´rimony, prom´issory, vac´cinated.

30. In unaccented syllables do not bring out the quality of the vowel
too distinctly.

In many words, “there would be pedantry in scrupulously avoiding the
short and easier sounds which the organs are inclined to adopt.” For
instance, _cab´bage_ in common conversation might be _cab´bij_,
_pal´ace_, _pal´ăs_, etc.

a. When _a_ at the end of an unaccented syllable is followed in the next
syllable by _n_ or _r_, it has nearly the sound of short _e_, as in
_mis´cel-la-ny_, _cus´tom-a-ry_.

b. In the unaccented final syllable _ate_, of adjectives and nouns, the
vowel _a_ generally has a sound verging toward short _e_, as in
_del´i-cate_, _con-sum´mate_ (_adj_.).


EXPRESSION

Speak firmly; take time. Articulate clearly; do not slur.

Correct pronunciation: requires--1. Exact vowel sounds. 2. Distinct
terminal consonants.

Read just as you would speak under the same circumstances, so that if
you could be heard without being seen, it would be impossible to tell
whether you were reading or talking.

Avoid a monotone. Dull repetition of words in the same pitch is
disagreeable. Enter into the spirit of what you read, and give
expression to your natural feeling.

The simplest way to emphasize a word is to pause after it. The word may
be spoken a little louder or may be pronounced more slowly than the
other words in the sentence.

When speaking in public, address the person standing just behind the
back row.


INFLECTION OF THE VOICE

Rising inflection is used in incomplete thought, or thought carried
through consecutive phrases. It is used to express emotion, surprise,
prayer.

Falling inflection denotes complete thought. It expresses command,
authority.

The voice has three pitches:--upper, middle, lower.

The upper register is the medium for the expression of excitement and
earnestness. It must be used with care and artistic moderation,
otherwise it is unpleasant.

Use it rarely. Be careful of straining the voice.

The middle register is used in familiar speaking, and general
conversation. It is the most durable, and is the vehicle for everyday
use.

The lower register is suited to grave, solemn, impassioned utterances.
It should be used cautiously. Practice will mellow the voice.


WRITTEN ENGLISH.

Written English is the art of putting words together in order to convey
our thoughts to others. Good composition conveys our thoughts correctly,
clearly, and pleasantly, so as to make them readily understood and
easily remembered.

To express ourselves well we must first have something to say. If we
have not been able to come to any definite conclusion about a subject,
we should be silent.

We must next choose the right names for the things or actions of which
we are going to speak. This is not always easy, for we are apt to talk
loosely of quantities and qualities; to say there are “thousands” when
there are only hundreds, to call an event “marvelous” when it is only
unusual, or to refer to “ages” when there are only years.

Again, we must arrange our words in the right way, so that they shall
fit one another and combine to make good sense, just as we must put
bricks or stones together properly to make a building stand. All
language is a construction; it is the building or binding of words.

There are many forms of written English, or composition--from a simple
letter to the most elaborate treatise--but all are made up of the same
elements, namely: words, sentences and paragraphs. It is essential,
therefore, that these elements be thoroughly mastered at the outset.
Beyond this comes the matter of style, the essentials of which may be
summed up in four words: _Accuracy_, _Clearness_, _Strength_ and
_Grace_.

_Accuracy_ and _Clearness_ are requisite in all kinds of writing to
insure the faithful presentation of thought.

_Strength_ and _Grace_ are more especially applicable to the higher
branches of prose composition and to poetry.

=Grammatical Connections.=--No expression can form part of a good
composition unless it be constructed in accordance with correct grammar.
Every sentence is inaccurate which gives wrong forms of the parts of
speech, or violates the rules of syntax. The most common errors are of
two kinds:

(1) Errors in the use of single words or forms.

(2) False concords, that is, wrong genders, numbers, cases and tenses.
(See Right and Wrong Use of Words.)


RULES RELATING TO STYLE

                 GOOD STYLE          POOR STYLE

              {Correct forms        }Wrong forms.
              {and concords.        }Solecisms.
              {
  PURITY      {Classic or good      }Barbarisms.
  prescribes  {English words.       }
  the use of  {
              {Proper words, _i.e._,}
              {words fit for the    }Improprieties.
              {occasion.            }

              {                     {Roundabout, inflated
              {                     {or pedantic
              {Simplicity.          {words or
              {                     {phrases.
              {
              {                     {Tautology.
  PERSPICUITY {Brevity.             {Pleonasm.
  prescribes  {                     {Verbosity.
              {
              {                     {Ambiguity or
              {                     {Obscurity.
              {                     {  _a._ In words.
              {Precision.           {  _b._ In sentences
              {                     {   from bad
              {                     {   arrangement.

CHOICE AND USE OF WORDS.--Good usage--the usage of the best writers and
speakers--sanctions only words that are in reputable, national, and
present usage.

The term _Barbarism_ is applied to unauthorized language. Some offenses
against good usage are the following:

1. _Obsolete_ words, words gone out of use.

2. _Provincialisms_, words peculiar to some locality.

3. _Colloquialisms_, words peculiar to familiar conversation.

4. _Solecisms_, ungrammatical expressions.

5. _Archaisms_, expressions which would be obsolete except for their
occasional use in poetry.

The term _Impropriety_ is used to designate reputable words misapplied.

_Slang_ is a general name for current, vulgar, unauthorized language. It
may take the form of barbarism or impropriety.

Use the fewest and simplest words that the subject will bear.

Specific words are usually more forcible than general terms.

Foreign and technical terms should be used with care.

Use idioms wherever it is possible.

_Coherence_ demands that the parts shall be so connected that the
thought will be clear and compact.

The length of sentences is governed by the effect to be produced. Short
sentences give vigor, emphasis, and rapidity. Long sentences give weight
and rhythm.

A well-constructed sentence keeps the same subject as long as possible.

All modifying elements should be placed as near as possible to the words
they modify.

A _Dangling Element_--one that modifies nothing--must be avoided.
Example: _Looking into the water_, a fish was seen.

A “_Squinting Construction_” is one that is so poorly placed in the
sentence as to modify equally well the part preceding and the part
following. Example: Will you say to Mr. Brown, _when he comes_, I will
be ready.

_Redundancy_--A weak repetition of an idea--must be avoided.

_Pleonasm_ consists in the addition of words which can be omitted
without affecting the construction or the meaning of the sentence.

_Tautology_, or repeating a thought that has just been stated.

_Verbosity_ or _Prolixity_ is the fault in sentence-making caused by
using needless words.

Don’t begin a sentence with--and, but, also, so, then, next, however,
after this, of course, in consequence, as a matter of fact.

THE PARAGRAPH.--A _Paragraph_ is a division in composition treating only
one part of the subject. A paragraph must conform to the same rules that
should govern the whole composition; that is, it must show unity,
massing, and coherence.

_Unity_ demands that all the thoughts in a sentence, in a paragraph, or
in the whole theme shall cluster about one main idea.

_Massing_ demands that the important thoughts shall be placed in
prominent places.

_Coherence_ demands that thoughts shall be closely connected.

The length of paragraphs is not to be regulated absolutely: the
subject-matter to be treated, the appearance of the page, and the
comfort of the reader must all be considered. In a dialogue a new
paragraph is begun with each change of speaker.

THE SENTENCE.--Rhetorically, sentences may be classified as periodic,
loose, and balanced.

A _Periodic_ sentence is one that holds the thought in suspense until
the end. Example: In all his long life, from the time when, as a
twelve-year-old boy, he was roaming in the fields and fishing the
streams, to the days of his manhood, when he was upholding the honor of
his state in the Senate, he showed the same simple, democratic nature.

A _Loose_ sentence is one in which there is no attempt to show suspense;
the different parts may come in where natural ease of expression
suggests.

A _Balanced_ sentence is one in which contrasting thoughts are stated in
similar forms. Example: God made the country and man made the town.

The periodic and the balanced sentence are likely to result in
artificiality of expression unless used with care. The loose sentence
gives ease and naturalness, but these desirable qualities may easily
change to slovenliness of expression in the hands of a careless writer.

Sentences, like paragraphs, should show unity, massing, and coherence.

_Unity_ demands that the sentence shall have one main idea. The unity of
a sentence is destroyed by putting together ideas that should be
separated, by making the wrong idea subordinate, or by making ideas
coördinate that are not of equal importance.

Examples of lack of unity:--

1. The words are very simple and I think it very strange that a tinker
could write such a good book.

2. We went up the main road about half a mile, when we came to a
pasture.

_Massing_ in the sentence demands that the main thought shall be placed
where it will “readily catch the eye.”


RIGHT AND WRONG USE OF WORDS IN SPEAKING AND WRITING

=A and An.=--_a_ is used before a consonant sound; _an_, before a vowel
sound; as, “_a_ boy;” “_an_ eye;” when a vowel has a consonant sound, as
in the word _eulogy_, _a_, and not _an_, is required. In the case of
words beginning with _h_, _an_ is always required when _h_ is silent;
as, “_an_ heir;” when _h_ is aspirated, _a_ is required, unless the
accent is on the second syllable, when _an_ is used; as, “_a_ history;”
“_an_ historian.”

=Abbreviations.=--Such abbreviations or contractions as _e’er_, _ne’er_,
_o’er_, _e’en_, _’tis_, _’mid_, and _’neath_, are legitimate in verse,
but should not be used in prose.

=Ability for capacity.=--_Ability_ is the power of doing; _capacity_ the
faculty of receiving. “The _ability_ is in me to do him good.” “Man’s
_capacities_ have never been measured.”

=Abortive.=--That is _abortive_ which is premature, not brought to
completion. A plan may be _abortive_ but not an act. We may speak of an
_abortive_ effort.

=About.=--Not to be used as _almost_. “The day is _almost_ gone,” not
“The day is _about_ gone.”

=Above= is an adverb, not an adjective. Say “The address given _above_,”
not “The _above_ address;” the “foregoing section,” not the “_above_
section.”

=Accept of.=--Never use the preposition after this verb. We _accept_
invitations, presents, hospitality, and the like.

=Accept and Except.=--_Accept_ means to take when offered; _except_
means to leave out, to exclude. I _accepted_ the gift. All _except_ two
will go.

=Accord.=--To _accord_ means to render or bestow upon another, as honor:
therefore one should never say, “The information he desired was
_accorded_ him.”

=Administer.=--The man died from blows _administered_ by the policeman.
Oaths, medicine, affairs of state are _administered_. Blows are _dealt_.

=Affect, Effect.=--To _affect_ means to influence or to pretend. To
_effect_ means to bring about. “He _affected_ intoxication.” “He
_affected_ the audience strongly.” “I shall _effect_ a reform.”

=Afraid.=--The adjective _afraid_ should not be used for the verb
_fear_; thus: we say, “I am _afraid_ of fire,” but “I _fear_ I cannot
go,” not “I am _afraid_ I cannot go.”

=Aggravate= means to heighten, intensify, or make worse. Do not use it
for _annoy_ or _provoke_.

=Ain’t.=--This is illiterately employed as a contraction for _are not_,
_am not_, _is not_. Even as a contraction of _am not_ it is censured by
many critics, the form _I’m not_ being universally preferred. “Am I
not?” is required in interrogative sentences.

=Allow.=--This word is frequently misused for _think_, as “I _allow_
that I shall go to town.” Say, “I _think_ that,” etc.

=Allude= means to refer to indirectly, and not the same as _mention_.
“By _mentioning_ his lifelong companion he _alluded_ to his wife.”

=Almost.=--Careless speakers sometimes err in saying _most_ for
_almost_, as, for example, “I have read _most_ all the books in the
library,” for “_almost_ all.”

=Among and Between.=--_Among_ is distributive, and may apply to any
number more than two; _between_ is used of only two persons or things;
as, “They discussed this _among_ themselves;” “This is _between_ us
two.”

=Among One Another.=--“_Among one another_” is censured by critics,
“_with_ one another,” or “among themselves” being suggested as
preferable.

=And= should not be used instead of _to_ in such sentences as “I’m going
to go and get it,” for “I’m going to get it”; “Try and do it,” for “Try
to do it.”

=Angry At and Angry With.=--“Angry _at_” is used when expressing anger
for an animal or an inanimate object; “Angry _with_,” for a human being;
as, “He is _angry at_ his dog;” “He is _angry with_ his brother.”

=Anybody else’s, Anybody’s else.=--The predominance of usage seems to be
in favor of the first form, which is correct according to analogy of
similar cases, which “throw” the apostrophe and s to the last word of
the unified expression, generally nouns in apposition.

=Any One, One,= _anybody_, _each_, _any one_, _everybody_, _either_,
_neither_, _one_, _some one_, _somebody_, should be followed by singular
pronouns, or verbs.

_Any one_, _anybody_, _each_, _every one_, _everybody_, _either_,
_neither_, _nobody_, _some one_, _somebody_, may be followed by _he_ or
_his_.

“_Any one_ of these patterns _is_ suitable.” “_Every one_ of the ladies
_is_ here.” “_Each one_ of the soldiers _has_ a new uniform.” “_If any
one wishes_ to make a suggestion, I wish _he_ (or she, or he or she)
would make it.” “_Anybody_ in _his_ senses would have done it.”

_One_ should be followed, by _one_ or _one’s_. “_One_ dislikes to be
told of _one’s_ errors.”

=Appreciate= means to estimate justly. “I appreciate his ill-will.”
means “I am fully aware of the extent and intensity of his ill-will.”

=Apt, Likely, Liable.=--_Apt_ means _quick_ or _skillful_. “He is apt to
learn,” means that he learns readily. “He is likely to learn,” means
that he will probably learn. “He is liable to learn,” is incorrect.
_Liable for_ means responsible for; _liable to_ means subject to. “He is
liable for the entire sum, and liable to imprisonment if he does not
pay.”

=Apprehend and Comprehend.=--_Apprehend_ means to _perceive_; as, “I
_apprehend_ danger.” _Comprehend_ means to _understand_; as, “I
_comprehend_ your meaning.”

=As= should not be used for _that_ in such constructions as, “I do not
know _that_ I do.”

=As--As, So--As.=--Use the former in affirmative and the latter in
negative propositions. “We are _as_ wise _as_ our teachers.” “I am not
_so_ young _as_ I used to be.”

=As If It Was.=--_Were_, and not _was_, is required after _as if_, for
the reason that the supposition is not known; thus: “It looks _as if it
were_ all right,” not “it looks _as if it was_ all right.”

=As though= is often used for _as if_. In the sentence “He walked _as
though_ he were lame,” if the ellipsis is supplied the error will be
evident. “He walked _as_ (he would walk) _though_ he were lame.” _As
though_ is seldom correct.

=At, At and To, At All.=--The presence of _at_ improves such
constructions as “He is _at_ home,” instead of “He is home.” _At_ and
_to_ are superfluous in such sentences as, “Where is he?” and “Where has
he gone?” hence, their use should be avoided. _At all_ is superfluous in
such sentences as, “There is no use in your going;” “I do not know him.”

=Authoress, Actress.=--The terms “author_ess_,” “doctr_ess_,”
“editr_ess_,” “poet_ess_,” “lectur_ess_,” are no longer used, _author_,
_doctor_, etc., being correct for both sexes. Act_ress_, not _actor_,
however, is the required form for the feminine gender.

=Avocation, Vocation.=--_Avocation_ should not be used for _vocation_.
_Vocation_ is one’s employment; _avocation_, one’s diversion from that
employment.

=Awful, Awfully.=--Do not use these words as intensives or for supposed
force. _Awful_ should mean that which inspires awe. “The _awful_
mysteries of the world unseen.”

=Bad, Badly.=--_Bad_ is not to be used for severe, as “I have a _bad_
headache.” _Badly_ is also inelegantly used for very much, as “I need
money _badly_.”

=Character.=--It is in general wrong to speak of a person as a
_character_. _Character_ is justly applied to the ideal personages
delineated by novelists. Possessing no real personality, they are
_characters_ and nothing more.

=Character, Reputation.=--One’s _character_ is what one really is; one’s
_reputation_ is what people think of one. We may have a good _character_
and a poor _reputation_, and _vice versa_.

=Choose, Chosen.=--“She has chose the blue silk.” Say “has chosen.” But
say, in the imperfect, “she chose him in preference to the others.”

=Combine together.=--“He combined them together.” Omit _together_.

=Commence, Begin.=--_Begin_, when followed by a verb, takes _to_ and the
infinitive after it. _Commence_ should take the present participle. We
“begin to do,” we “commence working.” _Begin_ may take the participle,
but _commence_ should take the infinitive.

=Consonant.=--“It is _consonant to_ our nature,” is a more usual
expression than “it is _consonant with_.” But _consonant with_ is not
improper.

=Contractions=, while not permissible in dignified utterance or in
formal writing, are in accordance with the conversational employment of
the language. The following is the list:

_I’m not_, _you’re not_, _he’s not_, _we’re not_, _they’re not_ are used
in the declarative form, and _isn’t he_ (_she_, or _it_), _aren’t you_
(_we_, _they_) in the interrogative. In the declarative form, _You’re
not_, _he’s not_, etc., are preferable to _you aren’t_, _he isn’t_, etc.
_Am I not_ is not contracted, _ain’t_ being regarded as objectionable
for _am I not_, and as a vulgarism for _isn’t_. [See _ain’t_.]

“He (she or it) _don’t_” for He (she or it) _doesn’t_ is always
incorrect. _I don’t_, _you don’t_, _he doesn’t_, _we don’t_, _you
don’t_, _they don’t_, are in accordance with the conversational
employment of the language.

_Mayn’t I_ (or _may I not_) is correct in the interrogative form; _you
can’t_ (or _you can not_) in the declarative form. In this connection
note that _may_ is used when asking and granting permission, and that
_can_, which ordinarily expresses ability, is used in the declarative
form when denying permission; thus: “_May_ I go.” “No, you _can not_.”

The contractions _shan’t_ and _won’t_ are in accordance with
conversational usage.

=Conversant.=--We are conversant _with_ men and _in_ things. _Conversant
about things_ is improper.

=Converse together.=--“They conversed together for more than an hour.”
Omit _together_.

=Copy.=--We copy _after_ a person; we copy _after_ actions. We copy
_from_ things, as from a picture, or from a statue. In such case, a copy
_from_ the work is also said to be a copy _after_ the artist.

=Correspond.=--_Correspond_, meaning to hold intercourse by means of
letters, is followed by _with_. “I have corresponded with him for
several years.” _With_ is also used with _correspond_, to signify
_consistent with_. _Correspond_ is frequently followed by _to_, when it
expresses adaptability or appropriateness. “His style of living
corresponded to his means.”

=Cover over.=--“He covered it over.” Say “he covered it.”

=Dead corpses.=--“Evil spirits are not occupied about the dead corpses
of bad men.” Omit _dead_; it is implied in _corpses_.

=Dependent.=--“He is dependent _of_ his father.” Say “dependent _on_.”
But with independent say _of_.

=Derogate.=--Say derogate _from_, derogatory _to_, “derogation _from_,”
or _to_.

=Depot, Station.=--A _depot_ is properly a place where goods or stores
are kept. The place where a railway train stops for passengers may
better be called a _station_.

=Did, Done.=--“Who done it?” Say “who did it?” “who has done it?”

=Differ.=--We differ _with_ a person in opinion. One differs _from_
another in other respects. The English barbarism of _differ to_,
_different to_, is intolerable, and reverses the meaning of the word
_to_.

=Direct, Address.=--We _address_ a letter to a person. We _direct_ it to
his post office, to the point at which, or to the person through whom,
he will receive it. A letter _addressed_ to the president may be
_directed_ to his secretary.

=Disappointed, Agreeably Disappointed.=--It is better to say _agreeably
surprised_. The meaning most closely associated with _disappointment_ is
that it is not agreeable.

=Dissent.=--We dissent _from_, not _with_.

=Distinct, Distinctly.=--“The girl speaks distinct.” Say “speaks
distinctly.”

=Divide.=--We divide things _between_ two, _among_ many.

=Drank, Drunk.=--“He was very thirsty, and drunk eagerly.” Say “drank.”
“He has drank three glasses of soda water.” Say “has drunk.” “Drunken,”
the ancient form of the participle, is not now used.

=Drove, Driven.=--“They have drove very fast.” Say “they have driven.”
But, using the imperfect, say “They drove the people out, and locked the
gates.”

=Dry.=--“I am dry, let me have a glass of water.” Say “I am thirsty.”
Using _dry_ in this sense suggests the dramshop.

=Each, Either.=--“A row of trees stood on either side of the river.” The
use of _either_ in such cases is disapproved by some writers, but it is
sanctioned by long and unexceptional usage, and by the deliberate
judgment of well-informed critics. The use of _each_--“a row of trees
stood on each side of the river” is indisputably correct.

=Each=, =Every=, =Either= are singular, and take the verb in the
singular number. Such errors as the following should be guarded against:
“Each of the daughters take an equal share.” Say “takes.” “Every leaf,
every twig, every blade, every drop of water, teem with life.” Say
“teems.” Also, instead of “one of those houses have been sold,” say “has
been sold.”

=Eat, Ate, Eaten.=--Say “I ate my breakfast at five o’clock this
morning,” not “I eat it,” or “I et it.” “I have eaten my dinner,” not “I
have ate it,” or “I have et it.”

=Either= is followed by _or_. “I shall either send it or bring it
myself.”

=Either and Neither= are used when two objects are mentioned, or two
assertions are made; when there are more than two objects or assertions,
they need not be employed. In such case, instead of _either_, no pronoun
or conjunction need be used; instead of _neither_, _no_ or _not_ may be
employed. When two persons are mentioned, “Either you or I must go.” In
case of three persons, “You or I or John must go.” With two assertions,
negative, “He will neither do it himself nor let any one else do it.”
With three negative assertions, “He will not publish the accounts of his
office, or allow the public access to them, or permit them to be
examined by competent, impartial parties.” Usage on the last point is
not uniform. Very many good writers use _neither_, _nor_, _nor_, with
three or more negative assertions.

=Emigrant, Immigrant.=--An _emigrant_ is a person who goes out from a
country or a state to reside in another; an _immigrant_ is one who comes
into the state to live, from abroad.

=Equally as.=--_As_ should not be used after _equally_. Say _equally
high_, _equally dear_, _equally handsome_, etc.; not _equally as high_,
_equally as dear_, _equally as handsome_.

=Equally as well as.=--“I can do it equally as well as he.” Omit
_equally_; it is implied in the words _as well as_.

=Equally the same.=--“It is equally the same.” Say “it is the same.”

=Everybody, Anybody.=--Refers to male and female.

For want of a pronoun of common gender, use the masculine--he, his,
him--unless the other sex is specified. “They” is plural and must not be
used.

Anybody can do what they like. (wrong.)

Anybody can do what he likes.

Everybody will have to make up their minds. (wrong.)

Everybody will have to make up his mind.

Everybody has their faults. (wrong.)

Everybody has his faults.

If anybody calls, let them wait. (wrong.)

If anybody calls, let him wait.

=Exceeding, Exceedingly.=--“He was exceeding kind to me.” Say
_exceedingly kind_. “She was exceeding careful.” Say _exceedingly
careful_.

=Except=, =Unless=, are often used confusedly. “I shall go except I am
ill.” Say “unless I am ill.” “I saw them all unless two or three.” Say
“except two or three.” The correct usage is easily learned by observing
that _except_ should be used as a preposition, _unless_ as a
conjunction.

=Fall.=--We fall _under_ reproach, notice, censure, etc. We fall _from_
our friends, _from_ virtue; we fall _upon_ our enemies, _among_ evil
associations, _into_ bad habits.

=Farther, Further.=--_Farther_ refers to space; _further_ to time,
degree, and extensions of thought. The distinction is not a necessary
one, but it is now very generally observed.

=Fewer, Less.=--_Fewer_ relates to numbers, _less_ to quantities. “No
man had less friends,” should be fewer friends. But say _less_ money,
_less_ strength, etc.

=Few, Little, Many, Much.=--_Few_ and _many_ refer to number; _little_
and _much_ to quantity. In speaking of articles that are rated by
counting, use _few_ and _many_; in speaking of articles which are rated
by measure, use _little_ and _much_. “A few potatoes,” “so many days.”

=First.=--“The _two first_” should be “the _first two_.” There can be
only one first.

=Fluent, Fluently.=--“He speaks very fluent.” Say _very fluently_.

=Forward=, _backward_, _toward_, _upward_, _onward_, _downward_,
_hitherward_, _thitherward_, _afterward_, _heavenward_, _earthward_,
etc., should be written without the final _s_ which is often added to
them.

=Funeral obsequies.=--Say _obsequies_. The sense of _funeral_ is
contained in this word. It would be as proper to speak of a “wedding
marriage-ceremony” as of “funeral obsequies.”

=Generally=, _always_, _never_, _often_, _rarely_, _seldom_,
_sometimes_, are adverbs which generally come before the verb.

=Gentleman friend, Lady friend.=--Instead of “my gentleman friend,” say
“my friend Mr. ----.” Instead of “my lady friend,” say “my friend Miss
----,” or Mrs. ----.

=Gentleman, Lady.=--These titles have been applied without
discrimination till they have lost almost all the meaning they once had.
Many persons have ceased to use them entirely, and employ _man_ and
_woman_ as good enough titles for anybody. There are no nobler titles
than _man_, _woman_; no higher expressions for qualities of grace or
virtue than _manly_, _womanly_.

=Get.=--“I am afraid Mary is getting crazy.” Say “is growing,” or “is
becoming crazy.” “John got left by the train.” Say “was left.” We _get_
anything that we come in possession of. We may also _get_ a disease. But
_get_ must be followed by a noun as its object.

=Good for Well.=--“He can do it as good as any one else can.” Say _as
well_.

=Got.=--I have a pen. Not I have _got_ a pen.

=Gratuitous.=--“That is a gratuitous assumption.” It is better to say
“unfounded,” “unreasonable,” or “unwarranted.”

=Guess.=--_Guess_ is commonly used in the United States to mean
_think_, as in “I _guess_ you are right” for “I _think_,” etc.

=Had ought.=--Provincial and incorrect. _Had_ or any form of the verb
_to have_ cannot correctly be used as an auxiliary with _ought_. Use
_should_ or _ought not_. Not “He _hadn’t ought_ to have gone,” but “He
_should not_ have gone.”

=Hain’t.=--A vulgarism. There is no such contraction for _have not_ or
_has not_.

=Hang, Hanged.=--The verb _hang_ has two forms for the past participle,
_hanged_ and _hung_. _Hanged_ is used for persons; _hung_ for other
objects. “The man was _hanged_.” “The coat was _hung_ on the rack.”

=He, Him.=--It is him whom.--“It is him whom you said it was.” Say “it
is he.”

=Healthy, Healthful.=--That is _healthy_ which is in good health; that
is _healthful_ which promotes health. “Bread and milk is a healthful
food which makes healthy children.”

=I and Me.=--“They went with James and I.” Say “with James and me.”

=If I was.=--Use the subjunctive in all cases where the conditions are
contrary to fact. “If I _were_ you, I should go.” “If I _were_ a man, I
should practice law.” I am not you, and I am not a man. Use the
indicative in cases of uncertainty. “If I _was_ in town that day, I did
not see you.” I am uncertain as to whether I was or not.

=In, Into.=--Use _in_ to signify rest in a place; use _into_ to signify
motion toward a place. “He was standing with his hands _in_ his
pockets.” “I put my hands _into_ my pockets.” “I came _in_ an
automobile.” “The stranger walked _into_ the room.”

=Indeterminate possessive.=--“Every child should obey their parents.”
Say “his parents.” “No one should incur censure for being careful of
their good character.” Say _his_, or _her_ if talking more particularly
of women. “Let each of us mind their own business.” Say “his own
business.” _Their_ is frequently used improperly, as a substitute. In
such cases, _his_ or _her_ should be used, according as the object most
prominent in the expression, or in the speaker’s thought, is masculine
or feminine. In cases of doubt or indifference, use _his_. In the
nominative we may say _one_. But in the possessive and objective we must
say _his_, _him_ or _her_.

=Indifferent, indifferently.=--“He was indifferent honest.” Say
“_indifferently honest_.”

=Infinitive.=--See Split Infinitive.

=Ingenuous, Ingenious.=--_Ingenuous_ is simple, honest, open,
unaffected. _Ingenious_ is skillful, versatile, ready in contriving.

=Jew, Hebrew, Israelite.=--A _Jew_ is a member of the Hebraic division
of the Semitic race; in consequence _Hebrew_ is the linguistic name of
the _Jews_. Historically, under the theocracy, they were known as
_Hebrews_; under the monarchy, as _Israelites_; and during foreign
domination, as _Jews_. The modern representatives of this stock call
themselves _Hebrews_ in race and language, and _Israelites_ in religion,
but _Jews_ in both senses.

=Jewelry, Jewels.=--_Jewelry_ is a collective noun, and _jewels_ is a
plural noun. In nice usage the term _jewelry_ designates the stock of a
jeweler; _jewels_, the articles of adornment worn by a lady.

=Join issue and Take issue.=--In nice usage, “_join_ issue” means to
_admit the right of the denial of a statement_. “_Take_ issue” means
merely _to deny_.

=Kind of= should not be used for _somewhat_. Instead of “I am _kind of_
tired,” one properly says, “I am _somewhat_ tired.”

=Kind of a.=--A is superfluous in such constructions as, “What _kind_ of
man is he?” (not “kind of _a_”). The same rule applies to _sort_.

=Kind and Kinds.=--See _These_ and _This_.

=Know, Knew, Known.=--“I knowed it.” Say “I knew it.” “I have knowed it
all along.” Say “I have known it.”

=Latter end.=--“I expect to get through by the latter end of the week.”
Say “by the end of the week.” “The latter end of that man shall be
peace.” Say “the end of that man.”

=Learn, Teach.=--These words are often confounded. The pupil _learns_,
the instructor _teaches_. One person cannot _learn_ another, but must
_teach_ him.

=Leave, Lief.=--Say “give me leave to tell you,” not _lief_. But “I
would as lief do it as not,” not _leave_.

=Leisure upon one’s hands.=--“If you have any leisure upon your hands.”
Say “if you are at leisure.”

=Lend, Loan.=--“Loan me five dollars.” Say “lend me five dollars.” The
money having been lent him, the borrower has obtained a _loan_ of that
sum, or has borrowed it.

=Lengthways, Sideways, Otherways.=--These forms are erroneous. Say, and
write, _lengthwise_, _sidewise_, _otherwise_.

=Lie, Lay.=--Distinguish between the verbs:--lie--to tell lies

  _Present Tense_--He lies like truth.
                   He is lying.

  _Past Tense_--But he lied unto him.
                Wherefore have ye lied to me?
                Why have you been lying to me?

lie--to lie down

  _Present_--The dog lies under the table.
             The dog is lying under the table.

  _Past_--He lay upon the bed.
          He has lain there for hours.
          He has been lying there for hours.

lay--to put a thing down

  _Present_--The boy lays his books on the table.
             The boy is laying his books on the table.

  _Past_--He laid his head upon the block.
          The hen has laid an egg.
          The hen has been laying all the winter.

=Liable, Apt.=--_Apt_ means fit, ready, quick to do a thing, or to be
subjected to certain conditions. It generally implies willingness.
_Liable_ signifies bound to duties, subject or exposed to inconveniences
or dangers, and implies no regard to the will of its subject. “John will
be apt to catch the fever if he goes into that house,” should be “John
will be liable,” etc. A person who is studious may be spoken of as _apt_
to learn, and _liable_ to become dyspeptic.

=Like.=--“We don’t do that like you do.” Say “as you do.” This misuse of
_like_ is common with English women novelists. _As_ should be used when
a verb follows, or is understood to follow. Where no verb is implied,
_like_ may be employed.

=Like for As.=--Like should not be used as a conjunction. Say: “Do as I
do,” not, “do like I do,” or, “do like me.”

=Like, Love.=--_Love_ is often used instead of _like_, and is thereby
made to lose all its force. We _love_ what the heart goes out to, that
for which we entertain a fond and lasting affection. We _love_ wives,
husbands, parents, children, near friends. We _like_ what we have a
taste for, what pleases us in passing, or what is generally agreeable to
us, as acquaintances, sweetmeats, pleasant weather, music, painting,
reading. We regret for a long time the loss of what we _love_, we soon
cease to be troubled at missing what we _like_.

=Limb.=--“She fell, and bruised her limb.” Say what limb. The arm is a
limb, as well as the leg. The foolish shame which avoids mentioning the
leg by name, is not modesty, but prudery.

=Lit.=--Not to be used for _lighted_. Instead of saying “He _lit_ the
gas,” say “he _lighted_ the gas.” Do not say “He _lit_ on his feet,” but
“he _lighted_ on his feet.”

=Locate.=--“I shall locate in Iowa.” Say _settle_. _Locate_ has acquired
a certain technical currency. The purchaser of land warrants _locates_
by selecting a particular tract to claim under it. _Place_, _settle_,
_fix_, _establish_, can be substituted for it in most cases, and are
better.

=Mad.=--Should not be used for _angry_.

=Mail man.=--An inelegant form for _postman_.

=Me being.=--“Me being absent, the young folks lived high.” Say “I being
absent,” or “while I was absent,” or “during my absence.”

=Me, I.=--“Is it me you mean?” Say “is it I?” or “do you mean me?”

=Me, My.=--“In consequence of me neglecting.”--“The horse got away in
consequence of me neglecting to fasten the gate.” Say “in consequence of
my neglecting,” etc.

=Monstrous.=--_Monstrous_ does not mean large. It means _ill-formed_,
_misshapen_, deviating from the course of nature, of a character to
inspire unpleasant feelings. But an object so unusually large as to
appear terrible may be figuratively styled _monstrous_.

=More--than=, not _more--as_. “He was _more_ beloved but not so much
admired _as_ his brother.” This sentence must be recast.

“He was _more_ beloved _than_ his brother, but not so much admired.” Or,

“Though not so much admired as his brother, he was more beloved.”

=Mortgagor, Mortgagee.=--The _mortgagor_ is the debtor, who pledges the
property which is in mortgage. The _mortgagee_ is the creditor, to whom
the mortgage is made.

=Most.=--Not to be used for _almost_; as “He is here _most_ every day.”

=Mutual.=--Does not mean _common_, but _reciprocal_. “We may have a
_common_ friend, but a _mutual_ dislike”; that is, a dislike for each
other.

=Myself.=--Not to be used for _I_. Do not say “John and _myself_ are
friends”; but “John and _I_,” etc.

=Near, Nearly.=--“I lost _near_ twenty pounds.” Say “_nearly_ twenty
pounds.”

=Neither for Either.=--“That is not the case, neither.” Say “either.”
The double negative is wrong.

=Neither, Nor.=--Negatives other than neither may take _or_ or _nor_ as
their correlative. With subjects connected by “either--or,”
“neither--nor,” the verb must be singular:--

Neither he nor his brother _were_ trained for the ministry.

should be

Neither he nor his brother _was_ trained for the ministry.

Either the master or his servant was responsible.

Neither ignorance nor negligence has been the cause of his ruin.

=New beginner.=--Say _beginner_. When one begins anything, he is new at
it of course.

=Nice.=--A very generally misused word. Properly _nice_ means
_delicate_, _discriminating_, _fastidious_. The works of a watch show
_nice_ construction; a man may be _nice_ in his manners. The word should
not be used to mean _agreeable_ or _charming_ as “I had a _nice_ time.”

=Nicely.=--Do not use _nicely_ for _well_, as “The sick man is doing
_nicely_.”

=Nobody else.=--“There was nobody else but him.” Omit _else_.

=No for Not.=--“I cannot tell whether this is correct or _no_,” is
wrong. Say, “I cannot tell whether this is correct or _not_.”

=None=, is the same as no one, and is properly singular. It is, however,
used in both numbers, according as the context seems to make
appropriate.

=Not as I know of.=--Incorrectly used for _not that I know of_.

=Not me.=--“Who made that noise?” “Not me.” Say “not I.” “It wasn’t me.”
Say “it wasn’t I.” The use of _me_ is defended by some writers.

=Not only--but also.=--Correlatives must be placed immediately before
the words connected.

“He _not only_ lent me his horse _but also_ sent his carriage.”

“He lent me _not only_ his horse _but also_ his carriage.”

=Number, Quantity.=--_Number_ should be used in speaking of objects
that are counted, _quantity_ with those that are measured. _Much_,
_little_, and _less_, answer to quantity, and _many_, _few_, and
_fewer_, to numbers; _more_ answers to both.

=Of.=--“A child of four years old.” Say “a child four years old,” or “a
child of four years.”

=Off of.=--“There were ten yards of the cloth before I cut this piece
off of it.” Say “before I cut this piece off it,” or “from it.”

=One.=--_One_ is the only singular personal pronoun of common gender.

“_One_ must not forget _one’s_ duty to _one’s_ country.” This frequent
repetition is disagreeable.

“No man must forget his duty to his country.”

“A man must not forget his duty to his country.”

=Only= is best placed immediately before the word it modifies. In case
there can be no ambiguity it may be placed immediately after the word it
modifies.

_Only_ I wrote to him to-day. (No one else wrote.)

I _only_ wrote to him yesterday. (I did not telephone.)

I wrote _only_ to him to-day. (I wrote to no one else.)

I wrote to him _only_ to-day. (No longer ago than to-day.)

I wrote him to-day _only_. (I had not written before.)

This car for members _only_. (For none but members.)

=Only, Alone.=--“He alone can do it,” implies that he can do it without
help. It would be better, “He can do it alone.” “He only can do it,”
signifies that he, and no other person, can do it. Using _alone_ in the
sense of _only_ may lead to ambiguity.

=Onto.=--We get _on_ a horse and _on_ a chair, not _onto_.

=Orate.=--An unauthorized form commonly used to mean _to give an
oration_.

=Over.=--Do not use _over_ in the sense of _more than_; as, “I have
_over_ a hundred dollars”; “The stick is _over_ a yard long.”

=Over a bridge.=--“He went over the bridge.” It is more exact to say,
“he went across the bridge.” A bird may fly _over_ a bridge, if it does
not touch the bridge.

=Overhead and ears.=--“We went in overhead and ears.” Say _overhead_.
The head carries the ears. But “overhead and ears in debt” is a phrase
which it will be hard to abolish.

=Partial, Partially.=--“This view is partially correct.” “Partly
correct,” or “in part correct,” is better. _Partially_ means, properly,
one sided, with bias.

=Persuasion=, in the sense of religious denomination or belief, is
objectional. _Sect_, _denomination_, _belief_, or “school of belief,”
are proper substitutes.

=Plunge down.=--“He plunged down into the stream.” Omit _down_.

=Possessives.=--

Rule.--Use the apostrophe and the letter _s_ (or change the form) only
when the noun (or pronoun) itself represents the possessor.

This is a photograph _of_ my uncle.

She is a servant of my _aunt’s_.

This is a criticism _of John_. (Some one else wrote it about John.)

This is an opinion _of John’s_. (John’s opinion; that is, John uttered
it.)

This is an opinion _of John_. (Some one else uttered it.)

=Plural and Singular Words.=--_Molasses_ is singular. The habit of
giving it a plural construction is an error. Say “that molasses is
souring,” not “them molasses are souring.”

Words like _scissors_, _snuffers_, _tongs_, _trousers_, etc., denoting
articles which are paired or coupled, are plural, and take a plural
verb. “The scissors are dull,” not “is dull.”

This is the birthplace of the President. (Not President’s.)

This is the private office of the Secretary. (Not Secretary’s.)

He is a friend _of the Bank’s_. (One of several friends.)

He is an enemy _of mine_. (One or more possessed by me.)

He is a brother _of mine_. (One or more possessed by me.)

He is a friend _of hers_. (One or more possessed by her.)

I cannot endure that rasping voice _of Bridget’s_. (One voice.)

=Prepositions.=--Never use a preposition to end a sentence:

For whom is that? To whom are you writing? The matter to which I am
referring.

Two prepositions should not come together, as: “That is the man I went
_to for_ advice.” But, “That is the man to whom I went for advice.”

=Previous, Previously.=--“He wrote me previous to his coming.” Say
“previously to his coming.”

=Quantity, Number.=--_Quantity_ is used of that which can be measured;
_number_, of that which can be counted; as, “There is a large _quantity_
of sugar on hand”; “There are a large _number_ of eggs in the basket.”

In connection with the use of the singular or the plural verb with the
word _number_, note that the plural verb is used when _number_ means
_several_; the singular, when _number_ is used to stand for a unit; as,
“A _number_ of persons _are_ going” (several); “The _number is_ limited
to five.”

=Quite.=--“There are quite a number of Americans here.” Say “there are
several.” One is _quite_ a number. It is correct to say “there are quite
twenty” to express that the number is completely made up--which is the
meaning of _quite_.

=Raised.=--“I was raised in the South.” Say “brought up.” “I was raised
in Mr. Stephens’ family.” Say “taken care of,” “brought up,”
“instructed,” or “trained.” We “raise” horses, cattle, sheep, swine,
poultry and crops, but apply a more refining process to human beings.

=Ran, Run.=--Say “this horse has often run a mile in two minutes and a
half; yesterday he ran a mile in two minutes and three-quarters.”

=Rang, Rung.=--“I have rang the bell half a dozen times.” Say “have
rung.” But say in the imperfect, “they rang the bells merrily for
Christmas day.”

=Rather--than, Prefer--to.=--“He _preferred_ doing nothing _rather than_
run the risk of doing wrong,” should be “He preferred doing nothing
rather than running the risk of doing wrong”; or “He preferred to do
nothing rather than to run the risk of doing wrong.”

=Receipt and Recipe.=--One properly says, “The _receipt_ calls for three
cupfuls of flour,” _recipe_ being restricted in its use as a medical
term. Century gives the following: _Receipt_ is distinguished from
_recipe_ by the common restriction of that word [_recipe_] to medical
and relative uses; as, “A _receipt_ for a pudding.”

=Reckon.=--Provincial for _think_. “I _reckon_ he will come soon.” Say
“I _think_” or “I _believe_.”

=Reference, Recommendation.=--A person seeking employment or position,
names certain persons who know him as his _references_. They may, if
they are so disposed, and can do so with truth, give him their
_recommendation_.

=Regard.=--“In regard _of_ this matter.” Say “in regard _to_,” or “with
regard _to_.”

Regarded _from_ that standpoint, but looked at _in_ that light.

=Relations, Relatives, Kin, Kindred.=--It is better to speak of ones
_relatives_ than of his _relations_. _Relations_ has other meanings.
_Kin_ and _kindred_ are old English words, which deserve to be more in
fashion than they are.

=Relative Pronouns.=--_Who_ is used exclusively with persons, _which_
exclusively with things, and _that_ with persons and things. In common
conversation _that_ is more frequently used with persons than _who_. But
_who_ is considered more elegant.

Examples of the correct use of the relative pronouns, _who_, _which_,
_that_, and _what_:

I gave the money to the driver, _who_ will give it to his employer.

I brought her a book, from the library, _which_ she enjoyed very much.

This is the house _that_ she bought.

I do not want you to repeat _what_ I have told you.

(1) In the last sentence _what_ is equivalent to _that which_ or the
_thing which_. It differs from the other relative pronouns in that _its
antecedent is never expressed_, it being implied in the word itself
(that which).

(2) _What_ is always of the neuter gender, and is used in only the
nominative and the objective case. _Who_, _whose_, and _whom_ are either
masculine and feminine (common gender) and are used, respectively, in
the nominative, the possessive, and the objective case.

(3) _Which_ is neuter and may be used in either the nominative or the
objective case.

(4) _Whose_ is the form of the possessive for either _who_ or _which_.

=Remarkable, Remarkably.=--“She is a remarkable pretty girl.” Say
_remarkably pretty_.

=Reside and Live.=--The simple word _live_ is preferable to _reside_
when referring to one’s place of residence, _reside_ being reserved for
more stately occasions.

=Respect.=--Instead of “in respect of,” say “in respect _to_,” or “with
respect _to_.”

=Respectfully and Respectively.=--_Respectfully_ mean in a respectful
manner; _respectively_ refers to persons or things thought of singly;
as, “He behaved _respectfully_ toward his parents”; “The names of the
boys are, _respectively_, John, Henry, and James.”

=Rise up.=--“He rose up and left the room.” Say “he rose”; say also,
_raise_, _lift_, _hoist_; not _raise up_, _lift up_, _hoist up_.

=Saw, Seen, See.=--“I see him last Monday.” Say “I saw him.” “I seen him
yesterday.” Say “I saw him.” “I haven’t saw him for along time.” Say “I
haven’t seen him.” _See_ is present, _saw_ imperfect, _seen_ the
participle. The habit of confusing them prevails widely.

=Section.=--“Mr. ---- does not live in this section.” Say “in this
neighborhood,” “vicinity,” or “part of the country.” A _section_, in
geography, is one square mile, or six hundred and forty acres of land,
which has been laid out by the government.

=Shall and Will.=--_Shall_ in the first person and _will_ in the second
and third persons denote mere futurity.

_Will_ in the first person and _shall_ in the second and third denote
volition.

In asking questions _shall_ must always be used with a subject in the
first person. In the second and third persons we use _shall_ and _will_
according to the answers that we expect. When we expect the answer
_shall_, we use _shall_ in asking the question. When we expect the
answer _will_, we use _will_ in asking the question.

Similar statements are true of _should_ and _would_.

The proper use of _shall_, _will_, _should_, and _would_ in indirect
discourse may be determined by turning the sentence into the direct
discourse and choosing the proper word according to the rule.

With all three persons, we may use _would_ to express a wish. Also we
may use _would_ without regard to future time, to denote that an action
is customary; as, “He would often fish for days in succession.”

_Should_ is sometimes used in its original sense of _ought_; as, “You
should not do that.”

The forms given below are examples of the simple future statement.

Examples:

  I shall be happy.  We shall be happy.
  You will be happy. You will be happy.
  He will be happy.  They will be happy.

If we wish to add the idea of a compelling force, or of determination or
obligation, the proper auxiliary for the first person is _will_; for the
second and third persons, _shall_.

Examples:

  I will go      means I am determined to go.

  You shall go   means You must go.

  He shall go    means He must go.

  We will go     means We are determined to go.

  You shall go   means You must go.

  They shall go  means They must go.

_I shall have satisfaction_ means that the satisfaction will come in the
course of time.

_I will have satisfaction_ means _I am determined to have it_.

=Sink down.=--“The stone sunk down in the water.” Omit _down_.

=Some for Somewhat.=--“He is some better today.” It is better to say “he
is somewhat better.”

=Split Infinitive.=--To explain, to thank (infinitive). These words
should not be separated (split). “Have the goodness to clearly explain,”
should be “Have the goodness to explain clearly.”

“I want to personally thank you,” should be “I want to thank you
personally.”

=Tenses.=--In subordinate clauses the tense of the verb is relative to
the tense of the principal verb.

“He intended to have done so,” should be “He intended to do so.”

The imperfect tense, _I did_ is used in speaking of events which took
place before a time that is past.

The perfect tense, _I have done_, is used in speaking of events which
have been completed before the present time.

=Than me.=--“He is taller than me.” The word after _than_ should be in
the same case with the word before it.

=Than him.=--“You are stronger than him.” Say “than he.”

=That.=--See Relative Pronouns.

=Thee and You.=--“I owe thee a heavy debt of gratitude, and you will not
permit me to pay it.” Avoid such confusion of numbers. Use the same
word--either _thee_ or _you_--in both clauses.

=Them, They.=--“It was _them_.” Say “it was they.”

=These, This.=--I don’t like _these sort_ of folks (this sort).

Those kind of boots--that kind (those kinds).

=These kind, Those sort.=--_Kind_ and _sort_ are singular nouns, and
should be modified by singular adjectives. Say “_this kind_,” “_that
sort_.”

=They, Everyone.=--Do not use _they_ indefinitely instead of _everyone_,
as, “They are always in a hurry in the city”; better say “Everyone is in
a hurry in the city.”

=Though= is followed by _yet_. “Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he
became poor.”

=Through.=--Often misused in the sense of _finished_. “I am _through_
with my breakfast,” instead of “I have _finished_ my breakfast.”

=To be.=--The verb “to be” takes the same case after it as before it.
Example: “Who is there?” “It is I.” Say “It was I who rang the bell.”

=Trousers, Waistcoat, Gown, Petticoat=, are good old respectable English
words, which point out particular garments without possibility of
mistake. They are better than the new ones, _pantaloons_, _vest_,
_dress_, _skirt_.

=Try and.=--“I will try and do it.” Say “I will try to do it.”

=Unique= is not properly modified by _very_, _unique_ meaning the only
one of its kind.

=Use to.=--_Used to_, not _use to_, is the correct form; as, “_I used to
go_ there very often.” In negative constructions “didn’t used to” is
always incorrect.

=View to and View of.=--One properly says, “With _a view to_ finding
out.” or “With _the view of_ finding out.”

=Visit with.=--_Visit_ is improperly followed by _with_ in such
constructions as, “I am _visiting with_ friends in New York,” “I am
visiting friends,” etc., being the correct form.

=Vocation.=--A man’s _vocation_ is his calling, his regular business.
His _avocation_ is something outside of his business with which he
occupies himself incidentally. My friend’s _vocation_ is the practice of
law; his _avocation_ is photography. Still, while _avocation_, in the
sense of _vocation_, is usually avoided by good writers, such use has
some sanction of authority.

=Want.=--Avoid _want_ in the sense of “ought” or “had better,” as, “You
want to hurry if you are going to catch the car”; better say “You had
better hurry if you expect to catch the car.”

=Was, Were.=--“Was you?” “You was.” Say “were you?” “You were.”

=Way, Away.=--_Way_ should not be used for away. “I saw him away (not
way) down the road.”

=What for Who, Which, and That.=--See Relative Pronouns.

=Where for In which.=--“It is a cause where justice is particularly
concerned.” Say _in which_. “We presented a paper where his case was
fully explained.” Say “a paper in which.” But _where_ may be used
instead of _which_ and a preposition when place is the predominant idea.
“The old house where I was born.”

=Whether= is followed by _or_. “Whether he will go or not, I cannot
tell.”

=Which.=--See Relative Pronouns.

=Who.=--See Relative Pronouns.

=Without, Unless.=--_Without_ must not be used for _unless_. “You won’t
catch the train _without_ you run,” should be, “You won’t catch the
train _unless_ you run.”

“My uncle would not take me _without_ my mother wished it,” should be
“My uncle would not take me _unless_ my mother wished it.”

=Wrong and Wrongly.=--_Wrong_ is an adverb as well as an adjective. For
this reason, _wrong_ is often interchangeably used with _wrongly_; as,
“The mail was sent off _wrong_” (or _wrongly_). When preceding the verb,
_wrongly_ is required; as “The letter was _wrongly_ addressed.”


USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS

  The following are the general rules for the use of capitals,
  together with the abbreviations most commonly used. Many special
  uses of capital letters are also insisted upon by writers which
  cannot be reduced to general rules.

=Rule 1.=--The first word of every sentence should begin with a capital
letter.

A sentence preceded by an introductory word or clause such as Resolved,
Be it enacted, etc., begins with a capital notwithstanding the
introductory word.

=Rule II.=--The first word of a direct quotation, of an important
statement, and of a direct question, should begin with a capital.

Examples:

One truth is clear: Whatever is, is right.--_Pope._ Ask yourselves this
question: Are you doing right?

=Rule III.=--The first word of every line of poetry should begin with a
capital.

=Rule IV.=--All proper names begin with capitals. If the proper name
consists of several words, all are capitalized except articles,
prepositions, and conjunctions.

Examples:--San Diego, Burton-on-Trent, the Grand Army of the Republic.

The words _street_, _road_, _lake_, _river_, _mountain_, etc., should
begin with capitals when used in connection with proper names.

Examples:--Crawford Road, Prospect Street, Lake Erie, Cuyahoga River,
Little Mountain.

_North_, _South_, _East_, and _West_, should begin with capitals when
they mean sections of the country and not points of the compass.

Example:--Chicago, the largest city of the West, is south of Lake
Michigan.

Capitalize _city_ only when part of the corporate name, _New York City_,
_Washington City_.

=Rule V.=--Names of days and months always take a capital; but the names
of seasons of the year are not commonly capitalized.

=Rule VI.=--Titles of office before personal names, and other titles so
placed which are not mere common names of vocation, are written with
capitals.

Examples:--_Senator Jones_, _Doctor_ (or _Dr._) _Brown_, _Aunt Jane_,
_Miss_ or _Master Gray_; but _coachman Smith_, _barber Harris_, etc.

Titles of dignity are also commonly capitalized when used alone, as in
address, or with the definite article.

Examples:--_the President_, _Senator_, _Judge_, _the Judge_, _District
Attorney_.

When title, with or without Christian name, precedes “de,” use
lower-case “d”; this rule applies also to “la,” “di,” “von,” “van,” etc.

Examples:--_Marquis de Lafayette_, _Di Cesnola_, _Prince von Moltke_,
_Von Humboldt_, _Dr. la Mond_, _De Chaulnes_, _Mr. van Renssalaer_.

=Rule VII.=--Many special names of a common kind are, in particular
uses, treated as proper nouns and capitalized.

Examples:--_Congress_, _Parliament_, _Senate_, _House of
Representatives_, _State_ (for one of the United States), _Hudson River
Railroad_, _Aldine Printing Company_.

Capitalize the names of political parties; as, _Republican Party_,
_Democratic Party_, _Progressive Party_, etc.

Capitalize _Christmas Day_, _New Year’s Day_, _Lincoln’s Birthday_,
_Washington’s Birthday_, _Good Friday_, _Decoration Day_ or _Memorial
Day_, _Fourth of July_, _Labor Day_, _Election Day_, _Thanksgiving Day_,
etc.; a noted day, as _Black Friday_, etc.; but _blue Monday_.

Capitalize _Northerner_, _Southerner_, _Northern gentleman_, _Southern
blood_, etc.

Capitalize names of important events and periods: as, _the Creation_,
_the Fall_, _the Flood_, _the Reformation_, _the Revolution_ (French or
American), _Civil War_ (American), _the Middle Ages_, _the Union_,
_Reconstruction_.

Capitalize religious denominations; as, _Methodist_, _Episcopal Church_,
_St. Mark’s Church_, _Church and State_, etc.

Church is without the capital always when used alone or when meaning
congregation or building; as, a _Methodist church in Hoboken_.

Capitalize _College_, _Club_, _Society_, etc., when referring to that
particular body, in by-laws, proceedings, or other publications of a
college, club, society, company, etc.

Capitalize _Monsieur_, _Madame_, _Signor_, etc.

Capitalize _State_ only when referring to one of the United States.

=Rule VIII.=--Adjectives and nouns derived from proper names are written
with capitals.

Examples:--_Jacksonian_, _New Yorker_, _Congressman_ (if _Congress_ has
a capital).

Names of countries and places, and adjectives derived from them.

Examples:--a German dictionary. The best Spanish wines.

But such words used in some other common way are not capitalized.

Examples:--morocco leather, russia leather, india rubber, plaster of
paris, etc.

=Rule IX.=--Names of families and larger groups in natural history, and
of genera, are written with capitals; also botanical specific names
derived from proper names, and those that have formerly been
genus-names, though zoölogical usage gives a small initial to every
specific name.

Examples:--_Asplenium Trichomanes_ (a fern). _Menticirrhus americanus_
(a fish). _Carya alba_ (a hickory tree).

=Rule X.=--In headings the important words only should be capitalized.

Titles of books, newspapers, plays, and the like, are written with
capitals beginning the important words, most commonly nouns, principal
verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. The word _the_ is capitalized as part of
the title if the title is quoted exactly.

  Examples:--A History of the Rebellion.
             Free Trade and Protection.
             Put Yourself in his Place.
             Milton’s Select Poems.
             The Beginnings of Poetry.

=Rule XI.=--The pronoun _I_ and the interjection _O_ are capitalized.

=Rule XII.=--All names of God, all words that may be regarded as titles
of the Deity, should begin with capitals.

=Rule XIII.=--In compound words, as vice-president, ex-president, etc.,
the prefix (vice) should not be capitalized.

=Rule XIV.=--In personification it is usual to capitalize the
personified words.

  Examples:--
    Vice is a monster; smiling Spring.
    The Voice of Nature; but: true to nature.


ABBREVIATIONS, CONTRACTIONS AND DEGREES

  Military or naval and some professional titles preceding names are
  nearly always abbreviated; as _Capt. Jones_, _Dr. Brown_, _Rev. Dr.
  Smith_.

  Titles of collegiate degree are abbreviated; as, _William Lee, Ph.
  D., LL. D._

  In general writing, it is better to avoid abbreviation as far as
  possible.

  _A._, _a._ Adjective.

  _A._ Alto.

  _A._, _ans._ Answer.

  _a._, @ (Lat. _ad_). To; At.

  _ä_, _ää._ The like quantity of each.

  _A. A. A. S._ American Association for the Advancement of Science.

  _A. B._ (Lat. _artium baccalaureus_). Bachelor of Arts.

  _Abbr._, _Abbrev._ Abbreviated, Abbreviation.

  _Abl._, _ablat._ Ablative.

  _Abp._ Archbishop.

  _A. C._ (Lat. _ante Christum_). Before Christ; Analytical Chemist.

  _Acad._ Academy.

  _Acc._, _Accus._ Accusative.

  _Acc._, _Acct._ Account.

  _A. D._ (Lat. _anno Domini_). In the year of our Lord.

  _A. D. C._ Aide-de-camp.

  _Ad._, _advt._ Advertisement.

  _Adj._ Adjective.

  _Adjt._ Adjutant.

  _Adjt. Gen._ Adjutant-General.

  _Ad lib._, _Ad libit._ (Lat. _ad libitum_). At pleasure.

  _Adm._ Admiral.

  _Admr._ Administrator.

  _Admx._ Administratrix.

  _Adv._ Adverb.

  _Æ._, _Æt._ (Lat. _ætatis_). Of Age, Aged.

  _A. G._, _Agt.-Gen._ Adjutant-General.

  _Ag._ (Lat. _argentum_). Silver.

  _Agl. Dept._ Agricultural Department.

  _Agr._, _Agric._ Agriculture, Agricultural.

  _Agt._ Agent.

  _A. L. of H._ American Legion of Honor.

  _Al._, Ala. Alabama.

  _Alas. Ter._ Alaska Territory.

  _Ald._ Alderman.

  _Alex._ Alexander.

  _Alf._ Alfred.

  _Alg._ Algebra.

  _A. M._ (Lat. _anno mundi_). In the year of the world.

  _A. M._ (Lat. _ante meridiem_). Before noon.

  _A. M._ (Lat. _artium magister_). Master of Arts.

  _Am._, _Amer._ America, American.

  _Amer. Phil. Soc._ American Philosophical Society.

  _Amt._ Amount.

  _an._ (Lat. _anno_). In the year.

  _Anal._ Analysis.

  _Anat._ Anatomy, Anatomical.

  _Anc._ Ancient.

  _Anon._ Anonymous.

  _Ans._ Answer.

  _Ant._, _Antiq._ Antiquities, Antiquarian.

  _Anthrop._ Anthropology, Anthropological.

  _A. O. U. W._ Ancient Order of United Workmen.

  _Ap._, _App._ Apostle, Apostles.

  _A. P. A._ American Protestant Association; American Protective
  Association.

  _Apoc._ Apocalypse, Apocrypha.

  _Apog._ Apogee.

  _App._ Appendix.

  _approx._ Approximate, -ly.

  _Apr._ April.

  _Aq._ (Lat. _aqua_). Water.

  _Ar._ _Arab._ Arabic, Arabian.

  _A. R. A._ Associate of the Royal Academy.

  _Arab._ Arabic, Arabian.

  _Aram._ Aramaic.

  _Arch._ Architecture.

  _Archæol._ Archæology.

  _Archd._ Archdeacon.

  _Arith._ Arithmetic, Arithmetical.

  _Ariz._ Arizona.

  _Ark._ Arkansas.

  _Art._ Article.

  _A. S._, _A.-S._ Anglo-Saxon.

  _Asst._ Assistant.

  _A. S. S. U._ American Sunday School Union.

  _Assyr._ Assyrian.

  _Astrol._ Astrology.

  _Astron._ Astronomy, Astronomical.

  _Atty._ Attorney.

  _Atty.-Gen._ Attorney-General.

  _A. U. A._ American Unitarian Association.

  _A. U. C._ (Lat. _anno urbis conditæ_). In the year from the building
  of the city--Rome.

  _Aug._ Augustus; August.

  _Auxil._ Auxiliary.

  _Avoir._ Avoirdupois.

  _B._, _Brit._ British.

  _b._ Born.

  _B. A._ Bachelor of Arts [_A. B._]

  _Bal._ Balance.

  _Balt._, _Balto._ Baltimore.

  _Bap._, _Bapt._ Baptist.

  _Bar._ Barrel, Barometer.

  _Bart._, _Bt._ Baronet.

  _bbl._, _bbls._ Barrel, Barrels.

  _B. C._ Before Christ.

  _B. C. L._ (Lat. _baccalaureus civilis legis_). Bachelor of Civil Law.

  _B. D._ (Lat. _baccalaureus divinitatis_). Bachelor of Divinity.

  _Bd._ Bound.

  _Bdls._ Bundles.

  _B. E._ Bachelor of the Elements; Bachelor of Elocution.

  _Belg._ Belgic, Belgian.

  _Ben._, _Benj._ Benjamin.

  _Bib._ Bible, Biblical.

  _Biog._ Biography, Biographical.

  _Biol._ Biology, Biological.

  _B. L._, _B. L. L._ (Lat. _baccalaureus legum_). Bachelor of Laws.

  _B. ès L._ (F. Bachelier ès Lettres). Bachelor of Letters.

  _bls._ Bales.

  _B. M._ (Lat. _baccalaureus medicinæ_). Bachelor of Medicine.

  _B. M._, _B. Mus._ (Lat. _baccalaureus musicæ_). Bachelor of Music.

  _B. O._ Branch Office.

  _B. O._ Bachelor of Oratory.

  _Boh._ Bohemian or Czech.

  _Bot._ Botany, Botanical.

  _Bp._ Bishop.

  _Br._, _Bro._ Brother.

  _Brig._ Brigade.

  _Brig.-Gen._ Brigadier-General.

  _Brit._ Britain, Britannia, British.

  _B. S._ Bachelor of Surgery; Bachelor of Science.

  _B. Sc._ (Lat. _baccalaureus scientiæ_). Bachelor of Science.

  _Bt._ Baronet.

  _bush._ Bushel.

  _B. V._ Blessed Virgin.

  _B. V. M._ Blessed Virgin Mary.

  _bx._, _bxs._ Box, Boxes.

  _C._ Cent, Cents; Centigrade; Consul; Centime, Centimes; a hundred.

  _C._, _Cap._ (Lat. _caput_). Chapter.

  _C. A._ Chartered Accountant.

  _Cal._ California; Calendar.

  _Cant._ Canticle.

  _Cantab._ (Lat. _Cantabrigiensis_). Of Cambridge.

  _Cap._ (Lat. _caput_). Capital; Chapter.

  _Caps._ Capitals.

  _Capt._ Captain.

  _Card._ Cardinal.

  _Cath._ Catharine; Catholic.

  _C. D. V._ Carte-de-Visite.

  _C. E._ Civil Engineer.

  _Celt._ Celtic.

  _Cent._ (_centum_). A hundred; Centigrade.

  _Centig._ Centigrade.

  _Cert._, _Certif._ Certify; Certificate.

  _Cf._ (Lat. _confer_). Compare.

  _C. ft._ Cubic feet.

  _C. G._ Coastguard; Commissary-General.

  _C. G. S._ Centimetre-Gramme-Second.

  _C. H._ Court House.

  _Ch._ Church; Chapter.

  _Chal._, _Chald._ Chaldee.

  _Chan._ Chancellor.

  _Chap._ Chapter.

  _Chas._ Charles.

  _Chem._ Chemistry, Chemical.

  _Ch. Hist._ Church History.

  _Chr._ Christ; Christian; Christopher.

  _Chron._ Chronology, Chronological.

  _Cit._ Citation; Citizen.

  _Civ._ Civil.

  _C. J._ Chief Justice.

  _Class._ Classical.

  _Clk._ Clerk.

  _cm._ Centimetre.

  _C. M._ Certified Master; Common metre.

  _C. M._ (Lat. _chirurgiæ magister_). Master in Surgery.

  _C. M. G._ Companion of the Order of St. Michael and George.

  _Co._ Company; County.

  _C. O. D._ Cash on delivery; Collect (payment) on delivery.

  _Col._ Colonel; Colossians; Column.

  _Colloq._ Colloquial; Colloquialism; Colloquially.

  _Colo._ Colorado.

  _Com._ Commander; Commerce; Commissioner; Committee; Commodore;
  Common.

  _Comm._ Commentary; Commerce.

  _Comp._ Compare; Comparative; Compound, Compounded.

  _Con._, _contra_ (Lat.). Against.

  _Con. Cr._ Contra Credit.

  _Cong._ Congregation, Congregational, Congregationalist; Congress.

  _Conj._ Conjunction.

  _Conn._ Connecticut.

  _Contr._ Contracted, Contraction.

  _Cop._, _Copt._ Coptic.

  _Cor._ Corinthians.

  _Cor. Mem._ Corresponding Member.

  _Corrup._ Corruption, Corrupted.

  _Cor. Sec._ Corresponding Secretary.

  _Cos._ Cosine.

  _C. P._ Clerk of the Peace; Common Pleas.

  _C. P. A._ Certified Public Accountant.

  _C. P. C._ Clerk of the Privy Council.

  _C. P. S._ (Lat. _custos privati sigilli_). Keeper of the Privy Seal.

  _C. Q. D._ Come quick--danger.

  _Cr._ Credit, Creditor.

  _C. R._ (Lat. _Civus Romanus_). Roman Citizen.

  _C. R._ (Lat. _custos rotulorum_). Keeper of the Rolls.

  _Cres._ Crescendo.

  _Crystall._, _Crystallog._ Crystallography.

  _C. S. A._ Confederate States of America.

  _C. S._ Court of Sessions, Clerk to the Signet.

  _Csks._ Casks.

  _Ct._ (Lat. _centum_). A hundred.

  _Ct._ Court.

  _Ct._, _Conn._ Connecticut.

  _C. T. A. U._ Catholic Total Abstinence Union.

  _Cu._ (Lat. _cuprum_). Copper.

  _Cub._, _Cu. ft_. Cubic, Cubic foot.

  _Cur._, _Curt._ Current--this month.

  _Cwt._ A hundredweight; Hundredweights.

  _Cyc._ Cyclopædia.

  _d._ (Lat. _denarius_, _denarii_). A penny, Pence.

  _d._ Died.

  _Dan._ Daniel; Danish.

  _Dat._ Dative.

  _Dav._ David.

  _D. C._, _Dist. Col._ District of Columbia.

  _D. C. L._ Doctor of Civil (or Canon) Law.

  _D. D._ (Lat. _divinitatis doctor_). Doctor of Divinity.

  _D. D. S._ Doctor of Dental Surgery.

  _D. E._ Dynamic Engineer.

  _D. Eng._ Doctor of Engineering.

  _Dec._ December.

  _decim._ Decimetre.

  _Def._ Definition.

  _Deft._ Defendant.

  _Deg._ Degree, Degrees.

  _Del._ Delaware.

  _Dep._, _Dept._ Department.

  _Dep._ Deputy.

  _Der._ Derived, Derivation.

  _Deut._ Deuteronomy.

  _D. G._ (Lat. _Dei gratia_). By the grace of God.

  _Dict._ Dictionary.

  _Dim._, _Dimin._ Diminutive.

  _Dis._, _Disct._ Discount.

  _Dist._ District.

  _Dist. Atty._ District Attorney.

  _Div._ Divide; Dividend; Division; Divisor.

  _D. Lit._, _D. Litt._ Doctor of Literature.

  _D. L. O._ Dead Letter Office.

  _D. M._, _D. Mus._ Doctor of Music.

  _D. M. D._ Doctor of Dental Medicine.

  _D. O._ Doctor of Osteopathy; Doctor of Optics.

  _Do._ (Ital. _ditto_). The same.

  _Dols._ Dollars.

  _Doz._ Dozen.

  _Dpt._ Deponent.

  _Dr._ Debtor; Doctor; Dram, Drams.

  _Dram._ Dramatic, Dramatically.

  _D. Sc._ Doctor of Science.

  _D. T._ (Lat. _doctor theologiæ_). Doctor of Theology.

  _Du._, _Dut._ Dutch.

  _Dub._ Dublin.

  _Duo._, _12mo._ Duodecimo (twelve folds).

  _D. V._ (Lat. _Deo volente_). God willing.

  _D. V. M._ Doctor of Veterinary Medicine.

  _D. V. S._ Doctor of Veterinary Surgery.

  _Dwt._ (Lat. _denarius_, an English _weight_). Pennyweight, Penny-
  weights.

  _Dynam._ Dynamics.

  _E._ East, Eastern; English; Edinburgh.

  _Ea._ Each.

  _Eccl._, _Eccles._ Ecclesiastical.

  _Econ._ Economy.

  _Ed._ Editor; Edition; Edinburgh.

  _Ed._, _Edm._ Edmund.

  _Edin._ Edinburgh.

  _Edw._ Edward.

  _E. E._ Electrical Engineer.

  _e. g._ (Lat. _exempli gratia_). For example.

  _Elec._, _Elect._ Electric, Electricity.

  _Eliz._ Elizabeth, Elizabethan.

  _Emp._ Emperor, Empress.

  _Ency._, _Encyclo._ Encyclopædia.

  _E. N. E._ East-northeast.

  _Eng._ England, English.

  _Eng._, _Engin._ Engineer, Engineering.

  _Eng. Dept._ Department of Engineers.

  _Ent._, _Entom._ Entomology, Entomological.

  _Env. Ext._ Envoy extraordinary.

  _Eph._ Ephesians; Ephraim.

  _Epiph._ Epiphany.

  _Epis._ Episcopal.

  _Epist._ Epistle, epistolary.

  _Eq._ Equal, equivalent.

  _Equiv._ Equivalent.

  _Esd._ Esdras.

  _E. S. E._ East-southeast.

  _Esq._, _Esqr._ Esquire.

  _et al_ (Lat. _et alibi_). And elsewhere.

  _et al._ (Lat. _et alii_, or _aliæ_, _alia_). And others.

  _etc._, _&c._ (Lat. _et cæteri_, _cæteræ_, or _cætera_). And others,
  and so forth.

  _Ethnol._ Ethnology, ethnological.

  _et seq._, _sq._, or _sqq._ (Lat. _et sequentes_, or _et sequentia_).
  And the following.

  _Etym._ or _Etymol._, Etymology.

  _Ex._ Example; Examined; Exception; Exodus.

  _Exc._ Excellency; Except, excepted.

  _Exch._ Exchange; Exchequer.

  _Ex. Doc._ Executive Document.

  _Exec._ Executor.

  _Execx._ Executrix.

  _Exod._ Exodus.

  _Exon._ (Lat. _Exonia_). Exeter.

  _Exr._ Executor.

  _Exx._ Executrix.

  _Ez._ Ezra.

  _Ezek._ Ezekiel.

  _E. & O. E._ Errors and omissions excepted.

  _F._ Fellow; Folio; Fahrenheit.

  _f._ Farthing, farthings.

  _f._, _fem._ Feminine.

  _f._ Franc, francs.

  _Fahr._ Fahrenheit.

  _F. A. S._ Fellow of the Society of Arts.

  _F. C._ Free Church of Scotland.

  _Fcp._ Foolscap.

  _F. C. S._ Fellow of the Chemical Society.

  _F. D._, _Fid. Def._ (Lat. _Fidei Defensor_). Defender of the Faith.

  _Feb._ February.

  _Fec._ (Lat. _fecit_). He (_or_ She) did it.

  _Fem._ Feminine.

  _F. E. S._ Fellow of the Entomological (or Ethnological) Society.

  _Feud._ Feudal.

  _F. F. V._ First Families of Virginia. (Humorous).

  _F. G. S._ Fellow of the Geological Society.

  _fi. fa._, _Fieri facias._ (Lat.). A form of judicial writ.

  _Fig._ Figure, figures; figurative, figuratively.

  _Fl._ Flemish; Florin, florins; Flourished.

  _Fla._ Florida.

  _Flem._ Flemish.

  _F. L. S._ Fellow of the Linnæan Society.

  _F. M._ Field Marshal.

  _Fo._, _Fol._ Folio.

  _F. O._ Foreign Office; Field Officer.

  _F. O. B._ Free on board.

  _For._ Foreign.

  _Fort._ Fortification.

  _F. P._ Fire-plug.

  _Fr._ France, French; Francis; Francs.

  _fr._ From.

  _F. R. C. S._ Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons.

  _Fred._ Frederick.

  _F. R. G. S._ Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society.

  _Fri._ Friday.

  _F. R. S._ Fellow of the Royal Society.

  _F. S. A._ Fellow of the Society of Arts, _or_ of Antiquaries.

  _Ft._ Fort; Foot, feet.

  _Fth._ Fathom.

  _Fur._ Furlong.

  _F. Z. S._ Fellow of the Zoölogical Society.

  _F. & A. M._ Free and Accepted Masons.

  _G._ Genitive; Guinea, guineas; Gulf.

  _Ga._ Georgia.

  _Gael._ Gaelic; Gadhelic.

  _Gal._ Galatians.

  _gal._ Gallon, gallons.

  _G. A. R._ Grand Army of the Republic.

  _G. C. B._ Grand Cross of the Bath.

  _G. C. H._ Grand Cross of Hanover.

  _G. C. L. H._ Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor.

  _G. C. M. G._ Grand Cross SS. Michael and George.

  _G. C. S. I._ Grand Commander of the Star of India.

  _G. D._ Grand Duke, Grand Duchess.

  _Gen._ General.

  _Gen._ Genesis; Genitive.

  _Gend._ Gender.

  _Genit._ Genitive.

  _Gent._ Gentleman, gentlemen.

  _Geo._ George; Georgia.

  _Geog._ Geography, geographical.

  _Geol._ Geology, geological.

  _Geom._ Geometry, geometrical.

  _Ger._, _Germ._ German.

  _Gi._ Gill, gills.

  _G. L._ Grand Lodge.

  _G. M._ Grand Master.

  _Go._, _Goth._ Gothic.

  _G. O. P._ Grand Old Party.

  _Gov._ Governor.

  _Gov.-Gen._ Governor-General.

  _Govt._ Government.

  _G. P.-O._ General Post-Office.

  _gr._ Grain, grains; Gross.

  _Gr._ Great; Greek.

  _Gram._ Grammar, grammatical.

  _gro._ Gross.

  _G. T._ Good Templars; Grand Tyler.

  _gtt._ (Lat. _gutta_ or _guttæ_). Drop _or_ drops.

  _H._ Hour, hours.

  _H. B. M._ His (_or_ Her) Britannic Majesty.

  _H. C._ Heralds’ College; House of Commons.

  _H. C. M._ His (_or_ Her) Catholic Majesty.

  _h. e._ (Lat. _hoc est, hic est_). That (_or_ this) is.

  _Heb._, _Hebr._ Hebrew, Hebrews.

  _Her._ Heraldry, heraldic.

  _Hf.-bd._ Half-bound.

  _H. H._ His (or Her) Highness; His Holiness (the pope).

  _Hhd._ Hogshead, hogsheads.

  _H. I. H._ His (or Her) Imperial highness.

  _Hind._ Hindu, Hindustan, Hindustani.

  _Hist._ History, historical.

  _H. J._, _H. J. S._ (Lat. _hic jacet, hic jacet sepultus_). Here lies,
  Here lies buried.

  _H. M._ His (or Her) Majesty.

  _H. M. S._ His (or Her) Majesty’s Service, Ship, or Steamer.

  _Hon._, _Honble._ Honorable.

  _Hor._, _Horol._ Horology, horological.

  _Hort._, _Hortic._ Horticulture, horticultural.

  _H. P._ Half-pay; High Priest; Horse power.

  _H. R._ House of Representatives.

  _H. R. E._ Holy Roman Empire, _or_ Emperor.

  _H. R. H._ His (_or_ Her) Royal Highness.

  _Hun._, _Hung._ Hungary, Hungarian.

  _Hund._ Hundred, hundreds.

  _Hydraul._ Hydraulics.

  _Hydros._ (See _Hyd_.)

  _Hypoth._ Hypothesis, hypothetical.

  _I._ Island.

  _Ia._ Iowa.

  _Ib._, _Ibid._ (Lat. _ibidem_). In the same place.

  _Icel._ Iceland, Icelandic.

  _Ich._, _Ichth._ Ichthyology.

  _Id._ (Lat. _idem_). The same.

  _Ida._ Idaho.

  _i. e._ (Lat. _id est_). That is.

  _I. H. S._ (Lat. _Iesus_ [or _Jesus_] _Hominum Salvator_). Jesus the
  Savior of Men.

  _Ill._ Illinois.

  _Imp._ (Lat. _imperator_). Emperor; Imperial; impersonal.

  _Imp._, _Imperf._ Imperfect.

  _in._ Inch, inches.

  _Incog._ (Ital. _incognito, incognita_). Unknown.

  _Ind._ India, Indian; Indiana.

  _Indic._ Indicative.

  _Ind. Ter._ Indian Territory.

  _Inf._, _Infin._ Infinitive.

  _In loc._ (Lat. _in loco_). In its place.

  _I. N. R. I._ (Lat. _Iesus_ [or _Jesus_] _Nazarenus Rex Iudæorum_ [or
  _Judæorum_]). Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews.

  _Ins._, _Insur._ Insurance.

  _Ins.-Gen._ Inspector-General.

  _Inst._ Instant; the present month; Institute, Institution.

  _Int._ Interest.

  _Int. Dept._ Department of the Interior.

  _Interj._ Interjection.

  _Intrans._ Intransitive.

  _In trans._ (Lat. _in transitu_). On the passage.

  _Int. Rev._ Internal Revenue.

  _Introd._ Introduction.

  _Io._ Iowa.

  _I. O. F._ Independent Order of Foresters.

  _I. O. G. T._ Independent Order of Good Templars.

  _I. O. O. F._ Independent Order of Oddfellows.

  _I. O. R. M._ Improved Order of Red Men.

  _I. O. S. M._ Independent Order of Sons of Malta.

  _I. O. U._ I owe you.

  _i. q._ (Lat. _idem quod_). The same as.

  _Ir._ Ireland, Irish.

  _Irreg._ Irregular.

  _Is._, _Isa._ Isaiah.

  _I. S._ Irish Society.

  _Isl._ Island.

  _I. S. M._ Jesus Salvator Mundi.

  _It._, _Ital._ Italy; Italic; Italian.

  _Itin._ Itinerary.

  _J._ Judge; Justice.

  _J. A._ Judge-Advocate.

  _Jac._ Jacob, Jacobus (= James).

  _Jan._ January.

  _J. A. G._ Judge Advocate General.

  _J. C._ Jesus Christ.

  _J. C. D._ (Lat. juris _civilis doctor_). Doctor of Civil Law.

  _J. D._ (Lat. _jurum doctor_), Doctor of Laws.

  _Jer._ Jeremiah.

  _J. H. S._ [_I. H. S._]

  _Jno._ John.

  _Jon._, _Jona._ Jonathan.

  _Jos._ Joseph.

  _Josh._ Joshua.

  _Jour._ Journal.

  _J. P._ Justice of the Peace.

  _Jr._ Juror; Junior.

  _J. U. D._ (Lat. _Juris utriusque doctor_). Doctor of both laws (_i.
  e._, of civil and canon law).

  _Jud._ Judith.

  _Judg._ Judges.

  _Jul._ July; Julius; Julian.

  _Jun._ June.

  _Jun._, _Junr._ Junior.

  _Juris._ Jurisprudence.

  _K._ King; Knight.

  _Kan._, _Ks._ Kansas.

  _K. B._ Knight of the Bath.

  _K. B._ King’s Bench.

  _K. C._ King’s Counsel; Knights of Columbus.

  _K. C. B._ Knight Commander of the Bath.

  _K. C. H._ Knight Commander of the Guelphs of Hanover.

  _K. C. M. G._ Knight Commander of St. Michael and St. George.

  _K. E._ Knight of the Eagle.

  _Ken._, _Ky._ Kentucky.

  _K. G._ Knight of the Garter.

  _K. G. E._ Knight of the Golden Eagle.

  _K. G. C._ Knight of the Grand Cross.

  _K. G. C. B._ Knight of the Grand Cross of the Bath.

  _K. G. F._ Knight of the Golden Fleece.

  _K. G. H._ Knight of the Guelphs of Hanover.

  _Kilog._ Kilogramme.

  _Kilom._, _Kilo._ Kilometre.

  _Kingd._ Kingdom.

  _K. L. H._ Knight of the Legion of Honor.

  _K. M._ Knight of Malta.

  _Kn. N. S._ Knight of the Loyal Northern Star (Sweden).

  _Knick._ Knickerbocker.

  _Knt._ Knight.

  _K. of P._ Knights of Pythias.

  _Ks._ Kansas.

  _K. S._ Knight of the Sword (Sweden).

  _Kt._ Knight.

  _K. T._ Knight of the Thistle; Knight Templar.

  _K. T. S._ Knight of Tower and Sword (Portugal).

  _Ky._ Kentucky.

  _L._ Latin; Lake; Lord; Lady.

  _L._, _l_, £. (Lat. _libra_). Pound, pounds (sterling).

  _L._, _lb._ ℔ lb. (Lat. _libra_). Pound, pounds (weight).

  _La._ Louisiana.

  _L. A._ Law Agent; Literate in Arts.

  _Lam._ Lamentations.

  _Lat._ Latin; Latitude.

  _lb._ Pound, pounds (weight).

  _L. c._ Lower case (in printing).

  _L. c._, _loc. cit._ (Lat. _loco citato_). The place cited.

  _L. C._ Lord Chamberlain; Lord Chancellor.

  _L. C. J._ Lord Chief-Justice.

  _Ldp._ Lordship.

  _Leg._, _Legis._ Legislature, legislative.

  _Leip._ Leipsic.

  _Lev._ Leviticus.

  _Lex._ Lexicon.

  _Lexicog._ Lexicography, lexicographer, lexicographical.

  _L. G._ Life Guards.

  _L. Ger._ Low German or Platt Deutsch.

  _L. H. D._ Doctor of Humanities.

  _L. I._ Light Infantry; Long Island.

  _Lib._ (Lat. _liber_). Book.

  _Lib._ Library, librarian.

  _Lieut._, _Lt._ Lieutenant.

  _Lieut.-col._ Lieutenant-colonel.

  _Lieut.-gen._ Lieutenant-general.

  _Lieut.-gov._ Lieutenant-governor.

  _lin._ Lineal, or right-line measures; _e. g._, lin. yd.; lin. ft.,
  etc.

  _Linn._ Linnæus, Linné, Linnæan.

  _Liq._ Liquor, liquid.

  _Lit._ Literally, literature, library.

  _Lit. D._, _Litt. D._ (Lat. _literarum doctor_). Doctor of Literature.

  _Lith._ Lithography.

  _Liv._ Livre.

  _LL. B._ (Lat. _legum baccalaureus_). Bachelor of Laws.

  _LL. D._ (Lat. _legum doctor_). Doctor of Laws.

  _LL. M._ Master of Laws.

  _L. M._ Long metre.

  _Lon._, _Lond._ London.

  _Lon._, _Long._ Longitude.

  _Loq._ (Lat. _loquitur_). He (_or_ she) speaks.

  _Lou._ Louisiana.

  _L. S._ (Lat. _locus sigilli_). Place of the seal.

  _L._ _s._ _d._ (Lat. _libræ_, _solidi_, _denarii_). Pounds, shillings,
  pence.

  _Lt._ Lieutenant.

  _Lt. Inf._ Light Infantry.

  _Luth._ Lutheran.

  _m._ Married; Masculine; Mètre, mètres; Mile, miles; Minute, minutes.

  _M._ Marquis; Middle; Monday; Morning; Monsieur.

  _M._ (Lat. _mille_). Thousand.

  _M._ (Lat. _meridies_). Meridian, Noon.

  _M. A._ (Master of Arts). [_A. M._]

  _Mac._, _Macc._ Maccabees.

  _Mad._, _Madm._ Madam.

  _Mag._ Magyar; Magazine.

  _Maj._ Major.

  _Maj.-gen._ Major-general.

  _Mal._ Malachi; Malay, Malayan.

  _Manuf._ Manufactures, manufacturing.

  _Mar._ March; Maritime.

  _Marq._ Marquis.

  _Mass._ Massachusetts.

  _Math._ Mathematics, mathematician, mathematical.

  _Matt._ Matthew.

  _M. B._ (Lat. _medicinæ baccalaureus_). Bachelor of Medicine.

  _M. B._ (Lat. _musicæ baccalaureus_). Bachelor of Music.

  _M. C._ Member of Congress; Master of Ceremonies.

  _Mch._ March.

  _M. D._ (Lat. _medicinæ doctor_). Doctor of Medicine.

  _Md._ Maryland.

  _Mdlle._ (Fr. _mademoiselle_). Miss.

  _Mdse._ Merchandise.

  _M. E._ Most Excellent; Military Engineer; Mining Engineer; Mechanical
  Engineer.

  _M. E._ Methodist Episcopal.

  _Me._ Maine.

  _Meas._ Measure.

  _Mech._ Mechanics, mechanical.

  _Med._ Medicine, medical; Mediæval.

  _Mem._ Memorandum, memoranda.

  _Messrs._ (Fr. _messieurs_). Gentlemen.

  _Metall._ Metallurgy.

  _Metaph._ Metaphysics; Metaphorically.

  _Meteor._ Meteorology, meteorological.

  _Meth._ Methodist.

  _Mex._ Mexico.

  _Mfd._, _Mfs._ Manufactured, manufactures.

  _Mfg._ Manufacturing.

  _M. H. Ger._ Middle High German.

  _M. I. C. E._ Member of the Institute of Civil Engineers.

  _Mich._ Michaelmas; Michigan.

  _Mid._ Middle; Midshipman.

  _Mil._, _Milit._ Military.

  _M. I. M. E._ Member of the Institute of Mining Engineers.

  _Min._ Mineralogy, mineralogical; Minute, minutes.

  _Minn._ Minnesota.

  _Min. Plen._ Minister Plenipotentiary.

  _Miss._ Mississippi.

  _Mlle._ (Fr. _mademoiselle_). Miss.

  _MM._ Their Majesties.

  _MM._ (Fr. _messieurs_). Gentlemen.

  _mm._ Millemetres; Micrometers.

  _Mme._ (Fr. _madame_). Madame.

  _M. N. A. S._ Member of the National Academy of Sciences.

  _Mo._ Missouri; Month.

  _Mod._ Modern.

  _Mod._ (Ital. _moderato_). Moderately.

  _Mon._ Monday.

  _Mons._ (Fr. _monsieur_). Sir, Mr.

  _Mont._ Montana.

  _M. P._ Member of Parliament.

  _M. P. P._ Member of Provincial Parliament.

  _M. P. S._ Member of the Pharmaceutical Society; Member of the
  Philological Society.

  _Mr._ Master, Mister.

  _M. R. A. S._ Member of the Royal Asiatic Society.

  _M. R. C. P._ Member of the Royal College of Physicians.

  _M. R. C. S._ Member of the Royal College of Surgeons.

  _M. R. G. S._ Member of the Royal Geographical Society.

  _M. R. I._ Member of the Royal Institution.

  _Mrs._ Mistress (when abbreviated pronounced mis´sis).

  _M. S._ Master of Surgery.

  _M. S._ Master of Science.

  _M. S._ (Lat. _Memoriæ sacrum_). Sacred to the memory of.

  _MS._ Manuscript.

  _MSS._ Manuscripts.

  _Mt._, _Mts._ Mount, mountains.

  _Mus._ Museum; Music, musical.

  _Mus. B._ (Lat. _Musicæ Baccalaureus_). Bachelor of Music.

  _Mus. D._, _Mus. Doc._, _Mus. Doct._ (Lat. _Musicæ Doctor_). Doctor of
  Music.

  _Myth._ Mythology, mythological.

  _N._ Noon; North; Noun; Number; New; Neuter.

  _N. A._ North America, North American.

  _Nap._ Napoleon.

  _Nat._ Natural; National; Natal.

  _Nat. Hist._ Natural History.

  _Nat. Phil._ Natural Philosophy.

  _Naut._ Nautical.

  _N. B._ New Brunswick; North Britain (i. e. Scotland).

  _N. B._ (Lat. _Nota bene_). Note well, Take notice.

  _N. C._ North Carolina.

  _N. D._, _N. Dak._ North Dakota.

  _N. E._ New England; Northeast.

  _Neb._ Nebraska.

  _Neg._ Negative, negatively.

  _Neth._ Netherlands.

  _Neut._ Neuter.

  _Nev._ Nevada.

  _New Test._, _N. T._ New Testament.

  _N. F._ Newfoundland.

  _N. H._ New Hampshire.

  _N. J._ New Jersey.

  _N. Lat._ North Latitude.

  _N. M._ New Mexico.

  _N. N. E._ North-northeast.

  _N. N. W._ North-northwest.

  _No._ (Lat. numero). Number.

  _nol. pros._ (_nolle prosequi_). To be unwilling to proceed.

  _Nom._ Nominative.

  _Non con._ Non-content, dissentient. (The formula in which Members of
  the House of Lords vote.)

  _Non obst._ (Lat. _non obstante_). Notwithstanding.

  _Non pros._ (Lat. _non prosequitur_). He does not prosecute.

  _Non seq._ (Lat. _non sequitur_). It does not follow (as a
  consequence).

  _n. o. p._ Not otherwise provided for.

  _Nor._, _Norm._ Norman.

  _Nor. Fr._, _Norm. Fr._ Norman French.

  _Norw._ Norway, Norwegian, Norse.

  _Nos._ Numbers.

  _Nov._ November.

  _N. P._ Notary Public.

  _N. S._ New style (since 1752); Nova Scotia.

  _N. T._ New Testament.

  _Num._, _Numb._ Numbers.

  _N. V. M._ Nativity of the Virgin Mary.

  _N. W._ Northwest.

  _N. W. T._ Northwest Territory.

  _N. Y._ New York.

  _N. Z._ New Zealand.

  _O._ Ohio; Old.

  _ob._ (Lat. _obiit._) He (_or_ she) died.

  _Ob._, _Obad._ Obadiah.

  _Obdt._, _Obt._ Obedient.

  _Obj._ Objective.

  _Obs._ Obsolete.

  _Oct._ October.

  _Oct._, _8vo._ Octavo.

  _O. H. Ger._ Old High German.

  _O. K._ “All correct.”

  _Okl._ Oklahoma.

  _Old Test._, _O. T._ Old Testament.

  _Olym._ Olympiad.

  _Op._ Opposite, opposition.

  _Opt._ Optative; Optics, optical.

  _Ordn._ Ordnance.

  _Ore._ Oregon.

  _Orig._ Original, originally.

  _Ornith._ Ornithology, ornithological.

  _O. S._ Old Style (previous to 1752); Old Saxon.

  _O. S. A._ Order of St. Augustine.

  _O. S. F._ Order of St. Francis.

  _O. T._ Old Testament.

  _O. U. A. M._ Order of United American Mechanics.

  _Oxf._ Oxford.

  _Oxon._ (Lat. _Oxonia_, _Oxoniensis_). Oxford; of Oxford.

  _Oxonien._ (Lat. _Oxoniensis_). Of Oxford.

  _oz._ Ounce. [The _z_ in this contraction and in _viz._, represents an
  old symbol (ʒ), used to mark a terminal contraction.]

  _P._ Page; Participle; Past; Pole; Port.

  _Pa._ Pennsylvania.

  _P. a._, _par. a._ Participial adjective.

  _Paint._ Painting.

  _Pal._, _Palæont._ Palæontology, palæontological.

  _Par._ Paragraph.

  _Parl._ Parliament, parliamentary.

  _Part._ Participle.

  _Pass._ Passive.

  _Pat._ Patrick.

  _Payt._ Payment.

  _P.C._ (Lat. _Patres Conscripti_). Conscript Fathers.

  _P. C._ Police Constable; Privy Council, Privy Councilor.

  _Pd._ Paid.

  _P. E._ Protestant Episcopal.

  _P. E. I._ Prince Edward Island.

  _Penn._ Pennsylvania.

  _Pent._ Pentecost.

  _Per._, _Pers._ Persia; Persian; Personal.

  _Per. an._ (Lat. _per annum_). Yearly.

  _Per cent._, _per ct._ (Lat. _per centum_). By the hundred.

  _Perf._ Perfect.

  _Persp._ Perspective.

  _Peruv._ Peruvian.

  _Pet._ Peter.

  _P. G. M._ Past Grand Master.

  _Phar._, _Pharm._ Pharmacy.

  _Ph. B._ (Lat. _Philosophiæ Baccalaureus_). Bachelor of Philosophy.

  _Ph. D._ (Lat. _Philosophiæ Doctor_). Doctor of Philosophy.

  _Phil._, _Phila._ Philadelphia.

  _Phil._ Philip; Philippians; Philosophy, philosophical.

  _Philol._ Philology.

  _Philos._ Philosophy, philosophical.

  _Ph. M._ Master of Philosophy.

  _Photog._ Photography, photographic, photographer.

  _Phren._, _phrenol._ Phrenology, phrenological.

  _Phys._ Physics, physical, physiology, physiological.

  _Physiol._ Physiology, physiological.

  _Pinx._, _Pxt._ (Lat. _pinxit_). He (_or_ she) painted it.

  _Pk._ Peck.

  _Pl._ Place; Plate; Plural.

  _P. L._ Poet Laureate.

  _Plff._, _Pltff._ Plaintiff.

  _Plu._ Plural.

  _Plup._, _Plupf._ Pluperfect.

  _Plur._ Plural.

  _P. M._ (Lat. _post meridiem_). Afternoon.

  _P. M._ Past Master; Peculiar Meter; Postmaster.

  _P. M. G._ Postmaster-General.

  _P. O._ Post-office.

  _P. & O. Co._ Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company.

  _Pol._ Polish.

  _Polit. Econ._ Political Economy.

  _P. O. O._ Post-office order.

  _Pop._ Population.

  _Port._ Portugal, Portuguese.

  _Poss._ Possessive.

  _pp._ Pages.

  _p. p._ Past (or perfect) participle.

  _P. P._ (Lat. _pater patriæ_). Father of his country.

  _P. C. C._ (Ft. _pour prendre congé_). To take leave. [_T. T. L._]

  _Pph._ Pamphlet.

  _p. pr._ Present participle.

  _Pr._ Present; Priest; Prince.

  _P. R._ (Lat. _populus Romanus_). The Roman people.

  _P. R. C._ (Lat. _Post Roman conditam_). After the building of Rome.
  [_A. U. C._]

  _Pref._ Prefix; Preface.

  _prep._ Preposition.

  _Pres._ President; Present.

  _Prim._ Primary.

  _Prin._ Principal; Principles.

  _Print._ Printing.

  _Prob._ Problem; Probable, probably.

  _Prof._ Professor.

  _Pron._ Pronoun; Pronounced, pronunciation.

  _Prop._ Proposition; Properly.

  _Pros._ Prosody.

  _Pro tem._ (Lat. _pro tempore_). For the time being.

  _Prov._ Proverbs, proverbial, proverbially; Provincial, provincially;
  Provost.

  _Provinc._ Provincial.

  _Prox._ (Lat. _proximo_). Next of or of the next month.

  _Prs._ Pairs.

  _Prus._ Prussia, Prussian.

  _P. S._ (Lat. _post scriptum_). Postscript.

  _P. S._ Privy Seal.

  _Ps._, _Psa._ Psalm, psalms.

  _Psychol._ Psychology.

  _Pt._ Part; Payment; Point; Port.

  _P. T._ Post-town; Pupil teacher.

  _Pub._ Public; Published, publisher.

  _Pub. Doc._ Public Documents.

  _Pwt._ Pennyweight.

  _Pxt._ [PINX.]

  _Q._, _Qu._ Query; Question.

  _Q. d._ (Lat. _quasi dicat_). As if he should say.

  _Q. e._ (Lat. _quod est_). Which is.

  _Q. E. D._ (Lat. _quod erat demonstrandum_). Which was to be proved.

  _Q. E. F._ (Lat. _quod erat faciendum_). Which was to be done.

  _Q. E. I._ (Lat. _quod erat inveniendum_). Which was to be found out.

  _Q. l._ (Lat. _quantum libel_). As much as you please.

  _Q. M._ Quartermaster.

  _Q. M._ Gen. Quartermaster-General.

  _Qr._ Quarterly; Quire.

  _Q. S._ Quarter Sessions.

  _Q. s._ (Lat. _quantum sufficit_). A sufficient quantity.

  _Qt._ Quart.

  _Qu._ Queen; Query; Question.

  _Quar._, quart. Quarterly.

  _Quar._, _4to._ Quarto.

  _Ques._ Question.

  _Q. v._ (Lat. _quod vide_). Which see.

  _Qu._ Query.

  _R._ Railway; Réaumur; River.

  _R._ (Lat. _rex_). King; (Lat. _regina_.) Queen.

  _R._ (Lat. _recipe_). Take.

  _R. A._ Royal Academy, Royal Academician; Rear-Admiral; Royal Arch;
  Royal Artillery.

  _Rad._ (Lat. _radix_). Root.

  _R. C._ Roman Catholic.

  _R. E._ Reformed Episcopal.

  _Réaum._ Réamur.

  _Rec._ Recipe.

  _Recd._ Received.

  _Recpt._ Receipt.

  _Ref._ Reference.

  _Ref. Ch._ Reformed Church.

  _Ref. Pres._ Reformed Presbyterian.

  _Reg._ Regular.

  _Reg._, _Regr._ Registrar.

  _Reg._, _Regt._ Regiment, regimental.

  _Rel. Pron._ Relative Pronoun

  _Rem._ Remark, remarks.

  _Rep._ Report; Representative.

  _Rep._ _Repub._ Republic; Republican.

  _Res._ Resolution.

  _Retd._ Returned.

  _Rev._ Revelation; Revenues; Reverend; Reviews; Revise.

  _Revd._ Reverend.

  _Revs._ Reverends.

  _Rev. Stat._ Revised Statutes.

  _R. F. D._ Rural Free Delivery.

  _Rhet._ Rhetoric, rhetorical.

  _R. I._ Rhode Island.

  _Riv._ River.

  _R. M. S._ Royal Mail Steamer; Royal Mail Service.

  _R. N._ Royal Navy.

  _Robt._ Robert.

  _Rom._ Roman, Romans.

  _Rom. Cath._ Roman Catholic.

  _R. P._ Regius Professor.

  _R. R._ Railroad.

  _R. S. V. P._ (Fr. _Repondez s’il vous plait_). Please reply.

  _Rt._ Right.

  _Rt. Hon._ Right Honorable.

  _Rt. Rev._ Right Reverend.

  _R. T. S._ Religious Tract Society

  _Rt. Wpful._ Right Worshipful.

  _Russ._ Russia, Russian.

  _R. V._ Revised Version; Rifle Volunteers.

  _Ry._ Railway.

  _S._ Saint; Saturday; Section; Shilling; Sign; Signor; Solo; Soprano;
  South; Sun; Sunday; Sabbath.

  _s._ Second, seconds; See; Singular; Son; Succeeded.

  _S. A._ South Africa; South America.

  _S. A._ (Lat. _secundem artem_). According to the rules of art.

  _Sab._ Sabbath.

  _Sam._, _Saml._ Samuel.

  _Sam._, _Samar._ Samaritan.

  _Sans._, _Sansc._, _Sansk._ Sanscrit, Sanskrit.

  _Sat._ Saturday.

  _Sax._ Saxon, Saxony.

  _S. C._ South Carolina.

  _Sc._ [SCIL. SCULL.]

  _S. caps._, _Sm. caps._ Small capitals. (In printing.)

  _Sc. B._ (Lat. _scientiæ baccalaureus_). Bachelor of Science.

  _Sc. D._ (Lat. _scientiæ doctor_). Doctor of Science.

  _Sch._ (Lat. _scholium_). A note.

  _Sci._ Science.

  _Sci. fa._ _Scire facias._

  _Scil. Sc._ (Lat. _scilicet_). Namely; to wit.

  _Sclav._ Sclavonic.

  _Scot._ Scotland, Scotch, Scottish.

  _Scr._ Scruple, scruples.

  _Scrip._, _Script_, Scripture, scriptural.

  _Sculp._ Sculpture.

  _Sculp._, _Sculpt._, _Sc._ (Lat. _sculpsit_). He (_or_ she) engraved
  it.

  _S. D._ Doctor of Science.

  _S. D._, _S. Dak._ South Dakota.

  _S. E._ Southeast.

  _Sec._ Second.

  _Sec._, _Sect._ Section.

  _Sec._, _Secy._ Secretary.

  _Sec. Leg._ Secretary of Legation.

  _Sen._ Senate, senator.

  _Sen. Doc._ Senate Document.

  _Sep._, _Sept._ September.

  _Seq._ (Lat. _sequentes_, _sequentia_). The following or the next.

  _Serg._, _Sergt._ Sergeant.

  _Serg. Maj._ Sergeant-Major.

  _Serv._ Servian.

  _Sess._ Session.

  _S. G._ Solicitor-general.

  _Sh._ Shilling, shillings.

  _Sing._ Singular.

  _S. J._ Society of Jesus.

  _S. J. C._ Supreme Judicial Court.

  _Skr._ Sanskrit.

  _Slav._ Slavonic.

  _Soc._, _Socy._ Society.

  _Sol.-gen._ Solicitor-general.

  _Sp._ Spain, Spanish; Spirit.

  _s. p._ (Lat. _sine prole_). Without issue.

  _S. P. C. A._ Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.

  _S. P. C. C._ Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children.

  _S. P. C. K._ Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge.

  _Spec._ Special, specially.

  _sp. gr._, _s. g._ Specific gravity.

  _S. P. Q. R._ (Lat. _Senatus Populusque Romanus_). The Senate and the
  People of Rome.

  _sq._ Square; _sq. ft._ Square foot, feet; _sq. in._ Square inch,
  inches; _sq. m._ Square mile, miles; _sq. yd._ Square yard; _sq. rd._
  Square rod.

  _Sr._ Senior; sir.

  _S. R. I._ (Lat. _Sacrum Romanum Imperium_). The Holy Roman Empire.

  _SS._ Saints.

  _S. S._ Sunday-school.

  _S. S. E._ South-southeast.

  _S. S. W._ South-southwest.

  _St._ Saint; Stone; Strait; Street.

  _st._ (Lat. _stet_). Let it stand (in printing).

  _Stat._ Statute, statutes; Statuary.

  _S. T. B._ Bachelor of Sacred Theology.

  _S. T. D._ (Lat. _sacræ theologiæ doctor_). Doctor of Divinity.

  _ster._, _stg._ Sterling.

  _Str._ Steamer, steam vessel.

  _Subj._ Subjunctive.

  _Suff._ Suffix.

  _Sun._, _Sund._ Sunday.

  _Sup._ Superior; Superlative; Supplement; Supine.

  _Sup. Ct._ Supreme Court.

  _Supt._ Superintendent.

  _Sur._, _Surg._ Surgeon, surgery.

  _Sur.-gen._ Surgeon-general.

  _Surv._ Surveying, surveyor.

  _Surv.-gen._ Surveyor-general.

  _S. v._ (Lat. _sub voce_). Under the word or title.

  _S. W._ Senior Warden; Southwest.

  _Sw._ Sweden, Swedish.

  _Switz._ Switzerland.

  _Syn._ Synonym, synonymous.

  _Synop._ Synopsis.

  _Syr._ Syria, Syriac; Syrup.

  _T._ Tenor; Ton; Tun; Tuesday.

  _Tab._ Table; Tabular statement.

  _Tan._ Tangent.

  _Tech._ Technical, technically.

  _Ten._, _Tenn._ Tennessee.

  _Ter._ Territory.

  _Term._ Termination.

  _Teut._ Teutonic.

  _Tex._ Texas.

  _Th._ Thomas; Thursday.

  _Theo._ Theodore.

  _Theol._ Theology.

  _Theor._ Theorem.

  _Thess._ Thessalonians.

  _Tho._, _Thos._ Thomas.

  _Thu._, _Thur._, _Thurs._ Thursday.

  _Tier._ Tierce.

  _Tit._ Title; Titus.

  _Tom._ Tome, volume.

  _Tonn._ Tonnage.

  _Topog._ Topography, topographical.

  _Tp._ Township.

  _Tr._ Translation, translator, translated; Transpose; Treasurer;
  Trustee.

  _Trans._ Transaction; Translation, translator, translated.

  _Trav._ Travels.

  _Treas._ Treasurer.

  _Trig._, _Trigon._ Trigonometry, trigonometrical.

  _Trin._ Trinity.

  _Tu._, _Tues._ Tuesday.

  _Turk._ Turkey, Turkish.

  _Typ._ Typographer.

  _Typog._ Typography, typographical.

  _U. C._ (Lat. _urbis conditæ_). From the building of the city--Rome.
  [A. U. C.]

  _U. K._ United Kingdom.

  _Ult._ (Lat. _ultimo_). Last, of the last month.

  _um._ Unmarried.

  _Unit._ Unitarian.

  _Univ._ University.

  _Up._ Upper.

  _U. P._ United Presbyterian.

  _U. S._ United States.

  _U. S. A._ United States of America; United States Army.

  _U. S. L._ United States Legation.

  _U. S. M._ United States mail; United States marine.

  _U. S. M. A._ United States Military Academy.

  _U. S. N._ United States Navy.

  _U. S. N. A._ United States Naval Academy.

  _U. S. S._ United States Senate; United States ship or steamer.

  _U. S. S. Ct_. United States Supreme Court.

  _Usu._ Usual, usually.

  _V._ Verb; Verse; Victoria; Violin.

  _V._, _vs._ (Lat. _versus_). Against.

  _V._ (Lat. _vide_). See.

  _V. A._ Vicar Apostolic; Vice-admiral.

  _Va._ Virginia.

  _Val._ Valve; Value.

  _Var._ Variety.

  _Vat._ Vatican.

  _V. aux._ Verb auxiliary.

  _V. C._ Vice-chancellor; Victoria Cross.

  _Ven._ Venerable.

  _V. G._ Vicar-General.

  _V. g._ (Lat. _verbi gratia_). For the sake of example.

  _V. i._ Verb intransitive.

  _Vice-pres._ Vice-president.

  _Vid._ (Lat. _vide_). See.

  _V. imp._ Verb impersonal.

  _V. irr._ Verb irregular.

  _Vis._, _Visc._ Viscount.

  _Viz._ (Lat. _videlicet_). Namely; to wit. [OZ.]

  _V. n._ Verb neuter.

  _Voc._ Vocative.

  _Vol._ Volume.

  _Vols._ Volumes.

  _V. P._ Vice-president.

  _V. Rev._ Very Reverend.

  _Vs._ (Lat. _versus_). Against.

  _V. S._ Veterinary surgeon.

  _V. t._ Verb transitive.

  _Vt._ Vermont.

  _Vul._, _Vulg._ Vulgate.

  _vv. ll._ (Lat. _variæ lectiones_). Various readings.

  _W._ Wednesday; Week; Welsh; West, western.

  _Walt._ Walter.

  _Wash._ Washington.

  _w. c._ Water closet.

  _W. C. A._ Women’s Christian Association.

  _W. C. T. U._ Women’s Christian Temperance Union.

  _Wed._ Wednesday.

  _Wel._ Welsh.

  _w. f._ Wrong font (in printing).

  _Whf._ Wharf.

  _W. I._ West Indies, West Indian.

  _Wis._, _Wisc._ Wisconsin.

  _Wk._ Week.

  _W. Long._ West Longitude.

  _Wm._ William.

  _W. N. W._ West-northwest.

  _Wp._ Worship.

  _Wpful._ Worshipful.

  _W. S. W._ West-southwest.

  _Wt._ Weight.

  _W. Va._ West Virginia.

  _Wyo._ Wyoming.

  _Xm._, _Xmas._ Christmas.

  _Y._ Year.

  _Yd._ Yard.

  _Yds._ Yards.

  _Ye._ The; Thee.

  _Y. M. C. A._ Young Men’s Christian Association.

  _Y. M. Cath. A._ Young Men’s Catholic Association.

  _Y. M. H. A._ Young Men’s Hebrew Association.

  _Y. P. S. C. E._ Young People’s Society of Christian Endeavor.

  _Yr._ Year; Younger; Your.

  _Ys._ Years; Yours.

  _Y. W. C. A._ Young Women’s Christian Association.

  _Zach._ Zachary.

  _Zech._ Zechariah.

  _Z. G._, _Zoo._ Zoölogical Gardens.

  _Zoöl._ Zoölogy, zoölogical.


PUNCTUATION

  Punctuation is the indication, by means of stops, of the different
  pauses necessary to show the meaning of a sentence.

  Stops, therefore, are used to elucidate the meaning of words in
  their relation to other words.

=The Period [.].=--Declarative and imperative sentences, when not
connected in construction with what follows, are closed by periods.

  Examples:--The child is father of the man.
             The king is dead, long live the king.

A period should be placed after every abbreviation. The period thus used
is part of the abbreviation.

Examples:--_Wash._, Washington; _Gen._, General; _Pro tem._, pro
tempore, for the time being; _Esq._, Esquire; _Gov._, Governor.

Such expressions as 3d, 18th, 8mo, are not abbreviations and do not
require a period after them.

A period should always be placed after the Roman numerals.

Examples:--I., II., III., IV., V., VI., VII., VIII., IX., X., etc.

=Interrogation Point [?].=--The interrogation point is used for marking
all questions. When the question consists of several parts, or when
several questions are contained in one sentence, there is some
difficulty in deciding whether there should be one or more interrogation
points. The principle is that if one answer is sufficient for all, one
point is enough; if different answers are required, a point should be
placed after each question.

  Examples:--What can I do for you?
             Now, you understand?

=Exclamation Point [!].=--The exclamation point is placed at the end of
every sentence, clause, phrase, or word intended to convey strong
emotion.

  Examples:--Praise be thine, O God!
             Lost! Lost! O that I were home!

=Colon [:].=--Two clauses, one or both of which are subdivided by the
semicolon, should be separated from each other by the colon.

Example:--This chapter is divided into two sections: the first, which
was written many years since, being a history of the institution; the
second, a prophecy as to its future.

The colon is used before all direct quotations, if formally introduced,
and after all words which formally introduce a sentence to follow. If
the quoted matter begins a new paragraph, the colon should be followed
by a dash.

Examples:--Cæsar spoke as follows: (His speech to follow.)

He replied in these words: “I shall always be prepared in future.”

My dear Friend: (A letter following.)

The colon is sometimes used between complete sentences where the period
would indicate too long a pause, and the semicolon too short a pause.

Examples:--It was a dark and dreary night: the wind was blowing in
fitful gusts.

It is over: let us go.

=Semicolon [;].=--When two clauses are united by either of the
conjunctions _for_, _but_, _and_, or an equivalent word--the one clause
perfect in itself, and the other added as a matter of inference,
contrast or explanation--they are separated by a semicolon.

Example:--Economy is no disgrace; for it is better to live on a little
than to outlive a great deal.

A semicolon is placed between two or more parts of a sentence when
these, or any of them, are divisible by a comma into smaller portions.

Example:--Men are not to be judged by their looks, habits, and
appearances; they should be judged by the character of their lives and
conversations, and by their works.

When in a series of expressions the particulars depend on a commencing
or concluding portion of the sentence, they should be separated from
each other by a semicolon if laid down as distinct propositions or of a
compound nature.

Example:--Philosophers assert that Nature is unlimited in her
operations; that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve; that
knowledge will always be progressive; and that all future generations
will continue to make discoveries of which we have not the slightest
idea.

When several short sentences follow one another, slightly connected in
sense or in construction, they should be separated by a semicolon.

Example:--Stones grow; vegetables grow and live; animals grow, live, and
feel.

A semicolon is put before _as_, _viz._, _to-wit_, _namely_, _i. e._, or
_that is_, when they precede an example or a specification of
particulars, or subjects enumerated; and also between these particulars
when they consist each of a disjunct pair of words, or of a single word
or phrase but slightly connected with the others.

Example:--Many words are differently spelled in English; as, “Inquire,
enquire; jail, gaol; skeptic, sceptic.”

=Comma [,].=--Two words belonging to the same part of speech, or used as
such, when closely connected by one of the conjunctions _and_, _or_,
_nor_, are not separated by a comma from each other.

Example:--Pay supreme and undivided homage to goodness and truth.

Two words of the same part of speech and in the same construction, if
used without a conjunction between them, are separated from each other
by a comma.

Example:--We are fearfully, wonderfully made.

Two nouns or pronouns in apposition, or a noun and a pronoun, should not
be separated by a comma if they may be regarded as a proper name or as a
single phrase.

Example:--The poet Milton wrote excellent prose and better poetry.

But a noun or pronoun and a phrase, or two or more phrases, if put in
apposition so that they may not be so regarded, are separated by a comma
from each other, and from what follows in the same sentence.

Example:--Homer, the greatest poet of antiquity, is said to have been
blind.

Words or phrases contrasted with each other, or having a mutual relation
to others that follow them in the same clause, are separated by commas.

Example:--False delicacy is affectation, not politeness.

A comma is put before a relative clause when it is explanatory of the
antecedent or presents an additional thought.

Example:--Behold the emblem of thy state in flowers, which bloom and
die.

But the point is omitted before a relative that restricts the general
notion of the antecedent to a particular sense.

Example:--Every teacher must love a boy who is attentive and docile.

Expressions of a parenthetical or intermediate nature are separated from
the context by commas.

Example:--The sun, with all its attendant planets, is but a very little
part of the grand machine of the universe.

A word or an expression used independently in addressing a person or an
object is separated by a comma from the rest of the sentence.

Example:--Antonio, light my lamp within my chamber.

Adjectival, participial, and absolute phrases are each separated by a
comma from the remainder of the sentence.

Example:--Awkward in his person, James was ill qualified to command
respect.

Adverbs or adverbial phrases, when used as connectives, or when they
modify not single words, but clauses or sentences, are each followed by
a comma; and if used intermediately they admit a comma before as well as
after them.

Example:--The most vigorous thinkers and writers are, in fact,
self-taught.

When a phrase beginning with a preposition, an adverb, or a conjunction
relates to or modifies a preceding portion of the sentence, a comma is
unnecessary if the parts are closely connected in sense.

Example:--For that agency he applied without a recommendation.

Many phrases which, in their natural or usual order, do not require to
be punctuated, are, when placed in some other or unnatural position, set
off by a comma from the rest of the sentence.

Example:--By Cowley, the philosopher Hobbes is compared to Columbus.

When one of two clauses depends on the other, they are separated by a
comma.

Example:--If you would be revenged on your enemies, let your life be
blameless.

Two correlative expressions united by the conjunction _as_ or _than_ are
written without a point between them.

Example:--Men are never so easily deceived as when they plot to deceive
others.

But when united by any other word than one of these conjunctions, the
correlative expressions are separated by a comma.

Example:--Though learned and methodical, yet the teacher was not a
pedant.

Words or phrases in the same construction, forming a series, are
separated from each other by commas.

Example:--Scrooge was his sole executor, his sole administrator, his
sole assign, his sole residuary legatee, his sole friend, and sole
mourner.--_Dickens._

But when the members of the series are closely connected in sense, the
commas should be omitted.

Example:--Government of the people by the people for the people.

When in a compound sentence the clauses have each a different
nominative, but have only one verb, expressed in the first clause and
understood in the others, the ellipsis, or place of the verb, should be
supplied by a comma.

Example:--A wise man seeks to shine in himself, a fool to outshine
others.

A short quotation, or any expression that resembles a quotation, is
separated by a comma from an introductory clause.

Example:--Dr. Thomas Brown truly says, “The benevolent spirit is as
universal in its efforts as the miseries which are capable of being
relieved.”

=Dash ―.=--The dash denotes an abrupt break in a sentence.

  Example:--Here lies the great--false marble, where?
            Nothing but sordid dust lies here.

The dash is used to indicate that something is left unfinished.

  Example:--We cannot hope to succeed unless--
            But we must succeed.

The dash is sometimes used instead of brackets before and after a
parenthesis.

Example:--The man actually--this is in the strictest confidence--filled
his pocket with my cigars when he thought I was not looking.

The dash is used instead of the colon where the word “namely” is implied
but not expressed.

Example:--The sentence should be amended to read “--whenever and
wherever the president shall determine.”

=Parentheses[()].= --Parentheses are used to inclose an explanation,
authority, definition, reference, translation, or any matter not
belonging to the grammatical construction of the sentence.

Example:--He gained from heaven (’twas all he wished) a friend.

=Brackets ([]).=--The use of brackets is about the same as that of the
marks of parenthesis, but is generally confined to words inserted in
quotations for the sake of explanation.

Example:--Dickens has given a very lively account of this place [the
Academy] in his paper entitled “Our School,” but it is very mythical in
many respects.

=Quotation Marks [“”].=--Quotation marks are used before and after a
passage quoted in the exact words of another.

Example:--“My very dog,” sighed poor Rip, “has forgotten me.”

Matter quoted indirectly, or given only in substance, is not placed
within quotation marks.

A quotation within a quotation is inclosed in single marks.

Example:--“His staff and knapsack, her little bonnet and basket, etc.,
lie beside him. ‘She’ll come to-morrow,’ he says, when it gets dark, and
goes sorrowfully home.”

Where a quotation consists of several paragraphs, quotation marks should
be used at the beginning of each paragraph, but at the close of the last
paragraph only.

Titles of books, essays, newspapers, etc., should be placed within
quotation marks, unless in italics or capitals.

=Hyphen [-].=--The hyphen is used between the parts of certain compound
words, and to mark the division of syllables in showing the spelling of
words. It is sometimes used in place of the diæresis after a prefix
ending in a vowel before a word beginning with a vowel.

Example:--Horse-chestnut, Franco-Prussian, re-edit, de-vi-ate,
truth-telling, text-book.

=Compound Words.=--Rule I.--Compounds made by omitting particles, and
used literally, are generally written with a hyphen.

Many such words that coalesce in pronunciation, and have become very
familiar, are written continuously.

  after-events  broomstick
  almond-oil    eyeball
  arrow-head    milkman
  battle-ax     outlook

Rule II.--Two or more normally separate words are joined with hyphens if
used in an adjective sense before a noun.

  A sight never to be forgotten.
  A never-to-be-forgotten sight.

Rule III.--A full phrase used as the name of something not literally
indicated by the phrase is written with a hyphen or hyphens.

Those here given are names of plants:

  Aaron’s-beard
  forget-me-not

Rule IV.--Compound words showing arbitrary application of the literal
idea expressed by their separated elements take no hyphen.

  blackberry
  bluefish
  everybody
  however
  cottonwood (a tree)
  pronghorn (antelope)
  marrowfat (a pea)
  arrowhead (a plant)
  matchlock (a gun)

(Care should be taken not to apply this rule in cases where it does not
really fit. Thus, _any one_, _one’s self_, etc., are often wrongly
printed as _anyone_, _oneself_, etc.)

=Apostrophe [’].= --The apostrophe is used in the possessive case of
nouns, to denote the plural of figures and letters, and to mark the
elision of letters at the beginning or middle of a word, and the
omission of figures in a number or date.

Example:--John’s, men’s, 2’s, 7’s, p’s and q’s, I’ve, I’ll, don’t,
won’t, Po’keepsie, tho’, ’92, ’76.


MISCELLANEOUS MARKS

=Ellipsis= [* * * *] signifies a leaving out, defect, omission.

=Leaders= [...] serve to carry the eye across the pages of indexes,
tables, contents, etc.; thus:

  Needle-gun invented...................1856

=Brace [{].=--It is the vertical curved line used to signify that two or
more words or lines are to be taken together--thus:

            {Aboriginal
  Americans {Native
            {Emigrants

=Asterisk [*].=--It is used in printing or writing as a reference to a
passage or note in the margin or at the bottom of a page, and also to
supply the omission of letters or words.

=Dagger, or Obelisk [†]= is so called from its resemblance to a dagger,
or inverted obelisk. It is also a mark of reference to a note in the
margin or at the bottom of the page.

=Double Dagger [‡]= is the third reference mark used when there are more
than two used on a page.

=Parallels [‖].=--This character is used in writing and printing to call
attention to a similarly marked note in the margin or at the foot of the
page.

=Section Mark [§]= is the character often used to denote a division of a
writing or subdivision of a chapter; a paragraph.

=Paragraph [¶]= is the sign which notes the division of a writing into
distinct parts, sections or subdivisions.

=Index, or Pointer [☞]= is used to direct particular attention to a note
or paragraph. It is sometimes called a _fist_.

=Asterism [⁂= or =⁂]=, or cluster of stars, is used as a sign to direct
attention to a passage, or paragraph, especially when such attention is
deemed very important.


RHETORICAL FIGURES OF SPEECH

Figures of speech, or tropes, are used to make language more effective
by adding special strength and beauty. They are words used in meanings
not their own designed to secure a peculiarly happy effect. Thus when
the poet writes:

    “But yonder comes the powerful king of day,
    Rejoicing in the East..........”

he uses “king of day” for “sun”; and no one can fail to notice the
pleasureable effect produced.

                  =Chief Rhetorical Figures of Speech=
  /---------------------------------/\---------------------------------\
        |                        |                        |
  _Resemblance._         _Contiguity._          _Contrast or Surprise._
  _a._ Comparison or     _a._ Autonomasia--     _a._ Antithesis and
       Simile.                Individual for         Epigram.
                              class.

  _b_. Metaphor--        _b_. Synecdoche--      _b_. Hyperbole.
   1. Identification          Part for whole.
      of like qualities.                        _c_. Irony and
                                                       Euphemism.
   2. Identification     _c_. Metonymy--Cause
      of like things.         for effect, badge _Arrangement._
                              for class, etc.   _a._ Climax.
                                                _b._ Anti-climax.
  _c._ Personification.                         _c._ Emphasis, or
                                                     Inversion.
  _d._ Allegory.

But the new word images introduced must really be suited to add strength
or beauty. Notice the contrast between these two descriptions of
morning:

    The saffron morn, with early blushes spread,
    Now rose refulgent from Tithonus’ bed,
    With new-born day to gladden mortal sight,
    And gild the courts of heaven with sacred light.
                                    --_Pope’s Homer._

    The sun had long since in the lap
    Of Thetis taken out his nap;
    And, like a lobster boiled, the morn
    From black to red began to turn.
                     --_Butler’s Hudibras._

PRINCIPAL FIGURES--The common figures are metaphor, simile, allegory,
personification, apostrophe, euphemism, hyperbole, antithesis, epigram,
irony, climax, onomatopœia (_ŏn-ŏm-a-tō-pœ´-ĭ-a_), and alliteration.

=Simile.=--A simile is a comparison between objects that are not of the
same class, and usually expressed by either _like_ or _as_.

  Examples:--The warrior fought like a lion.
             His spear was like the mast of a ship.
             His wrath was as the storm.

=Metaphor.=--A metaphor is a comparison which is implied between two
objects that are not of the same class. Unlike the simile, it does not
state the resemblance, it takes that for granted and proceeds as if the
two things were one--we no longer say, “He fought _like_ a lion,” but,
“He _was_ a lion in the fight.”

=Allegory.=--Under which head fall Fables and Parables, is an extended
Metaphor generally accompanied by Personification.

Example:--Bunyan’s _Pilgrim’s Progress_; Spenser’s _Faerie Queene_.

=Personification.=--Attributes life to inanimate objects. It speaks of
“The _childhood_ of a nation,” of “a _learned_ age” of “the _thirsty_
ground,” of “_eager_ darts,” of “_winged_ words.”

=Apostrophe.=--Is a Personification accompanied by an address, or an
address to an absent person.

Example:--

    Ye hills and dales, ye rivers, woods, and plains,
    And ye that live and move, fair creatures, tell.

=Hyperbole= is effective exaggeration.

Example:--

                            Her eye in heaven
    Would through the airy region stream so bright,
    That birds would sing and think it were not night.

=Antithesis= is a contrast of words or thoughts.

Examples:--

    Better be first, he said, in a little Iberian village
    Than be second in Rome.

=Epigram= is a short antithesis. It is often of the nature of a proverb.

Examples:--

    Some are too foolish to commit follies.

    The child is father of the man.

=Irony= is hidden satire.

Example:--

    ’Tis pretty, sure, and very probable,
    That eyes, that are the frail’st and softest things,
    Should be called tyrants, butchers, murderers.

=Metonymy=.--Metonymy is a figure of rhetoric in which the name of one
object is put for another, the two being so related that the mention of
one recalls the other.

Examples:--

    He writes a good hand (handwriting).

    Death fell in showers (bullets).

    The kettle boils (water).

    The pen is mightier than the sword (intelligence vs. force).

=Synecdoche= occurs where the part is taken for the whole, the species
for the genus, the material for the thing made of it, where the person
is designated by the most conspicuous trait of his character or the
effect he produces.

Thus we may speak of “all hands being at work,” of so many “head” of
cattle.

=Climax=.--Climax, or the rhetorical ladder, is the arrangement of a
succession of words, or clauses, in such a way that the weakest may
stand first; and that each in turn may rise in importance and make a
deeper impression on the mind than that which preceded it.

Anti-climax reverses the order: this is often used in humorous writings.

Examples:--

    I came, I saw, I conquered.

    Since concord was lost, friendship was lost, fidelity
    was lost, liberty was lost--all was lost.

    We have petitioned, we have remonstrated, we have
    supplicated, we have prostrated ourselves before the
    throne.--_Patrick Henry_.

=Alliteration= repeats the same sound in words for the purpose of adding
to the euphony.

Examples:--

    Silently out of the room there glided the glistening savage,
    Bearing the serpent’s skin and seeming himself like a serpent,
    Winding his sinuous way in the dark to the depths of the forest.

=*Onomatopœia= emphasizes the meaning by adapting the sound to the
sense.

Example from _Cataract of Lodore_:--

    And sounding and bounding and rounding,
    And bubbling and troubling and doubling,
    And grumbling and rumbling and tumbling,
    And clattering and battering and shattering.

* Name-making; the formation of words in imitation of the sounds made by
the things signified: as, buzz, hiss, peewit, etc. It is held by some
philologists that all language had its origin in onomatopœia, words
formed by this principle being the most natural, and readily suggesting
the actions or objects producing the sounds which the words are intended
to represent.

=Euphemism= is the form of expression by which bad or dangerous things
are spoken of in gracious terms. As an example we say death is “parting”
or “falling asleep.”

=Emphasis, or Inversion=, adds greatly to the precision as well as vigor
of style when temperately used. That is, when the _predicate_ or
_object_ are much more impressive or mentally prominent than the
_subject_ they may with advantage precede it.

Any special emphasis may justify inversion. It is frequently used to
indicate a swift or abrupt action--Commands frequently assume this form
and owe to it half their force.

Examples:--

    Great is Diana of the Ephesians,
    Sweet is the breath of morn.
    Low she lies who blessed our eyes.
    Silver and gold have I none.
    Go he shall. Stay not here.
    Up goes the fool, and gets sent down again.


FORMS OF WRITTEN ENGLISH

All forms of language composition are either Prose or Poetry; and these
in turn are subdivided rhetorically into certain well-recognized special
forms. The following classification shows at a glance the most important
of these:


I. PROSE

LETTER WRITING.--Business and public letters, social letters, ceremonial
letters and notes.

NARRATION.--Letters, journals, memoirs, biographies, history, travel,
news, fiction.

DESCRIPTION.--Descriptions of external objects, of character and its
development, of intellectual processes.

EXPOSITION.--Essays, treatises, editorials, reviews, criticisms.

ARGUMENT.--Argumentative essays, debates, briefs, etc.

PERSUASION OR ORATORY.--Orations, addresses, lectures, sermons.


II. POETRY

EPIC AND NARRATIVE POETRY.--The great epics, metrical romances, metrical
tales, ballads, pastorals, idylls, etc.

DRAMATIC (including all narrative poetry which presents actors as
speaking and acting for themselves).--Tragedy, comedy, farce, opera,
melodrama, mask, interlude, etc.

LYRIC.--Odes, sacred and secular songs, elegy, sonnets, simple lyrics.

DIDACTIC.--Moral essays in verse, satiric poetry, etc.


LETTER WRITING, OR CORRESPONDENCE.

A _letter_ is a written communication on any subject from one person to
another. In other words, it is written conversation, or “speaking by the
pen.” Letters deserve very careful attention, for no species of
composition is more generally used by all classes of persons. Remember
that the letter “bespeaks the person,” and that many will judge of a
person’s character and attainments from his correspondence.

The first endeavor of a writer should be to express himself as easily
and naturally as in conversation, though with more method and
conciseness.

So, before you begin to write a letter, arrange in your mind the ideas
you wish to convey; then express them as if you were talking to the
person to whom you are writing.

=Divisions of a Letter.=--In every business or social letter there are
five things to consider: the _heading_, the _introduction_, the _body of
the letter_, the _complimentary close_, and the _signature_. Business
letters should have an introductory address before the salutation.

THE HEADING.--The heading consists of the name of the _place_ at which
the letter is written, and the _date_. If you write from a city like St.
Louis, Boston, or New York, give the door number, the name of the
street, of the city, and of the state. If you are at a hotel or a
school, its name may take the place of the door number and the name of
the street. If in a small country place, give your postoffice address,
the name of the county, and that of the state.

The date consists of the month, the day of the month, and the year.

Leave at least one inch vacant on the top of the first page.

Put on the first line, and to the right, your own postoffice _address_;
and, either on the same line or on the next, the _date_--that is, the
month, day, and year, thus:

  _25 Endicott Street, Boston, Mass.,
  August 6, 1904._

THE INTRODUCTION.--The introduction consists of the _address_--the name,
the title, and the place of business or the residence of the one
addressed--and the _salutation_.

The _Salutation_ and the _Complimentary Close_ should be appropriate to
the person addressed. (See list of forms of Salutation and Complimentary
Close on page 737).

Titles of respect and courtesy should appear in the address. Prefix
_Mr._ to a man’s name; _Messrs._ to the names of several gentlemen;
_Miss_ to that of a young lady; _Mrs._ to that of a married lady. Prefix
_Dr._ to the name of a physician, but never _Mr._ _Dr._; _Rev._ to the
name of a clergyman, or _Rev. Mr._ if you do not know his christian
name; _Rev. Dr._ if he is a Doctor of Divinity, or write _Rev._ before
the name and _D. D._ after it.

Salutations vary with the station of the one addressed, or the writer’s
degree of intimacy with him. Strangers may be addressed as _Sir_, _Rev.
Sir_, _General_, _Madam_, etc.; acquaintances as _Dear Sir_, _Dear
Madam_, etc.; friends as _My dear Sir_, _My dear Madam_, _My dear
Jones_, etc.; and near relatives and other dear friends as _My dear
Wife_, _My dear Boy_, _Dearest Ellen_, etc. Examples:

  _Mr. William C. Jones,
  Washington, D. C._

  DEAR SIR:
  Your letter, etc.

  _American Book Co.,
  New York City._

  DEAR SIRS:
  Kindly send, etc.

THE BODY.--Begin the body of the letter at the end of the salutation,
and on the _same_ line, if the introduction consists of four lines--you
may do so even if the introduction consists of but three--in which case
the comma after the salutation should be followed by a dash; otherwise,
on the line _below_. (See general observations as to subject matter,
style, etc.)

THE CONCLUSION consists of the _complimentary close_ and the
_signature_. The forms of the complimentary close are many, and are
determined by the relation of the writer to the one addressed. In
letters of friendship may be used _Your sincere friend_; _Yours
affectionately_; _Your loving son_ or _daughter_, etc. In business
letters, use _Yours_; _Yours truly_; _Truly yours_; _Yours
respectfully_; _Very respectfully yours_, etc. In official letters use
_I am_, _with respect_, _your obedient servant_; _I have the honor to be
your obedient servant_, etc.

The complimentary close often forms part of the last paragraph; at other
times it stands separately, and then it usually begins about the middle
of the line. Example:

  _Very sincerely
  Mary E. Shattuck_.

A married woman should sign her own given name, but indicate her proper
title of address; thus:

  _Mrs. J. F. Martin._

THE SUPERSCRIPTION, on the outside of the envelope, is the same as the
address, consisting of the name, the titles, and the full directions of
the one addressed. It should be written very plainly, and include the
town, county, state, and country, if it goes abroad.

The number of the postoffice box, or the door number and the name of the
street, or the name of the county, may stand at the lower left-hand
corner.

=Style of Letters.=--It makes a considerable difference in our style
whether we write as officials or business men, or as individual members
of society.

The style should be determined in some measure by the nature of the
subject, but in a still greater degree by the relative positions of the
writer and the person addressed. On important subjects, the composition
is expected to be forcible and impressive, on lighter subjects, easy and
vivacious; in condolence, tender and sympathetic; in congratulation,
lively and joyous. To superiors, it should be respectful; to inferiors,
courteous; to friends, familiar; and to relatives, affectionate.

We may, therefore, usefully distinguish letters into three
kinds--_official_ or _business_ letters and _personal_ or _social_
letters, and _ceremonial letters_ or _notes_.

=Official or Business Letters.=--These include all those written by a
person in the capacity of an officer, a professional man, a merchant, a
tradesman, etc. They are classed together because they are mainly
subject to the same rules.

In writing business letters, the following rules should be observed:

1. Be very _clear_, so that your exact meaning cannot fail to be
understood at first sight. Read your letter over with close attention to
see that all your thoughts are correctly, fully, and clearly expressed.

2. Take care that the _handwriting_ be legible, else you may get _boots_
for _books_, _matches_ for _hatchets_ or _latches_, _two ponies_ instead
of _one hundred pansies_.

3. Be _brief_ and to the point; business men have no time to waste.

4. Confine yourself to _strict business_. If you wish to add matters of
friendship, it is well to write them on a separate leaf, that the
business portion may be separately filed.

5. Write _grammatical and idiomatic_ English, and paragraph and
punctuate as in other kinds of writing.

=Personal and Social Letters.=--Under this head may be placed those
letters written by any person in his private capacity as an individual.
Such letters may be dictated by friendship, by charity or kindness, by
politeness, by respect, by gratitude, by self-interest, or by any other
reasonable motive.

Among these are the following:

LETTERS OF FRIENDSHIP are such as are dictated by mutual affection
between relatives and friends. They should be natural, easy, frank,
without the least affectation. “I wish you to open to me your soul, not
your library,” said Mme. de Sévigné, who wrote exquisitely herself. Such
letters may treat of any subject of common interest to the parties
concerned. Their language is that of the heart. Kindness, affection,
charity, good-nature should dictate, prudence and common sense supervise
them.

LETTERS OF CONGRATULATION are written on occasion of the New Year, a
birthday, a preferment, or when a friend has met with some uncommon good
fortune, and should be dictated by genuine friendship and sincere
esteem, and expressed modestly without any exaggerated praise.

LETTERS OF CONDOLENCE.--These require great skill and care. Act like the
humane surgeon who touches the wound gently, and only to heal it. If
your correspondent knows the sad news already, sympathize sincerely with
him. If you are to announce the bad news yourself, prepare the way
slowly; state the news as delicately as you can. Express your grief
again before you conclude.

LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION OR RECOMMENDATION require special prudence.
Think first whether it is proper to write such a letter at all for such
a person. Avoid two dangers: do not offend the applicant for a
recommendation, do not deceive your correspondent by exaggerated praise
of the one recommended.

If the applicant is _worthy_ state his merits, express reasonable
confidence in him. If he is _unworthy_ or doubtfully worthy, give him a
letter which he will prefer not to present; for every such letter is an
open letter, which the bearer is expected to read before delivering.

A letter of introduction or recommendation should never be sealed, as
the bearer to whom it is given ought to know the contents.

LETTERS OF PETITION should be modest and every way moderate. Ingratiate
yourself in a manly way; state your reasons briefly but forcibly; show
your appreciation of the trouble your correspondent may be put to in
consequence of the favor; promise gratitude.

In answering such letters favorably be brief and show your pleasure at
rendering the little service asked. In refusing show how reluctantly you
do so; give good reasons for it. Express your hope of finding, some
other time, a better opportunity of showing your affection or esteem.

LETTERS OF THANKS should never be neglected when a favor has been
received. Express your appreciation both of the favor and of the
kindness with which it was bestowed. Hope for an opportunity, not of
repaying the person, but of showing your gratitude.

=Ceremonial Letters and Notes.=--Under this heading may be classed notes
of _invitation_, _acceptance_, and _regret_, both formal and informal.

_Informal_ invitations, acceptances, and regrets are simply friendly
notes written always in the _first_ person. They vary in form to suit
the occasion. They should be cordial in tone, but brief, and are in
better taste when confined to the subject of the invitation, outside
items being permissible only under special circumstances which may
require their mention.

An informal invitation should never, under any circumstances, be
answered in the third person.

Invitation:--

  _30 Rampart St.,
  May 4th, 1917._

  _Dear Mr. Brooks:_

_We would be very pleased to have you dine with us on Monday next, the
12th, at seven o’clock, if disengaged._

  _Cordially yours,
  Helen Clements._

Acceptance:

  _Eastern Point,
  April 29th, 1917._

  _Dear Mrs. Clements:_

_I will be most happy to dine with you on Monday, the 12th, at seven
o’clock._

  _Faithfully yours,
  Arthur Brooks._

_Formal_ notes are always expressed in the third person, and all answers
to such should correspond in form and style.

Although invitations to large affairs are usually printed from engraved
plates, a few forms are here given, principally to show the correct
forms of reply to the several kinds of invitation.

Invitation to a reception:

  _Mr. and Mrs. Charles L. Harrington
  request the pleasure of your company
  on Thursday evening, November tenth,
  from eight until eleven o’clock,
  896 Fifth Avenue._

Acceptance:

  _Miss Evelyn Hall
  accepts with pleasure
  Mr. and Mrs. Charles L. Harrington’s
  invitation for Thursday evening,
  November tenth._

Dinner invitation:

  _Mr. and Mrs. Henry W. King
  request the pleasure of
  Mr. and Mrs. Mayhew Marbury’s
  company at dinner
  on Tuesday evening, April tenth,
  at eight o’clock,
  40 Maple Avenue._

Acceptance:

  _14 West Street,
  March 31st, 1917._

  _Mr. and Mrs. Mayhew Marbury
  accept with pleasure
  Mr. and Mrs. Henry W. King’s
  invitation to dinner on
  Tuesday evening, April tenth,
  at eight o’clock._

=Additional Suggestions.=--Always use good paper and black ink.
Decorated or highly colored writing papers are in poor taste. Plain
white or slightly tinted paper of medium weight is best.

All letters and notes should be written legibly and neatly, carefully
punctuated, and absolutely correct as to spelling.

All letters and notes, with a few special exceptions, require a prompt
acknowledgment of receipt, if not an immediate answer.

This is especially the case in business letters and those containing
enclosures of any kind.

All letters and notes should be courteous. To inferiors in station be
kindly; to superiors, respectful; and to equals, friendly.

All letters and notes asking information should be re-read immediately
before answering.


OFFICIAL AND TITLED SALUTATIONS

Titles in the United States are either official or academic.


OFFICIAL TITLES

TO THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, an official letter commences,
_Sir._

Conclusion: _I have the honor to remain your most obedient servant._

Salutation of a social letter: _My dear Mr. President._

Conclusion: _I have the honor to remain most respectfully_ [or
_sincerely_] _yours_.

Inscription on envelope: _President Woodrow Wilson._

TO THE VICE-PRESIDENT, an official letter begins, _Sir_, or _Dear Sir_.

Conclusion: _I have, Sir, the honor to remain your most obedient
servant_.

Salutation of a social letter: _My Dear Mr. Marshall._

Conclusion: as given for president.

Inscription on envelope: _The Vice-President, Thomas R. Marshall._

TO A JUSTICE OF THE SUPREME COURT, an official letter begins and
concludes as in the case of a vice-president.

Salutation of a social letter: _Dear Mr. Justice White_, or _Dear
Justice White_.

Conclusion: _Believe me, truly_ [or _most sincerely_] _yours_, etc.

Inscription on envelope: _Mr. Justice Edward D. White._

TO A SENATOR, an official letter begins and concludes as to a
vice-president.

Salutation of a social letter: _My Dear Senator Lewis._

Conclusion: as given for a justice.

Inscription on envelope: _Senator Hamilton Lewis_ or _To the Hon.
Hamilton Lewis_.

TO A MEMBER OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, an official letter begins
as to a senator.

Conclusion: as in the case of a vice-president.

Salutation of a social letter: _My dear Mr. Clark._

Conclusion: as given for a justice.

Inscription on envelope: _Hon. Champ Clark._

TO A MEMBER OF THE CABINET, an official letter begins and concludes as
to a vice-president.

The salutation and conclusion of a social letter are as in the case of a
member of the House of Representatives.

Inscription on envelope: _Honorable Robert Lansing, Secretary of State._

TO THE GOVERNOR OF A STATE, an official letter begins: _Sir._

Conclusion: _I have the honor, Sir, to remain your obedient servant._

A social letter begins: _Dear Governor McCall_ or _Dear Mr. McCall_.

Conclusion: _Believe me, truly_ [or _most sincerely_] _yours_.

Inscription on envelope: _Governor_ [or _Hon._] _Samuel W. McCall._

TO A MAYOR, an official letter begins: _Sir_ or _Your Honor_.

Conclusion: Same as a governor.

Social letter begins: _My dear Mayor Rockwood_ or _Dear Mr. Rockwood_.

Conclusion: Same as a governor.

Inscription on envelope: _His Honor the Mayor of Cambridge, Wendell D.
Rockwood._


CLERICAL TITLES

THE POPE--_His Holiness Pope Benedict XV._

TO A ROMAN CATHOLIC ARCHBISHOP, an official or a social letter begins:
_Most Reverend and Dear Sir._

Conclusion: _I have the honor to remain your humble servant._

Inscription on envelope: _The Most Reverend John J. Keane, Archbishop of
Dubuque, Iowa._

TO A CARDINAL, whether official or social, a letter begins: _Your
Eminence._

Conclusion: as to an archbishop.

Inscription on envelope: _His Eminence Cardinal Gibbons._

TO A ROMAN CATHOLIC BISHOP, either an official or a social letter
begins: _Right Reverend and Dear Sir._

Conclusion: as to an archbishop.

Inscription on envelope: _To the Right Reverend Philip J. Garrigan,
Bishop of Sioux City, Iowa._

TO A PROTESTANT BISHOP, an official letter begins as in the case of a
Roman Catholic bishop. A social letter begins: _Dear Bishop Lawrence._

Conclusion: _I have the honor to remain your obedient servant_, or _I
remain respectfully_ or _sincerely yours_.

Address on envelope: The same as to a Roman Catholic bishop.

TO AN ARCHBISHOP OF THE ANGLICAN CHURCH, an official letter begins: _My
Lord Archbishop, may it please your Grace._

Conclusion: _I remain, My Lord Archbishop, your Grace’s most obedient
servant._

Salutation of a social letter: _My dear Lord Archbishop._

Conclusion: _I have the honor to remain, my dear Lord Archbishop._

Inscription on envelope: _The Most Rev. His Grace the Archbishop of
York._

TO AN ANGLICAN BISHOP, an official letter begins: _My Lord._

Conclusion: _I have the honor to remain your Lordship’s obedient
servant._

Salutation of a social letter: _My Dear Lord Bishop._

Conclusion: _I have the honor to remain, my dear Lord Bishop, faithfully
yours._

Inscription on envelope: _To the Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of Oxford._


ENGLISH TITLES OF ROYALTY, NOBILITY AND OFFICE

The following list illustrates the various titles used for the different
ranks among individuals either in the complimentary address or
superscription on the envelope:

  1. _In Letters or Conversation._
  2. _The Directions of Letters._


THE ROYAL FAMILY

THE KING--

1. Sir; Most Gracious Sovereign; May it please your Majesty.

2. To the King’s Most Excellent Majesty.

THE SONS AND DAUGHTERS, BRETHERN AND SISTERS OF SOVEREIGNS--

1. Sir, or Madam, May it please your Royal Highness.

2. To His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales.

To Her Royal Highness the Duchess of Cambridge.

OTHER BRANCHES OF THE ROYAL FAMILY--

1. Sir, or Madam, May it please your Highness.

2. To His Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge; or, To Her Highness the
Princess Mary of Cambridge.


THE NOBILITY

A DUKE, OR DUCHESS--

1. My Lord, or My Lady, May it please your Grace.

2. To His Grace the Duke of Bedford; or, To Her Grace the Duchess of
Bedford.

A MARQUIS, OR MARCHIONESS--

1. My Lord, or My Lady, May it please your Lordship, or May it please
your Ladyship.

2. To the Most Noble the Marquis, or Marchioness, of Westminster.

AN EARL OR COUNTESS--The same.

To the Right Honorable the Earl, or Countess, of Shrewsbury.

A VISCOUNT OR VISCOUNTESS--

1. My Lord, or Madam, May it please your Lordship, or, May it please
your Ladyship.

2. To the Right Honorable Viscount, or Viscountess, Lifford.

A BARON OR BARONESS--The same.

To the Right Honorable, the Lord Wensleydale, or The Lady St. John.

THE WIDOW OF A NOBLEMAN is addressed in the same style, with the
introduction of the word Dowager in the superscription of her letters.

To the Right Hon. the Dowager Countess of Chesterfield.

THE SONS OF DUKES AND MARQUISES, AND THE ELDEST SONS OF EARLS, have, by
courtesy, the titles of Lord and Right Honorable; and all the daughters
have those of a Lady and Right Honorable.

THE YOUNGER SONS OF EARLS, AND THE SONS AND DAUGHTERS OF VISCOUNTS AND
BARONS, are styled HONORABLE.


OFFICIAL MEMBERS OF THE STATE

A MEMBER OF HIS MAJESTY’S MOST HONORABLE PRIVY COUNCIL--

1. Sir, or My Lord, Right Honorable Sir, or My Lord, as the case may
require.

2. To the Right Honorable ----,[14] His Majesty’s Principal Secretary of
State for Foreign Affairs.

AMBASSADORS AND GOVERNORS--

1. Sir, or My Lord, as the case may be; May it please your Excellency.

2. To his Excellency the French (or other) Ambassador.

3. To his Excellency ----,[14] Lieutenant General and General Governor
of that part of the United Kingdom called Ireland.

JUDGES--

1. My Lord, May it please your Lordship.

2. To the Right Honorable ----, Lord Chief Justice of England.

THE LORD MAYOR OF LONDON, YORK, or DUBLIN, AND THE LORD PROVOST OF
EDINBURGH, during office--The same.

1. My Lord, May it please your Lordship.

2. To the Right Honorable ----, Lord Mayor of London. To the Right
Honorable ----, Lord Provost of Edinburgh.

THE LORD PROVOST of every other town in Scotland is styled Honorable.

THE MAYORS OF ALL CORPORATIONS (excepting the preceding Lord Mayors),
and the Sheriffs, Aldermen, and the Recorder of London, are addressed
Right Worshipful; and the Aldermen and Recorders of other Corporations,
and the Justices of the Peace, Worshipful.

  [14] Here write the name, and specify the title or rank of the
  person addressed, as “The Right Honorable the Earl of Wimbourne.”


THE PARLIAMENT

HOUSE OF PEERS--

1. My Lords, May it please your Lordships.

2. To the Right Honorable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, in
Parliament assembled.

HOUSE OF COMMONS--

1. May it please your Honorable House.

2. To the Honorable the Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Ireland.

THE SPEAKER OF DITTO--

1. Sir, or Mr. Speaker.

2. To the Right Honorable James W. Lowther, the Speaker of the House of
Commons.

A MEMBER OF THE HOUSE OF COMMONS NOT ENNOBLED--

1. Sir.

2. To Thomas Hughes, Esq., M.P.


NARRATION

Narration is a species of composition which relates the particulars of a
real or fictitious event in the order of their occurrence. In a wider
meaning, narration is the statement of successive facts. In a story or
drama the _plot_ is the series of incidents which form the skeleton of
the story.

If the subject deals with real facts, as in biography, or history, or
news, the rule of _fidelity_ to the truth is essential. It requires that
not only the main facts shall be true as they are narrated, but also
that all the striking and important details be faithfully stated as they
are known to have occurred or happened.

=Biography.=--After the _letter_, the simplest form of composition is
biography. The order of events from youth to age is established.

This style of composition is strongly to be recommended for beginners.
It affords excellent practice for all. It promotes a habit of putting
things in order.

Outline scheme of biography:--

  1. When was he born?

  2. Where was he born?

  3. Who were his parents?

  4. Where was he educated?

  5. Whom did he marry?

  6. What was his profession?

  7. What great work did he do?

  8. When and where did he die?

  9. Where was he buried?

Answer each question in a complete sentence.

You have nine statements in chronological order.

Each of these can be expanded into one or more paragraphs.

=Fiction and Drama.=--If the composition is a story or drama, the
principal requirements involve the following:

The story should develop one or more of the following: plot, situation,
character.

The story should have interest.

1. It should begin attractively and as directly as possible.

2. It must move, and not simply “mark time.”

3. It may be made effective by dramatic situations and turning points.

4. It may use description, but the description must be closely connected
with the story and must not hinder the movement.

5. It should discriminate in the number and the importance of details.

6. It may make effective use of suspense and suggestion.

7. It should have no inconsistency in the speech or the actions of the
characters.

8. It should have an effective ending.

=News, or the Newspaper “Story,”= is another very important form of
narrative. The newspaper is the great popular educator of the day, and
in its columns are found not only excellent examples of vivid and
telling narratives, but frequently excellent types of spontaneous
writing.

News and news reporting require accuracy, clearness, brevity, and a
style that either charms, or compels interest. Indeed, it too frequently
happens that to secure the element of interest practically all else is
sacrificed.

Reporting and news writing are best learned by careful study of the
daily papers, and from constant practice. Shorthand is an invaluable
aid in securing the exact words of the speaker if the news takes the
form of an interview, or report of a public address or meeting.

The relation of the “facts” and “story” may be illustrated in the
following:

Report of exact words of the speaker:--

“_I assure you, my_ friends, that _I_ for _my_ part, _will_ do all _I_
possibly _can_ to resist _this_ measure. _You know_ that _I have_ always
been opposed to it; as recently as _yesterday I spoke_ against it _here_
in _this_ very hall. _Do you_ think that the people of this country
_will_ tolerate such injustice? _I am_ sure they _will_ not.”

How the newspaper report appeared:--

_He assured his_ friends that _he_ for _his_ part _would_ do all _he_
possibly _could_ to resist _that_ measure. _They knew_ that _he had_
always been opposed to it; as recently as _the day before he had spoken_
against it _there_ in _that_ very hall. _Did they_ think, he asked, that
the people of this country _would_ tolerate such injustice? _He was_
sure they _would_ not.


EXPOSITION

Exposition is a form of composition designed to explain. Its important
characteristic is clearness, and it, therefore, makes large use of
illustration.

The main points may be stated in various ways in order to make them
clear.

Essays and editorials are among the best known forms of exposition.

=Essay.=--An _essay_ is a short composition upon any subject. The
subject may be of any kind whatever, one fit for treatment, and with
great fulness, in any of the species of discourse described above, or
one without sufficient dignity for such treatment. No other species of
writing ranges over so wide and varied a field of topics--nothing less
than that of all others combined--and none other allows such freedom and
diversity in the handling.

In _style of thought_ the essay may be dreamy and semi-poetical, and
charm by its beauty, it may be simply instructive or critical, it may
blaze with its brilliancy, sting with its satire, convulse with its
humor, convince with its logic, inflame with its appeal and move to
instant duty. The author may wander off in leisurely excursions to the
right and the left, and load his pages with gleanings by the way; or,
like the orator, he may keep his eye on the point he would reach, and
move, with the directness of an arrow’s flight, toward it.

The _style of expression_ should fit the thought, and October woods are
not more varied in color than this department of literature in
utterance.

_Outline of the Essay._--1. Give a clear definition of the subject or
proposition to be discussed, amplified, paraphrased, or explained.

2. Set out the reason for, or the truth of, the proposition.

3. Add the confirmation of further proofs, including demonstration of
the unreasonableness of the contrary.

4. Illustrate the truth of the proposition by comparison or analogy from
nature or art.

5. Give direct examples or instances to corroborate the truth.

6. Quote the testimony of standard authors.

7. Conclude by summing up, with pertinent observations.

Remember that all this working to a formula is only a training in the
habit of clear thinking--a mental discipline.

When you can do without the formula, and not till then, you will begin
to be a writer.

=Editorials= are, in point of fact, simply little essays, usually
following closely the news or issues of the day. Their function is to
elucidate, summarize, inform, persuade, or merely comment. In their
highest form they are to prose writing what the sonnet is to verse; but
it must be confessed that numerous editorials are so completely
dominated by the so-called “editorial policy” of newspaper owners, or
colored by one of the various hues of partisanship, that their otherwise
beneficent influence and power are largely neutralized.

=Description.=--We mean by a _description_ the delineation of some
object or scene. Narration deals with successive facts; description with
objects that exist at the same time. We rarely find any literary
production of great length which is entirely descriptive; but
descriptions are often introduced into narratives with happy effect.

Sometimes they serve the purpose of making the narration impressive, by
moving the passions of the reader. At other times they are intended to
make the events more intelligible. Thus we have seen that some
narratives of battles are hard to follow because the writer has
neglected to give us a clear description of the battle-field.

Descriptions frequently serve as ornaments, affording an agreeable
variety to the narration, and presenting scenes of striking interest to
the imagination.

RULES.--The governing rules in description are the following:

1. In every good description a point of view should be established.

2. The description should be governed by the point of view.

3. The general outline of the picture should, ordinarily, be given
first.

4. The number of details should be so few and so insignificant as to
make a vivid picture.

5. The order of the details should be determined by the character of the
object described.

=Argument.=--This form of composition is designed to prove the truth or
the falsity of a proposition.

A _brief_ is a summary of an argument showing the development of the
argument by a series of headings and sub-headings.

The first step in the argument should be to define the terms of the
proposition or to determine the facts in the case.

State reasons to establish facts.

The conclusion should be warranted by the premises.

Illustrations may be used effectively, but not conclusively.

Analogy should be used for illustration, not as a basis for conclusions.

Arguments should usually be arranged in the order of their strength, the
strongest last.


POETRY AND POETICS

Poetry is usually classified as epic, lyric, dramatic, and didactic.

=Epic Poetry= is that which deals with the life and adventures of some
real or mythic personage, called a hero.

1. The _great epic_ is considered the highest effort of poetic talent,
on account of the loftiness of its conceptions, the dignity of its
character, and the difficulty of its execution. Few epic poems have
gained general admiration. Those most highly prized are Homer’s _Iliad_
and _Odyssey_; Virgil’s _Æneid_; Milton’s _Paradise Lost_; and Tasso’s
_Jerusalem Delivered_.

2. The _Metrical Romance_ differs from the great epic in its theme,
which is less serious; its metre, which is lighter; and its control of
events, which is mainly human; the love element is more prominent in
this form of the epic. Examples: Scott’s _Marmion_ and _The Lady of the
Lake_.

3. The _Tale_ is a simple form of narrative poetry telling a complete
story. Examples: Chaucer’s _Canterbury Tales_; Tennyson’s _Enoch Arden_.

4. The _Ballad_ is a direct, rapid, and condensed story, having
peculiarities of phrase and poetic accent. Examples: _Chevy Chase_;
Coleridge’s _Ancient Mariner_.

5. _Pastorals_ and _Idylls_ have a great deal of description, often of
simple country scenes, mingled with the narrative. Examples: Goldsmith’s
_Deserted Village_; Tennyson’s _Idylls of the King_.

=Dramatic poetry= tells a story by means of characters speaking and
acting in such a way as to develop a plot. The drama is divided into
acts, often five, the fifth act showing the results of the plot which
has been developing.

The classes of dramatic poetry are tragedy and comedy.

_Tragedy_ deals with the grave situations and problems of life and
engenders in the spectator noble emotions.

_Comedy_ deals with the pleasanter and more trivial side of life and
chooses its subjects from everyday follies, accidents, or humors.

=Lyric poetry= expresses the deepest emotions of sentiment of the poet.
The lyric, as the word suggests, was originally designed to be sung to
the music of the lyre.

Lyric poetry includes five classes, as follows:

_Song_ may be either sacred or secular.

The _Ode_ is the loftiest form of lyric, and expresses great range and
depth of feeling. This range of emotion often varies the metre.
Examples: Tennyson’s _Ode on the Death of the Duke of Wellington_;
Lowell’s _Commemoration Ode_.

The _Elegy_ laments the fleeting condition of human affairs. Examples:
Gray’s _Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard_; Milton’s _Lycidas_;
Tennyson’s _In Memoriam_.

The _Sonnet_ is a short poem of fourteen iambic pentameter lines, and
had originally a prescribed arrangement of rhyming lines. The great
English sonnet writers are Shakespeare, Milton, Wordsworth, and Mrs.
Browning.

Many lyrics have none of the special aims already mentioned. These may
be called _Simple_ lyrics. Example: Burns’s _To a Daisy_.

=Didactic verse= is not the highest type of poetry.

Its aim is not to give pleasure, but to instruct.

Example: Pope’s _Essay on Man_.


POETICS

Poetry differs from prose in three particulars: in its _purpose_, in its
_style_, and in its _form_.

The chief object of poetry is to give pleasure. Of all literature it is
the most spontaneous because addressed particularly to the feelings.

It has its own diction and imagery, conforming to the order, gradations
and subtleties of its thought. Like other forms of genius, too, it is
permitted certain liberties and variations of language or expressions in
order to avoid monotony and maintain the life and music of the verse.
These are more strictly rhetorical, however, and next in importance to
the poetic _content_ is poetic _form_.

By poetic _form_ we mean the mould and measure whereby, in English,
poetry gets itself into the expression adapted to produce its designed
effect.

=Metre.=--All impassioned language, as in eloquence for instance, tends
to fall into a more or less regular rhythmic swing. In poetry, which is
both impassioned and imaginative, this rhythm is timed to definite
lengths and called _metre_, which is the Greek word for measure.

The unit of poetic measure is the foot. A foot is a combination of
syllables, two or three distinguished, after the Greek, as long and
short, but more truly accented and unaccented, because our syllabic
values, unlike the Greek, are more accentual than quantitative. A
variety of poetic feet are employed in English, whose names and values
are derived from Greek prosody.

POETIC FEET.--For brevity of description a notation is used to designate
the foot: the sign (―) for a long, and (◡) for a short syllable. The
kinds of feet in most common English use, here marked by their signs and
illustrated by a word, are: Iambic or Iambus, a short and a long (◡ ―,
e. g. forbid); Trochaic or Trochee, a long and a short (― ◡, e. g.
lightly); Spondaic or Spondee, two longs (― ―, e. g. all day);
Anapestic, two shorts and a long (◡ ◡ ―, e. g. arabesque); and Dactylic,
a long and two shorts (― ◡ ◡, e. g. silently).

Other feet, such as Tribrach, three shorts (◡ ◡ ◡, e. g. rapidly);
Amphibrach, short long short (◡ ― ◡, e. g. tremendous), and Amphimacer,
long short long (― ◡ ―, e. g. undismayed), are used less frequently, and
only as blends with other measures.

VERSE.--The first combination of poetic feet results in the verse or
line, somewhat analogous to the clause in a prose sentence. The word
verse means by derivation a _turning_; perhaps because where it reaches
a certain designed length the writer turns back and begins a new line.
The kinds of verse employed are named by Greek names according to the
number of feet they contain; and along with this, if the measure is
fully described, is named the kind of foot.

The same notation as given above is kept up through the line, the feet
being separated by an upright line. Thus, taking the Iambic foot as
unit, we note: Monometer, one-measure, or one foot long (◡ ―); Dimeter,
two-measure (◡ ― | ◡ ―); Trimeter, three-measure (◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ―);
Tetrameter, four-measure (◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ―); Pentameter,
five-measure (◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ―); and Hexameter, six-measure,
(◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ― | ◡ ―). English names are sometimes used,
as 8 and 7, or fourteeners.

A few poetic lines may here be given, with their notation, by way of
illustration:

  ◡ ―    ◡    ―   ◡  ―   ◡   ―
  I wan|dered lone|ly as | a cloud
  (Iambic tetrameter)

    ―    ◡    ―   ◡    ―   ◡   ―  ◡
  Heard the | lapping | of the | water
  (Trochaic tetrameter)

    ―  ◡  ◡    ―  ◡   ◡  ― ◡    ◡    ―  ◡ ◡      ―
  This is the | forest pri|meval; the | murmuring | pines
   ◡  ◡     ―  ◡
  and the | hemlocks
  (Dactylic hexameter)

   ◡    ―     ◡  ◡ ―    ◡  ◡    ―    ◡ ◡    ―
  Oh, young | Lochinvar | is come out | of the West
  (Anapestic tetrameter)

   ―   ◡  ◡   ― ◡ ◡
  One more un|fortunate
  (Dactylic dimeter)

   ◡    ―    ◡  ―   ◡    ―  ◡  ―     ◡   ―
  This was | the no|blest Ro|man of | them all
  (Iambic pentameter)

At some place within a long line, pentameter or hexameter, occurs a
natural pause, called the _cæsura_. The continual varying of the place
of the cæsura is one means of breaking up the monotony to which blank
verse (Iambic pentameter unrhymed) tends.

=Stanzas.=--The next step of procedure as the combination of poetic
elements goes on from the single verse, is some form of _stanza_
structure.

The simplest approach to the stanza, employed principally in what is
called Heroic verse, is the couplet (also called the Heroic couplet),
two lines, Iambic pentameter, rhymed, and generally pausing at the end
of the second line. They form only partially a stanza, however, because
these couplets go on, according to the requirements of the thought, to
group themselves in paragraphs after the manner of prose. Pope is the
great master of the heroic couplet.

Sometimes, if the lines are long, a poem is made up of couplet stanzas,
as in Tennyson’s _Locksley Hall_.

There are certain standard stanza structures, such as the Elegiac
stanza, four lines Iambic pentameter, rhymed either in pairs or
alternately, of which Gray’s _Elegy_ (rhymed alternately) is the type;
the Ballad stanza, four lines Iambic pentameter and trimeter
alternating, with second and fourth lines rhymed together, sometimes
also first and third; various hymn stanzas, designated Long Metre (L.
M.), Common Metre (C. M.), Short Metre (S. M.), 8 and 7, 6 and 4, etc.,
which can be studied in any hymn-book; and most elaborate of all, the
Sonnet, a fourteen-lined stanza which is also a whole poem, with a
rather intricate rhyme scheme.

Generally speaking, however, the liberties and varieties of stanza
structure, as to kind of measure, length of line and stanza itself,
combination of long and short line, and rhyme scheme, is almost
unlimited.

RHYME.--A new poetic element enters into the stanza: the element of
_rhyme_. The most prominent regulative feature of English lyric verse,
perhaps, is the rhyme by which recurring periods are grouped.
Technically speaking, there are three kinds of rhyme, only one of which
plays an important, or at least essential part, in modern English
poetry.

1. _Beginning rhyme_, or alliteration (e. g. the mother of months),
which in Anglo Saxon poetry was the main principle of verse, but is now
introduced only furtively and delicately.

2. _Middle rhyme_, or assonance, wherein only the vowels rhyme (e. g.
blarney, charming), which is introduced with even more caution than
alliteration.

3. _End-rhyme_, which is so constant and essential a principle of the
stanza that it needs no further definition here.

In the skillful management and disposition of the end-rhymes, to produce
its poetic effects without monotony or undue obtrusiveness, there is
room for the finest poetic taste and workmanship. On single rhymes (e.
g. face, embrace), double rhymes (e. g. rally, sally), and triple rhymes
(e. g. pentameter, sham metre), which explain themselves, there is no
occasion to enlarge.

The arrangement of lines in a stanza is indicated, in brief notation, by
letters of the alphabet. Thus _a a b b_ indicates a four-line stanza in
which the first and second lines rhyme, and the third and fourth; _ab
ab_, a stanza in which the rhymes alternate; _a b b a_, a stanza like
that of Tennyson’s _In Memoriam_, in which this arrangement is reversed.

In this way, with the use of the other notation mentioned, a complete
description of poetic construction, from foot to stanza, may be made in
very short space.

HOW RHYTHM IS APPLIED.--Lyric poetry, of which the type is the song; was
originally designed to be associated with music. It is in this class of
poetry, especially, that the stanza form and the rhyme system prevail;
but besides the song and the ballad, which most suggest musical
accompaniment, there are the ode, the elegy, the sonnet, the didactic
poem, and many others, with which music, except in the natural melody of
the verse, has little to do.

In epic poetry, the vehicle of great national deeds and ideals, and the
enshrining of deep religious and moral truths, the verse employed is
generally blank verse (i. e. unrhymed verse), in paragraphs instead of
stanzas, and generally Iambic pentameter. For less sublime or universal
purposes, however, this epic class has been enlarged to include
narrative and romantic poetry, often rhymed, as in Chaucer’s _Canterbury
Tales_ and Scott’s _The Lady of the Lake_; and sometimes in stanzas, as
in Spencer’s _Fairy Queene_.

Dramatic poetry, designed for representation on the stage, and written
in blank verse of a less severe and rigid artistic kind than in the
epic, is modeled more after the natural rhythm of impassioned speech.
The range and tone of such dramatic verse is very generous and elastic;
from the free and colloquial, as in Browning’s dramatic monologues, up
to the so-called closet drama, designed to be read rather than played,
wherein the artistic demands are as subtle and exacting as in the epic,
and the sentiment generally more intense.

While, therefore, the ancient classification remains fundamental and
true, the modern art of printing and the discontinuance of the custom of
reading aloud, have operated to enlarge the scope of poetry within these
elemental lines till every requirement of impassioned and imaginative
utterance is freely open to it, in vital and enduring forms.


WORDS AND PHRASES FROM THE MODERN FOREIGN LANGUAGES.

  Including proverbs, maxims, quotations, mottoes, idioms, allusions,
  references, and numerous terms used in law, literature, cookery, the
  drama, social life, and everyday affairs.


KEY TO PRONUNCIATION

  _ä_, as in farm, father; _ȧ_, as in ask, fast; _a_, as in at, fat;
  _ā_, as in day, fate; _â_, as in care, fare; _e_, as in met, set;
  _ē_, as in me, see; _ẽ_, as in her, ermine; _i_, as in pin, ill;
  _ī_, as in pine, ice; _o_, as in not, got; _ō_, as in note, old;
  _ô_, as in for, fought; _oo_, as in cook, look; _ōō_, as in moon,
  spoon; _u_, as in cup, duck; _ū_, as in use, amuse; _û_, as in fur,
  urge; _th_, as in the, though; _y_, as in yet, you; _ow_, as in cow,
  now; _ng_, as in sing, ring; _ch_, as in church, choose.


FOREIGN SOUNDS

  _ö_ cannot be exactly represented in English. The English sound of
  _u_ in b_urn_ is perhaps the nearest equivalent to _ö_. _ü_ cannot
  be exactly represented in English. The English sound of _u_ in
  _luke_ and _duke_ resembles the original sound of _ü_. N represents
  the nasal tone (as in French) of the preceding vowel, as in encore
  (_ä_N-_kôr_´). K represents _ch_, as in German _ich_, _ach_. _zh_,
  sound of _s_ in _pleasure_. _j_ and _g_ before _i_ or _e_ in
  Spanish, strongly aspirated _h_.

  Phrases not designated are from the French; those from other
  languages are distinguished thus: (Ger.)--German; (It.)--Italian;
  and (Sp.)--Spanish.

=A=

=a bas= (_ȧ bä´_), down.

=a bas le traitre= (_ȧ bä´le tretr´_), down with the traitor.

=a beau jeu beau retour= (_ȧ bō zhö´ bō retōōr´_), one good turn
deserves another.

=a bon chat, bon rat= (_ȧ bô_N _rȧ´_), (to a good cat, a good rat), well
matched; set a thief to catch a thief.

=a bon marché= (_ȧ bô_N _mȧr shā´_), cheap.

=abonnement= (_ȧ bôn mä_N´), subscription.

=a bras ouverts= (_ȧ brȧzōō ver´_), with open arms.

=abrégé= (_ȧ brā zhā´_), abridgment.

=absence d’esprit= (_ȧp sä_N_s des prē´_), absence of mind.

=a causa persa, parole assai= (It.), (_ä kä´ ōō zä per´sa, pä
rô´lāäsä´ē_), when the cause is lost, there is enough of words.

=accueil= (_ȧ kö´ē_), reception; greeting; welcome.

=à charge= (_ȧ shȧrzh´_), at expense.

=à cheval= (_ȧ she vȧl´_), on horseback.

=à compte= (_ȧ kô_N_t´_), on account.

=à corps perdu= (_ȧ kôr per dū´_), headlong; neck or nothing.

=à coup sur= (_ȧ kōō sür´_), with certainty; surely.

=à couvert= (_ȧ kōō ver´_), under cover, protected, sheltered.

=acqua Tofana= (It.), (_ä kwä tō fä´nä_), a subtle poison.

=à demi= (_ȧ de mi´_), by halves.

=à dessein= (_ȧ de sâ_N), designedly.

=à deux mains= (_ȧ dö mâ_N_´_), (for both hands), having a double office
or employment.

=adieu= (_ȧ dēö´_), (I commit you to God), good-bye.

=adieu, la voiture, adieu, la boutique= (_ȧ dēö´, lȧ vwȧ tür´, ȧ dēö´ lȧ
bōō tēk´_), (good-bye, carriage; good-bye, shop), all is over.

=à discrétion= (_ȧ dēs krā sēô_N_´_), at discretion, unrestrictedly.

=à droite= (_ȧ drwȧt´_), to the right.

=affaire d’amour= (_ȧ fer dȧ mōōr´_), a love affair.

=affaire d’honneur= (_ȧ fer dô nör´_), an affair of honor, a duel.

=affaire du coeur= (_ȧ fer dü kör´_), an affair of the heart, a love
affair.

=affiche= (_ȧ fēsh´_), a placard; a notice; bulletin.

=affreux= (_ȧ frö´_), frightful.

=à fin= (_ȧ fâ_N), to the end or object.

=à fond= (_ȧ fô_N_´_), to the bottom; thoroughly.

=à forfait= (_ȧ fôr fe´_), by contract, by the job.

=à gauche= (_ȧ gōsh´_), to the left.

=à genoux= (_ȧ zhe nōō_), on one’s knees.

=agneau= (_ä-nyō_), lamb.

=à grands frais= (_ȧ grä_N _fre´_), at great expense.

=a haute voix= (_ȧ ōt vwȧ_), loudly; openly.

=a huis clos= (_ȧ wē klō´_), (with closed doors), secretly; in camera.

=aide-toi, et le ciel t´aidera= (_ed twȧ´, ā le sēel ted rȧ´_), help
yourself, and Heaven will help you.

=air distingué= (_er dēs tâ_N _gā´_), a distinguished appearance.

=air noble= (_er nôbl´_), a distinguished, patrician air, manner, or
presence.

=à la= (_ä lä_), =au= (_ō_), =aux= (_ō_).--With; according to; after the
manner of; as _huitres aux champignons_, oysters with mushrooms.

If a dish is cooked, or served, or made, with anything as an ingredient
or garnish, the dish may be said to be “_à la_” that substance. So it
may be possible to ascertain the meaning of phrases not given below by
looking elsewhere in the vocabulary under the word used with the words
“_à la_.”

=à l’abandon= (_ȧ lȧ bä_N _dô_N_´_), disregarded, uncared for.

=à la béarnaise= (_ä lä bā-är-nāz´_).--With a sauce of tarragon vinegar
in which shallots have been boiled till it is reduced, then combined
with egg yolks and butter, and beaten in a bain-marie, then seasoned
with red pepper and lemon juice.

=à la béchamel= (_ä lä bā-shä-mel´_).--After the fashion of Béchamel (a
French gastronomer); said of a sauce (see Bechamel); also prepared or
served with this sauce.

=à la belle étoile= (_ȧ lȧ be lā twȧl´_), under the canopy of Heaven; in
the open air.

=à la Bercy= (_ȧ lȧ bâr-sē´_).--Served with béarnaise sauce, stuffed
green pepper and stuffed tomato.

=à la bigarade= (_ȧ lä bē-gā-räd´_).--Flavored with (Seville) orange
juice or peel.

=à la bonne femme= (_ȧ lȧ bôn fȧm_).--Of, or in the style of, the
housewife; specifically said of a kind of maigre soup made with fish,
bouillon, legumes, and an assortment of vegetables.

=à la bonne heure= (_ȧ lȧ bô nör´_), well-timed, in good time;
favorably; good.

=à la bordelaise= (_ä lä bôr-de-lāz´_).--With Bordeaux wine; said of
various preparations containing it; as of a sauce, with garlic,
shallots, or onions, chopped mushrooms, and a piece of marrow; also with
sauce a la bordelaise.

=à la bourguignotte= (_ā lä boor-gē-nyot_).--Generally prepared with the
addition of red wine of Burgundy, or of Bordeaux, or of the Midi
(_i.e._, meridional provinces of France). At Bordeaux, or when made
elsewhere with Gironde wine, the dish would be _à la bordelaise_.

=à la caledo´nian= (_ä lä_).--Boiled slowly in plain water and then
baked with dressing of butter, chopped parsley, and a little lemon
juice; said of finnan haddie when so cooked.

=à la Camerani= (_ä lä kä-mā-rä´nē_).--After the fashion of Camerani;
said of a kind of rich chicken-liver soup.

=à la campagne= (_ȧ lȧ kä_N _päny´_), in the country.

=à la carte= (_ȧ lȧ kȧrt´_), by the card.

=à la Chateaubriand= (_ä lä shä-tō-brē-ä_N´).--With maitre d’hotel
butter.

=à la chevreuil= (_ä lä she-vrû´y´_).--Served with a savory sauce; said
of fillets of beef.

=à la chipolata= (_ä lä chē-pō-lä´tä_).--Containing an addition of the
strongly flavored Italian sausages, or the mince with which they are
filled.

=à la chiffonade= (_ä lä shē-fo-näd´_).--See chiffonade.

=à la cocotte= (_ä lä kō-kot´_).--Baked (as eggs) in a cocotte, with
butter and cream, or with cheese, or the like, and served in a cocotte.

=à la crapaudine= (_ä lä krä-pō-dēn´_).--Like a crapaudine (the flat
piece of iron on which a grate pivot rests;) said of grilled chicken,
pigeon, etc., when prepared by boning, removing the legs and wings, and
pressing flat.

=à la Créole= (_ä lä krā-ōl_).--With tomatoes.

=à la Croissy= (_ä lä krwä-sē´_).--Containing carrots in quantity, or at
least strongly flavored with them; said specifically of a puree of
onions, carrots, turnips, and parsnips stewed in coulis. According to
others, containing turnips in quantity, or strongly flavored with them.

=à la daube= (_ä lä dōb_).--Stewed in daube; said specifically of dishes
cooked with small square pieces of salt pork, the round slices of
carrots, glaced onions, and turnips.

=à la Dauphiné= (_ä lä dō-fē-nā´_).--With various vegetables, spinach,
lettuce, leek, onions, sorrel, beets, etc.; said of a kind of soup.

=à la Dauphinoise= (_ä lä dō-fē-nwäz´_).--Generally, sauced over with a
thick sauce (or with egg yolk), bread-crumbed, and then fried.

=à la dérobée= (_ȧ lȧ dā rô bā_), stealthily.

=à la diable= (_ä lä dē-ä´bl_).--Deviled.

=à la faveur= (_ȧ lȧ fȧ vör´_), by the favor of.

=à la financière= (_ä lä fē-nä_N_-syâr´_).--With extract of truffles
(literally, after the style of a financier); said of a variety of
espagnole sauce, and of dishes served with it.

=à la Flamande= (_ä lä flä-mä_N_d´_).--Containing cabbage, but more
particularly Brussels sprouts, and, usually turnips and carrots cut in
big slices.

=à la Florentine= (_ä lä flō-rä_N-_tēn´_).--See à l’Italienne.

=à la Française= (_ȧ lȧ frä_N _sez_), in French fashion.

=à la Génevoise= (_ä lä zhā-ne-vwäz´_).--Cooked with champagne; said of
certain dishes of fish.

=à la godiveau= (_ä lä gō-dē-vō_).--With balls made of mincemeat,
usually of veal.

=à la Grecque= (_ȧ lȧ grek´_), after the Greek fashion.

=à la Holstein= (_ä lä hōl´ stīn_).--Fried, and served with a fried egg,
sardelles, capers, pickled beets, and pickles, and sometimes scraped
horse-radish.

=à la jardinière= (_ä lä zhär-dē-nyâr´_).--Made with a typical
collection of cooked vegetables, as soups, ragoûts, and removes. See
jardinere.

=à la julienne= (_ä lä zhü-lyen´_).--With various vegetables sliced in
strips, as carrots, turnips, leeks, onions, celery, lettuce, tarragon,
sorrel; said especially of a kind of rich stock soup. Also said of
potatoes cut in very slender strips and fried crisp floating in hot fat.

=à l’Algérienne= (_ä läl-zhā-rē-en´_).--Cooked with slices of raw ham;
said of a preparation of fowl.

=à la Languedoc= (_ä lä lä_N_g-dok´_).--Cooked with or in olive oil;
with olive oil.

=à l’Allemande= (_ä läl-mä_N_d´_).--Having a German provincial
peculiarity of preparation, as a garnish of sauerkraut, prunes stewed in
wine, quenelles of potatoes, etc.

=à la Loren´zo= (_ä lä_).--Made of minced crab meat, put on toast spread
with anchovy paste, then all covered with parmesan cheese and bread
crumbs, buttered, browned in the oven, and served.

=à l’Alsacienne= (_ä läl-sä-syen´_).--With pork and frankfurters; also
with onions and pork.

=à la lyonnaise= (_ä lä lē-ō-nāz´_).--With flaked or sliced fried
onions; as, potatoes _à la lyonnaise_, or lyonnaise potatoes; sauce _à
la lyonnaise_, or Lyons sauce, that is, espagnole sauce with flaked
onions fried in oil.

=à la macedoine= (_ä lä mä-sā-dwän´_).--Made with or of a typical
collection of green vegetables, mostly in white sauce; also applied to
collections of ripe fruit imbedded in jellies, etc.

=à la Maintenon= (_ä lä ma_N-_te-nô_N´).--A term variously used to
designate a mode of cooking mutton or lamb chops; as, (_a_) wrapped in
caul; (_b_) garnished with cockscombs and truffles; (_c_) served with a
soubise; (_d_) served with financière sauce; (_e_) served with d’Uxelles
sauce, etc.

=à la maître d’hôtel= (_ä lä mā´tr dō-tel´_).--Prepared by a
substantial, but homely, modest sort of cooking. Also served with maitre
d’hotel butter.

=à la Marengo= (_ä lä mä-ren´gō_).--With some garlic and oil.

=à la Marseillaise= (_ä lä mär-sāy-āz´_).--With Marsala wine.

=à la Ma´ryland= (_ä lä_).--With a sauce of butter and cream, with or
without wine. It is like à la Newburgh, but less rich.

=à l’Américaine= (_ȧ lȧ mā rē ken´_), after the American fashion.

=à la Meyerbeer= (_ä lä mâ-ûr-bâr´_).--Shirred and served with broiled
kidney and truffle sauce; said of eggs.

=à la Milanaise= (_ä lä mē-lä-nāz´_).--See à l’Italienne.

=à la mode= (_ȧ lȧ môd´_), in the fashion; according to the custom or
fashion.

=à la mode de Caën= (_ä lä mōd de kä_N).--A term used to designate tripe
prepared with vegetables, leeks, wine, cognac, etc.

=à la Napolitaine= (_ä lä nä-pō-lē-tān´_).--See à l’Italienne.

=à la neige= (_ä lä nāzh´_).--In some form that suggests snow, as with
white-of-egg froth, or in balls of white boiled rice, or the like.

=à la New´burgh= (_ä lä_).--With a sauce made of cream, egg yolks,
Madeira or sherry wine, and butter shaken in a dish over a slow fire
until they thicken. Said also of this sauce.

=à l’Anglaise= (_ȧ lä_N _glez´_), after the English fashion.

=à la nivernaise= (_ä lä nē-vâr-nāz´_).--Containing a nivernaise; said
of a kind of soup à la julienne. See nivernaise.

=à la Normande= (_ä lä nôr-mä_N_d´_).--Generally, with apples in the
composition of the dish in some shape or other.

=à la Parisienne= (_ȧ lȧ pȧ-rē-zēen´_), after the Parisian fashion.

=à la Périgord= (_ä lä pā-rē-gôr´_).--Flavored with, or consisting of,
truffles--alluding to the circumstance that these mushrooms grow of
excellent size and quality in the province of Perigord.

=à la Polonaise= (_ä lä pō-lō-nāz´_).--Having red beets or red cabbage,
so as to have their juice, color, and taste, as Polish ragoût, or borsh,
which is the type of dishes _à la Polonaise_.

=à la poulette= (_ä lä poo-let´_).--With white velouté sauce.

=à la printanière= (_ä lä pra_N-_tä-nyâr´_).--Made with a typical
collection of cooked early or spring vegetables; of a somewhat wider
application than à la jardinière.

=à la Provençale= (_ä lä prō-vä_N-_säl´_).--Generally, prepared with
more or less of olive oil, and flavored with garlic.

=à la Reine= (_ä lä rān_).--Of, or after the style of, the queen; said
specifically of a kind of chicken soup [_potage à la reine_, (_pō-täzh´
ä lä rān_)] containing white meat of chicken pounded and rubbed to a
powder.

=à la Ro’land= (_ä lä_).--Made of minced lobster meat in the same manner
as _à la Lorenzo_ dishes of crab meat. See à la Lorenzo.

=à la Saint Cloud= (_ä lä sa_N´_kloo_).--With sliced truffles; said of a
kind of velouté sauce.

=à la serviette= (_ä lä ser-vyet_).--Served in or on a napkin as braised
truffles.

=à la Soubise= (_ä lä soo-bēz´_).--Generally containing onions in
quantity; or, at least, strongly garnished and flavored with them;
especially, served with a white onion sauce used with lamb or mutton.

=à la Sourdine= (_ȧ la sōōr dēn´_), silently; with bated breath.

=à la tartare= (_ä lä tär-tär´_).--With tartare sauce, or a sauce of
similar ingredients. Also, said of a steak chopped and garnished with
onions, pickles, pickled beets, sardelles, and yolk of egg, to be eaten
raw.

=à la Tartufe= (_ȧ lȧ tȧr tüf_), like Tartufe, the hypocritical hero of
Molière’s comedy, Tartufe, hence hypocritically.

=à la turque= (_ä lä türk_).--Shirred and served with chicken livers and
mushrooms; said of eggs. Also boiled with rice and saffron; said of
chicken.

=à l’Aurore= (_ä lō-rōr´_).--With a pink sauce made by coloring velouté
sauce with lobster coral or Armenian bole. Also said of sliced
hard-boiled eggs put in a dish, covered with velouté, sprinkled with
grated egg yolk, and baked.

=à la vert pré= (_ä lä vâr prā_).--Colored green with vegetables, as
with a puree of spinach.

=à la Viennoise= (_ä lä vyā-nwäz´_).--Applied to dishes usually and
typically prepared in the Austrian capital, such as the dumplings termed
nockerlin, quenelles of potatoes, and others.

=à la Villeroi= (_ä lä vēl-rwä´_).--With atelets sauce. Also, said of a
poached egg put in a thick white sauce, then covered with egg yolk and
bread crumbs, and fried.

=à la vinaigrette= (_ä lä vē-nē-gret´_).--With vinaigrette sauce.

=al buon vino non bisogna frasca= (It.), (_äl bwôn vē´ nō nōn bē zô´ nyä
fräs´kä_), good wine needs no bush.

=à l’envi= (_ȧ lä_N _vē´_), with emulation.

=à l’espagnole= (_ä lā-spä-nyōl´_).--Made savory with espagnole sauce;
specifically, served with a garnish of onions, garlic, green peppers,
mushrooms, tomatoes, and minced ham cooked together, and bound with
espagnole sauce.

=a l’extremite= (_ȧ lek strā mē tā´_), at the point of death; without
resource.

=al fresco= (It.), (_äl frās´ko_), in the open air.

=alguazil= (Sp.), (_äl gwä zēl´_), a Spanish constable.

=à l’huile= (_ä-lwēl_).--In olive oil; with olive oil dressing.

=Alici= (_ä-lē´chē_).--Anchovies, or a similar small fish preserved in
oil according to the Italian fashion.

=à l’imperatrice= (_ä lâ_N-_pā-rē-trēs´_).--Said of shirred eggs served
with a slice of paté de fois gras upon each egg.

=à l’improviste= (_ȧ lâ_N _prô vēst´_); unawares, on a sudden.

=à l’Irlandaise= (_ä lēr-län-dez´_).--Containing potatoes in some form,
and often cabbage, etc., in mass or as a prevailing garnish.

=à l’Italienne= (_ä lē-tä-lē-en´_).--Generally made of, or garnished
with, savory macaroni, or paste of that kind, or with ravioli; or made
savory with Parma cheese.

=all’alba= (It.), (_äl läl´bä_), at daybreak.

=alla Siciliana= (It.), (_äl lä sē chē lē ä´nä_), in the Sicilian
manner; in shepherd’s dress.

=allégresse= (_á lä gres´_), liveliness; geniality.

=allemande= (_ál mä_N _d´_), a kind of German dance.

=Allemande sauce= (_äl-mä_N_d´_).--Veloute sauce, with the addition of
essence of mushrooms, cream, and a leason, or binding, of yolk of eggs.

=alles hat seine Zeit= (Ger.), (_ä les hät zīne tsīt´_), all in good
time.

=allez-vous en= (_ȧ lā vōō zä_N´), away with you, be off.

=allons= (_ȧ lô_N´), come on.

=allons donc= (_ȧ lô_N _dô_N), nonsense.

=allzuviel ist ungesund= (Ger.), (_äl tsōō fēl´ist oon´ ge-zoont_), too
much of a good thing.

=al occorrenza= (It.), (_ä lō kō ren´dzä_), according to circumstances.

=à l’ordinaire= (_ȧ lôr dē ner´_), in the ordinary manner.

=alose= (_ä-lōs´_).--Shad.

=á l’outrance= (_á lōō trä_N_s´_), to the death.

=aloyau= (_ä-lwä-yō´_).--Loin of beef; short rib of beef.

=al piu= (It.), (_äl pyōō´_), at most.

=alto rilievo= (It.), (_äl tō rē lye´vō_), in high relief.

=à main armée= (_ȧ mâ_N _ȧr mā´_), by force of arms.

=am Anfang= (Ger.), (_äm än´fäng_), at the beginning.

=amar y saber no puede ser= (Sp.), (_ä mär ē sä vār´nō pooāthā sār´_),
no one can love and be wise at the same time.

=âme de boue= (lit., soul of mud), (_äm de bōō_), a base minded person.

=amende honorable= (_ȧ mä_N _dô nô rȧbl´_), fit reparation; a
satisfactory apology.

=à merveille= (_ȧ mer vāy´_), marvelously, extraordinarily.

=ami du cour= (lit., a friend of the court), (_ȧ mē dü kōōr_), a false
friend; one who is not to be depended on.

=ami du peuple= (_ȧ mē dü pöpl´_), friend of the people.

=à moitié= (_ȧ mwȧ tēā´_), by halves.

=Amontillado= (_ä-mōn-tēl-yä´dō_).--A cheaper variety of wine classed as
sherry, but in reality a wine from Sicily or other Mediterranean or
Atlantic islands, mixed with a little real sherry.

=amour propre= (_ȧ mōōr prôpr´_), vanity, self-love.

=ananas= (_ä-nä-nä´_).--Pineapple.

=anchois= (_ä_N_-shwä´_).--Anchovies.

=anchovy= (_an-chō´vi_).--A small fish of the herring family caught in
the Mediterranean, and pickled for exportation.

=ancienne noblesse= (_ä_N _sē en nôbles´_), (the old nobility), French
families ennobled before the revolution of 1792.

=ancien régime= (_ä_N _sēâ_N _rā zhēm_), (the former government or
administration), the rulers of the ante-revolution period.

=andouile= (_ä_N_-doo´y_).--Tripe.

=anguilles= (_än-gē´y_).--Eels.

=anguilles grillée= (_än-gē´y grē-yā´_).--Spitch-cocked, or grilled,
eels.

=anisette´.=--A cordial or liqueur flavored with anise seeds.

=à outrance= (_ȧ ōō trä_N_s´_), to the last extremity.

=à pas de géant= (_ȧ päd zhā ä_N), with a giant’s stride.

=à peindre= (_ȧ pâ_N_dr´_), worth painting.

=à perte de vue= (_ȧ pert de vü´_), till out of sight.

=à peu près= (_ȧ pö pre´_), nearly.

=à pezzi= (It.), (_ä ped´zē_), by the piece.

=à piacere= (It.), (_ä pyä´chā rā_), at pleasure.

=à pied= (_ȧ pēā´_), on foot.

=à plomb= (_ȧ plô_N_´_), perpendicularly; firmly.

=à point= (_ȧ pwâ_N_´_), just in time; exactly right.

=appui= (_ȧ pwē´_), point of support; prop.

=à prima vista= (It.), (_ä prē mä vēs´tä_), at the first sight.

=à prix d’or= (_ȧ prē dôr´_), (at price of gold), very costly; fetching
a fancy price.

=à propos= (_ȧ prô pō´_), to the point.

=à propos de rien= (_ȧ prô pō de rēâ_N_´_), apropos to nothing; not
pertinently.

=arc-en-ciel= (_ȧr kä_N _sēel´_), rainbow.

=à rez de chaussée= (_ȧ rā d shō sā´_), even with the ground.

=argent comptant= (_ȧr zhä_N _kô_N _tä_N_´_), ready money.

=à rivederci= (It.), (_ȧ rē vā dār´chē_), adieu until we meet again.

=à Rome comme à Rome= (_ȧ rôm´ kô mȧ rôm´_), at Rome do as Rome does.

=arrière pensée= (_ȧ rēer pä_N _sā´_), mental reservation; unavowed
purpose.

=arroz à la Valencia´na= (_är-rō´ä lä_).--Valencia rice, a farinaceous
substance in grains like rice.

=artichaut= (_är-tē-shō_).--Artichoke.

=asperge= (_ä-spârzh´_).--Asparagus.

=aspic= (_äs-pēk´_).--A savory jelly made of calves’ feet, etc., or with
extract of meat, flavored to suit the fancy, and stiffened with
gelatine.

=assignat= (_ȧ sē nya´_).--French paper money issued after the
revolution at the end of last century.

=atelier= (_ȧt lēā´_), a work-shop; studio.

=à tort et à travers= (_ȧ tôr ā ȧ trȧ ver´_), at random.

=à toute outrance= (_ȧ tōō tōō trä_N_s´_), desperately; tremendously;
with a vengeance.

=à tout hasard= (_ȧ tōō ȧ zȧr´_), at all hazards; at all events.

=à tout prix= (_ȧ tōō prē´_), at any price.

=attaché= (_ȧ tȧsh´_), an official belonging to an embassy.

=au= (_ō_).--See _à la_.

=au beurre roux= (_ō bûr roo_).--With browned butter.

=au bon droit= (_ō bô_N _drwȧ´_), to the just right.

=au bout de son Latin= (_ō bōōd sô_N _lȧ tâ_N_´_), at the end of his
Latin; to the extent of his knowledge.

=au chingaras= (_ō sha_N_-gä-rä´_).--Sandwiched with ham and grilled;
said of ox palates.

=au contraire= (_ō kô_N _trer´_), on the contrary.

=au courant= (_ō kōō rä_N_´_), fully acquainted with matters.

=au désespoir= (_ō dā zes pwȧr´_), in despair.

=au fait= (_ō fe´_), expert.

=au fond= (_ō fô_N_´_), to the bottom; in the rear (of the stage).

=au four= (_ō foor_).--Baked in the oven, as a stuffed fish.

=au fromage= (_ō frō-mäzh´_).--With cheese.

=auf Wiedersehen= (Ger.), (_owf vē´der zā en_), till we meet again.

=au gras= (_ō grä_).--Containing meat; said of soups so made.

=au gratin= (_ō grä-ta_N´).--With a crust made by browning in the oven;
as spaghetti is often served _au gratin._

=au jus= (_ō zhü_).--In juice; in broth.

=au kirsch= (_ō kërsh_).--With kirschwasser; as an omelet or a punch
containing this liqueur is termed _au kirsch._

=au levant= (_ō le vä_N´), to the east; eastward.

=aumelette= (_ōm-let´_).--Omelet.

=au naturel= (_ō nä-tū-rel´_).--In the natural condition; as, anchovies
_au naturel_--i. e., without oil or seasoning.

=au pis aller= (_ō pē zȧ lā´_), at the very worst.

=au reste= (_ō rest´_), as for the rest.

=au revoir= (_ō re vwȧr´_), till we meet again.

=au rhum= (_ō rüm_).--With rum.

=auro´ra sauce.=--Sauce à l’aurore. See _à l’Aurore_.

=aussitot dit, aussitot fait= (_ō sē tō dē´, ō sē tō fe´_), no sooner
said than done.

=au supreme= (_ō sü-prām´_).--With supreme sauce.

=autant d’hommes, autant d’avis= (_ō tä_N _dôm´, ō tä_N _dȧ vē´_), many
men, many minds.

=auto da fe= (Port.), (_a ōō tō dä fā´_), an act of faith; the burning
of Jews and heretics.

=autre droit= (_ōtre drwä´_), another’s right.

=autre fois= (_ōtre fwä´_), another time.

=autre vie= (_ōtre vē´_), another’s life.

=aut vincere aut mori= (_owt vin´kārā owt mō´rē_), victory or death.

=au vert pré = (_ō vâr prā_).--With sweet or fresh herbs, especially,
when they give a green color to the dish.

=au vin blanc= (_ō va_N _blä_N´).--With white-wine sauce, as fillets of
fish.

=aux= (_ō_).--See à la.

=aux armes= (_ō zȧrm´_), to arms.

=aux cressons= (_ō kres-sô_N´).--With watercresses.

=aux rognons= (_ō rō nyô_N´).--With kidneys.

=avant-propos= (_ȧ vä_N _prô pō´_), preface; introductory matter.

=avec permission= (_ȧ vek per mē sē ô_N´), by consent.

=à volonté= (_ȧ vô lô_N _tā´_), at will; at pleasure.

=à vostra salute= (It.), (_ä vōs trä sä lōō´tā_), to your health.

=à votre santé= (_ȧ vôtre sä_N _tā´_), to your health.

=a vuestra salud= (Sp.), (_ä vwes trä sä lōōth´_), to your health.

=B=

=bal champêtre= (_bȧl shä_N _petr´_), a country ball.

=ballon d’essai= (_bȧ lo_N _de sā´_), a balloon sent up to test the
direction of air currents; hence anything said or done to gauge public
feeling on any question.

=ballotine= (_bä-lō-tēn´_).--A shoulder of lamb boned, stuffed, larded,
and braised.

=barbue= (_bär-bū´_).--A kind of fish.

=bard= (_bär_).--Barbel, a kind of fish.

=bardes de lard= (_bärd de lär_).--Fat slices of bacon for covering meat
to be braised.

=bar le duc= (_bär le dük_).--A kind of jam of white gooseberries.

=bas bleu= (_bä blö´_), a blue-stocking; a woman who seeks a reputation
for learning.

=Bava´rian cream.=--A cream jelly thickened with gelatine and set in a
mold, and variously flavored and enriched; a Bavaroise; a kind of
flummery.

=Bava´rian dumplings.=--Boiled pudding, consisting of bread fried in
fat, bread crumbs soaked in cream or milk, eggs, butter, flour, salt,
and spice; or some other similar composition.

=Bava´rian sauce.=--A modified Dutch sauce of vinegar, eggs, and butter
flavored with crayfish butter.

=Bavaroise= (_bä-vä-rwäz´_).--Bavarian. See _Bavarian cream._

=beau-idéal= (_bō ē dā ȧl´_), a model of ideal perfection.

=beau monde= (_bō mô_N_d´_), the fashionable world.

=beaux esprits= (_bō zes prē´_), men of wit or genius.

=beaux yeux= (_bō zēö´_), handsome eyes; attractive looks.

=bécasse= (_bā-käs´_).--Woodcock.

=Béchamel= (_bā-shä-mel´_), or more properly, =Béchamelle.=--Velouté
white sauce mixed with cream; named after Louis de Béchamel, a French
gastronome.

=beignet= (_bā-nyā´_).--A fritter.

=bel esprit= (_be les prē´_), a wit, a genius.

=bel étage= (_be lā tȧzh´_), the second story of a house.

=belles-lettres= (_bel[´]letr´_), refined literature.

=benedetto e quel male che vien solo= (It.), (_bā nā det´tō ā kwāl mä´lā
kī vyān sō´lō_), blessed is the misfortune that comes alone.

=bénédictine= (_ben-ē-dik´tin_).--A cordial resembling chartreuse.

=ben-trovato= (It.), (_bān trō vä´tō_), well invented.

=bête noire= (lit. a black beast,) (_bet nwȧr´_), a bugbear.

=beurre= (_bûr_).--Butter.

=beurre fraîs= (_bûr frā_).--Fresh (unsalted) butter.

=beurre lié= (_bûr lē-ā´_).--Dutch sauce with less butter than usual.

=beurre noir= (_bûr nwär_).--Butter browned without flour.

=beurre roux= (_bûr roo_).--Butter browned with flour.

=bienséance= (_bēâ_N _sā ä_N_s´_), good manners; decorum.

=bienvenue= (_bēâ_N _ve nü´_), welcome.

=bijou= (_bē´zhōō_), a jewel; a treasure.

=bijouterie= (_bē zhoo trē_), jewelry.

=billet doux=, or =billet d´amour= (_bē ye dōō´_), a love letter.

=billets-d´état= (_bē ye dā tȧ´_), a government paper; bank notes.

=biscuit= (_bē-skwē´_).--French sponge cake.

=bis´cuit à couper= (_ä koo-pā´_).--A form of sponge cake to be sliced
and glacéd with flavored sugar or sugar mixed with fruit juice.

=bis´cuit à la Génoise= (_ä lä zhā-nwäz´_).--Sponge cake with anise-seed
flavor, to be cut and toasted.

=bis´cuit à l’Ursuline= (_ä lür-sü-lēn´_).--A sponge cake with rice and
apple or apricot jam mixed into the paste, and grilled orange flower.

=bisque= (_bisk_ or _bēsk_).--A soup of crayfish, made by cooking them
in broth with herbs, sliced roots, and seasoning; other similarly
prepared shellfish soups or sauces are also called _bisques_.

=bizarre= (_be zar_), odd; quaint.

=blancmanger= (_blä_N-_ma_N-_zhā´_) or =blamange= (_blä-mänj´_).--A
jelly made with calves’ feet, or gelatine, and milk of almonds; also, a
jelly made of milk and starch, isinglass, or sea moss, with or without
added chocolate, grenetine, or the like. This latter dish is more
properly called _flummery_.

=blanquette= (_blä_N-_ket´_).--A mince of white meat, as of chicken,
warmed in velouté sauce, and pointed with butter and lemon juice. It
often has added to it mushrooms, morels, or truffles.

=blasé= (_blä zā´_), surfeited.

=blond= (_blô_N).--Concentrated juice or extract of some viand, used to
add to certain sauces to give them body; as _blond de veau_ (_de vō_), a
rich broth of veal made by slowly stewing veal with accessories of ham,
rabbit, or the like, with standard broth, shallots, cloves, etc.

=bœuf de chasse= (_bûf de shäs_).--The sportsman’s round of beef--the
biggest joint of the animal.

=bombe glacé= (_bô_N_b glä-sā´_).--A confection consisting of an ice
casing frozen in the form of a truncaded cone with cream of some kind,
as Bavarian cream, inside.

=bon ami= (_bö na mi´_), good friend.

=bon bon= (_bô_N _bô_N´), a sweetmeat; confectionery.

=bon diable= (_bô_N _dēäbl´_), a jolly good fellow.

=bon gré, mal gré= (_bô_N´_grā_ _mal´grā_), with good or bad grace;
willing or unwilling.

=bonhomie= (_bô nô mē´_), good nature; easy temper; credulity.

=bon jour= (_bô_N _zhōōr´_), good day; good morning.

=bon mot= (_bô_N _mō´_), a witticism.

=bonne= (_bôn_), a nurse.

=bonne-bouche= (_bôn bōōsh´_), a luscious morsel; a toothsome tit-bit.

=bonne et belle= (_bô nā bel´_), good and handsome (said of a woman).

=bonne foi= (_bôn fwȧ´_), good faith.

=bon soir= (_bô_N _swȧr´_), good evening.

=bon ton= (_bô_N _tô_N´), high fashion; first-class society.

=bon vivant= (_bô_N _vē vän´_), a good liver; a jolly companion.

=bon voyage= (_bô_N _vwȧ yȧzh´_), a pleasant journey.

=Bordelaise sauce= (_bôr-de-läz´_).--Espagnole sauce with garlic,
aromatic herbs, and Bordeaux wine.

=boudoir= (_bōō dwȧr´_), a small private apartment.

=bouillabasse= (_boo-e-yä-bäs´_).--A soup made of fish broiled and
seasoned with onion, orange peel, saffron, oil, and other seasoning to
suit the taste.

=bouilli= (_boo-e-yē´_).--Beef stewed, generally in one piece, and
served with sauce.

=boulettes de hachis= (_boo-let´ de hä-shē´_).--Forcemeat balls.

=bouquet garni= (_gär-nē´_).--A tied bunch of parsley, onions, bay leaf,
and thyme, used to boil in soup to flavor it.

=bourgeoisie= (_bōōr zhwa zē´_), the body of citizens; burgess; the
shop-keeping class.

=bourguignonnes= (_boor-gē-nyon´_).--Snails baked with a dressing of
shallots, garlic, lemon juice, and butter.

=braise= (_brāz_), or =braisé= (_brā-zā´_).--A piece of braised meat, or
a dish prepared by braising; also a preparation mixed and prepared of
various ingredients in or with which dishes are braised.

=braisé de Boulanger= (_brā-zā´ de boo-lä_N-_zhā´_).--A compound sauce
in which meat is smothered when being braised.

=bretonne sauce= (_brā-ton´_).--Espagnole sauce characterized by juice
of fried onions or purée of onions.

=breveté= (_brev tā´_), patented.

=Brie cheese=, or =Brie= (_brē_).--A soft, white cream cheese.

=bris´ket=, or =brisquet= (_brē-skā´_).--The breast; the part of the
breast next to the ribs.

=broccoli= (_brok´kō-li_).--A kind of cabbage resembling the
cauliflower.

=brochet= (_brō shā´_).--Pike; luce--a kind of fish.

=brocheton= (_brō-she-tô_N´).--Pickerel.

=brusquerie= (_brüs krē_), rudeness.

=brut= (_brü_).--An effervescent wine.

=bückling= (_bük´ling_).--Red herring.

=buisson= (_bwē-sô_N´).--A dish disposed in a pyramid, and having a
prickly appearance.

=bureau de la guerre= (_bü rō dlȧ ger´_), the war office.

=bur´goo.=--Oatmeal porridge.

=Burgun´dian sauce=.--Espagnole sauce flavored with shallots and red
Burgundy wine.

=C=

=cabaretier= (_kȧ bȧre tēā´_), an innkeeper.

=cabillaud= (_kä-bē-yō´_).--A fresh cod.

=cachot= (_ka shō´_), a dungeon.

=café= (_kä-fā´_).--Coffee.

=café au lait= (_kä-fā´ ō lā_).--Coffee with hot milk; coffee to which
milk is added during the process of infusion or boiling.

=café bavaroise= (_kä-fā´ bä-vä-rwäz´_).--Coffee with whipped cream.

=café noir= (_kä-fā´nwär_).--Black coffee; that is, coffee without milk.

=café parfait= (_kä-fā´ pär-fā´_).--A form of coffee ice cream.

=café turc= (_türk_).--Turkish coffee; that is, coffee prepared by
pouring boiling water on very finely ground coffee in the cup.

=caille= (_käey_).--Quail.

=calipash.=--A part of a turtle next to the upper shell containing a
dull greenish gelatinous substance, esteemed as a delicacy.

=calipee.=--A part of a turtle attached to the lower shell. It contains
a fatty, gelatinous substance of a light yellowish color, esteemed as a
delicacy.

=camaraderie= (_ka ma ra drē_), good fellowship.

=Camembert cheese= (_kä-mä_N-_bâr´_).--A rich, sweet, cream cheese, of a
yellowish color, made in the neighborhood of Camembert, in Normandy,
France.

=canaîlle= (_kȧ nä´ y_), the lowest class of people; the rabble.

=canard= (_kȧ nȧr´_), a false story.

=canard= (_kä-när´_).--A duck.

=canellons= (_kä-ne-lôn´_).--Hollow sticks or rolls of baked puff paste.

=canelons= (_kä-ne-lô_N´).--Rugosities of ox palate, or preparations of
them, covered with farce, rolled, and gratinated.

=caneton= (_kä-ne-tô_N)--Young duck; duckling.

=cannelon of meat= (_kä-ne-lô_N´).--A baked roll of highly seasoned
mincemeat.

=cap-à-pié= (_kȧ pȧ pēā´_), from head to foot.

=ca´pers.=--The pungent, grayish green flower buds of a trailing shrub
(_Capparis spinosa_) of southern Europe.

=capilotade of chick´en= (_kä-pē-lō-täd´_).--A kind of ragoût made of
remains of fowl or game and some simple brown sauce.

=ca´pon.=--A castrated cock. It fattens better and is tenderer than the
uncastrated ones.

=carbonari= (It.), (_kär bō nä´rē_), members of a secret political
society in Italy.

=car´dinal sauce.=--Velouté variously flavored and colored red, as with
cochineal.

=carême= (_kȧrem´_), fast; Lent.

=carnichons= (_kär-nē-shô_N´).--Gherkins.

=carré= (_kä-rā_).--Breast.

=carrelet= (_kär-lā´_).--A fish, the sole or flounder.

=carte blanche= (_kärt blä_N_sh´_), full power.

=carte de visite= (_kärt de vē zēt´_), visiting card.

=cassareep´.=--A brown, slightly sweet, aromatic thick extract made from
the juice of the manioc.

=casserole= (_kas´se-rōl_; French pron. _käs-rōl´_).--Stewpan.

=cas´serole of rice.=--An ornamental pie case made of paste of prepared
rice.

=cassis= (_kä-sēs´_).--Black currants; also, a kind of jelly, and a kind
of liqueur or cordial, flavored with black currants.

=castello che da orecchia si vuol rendere= (It.), (_käs-tel´lō kā dä ō
rä´kyä sē vwôl rān dā´rā_), the fortress that parleys soon surrenders.

=causerie= (_kō-zrē´_), a familiar talk.

=caviare= (_kä-vē-är´_) or =caviar= (_kav´i-är_).--Roe of sturgeon, and
other large fish, prepared and salted, and used as a relish. They often
resemble morning-glory seeds in appearance.

=champignons= (_shä_N-_pē-nyô_N´).--Mushrooms.

=Champs Elysées= (_shä_N _zā lē zā´_), Elysian Fields; a public park in
Paris.

=cela va sans dire= (that goes without saying), (_se la vȧ sä_N _dēr´_),
that is understood.

=ce n’est que le premier pas qui coûte= (_se ne kle pre-mēā
pä´kē-kōōt=´=_), it is only the first step that is difficult.

=cèpes= (_sāp_), or =ceps= (_sā_).--An edible kind of mushroom.

=c’est à dire= (_se tȧ dēr´_), that is to say.

=c’est une autre chose= (_se tü nō tre shōz´_), that is quite another
thing.

=chacun à son goût= (_shȧ ko_N _ȧ sô_N _gōō´_), everyone to his taste.

=chacun tire de son côté= (_shȧ kö_N _tēr´ de sô_N _kō tā´_), every one
inclines to his own side or party.

=chanson= (_shä_N _sô_N´), a song.

=chansons à boire= (_shä_N _sô_N _zȧ bwȧr´_), drinking songs.

=chapeau= (_shȧ pō´_), a hat.

=chapeau bas= (_shȧ pō bä´_), hats off.

=chapeau de bras= (_shȧ pō de brȧ´_), a military cocked hat.

=chapelle ardente= (_shȧ pe lȧr dä_N_t´_), the chamber where a dead body
lies in state.

=chapon= (_shä-pô_N´).--Capon.

=chapon au gros sel= (_shä-pô_N _ō grō sel_).--Plain boiled capon;
literally, capon served with a big lump of salt (placed upon it).

=chargé d´affaires= (_shȧr zhā dȧ fer´_), one intrusted with state
affairs at a foreign court.

=charlotte russe= (_shär-lot´ rüs_), or =charlotte à la russe=
(_shär-lot´ ä lä rüs_).--A dish of custard or whipped cream inclosed in
a cup of sponge cake.

=chartreuse à la Parisienne= (_shär-trûz´ ä lä pä-re-syen´_).--A showy
entrée, consisting chiefly of quenelles of forcemeat, containing ragoût
and kebobs; an entrée de force; entrée à surprise.

=chasse café= (_shäs kä-fā´_).--A drink of liqueur served after the
coffee at dinner.

=château= (_shä tō´_), a castle.

=châteaux en Espagne= (_shä tō zä_N _nes pȧyn´_), castles in Spain.

=châteaubriand sauce= (_shä-tō-brē-ä_N´).--See maitre d’hôtel butter.

=chauffeur= (_shō for´_), driver of an automobile.

=chaufroid sauce= (_shō-frwä´_).--A white or brown jelly containing some
sauce; a sauced jelly, or a gelatinized sauce.

=chef= (_shef_), man cook.

=chef de bataillon= (_shef da bȧ tä yô_N´), a major.

=chef-d’œuvre= (_shā dö vr´_), a masterpiece.

=chemin de fer= (lit. iron road), (_she mâ_N_t fer´_), a railway.

=chemin faisant= (_she mâ_N _fe zän´_), by the way; in passing.

=chère amie= (_she rȧ mē´_), a dear (female) friend, a lover.

=cher´vil=.--A plant (_Anthriscus cerefolium_) with finely divided
leaves. Two curly varieties are used in soups and salads.

=che sara, sara= (It.), (_ka sä ra sa ra´_), what will be will be.

=cheval de bataille= (lit., a war-horse), (_she vȧl de bȧ tä´y_) chief
dependence or support; one’s strong point.

=chic= (_shēk_), stylish, smart.

=chiffonade= (_shē-fō-näd´_).--A salad preparation of lettuce, chervil,
sorrel, and scallions, with fresh butter, and some bouillon poured over
it. When milk or fresh cream is added, it is called _potage à la
chiffonade_; otherwise _potage de santé_ (_pō-täzh´ de sä_N-_tā´_).

=chil´i=.--A kind of red pepper or capsicum.

=chil´i sauce=.--A sauce condiment made with chilis, tomatoes, etc.

=Chinese´ stur´geon soup=.--A soup of beef and veal, containing pieces
of cartilage from the sturgeon’s head boiled tender.

=chi tace confessa= (It.), (_kē tä´chā kōn fes´sä_), he who keeps silent
admits his guilt.

=chive=.--A plant allied to the onion, of which the young leaves are
used in omelets, etc.

=choucroute= (_shoo-kroot´_).--French sauerkraut, or sauerkraut in
general.

=chou-fleur= (_shoo-flûr´_).--Cauliflower.

=choux= (_shoo_).--(_a_) Cabbages. (_b_) See _choux pâtissières_.

=choux de Bruxelles= (_shoo de brü-sel´_).--Brussels sprouts.

=choux de mer= (_shoo de mâr_).--Sea kale, a kind of cruciferous pottage
root.

=choux pâtissières= (_shoo pä-tē-syâr´_).--Soufflés in small molds;
small cakes of baked batter.

=ci git= (_sē zhē´_), here lies. (A common inscription on tombstones.)

=civet= (_sē-vā´_).--A ragoût of hare [civet de lièvre (_lyā´vr_)], deer
[_civet de chevreuil_ (_she-vrû´y_)], or other game, into which wine and
onions enter as ingredients.

=clare´mont sauce=.--Butter sauce flavored by frying onions in it. The
onions are removed after frying.

=cock´a-lee´kie=.--Capon soup, boiled with leeks and prunes--a favorite
Scotch dish.

=cock´tail of oysters or clams=.--A dish containing oysters or clams
seasoned with ketchup, pepper, etc., and served in a tumbler or glass.

=cocotte= (_kō-kot´_).--A kind of iron casserole with two loop handles
and a cover.

=cœurs d’artichauts= (_kûr-där-tē-shō´_).--Artichoke heads.

=cognac= (_kō-nyäk´_).--A brandy distilled at Cognac, in France; hence,
loosely, any French brandy.

=coiffeur= (_kwȧ-för´_), a hairdresser.

=coiffure= (_kwȧ für´_), a headdress.

=coing= (_kwa_N).--Quince. A liqueur, or ratafia, is made flavored with
quince; and a jelly of quinces is called _coing de tranches (de
tränsh)_.

=collared.=--This term is loosely used with no apparent definite meaning
in the names of various dishes.

=col´lared beef.=--A thin piece of beef, usually from the flank, rolled
into a round form.

=col´lops.=--Small pieces or slices.

=com´fit.=--A dry sweetmeat; fruit, seed, or the like, preserved in
sugar and dried.

=comme il faut= (_kô mēl fō´_), proper, as it should be.

=comment vous portez vous?= (_kô mä_N _vōō pôr tā vōō´_), how are you?

=commis voyageur= (_kô mē vwȧ yȧ zhör´_), a commercial traveler.

=compagnon de voyage= (_kô_N _pȧ nyô_N _de vwȧ yȧzh´_), a traveling
companion.

=compiègne cake= (_ko_N-_pyān´_).--A kind of cake intended to be
drenched with liqueur, sliced, and sandwiched with apricot jam.

=com´pote= (French pron. _kô_N-_pōt´_).--Cooked fruit; fruit preserved
with sugar so as to preserve its form. Also, a savory dish of pigeons,
quails or larks, mixed with peas or mushrooms.

=compte rendu= (_kôNt räN dü´_), an account rendered, a report.

=comptoir= (_kô_N _twȧr´_), a counting-house; a counter.

=comte= (_kô_N_t_), count.

=comtesse= (_kô_N _tes´_), countess.

=con amore= (It.), (_kō nä mō´rā_), with affection, very earnestly.

=concierge= (_kô_N _s erzh´_), a door-keeper.

=conciergerie= (_kô_N _sē er zhrē´_), a door-keeper’s lodge; a noted
prison in Paris.

=concours= (_kô_N _kōōr´_), competition for, or as for, a prize.

=con diligenza (It.),= (_kōn dē lē dshen´dzä_), with diligence.

=con dolore= (It.), (_kōn dō lō´rā_), with grief; sadly.

=confit= (_kô_N-_fē´_).--A dry sweetmeat; fruit preserved in sugar and
dried; a comfit.

=confiture= (_kô_N-_fē-tür´_).--Preserves.

=confrère= (_kô_N _frer´_), a colleague.

=conoscente= (It.), (_kō nō shen´tā_), a connoisseur.

=conseil de famille= (_kô_N _se´y de fȧ mē´y_), a family council or
consultation.

=conseil d’état= (_kô_N _se´y dā tȧ´_), a council of state; a privy
council.

=consommé= (_kôN-sō-mā´_).--Strong broth of meat and vegetables,
concentrated till slightly browned; in restaurants applied to thin soups
such as would be made by this broth diluted.

=cor´dial.=--A sweet and aromatic liquor. A _liqueur_ is an alcoholic
cordial.

=contretemps= (_kô_N _tre tä_N´), an awkward mishap.

=cordon sanitaire= (_kôr dôN sȧ nē ter´_), a line of sentries to
prevent, as far as possible, the spread of contagion or pestilence. Used
also of other precautionary measures.

=corps diplomatique= (_kor dē plô mȧ tēk´_), a diplomatic body.

=cortège= (_kor tezh_), a procession.

=côte= (_kōt_).--A rib.

=côtelette= (_kōt-let´_).--A small rib; part of a rib; a piece of meat
with the rib attached; a cutlet.

=couleur de rose= (_kōō lör de rōz´_), rose color.

=coup= (_kōō_), a stroke.

=coup de grâce= (_kōō d gräs´_), a finishing-stroke. (Formerly applied
to the fatal blow by which the executioner put an end to the torments of
a culprit broken on the wheel.)

=coup de main= (_kōō d mâ_N´), a sudden attack, enterprise, or
undertaking.

=coup de maître= (_kōō d metr´_), a master-stroke; with consummate
skill.

=coup de pied= (_kōō d pēā´_), a kick.

=coup de plume= (_kōō d plüm´_), a literary attack.

=coup de soleil= (_kōō d sô le´y_), a sunstroke.

=coup d’essai= (_kōō de sā´_), a first attempt.

=coup d’état= (_kōō dā tȧ´_), a stroke of policy; a sudden and decisive
blow, usually inflicted by unconstitutional means.

=coup de théâtre= (_kōō dā tā ätr´_), a theatrical effect.

=coup d’œil= (_kōō dö´y_), a rapid glance.

=courage sans peur= (_kōō rȧzh sän pör_) fearless courage.

=court bouillon= (_boo-e-yô_N´).--A very rich bouillon made by braising
bouillon vegetables in butter, evaporating down, and then boiling in
wine. It is added to sauces.

=coute qu’il coute= (_kōōt kēl kōōt´_), cost what it may.

=crême= (_krām,_ or _krâm_).--A cordial of the relatively thick or
visced kind, such as _crême_ de la menth (cream of minth), _crême_ de la
moka (cream of mocha coffee), _crême_ de cocoa (cream of cocoa), etc.

=crême bachique= (_krām bâ-shēk´_).--A custard jelly with wine and
egg-froth.

=crême brulée= (_krām brü-lā´_).--Brown sugar, or caramel, with cream.

=crême fouettée à la paysanne= (_foo-et-ta´ ä lä pā-zän´_).--Whipped
cream.

=créole= (_krā-ōl´_).--See _à la créole_.

=crêpes= (_krāp_).--Small fried cakes; a form of French pancake.

=cressons= (_krā-sô_N´).--Cresses.

=crève-cœur= (_krev kör´_), deep sorrow; grief.

=crevette= (_krā-vet´_).--Shrimp.

=croquants= (_krō-kä_N´).--A piece of crisp pastry or confection which
makes a crunching sound between the teeth, as a macaroon or a nougat.

=crouton= (_kroo-tô_N´).--Small pieces of bread fried in butter or oil,
for use as a garnish to salmis, fricassees, etc., or to serve with
soups.

=croquembouches= (_krō-kä_N-_boosh´_).--Small mounted pieces of crisp
pastry, such as macaroons, nougats, gimblettes, etc.

=crum’pet.=--A kind of large, thin, light cake or muffin cooked on a
griddle.

=cuisine= (_küē-zēn´_), a kitchen; cookery.

=cuissot= (_kwē-sō´_).--Haunch.

=cul-de-sac= (_kül de sȧk´_), the bottom of the bag; a blind alley.

=cyg´net.=--A young swan.

=D=

=d’accord= (_dȧ kôr´_), agreed; in tune.

=dame d’honneur= (_dȧm dô nör´_), a maid of honor.

=dantesques= (_dä_N-_tesk´_).--Frozen custards.

=dariole= (_dä-rē-ōl´_).--A piece of pastry consisting of a shallow cup
of short paste, filled with a rich compound of cream or custard with
macaroons, fruit, or the like.

=darne= (_därn_).--Slice; cut.

=das geht Sie nichts an= (Ger.), (_däs gāt zē nikts än´_), that does not
concern you.

=de= (_de_).--Of.

=de bonne augure= (_de bô nō-gür´_), of good omen.

=de bonne grâce= (_de bôn gräs´_), with good will, willingly.

=débris= (_dā brē´_), refuse.

=début= (_dā bü´_), first appearance.

=débutante= (_dā bü tä_N_t´_), a young lady just entering society.

=décolleté= (_dā kôl tā´_), open-breasted.

=dégagé= (_dā gȧ zhā_), free, easy, without constraint.

=de gaieté de cœur= (_de gā tā d kör´_), in sport, sportively.

=de haute lutte= (_de ōt lüt´_), by a violent struggle.

=dehors= (_dā ôr´_), without; out of; foreign; irrelevant.

=déjeuner à la fourchette= (_dā zhö nā ȧ lȧ fōōr shet´_), a cold
breakfast.

=de mal en pis= (_de mȧ lä_N _pē´_), from bad to worse.

=demeure= (_de mör´_), dwelling; residence

=demi-jour= (_de mē zhōōr´_), faint light.

=demi-tasse= (_dā-mē-täs´_).--A small cup for black coffee.

=dénouement= (_dā nōō mä_N´), an unraveling or winding up.

=dépêche= (_dā pesh´_), a dispatch; a message.

=dernier cri= (_der nēā krē´_), (the latest cry), the latest fashionable
fad.

=dernier ressort= (_der nēā re sôr´_), the last resource.

=désagrément= (_dā zȧ grād mä_N´), something disagreeable or unpleasant.

=désorienté= (_dā zô rēä_N _tā´_), confused.

=désossée= (_dā-sō-sā´_).--Boned.

=détour= (_dā tōōr´_), a circuitous march.

=de trop= (_de trô´_), too much or too many; not wanted.

=devoir= (_de vwȧr´_), duty.

=diablotins= (_dē-ab-lō-ta_N´).--(_a_) Frozen custards. (_b_) Neapolitan
dragées. (_c_) Chocolate bonbons in paper.

=di buona volonta sta pieno l’inferno= (It.), (_dē bwô nä vō lōn’tä sta
pyā´nō lē_N _fer’nō_), hell is full of good intentions.

=Dieu est toujours pour les plus gros bataillons= (_dēö e tōō zhōōr´
pōōr lā plü grō bȧ tä yö_N´), God is always on the side of the largest
battalions; the largest army has the best chance.

=Dieu et mon droit= (_dēö ā mô_N _drwä´_), God and my right.

=Dieu vous garde= (_dēö vōō gȧrd´_), God protect you.

=di grado en grado= (It.), (_dē grä’dō ān grä’dō_), step by step;
gradually.

=dinde= (_da_N_d_).--Turkey.

=dindonneau= (_da_N-_dō-nō´_).--Young turkey; turkey pout.

=Dios me libre de hombre de un libro= (Sp.), (_dē´ōs mā lē´vrā dā ōm’vrā
dā ōōn lē vrō_), God deliver me from a man of one book.

=di salto= (It.), (_dē säl’tō_), by leaps.

=di tutti novello par bello= (It.), (_dē tōōt tē nō vel’lo pär bel’lō_),
everything new seems beautiful.

=divertissement= (_dē ver tēs mä_N´), amusement; sport.

=di zara= (_dē zä´rä_).--A less common name for maraschino.

=doctrinaire= (_dôk trē ner´_), a theorist.

=dolce far niente= (It.), (_dōl´chā fär nyen´tā_), sweet idleness.

=domino= (It.), (_dō´mē nō_), a mask robe.

=dorer la pilule= (_dô rā lȧ pē lül´_), to gild the pill.

=double entente= (_dōō blä_N _tä_N_t´_), double meaning; a play on
words.

=douceur= (_dōō sor´_), a bribe.

=doux yeux= (_dōō zēö´_), soft glances.

=drap d’argent= (_drȧ dȧr zhä_N´), silver lace.

=drap d’or= (_drȧ dôr´_), gold lace.

=droit des gens= (_drwä dā zhä_N´), the law of nations; international
law.

=drôle= (_drōl_), droll; funny.

=drôle le corps= (_drōl le kôr´_), a droll fellow; a punster.

=durante vita= (Sp.), (_dōō rȧn´tā vē´tä_), during life.

=Dutch sauce.=--Butter emulged with yolk of egg, or a sauce with this as
a basis; Hollandaise sauce.

=E=

=eau de cologne= (_ō d kô lôn´y_), Cologne water.

=eau de vie= (_ō d vē´_), the water of life--applied usually to brandy.

=ébauche= (_ā bōsh´_), a rough drawing; a sketch.

=éclanche= (_ā klä_N_sh´_).--Shoulder of mutton.

=éclat= (_ā klȧ´_), splendor; brilliancy.

=école de droit= (_ā kôl de drwä´_), law school.

=école de médecine= (_ā kôl de mād sēn´_), medical school.

=école militaire= (_ā kôl mē lē ter´_), military school.

=école polytechnique= (_ā kôl pô lē tek nēk´_), polytechnique school.

=écrevisse= (_ä-kr-vēs´_).--Crayfish.

=édition de luxe= (_ā dē sēô_N´ _de lüks´_), a splendid edition of a
book, handsomely bound, and usually well illustrated.

=égal= (_ā gȧl´_), equal.

=égalité= (_ā gȧ lē tā´_), equality.

=égarement= (_ā gär mä_N´), bewilderment.

=ehrlich währt am längsten= (Ger.), (_ār´lik vert äm leng´sten_),
honesty is the best policy.

=elle mit Weile= (Ger.), (_ī le mit vī´le_), the more haste, the less
speed.

=eine Schwalbe macht keinen Sommer= (Ger.), (_ī ne shwäl´be mäkt kī nen
zô´mer_), one swallow does not make a summer.

=ein gebranntes Kind scheut das Feuer= (Ger.), (_īn ge brän tes kint´
zhôit däs fôi´er_), a burnt child dreads the fire.

=el corazon manda las carnes= (Sp.), (_āl kō rä thōn´ mändä läs
kär´nās_), the heart bears up the body.

=élève= (_ā lev´_), pupil.

=élite= (_ā lēt´_), a select body of persons.

=éloge= (_ā lôzh´_), a funeral oration.

=éloignement= (_ā lwȧn ye mä_N), estrangement.

=embonpoint= (_ä_N _bô_N _pwa_N´), roundness, good condition.

=émigré= (_ā mē grā´_), an emigrant.

=employé= (_ä_N _plwȧ yā´_), a person employed; a clerk.

=empotage= (_ä_N-_pō-täzh´_).--Consommé or gravy broth.

=empressement= (_ä_N _pres mä_N´), ardor; zeal; interest.

=en ami= (_ä_N _nȧ mē´_), a friend.

=en arrière= (_ä_N _nȧ rē er´_), in the rear; behind.

=en attendant= (_ä_N _nȧ tä_N _dä_N´), in the meantime.

=en avant= (_ä_N _nȧ vâ_N´), forward.

=en badinant= (_ä_N _bȧ dē nä_N´), in sport, jestingly.

=en bagatelle= (_ä_N _bȧ gȧ tel´_), trifling; contemptuously.

=en ballon= (_ä_N _bä-lô_N´).--Boned and stuffed with forcemeat,
etc.--said of fowls’ legs so cooked.

=en bloc= (_ä_N _blôk´_), in the lump.

=en brochette= (_ä_N _brō-shet´_).--On wooden skewers.

=en caneton= (_ä_N _kä-ne-tô_N´).--A term used to designate fowls’ legs
boned and stuffed with forcemeat, etc.

=en casserole= (_ä_N _kä-s-rōl´_).--In a casserole.

=en coquille= (_ä_N _kō-kē´y_).--(Served) in shells, as oysters prepared
as if to be escalloped and then baked in shells and served.

=en cracovie= (_ä_N _krä-kō-vē´_).--With salpicon wrapped in calf’s
udder or pig’s caul--said of ox palates.

=en cueros=, =en cueros vivos= (Sp.), (_ān kōōā´rōs, ān kōōä´rōs vē
vōs_), naked; without clothing.

=ende gut, alles gut= (Ger.), (_en´de gōōt, ä´les gōōt_), all’s well
that ends well.

=en déshabillé= (_ä_N _dā zȧ bē yā_), in undress; in one’s true colors.

=en Dieu est ma fiance= (_ä_N _dēō´e mȧ fēä_N_s´_), my trust is in God.

=en Dieu est tout= (_ä_N _dēō e tōō´_), in God are all things.

=en échelon= (_ä_N _nā sh lô_N´), in steps; like stairs.

=en effet= (_ä_N _ne fe´_), substantially, really, in effect.

=en famille= (_ä_N _fȧ mē´y_), with one’s family at home.

=enfant gâté= (_ä_N _fä_N _gä tā´_), a spoiled child.

=enfants perdus= (lit., lost children), (_ä_N _fä_N _per dü´_), a
forlorn hope.

=enfant terrible= (_ä_N _fä_N _te rēbl´_), (a terrible child), one that
is apt to do or say something exceedingly ill-timed and embarrassing.

=enfant trouvé= (_ä_N _fä_N _trōō vā´_), a foundling.

=enfin= (_ä_N _fâ_N´), in short, finally, at last.

=en flute= (_ä_N _flüt´_), carrying guns on the upper deck only.

=en foule= (_ä_N _fōōl´_), in a crowd.

=en grand= (_ä_N _grä_N´), of full size.

=en grande tenue= (_ä_N _grä_Nd _te nü´_), in full official, or evening,
dress.

=en grande toilette= (_ä_N _grä_N_d twȧ let´_), full-dressed; in full
rig.

=en haut= (_ä_N _ō´_), on high; above.

=en masse= (_ä_N _mäs´_), in a body or mass.

=ennui= (_ä_N _nüē´_), weariness.

=en passant= (_ä_N _pä sä_N´), in passing, by the way.

=en plein jour= (_ä_N _plâ_N _zhōōr_), in open day.

=en queue= (_ä_N _ko´_), immediately after; in the rear. Used specially
of persons waiting in line, as at the door of a theater, at the
ticket-office of a railway station, etc.

=en rapport= (_ä_N _rȧ pôr´_), in harmony, relation, or agreement.

=en règle= (_ä_N _regl´_), regular; regularly; in order.

=en revanche= (_ä_N _re vä_N _sh´_), in return; as a compensation for.

=en route= (_ä_N _rōōt_), on the way.

=ensemble= (_ä_N _sä_N _bl´_), the whole.

=en suite= (_ä_N _süēt´_), in company; in a set.

=en tasse= (_ä_N _täs´_), in a cup.

=entente cordiale= (_ä_N _tä_N_t kôr dēȧl´_), a good understanding,
especially between two states.

=entourage= (_ä_N _tōō rȧzh´_), surroundings.

=en tout= (_ä_N _tōō´_), in all; wholly.

=entre deux feux= (_ä_N _tre dö fö´_), between two fires.

=entre deux vins= (lit., between two wines), (_ä_N _tre dö vâ_N´),
half-drunk.

=entre nous= (_ä_N _tre nōō´_), between ourselves; in confidence.

=entrepot= (_ä_N _tre pō´_), a warehouse or magazine.

=entreprenant= (_ä_N _tre pre nä_N´), enterprising.

=entrepreneur= (_ä_N _tre pre nör´_), a contractor; the chief director
of an undertaking.

=entre-sol= (_ä_N _tre sôl´_), a half story or mezzanine, especially one
next above the ground floor.

=en vérité= (_ä_N _vā rē tā´_), in truth; really.

=en vigueur= (_ä_N _vē gör´_), in force.

=envoyé= (_ä_N _vwȧ yā´_), an envoy or messenger.

=escargots= (_ās-kär-gō´_).--Snails.

=escarole= (_es-kä-rōl_).--A species of chicory used for salads; also, a
variety of lettuce resembling this.

=es fehlt mir nichts= (Ger.), (_es fālt mēr nikts´_), nothing is the
matter with me.

=es freut mich sehr= (Ger.), (_es frôit mik zār´_), I am very glad.

=es ist nicht alles Gold, was glänzt= (Ger.), (_es ist nikt ä les gôlt´
väs glentst´_), all is not gold that glitters.

=espagnol=, (_es pȧ nyōl´_), Spanish; a Spaniard.

=espagnole sauce= (_es-pȧ-nyōl´_).--Brown sauce made by boiling meat and
flavoring vegetables and spices in normal broth to a glace, browning
with roux, and removing the fat.

=esprit de corps= (_es prē d kôr´_), the spirit of honor, loyalty, or
enthusiasm in an individual working for the good of a common body,
society, or association, as a college class, a military company,
fraternal or other association.

=esprit des lois= (_es prē dā lwȧ´_), spirit of the laws.

=es thut mir sehr leid= (Ger.), (_es tōōt mēr zār līt´_), I am very
sorry.

=esturgeon= (_es-tür-zhô_N´).--Sturgeon.

=Etats-Généraux= (_ā tȧ zhā nā rō´_), the States-General.

=Ewigkeit= (Ger.), (_ā´vik kīt_), eternity.

=exposé= (_ek spō zā´_), an exposition; a recital.

=F=

=façon de parler= (_fȧ sô_N _de pȧr lā´_), manner of speaking; phrase;
locution.

=fade= (_fȧd_), flat; stale; insipid.

=fainéant= (_fe nā ä_N´), idle.

=faire bonne mine= (_fer bôn mēn´_), to put a good face on the matter.

=faire l’homme d’importance= (_fer lôm dâ_N _pôr tä_N_s´_), to give
one’s self airs.

=faire sans dire= (_fer sä_N _dēr´_), to act without ostentation or
boasting.

=faire son devoir= (_fer sô_N _de vwȧr´_), to do one’s duty.

=faisan= (_fā-sä_N´).--Pheasant.

=fait accompli= (_fe tȧ kô_N _plē´_), a thing accomplished; an
accomplished fact.

=fanchonettes= (_fä_N-_shō-net´_).--Small cakes like tartlets covered
with meringue froth, with jam, currants, etc.

=farcie= (_fär-sē´_).--Stuffing of forcemeat.

=farine de riz= (_fä-rēn´ de rē´_).--Rice flour.

=faubourg= (_fō bōōr´_), an outskirt of a town; a suburb.

=fausse tortue= (_fōs tôr-tû_).--Mock turtle.

=fauteuil= (_fō tö´y_), an easy chair.

=faux pas= (_fō pä´_), a false step; an act of indiscretion.

=fécule de pommes de terre= (_fā-kül´ de pum de târ´_).--Potato starch,
used especially in making Savoy cakes, and others.

=femme couverte= (_fȧm kōō vert_), a married woman.

=femme de chambre= (_fȧm de shä_N_br´_), a chambermaid.

=femme de charge= (_fȧm de shȧrzh_), a housekeeper.

=femme galante= (_fȧm gȧ lä_N_t´_), a gay woman; a prostitute.

=femme sole= (_fȧm sōl´_), an unmarried woman.

=fendre un cheveu en quatre= (_fä_N _drö_N _she vö ä_N _kȧtr´_), to
split a hair in four; to make subtle distinctions.

=fête= (_fet_), a feast; festival; holiday.

=fête champêtre= (_fet shä_N _petr´_), a rural out-of-door feast; a
festival in the fields.

=fête Dieu= (_fet dē ō´_), the Corpus Christi festival in the Roman
Catholic church.

=feu de joie= (_fö d zhwȧ_), a bonfire; a firing of guns in token of
joy.

=feuilletage= (_fû-ye-täzh´_).--Puff paste.

=feuilleton= (_fö y tô_N´), a small leaf; a part of a newspaper devoted
to light, entertaining matter.

=filet= (_fē-lā´_), Eng. =fil´let=.--(_a_) The under cut of the loin of
beef and venison. (_b_) Breast of fowl or game when cut out [the inner
muscles near the bone being the =filet mignons= (_fē-lā´ mē-nyô_N´)].
(_c_) Any longish strips of meat or vegetables.

=filet du dedans= (_fē-lā´ dü dā-dä_N´).--The under cut of the loin of
beef; a filet.

=fille de chambre= (_fē y de shä_N _br´_), a chambermaid.

=fille d’honneur= (_fē y dô nör´_), a maid of honor.

=fil´let=.--See _filet_. Fillet is the usual spelling in English
culinary books.

=fils= (_fēs_), son.

=fin de siècle= (_fâ_N _d sēekl´_), the end of the century.

=Fin´nan had´die=.--Haddock cured in peat smoke, originally coming from
Findon (pronounced _fin´an_) in Scotland; also, haddock smoked in other
ways.

=flageolets= (_flä-zhō-lā´_).--Beans.

=flamms=.--Pancakes.

=fleur-de-lis= (_flör de lē´_), the flower of the lily.

=fleur de terre= (_flör de ter_), even with the surface of the ground.

=fleurons= (_flû-rô_N´).--Punched-out ornaments of bread (crusted or
fried), or of paste (baked), or of other materials.

=Flor´ence cakes=, or =Flor´entines=.--A kind of cake consisting of a
thin shell of puff paste containing a composition of curds, butter,
yolks, flour, bitter almonds, and lemon, or a very similar composition.

=flum´mery=.--A cold, sweet dish chiefly of cereals, often with fruit in
it, molded and to be eaten with wine, milk, or sauce.

=foie= (_fwä_).--Liver.

=flux de bouche= (_flüks de bōōsh´_), inordinate flow of talk;
garrulity.

=fond = (_fô_N).--The broth or juice from braised flesh or fish, usually
served as a sauce.

=fondue= (_fô_N_-dü´_).--A preparation of cheese, eggs, and butter
melted together.

=fra= (It.), (_frä_), brother; friar.

=frais= (_fre_), cost; expense.

=fraise= (_frāz_).--Strawberry.

=framboise= (_frä_N_-bwäz´_).--Raspberries.

=Fra Modesto non fu mai priore= (It.), (_frä mō des tō nōn fōō mä ē
pryō´rā_). Friar Modest never became prior.

=franco= (It.), (_fräng´kō_), free from postage.

=frangipane= (French pron. _frä_N_-zhē-pän´_).--A kind of compound
pastry cream flavored with almonds, with which pastry is garnished.

=frisch begonnen=, =halb gewonnen= (Ger.), (_frish be gô´nen, hälp ge
vô´nen_), well begun is half done.

=froides mains, chaude amour= (_frwäd mâ_N´ _shō dȧ mōōr´_), cold hands,
warm heart.

=fromage= (_frō-mäzh´_).--Cheese.

=fromage à la Chantilly= (_ä lä shä_N-_tē-yē´_).--=fromage de Chantilly=
(_de shä_N-_tē-yē´_).--Apricot jam.

=frondeur= (_frô_N _dör´_), a declaimer against the administration.

=front à front= (_frô_N _tȧ frô_N´), face to face.

=fru´menty=.--A food prepared by boiling wheat in milk to a jelly,
usually with the addition of currants, sugar, egg yolk, and spice.

=fumet= (_fü-mā´_).--A high-flavored substance, such as extract of game,
for flavoring dishes of food; also, less properly, a ragoût of partridge
and rabbits braised in wine.

=fuyez les dangers de loisir= (_füē yā lā dä_N _zhād lwȧzēr´_), fly from
the dangers of leisure.

=G=

=gaieté de cœur= (_gā tā d kör´_), gaiety of heart.

=galatine=.--Boned fowl, veal, or the like, stuffed with pieces of meat
and force, boiled, and served cold, with a garnish of jelly or aspic.

=gal’imaufry=, or =galimafrée= (_gä-lē-mä-frā´_).--A kind of ragoût of
various kinds of meat highly flavored.

=garage= (_gȧ rȧzh´_), a place where automobiles are stored and kept in
order.

=garbancas= (_gär-bän-säs´_).--Chick-peas.

=garbure= (_gär-bür´_).--A soup of bacon and cabbage or other vegetables
sometimes with cheese added.

=garçon= (_gȧr sô_N´), a lad; a waiter.

=garde à cheval= (_gȧr dȧ she vȧl´_), a mounted guard.

=garde du corps= (_gȧrd dü kôr´_), a bodyguard.

=garde mobile= (_gȧrd mô bēl´_), a body of troops liable to be called
out for general service.

=garde royale= (_gȧrd rwȧ yȧl´_), royal guard.

=gardez= (_gȧr dā´_), take care; be on your guard.

=gardez-bien= (_gȧr dā bēâ_N´), take good care; be very careful.

=gardez la foi= (_gȧr dā lȧ fwȧ´_), keep the faith.

=Gas´cony sauce=.--Velouté with capers, truffles, and egg yolk.

=gaspacho= (_gäs-pä´chō_).--A bread-and-vegetable salad, made by the
Spanish, containing pimentoes, tomatoes, oil, and vinegar, and (in the
richer form) fish, crayfish, piquant preserves, etc.

=gâteau= (_gä tō´_), cake.

=gâteaux= (_gä-tō´_).--Cakes of flour, butter and eggs.

=gâteaux de puits d’amour= (_de pwē dä-mōōr´_).--Love-wells.

=gaucherie= (_gōsh rē´_), awkwardness.

=gauffres= (_gō´fr_).--Waffles.

=gehen Sie Ihres weges= (Ger.), (_gā´en zē ē res vā´ges_), go your way.

=gelée= (_zhe-lā´_).--Jelly.

=gendarmerie= (_zhä_N _dȧr me rē´_), the armed police force.

=Gene´va sauce=.--A coulis of fried onions with meat essence or
espagnole, with anchovy butter, and usually port or claret wine. It is
used especially with fresh water fish.

=génoise sauce= (_zhā-nwäz´_).--Espagnole sauce flavored with fumet and
red wine.

=génoises= (_zhā-nwäz´_).--Glazed cakes of sugar, eggs, flour and
almonds.

=gens d’armes= (_shä_N _dȧrm´_), men-at-arms; military police.

=gens de condition= (_zhä_N _de kô_N _dē sēô_N´), people of rank.

=gens d’église= (_zhä_N _dā glēz´_), the clergy; clerics.

=gens de guerre= (_zhä_N _d ger´_), military men.

=gens de lettres= (_zhä_N _d letr´_), literary men.

=gens de loi= (_zhä_N _d lwȧ´_), lawyers.

=gens de même famille= (_zhä_N _d mem fȧ mē´y_), people of the same
family; birds of a feather.

=gens de peu= (_zhä_N _d pö´_), the lower classes.

=gentilhomme= (_zhä_N _tē yôm´_), a gentleman.

=gibelotte= (_zhē-blot´_).--Stewed rabbit; sometimes, stewed chicken or
other white meat.

=gibier= (_zhē-byā´_).--Game, as hare, deer, etc.

=gibier de potence= (_zhē bēā d pô tä_N_s´_), a gallows-bird; one who
deserves hanging.

=gigot= (_zhē-gō´_).--Leg of mutton.

=gimblettes= (_zha_N-_blet´_).--Small pastry preparations, such as
croquignoles and croquembouches. Small pastry, or patés de petit four;
they are used as ingredients of croquembouches.

=giovine Italia= (It.), (_dzhō vē´nā ē tä´lyä_), young Italy.

=giovine santo, diavolo vecchio= (It.), (_dzhō vē nā sän´tō dyä´vō lō
vek´kyō_), a young saint; an old devil.

=gitano= (Sp.), (_hē tä´nō_), a girl.

=glace= (_gläs_).--A glaze, or broth, reduced by boiling to a gelatinous
paste, so that when poured over meats it will give them a shiny
appearance.

=glacé= (_glä-sā´_).--Covered with glace.

=glaced= (_gläst_).--Iced; having a shiny appearance produced by a
coating of sugar, gelatine, or glace.

=glaize=, or glase (_glāz_).--A glace.

=gleich und gleich gesellt sich gern= (Ger.), (_glīk´ oont glīk´ ge zelt
sik gern´_), birds of a feather flock together.

=gli assenti hanno torti= (It.), (_lyē äs sen´tē än nō tôr´tē_), the
absent are in the wrong.

=godiveau= (_gō-dē-vō´_).--A kind of mincemeat, usually of veal, made
into balls, to garnish the interior of hot patés and vol-au-vents.

=gold´en buck=.--A Welsh rarebit served with a poached egg on it.

=goujon= (_goo-zhô_N).--Gudgeon, a rather coarse fish.

=goulash= (_goo-läsh´_).--See _gulash_.

=goutte à goutte= (_gōō tȧ gōō´_), drop by drop.

=gouvernante= (_gōō ver nä_N_t´_), governess.

=grâce à Dieu= (_gräs ȧ dēö´_), thanks be to God.

=grande chère et beau feu= (_grä_N_d sher´ ā bō fö´_), good fare and a
good fire; comfortable quarters.

=grande parure= (_grä_N_d pȧ rür´_), full dress.

=grande toilette= (_grä_N_d twȧ let´_), full dress.

=grand merci= (_grä_N _mer sē´_), many thanks.

=gratin= (_grä-ta_N´).--The brown crust formed upon a gratinated dish;
also, the dish itself.

=grat´inate.=--To cook, as macaroni, in a savory sauce or broth until
the juice is absorbed and a brown crust forms.

=gren´adine.=--A kind of fricandeau, with a basis of forcemeat.

=grenouille= (_gre-noo´y_).--Frog.

=grill.=--To broil.

=grenadin= (_grā-nä-da_N´).--A small fricandeau, or dish made with a
basis of forcemeat.

=grisette= (_grē zet´_), dressed in gray. (Applied to French shop
girls.)

=groseille à maquereau= (_grō-zā´y ä mā-k’rō´_).--Gooseberry.

=gros rôti= (_grō rō-tē´_).--A large joint of roast meat.

=grosse tête et peu de sens= (_grōs tet´ ā pö d sä_N_s´_), a big head
and little sense.

=Gruyère cheese= (_grü-yâr´_).--A kind of salted cheese in thin cakes.

=guava jel´ly= (_gwä´vä_).--An excellent jelly made from the slightly
astringent fruit of either of two tropical trees.

=guerra al chuchillo= (Sp.), (_gā´rä äl kōō chē´lō_), war to the knife.

=guerra cominciata, inferno scatenato= (It.), (_gwe ra kō mēn chyä´tä,
ēn fār´nō skatän´tā_), war begun; hell unchained.

=guerre à mort= (_ge rȧ môr´_), war to the death.

=guerre à outrance= (_ge rȧ ōō trä_N_s´_), war to the uttermost.

=gulash= (_goo-läsh´_), or =Hunga´rian gulash=.--A ragoût of rump steak
flavored with paprika.

=gum´bo.=--A soup thickened with the mucilaginous pods of the okra;
also, the okra pods themselves.

=H=

=habitué= (_ȧ bē tüā´_), a frequenter.

=hardiesse= (_ȧr dēes´_), boldness.

=hareng= (_ä-rä_N´).--Herring.

=haricot= (_ä-rē-kō´_).--A stew or ragoût of meat. Also, the common
string bean.

=haricots verts= (_ä-rē-kō´ vâr_).--Green string beans.

=haut et bon= (_ō tā bô_N), great and good.

=haut gout= (_ō gōō´_), high favor; elegant taste.

=hauteur= (_ō tör´_), haughtiness and pride.

=haut ton= (_ō tô_N´), highest fashion.

=heureusement= (_ö röz mä_N´), happily.

=historiette= (_ēs tô rēet´_), a short history; a tale.

=Hollandaise sauce= (_ō-lä_N-_däz´_; Eng. pron. _hol´lan-dāz´_). See
_Dutch sauce_.

=homard= (_ō-mär´_).--The European lobster--larger than the American
lobster, called _homard américaine_ (_ō-mär´dä-mā-rē-kān´_).

=homme d’affaires= (_ôm dȧ fer´_), a man of affairs.

=homme d’état= (_ôm dā tȧ´_), a statesman.

=homme de robe= (_ôm de rôb´_), a man in civil office.

=homme de lettres= (_ôm de letr´_), a literary man.

=homme d’esprit= (_ôm des prē´_), a man of intellect.

=honi soit qui mal y pense= (_ô nē swȧ´ kē mȧl ē pä_N_s´_), shame be to
him who thinks evil of it. (The motto of the Order of the Garter.)

=hors de combat= (_ôr de kô_N _bȧ´_), disabled; unfit to continue a
contest.

=hors de la loi= (_ôr de lȧ lwā_), outlawed.

=hors de propos= (_ôr de prô po´_), wide of the point; inapplicable.

=hors de saison= (_ôr de se zô_N´), out of season; unseasonable.

=hors d’œuvre= (_ôr dövr´_), out of course; out of accustomed place.
(Used substantively of small appetizing dishes served between the soup
and the second course.)

=hôtel des invalides= (_ō tel dā zâ_N _vȧ lēd´_), hospital for old and
disabled soldiers.

=hôtel de ville= (_ō tel de vēl´_), a town hall.

=hôtel Dieu= (_ō tel dēö´_), a house of God; a hospital.

=hôtel garni= (_ō tel gȧr nē´_), furnished lodgings.

=huitres= (_wē´tr’_).--Oysters.

=huitres au lit= (_ō lē_).--Same as pigs in blankets.

=hure de sanglier= (_ür de sä_N-_glyā´_).--Head of wild boar.

=hurtar para dar por Dios= (Sp.), (_ōōr tär´ pä rä där pōr dē´ōs_), to
steal in order to give to God.

=I=

=ich diene= (Ger.), (_ik dēne_), I serve.

=idée fixe= (_ē dā fēks´_), a fixed idea; intellectual monomania.

=ignorance crasse= (_ī nyô rä_N_s´ krȧs´_), gross ignorance.

=i gran dolori sono muti= (It.), (_ē grän dō lō´rē sō nō mōō´tē_), great
griefs are silent.

=il a le diable au corps= (_ē lȧ l dēäblō kôr´_), the devil is in him.

=il faut de l’argent= (_ēl fō d lȧr zhä_N), money is wanting.

=il n’a ni bouche ni éperon= (_ēl nȧ nē bōōsh nē ā prô_N´), he has
neither mouth nor spur; he has neither wit nor courage.

=il ne faut jamais défier un fou= (_ēl ne fō zhȧ me´ dāfēā ö_N _fōō_),
one should never provoke a fool.

=il n’est sauce que d’appétit= (_ēl ne sōs ke dȧ pā tē´_), hunger is the
best sauce.

=il penseroso= (It.), (_ēl pān sā rō´sō_), the pensive man. (The title
of one of Milton’s poems.)

=il sent le fagot= (_ēl sä_N _le fȧ gō´_), he smells of the faggot; he
is suspected of heresy.

=impoli= (_â_N _pô lē´_), unpolished; rude.

=impolitesse= (_â_N _pô lē tes´_), coarseness; rudeness.

=impromptu= (_â_N _prô_N_p tü´_), a prompt remark without study.

=in bianco= (It.), (_ēn byäng´kō_), in blank; in white.

=in petto= (It.), (_ēn pet´to_), within the breast; in reserve.

=insouciance= (_â_N _sōō sēä_N_s´_), indifference; carelessness.

=in un giorno non si fe’ Roma= (It.), (_ēn ōōn dzhōr´nō nōn sē fā
rō´mä_), Rome was not built in a day.

=ir por lana, y volver trasquilado= (Sp.), (_ēr pōr lä´nä, ē vōl vār´
träs kē lä´thō_), to go for wool and come back shorn.

=J=

=jalousie= (zhȧ lōō zē´), jealousy; a Venetian window blind.

=jambon= (_zhän-bô_N´).--Ham.

=jamais bon coureur ne fut pris= (_zhȧ me´ bô_N _kōō rör´ ne fü prē´_),
a good runner is not to be taken; old birds are not to be caught with
chaff.

=Jardin des Plantes= (_zhȧr dâ_N _dā plä_N_t´_), the botanical garden in
Paris.

=jardinière= (_zhär-dē-nyâr´_).--A dish cooked à la jardinière. See _à
la jardinière_. Jardinière soup has as many roots and green vegetables
as can be; it differs from julienne soup by the prevalence of green
vegetables in it.

=je maintiendrai le droit= (_zhe mâ_N _tēâ_N _drā le drwä´_), I will
maintain the right.

=je ne sais quoi= (_zhe ne se kwä´_), I know not what.

=je n’oublierai jamais= (_zhe nōō blē rā zhȧ me´_), I will never forget.

=je suis prêt= (_zhe süē pre´_), I am ready.

=jet d’eau= (_zhe dō´_), a fountain; a jet of water.

=jeu de mots= (_zhö d mō´_), a play upon words; a pun.

=jeu d’esprit= (_zhö des prē´_), a witticism.

=jeu de théâtre= (_zhö d tā ätr´_), a stage trick; clap-trap.

=jeunesse dorée= (_zhö nes dô rā´_), the gilded youth.

=je vis en espoir= (_zhe vē zä_N _nes pwȧr´_), I live in hope.

=joli= (_zhô lē_), pretty; attractive.

=julienne soup= (_zhü-lyen´_).--Soup à la julienne. See _à la julienne_.

=jus= (_zhü_).--Broth; soup juice; gravy.

=juste-milieu= (_zhüst mē lēö´_), the exact middle; the golden mean; the
middle course is the safest.

=K=

=kein Kreuzer, kein Schweizer= (Ger.), (_kīn krôi´tser, kīn shwī´tser_),
no money no Swiss.

=kip´pered her´ring.=--A herring split, salted, and smoked.

=kirschwasser= (_kērsh-väs´ûr_).--A cordial distilled from the juice of
the small black cherry.

=klōsse= (_klû´ze_).--Dumplings.

=kumiss= (_koo´mis_), or =kumys=.--A beverage consisting of a liquor
made by fermenting milk, originally mare’s or camel’s milk.

=kümmel= (_koom´mel_).--A liqueur made in Germany and Russia flavored
with cumin, caraway, or fennel.

=L=

=lâche= (_läsh_), lax; relaxed.

=la critique est aisée, l’art est difficile= (_lȧ krē tēk´ e te zā´,
lȧ´re dā fē sēl´_), criticism is easy, art is difficult.

=lade nicht alles in ein Schiff= (Ger.), (_lä de nikt ä´les in īn´
shif´_), do not ship all in one vessel; do not put all your eggs in one
basket.

=l’adversité fait les hommes, et le bonheur les monstres= (_lȧd ver zē
tā´ fe lā zôm´, ā le bô nör´ lā mô_N_str´_), adversity makes men, and
prosperity monsters.

=la fortuna aiuta i pazzi= (It.), (_lä fōr tōō´nä ä yōō´tä´dzē_),
fortune passes everywhere; all men are subject to the vicissitudes of
Fortune.

=laguna= (It.), (_lä gōō´nä_), a moor; a fen.

=laissez faire= (_le sā fer´_), let alone.

=laissez-nous faire= (_le sā nōō fer´_), let us act for ourselves; let
us alone.

=laitue= (_lā-tü´_).--Lettuce.

=la la= (_lȧ lȧ´_), so so; indifferently.

=l’allegro= (It.), (_läl lā´grō_), the merry man. (The title of one of
Milton’s poems.)

=l’amour et la fumée ne peuvent se cacher= (_lȧ mōōr´ ā lȧ fü mā´ ne pöv
se kȧ shā´_), love and smoke cannot be hidden.

=langage des halles= (_lä_N _gȧzh dā ȧ´_), the language of markets;
Billingsgate.

=langouste= (_lä_N-_goost´_).--The crawfish.

=langue= (_lä_N_g_).--Tongue.

=lapereau= (_lä-p’-rō´_).--Young rabbit; cony.

=la patience est amère, mais son fruit est doux= (_lȧ pä sēä_N_s e tȧ
mer´, me sô_N _früē´ e dōō´_), patience is bitter, but its reward is
sweet.

=lapins en accolade= (_lä pa_N _ä nä-kō-läd´_).--A brace of rabbits on a
dish.

=la povertà e la madre di tutti le arti= (It.), (_lä pō vār tä´ e lä
mä´drā dē tōōt´ tē lā är´tē_), poverty is the mother of all the arts.

=l’argent= (_lȧr zhä_N), silver; money.

=lasagne= (_lä-sä_N´_y_).--Ribbonlike strips of macaroni paste; also
noodles.

=lasciate ogni speranza voi, ch’entrate= (It.), (_lä shyä´tā ō nyē spā
rän´dzä vôē, kān trä´tā_), all hope abandon ye who enter here.

=lassen Sie mich gehen= (Ger.) (_lä´ sen zē mik gā´en_), let me alone.

=l’avenir= (_lȧv nēr´_), the future.

=la vertu est la seule noblesse= (_lȧ ver tü´ e lȧ söl nôbles´_), virtue
is the sole nobility.

=leason= (_lē´ son_).--Thickening, as flour, starch, egg yolk, etc.

=le beau monde= (_le bō mô_N_d´_), the world of fashion; society.

=lebkuchen= (_lāp´koo´ken_).--A cake of flour and honey, variously
flavored; also, a similar cake of flour and sugar.

=le bon temps viendra= (_le bô_N _tä_N´ _vēâ_N_drȧ´_), there’s a good
time coming.

=le coût en ôte le gout= (_le kōō tä_N _nōt le gōō´_), the expense takes
away the pleasure.

=le demi-monde= (_le de mē mô_N_d´_), Bohemia.

=légèreté= (_lā zher tā_), lightness; levity.

=le grand monarque= (_le grä_N _mô nȧrk´_), the grand monarch. A title
applied to Louis XIV.

=le grand œuvre= (_le grä_N _tövr´_), the great work; the search for the
philosopher’s stone.

=legumes= (_lē-gūmz´_).--Peas, lentils, or beans; improperly, fruit or
green vegetables.

=le jeu n’en vaut pas la chandelle= (_le zhö´ nä_N _vō pä lȧ shä_N
_del´_), the game is not worth the candle (by the light of which it is
played); the object is not worth the trouble.

=le mot d’énigme= (_le mō dā nēgm´_), the solution of the mystery.

=l’empire des lettres= (_lä_N _pēr´ dā letr´_), the empire of letters.

=le parole son feminine, e i fatti son maschi= (It.) (_lā pä rō lā sōn
fā mē nē´nā, ā ē fät´tē sōn mäs´kē_), words are feminine, and deeds are
masculine.

=la pas= (_le pä´_), precedence.

=le point de jour= (_le pwâ_N_d zhōōr_), daybreak.

=le roi et l’état= (_le rwä´ ā lā tȧ_), the king and the state.

=le roi le veut= (_le rwä´ l vö´_), the king wills it.

=les absents ont toujours tort= (_lā zȧp sä_N´ _ô_N _tōō zhōōr tôr´_)
the absent are always wrong.

=les bras croisés= (_lā brä krwä ze´_), the arms crossed.

=lèse majesté= (_lez mȧ zhes tā_), high treason.

=les extrèmes se touchent= (_lä zek strem´ se tōōsh_), extremes meet.

=les larmes aux yeux= (_lā lärm´ zō zēö´_), tears in one’s eyes.

=les murailles ont des oreilles= (_lā mü rä´ y zô_N _dā zô re´ y_),
walls have ears.

=les plus sages ne le sont pas toujours= (_lā plü sazh ne l sô_N _pä tōō
zhōōr_), the wisest are not always wise.

=l’étoile du nord= (_lā twȧl dü nôr´_), the star of the north.

=le tout ensemble= (_le tōō tä_N _sä_N _bl´_), the whole taken together.

=lettre de cachet= (Fr. Hist.), (_letre de kȧ she´_), a secret letter
sealed by the royal seal, containing orders for arrest and imprisonment
without trial.

=lettre de change= (_letre d zhä_N _zh_), bill of exchange; promissory
note.

=lettres de créance= (_letre d krā ä_N_s´_), letters of credit.

=lettre de marque= (_letre d mȧrk´_), a letter of marque or reprisal.

=levée= (_le vā´_), a morning reception.

=lev´eret=.--A young hare.

=le vrai n’est toujours vraisemblable= (_le vrā ne tōō zōōr vre sä_N
_blȧbl´_), truth is not always probable; truth is stranger than
fiction.

=levreau= (_lā-vrō´_).--A young hare. _Levreau au sang_ (_ō sä_N) is a
dish of young hares cooked with added pigeon blood.

=l’homme propose, et Dieu dispose= (_lôm prô pōz´, ā dēö´ dēs pōz´_),
man proposes and God disposes.

=liaisons dangereuses= (_lē e zô_N _dä_N _zhröz´_), dangerous alliances.

=libraire= (_lē brer´_), a bookseller.

=l’inconnu= (_lâ_N _kô nü´_), the unknown.

=l’incroyable= (_lâ_N _krwä yȧbl´_), the incredible, the marvelous. (The
word incroyable was applied substantively to the fops of the directory
period in the great French revolution.)

=lingerie= (_lâ_N _zhrē_), linen goods; also, collectively, all the
linen, cotton, and lace articles of a woman’s wardrobe.

=littérateur= (_lē tā rȧ tör´_), a literary man.

=lo barato es caro= (Sp.), (_lō bä rä´tō ās kä´rō_), a bargain is dear.

=l’occhio del padrone ingrassa il cavallo= (It.), (_lô´kyō dāl pä drō nā
ēn gräs´sä ēl kä väl´lō_), the master’s eye fattens the horse.

=loyauté m’oblige= (_lwȧ yō tā´ mô blēzh´_), loyalty binds me.

=M=

=macarons= (_mä-kä-rô_N´).--Macaroons.

=macaro´ni=.--A paste of wheat flour and water dried in the form of long
slender tubes. When prepared in still smaller tubes it is called
spaghetti and vermicelli.

=macaroon=.--A small cake composed chiefly of whites of eggs and sugar
(meringue) with pounded almonds, or sometimes filberts, cocoanut, or the
like.

=macédoine of fruit= (_mä-sā-dwä_N´).--A sweet jelly with whole fruit in
its substance.

=macédoine of veg´etables=.--A mixture of several vegetables, cooked,
with some white sauce added.

=macédoine sal´ad=.--A salad of mixed vegetables.

=ma chère= (_mȧ sher´_), my dear (fem.).

=macroon´=.--A macaroon.

=mademoiselle= (_mȧd mwȧ zel´_), title given to a young unmarried lady.

=madère= (_mä-dâr´_).--Madeira wine.

=maestro di color che sanno= (It.) (_mä es´trō dē kō lor´ kā sän´no_),
master of those that know. (Applied by Dante to Aristotle.)

=ma foi= (_mȧ fwȧ´_), upon my faith; upon my word.

=maigre= (_mē´gr_).--Lean meat; also, any food other than meat. Also, a
kind of fish. _Maigre soups_ are those without meat, such as those used
in Lent.

=maintien le droit= (_mâ_N _tēâ_N _le drwä´_), maintain the right.

=maison d’arrêt= (_mā zô_N _dȧ ret´_), house of custody; prison.

=maison de campagne= (_mā zô_N _de kä_N _pȧn´y_), a country house.

=maison de force= (_mā zô_N _d fôrs´_), house of correction; bridewell.

=maison de santé= (_mā zô_N _d sä_N _tā´_), lunatic asylum.

=maison de ville= (_mā zô_N _d vēl´_), a town hall.

=maitre des basses œuvres= (_me´tre dā bäs zövr´_), a nightman.

=maitre des hautes œuvres= (_me´tre dā ōt zövr´_), an executioner; a
hangman.

=maitre d’hôtel= (_me´tre dō tel´_), a house steward.

=maitre d’hôtel but´ter= (_mā´tr dō-tel´_).--Butter mixed with parsley,
lemon juice, salt, and nutmeg--cold _maitre d’hôtel sauce_.

=maitresse= (_me tres´_), mistress.

=malade= (_mȧ lȧd´_), sick.

=maladie du pays= (_mȧ lȧ dē´ dü pā ē´_), homesickness.

=maladresse= (_mȧ lȧ dres´_), want of tact, awkwardness.

=manchons de veau à la Gérard= (_mä_N-_shô_N´ _de vō ä lä zhā-rär´_).--A
dish of slices of veal rolled and stuffed.

=manège= (_mȧ nezh´_), the art of horsemanship.

=mal à propos= (_mȧ lȧ prô pō´_), ill-timed.

=mal de dents= (_mȧl de dä_N´), toothache.

=mal de mer= (_mȧl de mer´_), seasickness.

=mal de tête= (_mȧl de tet´_), headache.

=mal entendre= (_mȧ lä_N _tä_ N_dr´_), a misunderstanding; a mistake.

=malgré nous= (_mȧl grā nōō´_), in spite of us.

=malheur ne vient jamais seul= (_mȧ lör´ ne vēâ_N _zhȧ me söl´_),
misfortunes never come singly.

=maraschino= (_mä-rä-skē´nō_).--A cherry cordial made in Dalmatia from a
sour cherry called _marasca_; hence, a similar liqueur prepared
elsewhere.

=marasquin= (_mä-rä-ska_N´).--French for maraschino.

=marchand de vin= (_mär-shä_N´ _de va_N´).--Stewed with shallots,
espagnole, and claret wine--said especially of kidneys.

=march´pane=.--A cake of pounded almonds or pistachio nuts and sugar.

=mardi gras= (_mȧr dē grä´_), Shrove Tuesday.

=mariage de conscience= (_mȧ rēȧzh de kô_N _sēä_N_s´_), a private
marriage.

=mariage de convenance= (_mȧ rēȧzh de kô_N _vnä_N_s´_), a marriage of
convenience; or from interested motives.

=marsala= (_mär’sälä-lä_).--A class of white Sicilian wines, of which
the best kinds resemble Madeira, but are lighter.

=matinée= (_mȧ tē nā´_), a reception, or a musical or dramatic
entertainment, held in the daytime.

=mauvaise honte= (_mô vez ô_N_t´_), false modesty.

=mauvais goût= (_mô ve gōō´_), false taste.

=mauvaise sujet= (_mô ve sü zhe´_), a worthless fellow.

=mauvais quart d’heure= (_mô ve kȧr dōr´_), a bad quarter of an hour; an
uncomfortable time; a disagreeable experience.

=mauvais ton= (_mô ve tô_N´), vulgarity.

=mayonnaise sauce= (_mā-yō-nāz´_).--A sauce of egg yolk and oil worked
together, less properly with vinegar.

=médecin, guéris-toi-toi-même= (_mād sâ_N´, _gā rē twȧtwȧ mem´_),
physician, heal thyself.

=mélange= (_mā lä_ N_zh_), a mixture.--A light entertainment of a mixed
character.

=mêlée= (_me lā´_), a disorderly fight.

=ménage= (_mā nȧzh´_), household.

=menu= (_me nü´_), bill of fare.

=meringue= (_mā-ra_N_g´_).--Icing of white of egg and sugar thoroughly
beaten together, sometimes with starch added. Pure meringues are called
_baisers_ (_bā-zā´_) or Spanish foam.

=meringue glacée= (_glä-sā´_).--A glazed meringue.

=merluche= (_mâr-lüsh´_).--The haddock.

=mesalliance= (_mā zȧ lēä_N_z´_), marriage with one of lower station.

=meunière= (_me-nyâr´_).--With brown butter, lemon juice, and parsley.

=mirabelles= (_mē-rä-bel´_).--Plums of a certain superior variety.

=mir ist alles einerlei= (Ger.), (_Mēr´ ist ä´les ī ner lī´_), it’s all
the same to me.

=mise-en-scène= (_mē zä_N _sen´_), the staging of a play.

=mon ami= (_mô nȧ mē´_), my friend.

=mon cher= (_mô_N _sher´_), my dear (fellow).

=monde chic= (_mô_N_d shēk´_), world of taste; fashionable people.

=monsieur= (_me sēö´_), sir, master, gentleman.

=morue= (_mō-rü´_).--Codfish.

=mot de passe= (_mō d päs´_), the watchword.

=mot du guet= (_mō dü ge´_), a watchword.

=mot pour rire= (_mō pōōr rēr´_), a witty saying; a joke.

=mots d’usage= (_mō dü zȧzh´_), words in common use.

=moules= (_mool_).--Mussels.

=moules à la bordelaise= (_ä lä bôr-de-lāz´_).--Mussels in forcemeat.

=mousseline de laine= (_mōōs lēn de len´_), a thin woolen material.

=mousseron= (_moo-srô_N´).--Mushroom (the edible kind).

=mouton= (_moo-tō_N´).--Mutton.

=mulled= (_muld_).--Properly, heated and spiced; but often used to mean,
made mild by sugar (acid wines), or by dilution (alcoholized wine).

=mul´ligatawny=, or =mul´ligatunny=.--A spiced or curried soup of hashed
chicken and rice.

=muraglia bianca, carta di matto= (It.) (_mōō rä´lyä byäng´kä, kär´tä dē
māt´tō_), a white wall is the fool’s paper.

=N=

=naïve= (_nȧ ēv´_), having unaffected simplicity.

=naïveté´= (_nȧ ēv tā´_), native simplicity.

=Na´ples biscuit=.--Lady fingers.

=Na´ples ice, Na´ples ice cream=.--Same as Neapolitan ice; Neapolitan
ice cream.

=Neapol´itan ice, Neapol´itan ice cream=.--Ice or ice cream prepared in
layers, especially when colored, as in white, red and yellow.

=Neapol´itan sauce=.--Espagnole flavored with grated horseradish, and a
sweet and savory wine fumet.

=nec´tarine=.--A smooth skinned variety of peach. The _Spanish
nectarine_ is a plum-like West Indian fruit, which is made into a sweet
conserve.

=née= (_nā´_), born.

=négligé= (_nā glē zhā´_), a morning dress.

=nesselrode pudding= (_nes´sel-rō-de_).--Iced or frozen
chestnut-and-fruit pudding.

=neufchâtel cheese= (_nûf-shä-tel´_).--A cheese made by thickening cream
by heat and pressing it in a small mold.

=neue Besen kehren gut= (Ger.),-(_nôi e bā´zen kā ren gōōt´_), a new
broom sweeps clean.

=ni l’un ni l’autre= (_nē lö_N´ _nē lōtr´_), neither the one nor the
other.

=n’importe= (_nâ_N _pôrt´_), it is of no consequence.

=nivernaise= (_nē-vâr-nāz´_).--A ragoût-like dish of carrots stewed in
consommé.

=noblesse oblige= (_nô ble sô blēzh´_), nobility imposes obligations;
much is expected from persons of good position.

=nom de guerre= (_nô_N _de ger´_), a war-name, an assumed name, a
pseudonym.

=nom de plume= (_nô_N _de plüm´_), an assumed title.

=nonchalance= (_nô_N _shȧ lä_N_s´_), coolness; easy indifference.

=non mi ricordo= (It.), (_nōn mē rē kôr´dō_), I do not remember.

=non obstant clameur de haro= (_nōn ôp stä_N _klȧ mör´ de ȧ rō´_),
despite the hue and cry.

=non ogni fiore fa buon odore= (It.), (_nōn ō nyē fyō´rā fȧ bwô nō
dō´rā_), it is not every flower that smells sweet.

=nonpareil= (_nô_N _pȧ re´y_), unequaled.

=non vender la pelle dell ´orse prima di pigliarlo= (It.), (_nōn vān dār
lä pel lā dāl lōr´ sā prē mä dē pē lyär´lō´_), don’t sell the bearskin
before you have caught the bear.

=Noth kennt kein Gebot= (Ger.), (_nōt´ kent kīn ge bōt´_), necessity
knows no law.

=Notre Dame= (_nô tre dȧm_), Our Lady, the Virgin Mary.

=n’oubliez pas= (_nōō blēā pä´_), do not forget.

=nougat= (_noo-gä´_).--A mixture of almonds, pistachios, filberts, or
the like, and honey or sugar baked together.

=nouilles= (_noo´y_).--Noodles.

=nous verrons= (_nōō ve rô_N´), we shall see.

=nouvelles= (_nōō vel´_), news.

=nouvellette= (_nōō ve let´_), a short tale or novel.

=nuance= (_nü ä_N_s´_), shade; gradation; tint.

=nul bien sans peine= (_nül bēâ_N´ _sä_N _pen´_), no pains, no gains.

=nulla nuova, buona nuova= (It.), (_nōōl lä nwô vä, bwô´-nä nwô´vä_), no
news is good news.

=O=

=octroi= (_ôk trwä´_), a tax on articles (for sale) entering a town.

=oeil de bœuf= (_ö´ēd böf´_), a bull’s-eye.

=œufs= (_ûf_).--Eggs.

=œufs à la farce= (_ûf ä lä färs_).--Hard boiled eggs with stewed
sorrel.

=œufs à la tripe= (_ä lä trēp_).--Hard boiled eggs with onion sauce.

=œufs broullés=.--Scrambled eggs.

=ognon= (_ō-nyô_N´).--Onion.

=ognon d’Egypte= (_dā-zhēpt´_).--The rocambole, a mild, sweet onion.

=o’kra=.--A plant, the long green, mucilaginous pods of which are used
in soups, stews, etc.

=olla= (_ōl´lä_).--Ragoût.

=olla podrida= (It.), (_ōl´lä pō drē´dä_), a heterogeneous mixture.

=omelette au thon= (_ōm-let´ ō tô_N´).--Omelet with tunny, a kind of
fish.

=omelette aux confitures= (_ō kô_N-_fē-tür´_).--An omelet served with
fruit jelly. Jams do not go well with omelets.

=on connait l’ami au besoin= (_ô_N _kô ne lȧ mē´ ō be zwâ_N´), a friend
is known in time of need.

=on dit= (_ô_N _dē´_), they say.

=oreilles= (_ō-rā´y_).--Ears; as, _oreilles de veau_ (_de vō_), calf’s
ears.

=orgeade= (_ôr-zhäd´_).--Milk of almonds, made by stirring sirup of
almonds in water; also, orgeat.

=orgeat= (_ôr-zhä´_).--Sirup of almonds; also, orgeade.

=Or´leans sauce=.--A mince of carrots, anchovies, hard-boiled eggs, and
gherkins, with peppersauce.

=oro e che oro vale= (It.), (_ō´rō e kā ō´rō vä´lā_), that is gold which
is worth gold; all is not gold that glitters.

=oublier je ne puis= (_ōō blēā´zhe n pwē´_), I can never forget.

=oui-dire= (_wē dēr´_), hearsay.

=outrance= (_ōō trä_N_s´_), excess; extremity.

=outre= (_ōōtr´_), eccentric.

=ouvrage= (_ōō vrȧzh_), work.

=ouvrage de longue haleine= (_ōō vrȧzh de lô_N_g ȧ len´_), a long-winded
business.

=ouvrier= (_ōō vrē ā´_), a workman, an artisan.

=P=

=pabrica= (_pä´brē-kä_).--Paprika.

=padrone= (It.), (_pä drō´nä_), master; employer; landlord.

=pain= (_pa_N).--Bread.

=panais= (_pä-nā´_).--Parsnips.

=panée= (_pä-nā´_).--Bread-crumbed (over egg yolk, sauce, butter, or
fat) previous to frying.

=panier= (_pä-nyâ´_).--A basket, as that for holding a wine bottle.
Also, an entrée panée.

=pannequets= (_pän-kā´_).--French pancakes.

=papeterie= (_pȧ pe trē´_), a case with writing materials.

=paprika= (_pä´prē-kä_).--A mild kind of red-pepper condiment obtained
from _Capsicum annum_.

=par accord= (_pȧ rȧ kôr´_), by agreement.

=par avance= (_pȧ rȧ vä_N_s´_), in advance.

=par ci, par là= (_pȧr sē´ pȧr lȧ´_), here and there.

=par excellence= (_pȧ rek se lä_N_s´_), preëminently.

=par exemple= (_pȧ rāg zä_N_pl´_), for instance.

=parfaitement bien= (_pȧr fet mä_N _bēâ_N´), perfectly well.

=Pari´sian loaves=.--Finger cakes ornamented with strips of currant
jelly, green-gage jam, or the like.

=Pari´sian sauce=.--Allemande flavored with truffles and tinted.

=pas´caline=.--White mushroom sauce.

=parole d’honneur= (_pȧ rôl dô nör´_), word of honor.

=partout= (_pȧr tōō´_), everywhere.

=parvenu= (_pȧr ve nü´_), a person of low origin who has risen; upstart.

=pas à pas= (_pä zȧ pä´_), step by step.

=passe= (_päs_), worn out; out of style.

=passe-partout= (_päs pȧr tōō´_), a master key.

=pasticcio= (It.), (_päs tēch´ chyō_), patchwork.

=pâté= (_pä-tā´_).--A pasty.

=pâté aux choux= (_pä-tā´ ō shoo´_).--Cream-cake paste, which resembles
a cabbage head when baked.

=pâté de foie gras= (_pä-tā´ de fwä grä´_), a pie made in Strasburg from
the livers of geese.

=pâté mollette= (_pä-tā´ mō-let´_).--A Mecca cake.

=pâtés= (_pä-tā´_).--Pasties.

=pâtés chauds= (_shö_).--Hot pasties.

=pâtés de petit four= (_de pe-tē´foor_).--Small pasties--literally,
pasties of the little oven.

=pâtés froids= (_frwä_).--Cold pasties.

=patois= (_pȧ twä´_), a dialect.

=pays latin= (_pā ē lȧ tâ_N´), the Latin territory, district, region;
the students of the Pays Latin, that is, of the University.

=peine forte et dure= (_pen fôr tā dür´_), very severe punishment; a
kind of judicial torture.

=penchant= (_pä_N _shä_N´),--inclination; liking.

=pensée= (_pä_N _sā´_), a thought expressed in terse, vigorous language.

=per= (It.), (_pār_), for, through, by.

=per cantante= (It.), (_pār kän tän´tā_), for cash.

=per contra= (It.), (_pār kōn´trä_), on the contrary.

=père de famille= (_per de fȧ mē´y_), the father of the family.

=perdreux= (_pâr-drû´_).--Young partridges.

=perdrix= (_pâr-drē´_).--A partridge.

=perdu= (_per dü´_), lost.

=per mese= (It.), (_pār mā´ sā_), by the month.

=per piu strade si va a Roma= (It.), (_pār pyōō strä´dā sē vä ä rō´mä_),
there are many roads to Rome.

=persiflage= (_per sē flȧzh_), chaff; banter.

=persillade of fish= (_pâr-sē-läd´_).--Fish with parsley.

=personnel= (_per sô nel´_), the staff of an establishment.

=petit= (_pe tē´_), small.

=petit coup= (_pe tē kōō´_), a small mask; a domino.

=petit rôti= (_pe-tē´ rō-tē´_).--A roast fowl.

=petit salé= (_sä lā´_).--Pickled pork in small pieces.

=petites affiches= (_pe tēt zȧ fēsh´_), advertisements.

=petit maître= (_pe tē metr´_), a little master; a fop.

=petits choux=.--Same as choux pâtissière.

=petits pois= (_pe-tē´ pwä_). Peas.

=peu-à-peu= (_pö ȧ pö´_), little by little; by degrees.

=peu de chose= (_pö d shōz´_), a trifle.

=pezzo= (It.), (_ped´zō_), piece; piece of money; a coin.

=piccolo= (It.), (_pēk´kō lō_), small.

=pièce de résistance= (_pē es de rā zēs tä_N_s´_), the principal dish.

=pied à terre= (_pēā tȧ ter´_), a temporary lodging.

=pied poudreux= (_pē ā pōō drö´_), a vagabond.

=pigeonnaux= (_pē-zhō-nō´_).--Squabs.

=pigeons innocents= (_pē-zhô_N´ _ē-nō-sä_N´).--Squabs.

=pigliar due colombi a una fava= (It.), (_pē lyȧr dōō ā kō lōm´bē ä ōō
nä fä´vä_), to catch two pigeons with one bean; to kill two birds with
one stone.

=pilau= (_pi-law´_), or =pillau=.--An oriental dish of rice stewed with
mutton, lamb, or fowl, almonds, raisins, and saffron and other spices.

=pimen´to=.--Allspice, or Jamaica pepper.

=pimo´la=.--An olive stuffed with sweet peppers.

=pioupiou= (_pē ōō pē ōō´_), a private soldier; a French “Tommy Atkins.”

=piquant= (_pē-kä_N´), pointed, pungent.

=piquante sauce= (_pē-kä_N_t´_).--Espagnole with pickles added and
flavored with shallots.

=pis aller= (_pē zȧ lā´_), the worst or last shift.

=plombière= (_plô_N-_byâr´_).--A kind of frozen fruit pudding.

=poché= (_pō-shā´_).--Poached.

=poco à poco= (It.), (_pô´kō ä pô´kō_), little by little; by degrees.

=point d’appui= (_pwâ_N _dȧ pwē´_), prop; point of support.

=poisson= (_pwä-sô_N´).--Fish.

=poivrade= (_pwä-vräd´_).--Peppersauce.

=polen´ta=.--Porridge.

=polonaise cakes= (_pō-lō-nāz´_).--A kind of tart made of puff paste
with jelly at the corners.

=pomme= (_pum_).--Apple.

=pomme d´api= (_pum dä-pē´_).--Small rosy apple.

=pomme de terre= (_de târ_).--Common Irish potato.

=pompa´no.=--A highly esteemed marine food fish.

=porte-chaise= (_porte shez´_), a sedan.

=poste restante= (_pôs tres tä_N_t´_), to remain until called for;
applied to letters in a post office, general delivery.

=potage= (_pō-täzh´_).--Soup; pottage; broth.

=potage a la Camerani= (_ä lä kä-mā-rä´nē_).--A rich kind of
chicken-liver soup.

=potage croute au pot= (_kroöt ō pō_).--Plain broth with vegetables and
crusts browned in gravy.

=pot pourri= (_pō poo-rē´_).--A ragoût of various meats and vegetables
cooked together.

=pour acquit= (_pōō rȧ kē´_), paid; settled; the usual form of receipt.

=pour faire rire= (_pōōr fer rēr´_), to excite laughter.

=pour faire visite= (_pōōr fer vē zēt´_) to pay a visit.

=pour passer le temps= (_pōōr pä sā l tä_N´), to while away the time.

=pour prendre congé= (_pōōr prä_N_dre kô_N _zhā´_), to take leave.
Usually abbreviated to _P. P. C._

=précis= (_prā sē´_), a summary; an epitome.

=prendre la clef des champs= (_prä_N _dre lȧ klā dā shä_N´), to take the
key of the fields; to take French leave.

=prendre la lune avec les dents= (_prä_N _dre lȧ lü´ nȧ vek lā dä_N´),
to seize the moon in one’s teeth; to aim at impossibilities.

=presto maturo, presto marcio= (It.) (_pres tō ma tōō´rō, pres tō
mär´chyō_), soon ripe, soon rotten.

=prêt d´accomplir= (_pre dȧ kô_N _plēr´_), ready to accomplish.

=prêt pour mon pays= (_pre pōōr mô_N _pā ē´_), ready for my country.

=preux chevalier= (_prö shvȧ lēā´_), a brave knight.

=prima donna= (_prē mä dôn´nä_), leading lady singer in opera.

=printanière= (_pra_N-_tä-nyâr´_).--A dish cooked à la printanière. See
_à la printanière_. Printanière soup is the same as jardinière soup,
essentially.

=procès verbal= (_prô se ver bȧl´_), a detailed statement.

=profiterolles= (_prō-fē-trōl´_).--Sweet entremets, a kind of cake
filled with custard.

=propriétaire= (_prô prēā ter´_), a proprietor.

=protégé= (_prô tā zhā´_), one protected by another.

=pumpernickel= (_poom´per-nik´l_).--Black bread made in Westphalia of
unbolted rye. It is of an acid taste.

=purée= (_pü-rā´_).--A pulpy maceration of meat, vegetables, fruit, or
the like, passed through a sieve.

=quartier= (_kär-tyā´_).--Quarter; especially forequarter.

=quasi de veau= (_kä-zē´de vō_).--The thick end of a loin of veal.

=Q=

=quelque chose= (_kel ke shōz´_), something; a trifle.

=quenelle= (_ke-nel´_).--A kind of delicate forcemeat ball or dumpling.

=qui a bu boira= (_kē ȧ bü´ bwä rȧ´_), the tippler will go on tippling;
it is hard to break off bad habits.

=quien poco sabe, presto lo reza= (Sp.), (_kyān pō kō sä´vā, prēs tō lō
rā´thä_), he who knows little soon tells it.

=quien sabe?= (Sp.), (_kyān sä´vā_), who knows?

=qu´il soit comme il est désiré= (_kēl swȧ´ kô mē le dā zē rā´_), let it
be as desired.

=qui m´aime aime mon chien= (_kē mem´ em mô_N _shēâ_N´), love me, love
my dog.

=qui n’a santé, n’a rien= (_kē nȧ sä_N _tā´, nȧ rē â_N´), he who has not
health, has nothing.

=qui va là?= (_kē vȧ lȧ´_), who goes there?

=qui vive= (_kē vēv´_), on the alert.

=R=

=raconteur= (_rȧ kô_N _tör´_), a relater; a teller.

=radis= (_rä-dē´_).--Radish.

=ragout= (_rä-goo´_).--A rich compound consisting of quenelles,
mushrooms, truffles, etc., mixed with a rich sauce, and used to garnish
rich dishes; also, a dish garnished with this.

=raison d´état= (_rā zô_N _dā tȧ´_), a state reason.

=raison d´être= (_rā zô_N _detr´_), the reason for a thing´s existence.

=ramequin= (_ram´ē-kin_; French pron. _rä-me-ka_N´).--A pastry
consisting of a preparation of cheese inclosed in or mixed with puff
paste, and baked or browned. Cheese straws are thin ramequins of cheese
mixed with puff paste.

=rapprochement= (_rȧ prôsh mä_N´), the act of bringing together,
reconciliation.

=ratafia= (_rä-tä-fē-ä´_).--(a) Noyau, curacao, or other liqueur
containing kernels of fruit, as of peaches, cherries, etc. (_b_) A
small macaroon made mainly of bitter almonds.

=réchauffé= (_rā-shō-fā´_), or =réchauffée=.--Warmed or heated over a
second time.

=recherche= (_re shersh´_), elegant; attractive.

=reçu= (_re sü´_), received; receipt.

=recueil choisi= (_re kö y shwȧzē´_), a choice collection.

=rédacteur= (=en chef=), (_rā dȧk tö rä_N _shef_), editor (of a
newspaper).

=régime= (_rā zhēm´_), government; mode of living.

=relevés= (_rā-l´-vā´_).--Same as removes.

=rémoulade= (_rā-moo-läd´_).--A purée of anchovies, capers, parsley,
shallots, and hard-boiled eggs, dressed with spices, oil, and vinegar.

=rémoulade à la provençale= (_ä lä prō-vä_N-_säl´_).--Rémoulade not
sieved and with more oil.

=remove=.--A dish removed from the table to make room for another;
applied generally to the roasts, joints, turkeys, fillets, etc., which
follow the soup and fish at an ordinary dinner of several courses.

=renaissance= (_re ne sä_N_s´_), regeneration, revival.

=rendezvous= (_rä_N _dā vōō´_), a place of meeting.

=rentes= (_rä_N_t_), the funds; government stocks.

=répondez s’il vous plaît= (_R. S. V. P._) (_rā pô_N _dā sēl vōō ple´_),
reply if you please.

=répondre en normand= (_rä pô_N _drä_N _nôr mä_N´), to answer in Norman;
to speak evasively.

=restaurateur= (_res tô rȧ tör´_), one who provides.

=résumé= (_rā zü mā´_), a summing up.

=rete nuova non piglia uccello vecchio= (It.), (_rā tā nwô´vä nōn pē lyä
ōōch chel´lō vek´kyō_), a new net won’t catch an old bird.

=revenons à nos moutons= (_rev nô_N _zȧ nō mōō tô_N´), let us return to
our sheep; let us come back to our subject.

=rien n’est beau que le vrai= (_rēâ_N _ne bō´ ke l vrā´_), there is
nothing beautiful but truth.

=rira bien qui rira le dernier= (_rē rȧ bēâ_N´ _kē rē rȧ l der nēä´_),
he laughs well who laughs last.

=rire entre cuir et chair, rire sous cape= (_rē rä_N _tre kwē´ rā sher´,
rēr sōō kȧp´_), to laugh in one’s sleeve.

=ris de veau= (_rē de vō_).--The sweetbread; pancreas.

=rissole= (_rē-sōl´_).--A kind of pastry made of minced and spiced meat
or vegetables, or fruit, wrapped in paste, and fried in fat--originally
one containing rice as an ingredient.

=rissolé= (_rē-sō-lā´_).--Browned by baking or frying.

=rissolette= (_rē-sō-let´_).--A croutade, or bit of fried bread
containing or holding a little portion of forcemeat.

=robe de chambre= (_rôb de shä_N _br´_), a dressing-gown; a morning
gown.

=robe de nuit= (_rôb de nwē´_), a night-dress.

=rognons= (_rō-nyô_N´).--Kidneys; fries.

=rôle= (_rōl´_), a part in a performance.

=romaine salad= (_rō-mān´_).--A kind of mixed vegetable salad.

=Ro´man punch=.--A water ice flavored, as with lemon, and mixed with rum
or other spirits. Also, a complicated punch, similar in preparation to
regency punch, with added frozen white of egg froth.

=roquefort= (_rōk-fôr´_).--A French cheese made from the milk of ewes,
cured in a cavern in the limestone rock at Roquefort, France.

=rothe grütze= (_rō´te grüt´ se_).--A flummery of rice grits and fruit
juice.

=roue= (_rōō_), a debauchee.

=rouge= (_rōōzh_), red coloring for the skin.

=roulette= (_roo-let´_).--A dish consisting of a slice of meat spread
with stuffing, rolled, and stewed or braised.

=roux= (_roo_).--Browned by frying in butter or other grease.

=roux blanc= (_blä_N).--Starch or flour fried in fat so as to be hardly
colored.

=roux brun= (_brü_N´).--Fried a dark brown.

=ruse de guerre= (_rüz de ger´_), a military stratagem.

=Rus´sian sauce=.--A velouté with egg yolks and strong herbs.

=Rus´sian soup=.--A gravy soup of veal, fowl, etc., with souchets of
salmon, eel, perch, mullet, quenelles of whiting, lobster coral, and
mushroom purée.

=S=

=salade russe= (_sä-läd´rüs_).--A dish of chicken meat, ham, veal, etc.,
sliced, arranged separately and served with truffles, and tartar sauce,
or caviare and sardelles, etc.

=salle= (_sȧl_), a hall.

=salle à manger= (_sȧ lȧ mä_N _zhā_), dining room.

=Sal´ly Lunn=.--An English tea cake.

=salmagun´dy=.--A salad of cold chicken, veal, eggs, beets, anchovies,
etc., finely minced and spiced.

=salmis= (_säl-mē´_).--A ragoût of roast game or fowl in rich gravy or
sauce.

=sal´picon= (French pron. _säl-pē-kô_N´).--A ragoût or rich compound of
chopped meat or fish and vegetables with savory sauce, used as a
separate dish, as a garnish, to stuff meats, etc.

=sanan couchilladas, mas no malas palabras= (Sp.), (_sä´nän kōō chē
lā´thäs, mäs nō mä läs pä lä´vräs_), wounds from a knife will heal, but
not those from an evil tongue.

=sang-froid= (_sä_N _frwä´_), coolness; self-possession.

=sans-culottes= (_sä_N _kü lôt´_), without breeches; a term applied to
the rabble of the French revolution.

=sans façon= (_sä_N _fȧ sô_N´), without form or trouble.

=sans pareil= (_sä_N _pȧ re´y_), without equal.

=sans peine= (_sä_N _pen´_), without difficulty.

=sans peur et sans reproche= (_sä_N _pör´ ā sä_N _re prôsh´_), fearless
and stainless.

=sans rime et sans raison= (_sä_N _rēm´ ā sä_N _rā zô_N´), without rhyme
or reason.

=sans souci= (_sä_N _sōō sē´_), free from care.

=sauce beurrée à l’Anglaise= (_bû-rā ä lä_N-_glāz´_).--Butter sauce.

=sauce blanche= (_blä_N_sh_).--Butter sauce.

=sauce Colbert= (_kōl-bâr_).--Brown sauce with meat glace, lemon juice,
parsley, and butter stirred in.

=saucé de gourmets= (_de goor-mā´_).--A coulis with a purée of tomatoes
and crayfish butter.

=sauce en tortue= (_ä_N _tôr-tü´_).--Espagnole sauce, a kind of sauce
used for calf’s head.

=sauce Italienne rousse= (_ē-tä-lyen´ roos_).--A sauce of espagnole,
varied and flavored with shallots, mushrooms, and olive oil.

=sauce piquante= (_pē-kä_N_t´_).--An acid or sour sauce.

=sauce Robert= (French pron. _sōs rō-bâr´_).--A full-flavored espagnole
sauce, strongly flavored with onions, mustard, and zested with lemon
juice or vinegar.

=sauce rousse= (_roos_).--Brown sauce.

=saumon= (_sō-mô_N´).--Salmon.

=sauté= (_sō-tā´_).--Lightly and quickly fried in little grease.

=sauve qui peut= (_sōv kē pö´_), save yourself.

=savant= (_sȧ vä_N´), a learned man.

=savoir= (_sȧ vwȧr´_), knowledge.

=savoir faire= (_sȧ vwȧr fer´_), tact.

=savoir vivre= (_sȧ vwȧr vēvr´_), good breeding.

=savon= (_sȧ vô_N´), soap.

=savoy´ cakes.=--Lady fingers or other fancy cakes of sponge-cake paste.

=scones= (_skōnz_).--Scotch cakes of oatmeal or flour.

=scrutin d’arrondissement= (_skrü tâ_N´ _dȧ rô_N _dēs mä_N´), municipal
ballot.

=scrutin de liste= (_skrü tâ_N _d lēst´_), voting by ballot; the voting
for the departmental representatives.

=sdegno d’amante poco dura= (It.), (_zdā nyō dä män´tā pô kō dōō´rä_), a
lover’s anger is short-lived.

=séance= (_sā ä_N_s´_), a sitting.

=selle= (_sel_).--Saddle.

=selon les règles= (_se lô_N _lā regl´_), according to rule.

=sempre il mal non vien per nuocere= (It.), (_sem´prā ēl mäl´ nōn vyān´
pār nwô chā rā_), misfortune is not always an evil.

=se non e vero e ben trovato= (It.), (_sā nōn e vā´rō e bān trō vä´tō_),
if it is not true, it is cleverly invented.

=siècle= (_sē ekl´_), an age.

=siècle d´or= (_sē ekl dôr´_), the golden age (of Louis XIV).

=siècles des ténèbres= (_sē ekle dā tā nebr´_), the dark ages.

=Sie sehen gut aus= (Ger.), (_zē zā en gōōt´ ows_), you look well.

=sobriquet= (_sô brē ke´_), a nickname.

=soi-disant= (_swȧ dē zä_N´), self-styled; would-be; pretended.

=soirée= (_swȧ rā´_), an evening party.

=soubise sauce= (_soo-bēz´_).--A purée of white onions or souchie.

=soubrette= (_sōō bret´_), on the stage a servant girl who acts in
comedies the part of an intrigante.

=souchet= (_soo-shā´_), or =souchie= (_sōō-shē´_).--A stew of fish in a
soup-like savory broth.

=soufflé= (_soo-flā´_).--A dish consisting of batter of starch or flour,
eggs, milk or cream, and butter, beaten light and baked and served hot
while light and spongy. Soufflés may be variously flavored, as with
ginger, vanilla, chocolate, etc.

=souffler le chaud et le froid= (_sōō fla l shō´ ā l frwä´_), to blow
hot and cold.

=spaghetti= (_spä-get´tē_).--Hollow tubes of dried Italian paste, in
size between macaroni and vermicelli.

=Span´ish cream.=--Gelatine pudding containing custard, gelatine, and
beaten white of eggs, set in a mold.

=Span´ish puffs.=--Maringues.

=spirituel= (_spē rē tü el´_), possessing wit, witty.

=Sturm und Drang= (Ger.), (_shtoorm oont dräng´_), storm and stress.

=suprême sauce= (_su-prām_).--Velouté flavored with mushrooms and
consommé of fowls.

=T=

=tableau vivant= (_tȧ blō vē vä_N´), the representation of a picture by
persons grouped together, silent and motionless.

=table d’hôte= (_tȧble dōt´_), table according to the hostess.

=tâche sans tache= (_tȧsh sä_N _tȧsh´_), a work without a stain.

=taille= (_tä´y_), form; stature; shape.

=tapis= (_tȧ pē´_), the carpet.

=tar´tare sauce=.--Mayonnaise sauce with vinegar and chopped green
herbs, pickles, and capers.

=tel maître, tel valet= (_tel metr´, tel vȧ le´_), like master, like
man.

=tendresse= (_tä_N _dres´_), passion; affection.

=terra cotta= (It.), (_ter´rä kôt´tä_), baked earth.

=tête= (_tāt_).--Head.

=tête-à-tête= (_te tȧ tet´_), a conversation between two parties.

=tiens à la vérité= (_tēâ_N _zȧ lȧ vä rē tā´_), maintain the truth.

=tiens ta foi= (_tēâ_N _tȧ fwä´_), keep thy faith.

=timbale= (French pron. _ta_N-_bäl´_).--A drum-like case of macaroni or
rice filled with some composition, as with forcemeat or ragoût.

=timbre-poste= (_tâ_N _bre pôst´_), postage stamp.

=toujours perdrix= (_tōō zhōōr per drē´_), always partridges; the same
thing over and over again.

=toujours prêt= (_tōō zhōōr pre´_), always ready.

=tour de force= (_tōōr de fôrs´_), a feat of strength or skill.

=tour d’expression= (_tōōr dek spre sēô_N´), an idiom.

=tourner casaque= (_tōōr nā kȧ zȧk´_), to turn one’s coat; to change
sides.

=tout-à-fait= (_tōō tȧ fe´_), wholly, entirely.

=tout-à-l’heure= (_tōō tȧ lör´_), instantly.

=tout au contraire= (_tōō tō kô_N _trer´_), on the contrary.

=tout-à-vous= (_tōō tȧ vōō´_), entirely yours.

=tout bien ou rien= (_tōō bēâ_N´ _ōō rēâ_N´), all or nothing.

=tout-de-suite= (_tōō d swēt´_), immediately.

=tout ensemble= (_tōō tä_N _sä_N_bl´_), the whole.

=tout le monde est sage après coup= (_tōō l mô_N _de sazh ȧ pre kōō´_),
everybody is wise after the event.

=traduttori, traditori= (It.), (_trä dōōt tō´rē, trä dē tō´rē_),
translators are traitors.

=trottoir= (_trô twȧr´_), sidewalk.

=trousseau= (_trōō sō´_), wedding outfit.

=truffes= (_trüf_).--Truffles.

=truf´fle=.--A kind of edible mushroom that grows underground.

=truite= (_trwet_).--Trout.

=Turk´ish cof´fee=.--Café au Turc.

=tutte le strade conducono a Roma= (It.), (_tōōt´tā lā strä´dā kōn
dōō´kō nō ä rō mä_), all roads lead to Rome.

=tutti-frutti= (_toot´tē-froot´tē_).--A confection consisting of
preserved fruits of various kinds.

=U=

=Uebung macht den Meister= (Ger.), (_ü´boong mäkt den mīs´ter_),
practice makes perfect.

=un bienfait n’est jamais perdu= (_ö_N _bēâ_N _fe´ ne zhȧ me per dü´_),
a kindness is never lost.

=un sot à triple étage= (_ö_N _sō´ ȧ trē plā tȧzh´_), a consummate fool.

=un “tiens” vaut mieux que deux “tu l’auras,”= (_ō_N _tēâ_N _vō mēö´ ke
dö tü lō rȧ´_), one “take it” is worth two “you shall have it”; a bird
in the hand is worth two in the bush.

=V=

=valen´cia rice=.--Rice boiled till the grains are soft and then mixed
with oil and tomatoes.

=valet de chambre= (_vȧ le d shä_N _br´_), an attendant.

=vaurien= (_vō rēâ_N´), a worthless fellow.

=veau= (_vō_).--Veal.

=vedi Napoli e poi muori= (It.), (_vā dē nä´pō lē ā pôē mwô´rē_), see
Naples and then die.

=vérité sans peur= (_vā rē tā´ sä_N _pör´_), truth without fear.

=vers de société= (_ver de sô sē ā tā´_), society verses; poetry dealing
lightly with trifling subjects.

=verve= (_verv_), animation; spirit.

=Viele Hände machen bald ein End= (Ger.), (_fē le hent´-mäken bält īn
ent´_), many hands make quick work.

=vieux garçon= (_vē ö gȧr sô_N´), old bachelor.

=vigueur de dessus= (_vē gör´ de de sü´_), strength from on high.

=vin= (_va_N).--Wine.

=vinaigre= (_vē-nā´gr´_).--Vinegar. _Vinaigre a l’estragon (ä lās
trä-gô_N´) is vinegar flavored with tarragon.

=vinaigrette= of (_vē-nā-gret´_).--A sauce made sour by acid wine or
vinegar.

=vino dentro, senno furore= (It.) (_vē´nō den´trō, sān´no fōō rō´rā_),
when the wine is in, the wit is out.

=vin ordinaire= (_va_N _ôr-dē-nâr´_).--Ordinary table wine; claret.

=virtuoso= (It.), (_vēr twō´ sō_), one skilled in matters of taste or
art.

=vis à vis= (_vē zȧ vē_), face to face.

=vivat= (_vē vȧt´_), a shout of “long live.”

=vive la bagatelle= (_vēv lȧ bȧ gȧ tel´_), success to trifles.

=vive la république= (_vēv lȧ rā pü plēk´_), long live the republic.

=vive l’empereur= (_vēv lä_N _prör´_), long live the emperor.

=vive le roi= (_vēv le rwä´_), long live the king.

=voilà= (_vwȧ lȧ´_), see there; there is, there are.

=voilà tout= (_vwȧ lȧ tōō´_), that is all.

=voilà une autre chose= (_vwȧ lȧ ü nō tre shōz´_), that is quite another
thing.

=voiture= (_vwȧ tür´_), a carriage.

=volaille= (_vō-lā´y_).--Poultry.

=vol-au-vent= (_vō-lō-vä_N´). A light puff-paste case baked and then
filled with a ragoût, fricassée, or the like.

=W=

=wagon-lits= (_vȧ gô lē_), sleeping cars.

=Was fehlt Ihnen?= (Ger.), (_väs fālt´ ē nen_), what is the matter with
you?

=Wie die Arbeit, so der Lohn= (Ger.), (_vē dē är´bīt, zō der lōn´_), as
the labor, so the reward.

=Welsh rare bit=, or =rab´bit=.--A dish consisting essentially of
toasted bread on which is served toasted or melted cheese. The cheese is
variously prepared, as with the admixture of ale, or other flavoring
material.

=white sauce.=--Same as velouté, or similar sauce.

=wiener schnitzel= (_vē´ner shnits´el_).--A cut of veal from the leg,
fried in batter, and seasoned with paprika, etc., after a style
attributed to the Viennese.

=Z=

=Zeitgeist= (Ger.), (_tsīt´gīst_), the spirit of the age.


PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF CLASSIC WORDS AND PHRASES

  Including legal phrases, maxims, mottoes, quotations, proverbs,
  Latin abbreviations, classic allusions and references of common
  occurrence in books, periodicals, newspapers and speech.


KEY TO PRONUNCIATION

  The long (marked) vowels are pronounced as in the following words:
  _fāte_, _fāre_, _cāre_; _mē_; _mīne_; _mōte_; _mūte_. The short
  vowels, which include all not marked as above, are pronounced as in
  the following words: _pat_; _pet_; _pit_; _pot_; _put_. The accented
  syllable in each word is indicated by a mark placed immediately
  after it.

=A=

=Ab extra= (_ex´trā_).--From without.

=Ab initio= (_in-ish´i-ō_).--From the beginning.

=Ab origine= (_or-ī´jin-e_).--From the commencement.

=Ab ovo= (_ō´vō_).--From the egg--_i. e._, the beginning. The egg in
many ancient mythologies was the supposed origin of life.

=Ab ovo usque ad mala= (_us´kwe ad mā´la_).--From the egg to the
apples--_i. e._, from the beginning to the end (the Roman custom being
to begin dinner with eggs and end with fruit).

=Ab uno disce omnes= (_ū´nō dis´se om´nēs_).--From a single instance
infer the whole.

=Ab urbe condita=--A. U. C. (_ur´be kon´di-tā_).--From the (year of)
building the city (Rome), 753 B. C.

=A capite ad calcem= (_ā kap´i-te ad kal´sem_).--From head to heel.

=Accipe hoc= (_ak´sip-e hock_).--Accept this.

=Ac etiam= (_ak esh´i-am_).--And also.

=Ad arbitrium= (_ar-bit´ri-um_).--At pleasure.

=Ad captandum vulgus= (_cap-tan´dum vul´gus_).--To catch the rabble.

=Ad extremum= (_ex-tre´mum_).--At last.

=Ad finem= (_fī´nem_).--To the end.

=Ad hominem= (_hom´in-em_).--To the man.

=Ad infinitum= (_in-fī-nī´tum_).--To infinity.

=Ad interim= (_in´ter-im_).--Meanwhile.

=Ad Kalendas Graecas= (_kal´en-das grē´kas_).--At the Greek kalends--_i.
e._, never (there being no kalends in the Greek year).

=Ad libitum= (_lib´it-um_).--At pleasure.

=Ad majorem Dei gloriam= (_mā-jor´em Dē´ī glor´i-am_).--For the greater
glory of God. The motto of the Order of the Jesuits, founded by Ignatius
Loyola (1539).

=Ad nauseam= (_naw´se-am_).--To disgust.

=Ad quod damnum= (_kwod dam´num_).--To what damage.

=Ad referendum= (_ref-er-en´dum_).--For further consideration.

=Ad rem.=--To the point.

=Ad unguem= (un´gwem).--To a nail--_i.e._, to a nicety, exactly. An
expression borrowed from sculptors, who in modeling, give the finishing
touch with the nail.

=Ad unum omnes=--Cicero (_ū-num om´nēs_).--All to a man.

=Ad valorem= (_va-lor´em_).--According to the value.

=Ad vivum= (_vi´vum_).--To the life.

=Aegrescit medendo= (_e-gres´sit med-en´dō_).--The disorder increases
with the remedy, _i. e._, the remedy is worse than the disease.

=Aequam servare mentem= (_ē-kwam ser-vār´e men´tem_).--To preserve a
well-balanced mind; to be unmoved.

=Aequo animo= (_ē´kwo an´im-o_).--With resignation, contentedly.

=Aetatis suae= (_ē-tā´tis sū´ē_).--Of his (or her) age.

=A fortiori= (_for-shi-or´ī_).--With stronger reason.

=Alere flammam= (_al´er-e flam´mam_).--To feed the flame.

=Alias= (_al´i-as_).--Otherwise.

=Alibi= (_al´i-bī_).--Elsewhere. Legal phrase implying that the accused
in a criminal case was not on the scene of a crime at the time of its
committal.

=Alma Mater= (_al´ma mā´ter_).--Benign mother. An expression used by
college men, who speak of their college as their Alma mater.

=Alter ego= (_al´ter egg´o_).--Another self.

=Alter idem= (_al´ter ī-dem_).--Another exactly similar.

=Amantium irae amoris integratio est=--(_am-an´shi-um ī´rē a-mor´iss
inte-grā-shi-o est_).--The quarrels of lovers are renewals of love.

=A mensa et thoro= (_ā men´sā et thor´ō_).--From table and bed. A legal
phrase used by the judge in pronouncing the decree of separation in the
Divorce Court.

=Amicus humani generis= (_am-ī-cus hu-mā´nī gen´er-iss_).--A friend of
the human race.

=Amor patriæ= (_am´or pat´ri-ē_).--Love of one’s native land.

=Anguis in herba=--Virgil (_an´gwiss in her´bā_).--A snake in the grass.

=Animo et fide= (_an´im-o et fī´dē_).--By courage and faith.

=Anno aetatis suae= (_an´no ē-tā´tiss sū´ē_).--In the year of his (or
her) age.

=Anno Christi,= A. C. (_an´no kriss´tī_).--In the year of Christ.

=Anno Domini,= A. D. (_an´no Dom´inī_).--In the year of our lord.

=Anno mundi,= A. M. (_an´no mun´dī_).--In the year of the world. The
date of the Creation is given by Bishop Usher as 4004 B. C.

=Ante meridiem,= A. M. (_an´te mer-ī´di-em_).--Before noon.

=A posse ad esse= (_ā poss´e ad ess´e_).--From possibility to actuality.

=A posteriori= (_ā pos-tē-ri-or´ī_).--From the effect to the cause; that
is, an argument by induction.

=A priori= (_ā prī-or´ī_).--From the cause to the effect; that is, an
argument by deduction.

=Aqua fortis= (_ak´wa for´tiss_).--Strong water. A common name for
nitric acid.

=Aqua vitae= (_ak´wa vī´tē_).--Water of life. Alcohol, brandy.

=Arbiter elegantiarum= (_ar´bit-er ele-gan-shi-air´um_).--An authority
in matters of taste.

=Arcana imperii= (_ar-kā´na im-per´ī-ī_).--Secrets of the state.

=Ardentia verba= (_ar-den´shi-a ver´ba_).--Burning words.

=Argumentum ad hominem= (_ar-gu-men´tum ad hom´-i-nem_).--An argument to
the man. An argument in refutation drawn from an opponent’s own
principles.

=Argumentum ad invidiam= (_ar-gu-men´tum ad in-vid´-i-am_).--An argument
appealing to low passions.

=Argumentum ad judicium= (_ar-gu-men´tum ad ju-dish´i-um_).--An appeal
to the judgment.

=Argumentum ad populum= (_ar-gu-men´tum ad pop´-u-lum_).--An appeal to
popular prejudice.

=Argumentum baculinum= (_ar-gu-men´tum back-u-li-num_).--The argument of
the cudgel; appeal to force. Club-law.

=Ars celare artem= (_ars sell-air´e ar´tem_).--True art is to conceal
art.

=Ars longa, vita brevis= (_ars lon´ga vī´ta brev´iss_).--Art is long,
life short.

=Artium magister=, A. M. or M. A. (_ar´ti-um ma-jis´ter_).--Master of
Arts.

=Audi alteram partem= (_aw´dī al´ter-am par´tem_).--Hear the other side.

=Aura popularis=--Cicero (_aw´ra pop-u-lair´iss_).--The shifting breeze
of popular favor.

=Aurea mediocritas=--Horace (_aw´re-a med-i-ok´ri-tass_).--The golden
mean.

=Aut Cæsar, aut nullus= (_awt Cæsar awt nul´lus_).--Either Cæsar or no
one.

=Aut vincere aut mori= (_awt vin´ser-e awt mor´ī_).--Either to conquer
or to die.

=A verbis ad verbera= (_ā ver´bīs ad ver´ber-a_).--From words to blows.

=A vinculo matrimonii= (_ā vin´ku-lo mat-ri-mō´nī-ī_).--From the bond of
marriage.

=B=

=Bis dat, qui cito dat= (_biss dat kwī sī´tō dat_).--He gives twice who
gives quickly.

=Bona fide= (_bō´nā fī´dē_).--In good faith.

=Brevis esse laboro, obscurus fio=--Horace (_brev´iss ess´e lab-or´ō
ob-sku´rus fīo_).--When I strive to be concise I become obscure.

=Brutum fulmen= (_Bru´tum ful´men_).--A harmless thunderbolt.

=C=

=Cacoethes loquendi= (_kak-o-ē´thēs lo-kwen´dī_).--An itch for speaking.

=Cacoethes scribendi= (_skrī-ben´dī_).--An itch for scribbling.

=Capias= (_kap´i-ass_).--You may take. A writ to authorize the seizure
of a defendant’s person (legal).

=Caput mortuum= (_kap´ut mor´tu-um_),--The dead head--_i.e._, the
worthless remains.

=Caret= (_care´et_).--It is wanting.

=Casus belli= (_kā´sus bell´ī_).--A cause for war.

=Caveat actor= (_kav´e-at ak´tor_).--Let the doer beware. Law term
signifying a notice to stay legal proceedings.

=Caveat emptor= (_emp´tor_).--Let the purchaser beware. Term used to
show that the vendor does not hold himself responsible for the condition
of the goods.

=Cetera desunt= (_sē´ter-a dē-sunt_).--The rest is wanting.

=Ceteris paribus= (_sē´ter-is pair´i-bus_).--Other things being equal.

=Circa=--c. (_sir´kā_).--About, towards (of time).

=Circulus in probando= (_sir´ku-lus in pro-ban´dō_).--A circle in the
proof; using the conclusion as one of the arguments.

=Cogito ergo sum= (_coj´i-tō er´gõ sum_).--I think, therefore I exist.
The famous dictum of Descartes, the philosopher.

=Commune bonum= (_com-mū´ne bō´num_).--A common good.

=Compos mentis= (_com´pos men´tiss_).--Of sane mind.

=Conscia mens recti= (_con´shi-a mens rek´tī_).--A mind conscious of
rectitude.

=Contra bonos mores= (_con´tra bō´nōs mor´ēz_).--Against good manners.

=Copia verborum= (_cō´pi-a ver-bor´um_).--Plenty of words.

=Coram nobis= (_cor´am nō´biss_).--In our presence; before us.

=Corpus delicti= (_cor´pus de-lik´tī_).--The body, _i. e._ substance, of
the offense.

=Crimine ab uno disce omnes= (_krī´min-e ab ū´nō dis´se om´nēz_).--From
one crime learn the nature of all.

=Cui bono?= (_kī bō´nō_).--For whose benefit is it?

=Cum grano salis= (_cum grā´nō sā´lis_).--With a grain of salt, _i. e._,
with some allowance.

=Cum privilegio= (_priv-i-le´ji-ō_).--By privilege.

=Curiosa felicitas= (_ku-ri-ō´sa fē-lī´si-tas_).--Felicity of
expression.

=D=

=Data= (_dā´ta_).--Things given or taken for granted.

=De auditu= (_dē aw-dī´tū_).--By hearsay.

=Deceptio visus= (_dē-sep´shi-ō vī´sūs_).--An optical illusion.

=De facto= (_dē fac´tō_).--In point of fact. A legal phrase used to
describe that which is fact as opposed to that which is legal.

=Dei gratia= (_Dē´ī grā´shi-ā_).--By the grace of God. A phrase used in
respect to a sovereign, in royal proclamations, and on coins of the
realm.

=Disjecta membra= (_dis-jek´ta mem´bra_).--Scattered remains.

=Divide et impera= (_dī´vi-dē et im´per-ā_).--Divide and govern.

=Docendo discimus= (_dō-sen´dō dis´si-mus_).--By teaching we learn.

=Dominus providebit= (_Dom´īn-us prō-vid-ē´bit_).--The Lord will
provide.

=Dramatis personæ= (_drä´ma-tiss per-sō´nē_).--Characters of a play.

=Dulce domum= (_dul´sē dō´mum_).--Sweetly homeward.

=Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori=--Horace (_dul´-se et de-kor´um
est pro pat´ri-ā mōr´ī_).--It is pleasant and befitting to die for one’s
country.

=Dum spiro, spero= (_dum spi´ro, sper´ō_).--While I breathe, I hope.

=Dum vivimus, vivamus= (_vī´vim-us, vī-vā´mus_).--While we live, let us
live--_i. e._, whilst we have life, let us enjoy it.

=Durante vita= (_du-ran´te vī´tā_).--During life.

=E=

=Ecce homo!= (_ek´se hom´o_).--Behold the man! A name given to
representations of the suffering Savior, because Pilate used those words
when Christ came forth wearing the crown of thorns and purple robe (St.
John xix. 5).

=Editio princeps= (_e-dish´io prin´seps_).--Original edition.

=Emeritus= (_ē-mer´itus_).--A soldier who has served his time, a
veteran: hence, one retired from active official duties, as an Emeritus
professor.

=E pluribus unum= (_ē plūr´i-bus ūnum_).--From many, one. Motto of
United States.

=Esse quam videri malim= (_es´se kwam vī-dē´rī mā-lim_).--I prefer to
be, rather than seem to be.

=Esto quod es= (_es-tō quod ēz_).--Be what thou art.

=Et cetera= (_et sē´ter-a_), &c., or etc. And so forth.

=E tenebris oritur lux= (_ē ten´e-brīs or´i-tur lux_).--Out of darkness
there arises light.

=Et sequentes= (_et se-kwen´tēs_).--And those that follow.

=Et sequentia= (_se-kwen´shia_)--_et seq._--And what follows.

=Et sic de ceteris= (_et sik dē sē´terīs_).--And so of the rest.

=Et tu, Brute= (_tū Brū´te_).--And thou also, Brutus! The words were
used by Cæsar when he discovered Brutus among the conspirators who
assassinated him in the senate-house, B. C. 44.

=Ex æquo= (_ē´kwo_).--In like manner, equally.

=Ex animo= (_an´imo_).--From the soul, heartily.

=Ex cathedra= (_kath´e-drā_).--From the chair--_i. e._, with authority.
The phrase originally referred to the decisions given by popes and
prelates in their pontifical character; it is now used in reference to
any decision given with the air of authority.

=Exceptio probat regulum= (_ex-sep´shio prō-bat reg´u-lum_).--The
exception proves the rule.

=Ex curia= (_kū´riā_).--Out of court. Originally every full Roman
citizen belonged to one of the thirty curiæ or divisions of the city,
and was entitled to vote on the laws submitted to his curia. The phrase
_ex curia_ was applied to those who had no right to vote in the curia.
It is now used to denote a person who has no _locus standi_ before any
tribunal.

=Ex delicto= (_dē-lik´tō_).--From the crime.

=Exempli gratia=--_e. g._ (_ex-em´plī grā´shia_).--By way of example.

=Exeunt= (_eks´e-unt_).--They go out. Used by the older playwrights to
indicate the departure of some of the performers from the stage.

=Exit= (_eks´it_).--He (or she) goes out.

=Exitus acta probat= (_ex´it-us ak´ta prō´bat_).--The event justifies
the deed. Motto of George Washington.

=Ex nihilo nihil fit= (_ex nī´hillo ni´hill fit_).--Out of nothing
nothing comes.

=Ex officio= (_of-fish´iō_).--By virtue of his office: _e. g._, the
president of a society is _ex officio_ a member of all committees of the
society.

=Ex parte= (_par´te_).--On one side only. A phrase indicating an
application, concerning a pending action, to a judge by one party in the
action in the absence of the other.

=Experientia docet sapientiam= (_ex-pe-ri-en´shia dō´set
sap-i-en´shi-am_).--Experience teaches wisdom.

=F=

=Faber est quisque fortunæ suæ=--Sallust (_fab´er est kwis´kwe for-tū´nē
sū´ē_).--Every man is the maker of his own fortune.

=Facile princeps= (_fas´il-e prin´seps_).--Easily the chief--_i. e._,
the admitted chief.

=Facilis descensus Averno=--Virgil (_fas´il-iss dē-sen´sus
av-er´nō_).--The descent to Avernus (or hell) is easy: the downward road
is an easy one. Avernus was a lake of Campania, near which was the cave
through which Æneas descended to the lower world.

=Fac simile= (_fak sim´il-e_).--Do the like. An exact copy.

=Factotum= (_fak-tō´tum_).--Do everything. A man of all work.

=Fecit= (_fē´sit_).--He did it. Generally affixed to the pedestal of a
statue by the sculptor who executed it.

=Felicitas habet multos amicos= (_fē´lī´si-tas hab´et mul´tōs
am-ī´kōs_).--Happiness has many friends: _i. e._, friends flock around
those who are prosperous.

=Feræ naturæ= (_fer´ē na-tū´rē_).--Of the nature of a wild beast.

=Festina lente= (_fes-tī´nā len´tē_).--Hasten slowly: _i. e._, do
nothing in a hurry.

=Fiat justitia, ruat cœlum= (_fī´at jus-tish´i-a rū´at sē´lum_).--Let
justice be done, even though the heavens should fall.

=Fiat lux= (_fi´at lux_).--Let there be light.

=Fides Punica= (_fī´dēs Pū´nik-a_).--Punic (_i. e._ Carthaginian) faith:
treachery. A proverbial expression among the Romans for faithlessness.

=Fidus Achates= (_fī´dus Akā´tēz_).--The faithful Achates: a true
friend. Achates was the distinguished companion of Æneas in his
wanderings after his flight from Troy.

=Fieri facias= (_fī´erī fas´i-ass_).--Cause it to be done. Usually
written _fi. fa._ The title of a writ of execution issued to give effect
to the judgment of a court of justice.

=Finem respice= (_fī´nem res´piss-e_).--Look to the end.

=Finis coronat opus= (_fī´nis korō´nat op´us_).--The end crowns the
work.

=Flagrante delicto= (_de-lik´tō_).--In the act of committing the crime:
_i. e._, in the very act.

=Fortes fortuna juvat= (_fōr´tēs fortū´na ju´vat_).--Fortune helps the
brave.

=Fortis cadere, cedere non potest= (_for´tiss kad´er-e sē´der-e non
pot´est_).--The brave may fall, but cannot yield.

=Fortiter et recte= (_for´tit-er et rek´tē_).--Courageously and
uprightly.

=Fortitudine et prudentia= (_forti-tu´din-e et prūden´shi-ā_).--By
fortitude and prudence.

=Fortuna favet fatuis= (_fortu´na fav´et fat´uīs_).--Fortune favors
idiots.

=Fortunæ filius= (_for-tu´nē fil´ius_).--A son of fortune--_i.e._, one
favored by fortune.

=Fortuna sequator= (_sekwā´tur_).--Let fortune follow.

=Frangas non flectes= (_fran´gas non flek´tēs_).--You may break, but you
shall not bend, me.

=Fronti nulla fides= (_fron´tī null´a fī´dēs_).--Do not judge by
appearances.

=Frustra laborat qui omnibus placere studet= (_frus´trā labōr´at kwī
om´nibus pla-sē´re stū´det_).--He labors in vain who studies to please
all.

=Fugit irreparabile tempus=--Virgil (_fū´jit ir-rep-ar-ā´-bil-e
tem´pus_).--Time, once gone, can never be regained.

=Furor arma ministrat=--Virgil (_fū´ror ar´ma min´is-trat_).--Rage
supplies them with arms.

=Furor loquendi= (_fu´ror lo-kwen´dī_).--A rage for speaking.

=Furor poeticus= (_po-ēt´ik-us_).--Poetical fire.

=Furor scribendi= (_skrī-ben´dī_).--A rage for writing.

=G=

=Gaudeamus= (_gawdeā´mus_).--Let us rejoice.

=Gloria in excelsis Deo= (_glor´i-a in ex-sel´sis dē´ō_).--Glory to God
in the highest. The opening words of the greater doxology sung in the
ancient Church; chiefly used in the Communion service and private
devotion.

=Gratis= (_grā´tiss_).--Free; for nothing.

=Gutta cavat lapidem non vi, sed semper cadendo= (_gut´ta kav´at
lap´id-em non vī sed sem´per ka-den´dō_).--The drop hollows the stone
not by force, but by constant falling.

=H=

=Haud passibus æquis=--Virgil (_hawd pass´i-bus ē´kwīs_).--With unequal
steps.

=Hic et ubique= (_hik et ubī´kwe_).--Here and everywhere. (“Here, there,
and everywhere.”)

=Hic jacet= (_hik ja´set_).--Here lies. An inscription frequently carved
on monuments dedicated to deceased persons.

=Hoc age= (_hok aj´e_).--Do this.

=Homo sum: humani nihil a me alienum puto=--Terence (_hom´o sum humā´nī
nī´hil ā mē ali-ē´num pū´to_).--I am a man: I count nothing human
indifferent to me.

=Honesta mors turpi vita potior=--Tacitus (_hones´ta maws tur´pī vī´tā
pō´shior_).--An honorable death is preferable to a base life.

=Honor virtutis præmium= (_hon´or virtu´tiss prē´mium_).--Honor is the
reward of virtue (or valor).

=Humani generis decus= (_humā´nī jen´er-iss dek´us_).--The glory of the
human race. These words are inscribed on Sir Isaac Newton’s monument on
the rood-screen in Westminster Abbey.

=Humanum est errare= (_humā´num est errā´re_).--It is human to err. “To
err is human, to forgive, divine.”--Pope.

=I=

=Ibidem= (_ibī´dem_).--In the same place.

=Idem= (_ī´dem_).--The same.

=Id est= (_i. e._).--That is, that is to say.

=Ignis fatuus= (_ig´niss fat´u-us_).--A deceiving fire: a
Will-o’-the-wisp; an inflammable gas frequently seen over marshes, which
leads the traveler who pursues it into the bog.

=Ignorantia legis excusat neminem= (_ignoran´shia lē´jis excū´sat
nem´inem_).--Ignorance of the law excuses nobody.

=Imo pectore= (_ī´mo pek´tor-e_).--From the bottom of the heart.

=Impedimenta= (_im-pedi-men´ta_).--The baggage of an army; luggage in
traveling.

=Imperium in imperio= (_imper´ium in imper´io_).--One government within
another.

=Imprimatur= (_imprimā´tur_).--Let it be printed. The term is used to
signify the permission to print a book.

=Imprimis= (_im-prī´miss_).--In the first place, chiefly, especially.

=In æternum= (_in ēter´num_).--Forever.

=In articulo mortis= (_ar-tik´ulo mor´tis_).--At the point of death.

=In capite= (_kap´i-te_).--In chief.

=In cauda venenum= (_kaw´dā venē´num_).--There is poison in the tail.
The sting of the scorpion is at the tip of its tail.

=In cœlo quies= (_se´lo kwī´ēs_).--There is rest in heaven.

=In commendam= (_commen´dam_).--In recommendation.

=In curia= (_kū´ri-ā_).--In the court.

=Index expurgatorius= (_in´dex expurgator´ius_).--A list of prohibited
books. The term employed for the list of books which are allowed to be
read after revision by the papal authorities. The I. E. was commenced
by Pope Paul IV. (1555), and published by Pope Pius IV. (1559), after
organization by the Council of Trent (1545-1563). Press censorship
exists in Russia and some other nations.

=In esse= (_ess´e_).--In being.

=In extenso= (_exten´so_).--At full length.

=In extremis= (_extrē´miss_).--At the point of death.

=In flagrante delicto= (_flā-gran´te delik´ō_).--In the very act.

=In formâ pauperis= (_for´mā paw´per-iss_).--As a poor man. A law term
denoting the status of a person who, having just cause of action, has no
money to pay costs, counsel under these circumstances being appointed by
the court.

=In foro conscientiæ= (_for´ō con-shi-en´shi-ē_).--Before the tribunal
of conscience.

=Infra dignitatem= (_in´frā dignitā´tem_).--Beneath one’s dignity.

=In hoc signo vinces= (_in hoc sig´nō vin´sēs_).--Under this standard
(sign) thou shalt conquer. Motto of the Emperor Constantine, who first
used it on his standard (_labarum_) in the battle against Maxentius, A.
D. 312.

=In limine= (_lī-min-e_)--At the threshold.

=In loco parentis= (_lō´kō paren´tiss_).--In the place of a parent. A
law term denoting the guardian who takes charge of a child in the event
of the death or mental incapacity of its parents.

=In medias res= (_med´i-ass rēs_).--Into the midst of things, _e. g._,
to come to the point at once.

=In medio virtus= (_med´i-o vir´tus_).--Virtue lies in the mean.

=In memoriam= (_memor´i-am_).--To the memory of.

=In nomine= (_nom´i-ne_).--In the name of.

=In nubibus= (_nū´bi-bus_).--In the clouds.

=In nuce= (_nū´se_).--In a nutshell.

=In pace= (_pā´se_).--In peace.

=In perpetuum= (_per-pet´u-um_).--Forever.

=In posse= (_poss´e_).--Possible.

=In præsenti= (_prē-sen´tī_).--At present, now.

=In propria persona= (_prō´pri-ā persō´nā_).--In person. A law term
applied to a litigant who conducts his own case.

=In puris naturalibus= (_pūr´īs naturā´li-bus_).--Stark naked.

=In re= (_rē_).--In the matter of (legal).

=In rerum natura= (_rēr´um natū´rā_).--In the nature of things.

=In situ= (_sī´tū_).--In its original situation.

=In statu pupillari= (_stā´tū pupillār´ī_).--In the state of being a
ward (legal).

=In statu quo= (_kwō_).--In the state in which it was, we were, etc.
(legal).

=In tenebris= (_ten´e-brīs_).--In darkness.

=Inter alia= (_in´ter al´i-a_).--Among other things (legal).

=Inter nos= (_nōs_).--Between ourselves.

=Inter pocula= (_pō´ku-la_).--At one’s cups.

=Inter se= (_in´ter sē_).--Among themselves.

=In toto= (_tō´tō_).--In the whole; entirely.

=Intra muros= (_in´trā mū´rōs_).--Within the walls.

=In transitu= (_trans´i-tū_).--On the passage.

=In vacuo= (_vak´u-ō_).--In a space devoid of air.

=In vino veritas= (_vī´no ver´i-tas_).--There is truth in wine--_i. e._,
the truth comes out under its influence.

=Ipse dixit= (_ip´se dix´it_).--He himself said it: dogmatic assertion.

=Ipsissima verba= (_ipsīss´i-ma ver´ba_).--The very words.

=Ipso facto= (_ip´so fak´to_).--In the fact itself.

=Ipso jure= (_ip´so ju´re_).--By the law itself.

=Ira furor brevis est=--Horace (_ī´ra fū´ror brev´iss est_).--Anger is a
short madness.

=Ita lex scripta est= (_it´a lex scrip´ta est_).--Thus the law is
written.

=J=

=Jacta alea est= (_jak´ta ā´le-a_).--The die has been cast. Famous
phrase said to have been used by Julius Cæsar on crossing (49 B. C.) the
Rubicon, the sacred boundary of the domestic Roman Empire, by which act
he declared war against Pompey and the Senate.

=Jure divino= (_jū´re dīvī´no_).--By divine law.

=Jure humano= (_humā´no_).--By human law.

=Jus civile= (_jus sīvī´le_).--The civil law. The term commonly used to
describe the Roman law and the various modern systems based upon it, as
contrasted with the English common law.

=Jus divinum= (_dīvī´num_).--The divine law; the law which is right with
respect to things divine.

=Jus gentium= (_jen´shium_).--The law of nations; the law that all
nations esteemed to be equitable.

=L=

=Laborare est orare= (_laborār´e est orār´e_).--To labor is to pray (or
Work is worship).

=Labore et honore= (_labōr´e et honōr´e_).--By industry and honor.

=Labor ipse voluptas= (_lab´or ip´se vo-lup´tas_).--Labor itself a
pleasure.

=Labor omnia vincit= (_lab´or om´ni-a vin´sit_).--Labor conquers all
things.

=Lapsus calami= (_lap´sus cal´a-mi_).--A slip of the pen.

=Lapsus linguæ= (_lin´gwē_).--A slip of the tongue.

=Lapsus memoriæ= (_mem-ōr´i-ē_).--A slip of the memory.

=Lares et Penates= (_Lār-ēs et Penā´tēs_).--Household gods.

=Latet anguis in herba=--Virgil (_la´tet an´gwis in her´bā_).--A snake
is concealed in the grass.

=Laus Deo= (_laws Dē´o_).--Praise to God.

=Lex non scripta= (_skrip´ta_).--The unwritten law--_i. e._, the common
law.

=Lex scripta.=--The written law--_i. e._, the statute law.

=Lex talionis= (_tal-i-ō´niss_).--The law of retaliation.

=Lex terræ= (_ter´rē_).--The law of the land.

=Loco citato=--_loc. cit._ (_lok´ō sit-ā´tō_).--In the place quoted.

=Locus in quo= (_kwō_).--The place in which (legal).

=Locus sigilli= (_si-jill´ī_).--The place of the seal.

=Lusus naturæ= (_lū´sus natū´rē_).--A freak of nature.

=M=

=Magna est veritas, et prævalebit= (_mag´na est very´tass et
prē-val-ē´bit_).--Great is truth, and it will prevail.

=Magni nominis umbra= (_mag´nī nom´i-niss um´bra_).--The shadow of a
great name.

=Magnum bonum= (_mag´num bō´num_).--A great good.

=Magnum opus= (_op´us_).--A great work. The chief work of a
distinguished author is frequently so called.

=Mala fide= (_mā´lā fī´dē_).--In bad faith.

=Mandamus= (_mandā´mus_).--We command: a law writ.

=Manibus pedibusque=--Terence (_man´i-bus pedi-bus´kwe_).--With hands
and feet--_i. e._, with might and main.

=Materia medica= (_mā-ter´i-a med´ic-ca_).--Substances used in medicine.

=Mea culpa= (_mē´ā kul´pā_).--By my fault.

=Medio tutissimus ibis= (_med´i-o tū-tiss´imus ī´bis_).--The middle is
the safest course.

=Me judice= (_jū´di-se_).--I being judge; _i. e._, in my own opinion.

=Memento mori= (_me-men´tō mor´ī_).--Remember that you must die. Words
used at Egyptian banquets to remind the guests of their mortality.

=Memorabilia= (_memorabil´i-a_).--Things to be remembered. The name of a
work by Xenophon, the Athenian general, historian, and philosopher (_c._
445-359 B. C.).

=Mensa et thoro= (_men´sā et thor´ō_).--From bed and board.

=Mens conscia recti= (_mens con´shia rek´tī_).--A mind conscious of
rectitude.

=Mens sana in corpore sano= (_mens sā´na in kor´por-e sā´no_).--A sound
mind in a healthy body.

=Meo animo= (_mē´o an´im-o_).--In my opinion.

=Meo periculo= (_per-ī´kulo_).--At my own risk.

=Meum et tuum= (_mē´um et tū´um_).--Mine and thine.

=Mirabile dictu=--Virgil (_mī-rā´bil-e dik´tū_).--Wonderful to tell.

=Mirabile visu= (_vī´su_).--Wonderful to see.

=Mirabilia= (_mī-ra-bil´i-a_).--Wonderful things.

=Mittimus= (_mit´i-mus_).--We send. A writ by which a culprit is
committed to jail. A legal phrase for the writ transferring records from
one court to another.

=Modo et forma= (_mod´o et for´mā_).--In manner and form.

=Modus operandi= (_mod´us operan´dī_).--The manner of operation.

=More suo= (_su´o_).--In his own way.

=Mors janua vitæ= (_maws jan´u-a vī´tē_).--Death the gate of life.

=Mors omnibus communis= (_om´nibus kommū´nis_).--Death is common to all
of us.

=Mors ultima linea rerum est=--Horace (_ul´tim-a lī´ne-a rēr´um
est_).--Death is the boundary line of all things.

=Mos pro lege= (_mōs pro lē´je_).--Custom for law (a law phrase).

=Motu proprio= (_mō´tū prō´priō_).--Of his own accord.

=Multum in parvo= (_mul-tum in par´vō_).--Much in little.

=Mutatis mutandis= (_mu-tā´tis mu-tan´dis_).--Things being changed which
ought to be changed; _i. e._, with necessary changes.

=N=

=Necessitas non habet legem= (_necess´it-ass non hab´et
lē´jem_).--Necessity has no law.

=Ne fronti crede= (_nē front´tī krē´de_).--Trust not to appearances.

=Nem. con.=--abbreviation for =nemine contradicente= (_nem´in-e
contra-dī-sent´e_).--No one speaking in opposition: without opposition.

=Nem. dis.=--abbreviation for =nemine dissentiente=
(_dis-sen-shi-en´te_).--No one dissenting: without a dissenting voice.

=Ne plus ultra= (_nē plus ul´trā_).--No more beyond: _i. e._,
perfection.

=Ne quid nimis=--Terence (_nē kwid nim´iss_).--Not too much of anything;
_i. e._, shun extremes.

=Nescit vox missa reverti=--Horace (_nes´sit vox miss´a rever´tī_).--The
spoken word cannot be recalled.

=Ne sutor ultra crepidam=--Pliny (_sū´tor ul´tra crep´i-dam_).--Let the
cobbler stick to his last; _i. e._, let everyone attend to his own
business.

=Nihil ad rem= (_ni´hil ad rem_).--Nothing to the point.

=Nullum quod tetigit non ornavit= (_kwod tet´i-git non ornā´vit_).--He
touched nothing which he did not adorn. These Latin words form part of
Dr. Johnson’s epitaph on Oliver Goldsmith in Westminster Abbey.

=Nil conscire sibi=--Horace (_con-sī´re sib´ī_).--To be conscious of no
wrong.

=Nil desperandum.=--Never despair.

=Nisi Dominus frustra= (_ni´si dom´in-us frus´trā_).--Unless the Lord be
with us, we strive in vain. Motto of the City of Edinburgh.

=Nisi prius= (_ni´si prī´us_)--literally, Unless previously. A trial at
_Nisi Prius_ may be defined as a trial, before a judge and jury, of a
civil action that has been brought in one of the superior courts.

=Nolens volens= (_nō´lens vō´lens_).--Whether he will or not.

=Noli me tangere= (_nō´lī me tan´jer-e_).--Don’t touch me.

=Nolle prosequi= (_noll´e prō´sek-wī_).--To be unwilling to proceed
(legal term). An undertaking by a plaintiff that he will not proceed
with part or the whole of his suit.

=Non compos mentis= (_kom´poss men´tiss_).--Not sound in mind.

=Non constat= (_kon´stat_).--It does not appear.

=Non est inventus= (_inven´tus_).--He has not been found.

=Non licet= (_liss´et_).--It is not lawful.

=Non multa, sed multum= (_mul´ta sed mul´tum_).--Not many things, but
much.

=Non obstante= (_ob-stan´te_).--Notwithstanding.

=Non omnia possumus omnes=--Virgil (_om´ni-a poss´u-mus om´nēs_).--We
cannot, all of us, do all things.

=Non quo sed quomodo= (_kwō sed kwō´mod-ō_).--Not by whom, but in what
manner.

=Non sequitur= (_sek´wit-ur_).--It does not follow.

=Non sibi, sed patriæ= (_sib´i sed pat´ri-ē_).--Not for himself, but for
his country.

=Nosce teipsum= (_nos´se tē-ip´sum_).--Know thyself. The Latin form of
the Greek inscription over the portico of the Temple of Apollo at
Delphi.

=Noscitur ex sociis= (_noss´i-tur ex sō´si-īs_).--He is known by his
companions.

=Nota bene= (N. B.) (_nō´tā bē´nē_).--Mark well.

=Novus homo= (_nov´us hom´o_).--A new man--one who has raised himself
from obscurity. Term applied to men who in the days of the Roman
Republic and Empire rose to distinction but did not belong to an ancient
_gens_.

=Nulli secundus= (_null´ī se-kun´dus_).--Second to none.

=Nunc aut nunquam= (_nunk awt nun´kwam_).--Now or never.

=O=

=Obiit= (_ob´i-it_).--He (or she) died. An inscription on tombs,
indicating the fact of the death of the person interred.

=Obiter dictum= (_ob´it-er dik´tum_).--A thing said by the way,
incidentally; plural, =obiter dicta=.

=Odium theologicum= (_ō´di-um theo-loj´i-kum_).--Hatred among divines.
Theological controversy usually provoking great bitterness on the part
of the disputants.

=Omnia ad Dei gloriam= (_om´ni-a ad Dē´ī glor´i-am_).--All things to the
glory of God.

=Omnia bona bonis= (_om´ni-a bō´na bō´nīs_).--To the good all things are
good.

=Onus probandi= (_ō´nus pro-ban´dī_).--The burden of proving (legal).

=Optimates= (_op-ti-mā´tēs_).--Aristocrats. Literally, the best. In
ancient times the aristocracy was composed of men selected for their
superior vigor as the best in the tribe.

=Opum furiosa cupido=--Ovid (_op´um furi-ō´sa ku-pī´dō_).--The
ungovernable greed for wealth.

=Ora et labora= (_ōr´ā et lab-ōr´ā_).--Pray and work.

=Ora pro nobis= (_ōr´ā pro nō´bis_).--Pray for us. The words of the
refrain of the well-known hymn in the Roman Catholic mass.

=Ore rotundo= (_ōr´ē rō-tun´dō_).--With round, full voice.

=O tempora! O mores!=--Horace (_tem´por-a mor´ēz_).--O the times! O the
manners!

=Otium cum dignitate= (_ō´shi-um kum dig-ni-tā´te_).--Ease with dignity.

=Otium sine dignitate= (_sin´e_).--Ease without dignity.

=P=

=Pace tua= (_pā´se tū´ā_).--With your permission.

=Pacta conventa= (_pak´ta con-ben´ta_).--Terms agreed on.

=Pari passu= (_par´i pass´u_).--With equal pace; in equal proportion.

=Pariter pax bello=--Cornelius Nepos (_par´it-er pax bell´o_).--Peace is
produced by war: _i. e._ by a show of hostile preparations war is often
averted.

=Particeps criminis= (_par´ti-seps krī´min-iss_).--A sharer in the
guilt: an accomplice (legal).

=Passim= (_pas´sim_).--Everywhere.

=Pater noster= (_pat´er nos´ter_).--Our father. The two first words at
the commencement of the Lord’s Prayer.

=Pater patriæ= (_pat´er pat´ri-ē_).--The father of his country. The name
given to Cicero by the Roman Senate. The term was also applied to some
other distinguished Romans. In later times Andrea Dorea and George
Washington were thus distinguished.

=Patres conscripti= (_pat´rēz kon-skrip´tī_), _i. e._ =patres et
conscripti.=--Fathers and elect--the title of the assembled Senate.

=Patria cara, carior libertas= (_pat´ri-a cār´a cār´i-or
lib´er-tas_).--My country is dear, but liberty is dearer.

=Pax in bello= (_bell´o_).--Peace in war--_i. e._, a weak prosecution of
hostilities.

=Pax vobiscum= (_vo-bis´kum_).--Peace be with you.

=Peccavi= (_pek-kā´vī_).--I have sinned.

=Pendente lite= (_pen-den´te lī´te_).--While the lawsuit is pending
(legal).

=Peraget angusta ad augusta= (_per-ag´et an-gus´ta ad
aw-gus´ta_).--Through difficulties to grandeur.

=Per annum.=--By the year.

=Per centum.=--By the hundred.

=Per contra.=--Contrariwise.

=Per diem= (_dī´em_).--By the day.

=Per fas et nefas= (_fass et nef´ass_).--Through right and wrong.

=Per mare, per terras= (_mar´e ter´ras_).--By sea and by land: _i. e._,
everywhere.

=Permitte Divis cetera= (_per-mitt´e dī´vīs sē´ter-a_).--Leave the rest
to the gods.

=Per saltum= (_salt´um_).--By a leap. A legal phrase frequently used.

=Per se.=--By itself (legal).

=Perseverando= (_per-sev-er-an´dō_).--By perseverance.

=Petitio principii= (_pet-ī´shi-o prin-sip´i-i_).--A begging of the
question.

=Pinxit= (_pinks´it_).--He painted it; word placed in the corner of a
canvas after the signature of the artist.

=Plebs= (_pleb´s_).--Common people. The name given to the third and
lowest rank of the orders into which the Roman state was divided.

=Pleno jure= (_plē´no jū´re_).--With full authority.

=Pluries= (_plū´ri ēz_).--Often, frequently.

=Poeta nascitur, non fit=--Horace (_po-ē´ta nass´it-ur non fit_).--A
poet is born, not made.

=Pons asinorum= (_ass´in-or´um_).--The bridge of asses (applied to
Euclid i. 5).

=Posse comitatus= (_poss´e com-i-tā´tūs_).--The power of the county. A
legal phrase expressing the power of the county or citizens, who are
summoned to assist an officer, as the sheriff, in suppressing a riot or
executing any legal process.

=Post bellum auxilium= (_pōst bell´um awx-il´i-um_).--Help after the
war.

=Postea= (_post´e-ā_).--Afterwards.

=Post factum nullum consilium= (_fak´tum null´um con-sil´i-um_).--After
the deed is done there is no need for consultation.

=Post meridiem=--P. M. (_mer-ī´di-em_).--After mid-day.

=Post mortem.=--After death. Term applied to the examination of a body
to discover the cause of death.

=Post nubila Phœbus= (_nū´bil-a fē´bus_).--After clouds the sun shines.
Phœbus Apollo, “the radiant Apollo,” a god who personified the sun.

=Post obitum= (_ob´it-um_).--After death. An undertaking given to a
usurer to repay a loan on the death of a relative, from whom money is
expected, is called a _post obit._

=Post tenebras lux= (_ten´e-bras_).--After darkness comes light.

=Postulata= (_post-u-lā´ta_).--Things demanded.

=Prima facie= (_prī´mā fā´si-ē_).--On the first view or appearance. A
legal term frequently employed to denote that on the evidence already
given there is a good case for further investigation.

=Primum mobile= (_prī´mum mō´bil-e_).--The source of motion: the
mainspring.

=Primus inter omnes= (_prī´mus in´ter om´nēs_).--The first among all.

=Primus inter pares= (_par´ēs_).--The first among his equals or peers:
_e. g._, an archbishop among bishops.

=Principia, non homines= (_prin-sip´i-a non hom´in-ēs_).--Principles,
not men.

=Principiis obsta= (_prin-sip´i-īs ob´sta_).--Withstand the beginnings
(_i. e._ of evil).

=Pro aris et focis= (_ar´is et fō´sīs_).--For our altars and our
hearths.

=Pro bono publico= (_prō bōnō pub´li-kō_).--For the public good.

=Pro et con.=--For and against.

=Profanum vulgus=--Horace (_pro-fā´num vul´gus_).--The common herd.

=Pro forma= (_for´mā_).--For the sake of form.

=Pro hac vice= (_hak vi´se_).--For this time.

=Pro patria= (_pat´ri-ā_).--For our country.

=Pro rata= (_rā´ta_).--Proportionally.

=Pro rege, lege, et grege= (_rē´je lē´je et grej´e_).--For the king, the
law, and the people.

=Pro re nata= (_rē na´tā_).--Under the present circumstances, as matters
are.

=Pro salute animæ= (_sal-ū´te an´im-ē_).--For the welfare of the soul.

=Pro tanto= (_tan´to_).--As far as it goes.

=Pro tempore=--_pro. tem._ (_tem´por-e_).--For the time being.

=Punica fides= (_pū´nik-a fīdēs_).--Punic (or Carthaginian) faith, _i.
e._ treachery.

=Q=

=Quantum= (_kwan´tum_).--As much, so much.

=Quantum sufficit= (_kwan´tum suf-fī´sit_).--As much as is sufficient. A
term frequently used in medical prescriptions, as Q. S.

=Quasi= (_kwā´si_).--As if, just as, as it were.

=Quid nunc?= (_kwid nunk_).--What now? What news? Also applied as a name
to a person who is always seeking to satisfy his curiosity as to current
news.

=Quid pro quo= (_kwid prō kwō_).--One thing for another.

=Quoad hoc= (_kwō´ad hok_).--To this extent.

=Quo animo?= (_kwō an´im-ō_).--With what purpose or intention?

=Quod erat demonstrandum=--Q. E. D. (_kwod er´at
dem-on-stran´dum_).--Which was to be proved. A term used in geometry at
the end of propositions, to indicate that the theorem is proved.

=Quod erat faciendum=--Q. E. F. (_fas-i-en´dum_).--Which was to be done.
A term used in geometry at the end of problems, to show that they have
been solved.

=Quod scripsi, scripsi= (_skrip´sī_).--What I have written, I have
written. Words used by Pilate when he refused to alter the inscription
he had written over the crucified Savior.

=Quod vide=--_q. v._ (_vī´de_).--Which see.

=Quo jure= (_kwō jū´re_).--By what right.

=Quomodo= (_kwō-mod-o_).--In what manner, how.

=Quondam= (_kwon´dam_).--At one time, once, formerly.

=Quos Deus vult perdere, prius dementat= (_kwōs dē´us vult per´der-e,
prī´us dē-men´tat_).--Those whom God has a mind to destroy, He first
deprives of their senses.

=R=

=Rara avis in terris, nigroque simillima cygno=--Ovid (_rār´a av´iss in
ter´rīs nī-grō´kwe sim-ill´im-a sig´no_).--A rare bird on the earth, and
very like a black swan: _i. e._, a prodigy. This species being almost
entirely unknown in the time of the Romans.

=Recipe= (_res´ip-e_).--Receive.

=Recte et suaviter= (_rek´tē et swa´vit-er_).--Justly and pleasantly.

=Redeunt Saturnia regna= (_red´e-unt sat-ur´ni-a reg´na_).--The age of
Saturn (_i. e._ the golden age) returns.

=Reductio ad absurdum= (_re-duk´shi-o ad ab-surd´um_).--A reducing a
position to an absurdity.

=Rem acu tetigisti= (_rem ak´ū teti-gist´ī_).--You have hit the nail on
the head (_lit._ touched the matter with a needle-point).

=Requiescat in pace=--R. I. P. (_rek-wi-ess´kat in pā´se_).--May he (or
she) rest in peace. Symbol used on monuments, expressing a prayer for
the repose of the soul.

=Res gestæ= (_rēs jest´ē_).--Exploits.

=Res judicata= (_jūdi-ka´ta_).--A case or suit already decided.

=Respice finem= (_res´-piss-e fī´nem_).--Look to the end.

=Respublica= (_rēs-pub´lik-a_).--The common weal; the commonwealth. Name
applied to the Roman state prior to the time of the Empire.

=Resurgam= (_re-sur´gam_).--I shall rise again. Frequently inscribed on
memorials to the dead.

=Ride si sapis= (_rī´de sī sap´iss_).--Laugh if you are wise; _i. e._,
the wise cultivate a cheerful habit of mind.

=Ruat cœlum= (_rū´at sē´lum_).--Let the heavens fall.

=Rus in urbe= (_russ in ur´be_).--The country in town.

=S=

=Sal atticum= (_sal at´tik-um_).--Attic salt--_i. e._, wit. Salt was
used both by the Greeks and Romans as the common term for wit; Attic
(_i. e._ Athenian) wit being especially delicate and elegant.

=Salus populi suprema est lex= (_sal´us pop´u-li su-prē´ma est
lex_).--The welfare of the people is the supreme law.

=Salve= (_sal´vē_).--How are you? I hope you are well. A form of
familiar salutation among the Romans.

=Salvo jure= (_sal´vō jū´re_).--Saving the right.

=Sanctum sanctorum= (_sank´tum sank-tor´um_).--The holy of holies. In
ecclesiastical law the chancel of a church is so called; also frequently
applied to a private room or study.

=Sartor resartus= (_sar´tor re-sar´tus_).--The tailor patched. The title
of Carlyle’s well-known work.

=Satis superque= (_sat´iss su-per´kwe_).--Enough and more than enough.

=Satis verborum= (_ver-bor´um_).--Enough of words.

=Secundum artem= (_sek-un´dum ar´tem_).--According to rule.

=Secundum naturam= (_na-tūr´am_).--According to nature.

=Semper avarus eget=--Horace (_sem´per av-ār´us ej´et_).--The covetous
man is ever in want.

=Semper felix= (_fē´lix_).--Always happy.

=Semper fidelis= (_fid-ē´liss_).--Always faithful.

=Semper idem= (_ī´dem_).--Always the same. (This is the masculine form;
the feminine form is _e´a-dem_, and the neuter _id´em_--all three
singular.)

=Semper paratus= (_par-a´tus_).--Always ready.

=Senatus populusque Romanus=--S. P. Q. R. (_sen-ā´tus popu-lus´kwe
Ro-mā´nus_).--The senate and the Roman people.

=Seniores priores= (_sen-i-or´ēz pri-or´ēz_).--Elders first. Elderly
persons being accorded in ancient times special reverence. Cicero
(106-43 B. C.) wrote a work, _De Senectute_, in praise of old age.

=Seriatim= (_ser-i-ā´tim_).--In a series.

=Servabo fidem= (_ser-vā´bō fid´em_).--I will keep faith.

=Sic= (_sik_).--Thus: so. Generally used ironically to call attention to
a literary error.

=Sic itur ad astra=--Virgil (_sik it´ur ad ass´tra_).--Such is the way
to immortality (_lit._, to the stars).

=Sic passim= (_pas´sim_).--So everywhere.

=Sic transit gloria mundi= (_sik trans´it glor´i-a mun´dī_).--Thus
passes away earthly glory. Words said to have been used at the
inauguration of the early Popes.

=Sic vos non vobis=--Virgil (_sik vōs non vō´biss_).--Thus you toil, but
not for yourselves. The poet here refers to bees, who make honey, but
not for their own use.

=Similia similibus curantur= (_sim-il´i-a sim-il´i-bus
ku-ran´tur_).--Like things are cured by like. Motto of homœopathic
school of medicine.

=Sine die= (_sin´e dī´ē_).--Without a day being appointed: indefinitely.

=Sine invidia= (_in-vid´i-ā_).--Without envy.

=Sine odio= (_ō´di-ō_).--Without hatred.

=Sine qua non= (_sin´e kwā non_).--An indispensable condition.

=Siste, viator= (_sis´te vi-ā´tor_).--Stop, traveler.

=Si vis pacem, para bellum= (_sī viss pā´sem par´ā bell´um_).--If you
wish for peace, prepare for war.

=Sola nobilitas virtus= (_sō´la no-bil´itas vir´tus_).--Virtue alone is
true nobility.

=Sola virtus invicta= (_sō´la vir´tus in-vik´ta_).--Virtue alone is
invincible.

=Spectemur agendo= (_spek-tē´mur a-jen´dō_).--Let us be tried by our
actions.

=Spes mea in Deo= (_spēs mē´a in Dē´o_).--My hope is in God.

=Spes tutissima cœlis= (_spēs tu-tiss´im-a sē´līs_).--The safest hope is
in heaven.

=Sponte sua= (_spon´te su´ā_).--Of one’s own accord.

=Stat magni nominis umbra=--Lucan (_stat mag´nī nom´in-iss um´bra_).--He
stands the shadow of a mighty name.

=Status quo= (_stā´tus kwō_).--The state in which. A legal term
indicating the position in which a case stood before certain action was
taken in it.

=Status quo ante bellum= (_an´te bell´um_).--The state in which both
parties were before the war.

=Stet.=--Let it stand--_i. e._, remain as it was.

=Sua cuique voluptas= (_sū´a ku-ī´kwe vol-up´tas_).--Every man has his
own pleasures.

=Suaviter in modo, fortiter in re= (_su-ā´vit-er in mod´o for´ti-ter in
rē_).--Gentle in the manner, but vigorous in the deed.

=Sub judice= (_jū´diss-e_).--Under consideration. A legal phrase used to
indicate that a case is still under consideration, during which time it
is held to be contempt of court to comment upon the case in the public
press or elsewhere.

=Sub pœna= (_pē´nā_).--Under a penalty.

=Sub rosa= (_rō´sā_).--Under the rose: privately. The rose in ancient
times was the emblem of silence, and was used in decorations to show
that anything said during the entertainment was not to be divulged.
Cupid presented Harpocrates (the god of Silence) with a rose, not to
betray the amours of Venus.

=Sub silentio= (_sil-en´shi-o_).--In silence.

=Sufficit= (_suf-fī´sit_).--It is enough.

=Sui generis= (_sū´ī jen´er-iss_).--Of its own kind; _i. e._, not
referable to any particular class.

=Summum bonum= (_sum´mum bō´num_).--The chief good.

=Suo marte= (_sū´o mar´te_).--By one’s own exertions, without the
assistance of others.

=Suppressio veri= (_sup-press´i-o vēr´ī_).--Suppression of the truth.

=Suum cuique= (_su´um ku-ī´kwe_).--Let every man have his own.

=T=

=Tabula rasa= (_tab´u-la rā´sa_).--A smooth or blank tablet. From the
waxen tablets on which the ancients wrote with a sharp instrument called
a _stilus_ or style, and with the broad upper end of which writing was
erased.

=Tanto melior!= (_tan´tō mel´i-or_).--So much the better! well done!
excellent!

=Telum imbelle sine ictu=--Virgil (_tē´lum im-bell´e sin´e ik´tū_).--A
feeble weapon, thrown without effect.

=Tempora mutantur, et nos mutamur in illis= (_tem´-por-a mū-tan´tur et
nōs mū-tā´mur in ill´īs_).--The times are changed, and we with them.

=Tempus fugit= (_fū´jit_).--Time flies. A Latin inscription frequently
seen upon sun-dials and old church clocks.

=Tempus omnia revelat= (_om´nia re-vē´lat_).--Time unveils all things.

=Terra firma= (_ter´ra firm´a_).--Solid earth; a safe footing.

=Terra incognita= (_ter´ra in-kog´nit-a_).--An unknown country.

=Tertium quid= (_ter´shi-um kwid_).--A third something. A logical term.

=Toga virilis= (_tog´a vir-ī liss_).--The garb of manhood, assumed by
Roman youth in their sixteenth year with considerable ceremony, usually
at the feasts of Bacchus in March.

=Totidem verbis= (_tot´id-em ver´bis_).--In just so many words.

=Toto cœlo= (_tō´tō sē´lō_).--By the whole heavens: diametrically
opposite.

=Tria juncta in uno= (_trī´a junk´ta in ū´no_).--Three joined in one.

=Troja fuit= (_Trō´ja fū´it_).--Troy was--_i. e._, exists no longer.
Refers to the destruction of Troy by the Greeks (1184 B. C.).

=Tu quoque, Brute!= (_tū kwō´kwe Brū´tē_).--And thou too, Brutus! When
Brutus, the friend and favorite of Julius Cæsar, struck the latter at
his assassination, he uttered the words _Tu quoque, Brute!_ pulled his
toga over his face, and sank, pierced with wounds, at the foot of
Pompey’s statue.

=U=

=Ubique= (_ub-ī´kwe_).--Everywhere.

=Ubi supra= (_ub´i su´prā_).--Where above mentioned.

=Ultima ratio regum= (_ul´tim-a rā´shi-o rē´jum)_.--The last argument of
kings. Louis XIV. placed this inscription on his great guns.

=Ultima Thule= (_ul´tim-a Thū´lē_).--The utmost boundary or limit.
_Thule_ was an island regarded by the ancients as the most northerly
point in the whole earth, and variously supposed to have been Iceland
and one of the Shetland group.

=Ultimus Romanorum= (_ul´tim-us Ro-man-or´um_).--The last of the Romans.

=Ultra vires= (_ul´trā vī´rēs_).--Beyond one’s powers; beyond the rights
possessed (legal).

=Uno animo= (_ū´no an´im-o_).--Of the same opinion.

=Usque ad nauseam= (_us´kwe ad naw´se-am_).--To utter disgust.

=Ut infra= (_in´frā_).--As below.

=Ut supra= (_su´prā_).--As above.

=V=

=Vade mecum= (_vā´de mē´cum_).--Go with me: a constant companion. Title
given to medical and other handbooks for convenient reference.

=Vale= (_valē´_), or =Valeas= (_val´e-ass_).--Farewell, adieu. The usual
parting salutation of the Romans.

=Valeat quantum valere potest= (_val´e-at kwant´um val-ēr´e
pot´est_).--Let it pass for what it is worth.

=Valete, ac plaudite= (_val-ē´te ak plaud´it-e_).--Farewell, and clap.
(The concluding words of a Latin comedy.)

=Vanitas vanitatum= (_van´it-ass van-it-ā´tum_).--Vanity of vanities.

=Variæ lectiones= (_var´i-ē lek-shi-ō´nēs_).--Various readings.

=Variorum notæ= (_var-i-or´um nō´tē_).--The notes of various authors.

=Varium et mutabile semper femina=--Virgil (_var´i-um et mū-tā´bil-e
sem´per fē´min-a_).--A woman is ever changeable and capricious.

=Velis remisque= (_vē´līs rē-mīs´kwe_).--With sails and oars--_i. e._,
with tooth and nail, with might and main.

=Veni, vidi, vici= (_vē´nī, vī´dī, vī´sī_).--I came, I saw, I conquered.
By these three words--so easy was the victory--Julius Cæsar informed the
Senate of his having defeated Pharnaces near Zela, 47 B.C.

=Ventis secundis= (_ven´tīs se-kun´dīs_).--With favorable winds.

=Verbatim et literatim= (_ver-bā´tim et lit-er-ā´tim_).--Word for word
and letter for letter.

=Verba volant, scripta manent= (_ver´ba vol´ant, scrip´ta
man´ent_).--Words fly, writings remain.

=Verbum sat sapienti= (_ver´bum sat sap-i-en´tī_).--A word is enough to
a wise man.

=Veritas odium parit=--Terence. Truth procures hatred.

=Veritas vincit= (_very´tass vin´sit_).--Truth conquers.

=Versus= (_ver´sus_).--Against. A legal term.

=Vestigia= (_ves-tī´ji-a_).--Tracks; traces.

=Vestigia nulla retrorsum= (_ves-tī´ji-a null´a ret-ror´sum_).--No steps
backward.

=Vetera extollimus, recentium incuriosi=--Tacitus (_vet´er-a
ex-toll´im-us re-sen´shi-um in-ku-ri-ō´sī_).--We exalt the deeds of old,
being indifferent to those of recent times.

=Vexata quæstio= (_vex-ā´ta kwēs´ti-o_).--A much-debated question.

=Via= (_vī´ā_).--By way of.

=Via media= (_vī´a med´i-a_).--A middle course.

=Vice= (_vi´se_).--In the place of.

=Vice versa= (_vi´se ver´sā_).--The terms being exchanged.

=Vide= (_vī´dē_)--See.

=Vide et crede= (_vī´de et krē´de_).--See and believe.

=Vide ut supra= (_vī´de ut sū´prā_).--See as above; see the preceding
statement.

=Videlicet=--_viz._ (_vid-ē´liss-et_).--To wit; namely.

=Vi et armis= (_vī et ar´mīs_).--By force and arms--_i.e._, by main
force.

=Vincit amor patriæ= (_vin´sit am´or pat´ri-ē_).--The love of our
country prevails.

=Vincit omnia veritas= (_vin´sit óm´ni-a very´tass_).--Truth conquers
all things.

=Vincit veritas= (_vin´sit very’tass_).--Truth conquers.

=Vinculum matrimonii= (_vin’ku-lum mā-tri-mō´ni-i_).--The bond of
marriage.

=Vindex injuriæ= (_vin’dex in-jū´ri-ē_).--An avenger of injury.

=Vir sapit qui pauca loquitur= (_vir sap´it kwī paw´sa
lok´-wit-ur_).--He is a wise man who says but little.

=Virtus est vitium fugere=--Horace (_vir´tus est vish´i-um
fū´jer-e_).--It is virtue to avoid vice.

=Virtuti nihil obstat et armis= (_vir-tū´tī ni´hil ob´stat et
ar´mīs_).--Nothing can resist valor and arms.

=Virtuti non armis fido= (_vir-tū´tī non ar´mīs fī´dō_).--I trust to
virtue, and not to arms.

=Virtutis amor= (_vir-tū´tiss am´or_).--The love of virtue.

=Vis inertiæ= (_viss in-er´shi-ē_).--The power of inertia: passive
resistance.

=Vivat regina!= (_vī´vat rē-jī´na_).--Long live the Queen! The phrase
formerly used at the conclusion of royal proclamations.

=Vivat rex!= (_vī´vat rex_).--Long live the King!

=Viva voce= (_vī´vā vō´se_).--By the living voice: by oral testimony.
That portion of an examination in which the candidate is tested as to
his knowledge of the subject by an examiner who personally interrogates
him.

=Vivida vis animi= (_vī´vid-a viss an´im-ī_).--The vigorous strength of
intellect: the lively vigor of genius.

=Vivit post funera virtus= (_vi´vit post fū´ner-a vir´tus_).--Virtue
survives the grave.

=Vox et præterea nihil= (_vox et prē-ter´e-ā ni´hil_).--A voice and
nothing more.

=Vox populi, vox Dei= (_pop´u-lī, Dē´ī_).--The voice of the people is
the voice of God. Quoted as a proverb by William of Malmesbury, author
of “De Gestis Regum Anglorum,” twelfth century.

=Vulgo= (_vul´gō_).--Generally, commonly.

=Vultus est index animi= (_vul´tus est in´dex an´im-ī_).--The
countenance is the index of the mind.


LITERATURE

Literature, in the widest sense, is the record of the impressions made
by external realities of every kind upon great men, and of the
reflections which these men have made upon them.


VAST RANGE OF LITERATURE

The subject matter of literature covers the whole range of human life
and activity, as well as every known manifestation of physical nature.
For not only are actual events and the doings and sayings of actual
persons reproduced in it, but the rules deduced from the observation of
the conditions of man’s life are included in its records. Similarly it
presents to us not merely what individual men found to interest them in
particular countries in a particular epoch, but also the general laws
which have been gradually formulated by long-continued observation of
the processes of nature.

Literature, therefore, plays a very important part in the life of man.
It is the greatest of the secondary sources of knowledge, and it makes
an immense contribution to the sum total of facts--the joint result of
the experience of the individual and of the race--which gives to each
one of us a wide outlook upon the world at large. But we must remember
that literature--as literature--is concerned solely with the
_subjective_ outlook upon the world.


WHY WE STUDY LITERATURE

In order to realize to how large an extent the subjective existence of
man is made up of the material of books, we will pause a moment to
consider what literature does for us. Through literature we converse
with the great dead, with Plato, with Buddha, with Montaigne, with
Addison; we walk the streets of Babylon, of Athens, of Rome, of
Alexandria; we see great monuments, reared ages ago and long since
crumbled to the dust; we recreate the life of distant epochs, and thus
by comparison gauge the progress achieved by the men of today. Through
literature we learn wisdom from Aristotle, geometry from Euclid, law
from Justinian, morality from Christ and St. Paul. Literature makes the
physical features, the inhabitants, the climate, the products of the
antipodes as familiar as those of the neighboring county.


HOW IT HAS CREATED NEW WORLDS AND PEOPLES

More than this, the masters of creative literature have made regions of
their own which they have peopled with the children of their genius.
Homer has given us an Ægean of sunlit islands and purple seas; Dante, a
dark and mysterious Inferno; Milton, a Garden of Eden; Shakespeare, an
Elizabethan England, with landscapes more brightly hued, and men and
women more finely real, than the landscapes or the people of the England
of Elizabeth; Molière, a France more natural and more vivid than the
France of the Grand Monarque. And so it is that Odysseus, Antigone,
Beatrice, Hamlet, Tartufe and the rest, these spiritual offspring of
great souls, live side by side with Moses, Alexander, Cæsar, Joan of
Arc, Henry VIII., and Washington: for literature has made the
personalities of each almost as familiar to us as those of our dearest
or most intimate friends.


HOW LITERATURE HELPS US INTERPRET LIFE

There is one other important point which must be noticed. It is this:
the _subjective_ outlook reacts upon the _objective_. The knowledge of
the world which we gain through our own previous experiences, and
through literature, increases our capacity for understanding the
objective world, and heightens and intensifies the pleasure which we
derive from the contemplation of works of art or of nature. It is this
principle which underlies the truth which Goethe states when he says
that a traveler does not take anything out of Rome which he has not
first brought into it.


LITERATURE IS THE BRAIN OF HUMANITY

Just as in the individual the brain preserves a record of his previous
sensations, of his experience, and of his acquired knowledge, and it is
in the light of this record that he interprets every fresh sensation and
experience, so the race at large has a record of its past in literature,
and it is in the light of this record alone that its present conditions
and circumstances can be understood. The message of the senses is
indistinct and valueless to the individual without the co-operation of
the brain; the life of the race would be degraded to a mere animal
existence without the accumulated stores of previous experience which
literature places at its disposal.


BOOKS AS LIBERAL EDUCATORS

So great is the part that books play in our life, or, at least, in the
formation of our several personalities, that to master the contents of
certain books of admitted excellence has always been considered a chief
element in a liberal education; that is to say, it is a recognized
method of introducing the mind to the world at large. We must,
nevertheless, recognize a broad distinction in the manner in which books
render us this assistance. In the case of some books the value of the
contribution consists mainly, though not exclusively, in the actual
facts which they contain; in others, the actual facts are of secondary
importance and their chief value consists in the manner in which these
facts are brought before our minds. No hard and fast line can be drawn
between the two classes, but the difference may be broadly indicated by
saying that while the former give us the _facts_ of life, the latter
give us _pictures_ of life.

The distinction may be illustrated by one or two examples. Such works as
Locke’s _Essay on the Human Understanding_, and Gibbon’s _Decline and
Fall of Rome_, must obviously be placed under the head of books in which
the facts are of first importance. Equally, the novels of George Eliot,
in which she gives us a full and truthful picture of English midland
life, must be included among those books where the presentation of the
facts is of more importance than the facts themselves. And so, too, in
the case of _The Story of an African Farm_, where we have a picture of
rural life in South Africa, or in _Diana of the Crossways_. Only in the
latter work the personality of the central character is so commanding
that the book is not so much a picture as a portrait--a portrait of a
beautiful and wayward woman exposed to temptation by the very abundance
of her own gifts.

Here, then, we have two distinct elements, matter and manner; and it is
upon the degree in which these elements are respectively present in any
given work that the main divisions of literature--the division which
separates works of creative literature from works of literature, simply
so-called--is based.

Poetry, drama, history, biography, essays, description, criticism, the
great masterpieces of fiction--all open up to us the untold wealth of
reality and imagination.


ENGLISH LITERATURE

The English is the most remarkable as well as the most prolific of
modern literatures. Before the Saxons invaded Britain there was a Celtic
literature of a rhythmic character, preserved, in the main, orally by
the Gaelic and Cymric elements of the population. Gaelic literature is
associated with Fionn, Ossian, and the battle of Gabhra, alleged to have
been fought A. D. 284, while Cymric literature finds powerful utterance
in Aneurin’s poem, the _Gododin_, which celebrates the battle of
Cattraeth, fought, according to tradition, in the year 570. During the
fifth and sixth centuries various Teutonic tribes effected a settlement
in Britain, and the island was ultimately subjugated by the Saxons. In
the middle of the eleventh century it again suffered conquest at the
hands of the Normans. The institutions and language of the conquerors
were largely imposed upon the natives, and so great has been the
vitality of the Saxon speech that about two-thirds of the words now
composing the English language are, radically or derivatively, of Saxon
origin.

So, the fabric of English literature is colored with the varying tints
of racial characteristics--the somber imagination of the Celt, the
flaming passion of the Saxon, the golden gaiety of France, and the
prismatic fancy of the South. There have been many influences brought to
bear upon its speech; yet, in this composite texture, the Anglo-Saxon
element is dominant. That is the first outstanding fact of importance.


THE ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD, 449-1066

The existing remains of Anglo-Saxon literature include compositions in
prose and poetry, some of which must be referred to a very early period,
one or two perhaps to a time before the Angles and Saxons emigrated to
England. Gildas, the author of a Latin treatise on British history, is
the precursor of the Anglo-Saxon writers, but the earliest author of
real distinction is St. Columbanus, an Irish missionary to western
Europe, who wrote religious treatises and Latin poetry, and died in 615.

Cædmon, a monk of Whitby, was the first Anglo-Saxon writer of eminence
who composed in his native tongue. Encouraged by the Abbess Hilda, he
wrote his _Paraphrase_, in which he discoursed of the Creation and the
Fall, and other Biblical themes. His verse was constructed neither in
measure nor rhyme, but it was differentiated from prose by a kind of
rough poetic alliteration.

The most important Anglo-Saxon poem is that called _Beowulf_, after its
hero, extending to more than six thousand lines. This poem may be
described as the heathen complement to Cædmon’s Christian _Paraphrase_.
Beowulf is a Scandinavian prince, who slays a fiendish cannibal, after
encountering supernatural perils, and is at last slain in a contest with
a frightful dragon. Its scene appears to be laid entirely in
Scandinavia. Its date is uncertain; parts of it may have been brought
over at the emigration from Germany, though in its present form it is
much later than this.

The next great name in the early literature is that of the Venerable
Bede, who was born at Jarrow, and became the great monastic teacher of
Wearmouth, dying in 735. He wrote numerous works in Latin, the chief of
which was his famous _Ecclesiastical History of the Anglo-Saxons_.

Alcuin, a native of northern England and an earnest student and teacher,
became the chief intellectual light in the court of Charlemagne. John
Scotus Erigena wrote, among other things, a work on the _Division of
Nature_, which is regarded as laying the foundation of the scholastic
philosophy. King Alfred (901), great in arms and noble and enlightened
in character, translated into Anglo-Saxon the histories of Bede and
Orosius, and Boethius’s _Consolations of Philosophy_. Other
contributions to literature are likewise attributed to him. Ælfric, the
grammarian, who died in 1006, wrote his eighty _Homilies_ for the use of
the common people.

The well-known _Saxon Chronicle_ is a survey of early English history,
written by various authors. It began soon after the time of Alfred, and
continued to the death of Stephen in 1154. Among its entries in verse is
a spirited poem on the battle of Brunanburh, fought victoriously by
Athelstan against his combined Danish and Celtic foes in 937. Besides
the leading writers above cited, there were others of less importance
who graced the Anglo-Saxon period--a period embracing some five hundred
years from the time of Columbanus to the Norman Conquest.


THE NORMAN-FRENCH PERIOD, 1066-1400

New conditions were imported into the learning and literature of England
by the Norman Conquest. Although the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, referred to
above, was continued until 1154, the native language practically ceased
for a time to be employed in literature. For nearly a century and a half
the old language was supplanted, Latin being employed in law, history,
and philosophy, French in the lighter forms of literature. Monastic
chronicles were the order of the day, and these were only of real value
as they drew near to, and actually dealt with, contemporary events. The
Norman _trouvère_ displaced the Saxon _scop_, or gleeman, introducing
the _Fabliau_ and the Romance.

English literature was not greatly influenced by the _Fabliau_ until the
time of Chaucer; but the Romance attained an early and striking
development in the Arthurian cycle, founded upon the legends of Geoffrey
of Monmouth, Bishop of St. Asaph, who wrote the _History of British
Kings_.

Much of this Latin chronicle is imaginative. It began with a mythical
Brutus of Troy, and ended with Cadwallader. King Arthur was a prominent
figure in the book, and from this time the romantic legends concerning
him and his court became a prominent feature in the Anglo-Norman
literature. Geoffrey of Monmouth’s _Chronicle_ was abridged by Alfred of
Beverley, and rewritten in French verse by Geoffrey Gaimar and “Maistre”
Wace, the latter version becoming permanent as the _Roman de Brut_.
Wace, who died in 1184, was also the author of the _Roman de Rou_.

Walter Map or Mapes, poet and prose writer, gave form and substance to
the Arthurian legends, uniting them into a harmonious whole as the
spiritual allegory of the Holy Grail. Map attacked the abuses and
corruptions of the Church in a series of witty and vigorous Latin poems.
Hitherto there had been no man of such genius among the early writers.

Two of the most important of the monastic chroniclers were Ordericus
Vitalis, who wrote the _Ecclesiastical History of England and Normandy_,
a conscientious if disorderly record, and William of Malmesbury, who
flourished at the same time and wrote a _History of English Kings_. The
latter writer has been placed by Milton next to Bede.

Early in the thirteenth century English began to recover its position,
and Layamon’s _Brut_ was the first important piece of literature in
transition English. Layamon, who was “a priest of Ernleye-upon-Severne,”
wrote in English verse, and he interpolated many things into Wace’s
narrative. His work was completed about 1205. A St. Augustine canon,
named Ormin, was the author of _Ormulum_, a metrical paraphrase, with
expositions, of the Gospel of the day. To the same period belong the
early ballads of the Robin Hood type and the rendering into English
verse of _Havelok the Dane_ and other metrical romances.

Roger Bacon, the great scientific investigator, was a Franciscan who
settled at Oxford. Bacon enshrined the results of his knowledge in his
_Opus Majus_, _Opus Minus_, and _Opus Tertium_. Robert of Gloucester was
a monk in the time of Henry III. and Edward I. who wrote in English
rhyme a chronicle from the siege of Troy to the death of Henry III.

PERIOD OF CHAUCER.--The first great era of English literature may be
said to begin about the year 1300, and to extend to the introduction of
printing by Caxton in 1477. The overshadowing name in this period is
that of Chaucer, who has been styled the Father of English Poetry.

The accounts of Chaucer’s early life are uncertain, but he acquired the
favor of Edward III. through John of Gaunt. In the reign of Richard II.,
however, he fell upon evil times, and he died in the year 1400 at the
age of seventy-two. His _Canterbury Tales_ are immortal, alike for their
poetic qualities, their unrivaled delineations of character, and their
pictures of the middle-class English life of the period. Although the
poet was influenced in his style and choice of subject by Dante and
Boccaccio, he infused into his creations a dramatic force and a breath
of sympathy which are the characteristics of the highest genius. His
earlier and minor poems--such as _The Romaunt of the Rose_, _The Court
of Love_, and _The House of Fame_--were the fruit of his French and
Italian studies. Hallam classes Chaucer with Dante and Petrarch in the
mighty poetic triumvirate of the Middle Ages.

John Gower, next in contemporary importance to Chaucer, wrote the
_Confessio Amantis_, an English poem, which included a number of tales
that were moralized to illustrate the seven deadly sins.

Langlande, or Longlande, author of _The Visions of Piers Plowman_--a
poem which stands out for its graphic force--“sought to animate men to
the search for Christ, and battled vigorously with Church corruptions.”
Langlande is more distinctly English in his language than Chaucer, and
his poem was a representative one as showing the workings of the
national mind in religion and politics.

James I. of Scotland takes high rank for _The King’s Quhair_, and
Lawrence Minot for his series of poems on the victories of Edward III.
Barbour’s heroic poem of the _Bruce_ also calls for mention. Thomas
Occleve, author of a poem on the duty of kings, and John Lydgate, to
whom we owe the _Falls of Princes_, and other compositions, were
likewise considerable poets.

For a long period Sir John de Mandeville was regarded as “the father of
English prose,” but this claim is now abandoned. The larger portion of
his _Travels_ was borrowed from a worthy Friar Odoric and from other
writers, while the whole narrative is more entertaining than veracious.
John Wyclif, who gave to his countrymen the first English version of the
whole Bible, has been not inaptly styled the “Morning Star of the
English Reformation.” Sir John Fortescue, Chief Justice in the reign of
Henry VI., was the author of a fine legal treatise, _De Laudibus Legum
Angliæ_, and of an admirable constitutional work on the _Difference
Between Absolute and Limited Monarchy_, in which he contrasted the
French rule with the English to the disparagement of the former.

INFLUENCE OF CAXTON.--William Caxton, who introduced the art of printing
into England, gave an impetus to literature whose effects have been of
incalculable value. The earliest work which can with certainty be
maintained to have been printed in England was the _Dictes and Sayings
of the Philosophers_, published in 1477. In 1474, however, Caxton had
issued at Bruges the first book printed in the English tongue, the
_Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye_, and soon after this he printed the
_Game and Playe of the Chesse_. Caxton was a most assiduous workman, and
produced editions of Chaucer, Lydgate, Gower, and Sir Thomas Mallory’s
_King Arthur_, translations of Cicero’s _De Senectute_ and _De
Amicitia_, and other works.

William Dunbar, the Chaucer of the North, is placed by Sir Walter Scott
at the head of the roll of Scottish poets. Dunbar led a checkered life,
and his works are remarkable for their strong human lights and shadows.
His allegorical poem, _The Thistle and the Rose_, was written in
celebration of the marriage of James IV. with Henry VII.’s daughter
Margaret. _The Golden Terge_, another of his poems of fantasy, is very
descriptive and rhetorical. _The Dance of the Seven Deadly Sins_
powerfully depicts--under the lead of Pride--a procession of the seven
deadly sins in the infernal regions. Dunbar was equally remarkable in
the comic as in the serious vein.

At the close of the fifteenth century many of the best spirits of the
age were drawn to Oxford for the study of Greek. It was taught by
William Grocyn and the physician Linacre. Erasmus came over from Paris
to acquire it, and while at Oxford he made the acquaintance of young
Thomas More, who wrote a defense of the new branch of learning. More
afterwards entered upon the thorny paths of statecraft, and paid for his
opposition to Henry VIII. with his head. More was the leading prose
writer of his time, and his _Life and Reign of Edward V._--in which he
draws a somber picture of the usurper Richard--is the earliest specimen
of classical English prose; but his real fame rests upon the _Utopia_,
in which he imagines an ideal commonwealth in the New World, discovered
by a supposed companion of Amerigo Vespucci. The root idea was borrowed
from Plato.

When William Tyndale completed his famous translation of the New
Testament in 1525, More adversely criticized it on the ground of its
Lutheran bias in the choice of words. Tyndale replied with spirit,
however, and also defended against More the exposition of the Lord’s
Supper published by John Frith. In 1530 Tyndale completed, with the help
of Miles Coverdale, his translation of the Pentateuch, and six years
later he was put to death for heresy in Belgium. Coverdale’s translation
of the whole Bible appeared in 1535.

Many Church writers and reformers flourished at this time. To Cranmer
was largely due _The Book of Common Prayer_, a work which contains some
of the noblest specimens of English in our literature. He was also
responsible for a book of _Twelve Homilies_ and a revised translation of
the Scriptures, known as _Cranmer’s Bible_. The martyr Latimer was the
author of sermons which are rare specimens of vigorous eloquence, while
Bishop Fisher preached and wrote trenchantly on the other side. John
Knox, the great Scottish reformer, wrote a _History of the Scottish
Reformation_, and he was so indignant at the fact that three ruling
sovereigns were women that just before the accession of Elizabeth he
issued from Geneva his _First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous
Regiment of Women_. John Foxe, the martyrologist did much for
Protestantism by his work on the _Acts and Monuments of the Church_; and
Roger Ascham, classical tutor to Queen Elizabeth, and author of
_Toxophilus_ and _The Schoolmaster_, was the first writer on education
in the language. Mention must not be omitted here of the unfortunate
Earl of Surrey, who was the first writer of blank verse in England, and
who did much to invest English poetry with accuracy, polish, and a
general spirit of refinement. Surrey used the medium of blank verse in
translating two books of the _Æneid_. With his friend, Sir Thomas Wyatt,
he also transplanted the sonnet into the garden of English verse.


THE ELIZABETHAN AND PURITAN PERIODS, 1559-1660

The most brilliant, as well as the most virile, era in English
literature was that extending from the accession of Elizabeth in 1558 to
the closing of the theaters by the Long Parliament in 1648. No other
period of ninety years in English history exhibits such a profusion of
literary effort and achievement, especially on the dramatic and
imaginative sides. The former portion of this period, however, known as
the Elizabethan age--but really extending to the middle of the reign of
James I.--was the greater in conception. It witnessed not only the rise
but the culminating splendor of the drama. Miracle plays or mysteries
were the forerunners of the drama. They were acted in churches and
convents, and by their dramatic representations of Biblical episodes it
was sought to influence the people in favor of virtue.

There was something grotesque, however, in the choice of Satan as the
first comedian, while the general treatment of sacred subjects was most
objectionable. In course of time the plays changed into moralities, in
which abstract qualities such as Justice and Vice took the place of
Scripture characters. Next to these, and before the drama proper, came a
series of farcical productions, of which Heywood’s _Interludes_ may be
taken as a type.

EDMUND SPENSER.--One great name interposes between these early plays and
the drama, namely, that of Edmund Spenser. He restored the glory of
English poetry from the long eclipse it suffered after the death of
Chaucer. Spenser’s _Shepherd’s Calendar_ applied pastoral images to the
religious conflicts of the time, and under the name of Algrind he
introduced Archbishop Grindal, whose firmness in encouraging free search
for Scripture truth he applauded. To his master, Chaucer, the poet paid
tribute under the name of Tityrus. In 1590 Spenser published his great
but unfinished allegorical epic _The Faerie Queene_, in which he
depicted man with all his capacity for good striving heavenwards. The
work is “an intense utterance of the spiritual life of England under
Elizabeth.” Spenser’s _Colin Clout Come Home Again_ was written in
memory of his friendship for Sir Walter Raleigh. The purely poetic
qualities were redundant in Spenser, and these have made him a favorite
with all his singing brethern since his death.

Sir Philip Sidney has gained a reputation as an English classic for his
_Defense of Poesie_, but his romance of _Arcadia_ is the more widely
known, as it was the more warmly appreciated on its publication. Later
critics have censured it, but it is rich and highly finished in its
phrases, and “full of fine enthusiasm and courtesy of high sentiment,
and of the breath of a gentle and heroic spirit.”

BEGINNING OF ENGLISH COMEDY AND TRAGEDY.--The first English comedy,
_Ralph Roister Doister_, was written by Nicholas Udall, Master of Eton,
between 1534 and 1541. It was avowedly modeled upon _Plautus_, and
intended for the edification of Eton boys.

The first tragedy was _Gorboduc_, a new rendering of the old British
story of Ferrex and Porrex by Thomas Sackville (Lord Buckhurst), and
Thomas Norton. It was acted at the Inner Temple in 1561, and also before
the queen by command. It substituted English for Latin in a play
constructed after the manner of Seneca, and “its grave dwelling upon the
need of union to keep a people strong, a truth of deep significance to
England at that time, pleased Elizabeth.” But nearly twenty years yet
elapsed before the drama obtained a stable hold, and theaters began to
be built.

John Lyly, author of the _Euphues_, wrote a number of mythological
plays, and George Peele produced _The Arraignment of Paris_ and _The
Device of the Pageant_ in 1584-1585; but Christopher Marlowe, with his
“mighty line,” was the first great Elizabethan dramatist. His genius was
somber, and his tragedies dark and terrible. His _Tamburlaine the Great_
was produced in 1587, but his _Doctor Faustus_ was not published until
ten years after his death, which occurred in 1593.

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE.--In the latter part of the sixteenth century began
the career of the greatest poet the world has ever seen, William
Shakespeare. A period of less than twenty-five years covers the
production of all those comedies and histories which are the wonder of
modern literature. We marvel what kind of man that could be whose
intellect could conceive such widely different works as _A Midsummer
Night’s Dream_, _Venus and Adonis_, _Romeo and Juliet_, _The Rape of
Lucrece_, the famous _Sonnets_, _The Merchant of Venice_, _Othello_,
_Macbeth_, _King Lear_, and _Hamlet_. Shakespeare seems to sum up within
himself the whole of poetry and of human philosophy. His power and
universality are unique, and will probably ever remain so.

Ben Jonson, the greatest and most scholarly of his contemporaries, wrote
from 1596 to 1637; but he lacked the freedom and naturalness of
Shakespeare. Beaumont and Fletcher worked in unison with a success
rarely attained by collaborators. Massinger was a dramatist of undoubted
power, as his _New Way to Pay Old Debts_ testifies; and Dekker, Heywood,
Marston, and Middleton would all have taken a higher niche in the temple
of fame had they lived in a less prolific age. Ford and Webster produced
plays of a dark and terrible cast, and the list of Elizabethan
dramatists closes with James Shirley who was purer in thought and
expression than any of his predecessors. Other poets of this period were
Thomas Tusser, who gave an excellent picture of English peasant life in
his _Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry_, and Michael Drayton
described this favored isle itself in his _Polyolbion_. The learned John
Donne gave utterance to his metaphysical conceits, while Drummond of
Hawthornden attested his claim to the title of the finest Scottish poet
of his day. Carew, Herrick, and Suckling produced their exquisite
lyrics, and Herbert chanted the solemn strains of _The Temple_.

ELIZABETHAN PROSE WRITERS.--The great prose writers of the period must
be headed with the illustrious name of Francis Bacon. The father of the
inductive philosophy was regarded by those of his contemporaries who
knew him best as “one of the greatest men and most worthy of admiration
that had been for ages.” His adventurous intellect could not be bound by
mere tradition. He brought his keen analytical faculty to bear upon the
study of man and nature, so that in his matchless _Essays_ we have the
result of his penetration into the human mysteries, while his philosophy
of nature stands revealed in the two books of the _Advancement of
Learning_, in which he laid the basis for his _New Organon_.

“Who is there,” Burke demands, “that upon hearing the name of Lord Bacon
does not instantly recognize everything of genius the most profound,
everything of literature the most extensive, everything of discovery the
most penetrating, everything of observation of human life the most
distinguishing and refined?”

George Buchanan ranks as the Scottish Virgil from the elegance of his
Latin verse, while he exhibited equal command over Latin prose. Richard
Hooker gave a new elevation and dignity to English prose by his _Laws of
Ecclesiastical Polity_. Sir Walter Raleigh, the admirable Crichton of
his age, carried the English name abroad, but returned only to find
imprisonment and the scaffold. He glorified his prison life by the
production of his great _History of the World_, which is especially
memorable for its vivid recital of the histories of Greece and Rome.
Camden the antiquary constructed his _Britannia_, and Hakluyt and
Purchas indited their wonderful records of travel. James I. threw his
ill-digested learning into treatises on Divine Right, Witchcraft, etc.;
Burton wrote his quaint and erudite work, _The Anatomy of Melancholy_;
Selden, the chief of the learned men of his time, according to Milton,
alternated politics with the production of his _Treatise on Titles of
Honour_ and his _History of Tithes_; Hobbes of Malmesbury, the
terseness of whose style is unique, promulgated his theory of action and
morals, as well as his absolutism in politics, in _The Leviathan_;
Howell first showed what correspondence might become in his _Familiar
Letters_, and genial old Izaak Walton wove an immortal spell over all
lovers of good literature by his _Lives of Donne_, _Hooker_, and others,
and _The Complete Angler_. Altogether the age was one eminently full of
intellectual life.

THE PURITAN PERIOD.--The decline of the drama, and the end of what we
may call the Pagan Renaissance, were contemporaneous with the birth of
the great constitutional struggle which began with James I. and did not
terminate until the English Revolution.

It is strange that such a time of upheaval should have produced the
greatest Christian epic, _The Paradise Lost_, and the greatest Christian
allegory, _The Pilgrim’s Progress_, which are to be found in any
literature. Three great men represented the various forms of the
religious struggle going forward; the saintly Jeremy Taylor, a poet
among preachers, upheld the cause of Episcopacy; Richard Baxter, while
desiring the church discipline and the form of belief, advocated a
greater liberty for the individual conscience; and John Milton was a
type of the religious freedom and toleration which found best exposition
in the principles of the Independents. Milton’s _Eikonoklastes_ broke
down the buttresses of kingly authority; his _Areopagitica_ was a noble
argument in behalf of intellectual liberty; while his _Paradise Lost_,
_Paradise Regained_, and _Samson Agonistes_ were not merely
magnificently great as poetry, but Christian evidences of the most
sublime type.

John Bunyan, a man of the people, came forward with words that burn and
images that enthrall, to show the way from a world of vice to a pure and
Holy City. Thomas Fuller, remembering that “blessed are the
peacemakers,” sought to heal that strife between king and people which
was beyond all healing save that of the sword. Some men held themselves
aloof from violent controversy while yet maintaining independence of
thought--as, for example, Thomas Browne in the _Religio Medici_,
published in 1642.

The anti-Puritans had their champions in Samuel Butler, whose fierce wit
blazed forth in _Hudibras_; in the great Royalist writer, Clarendon; and
in that staunch Royalist and Churchman, Bishop South, whose antipathy to
the Nonconformists may be partly condoned by his brilliant wit. Among
other writers of the time may be mentioned the versatile Barrow; the
powerful satirists Wither, and Bishop Hall; Harrington, the author of
the _Oceana_; the patriotic Algernon Sidney, with his admirable
_Discourses on Government_; and those garrulous but inimitable
chroniclers, Pepys and Evelyn.

The poets were many and varied, including Waller, Davenant, Denham,
Marvell, Lovelace, and Cowley.


PERIOD OF THE RESTORATION TO THE RISE OF THE NOVEL, 1660-1740

Extremes always lead to revulsion, and from Puritanism we pass to the
licentious court of Charles II., with the songs of Rochester, and the
works of Etherege. The comic dramatists of the Restoration and the
period immediately succeeding--Wycherley, Congreve, Vanbrugh, and
Farquhar--vividly and wittily reflect the glittering life and base
morality of the age. One stronger intellect did bring with it for a time
the sense of a fresher and diviner air, when John Dryden sang with vigor
and insight, and also produced his best comedies and tragedies. Otway
likewise showed a momentary gleam of the old Elizabethan dramatic fire.
In the sphere of mental and natural philosophy, Locke, Newton, and Boyle
grappled with problems hitherto considered unsolvable, and illumined for
the world the devious and mysterious paths of scientific inquiry. The
selection of names in every branch of English literature, and in every
age, can, of course, only be illustrative, not exhaustive.

PERIOD OF DRYDEN AND POPE.--The eighteenth century witnessed a great
revolution in English literature, especially on the poetic side.
Imagination, passion, and nature were dethroned, and poetry became
didactic, philosophical, and political.

Dryden manifested something of the qualities of both schools, but when
Alexander Pope arose the new order triumphed. Everything was sacrificed
to precision and artificiality.

Pope was the most brilliant and impressive of the new writers. His
_Essay on Man_ and his _Essay on Criticism_ enshrined many old
philosophical truths in epigrammatic form. The heroic couplet became in
his hands an instrument for cutting diamonds, but the lover of poetry
longs after a time to exchange his dazzling couplets for the flowers of
poesy. In all that he did, however, whether the work took the form of
satires, essays, epistles, or translations, Pope was the finished
artist.

The minor poets of Pope’s period included John Philips, known by his
_Splendid Shilling_; John Gay, the author of the _Shepherd’s Week_, and
the _Fables_; Samuel Garth, the writer of the mock heroic poem of _The
Dispensary_; and Richard Blackmore, who tried to restore the epic in
_Prince Arthur_.

Prose literature had many distinguished exponents. Jonathan Swift looms
up before us as a gloomy, overshadowing figure, whose saturnine genius
found bitter yet powerful expression in _Gulliver’s Travels_, the
_Battle of the Books_, and the _Tale of a Tub_. His command of English
was masterly, but his wit was coarse, his life hopelessly sad, and his
death miserable.

Daniel Defoe was not only one of the most vigorous of political
pamphleteers, but practically the father of the English novel by his
_Robinson Crusoe_, a work which has surpassed almost every other in its
uninterrupted popularity. Defoe invested fictitious events with an
unapproachable semblance of truth. Metaphysical literature had its best
representative in the philosopher Bishop Berkeley, the founder of
Idealism in English philosophy; Bernard de Mandeville unfolded a new
satirical philosophy in _The Fable of the Bees_, which was intended to
prove that the vices of society are the foundation of civilization; and
Bishop Butler sought to reconcile reason and revelation by his closely
argumentative work, the _Analogy of Religion_.

RISE OF THE ESSAY AND MODERN NEWSPAPER.--A new and interesting form of
literary effort, which popularized letters and criticism, was the
periodical essay, instituted by Joseph Addison and Sir Richard Steele.

The latter began the _Tatler_, which dealt in humorous and incisive
fashion with the social and political life of the times. Steele was
aided by Addison, and they afterwards founded the more famous
_Spectator_, which was inimitable in its humor and criticism. The
_Guardian_ and the _Freeholder_ followed, and a higher tone was given to
both literature and manners by these admirable publications.

The modern newspaper had its origin in the _Public Intelligencer_, begun
in August, 1663, by Sir Roger L’Estrange. The _Oxford Gazette_ began in
November, 1665, and the _London Gazette_ on the 5th of February, 1666.
Defoe, while in prison, began the publication of the _Review_ (February,
1704).

The drama at the close of the seventeenth century had, besides the
greater names already mentioned, Sedley, Shadwell, Mrs. Behn, and Mrs.
Centlivre, all of whose comedies, however, were licentious. Nicholas
Rowe wrote heavy tragedies, which are no more likely to rise again in
popularity than Addison’s _Cato_. Foote, Cibber, and Fielding reproduced
the follies of the times in their comedies and farces; and the _Beggar’s
Opera_, by Gay, produced in 1728, was the first specimen of the English
ballad opera. Sentimental comedy is associated with Macklin, the
Colmans, Murphy, Cumberland, and others; but the two greatest names in
English comedy in the eighteenth century are Goldsmith and Sheridan. The
delightful humor of _The Good-natured Man_ and _She Stoops to Conquer_
is only to be matched by the sparkling wit of the _Rivals_ and the
_School for Scandal_.

Samuel Johnson, born in 1709, began to write in 1744, and from that
period until his death in 1784 he was an acknowledged leading power in
letters. His _Lives of the Poets_, his _Rasselas_, _The Rambler_, and
the great _Dictionary_ were remarkable undertakings in various fields;
while the world could afford to part with a thousand masterpieces rather
than lose that immortal _Biography_ by Boswell which has enshrined his
master’s opinions and conversations. The _Letters of Junius_ remind us
of the right of criticism over public events and public men, and of the
struggle by which the freedom of the press was ultimately won.


RISE OF THE NOVEL AND PERIOD OF ROMANTICISM, 1740-1837

The modern novel of actual life and manners dates from 1740, when Samuel
Richardson published his _Pamela_, a story that was the talk and wonder
of the town. It was followed by _Clarissa Harlowe_, its author’s
masterpiece--a book charged with pathos, and instinct with tenderness
and morality. Henry Fielding, “the prose Homer of human nature,” and, if
not so delicate, a more powerful artist than Richardson, issued his
_Joseph Andrews_ in 1742, and his world-famous _Tom Jones_ in 1749.
Tobias Smollett wrote his _Roderick Random_ in 1748, and this was
followed by other stories as realistic as Fielding’s but much more
marred by caricature. Laurence Sterne’s _Tristram Shandy_ and the
_Sentimental Journey_ were novelties in prose writing, and, although
they are thin as novels, they will live for their peculiar wit and
pathos. Goldsmith’s _Vicar of Wakefield_, published in 1766, stands
alone for its idyllic beauty and charming simplicity. Fanny Burney’s
_Evelina_ and _Cecilia_ were noticeable for invention and observation
and skill in portraiture.

The poetry of the second half of the century was varied in character,
but it closed with a noble elevation in Burns. To the heavy religious
poems of Blair and Young succeeded the more artistic strains of Gray and
Collins and Goldsmith, and the mystical yearnings and Elizabethan fervor
of Blake. Thomson, one of the most excellent of descriptive poets, had
given place to Shenstone, who had less genius but more taste, and a
third writer of the Spenserian stanza was found in Beattie. Percy’s
_Reliques of Ancient English Poetry_ brought the ballad again into
favor; while Chatterton deceived the very elect by his marvelous
imitation of the older forms of poetry.

William Cowper, notwithstanding his fastidiousness and over-refinement,
was a poet of a high and genuine order. He let nature have its way in
such exquisite poems as the _Lines to His Mother’s Picture_ and the
_Loss of the “Royal George,”_ while any humorist might envy the
delightful abandonment of _John Gilpin_. His larger poems are severer in
style, yet many of their pictures, testifying to a reverent love of
nature, remain imprinted on the memory; and they are full of happy
phrases and turns of expression.

The new life infused into Scottish poetry was heralded by Michael Bruce,
a sweet singer who died at twenty-one, and by Allan Ramsay, whose
pastoral drama of the _Gentle Shepherd_ affords one of the most
beautiful and tender pictures of Scottish rural life. The ballad
acquired a new pathos and interest in such productions as Lady Anne
Barnard’s _Auld Robin Gray_.

But the poetic genius of Scotland found its ripest and fullest
expression in Robert Burns. His love songs have the freshness and fervor
of the Elizabethan lyrics; his poems of man and of nature, like those of
Cowper, reveal the highest aspirations for the welfare of humanity; his
humorous compositions are as lifelike in their character-painting as
they are full to overflowing of fun; and his serious poems reveal a
pathos which has never been excelled. Nature seemed to put on new
beauties when Robert Burns chanted her praises, and the daisy can never
again seem commonplace since he immortalized it. The poor at length
acquired their laureate in this sweet singer of the North.

Historical and philosophical literature attained a high level at this
period. Edward Gibbon, though lacking human sympathy, had great creative
power and originality, and his _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ is
one of the most massive of historical conceptions, worked out with
stately eloquence. David Hume, whose _History of England_ does not take
such high rank, was more original in his philosophical speculations,
referring all actual knowledge to experience, and making utility the
standard of virtue.

Adam Smith, by his _Wealth of Nations_, established his claim to be
regarded as the founder of the modern system of political economy, and
one of the benefactors of his species. All questions of labor and
capital were placed by this work on a scientific basis, and it paved the
way for the doctrine of free trade.

Edmund Burke’s _Reflections on the French Revolution_ caused a revulsion
of feeling against France, while his _Letters on a Regicide Peace_
increased the war fever in England. The former work was answered by
Thomas Paine in his _Rights of Man_, and the latter by Sir James
Mackintosh in his _Vindiciæ Gallicæ_. Burke’s philosophical works are
models of eloquence and construction. William Paley, in his _Evidences
of Christianity_ and other works, skillfully defended revealed religion
against the attacks of its enemies.

Towards the close of the century the newspaper press received a strong
impetus by the establishment of _The Times_ and other important
journals; knowledge likewise began to be condensed and methodized in
Cyclopædias; while criticism took a wider as well as a more popular
range in the first decade of the nineteenth century by the foundation of
the _Edinburgh_ and _Quarterly Reviews_.

We cannot pass from the eighteenth century without noticing the
remarkable development in hymnology. George Wither issued the earliest
English hymn-book in 1623, _Hymns and Songs of the Church_; but the
first hymn-book of the modern type was published by John Wesley for use
in the Church of England in 1737. Among the hymnologists of the
eighteenth century whose compositions remain in general use until this
day may be mentioned A. M. Toplady, John Newton, the Wesleys, Isaac
Watts, William Cowper, and Philip Doddridge.

ROMANTICISM AND THE EARLY NINETEENTH CENTURY.--The literature of the
nineteenth century is almost overwhelming in its magnitude and variety.
In nearly every branch it has attained a higher level than in the
preceding century, and in nothing is this more noticeable than in
poetry. Although the century opened when Crabbe, the reporter of rural
life, was painting his Dutch-like pictures, we soon pass on to higher
things. There was a great revival in imaginative poetry before 1820.

Byron, with his precociousness in love and genius, took a high flight in
his _Childe Harold_, and although all his works--_Don Juan_, _Manfred_,
_Cain_, etc.--were impressed by his own gloomy personality, he yet made
living verse.

Shelley, imbued with revolutionary ideas and aspirations after an ideal
being, was one of the greatest poets of the age, now Miltonic in his
elegiac verse in _Adonais_, and now unapproachable in his lyrics. No
singer has ever drawn deeper from the wells of poetic inspiration.

Wordsworth, contemplative and philosophic the patriarch of the Lake
School, taught the dependence of the poet on nature, and from the
_Lyrical Ballads_ to the _Excursion_ he illustrated his own saying in
his works, that “poetry is emotion recollected in tranquillity.” He
threw off the conventional, and endeavored to pierce to the heart of
things, whether in man or in nature.

Fancy and imagination were made perfect in the exquisite creations and
sensuous verse of Keats; wit and pathos abounded in Thomas Hood; while
historic and romantic poetry found notable exemplars in Southey, Scott,
Rogers, Campbell, and Coleridge. Hannah More and Joanna Baillie sought
to galvanize the classical drama; Cunningham sang his Scottish songs;
and Keble consecrated sacred hopes in the _Christian Year_.

The historic novel was made memorable by Sir Walter Scott, whose
extraordinary fecundity was the wonder of his generation. His novels
were the first and greatest prose result of the revived spirit of
romanticism. Jane Austen did for the domestic novel what Scott did for
the historical. The pictures of English life in _Pride and Prejudice_,
_Mansfield Park_, and the remaining stories by this writer, have never
been excelled. Her painting of manners was exquisite, and while her
characters and incidents were of the most every-day description, she
lifted them out of the commonplace by her exquisite touch and her
absolute truthfulness to nature.


THE VICTORIAN PERIOD TO THE PRESENT, 1837- ----

The Victorian age may justly be called great in history, philosophy,
biography, fiction, and poetry. Macaulay, in the earlier half of the
Victorian period, illumined history by the brilliant glow of his
imagination; while in the latter half Carlyle was not only his equal in
history, but the first man of letters of his time. In his prose epic,
_The French Revolution_, there was the vigor of a Rembrandt; biography
was ennobled by his _Cromwell_; while throughout all his works--from
_Sartor Resartus_ to the latest of his utterances--he upheld the dignity
of labor, and the sacredness of duty.

English history in all periods, and the progress and growth of the
constitution, found brilliant chroniclers or scholarly interpreters in
Hallam, Freeman, Froude, Green, Stubbs, Brewer, and Gardiner; while the
philosophical aspects of history have been vividly presented by Buckle
and Lecky. Rome lived again in the pages of Merivale; the Jewish race in
those of Milman; and Greece in those of Grote and Thirlwall.

Turning to philosophy and science, John Stuart Mill exercised a profound
influence upon the age as metaphysician, logician, politician, and
moralist. Charles Darwin revolutionized scientific thought by
promulgating the theory of evolution, which Herbert Spencer, its most
conspicuous philosophical exponent, applied to psychology, morals, and
politics. Logic and science had other exponents in Brewster, Whately,
Bain, Hugh Miller, John Tyndall, T. H. Huxley, T. G. Tait, and W. K.
Clifford. John Ruskin has eloquently wedded art and morality, while
biography and criticism have found representative writers in Lockhart,
Forster, De Quincey, Masson, Arnold, “Christopher North,” Lewes, Helps,
Trevelyan, John Morley, and others. Religious thought was deeply
impressed by the school of religious literature which arose with the
Oxford movement. In poetry, its greatest result was Keble’s _Christian
Year_, while its greatest product in prose was the beautiful and
haunting style of Cardinal Newman, best shown in his _Apologia_.

Pusey, Arnold, Maurice, Robertson, Stanley, Liddon, Martineau,
Gladstone, Spurgeon, and many more of all creeds contributed in a lesser
degree.

[Illustration: =ALFRED TENNYSON’S BEAUTIFUL “LADY OF SHALOTT”=

From the exquisite painting of J. W. Waterhouse, who has interpreted for
us in flesh and blood Tennyson’s far-famed poem. This is the dramatic
moment when the curse is falling upon the lady of the silent isle.]

The literature of fiction was surprising in its growth, and practically
limitless in its variety. Thackeray showed to what a pitch of literary
excellence and finish the novel might attain, and also demonstrated its
power as a moral scourge. Dickens, the Hogarth of modern novelists,
evoked smiles and tears in myriads of homes by his vivid pictures of
life; and George Eliot reflected much of the sadness and unrest of the
time in her searching and minutely conscientious works. Charlotte Brontë
uttered a passionate note on behalf of her suffering sisters; and Mrs.
Gaskell proved herself a genuine artist in the delineation of human
life.

Of later women writers, mention must be made of Mrs. Oliphant, Miss
Braddon, Mrs. Henry Wood, and “Ouida”--all different in style, yet all
equally prolific. Marryat, James, Ainsworth, Warren, and others still
find readers.

Charles Kingsley struck a sympathetic human note in his fictions;
Anthony Trollope was the most interesting even of all his brethren;
Wilkie Collins was a master of mystery; Richard Jefferies was the
interpreter of nature; Charles Reade was an intense moral reformer;
George Meredith has delighted and puzzled his admirers by his brilliant
powers and genius; Lord Lytton is still read for two or three of his
healthiest works; and Lever and Lover for their rollicking Irish wit.

It would be invidious to attempt to give a catalogue of all contemporary
novelists worthy of mention; but in addition to those already mentioned
the names will occur of R. D. Blackmore, Thomas Hardy, Robert Buchanan,
George Macdonald, and William Black--all widely different in their gifts
and work, but all imbued with a sense of the dignity of the novelist’s
art. Newer writers of imaginative and adventurous fiction have sprung up
in Hall Caine, J. M. Barrie, Rider Haggard, R. L. Stevenson, and Rudyard
Kipling.

TENNYSON AND OTHER POETS.--In poetry two names stand out above the rest
through the Victorian age. Tennyson, the most artistic of all poets,
deservedly occupies the first place from the breadth of his range. His
lyrics are the finest since Shelley; his _Idylls of the King_ deserve
the name of epic poetry; his dramas are finely conceived; and his _In
Memoriam_ sums up the religious aspirations of the time.

Robert Browning, massive and profound in thought, was of all modern
poets the most full of pith, energy, and moral aspiration. Mrs. Browning
may well be called the daughter of Shakespeare, for never did poet play
more divinely upon the Æolian harp of the human heart. Walter Savage
Landor exhibited the classical spirit, and Matthew Arnold had an
unbroken elevation in his verse. Swinburne is a master of music and
rhythm, Rossetti is a perfect artist in construction, while William
Morris is a Spenserian singer cast upon a later age.

Among later poets of undoubted gifts are Alfred Austin, William Watson,
Clough, Christina Rossetti, Coventry Patmore, and Sir Lewis Morris.

The dramas of Talfourd, Sheridan Knowles, R. H. Horne, Lord Lytton, and
Sir Henry Taylor exhibited striking but widely varying merits.

The minor poetic singers and writers of fugitive verse of both sexes are
too numerous for particularization.


SUMMARY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE

  NOTE.--Titles of words in _italics_ indicate that they are poetic or
  dramatic.

                    I. THE ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD, 449-1066
  ==================+======================+============================
   AUTHOR AND DATES | REPRESENTATIVE WORKS |  LITERARY CHARACTERISTICS
  ------------------+----------------------+----------------------------
  Unknown           |_Traveller’s Song_    |Illustrates the sentiment of
  700               |                      |a wandering singer and the
                    |                      |Anglo-Saxon’s love of home.
                    |                      |
  UNKNOWN           |_Beowulf_             |An epic song, illustrating
                    |                      |the powerful imagination of
                    |                      |the race.
                    |                      |
  UNKNOWN           |Anglo-Saxon Chronicle |Contains in addition to
  700-1154          |                      |historical data, one or two
                    |                      |war-songs: Battle of Malden,
                    |                      |etc.
                    |                      |
  CAEDMON           |_Paraphrase of        |Showing how strong an appeal
  600-?             |Scripture_            |the Bible Story made to the
                    |                      |reverence of the race.
                    |                      |
  BEDE              |Ecclesiastical        |Inspired by early Christian
  673-735           |History; _Poems_      |sentiment.
                    |                      |
  Unknown           |_Judith_              |Paraphrase of Bible
  710-?             |                      |narrative.
                    |                      |
  CYNEWULF          |_Poems_               |Serious poems of moral
  750-?             |                      |simplicity and power.
                    |                      |
  Alfred the Great  |_Translations_        |Some original matter inter-
  849-901           |                      |polated, e. g., narrative of
                    |                      |Othere, versified by Long-
                    |                      |fellow.
                    |                      |
  Alcuin            |Letters, Biographies; |Friend of Charlemagne. Wrote
  735-804           |_Christ_, _Elene      |a comparatively pure Latin.
                    |Andreas_, _etc._      |
                    |                      |
  Ælfric            |Homilies, Grammar     |Writings in Latin; a man of
  955-1020          |                      |power and sincerity.
                    |                      |
                  II. THE NORMAN-FRENCH PERIOD, 1066-1400
                    |                      |
  William of        |History of Kings of   |Of some value as an
  Malmesbury        |England               |original.
  1095-1142         |                      |
                    |                      |
  Geoffrey of       |History of English    |Largely legendary. The
  Monmouth          |Kings                 |stories are rehashed in sub-
  1154              |                      |sequent authors down to
                    |                      |Spenser, Shakespeare and
                    |                      |Milton.
                    |                      |
  Wace, Richard     |_Romance of Rollo_;   |In reality a French trouvere
  1112-1184         |_Brut d’Angleterre_   |though a subject of the King
                    |                      |of England. First mention of
                    |                      |Arthur’s Round Table.
                    |                      |
  Mapes, Walter     |De Nugus Curialium;   |First mention of the Holy
  1143-1210         |_Queste de Saint      |Grail.
                    |Graal_, _etc._        |
                    |                      |
  LAYAMON           |_Chronicles of        |A devout priest and the
  1150-1210         |Britain_              |first to make the new
                    |                      |English a literary medium.
                    |                      |
  Orm               |_Ormulum_             |Also English. Some of the
  1187-1237         |(_paraphrase_)        |homilies are simple and
                    |                      |touching expressions of
                    |                      |devotion.
                    |                      |
  Bacon, Roger      |Natural Science       |A man in advance of his age,
  1214-1294         |Philosophy            |he is said to have
                    |                      |anticipated Francis Bacon in
                    |                      |making experiment the basis
                    |                      |of knowledge.
                    |                      |
  Gloucester, Robert|_Chronicle of England_|Valuable for giving outlines
  of                |                      |of history of Norman
  13th Century      |                      |England.
                    |                      |
  Mandeville, Sir   |Travels               |Possibly a pen-name. His
  John              |                      |travels are an extraordinary
  1300-1371         |                      |farrago of invention and
                    |                      |report.
                    |                      |
  Barbour, John     |_The Bruce_           |Spirited and patriotic,
  1316-1395         |                      |loved by true Scotchmen.
                    |                      |
  Langland, William |_Piers, the Plowman_  |Extraordinary man of broad
  1330-1400         |                      |humanity. First expression
                    |                      |of the voice of the poor.
                    |                      |
  Wycliffe, John    |Translation of Bible  |A man of great power and
  1324-1384         |                      |sincerity. A philosopher and
                    |                      |scholar.
                    |                      |
  Gower, John       |_Ballads_; _Lover’s   |Friend of Chaucer. A volumi-
  1325-1408         |Confession_           |nous poet, not of high rank.
                    |                      |
  CHAUCER, GEOFFREY |_Canterbury Tales_;   |A scholar. A poet of chival-
  1330-1400         |_Short poems_         |ry and a witty narrator of
                    |                      |stories in verse. Introduced
                    |                      |French and Italian metres.
                    |                      |Equally eminent in descrip-
                    |                      |tion and characterization.
                    |                      |
          III. ENGLISH PERIOD TO THE TIME OF ELIZABETH, 1400-1559
                    |                      |
  JAMES I. OF       |_The King’s Quhair_,  |A decided poetic talent in
  SCOTLAND          |(_Choir, etc._)       |the chivalric fashion.
  1394-1437         |                      |
                    |                      |
  MALORY, SIR THOMAS|_Morte d’Arthur_      |Worked over a large part of
  1430              |                      |the Arthurian legends in
                    |                      |prose. The original for
                    |                      |Tennyson’s “Idylls of the
                    |                      |King.”
                    |                      |
  Caxton, William   |The Game of Chess;    |Introduced the Art of print-
  1422-1492         |Translation of the    |ing, brought out Malory’s
                    |Æneid                 |book and made and published
                    |                      |many translations and
                    |                      |adaptations.
                    |                      |
  Dunbar, William   |_Thistle and Rose_;   |The Scotch Chaucer; much in-
  1460-1530         |_Golden Terge_        |ferior to Chaucer and less
                    |                      |of a popular poet.
                    |                      |
  MORE, SIR THOMAS  |Utopia, Life of Edward|A man of fine character.
  1478-1535         |V.                    |“Utopia” first written in
                    |                      |Latin and translated into
                    |                      |nervous English. Plan
                    |                      |suggested, perhaps, by
                    |                      |Plato’s “Republic.”
                    |                      |
  TYNDALE, WILLIAM  |Translation of Bible  |On his translations of the
  1484-1536         |                      |Scriptures, later versions
                    |                      |are founded.
                    |                      |
  Wyntoun, Andrew   |_Chronicle of         |Story of Wallace. Much
  15th Century      |Scotland_             |admired by Walter Scott.
                    |                      |
             IV. THE ELIZABETHAN AND PURITAN PERIODS, 1559-1660
                    |                      |
  WYATT, SIR THOMAS |_Sonnets and Lyrics_  |Introduced with Howard the
  1503-1542         |                      |Italian forms; sonnet and
                    |                      |madrigal, made Italian
                    |                      |literature a new force in
                    |                      |England.
                    |                      |
  HOWARD, HENRY,    |_Translation of the   |Introduced Italian forms and
  EARL OF SURREY    |Aeneid_; _Songs and   |blank verse.
  1517-1547         |Sonnets_              |
                    |                      |
  Foxe, John        |Book of Martyrs       |His book had great influence
  1517-1587         |                      |in strengthening the
                    |                      |reformers and was one of the
                    |                      |literary influences on the
                    |                      |Puritans who came to
                    |                      |America.
                    |                      |
  Sackville, Thomas |_Mirror for           |A poet of force and imagina-
  1536-1608         |Magistrate_           |tion. Afterwards, as Lord
                    |                      |Buckhurst, a courtier and
                    |                      |politician, worked in col-
                    |                      |laboration with others and
                    |                      |had a hand in first English
                    |                      |Tragedy.
                    |                      |
  SPENCER, EDMUND   |_Fairie Queen_;       |Called the “poet’s poet.”
  1552-1599         |_Shepherd’s Calendar_ |Great in romantic allegory,
                    |                      |the ode, and the sonnet.
                    |                      |
  Raleigh, Sir      |History of the World  |A politician and adventurer;
  Walter            |                      |friend of Spenser. Some fine
  1552-1618         |                      |passages in his work.
                    |                      |
  Hooker, Richard   |Ecclesiastical Polity |His prose has dignity and
  1553-1600         |                      |force. His book is the
                    |                      |authority for the Church of
                    |                      |England.
                    |                      |
  BACON, FRANCIS    |Essays, Novum Organum |Many beautiful and acute
  1561-1626         |                      |things in his essays and his
                    |                      |philosophical works.
                    |                      |
  SHAKESPEARE, WM.  |_Dramas_, _Sonnets_,  |Compounded of all writers
  1564-1616         |(_37 plays_)          |best: wit, humor, character-
                    |                      |izations, philosophy,
                    |                      |musical phrase, power and
                    |                      |construction.
                    |                      |
  Chapman, George   |_Translation of Homer_|Full of vigor and verve,
  1559-1634         |                      |especially his Homer.
                    |                      |
  JONSON, BEN       |_The Alchemist_;      |A scholar and literary man.
  1574-1637         |_Sejanus_; _Timber_,  |A learned constructor of
                    |_etc._                |plays, had also the true
                    |                      |lyrical faculty.
                    |                      |
                    |                      |}Well constructed plays but
  BEAUMONT, FRANCIS |_Dramas_: _Philaster_;|}of a decidedly low moral
  1584-1616         |_Maid_                |}tone. Beaumont is supposed
                    |                      |}to have been the more
  FLETCHER, JOHN    |_Tragedy_: _Woman     |}promising but died before
  1579-1625         |Hater_; _etc._        |}Fletcher, who continued to
                    |                      |}produce plays alone, about
                    |                      |}forty.
                    |                      |
  Burton, Robert    |Anatomy of Melancholy |Full of out-of-the-way
  1577-1640         |                      |learning and quotations
                    |                      |bearing on the subject.
                    |                      |
  Herbert, George   |_The Temple_, _etc._  |Animated by a devotional
  1593-1633         |                      |spirit and an aesthetic
                    |                      |spiritualism.
                    |                      |
  HERRICK, ROBERT   |_Poems_               |Lyrics, many of them of
  1591-1674         |                      |charming quality and in-
                    |                      |genious construction.
                    |                      |
  Walton, Isaak     |The Compleat Angler   |Prose of a delightful char-
  1593-1683         |                      |acter, full of simple piety
                    |                      |and love of out-door nature.
                    |                      |
  Fuller, Thomas    |Church History of     |A chronicle, with passages
  1608-1661         |England, etc.         |of wit or natural pathos.
                    |                      |
  MILTON, JOHN      |Areopagitica:         |A poet, grave, learned, of
  1608-1674         |_L’Allegro and Il     |mental dignity but gifted
                    |Penseroso_; _Comus_;  |with musical power as much
                    |_Paradise Lost_;      |as Shakespeare.
                    |_Paradise Regained_,  |
                    |_etc._                |
                    |                      |
  Taylor, Jeremy    |Holy Living, etc.     |The “Shakespeare of
  1613-1667         |                      |Divines.” Passages of rare
                    |                      |poetic beauty and organ-like
                    |                      |volume.
                    |                      |
  Baxter, Richard   |Saint’s Rest          |One of the “Vade mecums” of
  1615-1691         |                      |the later Puritans. Earnest
                    |                      |and sincere.
                    |                      |
      V. PERIOD OF THE RESTORATION TO THE RISE OF THE NOVEL, 1660-1740
                    |                      |
  BUNYAN, JOHN      |Pilgrim’s Progress;   |Simple, idiomatic, with pas-
  1628-1688         |Holy War              |sages of rare beauty. Ani-
                    |                      |mated by simple, natural
                    |                      |piety. A classic too much
                    |                      |neglected.
                    |                      |
  BUTLER, SAMUEL    |_Hudibras_            |A rhyming jingle, destitute
  1612-1680         |                      |of elevation but with here
                    |                      |and there a witty couplet.
                    |                      |Anti-Puritan throughout--
                    |                      |favorite book of Charles II.
                    |                      |
  DRYDEN, JOHN      |_Virgil Translated_;  |A fine critic. The father of
  1631-1700         |_St. Cecilia’s Day_,  |fluent prose. Many energetic
                    |_etc._                |lines of verse, especially
                    |                      |in his satires. A man of
                    |                      |fine talent but limited
                    |                      |genius.
                    |                      |
  Pepys, Samuel     |Diary                 |His Diary, not intended to
  1633-1703         |                      |be public, throws light on
                    |                      |the life and habits of a
                    |                      |capable business man of the
                    |                      |18th century.
                    |                      |
  LOCKE, JOHN       |On Human Under-       |A sound, practical thinker,
  1632-1704         |standing; Essays;     |whose works illustrate the
                    |Thoughts on Education,|common sense and unspiritual
                    |etc.                  |tone of his age.
                    |                      |
  NEWTON, SIR ISAAC |Principia, etc.       |A great mathematician, he
  1642-1727         |                      |laid the foundation of our
                    |                      |understanding of the
                    |                      |mechanical structure of the
                    |                      |universe.
                    |                      |
  DEFOE, DANIEL     |Robinson Crusoe       |A born story-teller and
  1661-1731         |                      |pamphleteer.
                    |                      |
  SWIFT, JONATHAN   |Tale of a Tub;        |Unequalled as a satirist,
  1667-1745         |Gulliver’s Travels    |and writer of allegories, in
                    |                      |simple, nervous, idiomatic
                    |                      |English.
                    |                      |
  STEELE, SIR       |Essays (established   |A good second to Addison.
  RICHARD           |the Tatler)           |
  1672-1729         |                      |
                    |                      |
  ADDISON, JOSEPH   |Essays in The Tatler  |Originator of the Social
  1672-1719         |and The Spectator     |essay marked by kindly,
                    |                      |gentlemanlike humor in the
                    |                      |urbane style.
                    |                      |
  Berkeley, Bishop  |Philosophy            |A very acute thinker.
  1684-1753         |                      |English founder of one form
                    |                      |of idealism.
                    |                      |
  Young, Edward     |_Night Thoughts_      |Rather a ponderous poet, on
  1683-1765         |                      |semi-doctrinal subjects.
                    |                      |
  POPE, ALEXANDER   |_Essays on Man_,      |The model poet of his time
  1688-1744         |_etc._                |and century. Used the deca-
                    |                      |syllabic couplet almost ex-
                    |                      |clusively, but imparted to
                    |                      |it vigor, pungency and some
                    |                      |variety.
                    |                      |
  Butler, Bishop    |Natural and Revealed  |The orthodox moralist of his
  1692-1752         |Religion              |day, ponderous in style and
                    |                      |commonplace in method.
                    |                      |
  Carey, Henry      |_Sally in our Alley_, |A light gift of doggerel
  1700-1743         |_etc._                |satire.
                    |                      |
  Thompson, James   |_The Seasons_, _etc._ |A delicate feeling for the
  1700-1748         |                      |quieter aspects of nature,
                    |                      |harmoniously expressed.
                    |                      |
         VI. RISE OF THE NOVEL AND PERIOD OF ROMANTICISM, 1740-1837
                    |                      |
  RICHARDSON, SAMUEL|Clarissa Harlowe;     |Sentimentally moral, but
  1689-1761         |Pamela; Sir Chas.     |gifted with the story-
                    |Grandison             |telling faculty.
                    |                      |
  FIELDING, HENRY   |Tom Jones; Amelia;    |Depicts life broadly and
  1707-1754         |Jonathan Wild, etc.   |faithfully. The first great
                    |                      |realistic novelist.
                    |                      |
  JOHNSON, SAMUEL   |Dictionary; Rasselas; |A man of eighteenth century
  1709-1784         |Lives of the Poets    |learning and letters. The
                    |                      |critical authority of his
                    |                      |day.
                    |                      |
  HUME, DAVID       |History of England    |The first learned historian
  1711-1776         |                      |of England. A philosopher of
                    |                      |acumen.
                    |                      |
  Sterne, Laurence  |Tristram Shandy;      |A writer in whom affectation
  1713-1768         |Sentimental Journey   |becomes an art. Some
                    |                      |pathetic passages have
                    |                      |become classic.
                    |                      |
  GRAY, THOMAS      |_Elegy in Country     |A scholar-poet. Production
  1716-1771         |Churchyard_, _etc._   |limited, but of fine work-
                    |                      |manship.
                    |                      |
  SMOLLET, T. GEORGE|Humphrey Clinker,     |Originator of the Sea-Story.
  1721-1771         |Roderick Random, etc. |Inclined to vulgar coarse-
                    |                      |ness.
                    |                      |
  Akenside, Mark    |_Pleasures of the     |A man of scholarship and
  1721-1770         |Imagination_          |culture, who wrote poetry
                    |                      |without a decided gift.
                    |                      |
  SMITH, ADAM       |Wealth of Nations     |The first great economist.
  1723-1790         |                      |The moderns hardly equal to
                    |                      |him in natural keenness of
                    |                      |insight.
                    |                      |
  GOLDSMITH, OLIVER |Vicar of Wakefield;   |A true and graceful touch
  1728-1774         |Essays; _She Stoops to|both in prose and poetry.
                    |Conquer_; _Deserted   |Makes hack-work literature.
                    |Village_, _etc._      |Supposed to be the original
                    |                      |compiler of “Mother Goose’s
                    |                      |Melodies.”
                    |                      |
  BLACKSTONE, SIR   |Commentaries on Laws  |Learned and careful, with
  WILLIAM           |of England            |conception of the dignity of
  1723-1780         |                      |law.
                    |                      |
  BURKE, EDMUND     |Essays, Orations      |Prose, sometimes musical and
  1729-1797         |                      |poetical and at the same
                    |                      |time, a statesman’s grasp of
                    |                      |principle.
                    |                      |
  GIBBON, EDWARD    |Decline and Fall      |A pains-taking and learned
  1737-1794         |of Roman Empire       |historian. Constructive
                    |                      |powers of broad scope.
                    |                      |
  Boswell, James    |Life of Samuel Johnson|The true reporter’s instinct
  1740-1795         |                      |for the point of a story.
                    |                      |Otherwise, a toady.
                    |                      |
  COWPER, WILLIAM   |_The Task_; _John     |Divests poetry of the affec-
  1731-1800         |Gilpin_; _etc._       |tations of Pope. Writes on
                    |                      |simple themes.
                    |                      |
  Paley, William    |Evidence of Christian-|A cognent reasoner on the
  1743-1805         |ity, Natural Theology |old premises.
                    |                      |
  More, Hannah      |Coelebs in Search of a|Something of a minor poet,
  1745-1833         |Wife; _Sacred Dramas_ |something of a dramatist and
                    |                      |story-teller.
                    |                      |
  SHERIDAN, RICHARD |Speeches; The Rivals; |Writer of witty dialogue and
  B.                |School for Scandal;   |constructor of telling stage
  1751-1816         |Song; etc.            |situations. Comedies still
                    |                      |acted.
                    |                      |
  BURNS, ROBERT     |_Cotter’s Saturday    |Lyrics, songs and satires in
  1759-1796         |Night_, _etc._        |Scotch dialect, marked by
                    |                      |music, pathos and wit.
                    |                      |
  Edgeworth, Maria  |Popular Tales, etc.   |Stories of middle-class
  1767-1849         |                      |domestic life of excellent
                    |                      |moral tone and some power of
                    |                      |characterization.
                    |                      |
  WORDSWORTH, WM.   |_The Excursion_;      |Nature poems and descriptive
  1770-1850         |_Poems_               |poems. Many fine sonnets.
                    |                      |First expression of modern
                    |                      |feeling for nature.
                    |                      |
  Hogg, James       |Shepherd’s Calendar;  |Scotch verses. One or two
  1770-1835         |_Pastorals_           |lyrics of sweetness and
                    |                      |simplicity.
                    |                      |
  Montgomery, James |_Hymns_, _Poems_      |A man universally esteemed;
  1771-1854         |                      |best remembered now for his
                    |                      |hymns of which some hundred
                    |                      |are found in our Hymnals.
                    |                      |
  SCOTT, SIR WALTER |Waverly Novels, etc.; |Originator of the historical
  1771-1832         |_Lady of the Lake_,   |novel. Tone natural and
                    |_etc._                |wholesome. Secure in the
                    |                      |estimation of posterity.
                    |                      |
  Smith, Sidney     |Sermons, Essays, etc. |A witty divine. Master of
  1771-1845         |                      |the expository style.
                    |                      |
  COLERIDGE, SAMUEL |Essays; _Rhyme of     |A man of remarkable gifts,
  T.                |Ancient Mariner_,     |both intellectual and
  1772-1834         |_etc._                |poetic; a natural master of
                    |                      |verbal melody.
                    |                      |
  SOUTHEY, ROBERT   |Biographies of Nelson,|A man of industry and worth.
  1774-1843         |Wesley; _Poems_,      |Better as a prose stylist
                    |_etc._                |than a poet.
                    |                      |
  LAMB, CHARLES     |Essays of Elia, etc.  |A quaint and delicate
  1775-1834         |                      |essayist-- friend of
                    |                      |Coleridge.
                    |                      |
  LANDOR, WALTER    |Imaginary Conversa-   |Classic scholar and writer.
  SAVAGE            |tions, etc. _Count    |Reactionary and old-
  1775-1864         |Julian_; _Heroic      |fashioned in his thought but
                    |Idyls_, _etc._        |a remarkable stylist.
                    |                      |
  AUSTEN, JANE      |Pride and Prejudice,  |Her novels depicting upper
  1775-1817         |Emma, etc.            |middle-class life are
                    |                      |delightfully realistic and
                    |                      |full of quiet life.
                    |                      |
  PORTER, JANE      |Scottish Chiefs,      |Novels in an antiquated
  1776-1850         |Thaddeus of Warsaw    |style of exaggerated
                    |                      |romance.
                    |                      |
  CAMPBELL, THOMAS  |_Pleasures of Hope_,  |Something of a critic, his
  1777-1844         |_Lyrics_, _etc._      |lyrics have much vigor and
                    |                      |verve.
                    |                      |
  HALLAM, HENRY     |Europe during Middle  |Strong, vigorous, historical
  1777-1859         |Ages, Introduction to |writing from a standpoint
                    |Literature, Constitu- |now antiquated.
                    |tional History of     |
                    |England               |
                    |                      |
  Hazlitt, William  |Table Talk, English   |Critical essays; contain
  1778-1830         |Poets, etc.           |some true eloquence, and
                    |                      |many powerful phrases.
                    |                      |
  Moore, Thomas     |Biographies; _Lalla   |Songs of much melody, but of
  1779-1852         |Rookh_, _Irish        |an unreal sentimentality.
                    |Melodies_, _etc._     |
                    |                      |
  De Quincey, Thomas|Confessions of an     |Passages of magnificent
  1785-1859         |Opium Eater, etc.     |color. A learned man,
                    |                      |lacking in sound realistic
                    |                      |judgment.
                    |                      |
  Hunt, Leigh       |Essays, Sketches,     |A minor poet. A literateur
  1784-1859         |Memoirs; _Poems_      |of appreciation rather than
                    |                      |of creative power.
                    |                      |
  Wilson, John      |Noctes Ambrosiannae,  |A virile man. As a writer,
  1785-1854         |etc.; _Poems_         |“of his age, not for all
                    |                      |time” nor indeed for an
                    |                      |entire century.
                    |                      |
  Peacock, Thos. L. |Crotchet Castle,      |A literatteur, novel writer,
  1785-1866         |Rododaphne, etc.      |and verse writer of wit and
                    |                      |epigrammatic power but no
                    |                      |constructor.
                    |                      |
  Byron, Lord       |_Poems_               |Vigorous, eloquent,
  1788-1824         |                      |sardonic, iconoclastic,
                    |                      |lacking in divine sympathy.
                    |                      |A great satirist, and in
                    |                      |many regards a great poet.
                    |                      |
  SHELLEY, PERCY    |_Queen Mab_,          |A remarkable gift of lyrical
  BYSSHE            |_Adonais_, _The Sky   |melody. Full of generous
  1792-1822         |Lark_, _etc._         |impulse and the unbalanced
                    |                      |judgment of youth. A genius.
                    |                      |
  Marryat, Capt.    |Peter Simple, Jacob   |Boy’s stories but evincing
  Fred              |Faithful, etc.        |considerable narrative
  1792-1848         |                      |skill.
                    |                      |
  Hemans, Felicia   |_Lyrics_              |A minor poet of grace,
  1793-1835         |                      |sweetness and tenderness.
                    |                      |
  GROTE, GEORGE     |History of Greece     |A learned and sound histori-
  1794-1871         |                      |an, but superseded by modern
                    |                      |exact research.
                    |                      |
  Arnold, Thomas    |Roman History,        |A man of wide influence as
  1795-1842         |Sermons, Essays       |head-master of Rugby. An
                    |                      |historian of the old school.
                    |                      |
  KEATS, JOHN       |_Endymion_,           |A true poet, dying too young
  1795-1821         |_Hyperion_, _etc._    |to reach full fruition of
                    |                      |his remarkable artistic
                    |                      |powers.
                    |                      |
  Pollock, Robert   |_Course of Time_      |A poet, sound, serious and
  1798-1827         |                      |heavy; suits Scotch theo-
                    |                      |logians.
                    |                      |
  Hood, Thomas      |_Poems_               |A humorous poet of the first
  1798-1845         |                      |rank; some pathetic verses
                    |                      |of high quality.
                    |                      |
            VII. THE VICTORIAN PERIOD TO THE PRESENT, 1837- ----
                    |                      |
  Lover, Samuel     |Handy Andy, Rory      |A writer of slap-dash Irish
  1797-1868         |O’More; _Songs_,      |and other good stories.
                    |_Ballads_             |
                    |                      |
  CARLYLE, THOMAS   |French Revolution,    |A very great though one-
  1795-1881         |Cromwell, etc.        |sided man. A prose poet, an
                    |                      |historian of insight and
                    |                      |industry, impatient of
                    |                      |shams.
                    |                      |
  MACAULAY, THOMAS  |Essays, History of    |He makes history alive and
  B.                |England; _Lays of     |readable. A partisan but on
  1800-1859         |Ancient Rome_         |the right side.
                    |                      |
  James, G. P. R.   |Novels (historical)   |Historical novels of an an-
  1801-1860         |                      |tiquated pattern, popular in
                    |                      |their day for good reasons.
                    |                      |
  Miller, Hugh      |Old Red Sandstone,    |A self-made scientific
  1802-1856         |Schools and School-   |geologist, who did good
                    |masters, etc.         |service in popularizing
                    |                      |science.
                    |                      |
  Praed, Winthrop   |_The Vicar_; _The Red |The best writer of “Society
  Mackworth         |Fisherman_            |Verse,” urbane, cultured,
  1802-1839         |                      |witty. His verses are
                    |                      |beautifully finished.
                    |                      |
  Martineau, Harriet|Political Economy,    |A woman of remarkably strong
  1802-1876         |etc.                  |intellect. Her positions
                    |                      |well argued but perhaps too
                    |                      |radical.
                    |                      |
  LYTTON, SIR EDWARD|Last Days of Pompeii, |A versatile and successful
  BULWER            |Last of the Barons,   |literatteur, successful in
  1803-1873         |etc.                  |several forms of the novel,
                    |                      |but pre-eminent in none.
                    |                      |
  Disraeli, Benjamin|Lothair, Vivian Grey, |Society novels eminently
  1804-1881         |etc.                  |readable but thoroughly
                    |                      |artificial.
                    |                      |
  MARTINEAU, JAMES  |Philosophical Works,  |A philosophical thinker of
  1805-1900         |etc.                  |insight and honesty.
                    |                      |
  MILL, JOHN STUART |Political Economy     |Of thorough intellectual
  1806-1873         |                      |honesty and diamond-clear
                    |                      |intellect, he furthered the
                    |                      |cause of political justice
                    |                      |and personal freedom.
                    |                      |
  Lever, Charles    |Tom Burker, Charles   |Irish tales full of pith and
  1806-1872         |O’Malley, etc.        |spirit.
                    |                      |
  DARWIN, CHARLES   |Origin of Species,    |Lucid and attractive in
  1809-1882         |Descent of Man        |style, and an unflinching
                    |                      |lover of truth; he has had a
                    |                      |greater influence on thought
                    |                      |than any man of his time.
                    |                      |
  Milnes, Richard   |Life and Remains of   |A man of culture not without
  Monckton (Lord    |Keats; _Poems,        |distinction as a minor poet.
  Houghton)         |legendary and         |A true lover of literature.
  1809-1885         |historical_           |
                    |                      |
  FitzGerald, Edward|Euphranor, etc.; _The |The Rubaiyat is the only
  1809-1883         |Rubaiyat_             |instance where a translation
                    |                      |of a classic equals the
                    |                      |original.--FitzGerald was
                    |                      |one of the last of the
                    |                      |“Letter Writers.”
                    |                      |
  BROWNING,         |_Aurora Leigh_,       |A pleasing lyrical gift and
  ELIZABETH BARRETT |_Poems_               |warm, human sympathy made
  1806-1861         |                      |her a favorite poetess in
                    |                      |the Victorian era.
                    |                      |
  TENNYSON, ALFRED  |_In Memoriam_, _Idyls |The national poet of the
  1809-1892         |of the King_          |late 19th century; a pains-
                    |                      |taking artist and master of
                    |                      |verbal melody.
                    |                      |
  Kinglake, Alex.   |Eothen                |A brilliant historian of the
  William           |                      |Crimean war.
  1809-1890         |                      |
                    |                      |
  Gaskell, Elizabeth|Cranford, Mary Barton,|A writer of charming quiet
  1810-1865         |etc.                  |feminine humor. One of the
                    |                      |first to make the economic
                    |                      |problems the basis of a
                    |                      |story.
                    |                      |
  THACKERAY, WILLIAM|Vanity Fair, The      |Satirist and humorist, but
  MAKEPEACE         |Newcomes              |with great powers of char-
  1811-1863         |                      |acterization, especially of
                    |                      |the every-day social
                    |                      |elements.
  DICKENS, CHARLES  |David Copperfield,    |A broader humorist than
  1812-1870         |Oliver Twist, etc.    |Thackeray, appealing to the
                    |                      |common human sympathies and
                    |                      |the ordinary sense of the
                    |                      |ridiculous.
                    |                      |
  BROWNING, ROBERT  |_Dramatic Lyrics_,    |A powerful poet, intent more
  1812-1889         |_Poems_, _The Ring and|on subtlety than lucidity,
                    |the Book_             |intellectual rather than
                    |                      |sympathetic.
                    |                      |
  Reade, Charles    |Peg Woffington,       |A vigorous narrator,
  1814-1884         |Cloister and Hearth,  |animated by hatred of in-
                    |etc.                  |justice. Analysis of human
                    |                      |motives, superficial.
                    |                      |
  Rawlinson, George |Five Great Monarchies |A learned Assyrian and
  1815-1902         |                      |Oriental scholar.
                    |                      |
  Trollope, Anthony |Barchester Towers,    |Admirably realistic presen-
  1815-1882         |etc.                  |tation of English society,
                    |                      |political and ecclesiasti-
                    |                      |cal.
                    |                      |
  Froude, James     |History of England    |A brilliant prose writer,
  Anthony           |                      |makes history human and
  1818-1894         |                      |interesting and suggestive.
                    |                      |
  KINGSLEY, CHARLES |Hypatia, etc.; _Poems_|His novels, in spite of
  1819-1875         |                      |slight affectations and a
                    |                      |taint of sentimentality, are
                    |                      |vigorous and wholesome.
                    |                      |
  RUSKIN, JOHN      |Stones of Venice,     |A great stylist. As art-
  1819-1900         |Modern Painters       |critic too subjective and
                    |                      |governed by the moral sug-
                    |                      |gestiveness of the object.
                    |                      |As political economist, too
                    |                      |idealistic and regardless of
                    |                      |human nature.
                    |                      |
  Bronte, Charlotte |Jane Eyre, The Profes-|Great power in her novels
  1816-1855         |sor, etc.             |which, however, are based on
                    |                      |narrow experience.
                    |                      |
  SPENCER, HERBERT  |First Principles, etc.|Applied principle of evolu-
  1820-1903         |                      |tion to sociology, history,
                    |                      |etc. A thinker, but
                    |                      |ponderous in style.
                    |                      |
  ELIOT, GEORGE     |Silas Marner, etc.,   |The greatest woman novelist.
  1819-1880         |_Spanish Gypsy_,      |A realist with insight.
                    |_Poems_               |Powers of wit and character-
                    |                      |ization; construction not
                    |                      |remarkable.
                    |                      |
  TYNDALL, JOHN     |Scientific Papers     |Unsurpassed as a popularizer
  1820-1893         |                      |of Darwin’s ideas, unless it
                    |                      |be by Huxley.
                    |                      |
  ARNOLD, MATTHEW   |Essays and Criticisms;|Critic and poet. Liberal in
  1822-1888         |_Sohrab and Rustum_,  |thought but dominated by
                    |_etc._                |aristocratic prejudice on
                    |                      |the literary side. As a
                    |                      |poet, inclined to despairing
                    |                      |pessimism; weak in the power
                    |                      |of verbal melody.
                    |                      |
  Muller, Max       |Science of Language,  |Did much to spread knowledge
  1823-1900         |etc.                  |of the general facts and
                    |                      |principles of philology and
                    |                      |Oriental learning.
                    |                      |
  FREEMAN, EDWARD A.|Histories             |A conscientious, honest,
  1823-1892         |                      |painstaking historian,
                    |                      |destitute of the power to
                    |                      |make his subject interesting
                    |                      |except to himself.
                    |                      |
  Hughes, Thomas    |Tom Brown at Oxford,  |A manly, breezy person, who
  1823-1896         |etc.                  |wrote one good book for
                    |                      |boys.
                    |                      |
  Collins, Wilkie   |Woman in White, etc.  |Unsurpassed as a constructor
  1824-1889         |                      |of plots, i. e. born story-
                    |                      |teller, not misled by
                    |                      |psychological analysis.
                    |                      |
  Macdonald, George |Sir Gibbie, Alec      |Wrote many novels showing
  1824-1905         |Forbes, etc.          |some power of writing dia-
                    |                      |logue. Essentially of his
                    |                      |day.
                    |                      |
  HUXLEY, THOMAS    |Man’s Place in Nature |A master of exposition and,
  HENRY             |                      |with Tyndall, very effective
  1825-1895         |                      |in presenting the idea of
                    |                      |evolution.
                    |                      |
  BLACKMORE, R. D.  |Lorna Doone, etc.     |Infused an element of
  1825-1900         |                      |romance into the modern
                    |                      |novel, “Lorna Doone.”
                    |                      |
  Bagehot, Walter   |Physics and Politics  |Original, sound, and
  1826-1877         |                      |striking on political and
                    |                      |economic topics.
                    |                      |
  Mulock, Dinah     |John Halifax, etc.    |Author of some twenty novels
  Naria             |                      |of which “John Halifax” is
  1826-1887         |                      |the best. Also of pleasing
                    |                      |minor verse.
                    |                      |
  Rossetti, Dante   |_The Blessed Damozel_,|A highly imaginative poet; a
  Gabriel           |_etc._                |master of color in verse and
  1828-1882         |                      |on canvas.
                    |                      |
  Oliphant, Margaret|Chronicles of         |Novels of middle-class life,
  1828-1897         |Carlingford, etc.     |of excellent tone, full of
                    |                      |quiet observation. Plots,
                    |                      |slight, but hold the atten-
                    |                      |tion.
                    |                      |
  MEREDITH, GEORGE  |The Egoist, Diana of  |Novels of extraordinary
  1828-1910         |the Crossways, etc.   |power. Style epigrammatic
                    |                      |and not attractive.
                    |                      |
  McCarthy, Justin  |History of our own    |A prolific journalist,
  1830-1912         |Times, Novels         |novelist and historian of
                    |                      |modern times.
                    |                      |
  Ingelow, Jean     |_Poems_, _High Tide on|A charming lyrical talent,
  1820-1897         |Coast of Lincolnshire_|of limited productive power.
                    |                      |
  Meredith, Owen    |Biography of Bulwer   |Fluent writer of light verse
  1831-1891         |Lytton; _Lucile_      |and society verse.
                    |                      |
  Arnold, Edwin     |_Light of Asia_,      |An able journalist and
  1832-1904         |_Poems_               |prolific minor poet.
                    |                      |
  Seeley, John      |Ecce Homo, etc.       |An able historical writer,
  Robert            |                      |his “Ecce homo” had con-
  1834-1895         |                      |siderable influence on con-
                    |                      |temporary philosophies--
                    |                      |religious thought.
                    |                      |
  MORRIS, WILLIAM   |Essays on Art, etc.;  |Prolific as a narrative
  1834-1896         |_Poems_, _Earthly     |poet, fond of classic and
                    |Paradise_             |medieval legends. As a poet,
                    |                      |more fluent than thoughtful.
                    |                      |
  Hamerton, Philip  |Intellectual Life     |An excellent critic of
  I.                |                      |pictorial art and inter-
  1834-1894         |                      |preter of French life and
                    |                      |character for Englishmen.
                    |                      |
  Green, John       |History of the English|Industrious and conscien-
  Richard           |People                |tious, he viewed the
  1837-1883         |                      |“History of the English
                    |                      |People” as something more
                    |                      |than a record of war and
                    |                      |politics. Clear and simple
                    |                      |as a stylist.
                    |                      |
  SWINEBURNE,       |_Poems_               |A poet of remarkable musical
  ALGERNON CHAS.,   |                      |power, a master of headlong
  1837-1909         |                      |but involved prose, a critic
                    |                      |of enthusiasm and eloquence,
                    |                      |caring little for principles
                    |                      |or reasoned judgment.
                    |                      |
  BRYCE, JAMES      |American Commonwealth,|A writer on politics of
  1838-             |Holy Roman Empire     |great common sense and
                    |                      |statesmanlike scope. A
                    |                      |trustworthy authority.
                    |                      |
  Besant, Walter    |East London, etc.,    |A voluminous writer of
  1838-1901         |Novels                |novels, his History of
                    |                      |London is a real contribu-
                    |                      |tion of knowledge of the
                    |                      |past.
                    |                      |
  Morley, John      |English Men of Letters|A sound literary historian
  1838-             |                      |and critic and a thinker of
                    |                      |force and scope.
                    |                      |
  Pater, Walter     |Marius the Epicurean, |A wonderfully finished prose
  Horatio           |etc.                  |style which sometimes
  1839-1891         |                      |diverts attention from the
                    |                      |justness and beauty of the
                    |                      |thought.
                    |                      |
  Dobson, Henry     |Vignettes in Rhyme,   |The English Horace. An
  Austin            |Proverbs in Porcelain |authority on eighteenth
  1840-             |                      |century social and literary
                    |                      |life. Charming light verses.
                    |                      |
  Hardy, Thomas     |Tess of D’Urbeville,  |Novels depicting country
  1840-             |etc., Novels          |life. A writer of broad
                    |                      |humanity. His books possess
                    |                      |at once wit, realism and an
                    |                      |idyllic quality.
                    |                      |
  Black, William    |In Silk Attire, etc., |His stories have consider-
  1841-1898         |Novels                |able charm but not much
                    |                      |force. They depict Gaelic
                    |                      |Scotland pleasantly but
                    |                      |unconvincingly.
                    |                      |
  Buchanan, Robert  |Alone in London;      |A minor poet and dramatist
  W.                |_Poems_               |of considerable output.
  1841-1901         |                      |Known for his mistaken
                    |                      |attack on Rossetti in “The
                    |                      |Fleshly School of Poetry.”
                    |                      |
  Stevenson, Robert |Essays, Novels;       |Careful and finished as a
  Louis             |_Child’s Garden of    |stylist, an excellent story-
  1850-1894         |Verses_, _etc._       |teller: “Treasure Island”
                    |                      |and his Scottish Tales are
                    |                      |true classics.
                    |                      |
  Zangwill, Israel  |Novels, Dramas, Essays|As Jew, an exponent of the
  1864-             |                      |Zionistic movement. Success-
                    |                      |ful in the essay and
                    |                      |especially in the novels
                    |                      |depicting Jewish scenes and
                    |                      |characters.
                    |                      |
  Kipling, Rudyard  |Stories, Novels,      |A vigorous, audacious, effi-
  1865-             |_Poems_               |cient writer. The most
                    |                      |original genius among
                    |                      |English literary men of
                    |                      |today.
                    |                      |
  Phillips, Stephen |_Ulysses_, _Paolo and |A writer of lyric tragedies
  1868-             |Francesca_            |in blank verse, akin in
                    |                      |spirit to to the French
                    |                      |classic drama.
                    |                      |
  ------------------+----------------------+----------------------------


AMERICAN LITERATURE

The development of American literature may be treated under three
distinctly marked periods: (1) a colonial or ante-revolutionary period
(1620-1775), during which the literature of the colonies was closely
assimilated in form and character to that of England; (2) a first
American period (1775-1865), which witnessed the transition from a style
for the most part imitative to one in some degree national; and (3) a
second American period from 1865 to the present time, in which the
literature of the country has assumed a more decided character of
originality.


THE COLONIAL PERIOD, 1620-1775

The literary traditions of the United States were in large part
inherited from England. Although from the time of the Stuart restoration
in England, in 1660, there are indications of a divergence in social and
political temper, which in the long run must find expression in a
distinct American literature, yet the literary emancipation of America
was much more gradual than the political.

The first literature in America was the product of men educated in other
lands, who happened to be drawn to the New World, and who wrote about
the new country.

The first work of broad interest concerning the colonies that
subsequently became the United States was the famous Captain John
Smith’s _True Relation of Such Occurrences and Accidents of Note as Hath
Happened in Virginia_. This is an interesting and romantic work; but
Smith was in America for three years only of his adventurous life, and
consequently his narrative is highly colored. _The History of the
Plymouth Plantation_, by Governor Bradford, and the _History of New
England_, by John Winthrop, are productions of a colder clime than
Virginia and of a less glowing imagination than Captain John Smith’s.

Aside from such records, more interesting always from the standpoint of
history than from that of literature, the sum of colonial production,
north or south, is very small. In New England, where most books were
written, if not always there published, we find chiefly theological
polemics, often presented with attractive titles but rarely with any
other power to carry them to posterity.

The _Poems_ of Anne Bradstreet were very highly praised in their day,
but almost the only book of lasting value and interest written in the
century was Cotton Mather’s _Magnalia Christi Americana_ (1702). Mather
was one of a great clerical and literary family. He wrote many other
books, but none retains the interest of posterity. The _Magnalia_,
however, is still a noble monument of a wonderful generation.

Franklin’s _Poor Richard’s Almanac_, begun in 1732 and carried on by him
for twenty-five years, was a book of almost literary rank. “Poor
Richard” was a fictitious character in whose mouth Franklin put a
simple philosophy which became as widely popular in its sphere as the
more scholarly utterances of the Spectator.

The two great literary figures of the eighteenth century may be properly
considered together. Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758) may represent to us
the passing domination of theology; Benjamin Franklin, the domination
just beginning of politics and secular common sense. They are the first
Americans to make a lasting reputation by letters, and, curiously
enough, with each literature was but a means to an end.

The remarkable effect of the preaching and writing of Jonathan Edwards
came largely from the direct simplicity and clearness which makes his
style almost no style at all. As for Franklin, he learned to write
systematically, as he did everything else, and regarded his power to
express himself chiefly as one of the means whereby he accomplished his
purposes for the good of society. Edward’s great works on the _Freedom
of the Will_ and other theological topics are probably read now by few,
and the same may be said of much of Franklin’s writings. But Franklin’s
_Autobiography_ is still one of the most interesting things of its kind.
Both men belonged to the time and place: America was expressing herself,
whether in literary form or not.

In the years preceding the Revolution another real opportunity opened,
and oratory became one of the genuine modes of national expression.
Patrick Henry, James Otis, John Adams, Joseph Warren, Richard Henry Lee,
Samuel Adams, spoke under the best conditions for literature, because
they had something that had to be said. Yet their eloquence now is more
a matter of fame than of fact. Of some, hardly more than a few slight
reports remain to give us a notion of the powers that fired an earlier
generation. This summary of colonial literature gives an idea of a very
meagre literary production that was but natural. There was little
written in America, and that little was compelled by the practical
issues of the politics or theology of the time.

We shall readily understand that though such a review indicates slight
literary appreciation as we understand the term, it does not imply a
lack of intelligence. If the colonists had been less intelligent they
might have produced more literature. Folk poetry and legend, with which
true literature is apt to begin, is not the result of education.

The Americans were, comparatively speaking, a well-educated people. They
very early provided for that literary scholarship training which comes
from scholastic training. The colleges of the colonies, Harvard (1636),
William and Mary (1693), Yale (1701), Princeton (chartered as the
College of New Jersey, 1746), Columbia (originally King’s, 1754), Brown
(College of Rhode Island, 1764), Rutgers (originally Queens, 1766),
Dartmouth (1769), and the University of Pennsylvania (founded as an
academy by Franklin, 1754; chartered 1779), show a great appreciation of
learning on the part of the colonists.

A somewhat wider if less scholastic culture is evidenced by the
foundation of libraries, the Library Company of Philadelphia (1731),
the Redwood Library of Newport (1747), the Charleston Library (1748),
and the New York Society Library (1754), being the earliest.


FIRST NATIONAL PERIOD, 1775-1865

The two decades that brought the eighteenth century to a close were full
of exciting political events, but barren of literature. The fathers
could make a nation by adopting a constitution and abiding by it, but
the creation of a national literature was not so easy a matter. National
poetry did not come with national life. The efforts of Trumbull
(1750-1831), and Barlow (1754-1812), are as good as the ordinary
poetical work of the time in England, but they are not the expression of
the soul of the new nation.

The first real literature was in prose, arising from natural imitation
of past models under conditions of culture which led to appreciation of
such imitation.

Washington Irving, then twenty-four years old, living the pleasant life
of a clever young fellow in a small provincial city, joined with his
brother William and James Kirke Paulding in one of the periodicals
modeled after the Spectator common in the eighteenth century. Their
venture was called _Salmagundi_, and although not remarkable in itself,
its success gave confidence, so that two years afterward, feeling his
own power, Irving wrote _Knickerbocker’s History of New York_, one of
the first pieces of American _belles-lettres_ to become known in Europe
as well as America. These productions came naturally from the conditions
of Irving’s life; so did the _Sketch Book_, with which he became a
professed man of letters, the representative, we may say, of the first
period of our national literature.

Irving had pre-eminently the gift for literary expression; in his hands
everything became literature--history, biography, descriptive as well as
satire, story, essay. He showed the possibility of giving literary form
to American material.

The same thing was done in a special department of literature by James
Fenimore Cooper. Charles Brockden Brown had written novels, but they
have not survived. Cooper, on the other hand, so far saw the essential
quality of certain elements of American life, that the figures of
Leatherstocking, the American pioneer, Harvey Birch, the patriot, and
Long Tom Coffin, the sailor, are still living figures.

In fiction also two masters of equal power were shortly to develop a
form of literature in which America has produced much of the first
order. Nathaniel Hawthorne and Edgar Allan Poe made of the short story a
means of artistic presentation, which has been more highly appreciated
in our day than it was in their own.

The first true poet was William Cullen Bryant. In the same year with
Cooper’s first American novel (1821) appeared a volume of Bryant’s
poems, of which one at least, _Thanatopsis_, had already excited
admiring attention. Bryant’s long and honorable life was devoted to many
interests beside poetry, but he maintained throughout the pure and
idealistic touch, and the intimate appreciation of nature that
characterized his first work.

The first quarter of the nineteenth century, then, saw a beginning,
slight indeed, but such as to endure, of a true literature in the
departments of poetry, fiction, _belles-lettres_. The fifty years
following saw more substantial production in each direction.

The American poets of the middle of the century are not of the very
first rank, but each is genuinely representative of some true poetic
quality or way of looking at things.

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow presents the beauty and charm of American
life and history in melodious and figured verse; John Greenleaf Whittier
expresses the soul of our life and history in lyrics of most sincere
human quality; Edgar Allan Poe gives a few most intense emotions in
singularly perfect and individual form, while Walt Whitman expresses a
certain American ideality in a strange mode of utterance, which despite
its faults is characteristically strong.

As a poet Lowell is at his best in satire, Holmes in wit, Emerson in
sententious wisdom.

In the field of fiction there was not so much that was good. It was not
till he had written short stories for twenty years that Hawthorne found
time for the novel for which he had so long felt himself capable. He
wrote four, of which three at least are masterpieces. As a novelist he
had no rivals; but there were not a few who carried on the tradition of
the short story, of whom the most noteworthy were Fitz James O’Brien
(1828-1862), Harriet Prescott, 1835 (afterward Mrs. Spofford), and
Edward Everett Hale. _The Diamond Lens_, _The Amber Gods_, and _The Man
Without a Country_ of the latter are very typical works.

In history also there was first-rate expression. George Bancroft,
William H. Prescott, John Lothrop Motley, and Francis Parkman, were all
original workers and all men of literary power. The first two were
rather too much influenced by the literary ideals of the past, but
Motley and Parkman attain a perfection of literary history which seems
impossible in our day of development and division of labor.

More specifically American, though perhaps more temporary, is the
oratory of the period. Political conditions were still such as to
encourage eloquence. Three names stand together as representative of
American public life: Daniel Webster, Henry Clay, and John C. Calhoun.
Their oratory has dignity, representative character and force. Three
other orators should be mentioned: Edward Everett, Wendell Phillips, and
Henry Ward Beecher, one eminent on great public occasions, one in public
discussion and agitation, and the third in the pulpit. And we must add
the name of a speaker whose simple sincerity gave him at times a greater
power of speech than that of any other man of his day, Abraham Lincoln.

Several other elements of the literature of this time are important. The
New England movement of idealistic thought, somewhat expressed by
Transcendentalism, is represented by Ralph Waldo Emerson, a figure more
thoroughly characteristic of American thinking than any other writer.
Singularly individual and different from any other man of his time, he
is yet typical of a combination of ideality and common sense thoroughly
American.

James Russell Lowell is another important figure of the period:
noteworthy as a poet, a critic, a scholar, an essayist, he is especially
interesting as the successor of Irving as the representative man of his
literary generation. He made literature an active factor in life and yet
never allowed it to lose its literary quality.

Oliver Wendell Holmes is best known as a humorist, and perhaps the most
American in that field in which America has a very special place. Humor
is more than most branches of literature a matter of taste. It must be
enough, therefore, to note, without attempting to discriminate or
describe, the achievements of Artemus Ward (1834-1867), of Mark Twain
and of Frank R. Stockton (1834-1902). In this second period of our
literature occurred the Civil war. Such an event could not have been
without its effect upon men of letters both South and North. In the
North especially do we perceive the strongest influence: the
anti-slavery element cannot be dissociated from the work of Lowell or
Whittier. Yet in literature the war produced little of permanence. It is
the backbone of Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe’s title to remembrance; but
powerfully effective as was _Uncle Tom’s Cabin_, it is probable that
there was more real genius in those presentations of that old New
England life of which she was herself a product.


SECOND NATIONAL PERIOD, 1865- ----

In considering the period from the Civil war to the present, the most
remarkable thing is the great increase of production and the slight
accession to the rolls of genius. Such is especially the case with
fiction; there have been very many good novels and short stories
written, but there is no such commanding personality as Hawthorne.

The two chief figures of the seventies and eighties, at least, were
Henry James and William Dean Howells. With great differences, they are
yet both masters of the realistic school which was dominant in the
second half of the century, in Europe as well as in America. Their
superiority might remain unquestioned, were it not for the decline of
interest in the kind of novel in which they excelled. In the early
eighties a change in tone was perceptible.

The first noteworthy American representative of romantic or idealistic
fiction which then began to appear was Marion Crawford, who has retained
power and popularity for twenty-five years. He and a few other
innovators were followed by a number of writers who found and presented
the charm and romance of American history. These have now in their turn
passed away except Winston Churchill who would seem really to have more
enduring power than his companions. But the realistic movement was not
without its results, for it directed American novelists, and especially
story writers, into an appreciation of the specific qualities of
different parts of their country.

The first writer to have this especial flavor was, it is true, the
romanticist Bret Harte. His followers were more realistic: George
Washington Cable gave a charming presentation of Creole life in New
Orleans, and since the _Grandissimes_ (1880) there have been a great
number who have drawn pictures of the especial life of particular
localities. Most noteworthy of these are Miss Mary N. Murfree (“Charles
Egbert Craddock”), Miss Mary E. Wilkins (now Mrs. Freeman), James Lane
Allen, Thomas Nelson Page, and Hamlin Garland.

If we are to mention any other novelist of the present day whose work
seems likely to endure, it must be Mrs. Edith Wharton, who rather
continues the traditions of Henry James.

In poetry no one has for forty years appeared who has been considered
the equal of the earlier generation. Sidney Lanier and Edmund Clarence
Stedman will probably be considered the chief figures of the seventies,
while Richard Hovey (1864-1900) and James Whitcomb Riley are superior to
their later contemporaries.

There has been much history in recent years, and if there are no
historians of the rank of Motley and Parkman, the reason may lie in the
difference that has come into the methods of historical study. John
Fiske was a philosopher before he became a historian. Justin Winsor was
a master of authorities, and his labors as an editor rendered possible
one of the characteristic productions of the time, the _Narrative and
Critical History of America_, written by a number of special scholars.
Of other contemporary writers most noteworthy are probably Henry C. Lea,
whose works deal with different phrases of the history of civilization,
and Captain A. T. Mahan, whose studies of the influence of sea power on
history have attracted the attention of the world.

Coincidently, a new school of humor has risen in the writing of F. P.
Dunne, creator of the sagacious _Mr. Dooley_, and George Ade, author of
_Fables in Slang_. Earlier humorists, aside from “Mark Twain” and
Charles F. Browne (“Artemus Ward”), are Henry W. Shaw (“Josh Billings”)
(1818-1885), Joel Chandler Harris (1848-1908), the author of _Uncle
Remus’ Stories_, amusing dialect fantasies. In the summary of American
literature one can hardly omit the names of Sarah Margaret Fuller
(“Ossoli”), R. H. Dana, author of _Two Years Before the Mast_, and
Donald G. Mitchell, author of _Reveries of a Bachelor_ and _Dream Life_.

Recent and contemporary historians and essayists deserving of mention
are T. W. Higginson, C. E. Norton, and William James.

Another form of writing should be mentioned, though its results are
perhaps too ephemeral to be called literature. The newspaper is,
however, a very important part of everybody’s reading. It has been
learning, however, to appeal more and more to an enormously wide
audience, with the result that whatever literary character it may have
had is now hard to find. In the middle of the century certain great
editors had very definite literary standing, as Bryant of the New York
_Evening Post_, Henry J. Raymond (1820-1869) of the _Times_, Horace
Greeley (1811-1872) of the _Tribune_. Later figures must include Charles
A. Dana (1819-1897), who gave a very distinctive character to the _Sun_;
James Gordon Bennett (1841) of the _Herald_, and E. L. Godkin
(1831-1902) of the New York _Evening Post_, and Henry Watterson of the
Louisville _Courier-Journal_.


=SUMMARY OF AMERICAN LITERATURE=

  NOTE.--Poetic and dramatic writings are indicated by _italics_.

  ==================+======================+============================
   AUTHOR AND DATES | REPRESENTATIVE WORKS |  LITERARY CHARACTERISTICS
  ------------------+----------------------+----------------------------
  John Smith        |True Relation of      |A romantic recital of
  Virginia--1580-   |Virginia              |thrilling adventures.
  1631              |                      |
                    |                      |
  William Bradford  |History of Plymouth   |A full and clearly written
  Plymouth Col.--   |Plantation            |account to 1649.
  1588-1657         |                      |
                    |                      |
  John Winthrop     |History of New England|A simple, personal narra-
  Massachusetts--   |--1630-1649           |tive, with occasional fresh-
  1590-1649         |                      |ness of style.
                    |                      |
  Anne Bradstreet   |_Poems_; _The Tenth   |An affected and cumbersome
  Massachusetts--   |Muse_                 |didactic poem.
  1613-1672         |                      |
                    |                      |
  Henry Norwood     |A Voyage to Virginia  |Surprisingly well written in
  Virginia--1628-   |                      |parts, and informative.
  1670(?)           |                      |
                    |                      |
  William Penn      |Brief Account of Penn-|Confidently religious and
  Pennsylvania--    |sylvania              |philanthropic in tone.
  1644-1718         |                      |
                    |                      |
  James Blair       |Sermons, No Cross, No |Comparatively modern prose,
  Virginia--1656-   |Crown                 |written with pious zeal.
  1742              |                      |
                    |                      |
  Cotton Mather     |Elegy of Rev.         |Voluminous ecclesiastical
  Massachusetts--   |Nathaniel Collins,    |writings of “pedantic and
  1663-1728         |Sermons, etc.         |fantastic quaintness.”
                    |                      |
  William Byrd      |The Dividing Line, and|Full of fresh, humorous
  Virginia--1674-   |other tracts          |observations on life.
  1744              |                      |
                    |                      |
  Robert Beverly    |History of Virginia   |A straightforward narrative
  Virginia--1675-   |                      |of slightly polemic purpose.
  1716              |                      |
                    |                      |
  JONATHAN EDWARDS  |Sermons, Surprising   |Strong and highly imagina-
  Connecticut--1703-|Conversions, etc.     |tive proclamations of
  1758              |                      |Calvinism.
                    |                      |
  BENJAMIN FRANKLIN |Poor Richard’s        |Wise and sagacious utter-
  Pennsylvania--    |Almanac, Autobiography|ances of a fair, avowed
  1706-1790         |                      |utilitarian.
                    |                      |
  THOMAS JEFFERSON  |Notes on Virginia,    |Full of wise foresight and
  Virginia--1743-   |Declaration of        |keen acumen.
  1826              |Independence          |
                    |                      |
  JOHN MARSHALL     |Life of Washington,   |Profound and wise, but
  Virginia--1755-   |Decisions, etc.       |rather heavy.
  1835              |                      |
                    |                      |
  ALEXANDER HAMILTON|Contributions to the  |Keen and ingenious, full of
  New York--1757-   |Federalist            |information.
  1804              |                      |
                    |                      |
  Alexander Wilson  |American Ornithology  |Pioneer investigations of a
  Scotland--1766-   |                      |shrewd observer.
  1813              |                      |
                    |                      |
  Charles Brockden  |Wieland, Ormond, etc. |Weird and sensational, of
  Brown             |                      |the Godwin type.
  Pennsylvania--    |                      |
  1771-1810         |                      |
                    |                      |
  William Wirt      |Life of Patrick Henry,|Interesting and informative,
  Maryland--1772-   |Letters of a British  |but also imaginative.
  1834              |Spy                   |
                    |                      |
  Robert Treat Paine|Adams and Liberty;    |Superficial, but of notice-
  Massachusetts--   |_Poems_               |able metrical facility.
  1773-1811         |                      |
                    |                      |
  HENRY CLAY        |Speeches, Letters     |Attractive because of per-
  Kentucky--1777-   |                      |sonality and power.
  1852              |                      |
                    |                      |
  Washington Allston|Art Lectures; _Poems_ |Highly artistic in intent
  South Carolina--  |                      |and achievement.
  1779-1843         |                      |
                    |                      |
  James Kirk        |Novels                |Romances of little present
  Paulding          |                      |interest.
  New York--1779-   |                      |
  1860              |                      |
                    |                      |
  FRANCIS SCOTT KEY |_Poems_, _Star        |The chief poem is a national
  Maryland--1780-   |Spangled Banner_,     |song of patriotic ardor.
  1843              |_etc._                |
                    |                      |
  WILLIAM E.        |Addresses, Sermons,   |Social papers, clear,
  CHANNING          |Essays                |tolerant, thoughtful.
  Massachusetts--   |                      |
  1780-1842         |                      |
                    |                      |
  JOHN JAMES AUDUBON|Birds of America,     |Marked by keen observation
  Louisiana--1780-  |Quadrupeds of America |and wide interest.
  1851              |                      |
                    |                      |
  JOHN C. CALHOUN   |Speeches, Papers, etc.|Forceful in logical thinking
  South Carolina--  |                      |and clear exposition.
  1782-1850         |                      |
                    |                      |
  DANIEL WEBSTER    |Orations              |Elevated in thought and
  New Hampshire--   |                      |eloquent.
  1782-1852         |                      |
                    |                      |
  Thomas Hart Benton|Thirty Years View     |Rich and racy observations
  North Carolina--  |                      |of wide experience.
  1782-1858         |                      |
                    |                      |
  WASHINGTON IRVING |Knickerbocker’s       |Humorous, with delicate
  New York--1783-   |History of New York,  |sentiment and grace.
  1859              |Sketch Book, etc.     |
                    |                      |
  Richard Henry Dana|_Poems_, _The         |Overambitious and not
  Massachusetts--   |Buccaneer_, _etc._    |wholly successful.
  1787-1879         |                      |
                    |                      |
  JAMES FENIMORE    |Leather Stocking      |Romantic and overfortunate
  COOPER New Jersey |Tales, The Spy, etc.  |in coincidence, but
  --1789-1851       |                      |readable.
                    |                      |
  Jared Sparks      |American Biographies  |Commendable efforts of a
  Connecticut--1789-|                      |pioneer biographer.
  1866              |                      |
                    |                      |
  Fitz Greene       |_Poems_, _Marco       |Frankly humorous and
  Halleck           |Bozzaris_, _etc._     |delightfully fresh.
  Connecticut--1790-|                      |
  1867              |                      |
                    |                      |
  George Ticknor    |History of Spanish    |Scholarly and authentic.
  1791-1871         |Literature            |
                    |                      |
  John Howard Payne |_Home Sweet Home_,    |Universal in appeal and
  New York--1792-   |_Poems_               |satisfying in form.
  1852              |                      |
                    |                      |
  Samuel G. Goodrich|Peter Parley Books    |Popular introductions with a
  Connecticut--1793-|                      |flavor of fiction.
  1860              |                      |
                    |                      |
  WILLIAM CULLEN    |Addresses, Letters;   |Dignified and poised,
  BRYANT            |_Poems_, _Thanatopsis_|serious and helpful.
  Massachusetts--   |                      |
  1794-1878         |                      |
                    |                      |
  Joseph Rodman     |_The Culprit Fay_,    |Cleverly executed, but
  Drake             |_Poems_               |ingeniously fanciful.
  New York--1795-   |                      |
  1820              |                      |
                    |                      |
  James G. Percival |_Poems_; _Prometheus_,|Unsustained, though not
  Connecticut--1795-|_etc._                |without positive merits.
  1856              |                      |
                    |                      |
  John Pendleton    |Swallow Barn, Horse   |Old-fashioned but interest-
  Kennedy           |Shoe Robinson, etc.   |ing pictures of southern
  Maryland--1795-   |                      |life.
  1870              |                      |
                    |                      |
  WILLIAM H.        |Conquest of Peru,     |Excellent history, very
  PRESCOTT          |Ferdinand and         |interestingly told.
  Massachusetts--   |Isabella, etc.        |
  1796-1859         |                      |
                    |                      |
  Amos Bronson      |Concord Days, Table   |Suggestingly idealistic, but
  Alcott            |Talks; _Sonnets and   |lacking in general interest.
  Massachusetts--   |Canzonets_            |
  1799-1888         |                      |
                    |                      |
  George Bancroft   |History of the United |Faithfully prepared and
  Massachusetts--   |States                |honestly presented.
  1800-1891         |                      |
                    |                      |
  Horace Bushnell   |Nature and the Super- |Serious, didactic efforts
  Connecticut--1802-|natural, Work and Play|with spiritual purpose.
  1876              |                      |
                    |                      |
  George D. Prentice|Essays; _Poems_       |Witty, sarcastic, daring and
  Connecticut--1802-|                      |effective.
  1870              |                      |
                    |                      |
  RALPH WALDO       |Conduct of Life,      |The prophet of American
  EMERSON           |Representative Men,   |culture. Coalesces oriental
  Mass.--1803-1882  |Essays; _Poems_       |conceptions and occidental
                    |                      |individualism.
                    |                      |
  Jacob Abbott      |Rollo Books           |Popular favorites of unso-
  Maine--1803-1879  |                      |phisticated youth.
                    |                      |
  NATHAN’L HAWTHORNE|Twice Told Tales,     |Marked by a subtle mastery
  Massachusetts--   |Scarlet Letter, Marble|and the touch of genius.
  1804-1864         |Faun, etc.            |
                    |                      |
  Charles E. A.     |History of Louisiana, |Entertaining and scholarly
  Gayarré           |Fernando de Lemos,    |bilingual productions.
  Louisiana--1805-  |etc.                  |
  1895              |                      |
                    |                      |
  Nathaniel P.      |_Poems_; Sketches,    |Skillfully elaborated but
  Willis            |Editorials, etc.      |diminishing in fame.
  Maine--1806-1867  |                      |
                    |                      |
  William Gilmore   |_Poems_; Novels,      |Versatile, original and
  Simms             |Biography, etc.       |artistic.
  South Carolina--  |                      |
  1806-1870         |                      |
                    |                      |
  HENRY W.          |_Outre Mer_,          |Popular in appeal and simple
  LONGFELLOW        |_Hyperion_, _Poems_,  |in form.
  Maine--1807-1882  |_Hiawatha_, _etc._    |
                    |                      |
  JOHN G. WHITTIER  |Editorials; _Household|With Burns’ love of nature
  Massachusetts--   |Poems_                |and human nature.
  1807-1892         |                      |
                    |                      |
  EDGAR ALLAN POE   |Tales; _Poems_,       |Excellent in artistic
  Maryland--1809-   |_Raven_, _Annabel     |“totality of effect.”
  1849              |Lee_, _etc._          |
                    |                      |
  Albert Pike       |_Hymns to the Gods_,  |Of recognized interest and
  Massachusetts--   |_Poems_, _etc._       |merit.
  1809-1891         |                      |
                    |                      |
  OLIVER WENDELL    |Autocrat of the Break-|Clever, witty, versatile,
  HOLMES            |fast Table, Novels;   |and skillful.
  Massachusetts--   |_Poems_               |
  1809-1894         |                      |
                    |                      |
  Margaret Fuller   |Summer on the Lakes,  |Notable in transcendental
  Ossoli            |Papers on Literature  |aim and in merit of
  Massachusetts--   |and Art               |achievement.
  1810-1850         |                      |
                    |                      |
  Harriet Beecher   |Uncle Tom’s Cabin,    |Far-reaching in its influ-
  Stowe             |etc.                  |ence.
  Connecticut--1811-|                      |
  1896              |                      |
                    |                      |
  JOHN LOTHROP      |Dutch Republic, United|A rapid, easy style in pre-
  MOTLEY            |Netherlands           |senting results of research.
  Massachusetts--   |                      |
  1814-1877         |                      |
                    |                      |
  Rufus W. Griswold |_Christian Ballads_;  |Valuable critical studies
  Vermont--1815-1857|Poets and Poetry of   |marred by partisanry.
                    |America, Famous Poets |
                    |                      |
  John G. Saxe      |_The Money King_, _New|Humorous and sprightly.
  Vermont--1816-1887|Rape of the Lock_,    |
                    |etc.                  |
                    |                      |
  Samuel A. Allibone|Literature and        |Laborious and valuable.
  Pennsylvania--    |Authors, etc.         |
  1816-1889         |                      |
                    |                      |
  HENRY D. THOREAU  |Walden, Excursions    |Redolent of nature love, and
  Massachusetts--   |                      |cultured scholarship.
  1817-1862         |                      |
                    |                      |
  J. G. Holland     |Timothy Titcomb’s     |Enjoyed a large popularity.
  Massachusetts--   |Letters, Katrina      |
  1819-1881         |                      |
                    |                      |
  Edwin P. Whipple  |Essays and Reviews,   |Of very distinct cultural
  Massachusetts--   |American Literature   |value.
  1819-1886         |                      |
                    |                      |
  JAMES RUSSELL     |Among My Books, My    |Keen, sparkling, scholarly,
  LOWELL            |Study Windows, Biglow |and artistic.
  Massachusetts--   |Papers, _Poems_, _Sir |
  1819-1891         |Launfal_, _etc._      |
                    |                      |
  WALT WHITMAN      |_Poems_, _Leaves of   |Unique in claim and form.
  New York--1819-   |Grass_, _My Captain_, |
  1892              |_etc._                |
                    |                      |
  Julia Ward Howe   |Social and Philosoph- |Representative of the spirit
  New York--1819-   |ical Papers, _Battle  |of the times.
  1910              |Hymn of the Republic_ |
                    |                      |
  Margaret J.       |Beechen Brook,        |Cultured and of human
  Preston           |Cartoons, _Colonial   |interest.
  Virginia--1820-   |Ballads_              |
  1897              |                      |
                    |                      |
  Richard Grant     |Words and Their Uses; |Scholarly and suggestive.
  White             |Everyday English      |
  New York--1821-   |                      |
  1885              |                      |
                    |                      |
  Thomas Buchanan   |_Poems_; _Drifting_;  |Commendable, especially in
  Read              |_Sheridan’s Ride_,    |form.
  Pennsylvania--    |_etc._                |
  1822-1872         |                      |
                    |                      |
  Edward Everett    |The Man Without a     |Vigorous and pointed, but
  Hale              |Country, His Level    |provincial.
  Massachusetts--   |Best                  |
  1822-1909         |                      |
                    |                      |
  Donald G. Mitchell|Dream Life, Reveries  |Attractive in meditation and
  Connecticut--1822-|of a Bachelor         |grace.
  1909              |                      |
                    |                      |
  FRANCIS PARKMAN   |Oregon Trail, Montcalm|Romantic, picturesque and of
  Massachusetts--   |and Wolfe, etc.       |real interest.
  1823-1893         |                      |
                    |                      |
  George W. Curtis  |Potiphar Papers, Prue |Widely popular and
  New York--1824-   |and I, etc.           |effective.
  1892              |                      |
                    |                      |
  BAYARD TAYLOR     |Northern Travel,      |Too good at many things to
  Pennsylvania--    |Greece and Russia;    |be best at any.
  1825-1878         |_Poems of the Orient_,|
                    |_Translation of Faust_|
                    |                      |
  Stephen Collins   |_Old Folks at Home_,  |Popular in vein and melody.
  Foster            |_Old Uncle Ned_,      |
  Pennsylvania--    |_etc._                |
  1826-1864         |                      |
                    |                      |
  LEW WALLACE       |The Fair God, Prince  |Uneven, but at times highly
  Indiana--1827-1905|of India, Ben Hur     |successful.
                    |                      |
  Chas. Dudley      |My Summer in a Garden,|Catholic in interests and
  Warner            |Little Journeys, etc. |attainments.
  Massachusetts--   |                      |
  1829-1900         |                      |
                    |                      |
  John Esten Cooke  |Novels, Survey of     |Prime favorites with
  Virginia--1830-   |Eagle’s Nest, etc.,   |romantic youth.
  1886              |Lives of Lee and      |
                    |Jackson               |
                    |                      |
  Paul Hamilton     |_Sonnets_, _Legends_, |In sonnets excellent, in
  Hayne             |_Lyrics_              |other poems too prolific.
  South Carolina--  |                      |
  1831-1886         |                      |
                    |                      |
  LOUISA MAY ALCOTT |Little Women, Little  |Influential in their popular
  Massachusetts--   |Men                   |appeal.
  1832-1888         |                      |
                    |                      |
  Edmund C. Stedman |Victorian Poets, Poets|Showing creative power and
  Connecticut--1833-|of America, Alice of  |critical ability.
  1908              |Monmouth              |
                    |                      |
  Chas. Farrar      |Artemus Ward, His     |Humorous in exaggeration and
  Browne (Artemus   |Book, etc.            |perversion.
  Ward), Maine--    |                      |
  1834-1867         |                      |
                    |                      |
  Frank R. Stockton |Rudder Grange, The    |Ingenious in plot, straight-
  Pennsylvania--    |Lady or the Tiger     |forward in style.
  1834-1902         |                      |
                    |                      |
  Moses Coit Tyler  |History of American   |Accurate and exhaustive.
  Connecticut--1835-|Literature            |
  1900              |                      |
                    |                      |
  SAMUEL L. CLEMENS |Innocents Abroad,     |Thoroughly representative of
  Missouri--1835-   |Huckleberry Finn, etc.|American humor.
  1910              |                      |
                    |                      |
  Thomas Bailey     |Novels, Marjorie Daw, |Cultivated and of literary
  Aldrich           |etc.                  |talent.
  New Hampshire--   |                      |
  1836-1907         |                      |
                    |                      |
  WILLIAM DEAN      |Venetian Life; Rise of|Realistic and entertainingly
  HOWELLS           |Silas Lapham, etc.    |descriptive.
  Ohio--1837-       |                      |
                    |                      |
  John Burroughs    |Wake Robin, Winter    |Strongly uttering the charms
  New York--1837-   |Sunshine              |of nature.
                    |                      |
  Mary Mapes Dodge  |Hans Brinker          |In high favor with children.
  New York--1838-   |                      |
  1905              |                      |
                    |                      |
  Albion W. Tourgee |A Fool’s Errand,      |Valuable for the point of
  Ohio--1838-1905   |Bricks Without Straw  |view.
                    |                      |
  Thomas R.         |Life of Cooper,       |Of recognized scholarship
  Lounsbury         |Studies in Chaucer,   |and ability.
  New York--1838-   |etc.                  |
  1915              |                      |
                    |                      |
  Francis Bret Hart |Luck of Roaring Camp, |Of international fame.
  New York--1839-   |Gabriel Controy;      |Faithful and skillfull
  1902              |_Poems_               |character portrayal.
                    |                      |
  Joaquin Miller    |_The Danites in the   |With the sweep and breadth
  Indiana--1841-    |Sierras_, _Surge of   |of the prairies.
                    |the Sierras_          |
                    |                      |
  SIDNEY LANIER     |The Boy’s Froissart;  |Artistic to a high degree.
  Georgia--1842-1881|_Tiger-Lilies_,       |
                    |_Poems_               |
                    |                      |
  John Fiske        |Myths and Mythmakers, |Scholarly and fairminded.
  Connecticut--1842-|Histories             |
  1901              |                      |
                    |                      |
  HENRY JAMES       |Daisy Miller, Portrait|Of characteristic conception
  New York--1843-   |of a Lady, etc.       |and style.
  1916              |                      |
                    |                      |
  George W. Cable   |Old Creole Days, etc. |Successful in achievement of
  Louisiana--1844-  |                      |purpose.
                    |                      |
  Elizabeth S.      |Gates Ajar, etc.      |Widely read for religious
  Phelps Ward       |                      |sentiment.
  Massachusetts--   |                      |
  1844-             |                      |
                    |                      |
  Arthur S. Hardy   |Passe Rose, etc.      |Of trained literary ability.
  1847-             |                      |
                    |                      |
  James Lane Allen  |Flute and Violin, The |Reaching a high standard of
  Kentucky--1849-   |Choir Invisible, etc. |excellence.
                    |                      |
  Francis Marion    |Novels, Travel, Des-  |Best known for his
  Crawford          |criptive Sketches     |Saracinesca series, the
  New York--1854-   |                      |scenes of which are laid in
  1909              |                      |modern Rome.
                    |                      |
  JAMES WHITCOMB    |_Poems_, _Rhymes of   |His combination of humor,
  RILEY             |Childhood_, _The Book |pathos, and sentiment
  Indiana--1852-1916|of Joyous Children_,  |appeals to high and low
                    |_etc._                |alike.
                    |                      |
  Mary N. Murfree   |Novels, In the Tennes-|Absorbing studies in
  (Charles Egbert   |see Mountains, etc.   |southern life and character.
  Craddock), Tenn.--|                      |
  1850-             |                      |
                    |                      |
  Eugene Field      |_Poems_, _Little Boy  |Holds a special place in
  Missouri--1850-   |Blue_, _A Dutch Lulla-|American literature as the
  1895              |by_, _Love Song of    |poet of Christmas and
                    |Childhood_, _etc._    |childhood.
                    |                      |
  Amelie Rives      |Novels, Virginia of   |Her later writings show more
  Virginia--1863-   |Virginia, The Quick or|charity of thought and rich-
                    |the Dead, etc. _Poems_|ness of expression than was
                    |                      |characteristic of her
                    |                      |earlier productions.
                    |                      |
  Thomas Nelson Page|Novels, On Newfound   |An interpreter of local life
  Virginia--1853-   |River, Marse Chan,    |and color of unusual
                    |etc.                  |insight.
                    |                      |
  Henry J. Van Dyke |Novels, The Other Wise|Keen in observation, health-
  Pennsylvania--    |Man, etc.; _Poems_    |ful in tone, delightful in
  1852-             |                      |style.
                    |                      |
  ------------------+----------------------+----------------------------


PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF LITERARY ALLUSIONS

  Concise, explanatory paragraphs concerning Famous Books, Poems and
  Dramas; Literary Characters, Plots and Scenes; Pen Names of Famous
  Writers; Soubriquets and Nicknames; Literary Geography, Shrines and
  Haunts; and numerous other literary references.


KEY TO THE SOUNDS OF LETTERS

  _ä_, as in farm, father; _ȧ_, as in ask, fast; _a_, as in at, fat;
  _ā_, as in day, fate; _â_, as in care, fare; a, as in final; _e_, as
  in met, set; _ē_, as in me, see; _ẽ_, as in her, ermine; _i_, as in
  pin, sin; _ī_, as in pine, line; _o_, as in not, got; _ō_, as in
  note, old; _ô_, as in for, fought; ö, as in sole, only; õ, as in
  fog, orange; _ö_, sound cannot be exactly represented in English.
  The English sound of _u_ in _burn_ is perhaps the nearest equivalent
  to _ö_; _oo_, as in cook, look; _ōō_, as in coon, moon; _u_, as in
  cup, duck; _ū_, as in use, amuse; _û_, as in fur, urge; _ü_ sound
  cannot be exactly represented in English. The English sound of _u_
  in _luke_ and _duke_ resembles the original sound of _ü_. The letter
  N represents the nasal tone of the preceding vowel, as in _encore_
  (_ä_N-_kōr´_).

=A=

=Aaron= (_ā´ron_ or _ar’on_).--A character in Shakespeare’s _Titus
Andronicus_, a Moor of unnatural wickedness beloved by Tamora, queen of
the Goths. The character shows originality of conception, but is
otherwise repellant.

=Abaddon= (_a-bad´on_).--The Hebrew name of an evil spirit or destroying
angel called Apollyon in Greek. In mediæval literature he is regarded as
the chief of the demons of the seventh hierarchy and the one who causes
wars and uproars. Klopstock introduced him in his _Messiah_ under the
name of Abbadona. He represents him as a fallen angel still bearing
traces of his former dignity and repenting of his part in the rebellion
against God. In Bunyan’s _Pilgrim’s Progress_ he meets and fights with
Pilgrim.

=Abdalla= (_ab-dal´ä_).--(1) The Mufti, a character in Dryden’s tragedy
_Don Sebastian_. (2) One of Sir Brian de Bois Guilbert’s slaves, in
Scott’s _Ivanhoe_. (3) Brother and predecessor of Giaffer, pasha of
Abydos, by whom he was murdered, in Byron’s _Bride of Abydos_.

=Abdiel= (_ab´di-el_).--A seraph in Milton’s _Paradise Lost_, the only
seraph who remained loyal when Satan stirred up the angels to revolt.

=Abonde= (_a-bön-de´_).--A character in French literature that
corresponds to our Santa Claus, the good fairy who comes at night,
especially New Year’s night, to bring toys to children while they sleep.

=Abu-Hassan= (_ā-bö-has´an_).--As related in the _Arabian Nights_, Abou
Hassan is a merchant of Bagdad who is carried in his sleep to the bed of
the Caliph Haroun-al-Raschid and on awaking is made to believe himself
the caliph. Twice in this way he was made to believe himself caliph and
afterward became in reality the caliph’s favorite and companion.

=Absalom and Achitophel= (_ab´sa-lom_ and _a-kit´ō-fel_).--A poetical
satire by John Dryden, directed against the political faction led by the
Earl of Shaftesbury. The names in the title are given to the duke of
Monmouth and the earl of Shaftesbury. Like Absalom, the son of David,
Monmouth was remarkable for his personal beauty, his popularity, and his
undutifulness to his father.

=Absolute, Captain.=--A character in Sheridan’s comedy, _The Rivals_. He
is distinguished for his gallant, determined spirit, his quickness of
speech, and dry humor.

=Absolute, Sir Anthony.=--An amusing character in Sheridan’s _Rivals_.
He is represented as testy, positive, impatient, and overbearing, but
yet of a warm and generous disposition.

=Acadia= (_a-kā´di-ä_), =Acadie= (_ä-kä´-dē´_).--The original, and now
the poetic, name of Nova Scotia. In 1755, the French inhabitants were
seized, forcibly removed and dispersed among the English colonists on
the Atlantic coast. Longfellow has made this event the subject of his
poem _Evangeline_.

=Acrasia= (_a-krā´zi-ä_).--In Spencer’s _Faërie Queene_, a witch
represented as a lovely and charming woman, whose dwelling is the Bower
of Bliss, which is situated on an island floating in a lake or gulf, and
is adorned with everything in nature that can delight the senses. The
word signifies intemperance. She is the personification of sensuous
indulgence and intoxication. Sir Guyon, who illustrates the opposite
virtue, is commissioned by the fairy queen to bring her into subjection,
and to destroy her residence.

=Acres, Bob.=--A character in Sheridan’s _The Rivals_, celebrated for
his cowardice and his peculiar method of allegorical swearing.

=Adam.=--(1) Adam is a character frequently alluded to in the _Talmud_.
Many strange legends are related of him. He was buried, so Arabian
tradition says, on Aboncais, a mountain of Arabia. (2) In _As You Like
It_, Shakespeare, he is an aged servant to Orlando and offers to
accompany Orlando in his flight and to share with him his
carefully-hoarded savings of five hundred pounds. (3) In Shakespeare’s
_Comedy of Errors_, Adam is an officer known by his dress, a skin-coat.

=Adamastor= (_ad-am-ȧs´tor_).--The phantom of the Cape of Good Hope in
the _Lusiad_: a terrible spirit described by Camoens as appearing to
Vasco da Gama and prophesying the misfortunes which should fall upon
other expeditions to India.

=Adam Bede= (_bēd_).--A novel by George Eliot, the chief character of
which is a young carpenter, a keen and clever workman, somewhat
sharp-tempered and with a knowledge of some good books. He has an alert
conscience, good common sense and “well-balanced shares of
susceptibility and self-control.” He loves Hetty Sorrel, but finally
marries Dinah Morris.

=Adams, Parson.=--A character in Fielding’s story of _Joseph Andrews_,
distinguished for his goodness of heart, poverty, learning, and
ignorance of the world, combined with courage, modesty, and a thousand
oddities.

=Adonais= (_ad-ō-nā´is_).--An elegiac poem by Shelley, commemorating the
death of Keats. The name was coined by Shelley probably to hint an
analogy between Keats’ fate and that of Adonis.

=Advancement of Learning, The.=--A prose treatise by Francis, Lord
Bacon, which contains not only the germ of his Latin work, _De Augmentis
Scientiarum_, but really the pith and marrow of the Baconian philosophy,
if taken in connection with the second book of the _Novum Scientiarum
Organum_. An analysis of the work may be read in Hazlitt’s _Lectures on
the Literature of the Age of Elizabeth_.

=Æneid= (_ē-nē´id_), or =Æneis= (_-is_).--An epic poem, in twelve books,
by Vergil, recounting the adventures of Æneas after the fall of Troy,
founded on the Roman tradition that Æneas settled in Latium and became
the ancestral hero of the Roman people. The hero, driven by a storm on
the coast of Africa, is hospitably received by Dido, queen of Carthage,
to whom he relates the fall of Troy and his wanderings. An attachment
between them is broken by the departure of Æneas, in obedience to the
will of the gods, and the suicide of Dido follows. After a visit to
Sicily, Æneas lands at Cumæ in Italy. In a descent to the infernal
regions he sees his father, Anchises, and has a prophetic vision of the
glorious destiny of his race as well as of the future heroes of Rome. He
marries Lavinia, daughter of Latinus, king of the Latini, and a contest
with Turnus, king of the Rutuli, the rejected suitor follows, in which
Turnus is slain. The poem is a glorification of Rome and of the Emperor
Augustus, who, as a member of the Julian gens, traced his descent from
Julus (sometimes identified with Ascanius), the grandson of Æneas.

=Agamemnon= (_ag-ȧ-mem´non)_.--The greatest of the tragedies of
Æschylus. The scene is laid in Argos, in the palace of Agamemnon, at the
time of the king’s return from the capture of Troy; the catastrophe is
the murder (behind the scenes) of Agamemnon and Cassandra (whom he has
brought captive with him) by the queen Clytemnestra, urged on by her
paramour Ægisthus.

=Agnes.=--(1) A young girl in Molière’s _L’Ecole des Femmes_, who
affects to be remarkably simple and ingenuous. The name has passed into
popular use, and is applied to any young woman unsophisticated in
affairs. (2) A strong womanly character in _David Copperfield_ who
proves a true friend to David’s “child-wife,” Dora, and to David
himself. Later Dora dies and David marries Agnes.

=Agnes, The Eve of St.=--(1) A poem by John Keats. It is characterized
by Leigh Hunt as “the most delightful and complete specimen of his
genius; ... exquisitely loving; ... young but full-grown poetry of the
rarest description; graceful as the beardless Apollo; glowing and
gorgeous with the colors of romance.” St. Agnes was a Roman virgin who
suffered martyrdom in the reign of Diocletian. (2) A poem by Tennyson,
published in 1842.

=Agapida= (_ä-gä-pē´thä_), =Fray Antonio=.--The fictitious writer to
whom Washington Irving originally attributed the authorship of the
_Conquest of Granada_.

=Agib= (_ā´gib_).--(1) The third Calendar in the story of “The Three
Calendars” in the _Arabian Nights’ Entertainments_. (2) In the story of
Noureddin Ali and Bedredden Hassan in _The Arabian Nights_, a son of
Bedredden Hassan and the Queen of Beauty.

=Agramant= (_ä´grä-mänt_).--In Boiardo’s _Orlando Innamorato_ and
Ariosto’s _Orlando Furioso_, the young king of Africa.

=Ague-Cheek= (_ā´gū-chēk_), =Sir Andrew=. A character in Shakespeare’s
comedy _Twelfth Night_, a timid, silly but amusing country squire, to
whom life consists only of eating and drinking. He is stupid even to
silliness, but so devoid of self-love or self-conceit that he is
delightful in his simplicity.

=Ahasuerus= (_a-haz-ū-ē´rus_).--Chief character in Sue’s _A Wandering
Jew_, the cobbler who pushed away Jesus when, on the way to execution,
He rested a moment or two at his door. “Get off! Away with you!” cried
the cobbler. “Truly, I go away,” returned Jesus, “and that quickly; but
tarry thou till I come.” And from that time Ahasuerus became the
“wandering Jew,” who still roams the earth, and will continue so to do
till the “second coming of the Lord.”

=Ahmed= (_äh´med_), or =Achmet= (_äch´met_).--In the _Arabian Nights_,
noted for a magic tent he possessed which would cover a whole army but
might be carried in the pocket. He also possessed a magic apple which
would cure all diseases.

=Aladdin= (_a-lad´in_).--In the story of “Aladdin or the Wonderful
Lamp,” in the _Arabian Nights’ Entertainments_, the son of a poor widow
in China, who becomes possessed of a magic lamp and ring which command
the services of two terrific jinns. Learning the magic power of the
lamp, by accidentally rubbing it, Aladdin becomes rich and marries the
Princess of Cathay through the agency of the “slave of the lamp” who
also builds in a night a palace for her reception. One window of this
palace was left unfinished, and no one could complete it to match the
others. Aladdin therefore directs the jinns to finish it, which is done
in the twinkling of an eye (hence the phrase “to finish Aladdin’s
window”; that is, to attempt to finish something begun by a greater
man). After many years the original owner of the lamp, a magician, in
order to recover it, goes through the city offering new lamps for old.
The wife of Aladdin, tempted by this idea, exchanges the old rusty magic
lamp for a brand new useless one (hence the phrase “to exchange old
lamps for new”), and the magician transports both palace and princess to
Africa, but the ring helps Aladdin to find them. He kills the magician,
and, possessing himself of the lamp, transports the palace to Cathay,
and at the sultan’s death succeeds to the throne.

=Al Araf= (_äl ä rȧf_).--The Mohammedan limbo, between paradise and
jehennam, for those who die without sufficient merit to deserve the
former, and without sufficient demerit to deserve the latter. Here
lunatics, idiots, and infants go at death, according to the Koran. The
subject of an uncompleted poem by Edgar A. Poe.

=Alasnam= (_a-las´nam_).--The hero of a story in the _Arabian Nights_
entitled “The History of Prince Zeyn Alasnam and the Sultan of the
Genii,” Alasnam has eight diamond statues, but had to go in quest of a
ninth more precious still, to fill the vacant pedestal. The prize was
found in the lady who became his wife, at once the most beautiful and
the most perfect of her race.

=Albracca= (_äl-bräk´kä_).--In Bojardo’s _Orlando Innamorato_, a castle
of Cathay to which Angelica retires in grief at being scorned and
shunned by Rinaldo, with whom she is deeply in love. Here she is
besieged by Agricane, King of Tartary, who resolves to win her,
notwithstanding her indifference to his suit.

=Alceste= (_äl-sest´_).--The principal character in Molière’s comedy
_The Misanthrope_: a disagreeable but upright man who scorns the
civilities of life and the shams of society.

=Alcina= (_äl-che´na_).--A fairy, the embodiment of carnal delights, in
Boiardo’s _Orlando Innamorato_ and Ariosoto’s _Orlando Furioso_ the
sister of Logistalla (reason) and Morgana (lasciviousness). When tired
of her lovers she changed them into trees, beasts, etc., and was
finally, by means of a magic ring, displayed in her real senility and
ugliness. Compare _Acrasia_, _Armida_, and _Circe_.

=Aldine= (_al´din_) =Press=.--The press established at Venice by Aldus
Manutius. See _Manutius_.

=Aldingar= (_al´ding-gär_), =Sir=.--A character in Percy’s _Reliques_.
This ballad relates how the honor of Queen Elianor, wife of Henry
Plantagenet, impeached by Sir Aldingar, her steward, was submitted to
the chance of a duel, and how an angel, in the form of a little child,
appeared as her champion, and established her innocence.

=Alhambra= (_al-ham´brä_).--A volume of legends and descriptive sketches
by Washington Irving. “The account of my midnight rambles about the old
place,” says the author, “literally true, yet gives but a feeble idea of
my feelings and impressions, and of the singular haunts I was exploring.
Everything in the work relating to myself and to the actual inhabitants
of the Alhambra is unexaggerated fact; it was only in the legends that I
indulged in _romancing_, and these were founded on material picked up
about the place.”

=Ali Baba= (_ä´lē bä´bä_).--A character in _The Arabian Nights’
Entertainments_, in the story “Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves” a poor
wood-cutter who, concealed in a tree, sees a band of robbers enter a
secret cavern, and overhears the magic words “open sesame” which opens
its door. After their departure he repeats the spell and the door opens,
disclosing a room full of treasures with which he loads his asses and
returns home. His brother Cassim, who discovers his secret, enters the
cave alone, forgets the word “sesame,” and is found and cut to pieces by
the robbers. The thieves, discovering that Ali Baba knows their secret,
resolve to kill him, but are outwitted by Morgiana, a slave.

=Alice in Wonderland.=--A little girl through whose dream pass the
scenes of _Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland_ and _Behind the
Looking-glass_, two popular stories for children by Lewis Carroll
(Charles Dodgson). They have been translated into several European
languages.

=Alice Brand.=--In Scott’s _Lady of the Lake_, Alice signed Urgan the
dwarf thrice with the sign of the cross, and he became “the fairest
knight in all Scotland”; when Alice recognized in him her own brother.

=Allan-a-Dale.=--A friend of Robin Hood’s in the ballad. He is
introduced into Sir Walter Scott’s _Ivanhoe_ as Robin Hood’s minstrel.

=All’s Well That Ends Well.=--A comedy by Shakespeare. The hero and
heroine are Bertram, Count of Roussillon, and Helena, a physician’s
daughter, who are married by the command of the king of France, but part
because Bertram thought the lady not sufficiently well-born for him.
Bertram flees to Florence, but, ultimately, Helena wins his love and all
ends well.

=Allworthy, Mr.=--In Fielding’s novel of _Tom Jones_, a man of amiable
and benevolent character; intended for Mr. Ralph Allen, who was also
celebrated by Pope.

=Almighty Dollar.=--A personification of American worship. Washington
Irving originated the phrase in _The Creole Village_.

=Alp.=--_Siege of Corinth_, Byron. The hero of this poem.

=Amadis de Gaul.=--The hero of an ancient and celebrated Portuguese
romance.

=Amanda= (_a-man´dä_).--A young woman who impersonates Spring in
Thomson’s _Seasons_.

=Amaryllis=, =Amarillis= (_am-a-ril´is_).--In Spenser’s pastoral _Colin
Clout’s Come Home Again_, is the countess of Derby. Her name was Alice,
and she was the youngest of the six daughters of Sir John Spenser, of
Althorpe, ancestor of the noble houses of Spenser and Marlborough. After
the death of the earl, the widow married Sir Thomas Egerton, keeper of
the great seal (afterward baron of Ellesmere and viscount Brackley). It
was for this very lady, during her widowhood, that Milton wrote his
_Arcades_.

=Ambrose.=--A sharper in Lesage’s _Gil Blas_, who assumed in the
presence of Gil Blas the character of a devotee. He was in league with a
fellow who assumed the name of Don Raphael, and a young woman who called
herself Camilla, cousin of Donna Mencia. These three sharpers allure Gil
Blas to a house which Camilla says is hers, fleece him of his ring, his
portmanteau, and his money, decamp, and leave him to find out that the
house is only a hired lodging.

=Amelia= (_a-mē´liä_).--The title of one of Fielding’s novels, and the
name of its heroine, who is distinguished for her tenderness and
affection. The character of Amelia is said to have been drawn from
Fielding’s wife.

=Amine= (_ä-mēn´_).--In _Arabian Nights_ a female character who leads
her three sisters by her side as a leash of hounds.

=Aminte= (_ä-mant´_).--_Les Précieuses Ridicules_, Molière. A
contradictory character in this comedy. She dismisses her admirers for
proposing to marry her, scolds her uncle for not carrying himself as a
gentleman, and marries a valet whom she believes to be a nobleman.

=Amlet= (_am´let_).--The name of a gamester in Vanbrugh’s
_Confederacy_. =Amoret= (_am´ō-ret_).--(1) The name of a lady married
to Sir Scudamore, in Spenser’s _Faërie Queene_. She is the type of a
devoted, loving wife. (2) The heroine of Fletcher’s pastoral drama, _The
Faithful Shepherdess_.

=Amys and Amylion.=--Two faithful friends. The Pylades and Orestes of
the feudal ages. Their adventures are the subjects of ancient romances.

=Ancient Man.=--In Tennyson’s _Idylls of the King_, means Merlin, the
old magician, King Arthur’s protector and teacher.

=Ancient Mariner, The.=--A poem by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. The hero, an
ancient mariner “with a long gray beard and glittering eye,” suffers
terrible evils, and likewise inflicts them on his companions, from
having shot an albatross, a bird of good omen. All his comrades perish
of hunger, but, as he repents, he is permitted to regain the land. At
intervals his agony returns, and he is driven from place to place to
ease his soul by confessing his crime and sufferings to his fellows, and
enforcing upon them a lesson of love for “all things, both great and
small.”

“_The Ancient Mariner_,” says Swinburne, “is perhaps the most wonderful
of all poems. In reading it we seem rapt into that paradise revealed by
Swedenborg, where music and color and perfume were one, where you could
see the hues and hear the harmonies of heaven. For absolute melody and
splendor it were hardly rash to call it the first poem in the language.”

=Andrews, Joseph.=--The hero in Fielding’s novel by the same name,
written to ridicule Richardson’s _Pamela_. Fielding presents Joseph
Andrews as a brother to the modest and prudish Pamela, and pictures him
as a model young man.

=Angelica= (_an-jel´i-kä_).--(1) In Bojardo’s _Orlando Innamorato_, is
daughter of Galaphron, king of Cathay. She goes to Paris, and Orlando
falls in love with her, forgetful of wife, sovereign, country and glory.
Angelica, on the other hand, disregards Orlando, but passionately loves
Rinaldo, who positively dislikes her. Angelica and Rinaldo drink of
certain fountains, when opposite effects are produced in their hearts,
for then Rinaldo loves Angelica, while Angelica loses all love for
Rinaldo. (2) The heroine of Congreve’s comedy of _Love for Love_; in
love with Valentine, but the ward of Sir Sampson Legend, who seeks to
marry her. She jilts the old man, however, and marries the younger
lover. Angelica is supposed to represent Mrs. Bracegirdle; Valentine the
author himself who was enamoured of the actress, and was the rival of
the dramatist, Rowe, in her affections. (3) The heroine of Ariosto’s
_Orlando Furioso_. She was beloved by Orlando, but married Medoro. Also
the name of the heroine of Farquhar’s plays of the _Constant Couple_,
and _Sir Harry Wildair_.

=Angelic Doctor.=--A name bestowed upon Thomas Aquinas, because he
discussed the knotty point of “how many angels can dance on the point of
a needle.”

=Angelo= (_an´je-lō_).--A character in Shakespeare’s _Measure for
Measure_; also the name of a goldsmith in _the Comedy of Errors_.

=Angiolina.=--The wife of the doge of Venice, in Byron’s _Marino
Faliero_.

=Anna Karénina= (_än´nä kä-rā´nē-nä_).--A novel of Tolstoy, perhaps the
most representative of his works. It first appeared serially, but with
long intervals, in a Moscow review, and was published in 1877.

=Annabel Lee.=--The title and subject of a poem by Edgar Allan Poe,
which begins--

    It was many and many a year ago,
      In a kingdom by the sea,
    That a maiden there lived whom you may know
      By the name of Annabel Lee.

=Anne.=--Perrault’s _La Barbe Bleue_, the sister of Fatima, the seventh
and last wife of Bluebeard. Fatima, having disobeyed her lord by looking
into the locked chamber, is allowed a short respite before execution.
Sister Anne ascends the high tower of the castle, with the hope of
seeing her brothers, who were expected to arrive every moment. Fatima,
in her agony, keeps asking “sister Anne” if she can see them, and
Bluebeard keeps crying out for Fatima to use greater dispatch. As the
patience of both is exhausted the brothers arrive, and Fatima is rescued
from death.

=Annie Laurie=, eldest of the three daughters of Sir Robert Laurie, of
Maxwelton. In 1709 she married James Fergusson, of Craigdarroch, and was
the mother of Alexander Fergusson, the hero of Burns’ song _The
Whistle_. The song of _Annie Laurie_ was written by William Douglas, of
Fingland, in the stewardy of Kirkcudbright, hero of the song _Willie Was
a Wanton Wag_.

=Antipholus of Ephesus= (_an-tif´ō-lus ov ef´e-sus_), and =Antipholus of
Syracuse= (_sir´a-kūs_).--Twin brothers, sons to Ægeon and Æmilia, in
Shakespeare’s _Comedy of Errors_.

=Antonio= (_än-tō´nē-ō_).--(1) The merchant of Venice in Shakespeare’s
play of that name, the friend of Bassanio, and the object of Shylock’s
hatred. (2) The usurping Duke of Milan, and brother to Prospero, in
Shakespeare’s _Tempest_. (3) The father of Proteus, in Shakespeare’s
_Two Gentlemen of Verona_. (4) A minor character in Shakespeare’s _Much
Ado About Nothing_. (5) A sea captain, friend to Sebastian, in
Shakespeare’s _Twelfth Night_.

=Antony and Cleopatra.=--Historical tragedy by Shakespeare which may be
considered as a continuation of _Julius Cæsar_. In the opening scene of
_Julius Cæsar_ absolute power is lodged in one man. In the conclusion of
_Antony and Cleopatra_ a second Cæsar is again in possession of absolute
power, and the entire Roman world is limited under one imperial ruler.
There are four prominent characters in this play: Cleopatra, voluptuous,
fascinating, gross in her faults, but great in the power of her
affections; Octavius Cæsar, cool, prudent, calculating, avaricious;
Antony, quick, brave, reckless, prodigal; Enobarbus, a friend of Antony,
at first jocular and blunt, but transformed by penitence into a
grief-stricken man who dies in the bitterness of despair.

=Apocalypse.=--The Greek name of the last book of the Testament, termed
in English _Revelation_. It has been generally attributed to the Apostle
St. John, but some wholly reject it as spurious. In the first centuries
many churches disowned it, and in the fourth century it was excluded
from the sacred canon by the council of Laodicea, but was again received
by other councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held in the year
1545. Most commentators suppose it to have been written after the
destruction of Jerusalem, about A. D. 96; while others assign it an
earlier date. Its figures and symbols are impressive.

=Apocrypha= (_a-pok´ri-fä_).--The word originally meant secret or
hidden, and it is said that books of the _Apocrypha_ are not found in
either the Chaldean or the Hebrew language. These books were not in the
Jewish canon, but they were received as canonical by the Catholic
church, by the council of Trent. The apocryphal writings are ten in
number: _Baruch_, _Ecclesiasticus_, _Wisdom of Solomon_, _Tobit_,
_Judith_, two books of the _Maccabees_, _Song of the Three Children_,
_Susannah_, and _Bell and the Dragon_. Their style proves that they were
a part of the Jewish-Greek literature of Alexandria, within three
hundred years before Christ; and as the Septuagint Greek version of the
Hebrew Bible came from the same quarter, it was often accompanied by
these Greek writings, and they gained a general circulation. No trace of
them is found in the Talmud; they are mostly of legendary character, but
some of them are of value for their historical information, their moral
and maxims, and for the illustrations they give of ancient life.

=Apologia pro Vita Sua:= “Being a History of His Religious Opinions,”
published by John Henry Newman. The _Apologia_ will probably never be
equaled as a specimen of acute self-analysis. The only subsequent work
of a similar nature with which it can be compared or associated is Mr.
Gladstone’s _Chapter of Autobiography_, which was designed to defend the
consistency of his action in reference to the Irish church.

=Arabian Nights Entertainments=, consisting of one thousand and one
stories, told by the sultana of the Indies to divert the sultan from the
execution of a bloody vow he made to marry a lady every day and have her
head cut off next morning, to avenge himself for the disloyalty of the
first sultana. The story on which all the others hang is familiar.
Scheherezade, the generous, beautiful young daughter of the vizier, like
another Esther, resolves to risk her life in order to save the poor
maidens of her city, whom the sultan is marrying and beheading at the
rate of one a day. She plans to tell an interesting story each night to
the sultan, breaking off in a very exciting place in order that the
sultan may be tempted to spare her life so that he may hear the sequel.

=Aram= (_ā´ram_), =Eugene.=--A romance by Lord Lytton, founded on the
story of the Knaresborough schoolmaster who committed a murder under
peculiar circumstances.

=Archimage= (_är´ki-māj_), or =Archimago= (_är-ki-mā´gō_).--A character
in Spenser’s _Faërie Queene_, a hypocrite or deceiver. He is opposed to
holiness embodied in the Red Cross Knight, wins the confidence of the
knight in the disguise of a reverend hermit, and by the help of Duessa,
or Deceit, separates him from Una, or Truth.

=B=

=Barons’ Wars, The.=--An historical poem, in six books, by Michael
Drayton. “In some historic sketches,” says Campbell, “he reaches a
manner beyond himself. The pictures of Mortimer and the queen, and of
Edward’s entrance into the castle, are splendid and spirited.”

=Bartholomew= (_bär-thol´ō-mū_) =Fair.=--A comedy by Ben Jonson,
valuable for its lively pictures of the manners of the times. It is
chiefly remarkable for the exhibition of odd humors and tumblers’
tricks.

=Basilisco= (_bas-i-lis´kō_).--_Soliman and Perseda_, old play. A
boasting knight who became so popular with his foolish bragging that his
name grew into a proverb.

=Bassanio= (_ba-sä´ni-ō_).--_Merchant of Venice_, Shakespeare. The lover
of Portia who won her when he chose a leaden casket in which her
portrait was hidden.

=Bath, Major.=--_Amelia_, Henry Fielding. A noble-minded gentleman,
pompous in spite of poverty, and striving to live according to the
“dignity and honor of man.” He tries to hide his poverty under bold
speech even when found doing menial service.

=Battle, Sarah.=--_Essays of Elia_, Lamb. Sarah considered whist the
business of life and literature one of the relaxations. When a young
gentleman, of a literary turn, said to her he had no objection to unbend
his mind for a little time by taking a hand with her, Sarah declared,
“Whist was her life business; her duty; the thing she came into the
world to do. She unbent her mind afterward over a book.”

=Beatrice= (_bē´a-tris_, or _-trēs_).--_Divine Comedy_, Dante. Daughter
of an illustrious family of Florence for whom Dante had a great love. In
his poem she is represented as being his guide through paradise.
Beatrice is also the name of the heroine of Shakespeare’s _Much Ado
About Nothing_.

=Beauty and the Beast.=--Fairy tale by Mme. Villeneuve. Oft repeated in
stories for children, _Beauty and the Beast_ are known in many forms. In
the original tale young and lovely Beauty saved the life of her father
by putting herself in the power of a frightful but kind-hearted monster,
whose respectful affection and deep melancholy finally overcame her
aversion to his hideousness, and induced her to consent to marry him. By
her love Beast was set free from enchantment and allowed to assume his
own form, a handsome and graceful young prince.

=Bede, Adam.=--_Adam Bede_, George Eliot. An ideal workman, hero of the
novel.

=Bedivere= (_bed´i-vēr_).--_Tales of the Round Table_. Bedivere was the
last knight of King Arthur’s Round Table.

=Beggar’s Opera, The=, by John Gay, first acted at Lincoln’s Inn Fields,
in 1727, is the first, and perhaps the best, specimen of English ballad
opera. It was acted in London amid unprecedented applause, and obtained
scarcely less popularity through the provinces. It was said that it made
Rich, the manager, gay; and Gay, the poet, rich. Hazlitt says of the
_Opera_, that “it is indeed a masterpiece of wit and genius, not to say
of morality.”

=Belarius= (_be-lā´ri-us_).--A nobleman and soldier in the army of
Cymbeline, king of Britain.

=Belch= (_belch_), =Sir Toby.=--_Twelfth Night_, Shakespeare. Uncle to
Olivia, a jolly, carefree fellow, type of the roysterers of Queen
Elizabeth’s days.

=Belinda= (_be-lin´dä_).--_Rape of the Lock_, Pope. Poetical name of the
heroine, whose real name was said to be Arabella Fermor. In a frolic
Lord Petre cut a lock from the lady’s hair. This was so much resented
that it broke the great friendship between the two families. The poem,
_Rape of the Lock_, was written to bring the people into a better temper
and lead to reconciliation. Belinda is also the name of the heroine in a
novel written by Maria Edgeworth.

=Bell, Adam.=--_Old Ballad._ A famous wild outlaw belonging to the north
country and celebrated for his skill as an archer.

=Bell, Laura.=--_Pendennis_, Thackeray. One of the sweetest heroines in
English literature.

=Bellman.=--_L’Allegro_, Milton. The watchman who patrolled the streets
and called out the hour of night. Sometimes he repeated scraps of pious
poetry in order to charm away danger.

=Bell-the-Cat.=--Name given to a nobleman at Lauder, Scotland, early in
the sixteenth century. King James II. called an assembly of Scottish
barons to resist a threatened invasion of his realm by Edward IV. of
England. After long discussion one of the barons related the nursery
tale of a convention of mice in which it was proposed to hang a bell on
the cat’s neck, to give warning of her presence. No one would serve on
the mouse committee. To the story Archibald Douglas responded by saying,
“I will bell the cat,” and was afterward known by the name,
Bell-the-Cat.

=Belphœbe= (_bel-fē´bē_).--_Faërie Queene_, Spenser. A delicate and
graceful flattery offered to Queen Elizabeth through the huntress,
Belphœbe, intended as a likeness of the queen. The name taken from
belle, meaning beautiful, and Phœbe, a name sometimes bestowed on Diana.

=Belvawney, Miss.=--_Nicholas Nickleby_, Dickens. She belonged to the
wonderful Portsmouth theater, always took the part of a page and gloried
in silk stockings.

=Belvidera= (_bel-vē-dā´rä_).--_Venice Preserved_, Otway. The beautiful
heroine of the almost forgotten tragedy. Sir Walter Scott said “more
tears have been shed, probably, for the sorrows of Belvidera and Monimia
than for those of Juliet and Desdemona.”

=Benedick= (_ben´ē-dik_).--_Much Ado About Nothing_, Shakespeare. A
young lord of Padua who is gentleman, wit, and soldier. He was a
pronounced bachelor, but after a courtship full of witty sayings and
coquetry he marries the lovely Beatrice. From this gentleman comes the
name Benedick or Benedict, applied to married men who were not going to
marry.

=Benengeli= (_ben-en-gē´lē_), =Cid Hamet.=--_Don Quixote_, Cervantes.
Supposed to be a writer of chronicles among the Moors and claimed as
authority for the tales of adventure recorded by Cervantes. The name,
Cid Hamet, has been often quoted by writers.

=Ben Hur.=--A novel by General Lew Wallace. Messala, the Roman playmate
and young friend of Ben Hur, afterward became his remorseless enemy.
Ambitious, hard, and cruel, when he came into power he made Ben Hur a
galley slave, confiscated his property and imprisoned the mother and
sister. Ben Hur escaped, returned later as a wealthy Roman, and entered
in the famous chariot race against Messala, who had put up enormous sums
in wagers. Messala recognized Ben Hur, and hoped to win the race and
bring him to final ruin; but Messala himself was thrown and seriously
injured. His cruelties were made known, and he was at last slain by his
wife, Isas, the daughter of Balthasar.

=Bennet, Mrs.=--_Amelie_, Fielding. An improper character.

=Benvolio= (_ben-vō´li-ō_).--_Romeo and Juliet_, Shakespeare. One of
Romeo’s friends who would “quarrel with a man that had a hair more or a
hair less in his beard than he had.” Mercutio says to him, “Thou hast
quarreled with a man for coughing in the street.”

=Beowulf= (_bā´ō-wulf_).--The name of an Anglo-Saxon epic poem of the
sixth century. It received its name from Beowulf, who delivered
Hrothgar, King of Denmark, from the monster Grendel. This Grendel was
half monster and half man, and night after night stole into the king’s
palace, called Heorot, and slew sometimes as many as thirty of the
sleepers at a time. Beowulf put himself at the head of a mixed band of
warriors, went against the monster and slew it. This epic is very
Ossianic in style, full of beauties, and most interesting.

=Bertram= (_ber´tram_).--_Guy Mannering_, Scott. The character was
suggested by James Annesley, Esq., rightful heir of the earldom of
Anglesey, of which he was dispossessed by his uncle Richard. He died in
1743. Bertram was also the name of the haughty and dissolute count,
husband of Helena in Shakespeare’s comedy _All’s Well That Ends Well_.

=Bianca= (_bi-an´kä_).--(1) The youngest daughter of Baptista of Padua,
as gentle and meek as her sister Katherine was violent and irritable.
(2) The sweetheart, “almost” wife of Cassio, in Shakespeare’s _Othello_.

=Biglow Papers, The.=--A series of satirical poems, in the quaint Yankee
dialect, ascribed to a certain Hosea Biglow, but really written by the
American poet, James Russell Lowell.

=Birch, Harvey.=--_The Spy_, Cooper. The chief character of the novel.

=Biron= (_bē-rôn´_).--_Love’s Labor’s Lost_, Shakespeare. A merry madcap
young lord, in attendance on Ferdinand, king of Navarre.

=Black-Eyed Susan.=--_Ballad_, John Gay. The heroine of the popular sea
song.

=Black Knight of the Black Lands.=--Sir Peread. Called by Tennyson
_Night_ or _Nox_. He was one of the four brothers who kept the passages
of Castle Dangerous, and was overthrown by Sir Gareth. _Idylls_ (_Gareth
and Lynette_).

=Blatant Beast.=--_Faërie Queene_, Spenser. A bellowing monster typical
of slander; or, an impersonation of what we now call _Vox Populi_, or
the _Voice of the People_.

=Bleak House.=--A novel by Charles Dickens, the title of which was
suggested, it is said, by the situation of a certain tall brick house at
Broadstairs, which stands high above and far away from the remainder of
the town, and in which the author resided for several seasons.

=Blimber= (_blim´er_), =Miss Cornelia.=--_Dombey and Son_, Dickens. The
daughter of Dr. Blimber, the head of a first-class educational
establishment conducted on the forcing, or cramming, principle. She is a
very learned, grave, and precise young lady, “no light nonsense about
her,” who has become “dry and sandy with working in the graves of
deceased languages.”

=Blithedale= (_blīth´dāl_) =Romance, The.=--A story by Nathaniel
Hawthorne, founded on the author’s experience as a member of the Brook
Farm community. “Its predominant idea,” says R. H. Hutton, “is to
delineate the deranging effect of an absorbing philanthropic idea on a
powerful mind; the unscrupulous sacrifices of personal claims which it
induces, and the misery in which it ends. There is scarcely one
_incident_ in the tale properly so called except the catastrophe.”

=Blowzelinda= (_blou-ze-lin´dä_), or =Blowsalinda=
(_blou-za-lin´dä_).--_Shepherd’s Week_, John Gay. The country girl,
heroine of this pastoral poem, written more than one hundred and fifty
years ago, but quoted as a picture of the poverty and rudeness of rural
life at that time.

=Bobadil= (_bob´a-dil_), =Captain.=--_Every Man in His Humor_, Jonson. A
boasting coward, who passes himself off with young and simple people for
a Hector.

=Bœuf, Front de= (_beuf, fron du_).--_Ivanhoe_, Scott. One of King
John’s followers. A ferocious scoundrel.

=Bois-Guilbert= (_bwa´gel-bär´_), =Brian de.=--_Ivanhoe_, Scott. A brave
but cruel, crafty, and dissolute commander of the Knights Templar.

=Boniface= (_bon´i-fās_).--_The Beaux’s Stratagem_, Farquhar. A fine
representation of an English landlord. Hence applied to landlords
generally.

=Bontemps= (_bôn-ton´_), =Roger.=--_Song_, Beranger. Known in France as
the personification of care-free leisure. The equivalent, among the
French peasantry, for the English proverb, “There’s a good time coming,”
is _Roger Bontemps_. This one of Beranger’s most celebrated songs was
written in 1814.

=Bottom, Nick.=--_A Midsummer Night’s Dream_, Shakespeare. A man who
fancies he can do everything, and do it better than anyone else.
Shakespeare has drawn him as profoundly ignorant and with an overflow of
self-conceit. Oberon, the fairy king, desiring to punish Titania, his
queen, commissioned Puck to watch her till she fell asleep, and then to
anoint her eyelids with the juice of a plant called “love-in-idleness,”
the effect of which, when she awoke, was to make her dote upon Bottom,
upon whom Puck had fixed an ass’s head.

=Bourgeois Gentilhomme, Le= (_bōōr-zhwä´ zhon-tē-yōm´ lû_).--A comedy by
Molière, with music by Lulli, produced in 1670. The hero is a tradesman,
M. Jourdain, who is ambitious to marry his daughter to a titled husband.

=Bowling, Tom.=--_Roderick Random_, Smollett. A name made almost famous
as hero of the novel. Critics have said, “The character of Tom Bowling,
in _Roderick Random_ will be regarded in all ages as a happy exhibition
of those naval heroes to whom Britain is indebted for so much of her
happiness and glory.” The Tom Bowling referred to in Dibdin’s famous sea
song was Captain Thomas Dibdin, brother of Charles Dibdin, who wrote the
song.

=Boz= (_boz_), =Sketches by.=--By Charles Dickens. They were the first
of their class. Dickens was the first to unite the delicately playful
thread of Charles Lamb’s street musings--half experiences, half bookish
fantasies--with the vigorous wit and humor and observation of
Goldsmith’s _Citizen of the World_, his _Indigent Philosopher_, and _Man
in Black_, and twine them together in the golden cord of essay, which
combines literature with philosophy, humor with morality, amusement with
instruction. The most powerful and popular of the sketches are probably
those entitled, _A Visit to Newgate_, _The Drunkard’s Death_, _Election
for Beadle_, _Greenwich Fair_, and _Miss Evans at the Eagle_.

=Bracebridge Hall=, or _The Humorists_.--Miscellaneous sketches, in
fiction and essay, by Washington Irving, published in 1822.

=Brag, Jack.=--_Jack Brag_, Theodore Hook. Hero of the novel and a
spirited embodiment of the arts employed by a vulgar pretender to creep
into aristocratic society, and of his ultimate discomfiture. General
Burgoyne figures in an old ballad known as _Sir Jack Brag_.

=Bramble, Matthew.=--_Humphrey Clinker_, Smollett. Noted character in
the novel described as “an odd kind of humorist,” afflicted with the
gout, and “always on the fret,” but full of generosity and benevolence.

=Brass, Sally, and Sampson.=--_Old Curiosity Shop_, Dickens. Brother and
sister, well mated, he a shystering lawyer and she getting ahead of him
in villainy. Sampson was dishonest, sentimental, and affected in manner,
and both are interesting characters to read about.

=Brentford= (_brent´fōrd_), =The Two Kings of.=--_The Rehearsal_,
Villiers. Much question has been raised as to who was to be ridiculed
under these characters. The royal brothers, Charles II. and James II.,
have been suggested; others say the fighting kings of Granada. In the
farce the two kings are represented as walking hand in hand, as dancing
together and singing in concert.

=Briana= (_brī-ā´nä_).--Spenser’s _Faërie Queene_. The lady of a castle
who demanded for toll the locks of every lady and the beard of every
knight that passed. This toll was established because Sir Crudor, with
whom she was in love, refused to marry her till she had provided him
with human hair sufficient to purfle a mantle with. Sir Crudor, having
been overthrown in knightly combat by Sir Calidore, who refused to give
the passage pay, is made to release Briana from the condition imposed on
her, and Briana swears to discontinue the discourteous toll.

=Brick, Jefferson.=--In Dickens’ _Martin Chuzzlewit_. A very weak, pale
young man, the war correspondent of the _New York Rowdy Journal_, of
which Colonel Diver was editor.

=Bride of Abydos, The.=--A Turkish tale, told in octosyllabic verse by
Lord Byron, and published in 1813. It is in two cantos, and opens with
the well-known song imitated from Goethe, beginning: “Know ye the land
where the cypress and myrtle.” The name of the “bride” is Zuleika, and
that of her lover, Selim.

=Bride of Lammermoor, The.=--A romance of Sir Walter Scott, published in
1819, and characterized as a tragedy of the highest order, uniting
excellence of plot with Scott’s usual merits of character and
description.

=Brook Farm.=--The full name was “Brook Farm Institute of Agriculture
and Education,” a stock company of nearly seventy members, located on a
farm of two hundred acres at West Roxbury, Mass. Among the members were
George Ripley, Charles A. Dana, George William Curtis, Margaret Fuller
and Nathaniel Hawthorne. Among their frequent visitors were Ralph Waldo
Emerson, Theodore Parker, Bronson Alcott. This idyllic life lasted about
five years, from 1841 to 1846. Brook Farm was a financial failure but it
was important in intellectual results. Hawthorne has written the story
of the experiment in _Blithedale Romance_.

=Brown, Tom.=--_Tom Brown’s School Days_ and _Tom Brown at Oxford_,
Thomas Hughes. The hero of these stories of school days, a typical
English schoolboy and undergraduate.

=Brunhild= (_brön´hild_).--_Nibelungenlied._ The story of Brunhild holds
large place in ancient German romance. She was, herself, a warrior,
proud and skillful, and she promised to be the bride of the man who
could conquer her in three trials, in hurling the lance, in throwing the
stone, and in leaping after the stone when thrown. By the arts and
bravery of Siegfried, she was deluded into marrying Gunther, king of
Burgundy; but, discovering the trick, she planned and accomplished the
destruction of Siegfried, and the humiliation of Chriemhild, his wife.

=Bumble, Mr.=--_Oliver Twist_, Dickens. A pompous, disagreeable beadle,
who figures largely in the beginning of the story. The name Bumble has
since attached itself to the office.

=Bunsby= (_bunz´bi_), =Jack.=--_Dombey and Son_, Dickens. A commander of
a ship looked up to as an oracle by his friend Captain Cuttle. He is
described as wearing a “rapt and imperturbable manner,” and seeming to
be “always on the lookout for something in the extremest distance.”

=Bunthorne= (_bun´thôrn_).--_Patience_, Sullivan. A gloomy poet showing
most distinctly in his gloom surrounded by the characters of a comic
opera. He was inserted as a satire on the æsthetic craze, turning into
ridicule the imitators of Rossetti.

=Burchell= (_ber´chel_), =Mr.=--_Vicar of Wakefield_, Goldsmith. A
prominent character who passes himself off as a poor man, but is really
a baronet in disguise. He is noted for his habit of crying out “Fudge!”
by way of expressing his strong contempt for the opinions of others.

=Burd Helen.=--_Scotch Ballad._ A traditional name standing for
constancy. She was carried to England by fairies and imprisoned in a
castle. The youngest brother of the fair Burd Helen was guided by the
enchanter Merlin and accomplished the perilous task of rescuing his
sister. This is recited in the line “Childe Rowland to the dark tower
came,” quoted by Shakespeare. Only a fragment of the old ballad has been
preserved.

=Buskin.=--Tragedy. The Greek tragic actors used to wear a sandal some
two or three inches thick, to elevate their stature. To this sole was
attached a very elegant buskin.

=Buzfuz=, (_buz´fuz_) =Serjeant.=--_Pickwick Papers_, Dickens. A
pompous, chaffing lawyer, who bullies Mr. Pickwick and the witnesses in
the famous breach of promise suit, Bardell vs. Pickwick.

=Byfield.=--A New England parish, the scene of an historical novel by
John Lewis Ewell. Here lived the ancestor of Longfellow to whom the poet
dedicated _The Village Blacksmith_, himself a blacksmith, keeping his
accounts in peculiar orthography. According to the deed of sale in 1681,
the Byfield Indians got a larger price from the first English settlers
than was paid for Manhattan Island.

=C=

=Caius= (_kā´yus_), =Doctor.=--_Merry Wives of Windsor_, Shakespeare. A
physician in the comedy who adds a touch of humor. He is most
conspicuous as the lover of Anne Page.

=Calandrino= (_kä-län-drē´nō_).--A simpleton frequently introduced in
Boccaccio’s _Decameron_; expressly made to be befooled and played upon.
His mishaps, as Macaulay states, “have made all Europe merry for more
than four centuries.”

=Caleb.=--(1) The enchantress who carried off St. George in infancy. (2)
A character in Dryden’s satire of _Absalom and Achitophel_, meant for
Lord Grey, one of the adherents of the Duke of Monmouth.

=Caleb Quotem.=--A parish clerk or jack-of-all-trades, in Coleman’s play
_The Review, or Ways of Windsor_. Coleman borrowed the character from
_Throw Physic to the Dogs_, an old farce.

=Caliban= (_kal´i-ban_).--A savage and deformed slave of Prospero in
Shakespeare’s _Tempest_. He is represented as being the “freckled whelp”
of Sycorax, a foul hag, who was banished from Argier (or Algiers) to the
desert island afterward inhabited by Prospero. From his rude, uncouth
language we get the phrase “Caliban style,” “Caliban speech,” meaning
the coarsest possible use of words.

=Calidore= (_kal´i-dōr_).--A knight in Spenser’s Faërie Queene, typical
of courtesy, and said to be intended for a portrait of Sir Philip
Sidney.

=Calista.=--The name of a celebrated character in Rowe’s _Fair
Penitent_.

=Callipolis= (_ka-lip´o-lis_).--_Battle of Alcazar_, George Peele. A
character in the _Battle of Alcazar_, used by Sir Walter Scott and
others as a synonym for lady-love, sweetheart, charmer. Sir Walter
always spells the word Callipolis, but Peele calls it Calipolis.

=Calydon= (_kal´i-don_).--A forest celebrated in the romances relating
to King Arthur and Merlin.

=Camaralzaman, Prince.=--_Arabian Nights._--One of the stories of the
_Arabian Nights_ and the name of a prince who fell in love with Badoura,
princess of China, the moment he saw her.

=Camancho= (_kä-mä´chō_).--_Don Quixote_, Cervantes. A character in an
episode in _Don Quixote_, who gets cheated out of his bride after having
made great preparations for their wedding.

=Camballo= (_kam-bal´o_), or =Cambel=.--_Faërie Queene_, Spenser. A
brother of Candace. He challenged every suitor to his sister’s hand, and
overthrew all except Triamond, who married the lady.

=Cambalu.=--In the _Voyages of Marco Polo_ the chief city of the
province of Cathay.

=Cambuscan= (_kam-bus-kan´_, or _kam-bus´kan_).--A Tartar king identical
with Genghis Khan. The king of the Far East sent Cambuscan a “steed of
brass, which, between sunrise and sunset, would carry its rider to any
spot on the earth.” All that was required was to whisper the name of the
place in the horse’s ear, mount upon his back, and turn a pin set in his
ear. When the rider had arrived at the place required, he had to turn
another pin, and the horse instantly descended, and, with another screw
of the pin, vanished till it was again required. This story is begun by
Chaucer in the _Squire’s Tale_, but was never finished.

=Camelot= (_kam´e-lot_).--A parish in Somersetshire, England (now called
Queen’s Camel), where King Arthur is said to have held his court. In
this place there are still to be seen vast intrenchments of an ancient
town or station--called by the inhabitants “King Arthur’s Palace.”

=Camilla= (_ka-mil´ä_).--(1) The virgin queen of the Volscians, famous
for her fleetness of foot. She aided Turnus against Æneas. (2) Wife of
Anselmo of Florence in _Don Quixote_. Anselmo, in order to rejoice in
her incorruptible fidelity, induced his friend Lothario to try to
corrupt her. This he did, and Camilla was not trial-proof, but fell.
Anselmo for a time was kept in the dark, but at the end Camilla eloped
with Lothario. Anselmo died of grief, Lothario was slain in battle, and
Camilla died in a convent.

=Camille= (_kä-mēl´_).--(1) In Corneille’s tragedy of _Les Horaces_.
When her brother meets her and bids her congratulate him for his victory
over the three curiatii, she gives utterance to her grief for the death
of her lover. Horace says, “What! can you prefer a man to the interests
of Rome?” Whereupon Camille denounces Rome, and concludes with these
words: “Oh, that it were my lot!” (2) Whitehead dramatized the subject
and called it _The Roman Father_.

=Canace= (_kan´a-se_).--_Faërie Queene_, Spenser. A paragon among women,
the daughter of King Cambuscan, to whom the king of the East sent as a
present a mirror and a ring. The mirror would tell the lady if any man
on whom she set her heart would prove true or false, and the ring (which
was to be worn on her thumb) would enable her to understand the language
of birds and to converse with them. Canace was courted by a crowd of
suitors, but her brother gave out that anyone who pretended to her hand
must encounter him in single combat and overthrow him. She ultimately
married Triamond, son of the fairy, Agapë.

=Candide= (_kä_N-_dēd´_), =ou l’Optimisme= _(ōō lop-tē-mēzm´_).--A
philosophical novel by Voltaire, published in 1759. It is named from its
hero, who bears all the worst ills of life with a cool, philosophical
indifference, laughing at its miseries. Written ostensibly to ridicule
philosophical optimism, and on the spur given to pessimist theories by
the Lisbon earthquake, _Candide_ is really as comprehensive as it is
desultory. Religion, political government, national peculiarities, human
weakness, ambition, love, loyalty--all come in for the unfailing sneer.
The moral, wherever there is a moral, is, “Be tolerant, and _cultivez
vôtre jardin_”; that is to say, Do whatsoever work you have to do
diligently.

=Candor, Mrs.=--A most energetic slanderer in Sheridan’s _School for
Scandal_.

=Canterbury Tales, The=, by Geoffrey Chaucer, consist of a _Prologue_
and twenty-four narratives of which only two, _Chaucer’s Tales of
Melibœus_ and _The Parson’s Tale_, are in prose, the remainder being
written in couplets of ten syllables, which have laid the foundation for
the most popular form of English verse.

The plan of the poem is as follows: The author supposes that, on the
evening before he starts on a pilgrimage to the shrine of St.
Thomas-à-Becket, at Canterbury, he stops at the Tabard Inn, in
Southwark, where he finds himself in the midst of a company of
twenty-one, of all ranks and ages and both sexes, who are also bound for
the same destination. After supper, the host of Tabard, Harry Baillie by
name, proposes that, to beguile the journey there and back, the pilgrims
shall each of them tell two tales as they come and go; and that he who
by the general voice shall have told his story best, shall, on their
return to the hostelry, be treated to a supper at the common cost. This
is agreed to with acclamation; and, accordingly, the pilgrims start next
morning on their way, listening, as they ride, to the heroic tale of the
brave and gentle knight who has been chosen to narrate the first tale.

It will be understood that Chaucer does not profess to give to the world
all the stories told. As a matter of fact, he gives only twenty-four, of
which two have been already named, the remainder being those told by the
Knight, the Miller, the Reeve, the Cook, the Man of Law, the Wife of
Bath, the Friar, the Sompnour, the Clerk, the Squire, the Franklin, the
Doctor, the Pardoner, the Shipman, the Prioress, the Monk, the Nun’s
Priest, the second Nun, the Canon’s Yeoman, the Manciple, and Chaucer
himself (Sir Topas). Unfinished, as it is, however, the poem was
immensely popular, even in the author’s time; and it was one of the
first books that was issued from the press of Caxton, probably in 1475.

=Caora= (_kä´ō-rä_).--_Description of Guiana_, Raleigh. A river on the
banks of which are a people whose heads grow beneath their shoulders.
Their eyes are in their shoulders, and mouths in the middle of their
breasts. The original picture is found in Hakluyt’s _Voyages_, 1598.

=Capulet= (_kap´ū-let_).--The head of a noble Veronese house in
Shakespeare’s tragedy of _Romeo and Juliet_, hostile to the house of
Montague. He is at times self-willed and tyrannical, but a jovial and
testy old man.

=Capulet, Lady.=--The proud and stately wife of Capulet, and mother of
Juliet.

=Caradoc= (_kar´a-dok_).--A knight of the Round Table. Also, in history,
the British chief whom the Romans called Caractacus. Caradoc is the hero
of an old ballad entitled _The Boy and the Mantle_.

=Carker= (_kär´ker_).--A scoundrelly clerk in Dickens’ _Dombey and Son_.

=Carton, Sidney.=--A hero transformed by unselfish love in Dickens’
_Tale of Two Cities_. He voluntarily goes to the guillotine to save his
successful rival in love.

=Casca= (_kas´kä_).--_Julius Cæsar_, Shakespeare. A blunt-witted Roman,
one of the conspirators against Julius Cæsar.

=Cassandra= (_ka-san´drä_).--A daughter of Priam, king of Troy, gifted
with the power of prophecy; but Apollo, whom she had offended, brought
it to pass that no one believed her predictions. Shakespeare makes use
of this character in _Troilus and Cressida_.

=Cassibelan.=--Great uncle to Cymbeline, in Shakespeare’s play by that
name.

=Cassio= (_kash´iō_).--A Florentine, and lieutenant of Othello, and a
tool of Iago, in Shakespeare’s tragedy of _Othello_. Iago made Cassio
drunk, and then set on Roderigo to quarrel with him. Cassio wounded
Roderigo. Othello suspended Cassio, but Iago induced Desdemona to plead
for his restoration. This interest in Cassio confirmed the jealous rage
of Othello to murder Desdemona and kill himself. After the death of
Othello, Cassio was appointed governor of Cyprus.

=Castle Dangerous.=--A keep belonging to the Douglas family, which gives
its name to one of Sir Walter Scott’s _Tales of My Landlord_. It was so
called by the English because it was always retaken from them by the
Douglas.

=Castle of Indolence.=--The title of a poem by Thomson, and the name of
a castle, described in it as situated in a pleasing land of drowsiness,
where every sense was steeped in the most luxurious and enervating
delights.

=Castlewood, Beatrix.=--The heroine of Thackeray’s novel _Henry Esmond_,
a picture of splendid, lustrous, physical beauty.

=Caudle, Mrs. Margaret.=--The feigned author of a series of curtain
lectures by Douglas Jerrold, published in _Punch_, purporting to be the
lectures delivered by Mrs. Margaret Caudle to her patient husband, Job
Caudle, between the hours of ten at night and seven in the morning.

=Cauline, Sir.=--A knight in Percy’s _Reliques_, who served the wine to
the king of Ireland. He fell in love with Christabelle, the king’s
daughter, and she became his troth-plight wife, without her father’s
knowledge. When the king knew of it, he banished Sir Cauline. After a
time the soldain asked the lady in marriage, but Sir Cauline challenged
his rival and slew him. He himself, however, died of the wounds he had
received, and the Lady Christabelle, out of grief, “burst her gentle
hearte in twayne.”

=Cecilia, St.=--A patron saint of the blind, also patroness of
musicians, and “inventor of the organ.” According to tradition, an angel
fell in love with her for her musical skill, and used nightly to visit
her.

=Celadon= (_sel´a-don_) =and Amelia.=--Lovers of matchless beauty and
most devoted to each other. Being overtaken by a thunderstorm, Amelia
became alarmed, but Celadon, folding his arm about her, said, “’Tis
safety to be near thee, sure”; but while he spoke Amelia was struck by
lightning and fell dead in his arms.

=Celia.=--_Faërie Queene_, Spenser. (1) Mother of Faith, Hope and
Charity. She was herself known as Heavenliness and lived in the hospices
Holiness. (2) Celia, cousin to Rosalind in Shakespeare’s comedy _As You
Like It_. Celia is a common poetical name for a lady or a lady-love.

=Chadband= (_chad´band_), =The Rev.=--A clerical character in Dickens’
_Bleak House_. He will always stand as a type of hypocritical piety.

=Chanticleer= (_chan´ti-klēr_).--The cock in the tale of _Reynard the
Fox_, and in Chaucer’s _Nonne Prestes Tale_.

=Charlemagne= (_chär´le-män_).--The romance of Charlemagne and his
paladins is of French origin, as the romances of King Arthur and the
Knights of the Round Table is of Celtic or Welsh origin. According to
one tradition Charlemagne is not dead, but waits, crowned and armed, in
Odenberg, near Saltzburg, till the time of the antichrist, when he will
wake up and deliver Christendom. According to another tradition,
Charlemagne appears in seasons of plenty. He crosses the Rhine on a
golden bridge, and blesses both cornfields and vineyards.

=Charmian= (_chär´mi-an_).--A kind-hearted but simple-minded female
attendant on Cleopatra in Shakespeare’s play of _Antony and Cleopatra_.

=Cheeryble= (_chēr´i-bl_) =Brothers, The.=--A firm of benevolent London
merchants in Dickens’ _Nicholas Nickleby_.

=Chery and Fair-Star.=--_Countess d’Aulnoy’s Fairy Tales._ Two children
of royal birth, whom their father’s brothers and their mother’s sisters
cast out to sea; they are found and brought up by a corsair and his
wife. Ultimately they are told of their birth by a green bird and marry
each other. A similar tale is found in _The Arabian Nights_.

=Chibiabos.=--The musician in Longfellow’s _Hiawatha_, personifying
harmony in nature.

=Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage.=--A poem, in the Spenserian stanza, by Lord
Byron. It consists of four cantos, of which the first and second were
published in 1812, the third in 1816, and the fourth in 1818; and the
preface to the first two cantos contained the following explanation of
the origin and purpose of the poem.

“It was written,” says Lord Byron, “for the most part, amid the scenes
which it attempts to describe. It was begun in Albania; and the parts
relative to Spain and Portugal were composed from the author’s
observations in those countries.... the scenes attempted to be sketched
are in Spain, Portugal, Epirus, Acarnania, and Greece (the third canto
describes scenes in Belgium, Switzerland, and the Valley of the Rhine;
and canto four is chiefly occupied with Rome).... A fictitious character
is introduced for the sake of giving some connection to the piece,
which, however, makes no pretensions to regularity. It has been
suggested to me by friends, on whose opinion I set a high value, that in
this fictitious character, Childe Harold, I may incur the suspicion of
having intended some real personage; this I beg leave, once for all, to
disclaim. Harold is the creation of imagination, for the purpose I have
stated. In some trivial particulars, and those merely local, there might
be grounds for such a notion; but in the main points, I should hope,
none whatever. It is almost superfluous to mention that the appellation
‘Childe’ is used as more consonant with the old structure of
versification which I have adopted.”

=Children in the Wood.=--Two characters in an ancient and well-known
ballad entitled _The Children in the Wood_, or _The Norfolk Gent’s Last
Will and Testament_. This is said to be a disguised recital of the
alleged murder of his nephews by Richard III.

=Chillingly, Kenelm.=--The hero in a novel by this name by Bulwer.

=Chillon= (_shē-yôn_), =The Prisoner of.=--A poem by Lord Byron, founded
on the story of Francois de Bonnivard, the hero of Genevan independence,
and published in 1816. Bonnivard was born in 1496, and died in 1571. An
account of his life, in France, is prefixed to the poem.

=Chingachgook.=--A sagamore of the Mohicans and father of Uncas, in
Cooper’s _Leather-Stocking Tales_.

=Chloe= (_klō´ē_).--_Daphnis and Chloe_, Longus. (1) The shepherdess
loved by Daphne. (2) _Paul and Virginia_ by St. Pierre is founded on
this romance. (3) Chloe is also a shepherdess in Shakespeare’s _As You
Like It_.

=Chœreas.=--The lover of Callirrhoë, in Chariton’s Greek romance.

=Chriemhild=, or =Kriemhild= (_krēm´hild_).--The heroine of the German
epic poem, the _Nibelungenlied_. She is represented as a woman of the
rarest grace and beauty, and rich beyond conception. By the treacherous
murder of her husband she is transformed into a furious creature of
revenge. For plot of this epic cycle, see “Kriemhild.”

=Christabel= (_kris´ta-bel_).--(1) The subject and heroine of an old
romance by Sir Eglamour of Artois. (2) The heroine of an ancient ballad
_Sir Cauline_. (3) The lady in Coleridge’s poem _Christabel_.

=Christian= (_kris´tian_).--The hero of John Bunyan’s allegory
_Pilgrim’s Progress_. He flees from the “City of Destruction,” and
journeys to the “Celestial City.” He starts with a heavy burden on his
back, but it falls off when he stands at the foot of the cross. All his
trials on the way are depicted.

=Christiana= (_kris-tē-ä´nä_).--The wife of Christian, who, starting
with her children and Mercy from the “City of Destruction,” forms the
subject of Bunyan’s _Pilgrim’s Progress_, part II. She was placed under
the guidance of Mr. Great-Heart, and met her husband at the Celestial
City.

=Christmas Carol, A.=--A ghost story of Christmas, by Charles Dickens,
published in 1843, with illustrations by John Leech. “We are all
charmed,” wrote Lord Jeffrey to the author, “with your _Carol_, chiefly,
I think, for the genuine goodness which breathes all through it, and is
the true inspiring angel by which its genius has been awakened. The
whole scene of the Cratchits is like the dream of a benevolent angel, in
spite of its broad reality, and little Tiny Tim in life and death almost
as sweet and touching as Nelly.”

=Christmas Eve.=--A poem by Robert Browning, in which, “after following
through a long course of reflection the successive phases of religious
belief, he arrives at the certainty that, however confused be the vision
of Christ, where His love is, there is the Life; and that, the more
direct the revelation of that Love, the deeper and more vital is its
power.”

=Christopher, St.=--The giant that carried a child over a brook, and
said, “Chylde, thou has put me in grete peryll. I might bere no greater
burden.” The Chylde was the Christ and the burden was the “Sin of the
World.” This has been a favorite theme for painters.

=Chrysalde= (_krē-zäld´_).--A character in Molière’s _L’Ecole des
Femmes_; a friend of Arnolphe.

=Chrysale= (_krē-zäl´_).--An honest, simple-minded, henpecked tradesman,
in the same comedy by Molière.

=Chuzzlewit, Martin.=--The hero of Dickens’ novel of the same name. The
story is remarkable for the attention it directed to the system of ship
hospitals and to the workhouse nurses whose prototype in Sarah Gamp has
become famous all over the world.

=Chuzzlewit, Jonas.=--A miser and a murderer, the opposite type of
character from Martin.

=Cimmerians= (_si-mē´ri-anz_).--A people described by Homer dwelling
“beyond the ocean stream,” in a land where the sun never shines.

=Cinderella.=--Heroine of a fairy tale. She is the drudge of the house,
while her elder sisters go to fine balls. At length a fairy enables her
to go to the prince’s ball; the prince falls in love with her, and she
is discovered by means of a glass slipper which she drops, and which
will fit no foot but her own. She is represented as returning good for
evil and heaping upon her half-sisters every kindness a princess can
show.

=Cipango= (_si-pang´gō_).--A marvelous island, described in the
_Voyages_ of Marco Polo, the Venetian traveler. It is represented as
lying in the Eastern seas, some one thousand five hundred miles from
land, and of its beauty and wealth many stories are related. Columbus
made a diligent search for this island.

=Clärchen= (_klār´chen_).--A female character in Goethe’s _Egmont_,
noted for her constancy and devotion.

=Clare, Ada.=--The wife of Carstone, and one of the most important
characters in Dickens’ _Bleak House_.

=Clavileño= (_klä-vē-lān´yō_), =El Alígero=.--The wooden horse on which
Don Quixote got astride in order to disenchant the Infanta Antonomasia,
her husband, and the Countess Trifaldi. It was “the very horse on which
Peter of Provence carried off the fair Magalona, and was constructed by
Merlin.” This horse was called Clavileño, or Wooden Peg, because it was
governed by a wooden pin in the forehead.

=Cléante= (_klā-ont´_).--Brother-in-law of Orgon in Molière’s
_Tartuffe_. He is distinguished for his genuine piety, and is both
high-minded and compassionate. The same name occurs in two other plays
by Molière.

=Cleishbotham= (_klēsh´bo_TH-_am_), =Jedediah=.--Schoolmaster and parish
clerk of Gandercleuch, who employed his assistant teacher to arrange and
edit the tales told by the landlord of the Wallace inn of the same
parish. These tales the editor disposed in three series, called by the
general title of _The Tales of My Landlord_. Of course the real author
is Sir Walter Scott.

=Clementina, Lady.=--A beautiful and accomplished woman, deeply in love
with Sir Charles Grandison, in Richardson’s novel of this name.

=Cleon= (_klē´on_).--(1) In Shakespeare’s _Pericles_, governor of
Tarsus, burned to death with his wife Dionysia by the enraged citizens,
to revenge the supposed murder of Marina, daughter of Pericles, prince
of Tyre. (2) The personification of glory in Spenser’s _Faërie Queene_.

=Clifford, Paul.=--An attractive highwayman and an interesting hero in
Bulwer’s novel by the same name. He is familiar with the haunts of low
vice and dissipation, but afterward is reformed and elevated by the
power of love.

=Clinker, Humphrey.=--A novel by Smollett. The hero, by the same name, a
philosophic youth, meets many adventures. Brought up in the workhouse,
put out by the parish as apprentice to a blacksmith, he was afterward
employed as a hostler’s assistant. Having been dismissed from the
stable, and reduced to great want, he at length attracts the notice of
Mr. Bramble who takes him into his family as a servant. He becomes the
accepted lover of Winifred Jenkins, and at length turns out to be a
natural son of Mr. Bramble.

=Cloten= (_klō´ten_).--A rejected lover of Imogen, in Shakespeare’s play
of _Cymbeline_.

=Clorinda= (_klō-rin´dä_).--_Jerusalem Delivered_, Tasso. Clorinda, the
heroine of this poem, is represented as an Amazon inspiring the most
tender affection in others, especially in the Christian chief Tancred;
yet she is herself susceptible of no passion but the love of military
fame.

=Clouds, The.=--A famous comedy by Aristophanes. Strepsiades
(“Turncoat”) sends his spendthrift son Phidippides to the phrontistery
(“thinking shop”) of Socrates, who appears as a sophist, to be reformed
by training in rhetoric. Phidippides refuses to go; so Strepsiades goes
himself, and finds Socrates swinging in a basket, observing the sun and
ether. Socrates summons the Clouds, his new deities, and undertakes to
make a sophist of him and free him from the religion of his fathers.
Unfortunate results of his new knowledge show Strepsiades his error, and
he abandons Socrates and sets the phrontistery on fire.

=Cock, The.=--A famous tavern in Fleet street, London, opposite the
Temple. Tennyson has immortalized it in his _Will Waterproof’s Lyrical
Monologue_.

=Cœlebs= (_sē´lebz_).--The hero of a novel by Hannah More, _Cœlebs in
Search of a Wife_.

=Colada.= (_kō-lä´_TH_ä_).--The sword taken by the Cid from Ramon
Berenger, count of Barcelona. This sword had two hilts of solid gold.

=Colin Clout= (_kol´in klout_).--A name that Spenser applies to himself
in the _Faërie Queene_ and _Shepherd’s Calendar_. Colin Clout also is
introduced into Gay’s pastorals.

=Cologne= (_kō-lōn´_), =The Three Kings of.=--The three magi who visited
the Infant Savior, and whose bodies are said to have been brought by the
Empress Helena from the East to Constantinople, whence they were
transferred to Milan. Afterward they were removed to Cologne and placed
in the principal church of the city. Their names are commonly said to be
Jaspar, Melchior, and Balthazar.

=Comedy of Errors.=--A comedy by Shakespeare. Twin brothers of exact
likeness named Antipholus are served by attendant slaves named Dromio
also of striking resemblance. The humor of the play lies in the
complications that arise. The two brothers are lost at sea with their
servants and are picked up by different vessels. After long separation
they all reappear in Ephesus. There is great entanglement of plot until
both brothers face each other in a trial before the duke and all is
explained.

=Complete Angler, The= (or, _The Contemplative Man’s Recreation_. “A
discourse, of Fish and Fishing, not unworthy the Perusal of most
Anglers”).--A famous treatise by Izaak Walton, published in 1653.
“Whether,” says Sir John Hawkins, “we consider the elegant simplicity of
the style, the ease and unaffected humor of the dialogue, the lovely
scenes which it delineates, the enchanting pastoral poetry which it
contains, or the fine morality it so sweetly inculcates, it has hardly
its fellow in any of the modern languages.”

=Comus.=--A masque, or dramatic poem, by John Milton, published in 1637.
It was written for the earl of Bridgewater, and acted at his residence,
Castle Ludlow, in Shropshire, on Michaelmas night, 1634. The music is by
Henry Lawes. Comus (a revel) was the Roman god of banqueting and festive
amusements; but in Milton’s poems he appears as a lewd enchanter, whose
pleasure it is to deceive and ruin the chaste and innocent.

=Coningsby= (_kon´ingz-bi_).--A novel by B. Disraeli. The characters are
meant for portraits: thus, “Rigby” represents Croker; “Monmouth,” Lord
Hertford; “Eskdale,” Lowther; “Ormsby,” Irving; “Lucretia,” Mme. Zichy;
“Countess Colonna,” Lady Strachan; “Sidonia,” Baron A. de Rothschild;
“Henry Sidney,” Lord John Manners; “Belvoir,” duke of Rutland, second
son of Beaumanoir.

=Consuelo= (_kôN-sü-ā-lō´_).--A noted novel by George Sand. The heroine
has the same name, and is an impersonation of noble purity sustained
amidst great temptations.

=Cophetua= (_kō-fet´ū-ä_).--An imaginary African king, of whom a
legendary ballad told that he fell in love with a beggar maid and
married her. This ballad is found in Percy’s _Reliques_. Tennyson has
given us a modern version in _The Beggar Maid_.

=Copperfield, David.=--A novel by Charles Dickens. David is Dickens
himself, and Micawber is Dickens’ father. According to the tale, David’s
mother was nursery governess in a family where Mr. Copperfield visited.
At the death of Mr. Copperfield, the widow married Edward Murdstone, a
hard, tyrannical man, who made the home of David a dread and terror to
the boy. When his mother died, Murdstone sent David to lodge with the
Micawbers, and bound him apprentice to Messrs. Murdstone and Grinby, by
whom he was put into the warehouse, and set to paste labels upon wine
and spirit bottles. David soon became tired of this dreary work, and ran
away to Dover, where he was kindly received by his [great-]aunt Betsy
Trotwood, who clothed him, and sent him as day-boy to Dr. Strong, but
placed him to board with Mr. Wickfield, a lawyer, father of Agnes,
between whom and David a mutual attachment sprang up. David’s first wife
was Dora Spenlow, but at the death of this pretty little “child-wife,”
he married Agnes Wickfield.

=Cordelia= (_kôr-dē´liä_).--_King Lear_, Shakespeare. The youngest of
Lear’s three daughters, and the one that truly loved him.

=Corinne= (_ko-rēn´_).--The heroine of a novel, of the same name, by
Madame de Staël.

=Coriolanus= (_kō´ri-ō-lā´nus_).--An historical play by William
Shakespeare. In the plot, and in many of the speeches, Shakespeare has
followed Sir Thomas North’s _Life of Coriolanus_, included in his
translation of Amyot’s _Plutarch_. “The subject of _Coriolanus_,” says
Prof. Dowden, “is the ruin of a noble life through the sin of pride. If
duty be the dominant ideal with Brutus, and pleasure of a magnificent
kind be the ideal of Antony and Cleopatra, that which gives tone and
color to Coriolanus is an ideal of self-centered power. The greatness of
Brutus is altogether that of the moral conscience; his external figure
does not dilate upon the world through a golden haze like that of
Antony, nor bulk massively and tower like that of Coriolanus. A haughty
and passionate personal feeling, a superb egoism, are with Coriolanus
the sources of weakness and of strength.”

=Corsair, The.=--A poem, in three cantos, by Lord Byron, published in
1814. The hero is called Conrad, and is described, in a well-known
passage, as leaving

            “a Corsair’s name to other times,
    Link’d with one virtue, and a thousand crimes.”

The heroines are Medora, whom Conrad loves, and Gulnare, “the Harem
queen,” whose love is given to Conrad, and who kills her master, Seyd,
in order that Conrad may be free.

=Corydon= (_kor´i-don_).--A shepherd in one of the _Idylls of
Theocritus_, and one of the _Eclogues of Vergil_. Used by Shakespeare
and later poets to designate a rustic swain.

=Costard= (_kos´tärd_).--A clown, in Shakespeare’s _Love’s Labor’s
Lost_, who apes the display of wit, and misapplies, in the most
ridiculous manner, the phrases and modes of combination in argument that
were then in vogue.

=Cotter’s Saturday Night, The.=--A poem by Robert Burns of which his
brother remarks: “Robert had frequently remarked to me that there was
something particularly venerable in the phrase, ‘Let us worship God,’
used by a decent, sober head of a family introducing family worship. To
this sentiment of the author the world is indebted for the _Cotter’s
Saturday Night_. The hint of the plan and title of the poem are taken
from Ferguson’s _Farmer’s Ingle_.”

=Count of Monte Cristo.=--A celebrated romance by Alexander Dumas, in
which Edmond Dantes, the hero, suffers unjust imprisonment for many
years. He finally escapes, only to be apprised of the death of his
father and the marriage of his former sweetheart. From information
derived from a fellow prisoner, he then comes into possession of great
riches through the successful discovery of hoards of treasure in the
island of Monte Cristo. His remaining years are given over to a
vindication of his former life.

=Coverly= (papers by Steele and Addison), =Sir Roger de=, was a member
of a hypothetical club, and was noted for his modesty, generosity,
hospitality, and eccentric whims. He was most courteous to his
neighbors, most affectionate to his family, most amiable to his
domestics. Sir Roger, who figures in thirty papers of the _Spectator_,
is the very beau-ideal of an amiable country gentleman of Queen Anne’s
time.

=Crabtree.=--A character in Smollett’s novel, _The Adventures of
Peregrine Pickle_.

=Crane, Ichabod.=--The name of a Yankee schoolmaster, whose adventures
are related in the _Legend of Sleepy Hollow_, in Irving’s _Sketch-Book_.

=Crawley= (_krâ´li_), =Rawdon=.--The husband of Becky Sharp in _Vanity
Fair_, Thackeray’s novel without a hero.

=Creakle= (_krē´kl_), =Mr.=--A tyrannical and cruel schoolmaster in
Dickens’ _David Copperfield_.

=Cressida= (kres´i-dä).--The heroine of Shakespeare’s play, _Troilus and
Cressida_, also the heroine of one of Chaucer’s _Canterbury Tales_.

=Croaker.=--A character in Goldsmith’s comedy, _The Good-Natured Man_.

=Crummles= (_krum´lz_), =Vincent.=--A theatrical head of a theatrical
family in Dickens’ _Nicholas Nickleby_.

=Crusoe, Robinson.=--Title and hero of a novel by Daniel Defoe. Robinson
Crusoe is a shipwrecked sailor, who leads a solitary life for many years
on a desert island, and relieves the tedium of life by ingenious
contrivances (1719). The story is based on the adventures of Alexander
Selkirk, a Scotch sailor, who in 1704 was left by Captain Stradding on
the uninhabited island of Juan Fernandez. Here he remained for four
years and four months, when he was rescued by Captain Woodes Rogers and
brought to England.

=Cuttle, Captain.=--A character in Dickens’ _Dombey and Son_,
good-humored, eccentric, pathetic in his simple credulity.

=Cymbeline= (_sim´be-lin_).--Title and hero of Shakespeare’s play.
Imogen, daughter of Cymbeline, king of Britain, married clandestinely
Posthumus Leonatus; and Posthumus, being banished for the offense,
retired to Rome. One day, in the house of Philario, the conversation
turned on the merits of wives, and Posthumus bet his diamond ring that
nothing could tempt the fidelity of Imogen. Through the villainy of
Iachimo, Cymbeline was forced to believe Imogen untrue. The villainy
was in time disclosed, and the beautiful character of Imogen revealed.

=D=

=Dalgetty= (_dal´get-i_), =Captain Dugald=.--A soldier of fortune in Sir
Walter Scott’s _Legend of Montrose_, distinguished for his pedantry,
conceit, valor, vulgar assurance, knowledge of the world, greediness,
and a hundred other qualities, making him one of the most amusing,
admirable, and natural characters ever drawn by the hand of genius.

=Damocles= (_dam´ō-klēz_).--A flatterer in the court of Dionysius of
Syracuse. By way of answer to his constant praises of the happiness of
kings, Dionysius seated him at a royal banquet, with a sword hung over
his head by a single horsehair. In the midst of his magnificent banquet,
Damocles, chancing to look upward, saw a sharp and naked sword suspended
over his head. A sight so alarming instantly changed his views on the
felicity of kings. The phrase signifies now evil foreboding or dread, a
tantalizing torment.

=Damon and Pythias= (_pith´i-as_).--(1) A play by Richard Edwards,
printed in 1571. Its main subject is tragic, but it calls itself a
comedy. (2) A tragedy by John Banim and Richard Lalor Sheil, produced in
1821. (3) Two noble Pythagoreans of Syracuse, who have been remembered
as models of faithful friendship. Pythias having been condemned to death
by Dionysius, the tyrant of Syracuse, begged to be allowed to go home,
for the purpose of arranging his affairs, Damon pledging his own life
for the reappearance of his friend. Dionysius consented, and Pythias
returned just in time to save Damon from death. Struck by so noble an
example of mutual affection, the tyrant pardoned Pythias, and desired to
be admitted into their sacred fellowship.

=Dandie Dinmont.=--A jovial, true-hearted store-farmer, in Sir Walter
Scott’s _Guy Mannering_.

=Daphnis= (_daf´nis_) and =Chloe= (_klō´ē_).--A prose-pastoral love
story in Greek, by Longus, a Byzantine. Gessner has imitated the Greek
romance in his idyll called Daphnis. In this love story Longus says he
was hunting in Lesbos, and saw in a grove consecrated to the nymphs a
beautiful picture of children exposed, lovers plighting their faith, and
the incursions of pirates, which he now expresses and dedicates to Pan,
Cupid and the nymphs. Daphnis, of course, is the lover of Chloe.

=Darby and Joan.=--This ballad is frequently called _The Happy Old
Couple_. The words are sometimes attributed to Prior. Darby and Joan are
an old-fashioned, loving couple, who are wholly averse to change of any
sort. It is generally said that Henry Woodfall was the author of the
ballad, and that the originals were John Darby (printer, of Bartholomew
Close, who died 1730) and his wife Joan. Woodfall served his
apprenticeship with John Darby.

=Dares= (_dā´rēz_).--One of the competitors at the funeral games of
Anchises in Sicily, described in the fifth book of Vergil’s _Æneid_.

=David.=--(1) He was the uncle of King Arthur. St. David first embraced
the ascetic life in the Isle of Wight, but subsequently removed to
Menevia, in Pembrokeshire, where he founded twelve convents. (2) One of
the Israelite kings. (3) In Dryden’s satire called _Absalom and
Achitophel_, represents Charles II.; Absalom, his beautiful but
rebellious son, represents the duke of Monmouth.

=Davy.=--_Henry IV._, Shakespeare. The varlet of Justice Shallow, who so
identifies himself with his master that he considers himself half host,
half varlet. Thus when he seats Bardolph and Page at table, he tells
them they must take “his” good will for their assurance of welcome.

=Dawfyd.=--_The Betrothed_, Scott. The one-eyed freebooter chief.

=Dawkins= (_dâ´kinz_).--_Oliver Twist_, Dickens. Known by the sobriquet
of the Artful Dodger. He is one of Fagin’s tools. Jack Dawkins is a
scamp, but of a cheery, buoyant temper.

=Dayonet, Sir.=--In the romance _Le Mort d’Arthur_ he is called the fool
of King Arthur.

=Deans, Douce Davie.=--A poor herdsman at Edinburgh, and the father of
Effie and Jeanie Deans, in Sir Walter Scott’s novel, _The Heart of
Midlothian_.

=Deans, Effie.=--A beautiful but unfortunate character in Sir Walter
Scott’s _Heart of Midlothian_.

=Deans, Jeanie.=--The heroine of Sir Walter Scott’s _Heart of
Midlothian_, described as a perfect model of sober heroism, of the union
of good sense and strong affections, firm principles, and perfect
disinterestedness; and of calm superiority to misfortune, danger, and
difficulty which such a union must create.

=Decameron= (_de-kam´e-ron_), =The.=--A collection of romances by
Giovanni Boccaccio. It derives its name from its framework. Seven
gentlemen and three ladies retire from Florence, during the plague, to a
pleasant garden retreat, where they beguile the time by narrating
various stories of love adventure.

=Dedlock, Lady.=--Wife of Sir Leicester, beautiful, and apparently cold
and heartless, but suffering constant remorse. The daughter’s name is
Esther Summerson, the heroine of the novel.

=Dedlock, Sir Leicester.=--A character in _Bleak House_, by Charles
Dickens. An honorable and truthful man, but of such fixed ideas that no
man could shake his prejudices. He had an idea that the one thing of
greatest importance to the world was a certain family by the name of
Dedlock. He loved his wife, Lady Dedlock, and believed in her
implicitly. His pride had a terrible fall when he learned the secret of
her life before her marriage and knew the terrible fact she had been
hiding from him that she had a daughter.

=Deerslayer, The.=--The title of a novel by J. F. Cooper, and the
nickname of its hero, Natty, or Nathaniel Bumppo. He is a model
uncivilized man, honorable, truthful, and brave, pure of heart and
without reproach. He is introduced in five of Cooper’s novels: _The
Deerslayer_, _The Pathfinder_, _The Last of the Mohicans_, _The
Pioneers_, and _The Prairie_. He is called “Hawk-Eye” in _The Last of
the Mohicans_; “Leather-Stocking” in _The Pioneers_; and “The Trapper”
in _The Prairie_, in which last book he dies.

=Defarge= (_da-färzh´_), =Mme.=--Wife of the following, a dangerous
woman, everlastingly knitting.

=Defarge, Mons.=--_Tale of Two Cities_, Dickens. Keeper of a wine shop
in the Faubourg St. Antoine in Paris. He is a bull-necked,
implacable-looking man.

=Della Crusca Accademia= (_del´lä krös´kä äk-kä-dā´mē-ä_).--Applied in
England to a brotherhood of poets, at the close of the eighteenth
century, under the leadership of Mrs. Piozzi. This school was
conspicuous for affectation and high-flown panegyrics on each other. It
was stamped out by Gifford, in _The Baviad_, in 1794, and The _Mæviad_,
in 1796. Robert Merry, who signed himself _Della Crusca_, James Cobb, a
farce-writer, James Boswell, biographer of Dr. Johnson, O’Keefe, Morton,
Reynolds, Holcroft, Sheridan, Colman the Younger, Mrs. H. Cowley, and
Mrs. Robinson were its best exponents.

=Delphin Classics.=--For the use of the dauphin, son of Louis XIV. the
writings of thirty-nine Latin authors were collected and published in
sixty volumes. Notes and an index were added to each work. An edition of
the _Delphin Classics_ was published in London in the year 1818.

=Delphine, Madame.=--_Old Creole Days_, George W. Cable. A free quadroon
connected with the splendor of Lafitte, the smuggler and patriot. Madame
Delphine disowned her beautiful daughter Olive in order to assure to her
the rights of a white woman.

=Demetrius= (_de-mē´tri-us_).--Midsummer Night’s Dream, Shakespeare. The
young Athenian to whom Egeno promised his daughter Hermia in marriage.

=Dempster, Janet.=--A character from George Eliot’s _Scenes From
Clerical Life_. She was a woman of generous impulse, succumbed to drink
through the brutality of her husband, but was restored by a clergyman to
a life of nobility.

=De Profundus.=--_Out of the Depths._ The one hundred and thirtieth
Psalm is so called from the first two words in the Latin version. In the
Catholic liturgy it is sung when the dead are committed to the grave.

=Deronda, Daniel.=--One of George Eliot’s strongest character sketches
in her novel of the same name.

=Deserted Village, The.=--A poem by Oliver Goldsmith. It was
“instantaneously popular. Two new editions of it were called for in the
following month, and a fourth in August, and passages from the poem were
in every mouth, and the topics which it suggested, of depopulation,
luxury, and landlordism, were discussed in connection with it.”

_The Deserted Village_ has been identified with Lissoy, a quaint Irish
village in the parish of Kilkenny West, of which Goldsmith’s father was
the pastor, and whose natural features are accurately described in the
poem.

=Desmas.=--The repentant thief is so called in _The Story of Joseph of
Arimathea_. Longfellow, in _The Golden Legend_, calls him Dumachus. The
impenitent thief is called Gestas, but Longfellow calls him Titus.

=Dhu, Roderick.=--A highland chieftain and outlaw in Scott’s poem _Lady
of the Lake_, cousin of Ellen Douglas, and also her suitor. He is slain
by James Fitz-James.

=Diana.=--In Shakespeare’s _All’s Well That Ends Well_, daughter of the
widow of Florence with whom Helena lodged on her way to the shrine of
St. Jacques le Grand. Count Bertram wantonly loved Diana, but she
brought about a reconciliation between Bertram and his wife Helena.

=Diggon= (_dig´on_), =Davie.=--A shepherd in the _Shepherd’s Calendar_,
by Spenser. He drove his sheep into foreign lands, hoping to find better
pasture; but was amazed at the luxury and profligacy of the shepherds
whom he saw there.

=Diggory= (_dig´ō-ri_).--In Goldsmith’s _She Stoops to Conquer_, a barn
laborer, employed on state occasions for butler and footman by Mr. and
Mrs. Hardcastle. He is both awkward and familiar, laughs at his master’s
jokes and talks to his master’s guests while serving.

=Dimmesdale= (_dimz´dāl_), =Arthur.=--In Hawthorne’s romance, _The
Scarlet Letter_, a Puritan minister of great eloquence, whose conscience
compels him to make a public confession of sin.

=Dinah.=--(1) _St. Ronan’s Well_, Scott, Daughter of Sandie Lawson,
landlord of the Spa hotel. (2) A character in Mrs. Stowe’s _Uncle Tom’s
Cabin_.

=Dinah, Aunt.=--In Sterne’s _Tristram Shandy_. She leaves Mr. Walter
Shandy one thousand pounds, which he fancies will enable him to carry
out all the schemes that enter into his head.

=Dinah Friendly.=--_The Bashful Man_, Moncrieff. Daughter of Sir Thomas
Friendly.

=Dingley Hall.=--_Pickwick Papers_, Dickens. The home of Mr. Wardle and
his family.

=Divina Commedia= (_dē-vē´nä kom-mā´dē-ä_), (or, _Divine Comedy_).--The
first poem of note ever written in the Italian language. It is an epic
by Danté Alighieri, and is divided into three parts: Hell, Purgatory,
and Paradise. Danté called it a _comedy_, because the ending is happy;
and his countrymen added the word _divine_ from admiration of the poem.
The poet depicts a vision, in which he is conducted, first by Vergil
(_human reason_) through hell and purgatory; and then by Beatrice
(_revelation_), and finally by St. Bernard through the several heavens,
where he beholds the Triune God.

“Hell” is represented as a funnel-shaped hollow, formed of gradually
contracting circles, the lowest and smallest of which is the earth’s
center. “Purgatory” is a mountain rising solitary from the ocean on that
side of the earth which is opposite to us. It is divided into terraces,
and its top is the terrestrial paradise. From this “top” the poet
ascends through the seven planetary heavens, the fixed stars, and the
“primum mobile.”

In all parts of the regions thus traversed there arise conversations
with noted personages. The deepest questions of philosophy and theology
are discussed and solved; and the social and moral condition of Italy,
with the corruptions of church and state, are depicted with indignation.
Fifty-two years after the poet’s death the republic of Florence set
apart an annual sum for public lectures to explain the _Divine Comedy_
to the people in one of the churches, and Boccaccio himself was
appointed first lecturer.

=Doctor Syntax.=--The hero of a work entitled _The Tour of Dr. Syntax in
Search of the Picturesque_. Doctor Syntax is a simple-minded, pious,
hen-pecked clergyman, but of excellent taste and scholarship, who left
home in search of the picturesque. His adventures are told in
eight-syllable verse by William Combe.

=Dods.=--The old landlady in Scott’s novel called _St. Ronan’s Well_. An
excellent character, a mosaic of oddities, all fitting together and
forming an admirable whole. She was so good a housewife that a cookery
book of great repute bears her name.

=Dodson and Fogg.=--The lawyers employed by the plaintiff in the famous
case of “Bardell _vs._ Pickwick,” in the _Pickwick Papers_, by Charles
Dickens.

=Doeg= (_dō´eg_).--_Absalom and Achitophel_, Dryden. Doeg was Saul’s
herdsman, who had charge of his mules and asses. He told Saul that the
priests of Nob had provided David with food; whereupon Saul sent him to
put them to death, and eighty-five were ruthlessly massacred.

=Dogberry= (_dog´ber-i_) =and Verges= (_ver´gēz_).--Two ignorant
conceited constables, in Shakespeare’s _Much Ado About Nothing_.

=Dolla Murrey.=--A character in Crabbe’s _Borough_ who was devoted to
playing cards. She died at the card table.

=Dolly Varden= (_vär´den_).--_Barnaby Rudge_, Dickens. Daughter of
Gabriel Varden, locksmith. Dolly dressed in the Watteau style, and was
lively, pretty, and bewitching.

=Dombey and Son.=--A novel by Dickens. Mr. Dombey is a self-sufficient,
purse-proud, frigid merchant who feels satisfied there is but one Dombey
in the world, and that is himself. When Paul was born, his ambition was
attained, his whole heart was in the boy, and the loss of the mother was
but a small matter. The boy’s death turned his heart to stone.

=Dombey, Florence.=--A motherless child, hungering and thirsting to be
loved, but regarded with indifference by her father, who thinks that
sons alone are worthy of regard.

=Domesday Book= (or, _Doomsday Book_),--The name of one of the oldest
and most valuable records of England, containing the results of a
statistical survey of that country made by William the Conqueror, and
completed in the year 1086. The origin of the name--which seems to have
been given to other records of the same kind--is somewhat uncertain; but
it has obvious reference to the supreme authority of the book in doom or
judgment on the matters contained in it.

=Dominie Sampson.=--_Guy Mannering_, Scott. A village schoolmaster and
scholar, poor as a church mouse, and modest as a girl. He cites Latin
like a _porcus literarum_ and exclaims “prodigious!” He is no uncommon
personage in a country where a certain portion of learning is easily
attained by those who are willing to suffer hunger and thirst in
exchange for acquiring Greek and Latin.

=Don Adriano de Armado.=--A pompous, fantastical Spaniard in
Shakespeare’s _Love’s Labor’s Lost_, who had a mint of phrases in his
brain.

=Donatello= (_don-ä-tel´lō_).--The hero of Hawthorne’s romance _The
Marble Faun_. He is a young Italian with a singular likeness to the Faun
of Praxiteles. He leads an innocent but purely animal existence, until a
sudden crime awakens his conscience and transforms his whole nature.

=Don Cherubim.=--_The Bachelor of Salamanca_, in Le Sage’s novel of this
name; a man placed in different situations of life, and made to
associate with all classes of society, in order to give the author the
greatest possible scope for satire.

=Donegild.=--_Man of Law’s Tale_, Chaucer. The mother of Alla, king of
Northumberland, hating Constance, the wife of Alla, because she was a
Christian, she put her on a raft with her infant son and turned her
adrift. When Alla returned from Scotland and discovered this cruelty of
his mother, he put her to death. The tradition of St. Mungo resembles
the _Man of Law’s Tale_ in many respects.

=Don Juan= (_don jū´an_; Sp. pron. _dōn Hö-än´_).--Typifies in
literature a profligate. He gives himself up so entirely to the
gratification of sense, especially to the most powerful of all the
impulses, that of love, that he acknowledges no higher consideration,
and proceeds to murder the man that stands between him and his wish,
fancying that in so doing he had annihilated his very existence. He then
defies that Spirit to prove to his senses his existence. The Spirit
returns and compels Don Juan to acknowledge the supremacy of spirit, and
the worthlessness of a merely sensuous existence. The traditions
concerning Don Juan have been dramatized by Tirso de Molina. Glück has a
musical ballet, _Don Juan_, and Mozart has immortalized the character in
his opera _Don Giovanni_; and Byron in a half-finished poem.

=Don Quixote= (_dōn kē-hō´tā_).--A celebrated Spanish romance by
Cervantes. Don Quixote is represented as “a gaunt country gentleman of
La Mancha, full of genuine Castilian honor and enthusiasm, gentle and
dignified in his character, trusted by his friends, and loved by his
dependents,” but “so completely crazed by long reading the most famous
books of chivalry that he believes them to be true, and feels himself
called on to become the impossible knight-errant they describe, and
actually goes forth into the world to defend the oppressed and avenge
the injured, like the heroes of his romances.” The fame of Cervantes
will always rest upon this incomparable satire.

=Dorrit.=--See _Little Dorrit_.

=Doorm.=--_Idylls of the King_ (_Enid_), Tennyson. An earl called “the
Bull,” who tried to make Enid his handmaid; but, when she would neither
eat, drink, nor array herself in bravery at his bidding, “he smote her
on the cheek”; whereupon Geraint slew the “russet-bearded earl” in his
own hall.

=Dora.=--_David Copperfield_, Dickens. The child-wife to David,
affectionate and tender-hearted. She was always playing with her poodle
and saying simple things to her “Dody.” She could never be his helper,
but she looked on her husband with idolatrous love. When quite young she
died.

=Dorastus.=--The hero of an old popular “history” or romance, upon which
Shakespeare founded his _Winter’s Tale_. It was written by Robert
Greene, and was first published in 1588, under the title of _Pandosto,
the Triumph of Time_.

=Dorothea.=--The heroine of Goethe’s celebrated poem of _Herman und
Dorothea_.

=Dory, John.=--A character in _Wild Oats_ or _The Strolling Gentleman_,
a comedy by John O’Keefe.

=Dotheboys Hall= (_dö´the-boiz hâl_).--_Nicholas Nickleby_, Dickens. A
school for boys kept by a Mr. Squeers, a puffing, ignorant, overbearing
brute, whose system of education consisted of alternately beating and
starving.

=Doubting Castle.=--The castle of the giant Despair, in which Christian
and Hopeful were incarcerated, but from which they escaped by means of
the key called “Promise,” which was able to open any lock in the castle.

=Dousterswivel= (_dös´ter-swiv-el_), =Herman.=--Scott, _The Antiquary_.
A German schemer, who obtains money under the promise of finding hidden
wealth by a divining rod.

=Drawcansir= (_drâ´kan-ser_).--A bragging, blustering bully, in George
Villiers, duke of Buckingham’s _The Rehearsal_, who took part in a
battle, and killed everyone on both sides, “sparing neither friend nor
foe.”

=Driver.=--_Guy Mannering_, Scott. Clerk to Mr. Pleydell, advocate,
Edinburgh.

=Dromio.=--_The Brothers Dromio._ Twin brothers exactly alike, who serve
two brothers exactly alike, in Shakespeare’s _Comedy of Errors_, based
on the _Menæchmi_ of Plautus.

=Dry-as-dust, The Rev.=--An imaginary personage who serves to introduce
Scott’s novels to the public.

=Dudu.=--One of the three beauties of the harem, into which Juan, by the
sultana’s order, had been admitted in female attire.

=Duessa= (_dū-es´sa_).--A foul witch, in Spenser’s _Faërie Queene_, who
under the assumed name of Fidessa, and the assumed character of a
distressed and lovely woman, entices the Red-cross Knight into the House
of Pride.

=Duff, Jamie.=--_Guy Mannering_, Scott. The idiot boy attending Mrs.
Bertram’s funeral.

=Dulcinea del Toboso= (_dul-sin´ē-ä del tō-bō´zō_).--A country girl whom
Don Quixote courts as his lady love.

=Dumain= (_dū-mān´_).--A lord attending on the king of Navarre in
Shakespeare’s _Love’s Labor’s Lost_.

=Duncan.=--(1) A king of Scotland immortalized in Shakespeare’s tragedy
of _Macbeth_. Shakespeare represents him as murdered by Macbeth, who
succeeds to the Scottish throne, but according to history he fell in
battle. (2) A highland hero in Scott’s _Lady of the Lake_.

=Dunder, Sir David=, of Dunder Hall.--A conceited, whimsical old
gentleman, who forever interrupts a speaker with “Yes, yes, I know it,”
or “Be quiet, I know it.” _Ways and Means_, by Colman.

=Dundreary= (_dun-drēr´i_), =Lord.=--A grotesque character in Taylor’s
comedy, _Our American Cousin_, noted for his aristocratic haughtiness of
manner. The character is said to have been created by the actor Sothern.

=Durandana= (_dö-rän-dä´nä_).--The name of the marvelous sword of
Orlando, the renowned hero of romance, said to have been wrought by the
fairies, who endued it with such power that its owner was able to cleave
the Pyrenees with it at a blow.

=Durandarte= (_dö-rän-där´te_).--A fabulous hero of Spain. Cervantes has
introduced him, in _Don Quixote_, in the celebrated adventure of the
knight in the cave of Montesinos.

=Durden= (_der´den_), =Dame.=--(1) The heroine of a popular English
song. She is described as a notable housewife, and the mistress of five
serving-girls and five laboring men. The five men loved the five maids.
(2) A sobriquet playfully applied to Esther Summerson, the heroine of
Dickens’ _Bleak House_.

=Durward= (_der´wārd_), =Quentin.=--A novel by Scott. Quentin Durward is
a young archer of the Scottish guard in the service of Louis XI. of
France. When Liège is assaulted, Quentin Durward and the Countess
Isabelle, who has been put into his charge, escape on horseback. The
countess publicly refuses to marry the Duc d’Orléans, to whom she has
been promised, and ultimately marries the young Scotchman.

=Dwarf, Alberich.=--In the _Nibelungen Lied_ the dwarf “Alberich” is the
guardian of the famous hoard won by Siegfried from the Nibelungs. The
dwarf is twice vanquished by the hero, who gets possession of his
“Tarn-Kappe” (cloak of invisibility).

=Dwarf, The Black.=--A novel by Sir Walter Scott. The dwarf is a fairy
of the most malignant character; a genuine northern Duergar, and once
held by the dalesmen of the border as the author of all the mischief
that befell their flocks and herds. In Scott’s novel the black dwarf is
introduced under the aliases of Sir Edward Mauley; Elshander, the
recluse; Cannie Elshie; and the Wise Wight of Mucklestane Moor.

=E=

=Ecce Homo= (_ek´sē hō´mō_).--The title of a semi-theological work,
attributed to Professor Seeley, and published in 1865, in which the
humanity of Christ is considered and enforced, apart from his divinity.
The phrase, “The enthusiasm of humanity,” was originated in this work;
to which, it may be mentioned, Dr. Joseph Parker replied in his _Ecce
Deus_ published in 1866.

=Eckhardt, The Faithful.=--A legendary hero of Germany, represented as
an old man with a white staff, who, in Eisleben, appears on the evening
of Maundy Thursday, and drives all the people into their houses, to save
them from being harmed by a terrible procession of dead men, headless
bodies, and two-legged horses, which immediately after passes by. Other
traditions represent him as the companion of the knight Tannhäuser, and
as warning travelers from the Venusberg, the mountain of fatal delights
in the old mythology of Germany. Tieck has founded a story upon this
legend, which has been translated into English by Carlyle, in which
Eckhardt is described as the good servant who perishes to save his
master’s children from the seducing fiends of the mountain. The German
proverb, “Thou art the faithful Eckhardt; thou warnest everyone,” is
founded upon this tradition.

=Eclecta.=--The “Elect” personified in _The Purple Island_, by Phineas
Fletcher. She is the daughter of Intellect and Voletta (free-will).

=Ector, Sir.=--The foster-father of King Arthur, and lord of many parts
of England and Wales. Father of Sir Kay, seneschal to King Arthur.

=Edenhall, The Luck of.=--A painted goblet in the possession of the
Musgrave family of Edenhall, Cumberland, said to have been left by the
fairies on St. Cuthbert’s Well. The tradition runs that the luck of the
family is dependent on the safe-keeping of this goblet. The German poet
Uhland embodied the legend in a ballad, translated into English by
Longfellow.

=Edgar.=--Son to Gloucester, in Shakespeare’s tragedy of Lear. He was
disinherited for his half-brother Edmund.

=Edgar=, or =Edgardo=.--Master of Ravenswood, in love with Lucy Ashton
in Scott’s _Bride of Lammermoor_.

=Edith.=--The _Maid of Lorn_ in Scott’s _Lord of the Isles_, who married
Ronald when peace was restored after the battle of Bannockburn.

=Edith, The Lady.=--_Ivanhoe_, Scott. Mother of Athelstane “the Unready”
(thane of Coningsburgh).

=Edith Granger.=--Daughter of the Hon. Mrs. Skewton, married to Colonel
Granger of Ours, who died within two years. Edith became Mr. Dombey’s
second wife, but the marriage was altogether unhappy.

=Edith Plantagenet= (_plan-taj´e-net_), =The Lady.=--_The Talisman_,
Scott. Called “The Fair Maid of Anjou,” a kinswoman of Richard I., and
attendant on Queen Berengaria.

=Edmund.=--A bastard son of Gloucester in Shakespeare’s tragedy of _King
Lear_.

=Edward, Sir.=--_The Iron Chest_, Colman. He commits a murder, and keeps
a narrative of the transaction in an iron chest. Later, he trusts the
secret to his secretary, Wilfred, and the whole transaction now becomes
public.

=Edward.=--_Count Robert of Paris_, Scott. Brother of Hereward, the
Varangian guard. He was slain in battle.

=Edwin.=--(1) The hero of Goldsmith’s ballad entitled _The Hermit_. (2)
The hero of Mallet’s ballad _Edwin and Emma_. (3) The hero of Beattie’s
_Minstrel_.

=Edyrn.=--_Idylls of the King_ (_Enid_), Tennyson. Son of Nudd. A suitor
for the hand of Enid and an evil genius of her father, who opposed him.
Later, Edyrn went to the court of King Arthur and became quite a changed
man--from a malicious “sparrow-hawk” he was converted into a courteous
gentleman.

=Egeus= (_ējē´us_).--Father of Hermia in Shakespeare’s _Midsummer
Night’s Dream_.

=Eglamour.=--A character, in Shakespeare’s _Two Gentlemen of Verona_,
who is an agent of Silvia in her escape.

=Eglamour= (_eg´la-mör_), =Sir.=--A valiant knight of the Round Table,
celebrated in the romances of chivalry, and in an old ballad.

=Eglantine= (_eg´lan-tīn_), =Madame.=--The prioress in Chaucer’s
_Canterbury Tales_, who was “full pleasant and amiable of port.” She was
distinguished for the ladylike delicacy of her manners at table, and for
her partiality to “small hounds,” and a peculiar mixture in her manner
and dress of feminine vanity and slight worldliness, together with an
ignorance of the world.

=Egyptian Thief.=--A personage alluded to by the Duke in Shakespeare’s
_Twelfth Night_. The reference is to the story of Thyamis, a
robber-chief and native of Memphis.

=Elvir.=--_Harold the Dauntless_, Scott. A Danish maid, who assumes
boy’s clothing, and waits on Harold “the Dauntless,” as his page.

=Elaine.=--A mythical lady in the romances of King Arthur’s court. She
is called “the lily maid of Astolat” in Tennyson’s _Idylls of the King_.
She died for love of Sir Launcelot, and then at her request was borne
on a barge to the castle of King Arthur, holding a lily in one hand, and
a letter to Launcelot in the other.

=Elbow.=--A constable, in Shakespeare’s _Measure for Measure_, modest
and well-meaning, though of simple mind and the object of wit among
those who are wiser but not better.

=El Dorado.=--A name given by the Spaniards to an imaginary country,
supposed, in the sixteenth century, to be situated in the interior of
South America, and abounding in gold and all manner of precious stones.

=Electra.=--The daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, and the heroine
of a tragedy by Sophocles and of another by Euripides.

=Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard.=--By Thomas Gray. Dr. Johnson
gives 1750 as the date of publication; and declares that the piece
“abounds with images which find a mirror in every mind, and with
sentiments to which every bosom returns an echo.” The churchyard was
that of Stoke Poges, near Eton.

=Elim.=--_The Messiah_, Klopstock. The guardian angel of Libbeus the
Apostle. Libbeus, the tenderest and most gentle of the apostles, at the
death of Jesus also died from grief.

=Elissa.=--Step-sister of Medina and Perissa, in Spenser’s _Faërie
Queene_. They could never agree upon any subject.

=Elliott, Hobbie.=--There are seven by this name in the _Black Dwarf_,
by Sir Walter Scott. The farmer Elliott himself and his bride-elect,
Grace Armstrong; Mrs. Elliott, Hobbie’s grandmother; John and Harry,
Hobbie’s brothers; Lilias, Jean, and Arnot, Hobbie’s sisters.

=Elops.=--Milton gives this name to the dumb serpent which gives no
warning of its approach.

=Elsie.=--The daughter of Gottlieb, a farm tenant of Prince Henry of
Hohenneck, who offered her life as a substitute for the prince. She was
rescued as she was about to make the sacrifice. Longfellow has told this
story in _The Golden Legend_.

=Elspeth= (_el´speth_).--(1) A character in Sir Walter Scott’s
_Antiquary_. (2) An old servant to Dandie Dinmont in Scott’s _Guy
Mannering_.

=Elvira.=--(1) In Cibber’s _Love Makes a Man_, sister of Don Duart, and
niece of the governor of Lisbon. She marries Clodio, the coxcomb son of
Don Antonio. (2) The young wife of Gomez, a rich old banker, in Dryden’s
_The Spanish Fryer_. She carries on a liaison with Colonel Lorenzo, by
the aid of her father-confessor Dominick, but is always checkmated, and
it turns out that Lorenzo is her brother.

=Emelye.=--The sister-in-law of “Duke Theseus,” beloved by the two
knights, Palamon and Arcyte.

=Emile= (_ā-mēl´_).--A philosophical romance on education by Jean
Jacques Rousseau (1762). Emile, the chief character, is the author’s
ideal of a young man perfectly educated, every bias but that of nature
having been carefully withheld.

=Emilia= (_ē-mil´i-ä_).--(1) A lady attending Hermione in Shakespeare’s
_Winter’s Tale_. (2) Wife to Iago, and waiting woman to Desdemona, in
the tragedy of _Othello_, a woman of thorough vulgarity and loose
principles, united to a high degree of spirit, energetic feeling, strong
sense, and low cunning. (3) The sweetheart of Peregrine Pickle in
Smollett’s novel _The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle_.

=Em’ly, Little.=--_David Copperfield_, Dickens. Daughter of Tom, the
brother-in-law of Dan’el Peggotty, a Yarmouth fisherman, by whom the
orphan child was brought up. David Copperfield and Em’ly were at one
time playfellows. While engaged to Ham Peggotty (Dan’el’s nephew) Little
Em’ly runs away with Steerforth, a friend of David’s, who was a handsome
but unprincipled gentleman. Being subsequently reclaimed, she emigrates
to Australia with Dan’el Peggotty and old Mrs. Gummidge.

=Empyrean.=--According to Ptolemy, there are five heavens, the last of
which is pure elemental fire and the seat of Deity; this fifth heaven is
called the empyrean.

=Endell, Martha.=--_David Copperfield_, Dickens. A poor girl, to whom
Em’ly goes when Steerforth deserts her.

=Endymion= (_en-dim´i-on_).--A beautiful shepherd boy whom Diana kissed
while he lay asleep on Mount Latmus. The story was made the subject of
an English poem by Keats, in memory of his much loved friend, the poet
Shelley. Shelley pronounced it “full of some of the highest and the
finest gleams of poetry.”

Also a lyric by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow founded on the old mythic
story of the mortal youth who was beloved by Diana, and received her
kiss--

    When, sleeping in the grove,
    He dreamed not of her love.

=Enid.=--A mythical lady mentioned in a Welsh triad as one of the three
celebrated ladies of Arthur’s court--a beautiful picture of conjugal
patience and affection. Her story is told in the _Mabinogion_ and in
Tennyson’s _Idylls of the King_. In the midst of an impure court she is
the personification of purity.

=Eolian Harp.=--Baruch. There is a rabbinical story of the aërial
harmony of the harp of David, which, when hung up at night, was played
upon by the north wind.

=Epigram.=--A short, pointed or antithetical poem; or any short
composition happily or antithetically expressed.

=Epithalamium= (_ep=´=i-thā-lā´mi-um_).--Was a species of poem which it
was the custom among the Greeks and Romans to sing in chorus near the
bridal-chamber of a newly married couple. Anacreon, Stesichorus, and
Pindar composed poems of this kind, but only scanty fragments have been
preserved. Spenser’s _Epithalamium_, written on the occasion of his
marriage, is one of the finest specimens of this kind of verse.

=Eppie.=--(1) _St. Ronan’s Well_, Scott. One of the servants of the Rev.
Josiah Cargill. In the same novel is Eppie Anderson, one of the servants
at the Mowbray Arms, Old St. Ronan’s, held by Meg Dods. (2) In George
Eliot’s _Silas Marner_ the child of Godfrey Cass, brought up and adopted
by Silas Marner, whose love transformed him from a miser into a tender,
loving father.

=Ermangarde of Baldringham, Lady.=--_The Betrothed_, Scott. Aunt of the
Lady Eveline Berenger, “the Betrothed.”

=Ermeline.=--The wife of Reynard, in the tale of _Reynard the Fox_.

=Ermina.=--The heroine of Tasso’s _Jerusalem Delivered_, who fell in
love with Tancred. When the Christian army besieged Jerusalem, she
dressed herself in Clorinda’s armor to go to Tancred, but, being
discovered, fled, and lived awhile with some shepherds on the banks of
the Jordan. Meeting with Vafrino, sent as a secret spy by the crusaders,
she revealed to him the design against the life of Godfrey, and,
returning with him to the Christian camp, found Tancred wounded. She
cured his wounds, so that he was able to take part in the last great day
of the siege.

=Ernest, Duke.=--A poetical romance by Henry of Veldig (Waldeck),
contemporary with Frederick Barbarossa. It is a mixture of Greek and
oriental myths and hero adventures of the crusader.

=Error.=--_Faërie Queene_, Spenser. A monster who lived in a den in
“Wandering Wood,” and with whom the Red-cross Knight had his first
adventure. She had a brood of one thousand young ones of sundry shapes,
and these cubs crept into their mother’s mouth when alarmed, as young
kangaroos creep into their mother’s pouch. The knight was nearly killed
by the stench which issued from the foul fiend, but he succeeded in
“rafting” her head off, whereupon the brood lapped up the blood, and
burst with satiety.

=Escalus= (_es´ka-lus_).--An ancient and kind hearted lord, in
Shakespeare’s _Measure for Measure_, whom Vincentio, the duke of Vienna,
joins with Angelo as his deputy during a pretended absence on a distant
journey.

=Escanes= (_es´ka-nēz_).--A lord of Tyre, in Shakespeare’s _Pericles_.

=Esmeralda.=--_Notre Dame de Paris_, Victor Hugo. A beautiful gypsy
girl, who, with tambourine and goat, dances in the “place” before Notre
Dame.

=Esmond, Henry.=--A cavalier and fine-spirited gentleman in the reign of
Queen Anne. Hero of Thackeray’s novel by the same name.

=Esmond.=--A novel by W. M. Thackeray, published in 1852. Its most
striking feature is its elaborate imitation of the style and even the
manner of thought of the time of Queen Anne’s reign, in which its scenes
are laid.

=Esprit des Lois= [_es-prē´ dâ lwa_ (or, _Spirit of the Laws_)].--A
celebrated philosophical work by Montesquieu, published at Geneva in
1748. The author begins somewhat formally with the old division of
politics into democracy, aristocracy, and monarchy. He discusses the
principles of each, and their bearings on education, on positive law, on
social conditions, on military strength (offensive and defensive) on
individual liberty, on taxation and finance. Then an abrupt return is
made from the effects to the causes of constitutions and polity. The
theory of the influence of physical conditions, and especially of
climate, on political and social institutions--a theory which is perhaps
more than any other identified with the book--received special
attention, and a somewhat disproportionate space is given to the
question of slavery in this connection. From climate Montesquieu passes
to the nature of the soil as in its turn affecting civil polity. He then
attacks the subject of manners and customs as distinct from laws of
trade and commerce, of the family, of jurisprudence, of religion. The
book concludes with an elaborate examination of the feudal system in
France.

=Essay on Man.=--A poem by Alexander Pope, in four epistles: _Of the
Nature and State of Man With Respect to the Universe_; _Of the Nature
and State of Man With Respect to Himself as an Individual_; _Of the
Nature and State of Man With Respect to Society_; and _Of the Nature and
State of Man With Respect to Happiness_. Its fundamental idea is to the
effect that the system of the universe is a “benevolent system, in which
every virtue, as well as every passion, has its object and end.”

“If,” says Professor Ward, “the _Essay on Man_ were shivered into
fragments, it would not lose its value; for it is precisely its details
which constitute its moral as well as literary beauties. Nowhere has
Pope so abundantly displayed his incomparable talent of elevating
truisms into proverbs, in his mastery over language and poetic form.”

=Essays= (or, _Counsels Civil and Moral_).--By Francis, Lord Bacon. In
the dedication to his brother Anthony, the author says he published the
_Essays_ “because many of them had been stolen abroad in writing,” and
he desired to give the world a correct version of his work. The word
_Essays_, he says, “is late; but the thing is ancient, for Seneca’s
Epistles to Lucilius, if you mark them well, are but essays, that is,
dispersed meditations, though conveyed in the form of epistles.” “The
transcendent strength of Bacon’s mind is visible.” says Hallam, “in the
whole tenor of these _Essays_, unequaled as they must be, from the very
nature of such compositions. They are deeper and more discriminating
than any earlier, or almost any later, work, in the English language;
full of recondite observations, long matured, and carefully sifted.”

=Estella.=--The heroine of Dickens’ novel of _Great Expectations_.

=Estotiland=, or =Estotilandia=.--An imaginary region in America, near
the arctic circle, referred to by Milton as “cold Estotiland,” and
variously fabled to have been discovered by Frisian fishermen in the
fourteenth century, and by a Pole named John Scalve, in 1477.

=Etzel= (_et´sel_), _i. e._, =Attila=.--King of the Huns, a monarch
ruling over three kingdoms and more than thirty principalities; being a
widower, he married Kriemhild, the widow of Siegfried. In the
_Nibelungenlied_, where he is introduced, he is made very insignificant.

=Eugénie Grandet= (_u-zhā-nē´ gron-dā´_).--A novel by Balzac, written in
1833, published in 1834. The heroine, Eugenie, is sacrificed to the
cold-blooded avariciousness of her father. This is one of Balzac’s best
novels.

=Eulalia= (_ū-lā´li-ä_), =St.=--In the calendar of saints there is a
virgin martyr called Eulalia. She was martyred by torture February 12,
308. Longfellow calls Evangeline the _Sunshine of St. Eulalia_.

=Eulenspiegel= (_oi´len-spē-gel_).--The hero of a German tale, which
relates the pranks and drolleries of a wandering cottager of Brunswick.

=Euphrasy.=--_Paradise Lost_, Milton. The herb eye-bright, so called
because it was once supposed to be efficacious in clearing the organs of
sight. Hence, the Archangel Michael purged the eyes of Adam with it, to
enable him to see into the distant future.

=Evan Dhu M’Combich.=--_Waverley_, Scott. The foster-brother of M’Ivor.

=Evan Dhu of Lochiel.=--_Legend of Montrose_, Scott. A Highland chief in
the army of Montrose.

=Evangeline.=--The title and heroine of a tale in hexameter verse by
Longfellow, in two parts. Evangeline was the daughter of Benedict
Bellefontaine, the richest farmer of Acadia (now Nova Scotia). At the
age of seventeen she was legally betrothed by the notary-public to
Gabriel, son of Basil the blacksmith; but next day all the colony was
exiled by the order of George II., and their houses, cattle, and lands
were confiscated. Gabriel and Evangeline were parted, and now, sustained
by the brightness of hope, she wandered from place to place to find her
betrothed. Basil had settled in Louisiana; but when Evangeline reached
that distant land, Gabriel had gone. She sought him on the prairies,
and, again far north, in Michigan, but ever a few days, a few weeks, too
late. At length, grown old in this hopeless quest, she came to
Philadelphia and became a sister of mercy. The plague broke out; and, as
she visited the almshouse in ministration, she saw an old man who had
been smitten with the pestilence. It was Gabriel. He tried to whisper
her name; but death closed his lips. “All was ended now;” and “Side by
side, in nameless graves, the lovers are sleeping.”

=Evangelist.=--In Bunyan’s _Pilgrim’s Progress_, represents the
effectual preacher of the gospel who opens the gate of life to
Christian.

=Evans, Sir Hugh.=--In Shakespeare’s _Merry Wives of Windsor_, a Welsh
parson and school-teacher, ignorant but pedantic, who has a ludicrous
quarrel with Dr. Caius.

=Excalibur= (_eks-kal´i-bẽr_), or =Excalibar=, or =Escalibor=.--The
sword of the mythical King Arthur. Arthur received it from the hands of
the Lady of the Lake. It had a scabbard the wearer of which could lose
no blood. There seems, however, to have been also another sword called
Excalibur in the early part of the story. This was the sword, plunged
deep into a stone, which could be drawn forth only by the man who was to
be king. After two hundred knights had failed, Arthur drew it out
without difficulty.

=Excursion, The.=--A poem, in blank verse, by William Wordsworth,
published in 1814, and forming the second part of a poem in three parts,
to be entitled _The Recluse_, which the author had at one time
contemplated. It consists of nine books, respectively entitled _The
Wanderer_, _The Solitary_, _Despondency_, _Despondency Corrected_, _The
Pastor_, _The Churchyard Among the Mountains_, _The Same Subject
Continued_, _The Parsonage_, _Discourse of the Wanderer_, and _An
Evening Visit to the Lake_.

=Eyre= (_âr_), =Jane.=--A novel by Charlotte Brontë, published in 1847,
with a dedication to William Makepeace Thackeray, as “the first social
regenerator of the day.” The early scenes are laid in the Lowood
Institution, which has been identified with a school established by the
Rev. W. Carus Wilson, at Cowen’s Bridge, near Leeds, and which is
described with stern but unpleasing realism. Much of the book was
derived from the author’s own personal experience.

=Ezzelin, Sir.=--_Lara_, Byron. The gentleman who recognizes Lara at the
table of Lord Otho, and charges him with being Conrad the Corsair. A
duel ensues, and Ezzelin is never heard of more. A serf used to say that
he saw a huntsman one evening cast a dead body into the river which
divided the lands of Otho and Lara, and that there was a star of
knighthood on the breast of the corpse.

=F=

=Faa, Gabriel.=--_Guy Mannering_, Scott. Nephew of Meg Merrilies. One of
the huntsmen at Liddesdale.

=Fadladeen.=--The hypercritical grand chamberlain in Moore’s poem _Lalla
Rookh_. Fadladeen’s criticism upon the several tales which make up the
romance are very racy and full of humor; and his crestfallen conceit
when he finds out that the poet was the prince in disguise is well
conceived.

=Faerie Queene= (_fā´e-ri kwēn_), =The.=--A poem by Edmund Spenser,
published in 1590. This great allegorical epic is divided into six
books, of which the first contains the Legend of the Knight of the Red
Cross, or Holiness; the second the Legend of Sir Guyon, or Temperance;
the third the Legend of Britomartis, or Chastity; the fourth the Legend
of Cambal and Telamond, or Friendship; the fifth the Legend of Artegall,
or Justice; and the sixth the Legend of Sir Calidore, or Courtesy. There
originally existed twelve books, but the last six, excepting two cantos
on Mutability, were lost by the poet’s servant in crossing from Ireland
to England--a circumstance to be deeply regretted by every lover of true
poetry. The finest things in Spenser are the character of Una, in the
first book, the House of Pride, the Cave of Mammoth, and the Cave of
Despair; the account of Memory; the description of Belphœbe; the story
of Florimel and the Witch’s Son; the gardens of Adonis and the Bower of
Bliss; the Mask of Cupid; and Colin Clout’s Vision, in the last book.

=Fag.=--A lying servant to Captain Absolute in Sheridan’s _Rivals_.

=Fagin.=--An old Jew in Dickens’ _Oliver Twist_, who employs young
persons of both sexes to carry on a systematic trade of robbery.

=Fainall, Mr. and Mrs.=--Noted characters in Congreve’s comedy _The Way
of the World_.

=Faineant, Le Noir= (_The Black Idler_).--In Sir Walter Scott’s
_Ivanhoe_, a name applied to Richard Cœur de Lion in disguise, by the
spectators of a tournament, on account of his indifference during a
great part of the action, in which, however, he was finally victorious.

=Fair Maid of Perth.=--The title of a novel by Sir Walter Scott, and the
name of the heroine.

=Fair Rosamond.=--Prototype of many heroines of fiction, a daughter of
Walter de Clifford. According to a popular legend, which has no
foundation in fact, Henry II. built a labyrinth or maze to conceal her
from Queen Eleanor, who discovered her by means of a silken clew and put
her to death. She is commonly, though erroneously, stated to have been
the mother of William Longsword and Geoffrey, archbishop of York.

=Fairservice, Andrew.=--A shrewd Scotch gardener at Osbaldistone Hall in
_Rob Roy_, Sir Walter Scott.

=Fairy of the Mine.=--A malevolent being, supposed to live in mines,
busying itself with cutting ore, turning the windlass, etc., and yet
effecting nothing.

=Faithful.=--One of the allegorical personages in Bunyan’s _Pilgrim’s
Progress_, who dies a martyr before completing his journey.

=Faithful, Jacob.=--The title and hero of a sea tale, by Captain Marryat
(1835).

=Fakenham Ghost.=--A ballad by Robert Bloomfield, author of _The
Farmer’s Boy_. The ghost was a donkey.

=Fakreddin’s Valley.=--Over the several portals of bronze were these
inscriptions: (1) _The Asylum of Pilgrims_; (2) _The Traveler’s Refuge_;
(3) _The Depository of the Secrets of All the World_.

=Falkland.=--In Godwin’s novel called _Caleb Williams_. He commits
murder, and keeps a narrative of the transaction in an iron chest.
Williams, a lad in his employ, opens the chest, and is caught in the act
by Falkland. The lad runs away, but is hunted down. This tale,
dramatized by Colman is entitled _The Iron Chest_.

=Falstaff= (_fâl´stȧf_), =Sir John.=--A famous character in
Shakespeare’s comedy of the _Merry Wives of Windsor_, and in the first
and second parts of his historical drama of _Henry IV._ He is as perfect
a comic portrait as was ever sketched. In the former play he is
represented as in love with Mrs. Ford and Mrs. Page, who make a butt and
a dupe of him; in the latter he figures as a soldier and a wit; in both
he is exhibited as a monster of fat--sensual, mendacious, boastful, and
cowardly. In _Henry V._ his death is described by Mrs. Quickly.

=Fang.=--(1) A sheriff’s officer, in the second part of Shakespeare’s
_King Henry IV._ (2) _Oliver Twist_, Charles Dickens. A bullying
insolent magistrate, who would have sent Oliver Twist to prison, on
suspicion of theft, if Mr. Brownlow had not interposed.

=Fata Alcina.=--_Orlando Innamorato_, Bojardo. Sister of Fata Morgana.
She carried off Astolfo on the back of a whale to her isle, but turned
him into a myrtle tree when she tired of him.

=Fata Morgana= (_fä´tä mor-gä´nä_).--The name of a potent fairy,
celebrated in the tales of chivalry, and in the romantic poems of Italy.
She was a pupil of the enchanter Merlin, and the sister of Arthur, to
whom she discovered the intrigue of his queen, Geneura, or Guinever,
with Lancelot of the Lake. In the _Orlando Innamorato_ of Bojardo, she
appears at first as a personification of fortune, inhabiting a splendid
residence at the bottom of a lake, and dispensing all the treasures of
the earth, but she is afterward found in her proper station subject to
the all potent Demogorgon. Also, as sister to King Arthur and pupil of
Merlin. She lived at the bottom of the lake and dispensed good fortune
as she liked.

=Fat Boy, The.=--A laughable character in Dickens’ _Pickwick Papers_; a
youth of astonishing obesity whose employment consists in alternate
eating and sleeping.

=Fathom, Ferdinand, Count.=--The title of a novel by Smollett, and the
name of its principal character, a complete villain, who proceeds step
by step to rob his benefactors and finally dies in misery and despair.

=Fatima= (_fä´tē-mä_).--(1) A female worker, in the story of _Aladdin_,
in the _Arabian Nights’ Entertainments_. (2) The last of the wives of
Bluebeard, and the only one who escaped being murdered by him.

=Faust= (_foust_).--A celebrated tragedy by Goethe, the materials of
which are drawn in part from the popular legends of Dr. Faustus, a
famous magician of the sixteenth century. A rich uncle having left him a
fortune, Faust ran to every excess, and, when his fortune was exhausted,
made a pact with the devil (who assumed the name of Mephistopheles, and
the appearance of a little gray monk), that, if he might indulge his
propensities freely for twenty-four years, he would at the end of that
period consign to the devil both body and soul. The compact terminated
in 1550, when Faust disappeared. His sweetheart was Margherita, whom he
seduced, and his faithful servant was Wagner.

=Faustus= (_fâs´tus_).--A tragedy name; represented as a vulgar sorcerer
tempted to sell his soul to the devil (Mephistopheles), on condition of
having a familiar spirit at his command, the possession of earthly power
and glory, and unlimited gratification of his sensual appetites, for
twenty-four years; at the end of which time, when the forfeit comes to
be exacted, he shrinks and shudders in agony and remorse, imploring yet
despairing of the mercy of heaven. This has been the theme of many
writers. It is the subject of an opera by Gounod.

=Femmes Savantes= (_fam sȧ-vä_N´), =Les= (or, _The Learned
Women_).--Comedy by Molière. These women go in for women’s rights,
science, and philosophy, to the neglect of domestic duties and wifely
amenities. The “blue-stockings” are (1) Philaminte, the mother of
Henriette, who discharges one of her servants because she speaks bad
grammar; (2) Armande, sister of Henriette, who advocates platonic love
and science; and (3) Bélise, sister of Philaminte, who sides with her in
all things, but imagines that everyone is in love with her. Henriette,
who has no sympathy with these “lofty flights,” is in love with
Clitandre; but Philaminte wants her to marry Trissotin, a _bel esprit_.
However, the father loses his property through the “savant” proclivities
of his wife, Trissotin retires, and Clitandre marries Henriette, the
“perfect” or thorough woman.

=Fenella.=--A fairy-like creature, a deaf and dumb attendant on the
countess of Derby, in Sir Walter Scott’s _Peveril of the Peak_.

=Fenton= (_fen´ton_).--A character in Shakespeare’s _Merry Wives of
Windsor_, who wooes the rich Anne Page for her money, but soon discovers
inward treasures in her which quite transform him.

=Feramorz= (_fer´a-mōrz_).--_Lalla Rookh_, Thomas Moore. Feramorz in
_Lalla Rookh_ is the young Cashmerian poet, who relates poetical tales
to Lalla Rookh, in her journey from Delhi to Lesser Bucharia. Lalla
Rookh is going to be married to the young sultan, but falls in love with
the poet. On the wedding morn she is led to her future husband, and
finds that the poet is the sultan himself, who had gallantly taken this
course to win the heart of his bride and beguile her journey.

=Ferdinand= (_fer´di-nand_).--(1) A character in Shakespeare’s
_Tempest_. He is a son of the king of Naples, and falls in love with
Miranda, the daughter of Prospero, a banished duke of Milan. (2) King of
Navarre, character in _Love’s Labor’s Lost_.

=Ferrers= (_fer´erz_)--_Endymion._ The hero of Benjamin Disraeli’s novel
_Endymion_.

=Ferrex and Porrex.=--Two sons of Gorboduc, a mythical British king.
Porrex drove his brother from Britain, and when Ferrex returned with an
army he was slain, but Porrex was shortly after put to death by his
mother. One of the first, if not the very first, historical plays in the
English language was _Ferrex and Porrex_, by Thomas Norton and Thomas
Sackville.

=Fib.=--_Nymphidia_, Drayton. One of the fairy attendants to Queen Mab.

=Fidele= (_fi-dē´lē_, or _fi-dāl´_).--Subject of an elegy by Collins.

=Fidelie.=--_Cymbeline_, Shakespeare. The name assumed by Imogen, when,
attired in boy’s clothes, she started for Milford Haven to meet her
husband Posthumus.

=Fidessa.=--_Faërie Queene_, Spenser. The companion of Sansfoy; but when
the Red-cross Knight slew that “faithless Saracen,” Fidessa turned out
to be Duessa, the daughter of Falsehood and Shame. See “Duessa.”

=Figaro= (_fē´gä-rō_).--A character introduced by Beaumarchais in his
plays _Le Barbier de Seville_, _Le Mariage de Figaro_, and _La Mère
Coupable_, used later by Mozart, Paisiello, and Rossini in operas. In
the _Barbier_ he is a barber; in the _Mariage_ he is a valet. In both he
is gay, lively, and courageous; his stratagems are always original, his
lies witty, and his shrewdness proverbial. In the _Mère Coupable_ he has
become virtuous and has lost his nerve. He also appears in Holcroft’s
_Follies of a Day_, taken from Beaumarchais’ _Mariage de Figaro_.

=Finetta= (_fi-net´tä_).--_The Cinder Girl._ A fairy tale by the
Comtesse d’Aulnoy. This is merely the old tale of Cinderella slightly
altered.

=Fingal= (_fing´gal_).--A mythical hero, whose name occurs in Gaelic
ballads and traditions, and in Macpherson’s _Poems of Ossian_.

=Fleance= (_flē´ans_).--A son of Banquo, in Shakespeare’s tragedy of
_Macbeth_. The legend relates that after the assassination of his father
he escaped to Wales, where he married the daughter of the reigning
prince, and had a son named Walter. This Walter afterward became lord
high steward of Scotland, and called himself Walter the Steward. From
him proceeded in a direct line the Stuarts of Scotland, a royal line
which gave James VI. of Scotland, James I. of England. This myth has
been seriously accepted by some as fact.

=Fledgeby.=--_Our Mutual Friend_, Dickens. An overreaching, cowardly
sneak who pretends to do a decent business under the trade name of
Pubsey & Co.

=Florentius.=--A knight whose story is related in the first book of
Gower’s _Confessio Amantis_. He bound himself to marry a deformed hag,
provided she taught him the solution of a riddle on which his life
depended.

=Florian= (_flō-ryon´_).--_The Foundling of the Forest_, W. Dimond.
Discovered in infancy by the Count de Valmont, and adopted as his own
son, Florian is lighthearted and volatile, but with deep affection, very
grave, and the delight of all who know him.

=Florimel= (_flor´i-mel_).--A female character in Spenser’s _Faërie
Queene_, of great beauty, but so timid that she feared the “smallest
monstrous mouse that creeps on floor,” and was abused by everyone. She
was noted for sweetness of temper amid great trials. The word Florimel
signifies “honey-flower.”

=Florizel= (_flor´i-zel_).--A prince of Bohemia, in Shakespeare’s
_Winter’s Tale_, in love with Perdita.

=Fluellen= (_flö-el´en_).--A Welsh captain, who is an amusing pedant, in
Shakespeare’s _Henry V._

=Flying Dutchman.=--A spectral ship, seen in stormy weather off the Cape
of Good Hope, and considered ominous of ill-luck. Captain Marryat has
taken this theme for his novel _The Phantom Ship_.

=Folk.=--Fairies, also called “people,” “neighbors,” “wights.” The
Germans have their kleine volk (little folk), the Swiss their hill
people and earth people. See _Fairies_.

=Ford.=--Mr. and Mrs. Ford are characters in _The Merry Wives of
Windsor_. Mrs. Ford pretends to accept Sir John Falstaff’s protestations
of love, in order to punish him by her devices.

=Fortinbras= (_fôr´tin-bras_).--Prince of Norway, in Shakespeare’s
tragedy _Hamlet_.

=Fortunatus= (_fôr-tū-na´tus_).--The hero in one of Straparolla’s fairy
tales. The nursery tale of Fortunatus records that he had an
inexhaustible purse. It is from the Italian fairy tales.

=Fortunio’s= (_fôr-tu´ni-o_) =Horse.=--Comrade not only possessed
incredible speed, but knew all things, and was gifted with human speech.

=Francesco.=--The Iago of Massinger’s _Duke of Milan_.

=Francesca da Rimini= (_frȧn-ches´kȧ dȧ rē´mē-nē_).--A dramatic poem by
James Henry Leigh Hunt published in 1816. Francesca was the daughter of
Guido da Polenta, Lord of Ravenna, in the latter part of the thirteenth
century, and was married to Lanciotto, son of Malatesta da Rimini, who,
discovering her criminal intercourse with his brother, revenged himself
by putting them both to death. Her story forms an episode in Dante’s
_Inferno_.

=Frankenstein= (_fräng´ken-stīn_) (or, the _Modern Prometheus_).--A
novel by Mrs. Shelley, published in 1818. It was commenced in the summer
of 1816, when Byron and the Shelleys were residing on the banks of the
Lake of Geneva, and when, “during a week of rain, having amused
themselves with reading German ghost stories, they agreed at last to
write something in imitation of them. ‘You and I,’ said Lord Byron to
Mrs. Shelley, ‘will publish ours together.’ He then began his tale of
the _Vampire_;” but “the most memorable result,” writes Moore, “of their
storytelling compact, was Mrs. Shelley’s wild and powerful romance of
_Frankenstein_, one of those original conceptions that take hold of the
public mind at once and forever.”

The hero of the book, a native of Geneva, and a student, constructs a
monster of grewsome human remains and gives it life by galvanism. The
monster feels that he is unlike all other human beings, and in revenge
for the injury inflicted upon him by his creator, murders his friend,
his brother, and his bride, and finally seeks out Frankenstein himself,
with a view to wreaking a similar revenge on him. The hero, however,
happily escapes his enemy, who retires to the utmost extremity of the
globe, in order to put an end to his miserable life; and Frankenstein
himself falls ill and dies on his way home after his last final flight
from the monstrosity whom he has himself brought into the world.

=Freeport, Sir Andrew.=--The name of one of the members of the imaginary
club under whose direction the _Spectator_ was professedly published. He
is represented as a London merchant of great eminence and experience,
industrious, sensible and generous.

=French Revolution, The.=--A history, in three parts, by Thomas Carlyle,
published in 1837, and described by Lowell as “a series of
word-pictures, unmatched for vehement power, in which the figures of
such sons of earth as Mirabeau and Danton loom gigantic and terrible as
in the glare of an eruption; their shadows swaying far and wide,
grotesquely awful. But all is painted by eruptive flashes in violent
light and shade. There are no half tints, no gradations, and we find it
impossible to account for the continuance in power of less Titanic
actors in the tragedy, like Robespierre, on any theory, whether of human
nature or of individual character, supplied by Mr. Carlyle.”

=Friar Lawrence.=--The Franciscan monk who attempted to befriend the
lovers in _Romeo and Juliet_.

=Friar Tuck.=--Chaplain and steward of Robin Hood. Introduced by Sir
Walter Scott in _Ivanhoe_. He is a self-indulgent, combative Falstaff, a
jolly companion to the outlaws in Sherwood forest.

=Friday.=--Robinson Crusoe’s faithful man Friday pictured by Defoe.

=Froissart= (_froi´särt_).--_The Cronicles of England, Fraunce, Spayne,
Portyugale, Scotlande, Bretayne, Flanders, and other places adjoynynge,
translated out of Frenche into our maternalle Englysche Tonge_, by “John
Bourchier, knight, Lord Berners.” Printed in 1523. The history extends
from 1326 to 1400. Froissart resided in England as secretary to Queen
Philippa from 1361 to 1366, and visited it again in 1395, when he paid a
visit to Scotland.

=Frollo, Archdeacon Claude.=--A noted character in Victor Hugo’s _Notre
Dame de Paris_, absorbed in a bewildering search for the philosopher’s
stone.

=Front de Bœuf.=--_Ivanhoe_, Sir Walter Scott. A follower of Prince John
of Anjou, and one of the knight’s challengers.

=Froth, Master.=--A foolish gentleman in Shakespeare’s _Measure for
Measure_. His name explains his character.

=Fusbos= (_fus´bos_).--_Utopia_, Sir Thomas More. Minister of state to
Artaxaminous, king of Utopia.

=Fyrapel, Sir.=--The Leopard, the nearest kinsman of King Lion, in the
beast epic of _Reynard the Fox_.

=G=

=Gadshill.=--A companion of Sir John Falstaff, in the first part of
Shakespeare’s _King Henry IV._

=Galahad= (_gal´a-had_), =Sir.=--A celebrated knight of the Round Table
who achieved the quest of the Holy Grail. Tennyson has made him the
subject of one of his idylls. In Malory he is also represented as the
perfect knight, clad in wonderful armor. He was the only knight who
could sit in the “Siege Perilous” a seat reserved for the “knight
without a flaw,” who achieved the quest of the “Holy Grail.”

=Galapas= (_gal´a-pas_).--A giant of marvelous height in the army of
Lucius, king of Rome. He was slain by King Arthur.

=Galaphrone=, or =Galafron.=--A king of Cathay and father of Angelica in
Bojardo’s _Orlando Innamorato_ and Ariosto’s _Furioso_.

=Gamp, Mrs.=--A nurse who is a prominent character in Dickens’ novel of
_Martin Chuzzlewit_. She is celebrated for her constant reference to a
certain Mrs. Harris, a purely imaginary person, for whose feigned
opinions and utterances she professes the greatest respect, in order to
give the more weight to her own.

=Gan=, =Ganelone=, =Ganelon=, or =Gano.=--The character of Sir Ganelon
was marked with spite, dissimulation, and intrigue, but he was patient,
obstinate, and enduring. He loved solitude, disbelieved in the existence
of moral good, and has become a byword for a false and faithless friend.
Dante has placed him in his _Inferno_.

=Gander-Cleugh.=--“Folly-Cliff,” that mysterious place where a person
make a goose of himself, in _Tales of My Landlord_, Sir Walter Scott.

=Garcia, Pedro.=--A mythical personage, of whom mention is made in the
preface to Gil Bias, in which is related how two scholars of Salamanca
discovered a tombstone with the inscription “Here lies interred the soul
of the Licentiate Pedro Garcia,” and how, on digging beneath the stone,
was found a leathern purse containing a hundred ducats.

=Gareth.=--In _Arthurian Romance_ a knight of the Round Table, who was
first a scullion in King Arthur’s kitchen, but afterward became champion
of the Lady Linet, or Lynette, whose sister Lionès, or Lyonors, he
delivered from Castle Perilous.

=Garganelle= (_gär-ga-nel´_).--The mother of Gargantua in Rabelais’
celebrated romance of this name.

=Gargantua= (_gär-gan´tū-ä_).--Rabelais’ celebrated romance, the hero of
which is a gigantic personage, about whom many wonderful stories are
related. He lived for several centuries, and at last begot a son,
Pantagruel, as wonderful as himself. The _Pleasant Story of the Giant
Gargantua and of his Son Pantagruel_, so satirized the monastic orders
of his time that it was denounced by the spiritual authorities. Francis
I., however, protected the author, and allowed him to print the third
part of it in 1545.

=Gargery= (_gar´jer-i_), =Mrs. Joe.=--_Great Expectations_, Dickens.
Pip’s sister. A virago, who kept her husband and Pip in constant awe.
Joe Gargery, a blacksmith, married to Pip’s sister. A noble-hearted,
simple-minded young man, who loved Pip sincerely. Joe Gargery was one of
nature’s gentlemen.

=Gaspar=, or =Caspar.=--(The white one), one of the three magi or kings
of Cologne. His offering to the infant Jesus was frankincense, in token
of divinity.

=Gaunt, Griffith.=--Hero of a novel by Charles Reade, of same title.

=Gavotte.=--Name given to a certain dance common among people in the
upper Alps.

=Gawain=, or =Gawayne= (_gä´wān_), =Sir=.--A nephew of King Arthur, and
one of the most celebrated knights of the Round Table; noted for his
sagacity and wonderful strength. He was surnamed “the courteous.” His
brothers were Agravaine, Gaheris, and Gareth.

=Gebir= (_gā´bēr_).--A legendary eastern prince, said to have invaded
Africa and to have given his name to Gibraltar. He is the subject of a
poem of the same name by Walter Savage Landor.

=Gellatley= (_gel´at-li_), =Davie=.--The name of a poor fool in Sir
Walter Scott’s novel of _Waverley_.

=Geneviève= (_zhen-vyāv´_).--(1) The heroine of a ballad by Coleridge.
(2) Under the form _Genovefa_, the name occurs in a German myth as that
of the wife of the Count Palatine Siegfried, in the time of Charles
Martel. Upon false accusations her husband gave orders to put her to
death, but the servant intrusted with the commission suffered her to
escape into the forests of Ardennes, where she lay concealed, until by
accident his husband discovered her retreat, and recognized her
innocence.

=Genevra.=--A lady in Aristo’s _Orlandos’ Furioso_. Her honor is
impeached, and she is condemned to die unless a champion appears to do
combat for her. Her lover, Ariodantes, answers the challenge, kills the
false accuser, and weds the dame. Spenser has a similar story in the
_Faërie Queene_, and Shakespeare availed himself of the main incident in
his comedy of _Much Ado About Nothing_.

=Geraint= (_ge-rānt_), =Sir=.--One of the knights of the Round Table.
His story is told in Tennyson’s _Idylls of the King_ under _Geraint and
Enid_.

=Geraldine.=--A name frequently found in romantic poetry, especially
Scott’s _Lay of the Last Minstrel_. The name is said to have been
adopted from the heroine connected with Surrey, whose praises are
celebrated in a famous sonnet.

=Gertrude of Wyoming.=--Heroine of a poem by Thomas Campbell.

=Gesta Romanorum= (_jes´tä rō-ma-nō´rum_).--A collection of old romances
compiled by Pierre Bercheure, prior of the Benedictine convent of St.
Eloi, Paris. Shakespeare, Spenser, Gower, and many later writers have
gone to this source. It took its present form in England about the
beginning of the fourteenth century, the foundation coming from Roman
writers, to which were added religious and mystical tales.

=Giaour= (_jour_), =The=.--Byron’s tale called _The Giaour_ is
represented as told by a fisherman, a Turk, who had committed a crime
which haunted him all his life. See _Hassan_.

=Gibbie, Goose.=--A half-witted boy in Scott’s _Old Mortality_.

=Gibbie, Sir.=--A simple-hearted, fine character in George Macdonald’s
novel by the same name.

=Giant Despair.=--_Pilgrim’s Progress_, Bunyan. A giant who is the owner
of Doubting Castle, and who, finding Christian and Hopeful asleep upon
his grounds, takes them prisoners, and thrusts them into a dungeon.

=Giant Grim.=--_Pilgrim’s Progress_, Bunyan. A giant who seeks to stop
the march of the pilgrims to the Celestial City, but is slain in a duel
by Mr. Great-heart, their guide.

=Giant Slay-good.=--_Pilgrim’s Progress_, Bunyan. A giant slain in a
duel by Mr. Great-heart.

=Gil Blas= (_zhēl bläs_).--A romance by Le Sage. The hero is the son of
Blas of Santillanê squire or “escudero” to a lady, and brought up by his
uncle, Canon Gil Perês. Gil Blas went to Dr. Godinez’s school of Oviedo
and obtained the reputation of being a great scholar. He had fair
abilities, a kind heart, and good inclinations, but was easily led
astray by his vanity. Full of wit and humor, he was lax in his morals.
Duped by others at first, he afterward played the same devices on those
less experienced. As he grew in years, however, his conduct improved,
and when his fortune was made, he became an honest, steady man.

=Glaucus= (_glâ´kus_).--A fisherman of Bœotia who has become the
fisherman’s patron deity.

=Glaucus.=--Son of Hippolytus. Being smothered in a tub of honey, he was
restored to life by Æsculapius.

=Gloriana.=--In Spenser’s _Faërie Queene_, the “greatest glorious queen
of Faëry land.”

=Glumdalca= (_glum-dal´kä_).--_Tom Thumb_, Fielding. Queen of the
giants, captive in the court of King Arthur.

=Glumdalclitch= (_glum-dal´klich_).--_Gulliver’s Travels_, Swift. A girl
nine years old “and only forty feet high.” Being such a “little thing,”
the charge of Gulliver was committed to her during his sojourn in
Brobdingnag.

=Glumms.=--_Peter Wilkins_, Robert Pullock. The male population of the
imaginary country Nosmubdsgrsutt, visited by Peter Wilkins. Both males
and females had wings which served both for flying and for clothes.

=Godiva= (_gō-dī´vä_).--A poem by Alfred Tennyson. The story of the lady
and _Peeping Tom of Coventry_ is told in full by Dugdale. Godiva was the
wife of Leofric, earl of Mercia, and undertook to ride naked through the
town if he would remit a tax under which the people groaned. The earl
consented and the lady kept her word.

=Golden Ass, The.=--A romance in Latin by Apuleius. It is the adventures
of Lucian, a young man who had been transformed into an ass, but still
retained his human consciousness. It tells us the miseries which he
suffered at the hands of robbers, eunuchs, magistrates, and so on, till
the time came for him to resume his proper form. It is full of wit, racy
humor, and rich fancy, and contains the exquisite episode of Cupid and
Psyche.

=Golden Legend, The.=--The title of an ecclesiastical work in one
hundred and seventy-seven sections, dating from the thirteenth century,
written by one James de Voragine, a Dominican monk, and descriptive of
the various saints’ days in the Roman calendar. It is deserving of study
as a literary monument of the period, and as illustrating the religious
habits and views of the Christians of that time.

=Goneril= (_gon´er-il_).--The oldest of the three daughters to King
Lear, in Shakespeare’s tragedy. Having received her moiety of Lear’s
kingdom, the unnatural daughter first abridged the old man’s retinue,
then gave him to understand that his company was not wanted and sent him
out a despairing old man to seek refuge where he could find it. Her name
is proverbial for filial ingratitude.

=Gonzalo= (_gon-zä´lō_).--An honest old counselor in Shakespeare’s
_Tempest_, a true friend to Prospero.

=Goody Blake.=--A character in Wordsworth’s poem entitled _Goody Blake
and Harry Gill_. A farmer forbids old Goody Blake to carry home a few
sticks, which she had picked up from his land, and in revenge she
invokes upon him the curse that he may “never more be warm;” and ever
after “his teeth they chatter, chatter still.”

=Goody Two-Shoes.=--The name of a well-known character in a nursery tale
by Oliver Goldsmith. Goody Two-Shoes was a very poor child, whose
delight at having a pair of shoes was unbounded. She called constant
attention to her “two-shoes” which gave her the name.

=Gradgrind= (_grad´grīnd_).--A hardware merchant in Dickens’ _Hard
Times_. He is a man of hard facts and cultivates the practical. His
constant demand in conversation is for “facts.” He allows nothing for
the weakness of human nature, and deals with men and women as a
mathematician with his figures.

=Gradgrind, Mrs.=--Wife of Thomas Gradgrind. A little, thin woman,
always taking physic, without receiving from it any benefit.

=Gradgrind, Tom.=--Son of the above, a sullen young man, much loved by
his sister.

=Gradgrind, Louise.=--A faithful daughter and sister.

=Grandison, Sir Charles.=--The hero of Richardson’s novel _The History
of Sir Charles Grandison_. Designed to represent his ideal of a perfect
hero--a union of the good Christian and the perfect English gentleman.

=Gratiano= (_grä-tē-ä´no_).--(1) A friend to Antonio and Bassanio in
Shakespeare’s _Merchant of Venice_. He “talks an infinite deal of
nothing, more than any man in Venice.” (2) Brother to Brabantio, in
Shakespeare’s tragedy of _Othello_. (3) A character in the Italian
popular theater called _Commedia dell’ Arte_. He is represented as a
Bolognese doctor, and has a mask with a black nose and forehead and red
cheeks.

=Great-Heart, Mr.=--In Bunyan’s _Pilgrim’s Progress_, the guide of
Christian’s wife and children upon their journey to the Celestial City.

=Gremio= (_grē´mi-ō_).--In Shakespeare’s _Taming of the Shrew_, an old
man who wishes to wed Bianca.

=Griffin-feet.=--_Fairy Tales_, Comtesse d’Aulnoy. The mark by which the
Desert Fairy was known in all her metamorphoses.

=Grimalkin.=--A cat, the spirit of a witch. Any witch was permitted to
assume the body of a cat nine times.

=Grimwig.=--_Oliver Twist_, Dickens. An irascible old gentleman, who hid
a very kind heart under a rough exterior. He was always declaring
himself ready to “eat his head” if he was mistaken on any point on which
he passed an opinion.

=Griselda= (_gri-zel´dä_), =The Patient=.--A lady in Chaucer’s _Clerk of
Oxenford’s Tales_, immortalized by her virtue and her patience. The
model of womanly and wifely obedience, she comes victoriously out of
cruel and repeated ordeals. The story of Griselda is first told in the
Decameron. Boccaccio derived the incidents from Petrarch, who seems to
have communicated them also to Chaucer, as the latter refers to Petrarch
as his authority.

=Grub Street=, London, is thus described in Dr. Johnson’s dictionary:
“Originally the name of a street near Moorfields, in London, much
inhabited by writers of small histories, dictionaries, and temporary
poems, whence any production is called Grub street.” The name was freely
used by Pope, Swift, and others.

=Grundy.=--“What will Mrs. Grundy say?” (What will our rivals or
neighbors say?) The phrase is from Tom Morton’s _Speed the Plough_, but
“Mrs. Grundy” is not introduced into the comedy as one of the _dramatis
personæ_. The solicitude of Dame Ashfield, in this play, as to “what
will Mrs. Grundy say?” has given the latter great celebrity, the
interrogatory having acquired a proverbial currency.

=Gudrun= (_gö-drön´_).--_Edda_, Sämund Sigfusson. A lady, married to
Sigurd by the magical arts of her mother and on the death of Sigurd to
Atli (Attila), whom she hated for his cruelty, and murdered. She then
cast herself into the sea, and the waves bore her to the castle of King
Jonakun, who became her third husband.

=Gudrun.=--North-Saxon poem. A model of heroic fortitude and pious
resignation. She was the daughter of King Hettel (Attila), and the
betrothed of Herwig, king of Heligoland.

=Guendolen= (_gwen´dō-len_).--A fairy whose mother was a human being.

=Guildenstern.=--The name of a courtier in Shakespeare’s tragedy
_Hamlet_.

=Guinevere= (_gwin´e-ver_), or =Guenever=.--A corrupt form of
=Guanhumara=, daughter of King Leodegrance of the land of Camelyard. She
was the most beautiful of women, was the wife of King Arthur, but
entertained a _liaison_ with Sir Launcelot du Lac. Arthur, when informed
of the conduct of Launcelot, went with an army to Brittany to punish
him. Mordred, left as regent, usurped the crown, proclaimed that Arthur
was dead, and tried to marry Guinevere; but she shut herself up in the
Tower of London, resolved to die rather than marry the usurper. When she
heard of the death of Arthur, she stole away to Almesbury, and became a
nun.

=Gulliver, Lemuel.=--The imaginary hero of Swift’s celebrated satirical
romance known as _Gulliver’s Travels_. He is represented as being first
a surgeon in London, and then a captain of several ships. After having
followed the sea for some years he makes in succession four
extraordinary voyages.

=Gummidge= (_gum´ij_), =Mrs.=--In Dickens’ novel of _David Copperfield_,
described herself as a “lone, lorn, creetur, and everythink that reminds
me of creeturs that ain’t lone and lorn goes contrairy with me.”

=Gurton, Gammer.=--The heroine of an old English comedy, long supposed
to be the earliest in the language.

=Guy Mannering.=--The second of Scott’s historical novels, published in
1815, just seven months after _Waverley_. The interest of the tale is
well sustained; but the love scenes, female characters, and Guy
Mannering himself are quite worthless. Not so the character of Dandy
Dinmont, the shrewd and witty counselor Pleydell, the desperate,
sea-beaten villainy of Hatteraick, the uncouth devotion of that gentlest
of all pedants, poor Dominie Sampson, and the savage, crazed
superstition of the gypsy-dweller in Derncleugh.

=Guyon= (_gī´on_).--The impersonation of Temperance or Self-government
in Spenser’s _Faërie Queene_. He destroyed the witch Acrasia, and her
bower, called the “Bower of Bliss.” His companion was Prudence. Sir
Guyon represents the quality of temperance in the largest sense; meaning
the virtuous self-government which holds in check not only the inferior
sensual appetites but also the impulses of passion and revenge.

=Guy, Sir, Earl of Warwick.=--The hero of a famous English legend, which
celebrates the wonderful achievements by which he obtained the hand of
his ladylove, the fair Felice, as well as the adventures he subsequently
met with in a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. He is reputed to have lived
in the reign of the Saxon King Athelstan. The romance of Sir Guy,
mentioned by Chaucer in the _Canterbury Tales_, cannot be traced further
back than the earlier part of the fourteenth century. His existence at
any period is very doubtful.

=H=

=Hadad.=--One of the six wise men led by the guiding star to Jesus.

=Hagen.=--The murderer of Siegfried, in the German epic, the
_Nibelungenlied_. He is a pale-faced dwarf, who knows everything and
whose sole desire is mischief. After the death of Siegfried he seized
the “Nibelung hoard,” and buried it in the Rhine, intending to
appropriate it. Kriemhild invited him to the court and had him slain.

=Haidee= (_hī-dē´_).--A beautiful young Greek girl in Byron’s poem, _Don
Juan_. She is called the “beauty of the Cyclades.”

=Hakim.=--_The Talisman_, Scott. Saladin, in the disguise of a
physician, visited Richard Cœur de Lion in sickness; gave him a medicine
in which the “talisman” had been dipped, and the sick king recovered.

=Hamlet.=--A tragedy by Shakespeare. The chief character is Hamlet,
prince of Denmark. The ghost of his father appears to him, and urges him
to avenge his murder upon his uncle. But the prince feigns madness, and
puts off his revenge from day to day by “thinking too precisely on the
event.” Hamlet’s mother had married Claudius, king of Denmark, after the
death of her former husband. Claudius prepared poisoned wine, which he
intended for Hamlet; but the queen, not knowing it, drank it, was
poisoned and died. Hamlet, seeing his mother fall dead, rushed on the
king and killed him almost by accident, and is killed himself by a
poisoned rapier in the hands of Laertes.

=Hanswurst= (_häns´vŏrst_).--A pantomimic character formerly introduced
into German comedies. It corresponds to the Italian _Macaroni_, the
French _Jean Potage_, and the English _Jack Pudding_.

=Hardcastle, Mr.=--A character in Goldsmith’s comedy of _She Stoops to
Conquer_, represented as prosy and hospitable.

=Hardcastle, Mrs.=--A very “genteel” lady indeed. Tony Lumpkin is her
son by a former husband.

=Hard Times.=--A novel by Dickens. Bounderby, a street Arab, raised
himself to banker and cotton prince. When past fifty years of age he
married Louisa, daughter of Thomas Gradgrind. The bank was robbed, and
Bounderby believed Stephen Blackpool to be the thief, because he had
dismissed him from his employ. The culprit was Tom Gradgrind, the
banker’s brother-in-law, who escaped out of the country. In the
dramatized version, the bank was not robbed, but Tom removed the money
to another drawer for safety.

=Harlequin= (_här´le-kin_, or _-´kwin_).--The name of a well-known
character in the popular extemporized Italian comedy.

=Harlowe, Clarissa.=--The heroine of Richardson’s novel entitled _The
History of Clarissa Harlowe_. In order to avoid a marriage urged upon
her by her parents, she casts herself on the protection of Lovelace, who
grossly abuses the confidence thus reposed in him. He subsequently
proposes to marry her, but Clarissa rejects the offer.

=Haroun-al-Raschid= (_hä-rŏn´äl-rash´id_).--Caliph of the Abbasside
race, contemporary with Charlemagne, and, like him, a patron of
literature and the arts. Many of the tales in the _Arabian Nights_ are
placed in the caliphate of Haroun-al-Raschid.

=Harpagon= (_är-pä-gôn´_).--The hero of Molière’s comedy of _L’Avare_,
represented as a wretched miser.

=Harpier=, or _Harper_.--Some mysterious personage referred to by the
witches in Shakespeare’s tragedy _Macbeth_.

=Hassan= (_häs´sän_).--_The Giaour_, Byron. Caliph of the Ottoman
empire, noted for his hospitality and splendor. In his seraglio was a
beautiful young slave named Leila, who loved a Christian called the
Giaour. Leila is put to death by an emir, and Hassan is slain by the
Giaour. Caliph Hassan has become the subject of popular romance.

=Hassan, Al.=--The Arabian emir of Persia, father of Hinda, in Moore’s
_Fire Worshipers_.

=Hatto= (_hät´tō_).--In German legend, an archbishop of Mentz in the
tenth century, who, for his hardheartedness to the poor in time of
famine, was eaten by mice in the “Mouse Tower” on an island in the Rhine
near Bingen. Robert Browning has made this legend the subject of a poem.

=Havelock the Dane= (_hav´e-lok_).--A fisherman, known as Grim, rescued
an infant named Havelock, whom he adopted. This infant was the son of
the king of Denmark, and when the boy was restored to his royal sire
Grim was laden with gifts. He built the town which he called after his
own name. This is the foundation of the mediæval tales about _Havelock
the Dane_.

=Hazlewood, Sir Robert.=--The old baronet of Hazlewood.

=Hazlewood, Charles.=--_Guy Mannering_, Scott. Son of Sir Robert. In
love with Lucy Bertram, whom he marries.

=Heart of Midlothian, The.=--A novel by Sir Walter Scott, published in
1818. It has for heroines Jeanie and Effie Deans. Among the other
characters are Dumbiedykes and Madge Wildfire. It has often been
dramatized. “The Heart of Midlothian” was the popular name for the
tollbooth at Edinburgh, the capital of the county of Midlothian.

=Heep, Uriah.=--_David Copperfield_, Dickens. A detestable character,
who, under the garb of the most abject humility, conceals a diabolic
malignity. Mrs. Heep, Uriah’s mother, was a character equally to be
despised for her hypocritical assumption of humility.

=Helena.=--(1) A lady in Shakespeare’s _Midsummer Night’s Dream_, in
love with Demetrius. (2) The heroine of Shakespeare’s _All’s Well That
Ends Well_, in love with Bertram, who marries her against his will and
leaves her, but is finally won by the strength of her affection. (3) A
character in an old popular tale, reproduced in Germany by Tieck.

=Hermann and Dorothea.=--The hero and heroine of Goethe’s poem of the
same name.

=Hermengyld= (_her´men-gild_).--_Canterbury Tales_, Chaucer. The wife of
the lord-constable of Northumberland. She was converted by Constance,
but was murdered by a knight. Hermengyld at the bidding of Constance
restored sight to a blind Briton.

=Hermia= (_her´mi-ä_).--A lady in Shakespeare’s _Midsummer Night’s
Dream_, in love with Lysander.

=Hermione.=--The heroine of the first three acts of Shakespeare’s
_Winter’s Tale_.

=Hernani=, or =Ernani=.--The hero of Victor Hugo’s tragedy of the same
name, and of Verdi’s opera, founded on the play. He was a Spanish noble
in revolt against the Emperor Charles V. and killed himself from a high
sense of honor.

=Hiawatha= (_hi-a-wâ´tä_, or _hī-a-wâ´thä_), =The Song of.=--A poem by
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, written in the following peculiar measure:

    Should you ask me, “Whence these stories?”
    .....
    I should answer, I should tell you,
    .....
    “I repeat them as I heard them
    From the lips of Nawadaha,
    The musician, the sweet singer.”

The poem is entirely devoted to a description of life among the
aboriginal tribes of America. It was published in 1855. Hiawatha is a
mythical person believed by some of the North American Indians to have
been sent among them to clear their rivers, forests, and
fishing-grounds, and to teach them the arts of peace. When the white man
came, then Hiawatha knew that the time of his departure was at hand,
when he must go

    To the kingdom of Ponemah,
    The land of the Hereafter.

=Highland Mary.=--A song by Robert Burns, which Burns himself thought
was in his happiest manner, and which refers, he says, to one of the
most interesting passages of his youthful days. By this he means his
attachment to Mary, a servant in the family of Mr. Hamilton, “who will
be remembered,” says Alexander Smith, “with Dante’s Beatrice and
Petrarch’s Laura.” It was arranged that the lovers should become man and
wife, and that Mary should go to her friends to prepare for the wedding.
But before her departure came the farewell scene so touchingly described
in the poem:

      Our parting was fu’ tender;
    And, pledging aft to meet again,
      We tore oursels asunder:
    But oh! fell death’s untimely frost
      That nipt my flower sae early!
    Now green’s the sod, and cauld’s the clay,
      That wraps my Highland Mary!

=Hilda.=--A New England girl of the most sensitive delicacy and purity
of mind, in Hawthorne’s romance, _The Marble Faun_. She is an artist,
living in Rome, and typifies, perhaps, the conscience.

=Hildebrand= (_hil´de-brand_).--The Nestor of German romance, a magician
and champion.

=Hildesheim= (_hil´des-hīm_).--In an old German legend, the monk of
Hildesheim, doubting how a thousand years with God could be “only one
day,” listened to the melody of a bird, as he supposed, for only three
minutes, but found that he had been listening to it for a hundred years.

=Hobbididance.=--The name of one of the fiends mentioned by Shakespeare
in _Lear_, and taken from the history of the Jesuits’ impostures.

=Hohenlinden= (_hō[´]en-lin´den_).--A poem by Thomas Campbell, published
in 1802, celebrating the battle of Hohenlinden, gained by Moreau and the
French over the Austrians. The poet visited the battle field on December
3, 1800.

=Holofernes= (_hol-ō-fer´nēz_).--(1) A pedant living in Paris, under
whose care Gargantua is placed for instruction. (2) A pedantic
schoolmaster in Shakespeare’s _Love’s Labor’s Lost_.

=Holt, Felix.=--The hero of George Eliot’s novel by the same name.

=Home, Sweet Home.=--A popular lyric contained in the drama of _Clari,
the Maid of Milan_, by John Howard Payne. The beautiful melody to which
it has been wedded is said to be of Italian or Sicilian origin, though
by some it is attributed to Sir Henry Rowley Bishop. Perhaps the latter
merely arranged and harmonized it.

=Homilies.=--The latter entries in the Peterborough _Chronicle_ and a
few homilies are almost all that we have left of the literature of the
twelfth century. Some of these homilies are copied or imitated from
those of Ælfric.

=Honeycomb= (_hun´i-kōm_), =Will.=--One of the members of the imaginary
club by whom the _Spectator_ was professedly edited. He is distinguished
for his graceful affectation, courtly pretension, and knowledge of the
gay world.

=Honeyman, Charles.=--A fashionable preacher in Thackeray’s novel, _The
Newcomes_.

=Hopeful.=--A pilgrim in Bunyan’s _Pilgrim’s Progress_, who accompanies
Christian to the end of his journey.

=Hop-o’-my-Thumb.=--A character in the tales of the nursery. Tom Thumb
and Hop-o’-my-Thumb are not the same, although they are often
confounded. Tom Thumb was the son of peasants, knighted by King Arthur,
and was killed by a spider. Hop-o’-my-Thumb was a nix, the same as the
German “_daumling_,” the French “_le petit pouce_,” and the Scotch
“Tom-a-lin” or “Tamlane.” He was not a human dwarf, but a fay.

=Horatio= (_hō-rā´shi-ō_).--_Hamlet_, Shakespeare. An intimate friend of
Hamlet, a prince, a scholar, and a gentleman.

=Horatius Cocles.=--Captain of the bridge gate over the Tiber. He and
two men to help him held the bridge against vast approaching armies.
Subject and title of a poem by Lord Macauley.

=Horner, Jack.=--The name of a celebrated personage in the literature of
the nursery. A Somersetshire tradition says that the plums which Jack
Horner pulled out of the Christmas pie alluded to the title deeds of the
abbey estates at Wells, which were sent to Henry VIII., in a pasty, and
were abstracted on the way by the messenger, a certain Jack Horner.

=Hortense= (_hôr-ten´s_, or _or-tons´_).--_Bleak House_, Dickens. The
vindictive French maid-servant of Lady Dedlock. In revenge for the
partiality shown by Lady Dedlock to Rosa, Hortense murdered Mr.
Tulkinghorn, and tried to throw the suspicion of the crime on Lady
Dedlock.

=House of the Seven Gables, The.=--A romance by Nathaniel Hawthorne,
published in 1851. “In _The House of the Seven Gables_,” says R. H.
Hutton, “we have a picture studied to impress on us that both personal
character and the malign influences of evil action are transmitted,
sometimes with accumulating force, even through centuries, blighting
every generation through which they pass. The subject would apparently
involve a series of sketches, but only two are introduced from the past,
and the family characteristics are so anxiously preserved as to make
even these seem like slight modifications of some of the living group.
The only incident in the tale is the light thrown upon a crime--which
had been committed thirty years before the story opens--by the sudden
death of the principal representative of a family from the same disease,
in the same chair, and under the same circumstances, as those of the old
ancestor and founder of the family, whose picture hangs above the
chair.”

=Hubbard, Old Mother.=--A well-known nursery rhyme. _Mother Hubbard’s
Tale_, by Edmund Spenser, is a satirical fable in the style of Chaucer.

=Hubert de Burgh= (_börg_, or _berg_).--Justice of England, created Earl
of Kent, introduced by Shakespeare into _King John_. He is the one to
whom the young prince addresses his piteous plea for life. The lad was
found dead soon afterward, either by accident or foul play.

=Hubert, Saint.=--The legend of Saint Hubert makes him a patron saint of
huntsmen.

=Hudibras= (_hū´di-bras_).--The title and hero of a celebrated satirical
poem by Samuel Butler. Hudibras is a Presbyterian justice of the time of
the commonwealth.

=Hugh of Lincoln.=--A legendary personage who forms the subject of
Chaucer’s _Prioress’ Tale_, and also of an ancient English ballad.
Wordsworth has given a modernized version of this tale.

=Hugo Hugonet.=--_Castle Dangerous_, Scott. Minstrel of the earl of
Douglas.

=Humphrey.=--The imaginary collector of the tales in _Master Humphrey’s
Clock_, by Charles Dickens.

=Humpty Dumpty.=--The hero of a well-known nursery rhyme. The name
signifies humped and dumpy, and is the riddle for an egg.

=Huon de Bordeaux= (_ü-ôn´de bor-dō´_).--A hero of one of the romances
of chivalry bearing this name.

=Hural Oyun.=--In the fairy tales found in the Koran, these are the
black-eyed daughters of paradise. They are created from muck, and are
free from all physical weakness and are always young. It is held out to
every male believer that he will have seventy-two of these girls as his
household companions in paradise.

=Hylas= (_hī´las_).--A beautiful boy, beloved by Hercules, who was drawn
into a spring by the enamored nymphs. The story has been treated by
Bayard Taylor, and by William Morris in his _Life and Death of Jason_.

=Hypatia= (_hī-ā´shiä_).--A novel by the Rev. Charles Kingsley, the
scene of which is laid in Alexandria, at a time when Christianity was
gaining ground against Paganism and the neo-Platonism of the schools.
Hypatia herself was born about the year 370, and, after attracting to
her lectures on philosophy a large and brilliant auditory, was torn to
pieces by the rabble of her native city in 415. _Hypatia_ appeared in
1853.

=Hyperion= (_hī-pē´ri-on_, or _hī-per-ī´on_).--A romance in four books,
by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. This work, which was the result of an
extensive tour in Germany, was published in 1839, and with much that is
purely fanciful and imaginative, contains much that came within the
actual experience of the author who is represented, idealized, in the
character of Paul Flemming. The episode with Mary Ashburton is supposed
to have reference to a real occurrence. The book is full of description
and of eloquent discussion, besides being interspersed with snatches of
legend and of song.

=Hypocrites’ Isle.=--An island described by Rabelais in one of his
satires. He pictures this island of _Hypocrites_ as wholly inhabited by
people of low and defiled natures, as, by sham saints, spiritual
comedians, seducers, and “such-like sorry rogues who live on the alms of
passengers like the hermit of Lamont.”

=I=

=Iago= (_ē-ä´gō_).--_Othello_, Shakespeare. Othello’s ensign and the
villain of the play. Iago is said to be a character next to a devil, yet
not quite a devil, which Shakespeare alone could execute without
scandal.

=Idleness, The Lake of.=--_Faërie Queene_, Spenser. Whoever drank
thereof grew instantly “faint and weary.” The Red Cross Knight drank of
it, and was readily made captive by Orgoglio.

=Idylls of the King.=--A series of poems by Tennyson. Taken together
they form a parable of the life of man. Each idyll taken as a separate
picture represents the war between sense and soul. In _Lancelot and
Guinevere_ the lower nature leads them astray and there is intense
struggle before the higher nature prevails. In _Vivien_, _Tristram_, and
_Modred_, the base and sensual triumph. In _Arthur_, _Sir Galahad_ and
_Percivale_, it is the victory of the spiritual.

=Ignaro.=--_Faërie Queene_, Spenser. Fosterfather of Orgoglio. Spenser
says this old man walks one way and looks another, because ignorance is
always “wrong-headed.”

=Iliad= (_il´ē-ad_).--A famous Greek epic poem by Homer. It is the tale
of the siege of Troy, in twenty-four books. It is written in Greek
hexameters, and commemorates the deeds of Achilles and other Greek
heroes at the siege of Troy. Books one, two and three are introductory
to the war. Paris proposes to decide the contest by a single combat, and
Menelaus accepts the challenge. Paris, being overthrown, is carried off
by Venus, and Agamemnon demands that the Trojans shall give up Troy in
fulfillment of the compact, and the siege follows. The gods take part,
and frightful slaughter ensues. At length Achilles slays Hector, and the
battle is at an end. Old Priam, going to the tent of Achilles, craves
the body of his son Hector; Achilles gives it up, and the poem concludes
with the funeral rites of the Trojan hero. Vergil continues the tale
from this point, shows how the city was taken and burnt, and then
continues with the adventures of Æneas, who escapes from the burning
city, and makes his way to Italy.

=Imogen= (_im´ō-jen_).--The wife of Posthumus, and the daughter of
Cymbeline in the play of Shakespeare’s under title _Cymbeline_. “Of all
Shakespeare’s women,” says Hazlitt, “she is, perhaps, the most tender
and the most artless.”

=Incantation.=--Is derived from a Latin root meaning simply “to sing.”
It is the term in use to denote one of the most powerful and
awe-inspiring modes of magic, resting on a belief in the mysterious
power of words solemnly conceived and passionately uttered.

=Inchcape Rock.=--It is dangerous for navigators, and therefore the
abbot of Aberbrothock fixed a bell on a float, which gave notice to
sailors. Southey says that Ralph the Rover, in a mischievous joke, cut
the bell from the buoy, and it fell into the sea; but on his return
voyage his boat ran on the rock, and Ralph was drowned. Precisely the
same tale is told of St. Goven’s bell.

=Inferno, The.=--_Divine Comedy_, Dante. Epic poem in thirty-four
cantos. Inferno is the place of the souls who are wholly given up to
sin. The ascent is through Purgatory to Paradise.

=Ingoldsby Legends= (_ing´gōldz-bi lej´endz_, or _lē´jendz_).--A
collection of legends in prose and verse, supposed to have been found in
the family chest of the Ingoldsby family, and related by Thomas
Ingoldsby. Of the poetical pieces it is not too much to say that, for
originality of design and diction, for quaint illustration and musical
verse, they are not surpassed in the English language. From the days of
Hudibras to our time, the drollery invested in rhyme has never been so
amply or so felicitously exemplified; and if derision has been
unsparingly applied, it has been to lash knavery and imposture.

=In Memoriam.=--A poem by Alfred Tennyson, published in 1850, and
consisting of one hundred and thirty “short swallow flights of song,” in
a measure which Tennyson has made his own. It is well known that these
“brief lays, of sorrow born,” were written in memory of the author’s
friend, Arthur Henry Hallam, who died in 1833. They are characterized by
George MacDonald as forming “the poem of the hoping doubters, the poem
of our age--the grand minor organ fugue of _In Memoriam_. It is the cry
of the bereaved Psyche into the dark infinite after the vanished love.
His friend is nowhere in his sight, and God is silent. Death, God’s
final compulsion to prayer, in its dread, its gloom, its utter
stillness, its apparent nothingness, urges the cry. Moanings over the
dead are mingled with the profoundest questionings of philosophy, the
signs of nature, and the story of Jesus, while now and then the star of
the morning, bright Phosphor, flashes a few rays through the shifting
cloudy dark. And if the sun has not arisen on the close of the book, yet
the aurora of the coming dawn gives light enough to make the onward
journey possible and hopeful.”

=Innocents Abroad.=--By Mark Twain. Travelers seeing Europe without any
illusions. The fun consists in an irreverent application of modern
common sense to historic associations, ridiculing sentimental humbug. An
air of innocence and surprise adds to the drolleries of their
adventures.

=Instauratio Magna= (_in-stâ-rā´shi-ō mag´nä_).--The title (_The Great
Restoration_) which Bacon gave to his _Magnum Opus_, the design of which
was for six divisions:--(1) _The Advancement of Learning_; (2) the
_Novum Organum_; (3) the _Experimental History of Nature_; (4) the
_Scala Intellectus_, which leads from experience to science; (5) the
_Bodronic_, or anticipations of the second philosophy; and (6) _Active
Science_, or experiment. Of these, only the first two, and a portion of
the third (_Sylva Sylvarum_), were published. The idea that was to run
through the _Instauratio_ was that invention must be based upon
experience, and experience upon experiment.

=Interludes, The.=--Springing from the moralities and bearing some
resemblance to them, though nearer the regular drama, are the
interludes, a class of compositions in dialogue, much shorter and more
merry and farcical. They were generally played in the intervals of a
festival.

=Invocation.=--An address at the commencement of a poem, in which the
author calls for the aid of some divinity, particularly of his muse.

=Iphigenia= (_if=´=i-jē-nī´ä_).--The heroine of Euripides’ tragedy
_Iphigenia in Aulis_, and of Goethe’s tragedy _Iphigenia auf Tauris_.
She was placed on the altar in a rash vow by her father. Artemis at the
last moment snatched her from the altar and carried her to heaven,
substituting a hind in her place. The similarity of this legend to the
scripture stories of Jephthah’s vow and Abraham’s offering of his son
Isaac is noticeable.

=Iras.=--A strongly delineated character in _Ben Hur, a Tale of The
Christ_, by Lew Wallace.

=Iras.=--A female attendant on Cleopatra in Shakespeare’s play, _Antony
and Cleopatra_.

=Isaac of York.=--A wealthy Jew, the father of Rebecca, in Sir Walter
Scott’s novel, _Ivanhoe_.

=Isabella.=--The heroine in Shakespeare’s comedy, _Measure for Measure_.

=Island of Lanterns.=--In the celebrated satire of Rabelais, an
imaginary country inhabited by false pretenders to knowledge. The name
was probably suggested by the _City of Lanterns_, in the Greek romance
of Lucian. Swift has copied this same idea in his _Island of Laputa_.

=Island of St. Brandan.=--A marvelous flying island, the subject of an
old and widely spread legend of the middle ages. Though the island of
St. Brandan has been a disappointment to voyagers, it has been a
favorite theme with poets.

=Island of the Blest.=--Imaginary island in the west. Hither the
favorites of the gods were conveyed without dying, and dwelt in
never-ending joy. The name first occurs in Hesiod’s _Works and Days_.
This phrase is often used in modern literature.

=Ithuriel= (_i-thö´ri-el_).--In Milton’s _Paradise Lost_, an angel
commissioned by Gabriel to search through paradise, in company with
Zephon, to find Satan, who had eluded the vigilance of the angelic
guard, and effected an entrance into the garden. It is related that
Ithuriel found Satan “squat like a toad, close at the ear of Eve,” and
transformed him by a touch of his spear into his proper shape.

=Ivanhoe.=--A novel by Sir Walter Scott. The hero, also Ivanhoe, figures
as Cedric of Rotherwood’s disinherited son, the favorite of King Richard
I., and the lover of the Lady Rowena, whom, in the end, he marries. The
scene is laid in England in the reign of Richard I., and we are
introduced to Robin Hood in Sherwood forest, banquets in Saxon halls,
tournaments, and all the pomp of ancient chivalry. Rowena, the heroine,
is quite thrown into the shade by the gentle, meek, yet high-souled
Rebecca.

=Ivory Gate of Dreams.=--Dreams which delude pass through the ivory
gate, but those which come true through the horn gate.

=J=

=Jack and the Bean-Stalk.=--A nursery legend said to be an allegory of
the Teutonic _Al-fader_, the “red hen” representing the all-producing
sun, the “money-bags” the fertilizing rain, and the “harp” the winds.

=Jack-in-the-Green.=--A prominent character in Maypole dances.

=Jack Robinson.=--A famous comic song by Hudson.

=Jack Sprat.=--The hero of a nursery rhyme. Jack and his wife form a
fine combination in domestic economy.

=Jack the Giant-killer.=--The name of a famous hero in the literature of
the nursery, the subject of one of the Teutonic or Indo-European
legends, which have become nationalized in England and America.

=Jaquenetta= (_jak-e-net´ä_).--_Love’s Labor’s Lost_, Shakespeare. A
country wench courted by Don Adriano de Armado.

=Jaques= (_zhä´kes_).--A lord attending upon the exiled duke, in
Shakespeare’s _As You Like It_. A contemplative character who thinks and
does--nothing. He is called the “melancholy Jaques,” and affects a
cynical philosophy. He could “suck melancholy out of a song, as a weasel
sucks eggs.”

=Jarley, Mrs.=--The proprietor of a waxwork show in Dickens’ _Old
Curiosity Shop_. She has lent her name to a popular game of parlor
tableaux.

=Jarndyce= (_järn´dis_), =John.=--A prominent figure in Dickens’ _Bleak
House_, distinguished for his philanthropy, easy good-nature and good
sense, and for always saying, “The wind is in the east,” when anything
went wrong with him. The famous suit of Jarndyce _vs._ Jarndyce, in this
novel, is a satire upon the court of chancery.

=Jarvie, Nicol.=--A prominent character in Sir Walter Scott’s novel _Rob
Roy_. He is a bailie of Glasgow.

=Javert= (_zhä-var´_).--An officer of the police force in _Les
Misérables_, by Victor Hugo. He is the incarnation of inexorable law.

=Jarvis.=--A faithful old servant, in Moore’s _The Gamester_, who tries
to save his master, Beverley, from his fatal passion of gambling.

=Jaup.=--An old woman at Middlemas village, in Scott’s _The Surgeon’s
Daughter_.

=Jekyll, Doctor, and Mr. Hyde.=--A singular romance by Robert Louis
Stevenson. The hero is a duplex character--Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde.
Doctor Jekyll is a benevolent and upright physician, who by means of a
potion is able to transform himself for a time into a second
personality, Mr. Hyde, of a brutal and animal nature.

=Jellyby= (_jel´i-bi_), =Mrs.=--A character in Dickens’ novel, Bleak
House, a type of sham philanthropy. She spends her time and energy on
foreign missions to the neglect of her family. Mrs. Jellyby is quite
overwhelmed with business correspondence relative to the affairs of
Borrioboola Gha.

=Jenkins, Winifred.=--The name of Miss Tabitha Bramble’s maid in
Smollett’s _Expedition of Humphrey Clinker_. She makes ridiculous
blunders in speaking and writing.

=Jenkinson, Ephraim.=--A green old swindler, whom Dr. Primrose met in a
public tavern. Dr. Primrose sold the swindler his horse, Old Blackberry,
for a draft upon Farmer Flamborough.

=Jeroboam= (_jer-ō-bō´am_) =Sermon.=--One of Dr. Emmons’ sermons, which
made a great noise at the time. It was known as his Jeroboam Sermon. It
was written on the occasion of Jefferson’s inauguration as president,
and, although Jefferson is not named, the delineation of the character
of Jeroboam is such that no one can doubt the personal application
intended.

=Jerusalem Delivered.=--An epic in twenty books, by Torquato Tasso. The
crusaders, encamped on the plains of Tortosa, chose Godfrey for their
chief, and Alandine, king of Jerusalem, made preparations for defense.
The Christian army having reached Jerusalem, the king of Damascus sent
Armida to beguile the Christians. It was found that Jerusalem could
never be taken without the aid of Rinaldo. Godfrey, being informed that
the hero was dallying with Armida in the enchanted island, sent to
invite him back to the army; he returned, and Jerusalem was taken.
Armida fled into Egypt, and offered to marry any knight who slew
Rinaldo. The love of Rinaldo returned, he pursued her and she relented.
The poem concludes with the triumphant entry of the Christian army into
the Holy City, and their devotions at the tomb of the Redeemer. The two
chief episodes are the loves of Olindo and Sofronia, and of Tancred and
Clorinda.

=Jessica= (_jes´i-kä_).--The beautiful daughter of Shylock, in
Shakespeare’s _Merchant of Venice_.

=Jones, Tom.=--The hero of Fielding’s novel entitled _The History of a
Foundling_, represented as a model of generosity, openness, and manly
spirit, though thoughtless and dissipated.

=Joyeuse= (_zhwä-yez´_).--The sword of Charlemagne as mentioned in
romances of chivalry.

=Joyeuse Garde= (_zhwä-yez´ gärd_).--The residence of the famous
Lancelot du Lac.

=Judith.=--The heroine in the book by the same name in the Apocrypha.
She was a beautiful Jewess of Bethulia, who, when her town was besieged
by Holofernes, the general of Nebuchadnezzar, attended him in his tent,
and, when he was drunk, killed him, whereupon her townsmen fell upon the
Assyrians and defeated them with great slaughter. The tale is not
mentioned by Josephus, and has, from an early period, been held to be an
allegory. It has frequently furnished poets and painters with subjects.

=Julius Cæsar.=--An historical tragedy by William Shakespeare. The poet
was in this, as in other plays, materially assisted by North’s
translation of Plutarch. “Shakespeare’s _Julius Cæsar_,” says Hazlitt,
“is not equal, as a whole, to either of his other plays taken from the
Roman history. It is inferior in interest to _Coriolanus_, and both in
interest and power to _Antony and Cleopatra_. It, however, abounds in
admirable and affecting passages, and is remarkable for the profound
knowledge of character, in which Shakespeare could hardly fail.”

=K=

=Kadir, Al.=--The night on which the _Koran_ was sent down to Mohammed.
Al Kadir is supposed to be the seventh of the last ten nights of
Ramadan, or the night between the twenty-third and twenty-fourth days of
the month.

=Kay.=--A foster brother of King Arthur, and a rude and boastful knight
of the Round Table. He was the butt of King Arthur’s court. Called also
Sir Queux. He appears in the _Boy and the Mantle_, in Percy’s
_Reliques_. Sir Kay is represented as the type of rude boastfulness, Sir
Gawain of courtesy, Sir Launcelot of chivalry, Sir Mordred of treachery,
Sir Galahad of chastity, Sir Mark of cowardice.

=Kehama= (_kē-hä´mä_).--A Hindu rajah who obtains and sports with
supernatural power. His adventures are related in Southey’s poem
entitled _The Curse of Kehama_.

=Kenilworth.=--A novel by Sir Walter Scott. This is very superior to
_The Abbot_ and _The Monastery_. For interest it comes next to
_Ivanhoe_, and the portrait of Queen Elizabeth is lifelike and correct.
That of Queen Mary is given in _The Abbot_. Full of courtly gayeties and
splendor, the novel contains the unhappy tale of the beautiful Amy
Robsart, which cannot fail to excite our sympathy and pity.

=Kent, Earl of.=--A rough, plain-spoken, but faithful nobleman in
Shakespeare’s _King Lear_, who follows the fallen fortunes of the king,
disguised as a servant, under the assumed name of Caius.

=Kenwigs= (_ken´wigz_).--A family in Dickens’ novel _Nicholas Nickleby_,
including a number of little girls who differed from one another only in
the length of their frilled pantalets and of their flaxen pigtails tied
with bows of blue ribbon.

=Kilkenny Cats.=--Two cats, in an Irish story, which fought till nothing
was left but their tails. It is probably a parable of a local contest
between Kilkenny and Irishtown, which impoverished both boroughs.

=Kilmansegg, Miss.=--An heiress with great expectations and an
artificial leg of solid gold, in Hood’s poem, _A Golden Legend_.

=King Horn.=--A metrical romance which was very popular in the
thirteenth century. King Horn is a beautiful young prince who is carried
away by pirates; but his life is spared, and after many wonderful
adventures he weds a princess, and regains his father’s kingdom.

=King Lear.=--A tragedy by Shakespeare whose hero is a fabulous or
legendary king of Britain. He had three daughters, and when four score
years old, wishing to retire from the active duties of sovereignty,
resolved to divide his kingdom between them, but was persuaded to
disinherit Cordelia. The beauty of the play is the exquisite character
of Cordelia, who is a “perfect woman.”

=King Log and King Stork.=--Characters in a celebrated fable of Æsop,
which relates that the frogs, grown weary of living without a
government, petitioned Jupiter for a king. Jupiter accordingly threw
down a log among them, which made a satisfactory ruler till the frogs
recovered from their fright and discovered his real nature. They,
therefore, entreated Jupiter for another king, whereupon he sent them a
stork, who immediately began to devour them.

=Klaus, Peter.=--The hero of an old popular tradition of Germany--the
prototype of Rip Van Winkle--represented as a goatherd.

=Knickerbocker, Diedrich.=--The imaginary author of a humorous
fictitious _History of New York_, written by Washington Irving.

=Knight of the Swan.=--Lohengrin, son of Parsival, because his boat was
drawn by a swan.

=Knights of the Round Table.=--King Arthur’s knights were so called
because they sat with him at a round table made by Merlin for King
Leodogran. This king gave it to Arthur on his marriage with Guinevere,
his daughter.

=Koppenberg.=--The mountain of Westphalia to which the pied piper
(Bunting) led the children, when the people of Hamelin refused to pay
him for killing their rats. Browning’s poem, _The Pied Piper_, tells the
tale.

=L=

=Lady of Lyons, The.=--A drama, by Lord Lytton, in which Pauline
Deschappelles, daughter of a Lyonese merchant, rejects the suits of
Beauseant, Glavis, and Claude Melnotte, who therefore combined. Claude,
who was a gardener’s son, aided by the other two, passed himself off as
Prince Como, married Pauline, and brought her home to his mother’s
cottage. The proud beauty was very indignant, and Claude left her to
join the French army. He became a colonel, and returned to Lyons. He
found his father-in-law on the eve of bankruptcy, and that Beauseant had
promised to satisfy the creditors if Pauline would consent to marry him.
Pauline was heartbroken; Claude revealed himself, paid the money
required, and carried home the bride.

=Lady of Shalott, The.=--A poem by Alfred Tennyson, founded on an
incident in _King Arthur_. It is descriptive of “a being whose existence
passes without emotion, without changes, without intelligible motive for
living on, without hope or fear, here or hereafter.”

=Lady of the Lake, The.=--A poem in six cantos by Sir Walter Scott,
published in 1810. “Measured even by the standard of the _Minstrel_ and
_Marmion_, the _Lady of the Lake_ possessed,” says Palgrave, “merits of
its own, which raised his reputation still higher. Jeffrey’s prediction
has been perfectly fulfilled, that the _Lady of the Lake_ would be
‘oftener read than either of the former,’ and it is generally
acknowledged to be, in Lockhart’s words, ‘the most interesting,
romantic, picturesque, and graceful of his great poems.’” The
descriptions of scenery, which form one of the chief charms of the poem,
render it, even now, one of the most minute and faithful handbooks to
the region in which the drama of Ellen and the Knight of Snowdon is
laid.

=Lake Poets, The.=--Wordsworth, Southey, and Coleridge, who lived about
the lakes of Cumberland.

=Lalla Rookh= (_lal´ä rök_).--An oriental romance by Thomas Moore,
consisting of four tales in verse, entitled _The Veiled Prophet of
Khorassan_, _Paradise and the Peri_, _The Fire-Worshipers_, and _The
Light of the Harem_, and connected by a short prose narrative, in which
it is described how Lalla Rookh, daughter of the Emperor Aurungzebe,
journeys toward Bucharia to meet her engaged husband, and how the
prince gains her love on the way, in the guise of a Cashmerian minstrel.
_Lalla Rookh_ was published in 1817.

=L’Allegro= (_läl-lā´grō_).--A descriptive poem by John Milton, probably
written during his college life.

=L’Amour Médecin= (_la-mōōr´ mād-sa_N´) (or, _The Love Doctor_).--A
comedy by Molière, written about the year 1665. Lucinde, the daughter of
Sganarelle, is in love, and the father calls in four doctors to consult
upon the nature of her malady. They see the patient, and retire to
consult together, but talk about Paris, about their visits, about the
topics of the day; and when the father enters to know what opinion they
have formed, they all prescribe different remedies, and pronounce
different opinions. Lisette then calls in a “quack” doctor (Clitandre,
the lover), who says he must act on the imagination, and proposes a
seeming marriage, to which Sganarelle assents. The assistant being a
notary, Clitandre and Lucinde are married.

=Lampoon.=--A personal satire, often bitter and malignant. These libels,
carried to excess in the reign of Charles II., acquired the name of
lampoons from the burden sung to them: “_Lampone, lampone, camerada
lampone_.”

=Land of Beulah.=--The paradise in which souls wait before the
resurrection. In _Pilgrim’s Progress_ the land from which the pilgrims
enter the Celestial City. The name is found in Isaiah lxii., 4.

=Land of Bondage.=--Name given to Egypt in the Bible.

=Land of Cakes.=--A name sometimes given to Scotland, because oatmeal
cakes are a common national article of food, particularly among the
poorer classes.

=Land of Nod.=--In common speech sleepy-land or land of dreams.

=Land of Promise.=--The land promised to Abraham--Canaan.

=Land of Shadows.=--A place of unreality, sometimes meaning land of
ghosts.

=Land o’ the Leal.=--An unknown land of happiness, loyalty, and virtue.
Caroline Oliphant, baroness Nairne, meant heaven in her song and this is
now its accepted meaning.

=Land of Wisdom.=--A name given to Normandy, in France, because of the
wise customs which have prevailed there, and also because of the skill
and judgment of the people in making laws.

=Land of Veda= (_vē´dä_).--Name often given to India.

=Landlady’s Daughter.=--She rowed Flemming “over the Rhine-stream, rapid
and roaring wide,” and told to him the story of the _Liebenstein_.

=Last Days of Pompeii= (_pom-pā´yē_), =The.=--A novel by Bulwer Lytton,
Edward George, Baron Lytton, which was published in 1834. The interest
of the book is one of situation and of action rather than of character.
The scenes which linger on our memories longest are the noonday
excursion on the Campanian seas, the temple of Isis, with its hidden
machinery; the funeral pomp and dirge of the murdered Apæcides, Lydon
perishing in the unequal struggle; the price which was to have been paid
for a father’s liberty; and lastly, the grand catastrophe, a subject
which called forth all Lord Lytton’s brilliant powers.

=Last of the Mohicans.=--The Indian chief Uncas is so called by Cooper
in his novel of that title.

=Launfal= (_län´fal_), =Sir.=--Steward of King Arthur. James Russell
Lowell has a poem entitled _The Vision of Sir Launfal_.

=Lavaine.=--Son of the lord of Astolat, who accompanied Sir Lancelot
when he went to tilt for the ninth diamond. Lavaine is described as
young, brave, and a true knight. He was brother to Elaine.

=Lavinia= (_la-vin´i-ä_) =and Palemon.=--Lavinia was the daughter of
Acasto, patron of Palemon. Through Acasto Palemon gained a fortune and
wandered away from his friend. Acasto lost his property, and dying, left
a widow and daughter in poverty. Palemon often sought them, but could
never find them. One day, a lovely modest maiden came to glean in
Palemon’s fields. The young squire was greatly struck with her exceeding
beauty and modesty, but she was known as a pauper and he dared not give
her more than a passing glance. Upon inquiry he found that the beautiful
gleaner was the daughter of Acasto; he proposed marriage, and Lavinia
was restored to her rightful place.

=Leonato= (_lē-ō-nä´tō_).--Governor of Missina in Shakespeare’s _Much
Ado About Nothing_. He prematurely accredited the accusations against
his daughter, Hero.

=Leonine= (_lē´ō-nīn_).--In Shakespeare’s _Pericles_. Servant to
Dionyza. The latter conspired with him to murder Marina, and was saved
from the crime only by the intervention of pirates.

=Léonore= (_lā-ō-nōr´_).--In Molière’s _L’ecole des Maris_, sister of
Isabelle, an orphan; brought up by Ariste according to his notions of
training a girl to make him a good wife. He put her on her honor, tried
to win her confidence and love, gave her all the liberty consistent with
propriety and social etiquette, and found that she loved him, and made a
fond and faithful wife.

=Leviathan= (_lē-vi´a-than_) (or, the _Matter, Form, and Power of a
Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil_).--A work by Thomas Hobbes,
published in 1651. In _Leviathan_, Hobbes’ peculiar theories in politics
received their fullest and ablest expression. They found an illustrious
opponent in Lord Clarendon, who, in 1676, published _A Brief View and
Survey of the Dangerous and Pernicious Errors to Church and State in Mr.
Hobbes’ book Entitled Leviathan_.

=Little Dorrit.=--The heroine and title of a novel by Charles Dickens.
Little Dorrit was born and brought up in the Marshalsea prison,
Bermondsey, where her father was confined for debt; and when about
fourteen years of age she used to do needlework, to earn a subsistence
for herself and her father. The child had a pale, transparent face; was
quick in expression, though not beautiful in feature. Her eyes were a
soft hazel, and her figure slight. The little dove of the prison was
idolized by the prisoners, and when she walked out, every man in
Bermondsey who passed her, touched or took off his hat out of respect to
her good works and active benevolence. Her father, coming into a
property, was set free at length, and Little Dorrit married Arthur
Clennam, the marriage service being celebrated in the Marshalsea, by the
prison chaplain.

=Little John.=--A big, stalwart fellow, named John Little, who
encountered Robin Hood, and gave him a sound thrashing, after which he
was rechristened, and Robin stood godfather. Little John is introduced
by Sir Walter Scott in _The Talisman_.

=Little Nell.=--_Old Curiosity Shop_, Dickens. The prominent character
of the story, pure and true, though living in the midst of selfishness
and crime. She was brought up by her grandfather, who was in his dotage,
and who tried to eke out a narrow living by selling curiosities. At
length, through terror of Quilp, the old man and his grandchild stole
away, and led a vagrant life.

=Lochinvar= (_lock´in-var_).--A young highlander, in the poem of
_Marmion_, was much in love with a lady whose fate was decreed that she
should marry a “laggard.” Young Lochinvar persuaded the too-willing
lassie to be his partner in a dance; and, while the guests were intent
on their amusements, swung her into his saddle and made off with her
before the bridegroom could recover from his amazement.

=Locksley.=--So Robin Hood is sometimes called, from the village in
which he was born.

=Locksley Hall.=--A poem by Tennyson, in which the hero, the lord of
Locksley Hall, having been jilted by his cousin Amy for a rich boor,
pours forth his feelings in a flood of scorn and indignation. The poem
is understood to have been occasioned by a similar incident in the
poet’s own life, but this has been questioned.

=Lohengrin= (_lō´hen-grin_).--The Knight of the Swan; the hero of a
romance by Wolfram von Eschenbach, a German minnesinger of the
thirteenth century, and also of a modern musical drama by Richard
Wagner. He was the son of Parsival, and came to Brabant in a ship drawn
by a white swan, which took him away again when his bride, disobeying
his injunction, pressed him to discover his name and parentage.

=Lorelei=, or =Loreley= (_lō´re-li_).--In German poetry and romance, a
siren supposed to haunt the Lurlenberg rock on the Rhine, and lure
sailors and fisherman to destruction. She is the subject of a beautiful
ballad by Heine.

=Lorna Doone.=--A novel by R. D. Blackmore, published in 1869, the scene
of which is laid in Exmoor. The Doones are a family of robbers and
freebooters from which Lorna, otherwise Lady Lorna Dugal, is rescued by
John Ridd, a young man. Ridd finally broke up the band, drove them from
Doone valley, and married Lorna.

=Love’s Labor’s Lost.=--A comedy by Shakespeare. Ferdinand, king of
Navarre, with three lords named Biron, Dumain, and Longaville, agree to
spend three years in study, during which time no woman was to approach
the court. The compact signed, all went well until the princess of
France, attended by Rosaline, Maria, and Katharine, besought an
interview respecting certain debts said to be due from the king of
France to the king of Navarre. The four gentleman fell in love with the
four ladies. The love of the king sought the princess, by right, Biron
loved Rosaline, Longaville admired Maria, and Dumain adored Katharine.
In order to carry their suits, the four gentlemen, disguised as
Muscovites, presented themselves before the ladies; but the ladies,
being warned of the masquerade, disguised themselves also, so that the
gentlemen in every case addressed the wrong lady. A mutual arrangement
was made that the suits should be deferred for twelve months and a day;
and if, at the expiration of that time, they remained of the same mind,
the matter should be taken into serious consideration.

=Lusiad= (_lū´si-ad_), =The.=--A Portuguese poem by Luiz Camoëns, in
1572. _The Lusiad_ celebrates the chief events in the history of
Portugal, and is remarkable as the only modern epic poem which is
pervaded by anything approaching the national and popular spirit of
ancient epic poems. Bacchus was the guardian power of the Mohammedans,
and Venus, or Divine Love, of the Lusians. The fleet first sailed to
Mozambique, then to Melinda (in Africa), where the adventurers were
hospitably received and provided with a pilot to conduct them to India.
In the Indian Ocean, Bacchus tried to destroy the fleet; Venus, however,
calmed the sea, and Gama arrived in India in safety. Having accomplished
his object, he returned to Lisbon. Among the most famous passages are
the tragical story of Inez de Castro, and the apparition of the giant
Adamastor, who appears as the spirit of the storm to Vasco da Gama, when
crossing the cape. The versification of _The Lusiad_ is extremely
charming.

=M=

=Mab.=--The queen of the fairies, famous in English literature if only
on account of the exquisite description of her put into the mouth of
Mercutio, in _Romeo and Juliet_, beginning “O, then, I see Queen Mab
hath been with you.”

=Macbeth.=--One of Shakespeare’s most celebrated tragedies, whose chief
characters are Macbeth, king of Scotland, and Lady Macbeth, his
murderously ambitious wife. Urged by the latter he kills Duncan, the
rightful king, and in turn is himself slain by Macduff. The tale of
Macbeth and Banquo was borrowed from the legendary history of Scotland,
but the interest of the play is not historical. It is a tragedy of human
life, intensely real, the soul, with all its powers for good or evil,
deliberately choosing evil. The three witches in the desert place, in
thunder, lightning, storm, strike the keynote of evil suggestion. The
awfulness of soul destruction is felt in Macbeth and Lady Macbeth as in
no other of Shakespeare’s dramas.

=Macheath, Captain.=--A highwayman who is the hero of Gay’s _Beggar’s
Opera_.

=Mac-Ivor= (_mak-ē´vor_), =Fergus.=--_Waverley_, Scott, Fergus Mac-Ivor
is a prominent character in the novel, and his sister, Flora Mac-Ivor,
the heroine. They are of the family of a Scottish chieftain.

=Macreons, The Island of.=--_Pantagruel_, Rabelais. The title is given
to Great Britain, derived from a Greek word meaning long-lived, “because
no one is put to death there for his religious opinions.” Rabelais says
the island “is full of antique ruins and relics of popery and ancient
superstitions.”

=Madasima, Queen.=--An important character in the old romance called
_Amadis de Gaul_; her constant attendant was Elisabat, a famous surgeon
with whom she roamed in solitary retreats.

=Madoc= (_mad´ok_).--A poem by Southey, founded on one of the legends
connected with the early history of America. Madoc, a Welsh prince of
the twelfth century, is represented as making the discovery of the
western world. His contests with the Mexicans form the subject.

=Maidens’ Castle.=--An allegorical castle mentioned in Malory’s _History
of Prince Arthur_. It was taken from a duke by seven knights, and held
by them till Sir Galahad expelled them. It was called The Maidens’
Castle because these knights made a vow that every maiden who passed it
should be made a captive.

=Maid Marian.=--A half mythical character, but the name is said to have
been assumed by Matilda, daughter of Robert, Lord Fitzwalter, while
Robin Hood remained in a state of outlawry. The name is considered the
foundation of the word marionettes, from Maid Marian’s connection with
the morris dance, or May-day dance, at which she was said to appear.

=Maid of Athens.=--Made famous by Lord Byron’s song of this title.
Twenty-four years after this song was written an Englishman sought out
“the Athenian maid,” and found a beggar without a vestige of beauty.

=Maid of Saragossa.=--_Childe Harold_, Byron. A young Spanish woman
distinguished for her heroism during the defense of Saragossa in
1808-1809. She first attracted notice by mounting a battery where her
lover had fallen, and working a gun in his place.

=Malade Imaginaire, Le= (or, _The Imaginary Invalid_).--A comedy by
Molière. Mons. Argan, who took seven mixtures and twelve lavements in
one month instead of twelve mixtures with twenty lavements, as he had
hitherto done. “No wonder,” he says, “I am not so well.” He fancies his
wife loves him dearly, and that his daughter is undutiful, because she
declines to marry a young medical prig instead of Cleante, whom she
loves. His brother persuades “the malade” to counterfeit death, in order
to test the sincerity of his wife and daughter. The wife rejoices
greatly at his death, and proceeds to filch his property, when Argan
starts up and puts an end to her pillage. Next comes the daughter’s
turn. When she hears of her father’s death, she bewails him with great
grief, says she has lost her best friend, and that she will devote her
whole life in prayer for the repose of his soul. Argan is delighted,
starts up in a frenzy of joy, declares she is a darling, and shall marry
the man of her choice freely, and receive a father’s blessing.

=Malaprop= (_mal´a-prop_), =Mrs.=--A character in Sheridan’s _Rivals_,
noted for her blundering use of words.

=Malbecco.=--_Faërie Queene_, Spenser. The husband of a young wife,
Helinore, and himself a crabbed, jealous old fellow.

=Malengrin.=--A character in Spenser’s _Faërie Queene_, who carried a
net on his back “to catch fools with.” The name has grown to mean the
personification of guile or flattery.

=Malepardus.=--The castle of Master Reynard, the Fox, in the beast epic
of _Reynard the Fox_.

=Malvoisin.=--_Ivanhoe_, Scott. One of the challenging knights at the
tournament (Sir Philip de Malvoisin). Sir Albert de Malvoisin was a
preceptor of the Knights Templar.

=Mambrino= (_mäm-brē´nō_).--_Poems_, Ariosto, etc. A king of the Moors,
who was the possessor of an enchanted golden helmet, which rendered the
wearer invulnerable and which was the object of eager quest to the
paladins of Charlemagne. This helmet was borne away by the knight
Rinaldo. In _Don Quixote_ we are told of a barber who was caught in a
shower of rain, and who, to protect his hat, clapped his brazen basin on
his head. Don Quixote insisted that this basin was the helmet of the
Moorish king; and, taking possession of it, wore it as such.

=Managarm.=--_Prose Edda._ The largest and most formidable of the race
of giants. He dwells in the Iron-wood, Jamvid. Managarm will first fill
himself with the blood of man, and then he will swallow up the moon.
This giant symbolizes war, and the iron wood in which he dwells is the
wood of spears.

=Manfred.=--A poem by Byron. Manfred sold himself to the prince of
darkness, and received from him seven spirits to do his bidding. They
were the spirits of “earth, ocean, air, night, mountains, winds, and the
star of his own destiny.” Wholly without human sympathies, the count
dwelt in splendid solitude among the Alpine mountains. He loved Astarte,
and was visited by her spirit after her death. In spirit form she told
Manfred that he would die the following day; and, when asked if she
loved him, she signed “Manfred,” and vanished.

=Manon l’Escaut= (_mä-non´ les-kō_).--A French novel by A. F. Prévost.
Manon is the “fair mischief” of the story. Her charms seduce and ruin
the chevalier des Grieux, who marries her. After marriage, the selfish
mistress becomes converted into the faithful wife, who follows her
husband into disgrace and banishment, and dies by his side in the wilds
of America. The object of this novel, like that of _La Dame aux
Camélias_, by Dumas _fils_, is to show how true hearted, how
self-sacrificing, how attractive, a _fille de joie_ may be.

=Mantalini= (_man-ta-lē´nē_).--_Nicholas Nickleby_, Dickens. The husband
of madame; he is a man doll, noted for his white teeth, his oaths, and
his gorgeous morning gown. This “exquisite” lives on his wife’s
earnings, and thinks he confers a favor on her by spending. Madame
Mantalini is represented as a fashionable dressmaker near Cavendish
Square, London.

=Marble Faun, The.=--A romance by Hawthorne, published in 1860. The
English edition, published in the same year, is called _Transformation,
or the Romance of Monte Beni_. See _Donatello_. The sole idea of the
_Marble Faun_ is to illustrate the intellectually and morally awakening
power of a sudden impulsive sin, committed by a simple, joyous,
instinctive, “natural” man. The whole group of characters is imagined
solely with a view to the development of this idea.

=Marcellus= (_mär-sel´us_).--_Hamlet_, Shakespeare. An officer of
Denmark, to whom the ghost of the murdered king appeared before it
presented itself to Prince Hamlet.

=Marchioness, The.=--_Old Curiosity Shop_, Dickens. A half-starved
maid-of-all-work, in the service of Sampson Brass and his sister Sally.
She was so lonesome and dull that it afforded her relief to peep at Mr.
Swiveller even through the keyhole of his door. Mr. Swiveller called her
the “marchioness,” when she played cards with him, “because it seemed
more real and pleasant” to play with a marchioness than with a domestic.
While enjoying these games they made the well known “orange peel wine.”

=Mariana= (_mä-rē-ä´nä_).--In Tennyson’s poem _The Moated Grange_, a
young damsel, who sits in the moated grange, looking out for her lover,
who never comes. (2) In Shakespeare’s _Measure for Measure_ Mariana is a
lovely and lovable lady, betrothed to Angelo, who, during the absence of
Vincentio, the duke of Vienna, acted as his lord deputy. Her pleadings
to the duke for Angelo are wholly unrivaled.

=Martin’s Summer, St.=--Halcyon days; a time of prosperity; fine
weather. Mentioned by Shakespeare in _Henry VI._, etc.

=Masora.=--A critical work or canon, whereby is fixed and ascertained
the reading of the text of the Hebrew version of the Bible.

=Mauth Dog.=--_Lay of the Last Minstrel_, Scott. A black specter spaniel
that haunted the guard room of Peeltown in the Isle of Man. A drunken
trooper entered the guard room while the dog was there, but lost his
speech, and died within three days.

=Mazeppa= (_mä-zep´ä_).--A poem by Byron. Mazeppa was a Cossack of noble
family who became a page in the court of the king of Poland, and while
in this capacity intrigued with Theresia, the young wife of a count, who
discovered the amour, and had the young page lashed to a wild horse, and
turned adrift.

=McFingal.=--The hero of Trumbull’s political poem of the same name;
represented as a burly New England squire, enlisted on the side of the
Tory part of the American revolution, and constantly engaged in
controversy with Honorius, the champion of the Whigs.

=Measure for Measure.=--A comedy by Shakespeare. There was a law in
Vienna that made it death for a man to live with a woman not his wife;
but the law was so little enforced that the mothers of Vienna complained
to the duke of its neglect. So the duke deputed Angelo to enforce it;
and, assuming the dress of a friar, absented himself awhile, to watch
the result. Scarcely was the duke gone, when Claudio was sentenced to
death for violating the law. His sister Isabel went to intercede on his
behalf, and Angelo told her he would spare her brother if she would
become his Phryne. Isabel told her brother he must prepare to die, as
the conditions proposed by Angelo were out of the question. The duke,
disguised as a friar, heard the whole story, and persuaded Isabel to
“assent in words,” but to send Mariana (the divorced wife of Angelo) to
take her place. This was done; but Angelo sent the provost to behead
Claudio, a crime which “the friar” contrived to avert. Next day the duke
returned to the city, and Isabel told her tale. Finally the duke married
Isabel, Angelo took back his wife, and Claudio married Juliet.

=Medea= (_mē-dē´ä_).--A play by Euripides. The _Medea_ came out in 431
B. C. along with the poet’s _Philoctetes_, _Dictys_, and the satiric
_Reapers_ (the last was early lost). It was based upon a play of
Neophron’s, and only obtained the third prize, Euphorion being first,
and Sophocles second. It may accordingly be regarded as a failure in its
day--an opinion apparently confirmed by the faults (_viz._, Ægeus and
the winged chariot) selected from it as specimens in Aristotle’s
_Poetica_. There is considerable evidence of there being a second
edition of the play, and many of the variants, or so-called
interpolations, seem to arise from both versions being preserved and
confused. Nevertheless, there was no play of Euripides more praised and
imitated.

=Médecine Malgré Lui, Le= (_mād-saN´ mal-grā´lwē lu_), (or, _The Doctor
in Spite of Himself_).--A comedy by Molière. The “enforced doctor” is
Sganarelle, a fagot maker, who is called in by Géronte to cure his
daughter of dumbness. Sganarelle soon perceives that the malady is
assumed in order to prevent a hateful marriage, and introduces her lover
as an apothecary. The dumb spirit is at once exorcized, and the lovers
made happy with “pills matrimonial.”

In 1733 Fielding produced a farce called _The Mock Doctor_, which was
based on this comedy. The doctor he calls “Gregory,” and Géronte “Sir
Jasper.” Lucinde, the dumb girl, he calls “Charlotta;” and Anglicizes
her lover’s name, Léandre, into “Leander.”

=Meg Merrilies= (_mer´i-lēz_).--A prominent character in Scott’s _Guy
Mannering_, a half-crazy gypsy or sibyl.

=Meistersingers= (_mīs´ter-sing-ers_).--In Germany an association of
master tradesmen, to revive the national minstrelsy, which had fallen
into decay with the decline of the minnesingers or love minstrels
(1350-1523). Their subjects were chiefly moral or religious, and
constructed according to rigid rules.

=Melissa= (_me-lis´ä_).--_Orlando Furioso_, Ariosto. The prophetess who
lived in Merlin’s cave. Bradamante gave her the enchanted ring to take
to Rogero; so, assuming the form of Atlantes, she not only delivered
Rogero but disenchanted all the forms metamorphosed in the island where
he was captive.

=Melnotte, Claude.=--_Lady of Lyons_, Bulwer. The son of a gardener in
love with Pauline, “the Beauty of Lyons,” but treated by her with
contempt. Beauseant and Glavis, two other rejected suitors, conspired
with him to humble her.

=Merchant of Venice.=--A comedy by Shakespeare. Antonio the merchant,
signs a bond in order to borrow money from Shylock, a Jew, for Bassanio,
the lover of Portia. If the loan was repaid within three months, only
the principal would be required; if not, the Jew should be at liberty to
claim a pound of flesh from Antonio’s body. The ships of Antonio being
delayed by contrary winds, the merchant was unable to meet his bill, and
the Jew claimed the forfeiture. Portia, in the dress of a law doctor,
conducted the defense, and saved Antonio by reminding the Jew that a
pound of flesh gave him no drop of blood.

=Merlin.=--The name of an ancient Welsh prophet and enchanter. He is
often alluded to by the older poets, especially Spenser, in his _Faërie
Queene_, and also figures in Tennyson’s _Idylls of the King_. In the
_History of Prince Arthur_ by Malory, Merlin is the prince of enchanters
and of a supernatural origin. He is said to have built the Round Table
and to have brought from Ireland the stones of Stonehenge.

=Merlin’s Cave.=--In Dynevor, near Carmarthen, noted for its ghastly
noises of rattling iron chains, groans, and strokes of hammers. The
cause is said to be this: Merlin set his spirits to fabricate a brazen
wall to encompass the city of Carmarthen, and, as he had to call on the
Lady of the Lake, bade them not slacken their labor till he returned;
but he never did return, for Vivian held him prisoner by her wiles.

=Merry Wives of Windsor, The.=--A comedy by Shakespeare. It is said that
Queen Elizabeth was so pleased with the Falstaff of Henry IV. that she
commanded Shakespeare to show how he conducted himself when in love. For
the plot he was probably but little indebted to other writers. _The Two
Lovers of Pisa_ from Straparola, in Tarleton’s _News Out of Purgatory_,
and a story from _Il Pecorone_ which suggests the hiding of Falstaff in
the soiled linen, may possibly have suggested some of the incidents.
John Dennis wrote a play, _The Comical Gallant, or the Amours of Sir
John Falstaff_, in 1702, in which _The Merry Wives_ may be recognized.

=Messiah= (_me-sī´ä_), =The=.--An epic poem in fifteen books, by F. G.
Klopstock. The subject is the last days of Jesus, his crucifixion and
resurrection.

=Middlemarch=: _A Study of Provincial Life._--A novel, by George Eliot,
published in 1872, and characterized by _The Quarterly Review_ “as the
most remarkable work of the ablest of living novelists, and, considered
as a study of character, unique.” The heroine is Dorothea Brooke, first
married to Mr. Casaubon, afterward to Will Ladislaw. Among the other
characters are Mr. Lydgate, Rosamond Vincy, Mary Garth, and Mrs.
Cadwallader.

=Midlothian=, or =Mid-Lothian= (_mid-lō´_TH_i-an_), =The Heart of=.--A
tale by Scott, of the Porteous riot, in which the incidents of Effie and
Jeanie Deans are of absorbing interest. Effie was seduced by Geordie
Robertson (_alias_ George Staunton), while in the service of Mrs.
Saddletree. She murdered her infant, and was condemned to death; but her
half sister Jeanie went to London, pleaded her cause before the queen,
and obtained her pardon. Jeanie, on her return to Scotland, married
Reuben Butler; and Geordie Robertson (then Sir George Staunton) married
Effie. Sir George being shot by a gypsy boy, Effie (_i. e._, Lady
Staunton) retired to a convent on the continent.

=Midsummer Night’s Dream.=--A comedy by Shakespeare. The author says
there was a law in Athens that if a daughter refused to marry the
husband selected for her by her father, she might be put to death.
Ægeus, an Athenian, promised to give his daughter Hermia in marriage to
Demetrius; but, as the lady loved Lysander, she refused to marry the man
selected by her father, and fled from Athens with her lover. Demetrius
went in pursuit of her, followed by Helena, who doted on him. All four
came to a forest, and fell asleep. In their dreams a vision of fairies
passed before them, and, on awaking, Demetrius resolved to forego
Hermia, who disliked him, and to take to wife Helena, who sincerely
loved him. When Ægeus was informed thereof, he readily agreed to give
his daughter to Lysander, and the force of the law was not called into
action (1592).

=Mildendo.=--_Gulliver’s Travels_, Swift. The metropolis of Lilliput,
the wall of which was two feet and a half in height, and at least eleven
inches thick. The emperor’s palace, called Belfaborac, was in the center
of the city.

=Miles Standish= (or, _Courtship of Miles Standish_).--A poem by H. W.
Longfellow. From this poem the robust figures of the Puritan captain in
his haps and mishaps, and of John Alden and Priscilla, are now part of
our national treasures.

=Miller, Daisy.=--Title and heroine of a story by Henry James. An
American girl traveling in Europe, where her innocence, ignorance, and
disregard of European customs and standards of propriety put her in
compromising situations, and frequently expose her conduct to
misconstruction.

=Mill on the Floss.=--A novel by George Eliot, published in 1860. There
is a simplicity about _The Mill on the Floss_ which reminds us of the
classic tragedy. The vast power of nature over the career and fate of a
family is figured forth in the river, beside which the child Maggie
played, filling her mother’s heart with gloomy and not unveracious
presentiments, and down which she passed with Stephen in her hour of
temptation, with Tom in her last moments; the whole strength of
association and of the ties and instinct of blood breaking in at every
critical point in the story, like the voice of a Greek chorus, full of
traditionary warning and stern common sense, but speaking in the dialect
of English rusticity, and by the mouths of Mr. Tulliver and his wife’s
relations.

=Minna von Barnhelm= (_min´ä fon bärn´helm_).--A comedy by Lessing,
published in 1767. It is the first German national drama which deals
with contemporary events.

=Minnehaha= (_min-e-hä´hä_).--_Hiawatha_, Henry W. Longfellow. The
daughter of the arrow maker of Dacotah, and wife of Hiawatha. She was
called Minnehaha from the waterfall of that name.

=Minnesingers= (_min´e-sing-erz_).--A name given to the German lyric
poets of the middle ages, on account of love being the principal theme
of their lays, the German word “minne” being used to denote a pure and
faithful love.

=Miranda.=--_The Tempest_, Shakespeare. The daughter of Prospero, the
exiled duke of Milan, and niece of Antonio, the usurping duke. She is
brought up on a desert island, with Ariel, the fairy spirit, and
Caliban, the monster, as her only companions.

=Miriam.=--A beautiful and mysterious woman in Hawthorne’s romance _The
Marble Faun_, for love of whom Donatello commits murder, thus becoming
her partner in crime.

=Misanthrope, Le= (_mi-zä_N-_trop´, lu_).--A comedy by Molière, produced
in 1666. This play is an almost inexhaustible source of allusions,
quotations, proverbial sayings, etc. Its principal interest lies in the
development of various pairs of opposing characters in even their
lightest shades. It is the ideal of classic comedy. Alceste, the
impatient, but not cynical, hero. Célimène the coquette, Oronte the fop,
Éliante the reasonable woman, Arsinœ the mischief maker, are all
immortal types.

=Misérables, Les= [(_mi-zā-rabl´, lâ_); or, _The Unfortunates_.]--A
novel by Victor Hugo, in five parts: _Fantine_, _Cosette_, _Marius_,
_L’Idylle Rue Plumet_, and _Jean Valjean_. It was published in 1862.

=Morte d’Arthur= (_môrt där´ther_).--(1) Compilation of Arthurian tales,
called on the title page _The History of Prince Arthur_, compiled from
the French by Sir Thomas Malory, and printed by William Caxton in 1470.
It is divided into three parts. The first part contains the birth of
King Arthur, the establishment of the Round Table, the romance of Balin
and Balan, and the beautiful allegory of Gareth and Linet. The second
part is mainly the romance of Sir Tristram. The third part is the
romance of Sir Launcelot, the quest of the holy grail, and the death of
Arthur, Guinevere, Tristram, Lamorake, and Launcelot.

(2) An idyll by Tennyson, called _The Passing of Arthur_, in the _Idylls
of the King_. The poet supposes Arthur (wounded in the great battle of
the west) to be borne off the field by Sir Bedivere. The wounded monarch
directed Sir Bedivere to cast Excalibur into the mere. Sir Bedivere then
carried the dying king to a barge, in which were three queens, who
conveyed him to the island valley of Avilion.

=Mualox.=--_The Fair God_, Lew Wallace. The old paba or prophet who
assured Nenetzin that she was to be the future queen in her father’s
palace.

=Much Ado About Nothing.=--A comedy by Shakespeare. It was first printed
in 1600. The play was known as _Benedict and Bettris_ in 1613, and is
probably the same as _Love’s Labor’s Won_. The story of Hero is taken
with some variations from one of Bandello’s tales, which probably was
borrowed from the story of Geneura and Ariodantes in the _Orlando
Furioso_ of Ariosto. This part of the play, however, is subordinated by
Shakespeare to the loves of Benedict and Beatrice.

=Mucklebacket.=--_The Antiquary_, Scott. Name of a conspicuous family,
consisting of Saunders Mucklebacket, the old fisherman of Musselcrag;
Old Elspeth, mother of Saunders; Maggie, wife of Saunders; Steenie, the
eldest son, who was drowned; Little Jennie, Saunders’ child.

=Mumblecrust, Madge.=--A character in Edall’s _Ralph Roister Doister_,
whose name was subsequently employed in Dekker’s _Satiro-Mastix_, and
the comedy of _Patient Grissel_. Madge is mentioned in the MS. comedy of
_Misogonus_.

=Münchausen= (_münch´hou-zen_), =The Baron=.--A hero of most marvelous
adventures, and the fictitious author of a book of travels filled with
most extravagant tales. The name is said to refer to Hieronymus Karl
Friedrich von Münchausen, a German officer in the Russian army, noted
for his marvelous stories.

=Mutual Friend, Our.=--A novel by Charles Dickens. The “mutual friend”
is Mr. Boffin, the golden dustman, who was the mutual friend of John
Harmon and of Bella Wilfer. The tale is this: John Harmon was supposed
to have been murdered by Julius Handford; but it was Ratford, who was
murdered by Rogue Riderhood, and the mistake arose from a resemblance
between the two persons. By his father’s will, John Harmon was to marry
Bella Wilfer; but John Harmon knew not the person destined by his father
for his wife, and made up his mind to dislike her. After his supposed
murder, he assumed the name of John Rokesmith, and became the secretary
of Mr. Boffin, “the golden dustman,” residuary legatee of old John
Harmon, by which he became possessor of one hundred thousand dollars.
Boffin knew Rokesmith, but concealed his knowledge for a time. At
Boffin’s house John Harmon (as Rokesmith) met Bella Wilfer, and fell in
love with her. Mr. Boffin, in order to test Bella’s love, pretended to
be angry with Rokesmith for presuming to love Bella; and, as Bella
married him, he cast them both off “for a time,” to live on John’s
earnings. A babe was born, and then the husband took the young mother to
a beautiful house, and told her he was John Harmon, that the house was
their house, that he was the possessor of five hundred thousand dollars
through the disinterested conduct of their “mutual friend,” Mr. Boffin,
and the young couple live happily with Mr. and Mrs. Boffin, in wealth
and luxury.

=My Novel.=--A work of fiction by Edward, Lord Lytton, published in
1853. It is described as the “great work which marks the culminating
point in Lord Lytton’s genius, the work to which, with a rare estimate
of his own powers, he has given the singularly appropriate title of _My
Novel_.... If we except one or two melodramatic scenes, it is throughout
an admirable work.... The plot is complex, but it is unfolded with
marvelous directness and ingenuity, and, notwithstanding the
digressions, the interest never for a moment flags.” Among the
characters are Squire Hazeldean, Mr. Dale, Dick Avenel, Leonard
Fairfield, and Harley L’Estrange.

=N=

=Nathan the Wise= [_Nathan der Wise_ (_nä´tän der vī´ze_).]--A drama by
G. E. Lessing, so called from the name of its principal character. Its
tendency is toward religious tolerance, especially in the episode of the
three rings, which was taken from Boccaccio. Nathan is a persecuted but
noble Jew, an ideal character resembling Moses Mendelssohn.

=Natty Bumppo.=--Called “Leather-Stocking.” He appears in five of
Cooper’s novels: (1) _The Deerslayer_; (2) _The Pathfinder_; (3) As
“Hawk-eye” in _The Last of the Mohicans_; (4) “Natty Bumppo” in _The
Pioneers_; and (5) as the “Trapper” in _The Prairie_, in which he dies.

=Neæra= (_nē-ē´rä_).--The name of a girl mentioned by the Latin poets
Horace, Vergil, and Tibullus; sometimes also introduced into modern
pastoral poetry as the name of a mistress or sweetheart.

=Nepenthe.=--A care-dispelling drug, which Polydamna, wife of Thonis,
king of Egypt, gave to Helen. A drink containing this drug “changed
grief to mirth, melancholy to joyfulness, and hatred to love.” The water
of Ardenne had the opposite effects. Homer mentions this drug nepenthe
in his _Odyssey_. It is also mentioned in Poe’s _Raven_.

=New Atlantis, The.=--An imaginary island in the middle of the Atlantic.
Bacon, in his allegorical fiction, so called, supposes himself wrecked
on this island, where he finds an association for the cultivation of
natural science and the promotion of arts. Called the “New” Atlantis to
distinguish it from Plato’s Atlantis, an imaginary island of fabulous
charms.

=Newcomes, The.=--_Memoirs of a Most Respectable Family_, by William
Makepeace Thackeray. The hero is Clive Newcome, a young artist, son of
Colonel Newcome, and cousin of Ethel Newcome, whom he marries after the
death of his first wife, Rosa Mackenzie. Among the other characters are
Comte de Florac, Charles Honeyman, “J. J.,” Fred Bayham, Lady Kew, Jack
Belsize, Dr. Goodenough, and others.

Colonel Newcome, is “the finest portrait,” says Hannay, “that has been
added to the gallery of English fiction since Sir Walter’s time. The
pathos, at once manly and delicate, with which his ruin and death are
treated, places Thackeray in a high rank in poetic sentiment.”

=Nibelungenlied= (_nē´be-loong-en-lēd_).--An historic poem, generally
called the German _Iliad_. It is the only great national epic that
European writers have produced since antiquity, and belongs to every
country that has been peopled by Germanic tribes, as it includes the
hero traditions of the Franks, the Burgundians and the Goths, with
memorials of the ancient myths carried with them from Asia. The poem is
divided into two parts, and thirty-two lieds, or cantos. The first part
ends with the death of Siegfried, and the second part with the death of
Kriemhild. The death of Siegfried and the revenge of Kriemhild have been
celebrated in popular songs dating back to the lyric chants now a
thousand years old. These are the foundation of the great poem.

=Nicholas Nickleby.=--A novel by Dickens. The mother of the hero,
Nicholas, is a widow fond of talking and of telling long stories with no
connection. She imagined her neighbor, a mildly insane man, was in love
with her because he tossed cabbages and other articles over the garden
wall. She had a habit of introducing in conversation topics wholly
irrelevant to the subject under consideration, and of always declaring,
when anything unanticipated occurred, that she had expected it all
along, and had prophesied to that precise effect on divers (unknown)
occasions. Nicholas Nickleby has to make his own way in the world. He
first goes as usher to Mr. Squeers, schoolmaster at Dotheboys Hall; but
leaves in disgust with the tyranny of Squeers and his wife, especially
to a poor boy named Smike. Smike runs away from the school to follow
Nicholas, and remains his humble follower till death. At Portsmouth,
Nicholas joins the theatrical company of Mr. Crummles, but leaves the
profession for other adventures. He falls in with the Brothers
Cheeryble, who make him their clerk; and in this post he rises to become
a merchant, and finally marries Madeline Bray.

=Nightingale, Ode to a.=--Poem by John Keats, which “was written,” says
Leigh Hunt, “in a house at the foot of Highgate Hill, on the border of
the fields looking toward Hampstead. The poet had then his mortal
illness upon him, and knew it; never was the voice of death sweeter.”

    Thou wast not born for death, immortal Bird!
      No hungry generations tread thee down;
    The voice I hear this passing night was heard
      In ancient days by emperor and clown;
    Perhaps the selfsame song that found a path
      Through the sad heart of Ruth, when, sick for home,
      She stood in tears amid the alien corn;
        The same that ofttimes hath
    Charm’d magic casements, opening on the foam
        Of perilous seas, in faëry lands forlorn.

=Notre Dame de Paris.=--A prose romance by Victor Hugo, published in
1831. The scene is laid in Paris at the end of the reign of Louis XI. It
is a vigorous but somber picture of mediæval manners.

=Nourmahal= (_nör-ma-häl´_).--_Lalla Rookh_, Moore. “Light of the
Harem.” She was for a season estranged from the sultan, till he gave a
grand banquet, at which she appeared in disguise as a lute-player and
singer. The sultan was so enchanted with her performance that he
exclaimed, “If Nourmahal had so played and sung, I could forgive her
all;” whereupon the sultana threw off her mask.

=Nucta.=--_Paradise and the Peri_, Moore. The name given to the
miraculous drop which falls from heaven, in Egypt, on St. John’s day,
and is supposed to stop the plague.

=Nun of Nidaros.=--_Tales of a Wayside Inn_, Longfellow. The abbess of
the Drontheim convent, who heard the voice of St. John while she was
kneeling at her midnight devotions.

=Nut-Brown Maid.=--_Reliques_, Percy. The maid who was wooed by the
“banished man.” The “banished man” described to her the hardships she
would have to undergo if she married him; but finding that she
accounted these hardships as nothing compared with his love, he revealed
himself to be an earl’s son, with large hereditary estates in
Westmoreland, and married her.

=O=

=Obermann= (_ō-ber-män´_).--The impersonation of high moral worth
without talent, and the tortures endured by the consciousness of this
defect. This name was given to the hero and imaginary author of a work
of the same name by Etienne Pivert de Senancourt, a French writer.

=Oberon= ([_=o]´be-ron_).--King of the fairies, whose wife was Titania.
Shakespeare introduces both Oberon and Titania in his _Midsummer Night’s
Dream_. He and Titania, his queen, are fabled to have lived in India,
and to have crossed the seas to northern Europe to dance by the light of
the moon.

=Oberon the Fay.=--A humpty dwarf only three feet high, but of angelic
face, lord and king of Mommur.

=Odyssey= (_od´i-si_).--Homer’s epic poem recording the adventures of
Odysseus (Ulysses) in his voyage home from Troy. The poem opens in the
island of Calypso, with a complaint against Neptune and Calypso for
preventing the return of Odysseus to Ithaca. Telemachos, the son of
Odysseus, starts in search of his father, accompanied by Pallas in the
guise of Mentor. He goes to Pylos to consult old Nestor, and is sent by
him to Sparta, where he is told by Menelaus that Odysseus is detained in
the island of Calypso. In the meantime, Odysseus leaves the island, and,
being shipwrecked, is cast on the shore of Phæacia. After twenty years’
absence Odysseus returns to his home. Penelope is tormented by suitors.
To excuse herself, Penelope tells her suitors he only shall be her
husband who can bend Odysseus’ bow. None can do so but the stranger, who
bends it with ease. Odysseus is recognized by his wife, and the false
suitors are all slain, and peace is restored to Ithaca.

=Œdipus= (_ed´i-pus_) =Coloneus= [(_kō-lō-nē´us_); or, _Œdipus at
Colonus_ (_kō-lō´nus_)].--A tragedy of Sophocles, which was not
exhibited till four years after his death, and was said to be the last
he wrote. In it Œdipus, driven from Thebes by Creon, with his daughters,
Antigone and Ismene, seeks asylum with Theseus at Athens, and there
obtains pardon from the gods, and peace.

=Œdipus Tyrannus= (_ti-ran´us_).--A tragedy by Sophocles, of uncertain
date, “placed by the scholiasts, and by most modern critics, at the very
summit of Greek tragic art.”

=Ogier= (_ō-zhyā´_) the Dane.--One of the paladins of the Charlemagne
epoch. Also made the hero of an ancient French romance, and the subject
of a ballad whose story is probably a contribution from the stores of
Norman tradition, Holger, or Olger, Danske, being the national hero of
Denmark. He figures in Ariosto’s _Orlando Furioso_.

=O’Groat.=--A name often alluded to in early English parables or sayings
coming from the legend of _John O’Groat’s House_. This ancient building
was supposed to stand on the most northerly point in Great Britain. John
of Groat and his brothers were originally from Holland. According to
tradition, the house was of an octagonal shape, being one room with
eight windows and eight doors, to admit eight members of the family, the
heads of eight different branches of it, to prevent their quarrels for
precedence at table, which, on a previous occasion, had well-nigh proved
fatal.

=Oldbuck, Jonathan.=--_Antiquary_, Scott. The character whose whimsies
gave name to the novel. He is represented as devoted to the study and
accumulation of old coins, medals, and relics. He is irritable,
sarcastic, and cynical from an early disappointment in love, but full of
humor and a faithful friend.

=Old Curiosity Shop, The.=--A tale by Charles Dickens. An old man,
having run through his fortune, opened a curiosity shop in order to earn
a living and brought up a granddaughter, named Nell [Trent], fourteen
years of age. The child was the darling of the old man, but, deluding
himself with the hope of making a fortune by gaming, he lost everything,
and went forth, with the child, a beggar. Their wanderings and
adventures are recounted till they reach a quiet country village, where
the old clergyman gives them a cottage to live in. Here Nell soon dies,
and the grandfather is found dead upon her grave. The main character,
next to Nell, is that of a lad named Kit [Nubbles], employed in the
curiosity shop, who adored Nell as “an angel.” This boy gets in the
service of Mr. Garland, a genial, benevolent, well-to-do man, in the
suburbs of London; but Quilp hates the lad, and induces Brass, a
solicitor of Bevis Marks, to put a five pound banknote in the boy’s
hat, and then accuse him of theft. Kit is tried, and condemned to
transportation; but, the villainy being exposed by a girl-of-all-work
nicknamed “The Marchioness,” Kit is liberated and restored to his place,
and Quilp drowns himself.

=Old Man of the Sea.=--In the _Arabian Nights_, a monster encountered by
Sindbad the sailor in his fifth voyage. After carrying him upon his
shoulders a long time, Sindbad at last succeeds in intoxicating him, and
effects his escape. The _Old Man of the Sea_ was also made the title of
a humorous and well-known poem by O. W. Holmes.

=Old Mortality=, the best of Scott’s historical novels. Morton is the
best of his young heroes, and serves as an excellent foil to the
fanatical and gloomy Burley. The two classes of actors, _viz._, the
brave and dissolute cavaliers, and the resolute oppressed covenanters,
are drawn in bold relief. The most striking incidents are the terrible
encounter with Burley in his rocky fastness; the dejection and anxiety
of Morton on his return from Holland; and the rural comfort of Cuddie
Headrigg’s cottage on the banks of the Clyde, with its thin blue smoke
among the trees, “showing that the evening meal was being made ready.”
Old Mortality is an itinerant antiquary, whose craze is to clean the
moss from gravestones, and keep their letters and effigies in good
condition.

=Old Red Sandstone.=--One of the most noted of Hugh Miller’s famous
writings on geological subjects. It revealed his discovery of fossils in
a formation which, up to that time, had been deemed almost destitute of
them.

=Oliver.=--_As You Like It_, Shakespeare. Son and heir of Sir Rowland de
Bois, who hated his youngest brother, Orlando, and whom he planned to
murder by indirect methods. Orlando, finding it impossible to live in
his brother’s house, fled to the forest of Arden, where he joined the
society of the banished duke. Oliver pursued him, and as he slept in the
forest a snake and a lioness lurked near to make him their prey. Orlando
chanced to be passing, slew the two monsters, and then found that the
sleeper was his brother Oliver. Oliver’s feelings underwent a change,
and he loved his brother as much as he had before hated him. In the
forest the two brothers met Rosalind and Celia. The former, who was the
daughter of the banished duke, married Orlando; and the latter, who was
the daughter of Frederick, the usurping duke, married Oliver.

=Oliver Twist.=--A novel by Charles Dickens. Thackeray, writing of this
novel, in the character of “Ikey Solomons,” says: “The power of the
writer is so amazing that the reader at once becomes his captive, and
must follow him whithersoever he leads: and to what are we led?
Breathless to watch all the crimes of Fagin, tenderly to deplore the
errors of Nancy, to have for Bill Sikes a kind of pity and admiration,
and an absolute love for the society of the Dodger. All these heroes
stepped from the novel on to the stage; and the whole London public,
from peers to chimney sweeps, were interested about a set of ruffians
whose occupations are thievery, murder, and prostitution.” A remarkable
feature of the work, and one which, on its publication, brought
considerable odium on the writer, was its unsparing exposure of the
poor-law and the workhouse system, which led to its representation on
the stage being forbidden for a time.

=Olivia.=--_Twelfth Night_, Shakespeare. A rich countess, whose love was
sought by Orsino, duke of Illyria; but, having lost her brother, Olivia
lived for a time in entire seclusion, and in no wise reciprocated the
duke’s love. Olivia fell in love with Viola, who was dressed as the
duke’s page, and sent her a ring. Mistaking Sebastian (Viola’s brother)
for Viola, she married him out of hand.

=Ophelia= (_ō-fē´liä_).--_Hamlet_, Shakespeare. Daughter of Polonius,
the chamberlain. Hamlet fell in love with her, but, after his interview
with the Ghost, finds that his plans must lead away from her. During his
real or assumed madness, he treats her with undeserved and angry
rudeness, and afterward, in a fit of inconsiderate rashness, kills her
father, the old Polonius. The terrible shock given to her mind by these
events completely shatters her intellect, and leads to her accidental
death by drowning.

=Organon= (_ôr´ga-non_).--The name given to the first work on logic by
Aristotle. He is said to have created the science of logic. The
_Organon_ has been enlarged and recast by some modern authors,
especially by Mr. John Stuart Mill in his _System of Logic_, into a
structure commensurate with the vast increase of knowledge and extension
of positive method belonging to the present day.

=Origin of Species, The.=--A work by Charles Robert Darwin, in which he
put forward his theory of “natural selection.” It was published in 1859,
and by many is regarded as the most important scientific work of the
nineteenth century.

=Orlando Furioso= (_or-län´dō fö-rē-ō´sō_).--An epic poem in forty-six
cantos, by Ariosto, which occupied his leisure for eleven years, and was
published in 1516. This poem, which celebrates the semi-mythical
achievements of the paladins of Charlemagne in the wars between the
Christians and the Moors, became immediately popular, and has since been
translated into all European languages, and passed through innumerable
editions.

=Ormulum= (_ôr´mū-lum_).--The _Ormulum_ is a collection of metrical
homilies, one for each day of the year; but the single existing copy
gives the homilies for thirty-two days only. There are very few French
words in the poem, but Scandinavian words and constructions abound. The
writer, Orm, or Ormin, belonged to the east of England, and he and his
brother Walter were Augustinian monks. He makes no use of rhyme, but his
verses are smooth and regular.

=Osbaldistone= (_os-bâl´dis-ton_).--_Rob Roy_, Scott. A family name in
the story which tells of nine of the members: (1) the London merchant
and Sir Hildebrand, the heads of two families; (2) the son of the
merchant is Francis; (3) the offspring of the brother are Percival, the
sot; Thorncliffe, the bully; John, the gamekeeper; Richard, the
horse-jockey; Wilfred, the fool; and Rashleigh, the scholar, by far the
worst of all. This last worthy is slain by Rob Roy, and dies cursing his
cousin Frank, whom he had injured.

=O’Shanter.=--See _Tam O’Shanter_.

=Osman= (_os-män´_).--Sultan of the East, conqueror of the Christians, a
magnanimous man. He loved Yara, a young Christian captive. This forms
the subject of a once famous ballad.

=Osrick= (_oz´rik_).--A court fop in Shakespeare’s _Hamlet_. He is made
umpire by Claudius in the combat between Hamlet and Laertes.

=Osseo.=--_Hiawatha_, Longfellow. Son of the Evening Star. When broken
with age, he married Oweenee, one of ten daughters of a northland
hunter. She loved him in spite of his ugliness and decrepitude, because
“all was beautiful within him.” As he was walking with his nine
sisters-in-law and their husbands, he leaped into the hollow of an oak
tree and came out strong and handsome; but Oweenee at the same moment
was changed into a weak old woman. But the love of Osseo was not
weakened. The nine brothers and sisters-in-law were transformed into
birds. Oweenee, recovering her beauty, had a son, whose delight was to
shoot the birds that mocked his father and mother. An Algonquin legend
gave the foundation of the story.

=Othello= (_ō-thel´ō_).--A tragedy by Shakespeare. The chief character
is a Moor of Venice, who marries Desdemona, the daughter of a Venetian
senator, and is led by his ensign, Iago, a consummate villain, to
distrust her fidelity and virtue. Iago hated the Moor both because
Cassio, a Florentine, was preferred to the lieutenancy instead of
himself, and also from a suspicion that the Moor had tampered with his
wife; but he concealed his hatred so well that Othello wholly trusted
him. Iago persuaded Othello that Desdemona intrigued with Cassio, and
urged him on till he murdered his bride.

=Outre-Mer= (_ōōtr-mèr_).--_A Pilgrimage Beyond the Sea._--A series of
prose tales and sketches by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, published in
1835. “The Pays d’Outre-Mer,” says the writer, “is a name by which the
pilgrims and crusaders of old designated the Holy Land. I, too, in a
certain sense, have been a pilgrim of Outre-Mer; for to my youthful
imagination the Old World was a kind of Holy Land, lying afar off beyond
the blue horizon of the ocean. In this, my pilgrimage, I have traversed
France from Normandy to Navarre; smoked my pipe in a Flemish inn;
floated through Holland in a Trekschuit; trimmed my midnight lamp in a
German university; wandered and mused amid the classic scenes of Italy;
and listened to the gay guitar and merry castanet on the borders of the
blue Guadalquivir.”

=P=

=Pacolet= (_pak´ō-let_).--In _Valentine and Orson_, an old romance, a
character who owned an enchanted steed, often alluded to by early
writers. The name of Pacolet was borrowed by Steele for his familiar
spirit in the _Tatler_. The French have a proverb, “It is the horse of
Pacolet;” that is, it is one that goes very fast.

=Page.=--_Merry Wives of Windsor_, Shakespeare. Name of a family of
Windsor, conspicuous in the play. When Sir John Falstaff made love to
Mrs. Page, Page himself assumed the name of Brook. Sir John told the
supposed Brook his whole “course of wooing.”

=Page, Anne.=--Daughter of the above, in love with Fenton. Slender calls
her “the sweet Anne Page.”

=Page, Mrs.=--Wife of Mr. Page, of Windsor. When Sir John Falstaff made
love to her, she joined with Mrs. Ford to dupe him and punish him.

=Palamon.=--(1) A character in _The Knight’s Tale_ in Chaucer’s
_Canterbury Tales_, in love with Emilia, who is also beloved by
Palamon’s friend, Arcite. (2) In Falconer’s poem of _The Shipwreck_, is
in love with the daughter of Albert, the commander of the vessel in
which he sails. (3) In Thomson’s poem of _Autumn_ in _The Seasons_, is a
young man, “the pride of swains,” in love with Lavinia. He is a poetical
representation of Boaz, while Lavinia is intended for Ruth.

=Pangloss= (_pan´glos_), =Doctor.=--(1) A poor pedant, in Colman the
Younger’s comedy of the _Heir at Law_, who has been created an _Artium
Societatis Socius_ (_A. S. S._). He is remarkable for the aptness, if
triteness, of his quotations. (2) An optimist philosopher in Voltaire’s
_Candide_.

=Pantagruelian= (_pan-tag´rö-el-an_) =Law Case.=--_Pantagruel_,
Rabelais. This case, having nonplused all the judges in Paris, was
referred to Lord Pantagruel for decision. After much “statement” the
bench declared, “We have not understood one single circumstances of the
defense.” Then Pantagruel gave sentence, but his judgment was as
unintelligible as the case itself. So, as no one understood a single
sentence of the whole affair, all were perfectly satisfied.

=Paracelsus= (_par-a-sel´sus_).--A dramatic poem by Robert Browning,
published in 1835. It is a work of singular beauty, and is replete with
lofty and solemn thoughts on the fate of genius and the chance and
change of life. The Paracelsus of the poem is a very different person
from the Paracelsus of history--the brilliant and daring quack who
professed to have discovered the philosopher’s stone, but who, by the
introduction of opium among the remedies of the _Pharmacopæia_, in some
wise made amends for his absurd extravagance.

=Paradise and the Peri.=--The second tale in Moore’s poetical romance of
_Lalla Rookh_. The Peri laments her expulsion from heaven, and is told
that she will be readmitted if she will bring to the gate of heaven the
“gift most dear to the Almighty.” After several failures the Peri
offered the “Repentant Tear,” and the gates flew open to receive the
gift.

=Paradise Lost.=--An epic poem by Milton. The poem opens with the
awaking of the rebel angels in hell after their fall from heaven, the
consultation of their chiefs how best to carry on the war with God, and
the resolve of Satan to go forth and tempt newly created man to fall.
Satan reaches Eden, and finds Adam and Eve in their innocence. This is
told in the first four books. The next four books contain the Archangel
Raphael’s story of the war in heaven, the fall of Satan, and the
creation of the world. The last four books describe the temptation and
the fall of man, and tell of the redemption of man by Christ, and the
expulsion from Paradise.

=Paradise Regained.=--An epic by Milton on the redemption of man. In
this poem the author tells of the journey of Christ into the wilderness
after his baptism, and its four books describe the temptation of Christ
by Satan.

=Parallel Lives of Greeks and Romans.=--A celebrated biographical work
by Plutarch, consisting of forty-six comparisons. In spite of all
exceptions on the score of inaccuracy, want of information, or
prejudice, _Plutarch’s Lives_ must remain one of the most valuable
relics of Greek literature, not only because they stand in the place of
many volumes of lost history, but also because they are written with a
graphic and dramatic vivacity such as we find in few biographies,
ancient or modern; because they are replete with reflections which, if
not profound, are always moderate and sensible; and because the author’s
aim throughout is to enforce the highest standard of morality of which a
heathen was capable. As one of his most enthusiastic admirers has said,
“He stands before us as the legate, the ambassador, and the orator on
behalf of those institutions whereby the old-time men were rendered wise
and virtuous.”

=Partington= (_pär´ting-ton_), =Mrs.=--An imaginary old lady whose
laughable sayings have been recorded by an American humorist, B. P.
Shillaber.

=Paul and Virginia.=--A popular romance by Bernardin de St. Pierre.
According to a tradition, or version, Paul and Virginia are brought up
in the belief that they are brother and sister. Don Antonio is sent to
bring her to Spain, and make her his bride. She is taken by force on
board ship, but scarcely has the ship started, when a hurricane dashes
it on the rocks and it is wrecked. Alhambra, a runaway slave, whom Paul
and Virginia had befriended, rescues Virginia, who is brought to shore
and married to Paul. Antonio is drowned.

=Pauline.=--The Lady of Lyons in Bulwer-Lytton’s play of this name. She
was married to Claude Melnotte, a gardener’s son, who pretended to be a
count.

=Paul Pry.=--_Paul Pry_, John Poole. An idle, inquisitive, meddlesome
fellow, who has no occupation of his own, and is forever poking his nose
into other people’s affairs. He always comes in with the apology “I hope
I don’t intrude.”

=Peau de Chagrin= (_pō du shä-grin_), “_The Ass’ Skin._”--A story by
Balzac. The hero becomes possessed of a magical wild ass’ skin, which
yields him the means of gratifying every wish; but for every wish thus
gratified the skin shrank somewhat, and at last vanished, having been
wished entirely away. Life is a _peau d’âne_, for every vital act
diminishes its force, and when all its force is gone, life is spent.

=Peeping Tom of Coventry.=--A tailor of Coventry, the only soul in the
town mean enough to peep at the Lady Godiva as she rode naked through
the streets to relieve the people from oppression.

=Peggotty= (_peg´o-ti_), =Clara.=--The nurse of David Copperfield in
Dickens’ novel of this name. Being very plump, whenever she makes any
exertion some of the buttons on the back of her dress fly off.

=Peggotty, Dan’l.=--Brother of David Copperfield’s nurse. Dan’l was a
Yarmouth fisherman. His nephew, Ham Peggotty, and his brother-in-law’s
child, “little Em’ly,” lived with him.

=Peggotty, Em’ly.=--She was engaged to Ham Peggotty; but being
fascinated with Steerforth she eloped. She was afterward reclaimed, and
emigrated to Australia.

=Peggotty, Ham.=--Represented as the very beau ideal of an uneducated,
simple-minded, honest, and warm-hearted fisherman. He was drowned in his
attempt to rescue Steerforth from the sea.

=Pendennis= (_pen-den´is_), =The History of.=--By William Makepeace
Thackeray. The hero, Arthur Pendennis, reappears in the author’s
_Adventures of Philip_, and is represented as telling the story of _The
Newcomes_.

=Pendennis.=--Name of the hero of a novel by Thackeray, published in
1849 and 1850, the immediate successor of _Vanity Fair_. Literary life
is described in the history of Pen, a hero of no very great worth.

=Pendennis, Laura.=--Sister of Arthur, considered one of the best of
Thackeray’s characters.

=Pendennis, Major.=--A tuft-hunter, who fawns on his patrons for the
sake of wedging himself into their society.

=Penseroso= (_pen-se-rō´sō_), =Il.=--A poem by John Milton, written as a
companion to _L’Allegro_. The latter is composed in the character of a
cheerful, the former in that of a melancholy man, and the whole tone of
each poem is regulated accordingly. The one begins with the dawn, the
other with evening. The one opens with the lark, the other with the
nightingale, and so on.

=Pepys’= (_pēps_, or _pips_, or _pep´is_) =Diary.=--A book by Samuel
Pepys, written in shorthand, and deciphered and published in 1825. It
extends over the nine years from 1660 to 1669, and is the gossipy
chronicle of that gay and profligate time. We have no other book which
gives so lifelike a picture of that extraordinary state of society.

=Peregrine Pickle= (_per´e-grin pik´l_).--The title of a novel by
Smollett. Peregrine Pickle is a savage, ungrateful spendthrift, fond of
practical jokes, and suffering with evil temper the misfortunes brought
on himself by his own willfulness.

=Peter Bell.=--A tale in verse, by Wordsworth. A wandering tinker,
subject of Wordsworth’s poem, whose hard heart was touched by the
fidelity of an ass to its dead master. Shelley wrote a burlesque of this
poem, entitled _Peter Bell the Third_, intended to ridicule the
ludicrous puerility of language and sentiment which Wordsworth often
affected. This burlesque was given the name of the _Third_ because it
followed a parody already published as _Peter the Second_.

=Petruchio= (_pe-trö´chō_, or _ki-ō_).--A gentleman of Verona, in
Shakespeare’s _Taming of the Shrew_. A very honest fellow, who hardly
speaks a word of truth, and succeeds in all his tricks. He acts his
assumed character to the life, with untired animal spirits, and without
a particle of ill-humor.

=Phædo= (_fē´dō_), or =Phædon= (_fe´don_).--An ancient and well known
work by Plato, in which the doctrine of the immortality of the soul is
most fully set forth. It is in the form of a dialogue, which combines,
with the abstract philosophical discussion, a graphic narrative of the
last hours of Socrates, which, for pathos and dignity, is unsurpassed.

=Phédre= (_fā´dr_).--A tragedy by Racine, produced January 1, 1677. It
was founded on the story of Phædra, daughter of Minos, king of Crete,
and wife of Theseus. She conceived a criminal love for Hippolytus, her
stepson, and, being repulsed by him, accused him to her husband of
attempting to dishonor her. Hippolytus was put to death, and Phædra,
wrung with remorse, strangled herself. _Phédre_ was the great part of
Mdlle. Rachel; she first appeared in this character in 1838. It is
unquestionably the most remarkable of Racine’s regular tragedies. By it
the style must stand or fall, and a reader need hardly go farther to
appreciate it. For excellence of construction, artful beauty of verse,
skillful use of the limited means of appeal at the command of the
dramatist, no play can surpass _Phédre_.

=Philip.=--_The Madness of Philip_, Josephine Daskam. A representation
of the unregenerate child--“the child of strong native impulses who has
not yet yielded to the shaping force of education; the child, therefore,
of originality, of vivacity, of humor, and of fascinating power of
invention in the field of mischief.”

=Philippics= (_fi-lip´iks_), =The.=--A group of nine orations of
Demosthenes, directed against Philip of Macedon. The real adversary in
all these famous speeches is not so much the king of Macedon as the
sloth and supineness of the Athenians, and the influence of the peace
party, whether honest or bribed by Philip. They are the first Philippic,
urging the sending of a military force to Thrace, delivered 351 B. C;
three orations in behalf of the city of Olynthus (destroyed by Philip),
delivered in 349-348; the oration _On the Peace_, 346; the second
Philippic, 344; the oration _On the Embassy_, 344; the speech _On the
Chersonese_, 341; and the third Philippic, 341.

The name is also given to a series of fourteen orations of Cicero
against Mark Antony, delivered 44-43 B. C.

=Philtra.=--_Faërie Queene_, Spenser. A lady of large fortune, betrothed
to Bracidas; but, seeing the fortune of Amidas daily increasing, and
that of Bracidas getting smaller, she attached herself to the more
prosperous younger brother.

=Phineas= (_fin´e-as_).--_Uncle Tom’s Cabin_, Mrs. Stowe. The quaker, an
“underground railroad” man who helped the slave family of George and
Eliza to reach Canada, after Eliza had crossed the river on cakes of
floating ice.

=Phyllis= (_fil´is_).--In Vergil’s _Eclogues_, the name of a rustic
maiden. This name, also written Phillis, has been in common use as
meaning any unsophisticated country girl.

=Pickwick= (_pik´wik_), =Mr. Samuel.=--The hero of the _Pickwick
Papers_, by Charles Dickens. He is a simple-minded, benevolent old
gentleman, who wears spectacles and short black gaiters. He founds a
club, and travels with its members over England, each member being under
his guardianship. They meet many laughable adventures.

=Pied Piper of Hameln= (_hä´meln_).--Old German legend. Robert Browning,
in his poem entitled _The Pied Piper_, has given a metrical version. The
legend recounts how a certain musician came into the town of Hameln, in
the country of Brunswick, and offered, for a sum of money, to rid the
town of the rats by which it was infested. Having executed his task, and
the promised reward having been withheld, he in revenge blew again his
pipe, and by its tones drew the children of the town to a cavern in the
side of a hill, which, upon their entrance, closed and shut them in
forever.

=Piers Plowman= (_pērs plou´man_).--A satirical poem of the fourteenth
century. The hero falls asleep, like John Bunyan, on the Malvern hills,
and has different visions, which he describes, and in which he exposes
the corruptions of society, the dissoluteness of the clergy, and the
allurements to sin. The author is supposed to be Robert or William
Langland. No other writings so faithfully reflect the popular feeling
during the great social and religious movements of that century as the
bitterly satirical poem. _The Vision of Piers Plowman_. In its allegory,
the discontent of the commons with the course of affairs in church and
state found a voice.

=Pietro.=--_The Ring and the Book_, Browning. The professed father of
Pompilia, criminally assumed as his child to prevent certain property
from passing to an heir not his own.

=Pilgrim’s Progress.=--A celebrated allegory by Bunyan. It recounts the
adventures of the hero, Christian, from his conversion to his death. He
wanders from the way to Doubting Castle, and is held there by Giant
Despair. His sins are a pack; his Bible is a chart, his minister
Evangelist, his conversion a flight from the City of Destruction, his
struggle with besetting sins a fight with Apollyon, his death a toilsome
passage over a deep stream which flows between him and heaven.

=Pilot, The.=--Title of a sea-story by Cooper, which was called the
“first sea-novel of the English language.” It was published in the year
1823, and soon translated into Italian, German, and French. It is
founded on the adventures of John Paul Jones.

=Pinch, Tom.=--A character in Dickens’ _Martin Chuzzlewit_,
distinguished by his guilelessness, his oddity, and his exhaustless
goodness of heart.

=Pippa= (_pēp´pä_) =Passes.=--A drama, Italian in scene and character,
by Robert Browning. “It is,” says Stedman, “a cluster of four scenes,
with prologue, epilogue, and interludes, half prose, half poetry,
varying with the refinement of the dialogue. Pippa is a delicately pure,
good, blithesome peasant maid. It is New Year’s Day at Ardo. She springs
from bed at sunrise, resolved to enjoy to the full her sole holiday.
Others may be happy throughout the year; haughty Ottima and Sebald, the
lovers on the hill; Jules and Phene, the artist and his bride; Luigi and
his mother; Monsignor, the bishop; but Pippa has only this one day to
enjoy. Now, it so happens that she passes, this day, each of the groups
or persons we have named, at an important crisis in their lives, and
they hear her various carols as she trills them forth in the innocent
gladness of her heart. _Pippa Passes_ is a work of pure art, and has a
wealth of original fancy and romance, apart from its wisdom.” It
appeared in 1842.

=Pistol= (_pis´tol_).--A follower of Falstaff, in Shakespeare’s comedy
of _The Merry Wives of Windsor_, and in the second part of _King Henry
IV_. “A roguing beggar, a cantler, an upright man that liveth by
cozenage.”

=Pocket.=--_Great Expectations_, Dickens. Name of a family prominent in
the story.

=Pocket.=--A real scholar, educated at Harrow, and an honor-man at
Cambridge, but, having married young, he had to take up the calling of
“grinder” and literary fag for a living. Pip was placed in his care.

=Pocket, Herbert.=--Son of Mr. Matthew Pocket, wonderfully hopeful, but
had not the stuff to push his way into wealth.

=Pocket, Mrs.=--Daughter of a city knight, brought up to be an
ornamental nonentity, helpless, shiftless, and useless. She was the
mother of eight children, whom she allowed to “tumble up” as best they
could, under the charge of her maid, Flopson.

=Pocket, Sarah.=--Sister of Matthew Pocket, a little, dry, old woman,
with a small face that might have been made of walnut-shell, and a large
mouth.

=Poor Richard’s Almanac.=--An almanac published by Benjamin Franklin,
1732-1757, noted for its maxims. He made it the medium for teaching
thrift, temperance, order, cleanliness, chastity, forgiveness, and so
on. The maxims or precepts of these almanacs generally end with the
words, “as poor Richard says.”

=Portia= (_pôr´shiä_).--In _The Merchant of Venice_, a rich heiress,
whose hand and fortune hang upon the right choosing between a gold, a
silver, and a leaden casket. She is in love with Bassanio, who, luckily,
chooses well. She appears at the trial of Antonio as a “young doctor of
Rome,” named Balthazar.

=Poyser= (_poi´zer_), =Mrs.=--A character in _Adam Bede_. Some of her
wonderfully shrewd and humorous observations have passed into the
language. Here are some specimens: “It seems as if them as aren’t wanted
here are th’ only folks as aren’t wanted in the other world.” “I’m not
denyin’ the women are foolish; God Almighty made ’em to match the men.”
“It’s hard to tell which is Old Harry when everybody’s got boots on.”
“There’s many a good bit o’ work done with a sad heart.” “It’s poor work
allays settin’ the dead above the livin’. It ’ud be better if folks ’ud
make much on us beforehand, istid o’ beginning when we’re gone.” “Some
folks’ tongues are like the clocks as run on strikin’ not to tell you
the time of day, but because there’s summat wrong in their own inside.”

=Précieuses Ridicules= (_prā-syuz´ ri-di-kul´_), =Les.=--A comedy by
Molière, in ridicule of the _Précieuses_, as they were styled, forming
the coterie of the Hotel de Rambouillet in the seventeenth century. The
_soirées_ held in this hotel were a great improvement on the licentious
assemblies of the period; but many imitators made the thing ridiculous,
because they lacked the same presiding talent and good taste.

The two girls of Molière’s comedy are Madelon and Cathos, the daughter
and niece of Gargibus, a bourgeois. They change their names to Polixène
and Aminte, which they think more genteel, and look on the affectations
of two flunkies as far more _distingués_ than the simple, gentlemanly
manners of their masters. However, they are cured of their folly, and no
harm comes of it.

=Prelude= (_prē´lūd_, or _prel´ūd_), =The=, or _The Growth of a Poet’s
Mind_.--An autobiographical poem, in blank verse, by William Wordsworth.
It was intended as an introduction to “a philosophical poem, containing
views of Man, Nature, and Society; and to be entitled _The Recluse_, as
having for its principal subject the sensations and opinions of a poet
living in retirement.” This poem was to have consisted of three parts,
of which the second only, _The Excursion_, was completed and published.
_The Prelude_ consists of fourteen books: Book one, _Childhood and
Schooltime_; book two, _Schooltime_, continued; book three, _Residence
at Cambridge_; book four, _Summer Vacation_; book five, _Books_; book
six, _Cambridge and the Alps_; book seven, _Residence in London_; book
eight, _Retrospect--Love of Nature Leading to Love of Man_; book nine,
_Residence in France_; book ten, _Residence in France_, continued; book
eleven, _France_, concluded; book twelve, _Imagination and Taste, How
Impaired and Restored_; book thirteen, the same subject continued and
concluded; and book fourteen, _Conclusion_.

=Primrose= (_prim´rōz_), =Rev. Charles.=--_Vicar of Wakefield_,
Goldsmith. A clergyman, rich in heavenly wisdom, but poor indeed in all
worldly knowledge.

=Primrose, Moses.=--Brother of the above, noted for giving in barter a
good horse for a gross of worthless green spectacles with copper rims.

=Primrose, Olivia.=--The eldest daughter of the doctor. Pretty,
enthusiastic, a sort of Hebê in beauty. “She wished for many lovers,”
and eloped with Squire Thorndill.

=Primrose, Sophia.=--The second daughter of Dr. Primrose. She was “soft,
modest, and alluring.”

=Princess:= _a Medley_.--A poem by Alfred Tennyson. “It is,” says
Stedman, “as he entitles it, a medley, constructed of ancient and modern
materials--a show of mediæval pomp and movement, observed through an
atmosphere of latterday thought and emotion. The poet, in his prelude,
anticipates every stricture, and to me the anachronisms and
impossibilities of the story seem not only lawful, but attractive.
Tennyson’s special gift of reducing incongruous details to a common
structure and tone is fully illustrated in a poem made--

         “‘To suit with time and place,
    A Gothic ruin and a Grecian house,
    A talk at college and of ladies’ rights,
    A feudal knight in silken masquerade.’

Other works of our poet are greater, but none is so fascinating. Some of
the author’s most delicately musical lines are herein contained. The
tournament scene is the most vehement and rapid passage in the whole
range of Tennyson’s poetry. The songs reach the high water mark of
lyrical compositions. The five melodies--_As Thro’ the Land_, _Sweet and
Low_, _The Splendor Falls_, _Home They Brought_ and _Ask Me No
More_--constitute the finest group of songs produced in our century, and
the third seems to many the most perfect English lyric since the time of
Shakespeare.” The name of the Princess is Ida.

=Priscilla= (_pri-sil´ä_).--_Courtship of Miles Standish_, Longfellow. A
Puritan maiden who is wooed by Captain Standish through the mediation of
his friend, John Alden, who is in love with Priscilla. She prefers John
Alden and marries him after the captain’s supposed death. The captain,
however, appears at the close of the wedding service, and the friends
are reconciled.

=Prometheus= (_prō-mē´thūs_) =Bound.=--A tragedy of Æschylus, of
uncertain date. Prometheus is fabled to have made men of clay, and to
have imparted life to them by means of fire brought from heaven. It was
said that for this he was bound to the rock by order of Zeus, that he
resisted all efforts to subdue his will and purpose, bade defiance to
the father of the gods, and disappeared in an appalling tempest. Mrs.
Browning published a poetical translation in 1833.

=Prospero= (_pros´pe-rō_).--_Tempest_, Shakespeare. Rightful duke of
Milan, deposed by his brother. Drifted on a desert island, he practised
magic, and raised a tempest in which his brother was shipwrecked.
Ultimately Prospero “broke his wand,” and his daughter married the son
of the King of Naples.

=Puff, Mr.=--In Sheridan’s farce _The Critic_, a hack writer, who,
having failed at other occupations, tries criticism for a living, and is
a “professor of the art of puffing.”

=Puss in Boots.=--The subject and title of a well-known nursery tale
derived from a fairy story in the _Nights_ of the Italian author
Straparola, and Charles Perrault’s _Contes des Fées_. The wonderful cat
secures a princess and a fortune for his master, a poor young miller,
whom he passes off as the rich marquis of Carabas.

=Pygmalion= (_pig-mā´li-on_) =and Galatea= (_gal-a-tē´ä_).--A
mythological comedy, by W. S. Gilbert, embodying the fable of the
Athenian sculptor who prayed the gods to put life into the statue of
Galatea which he had fashioned. In the comedy, Galatea evokes the
jealousy of the sculptor’s wife Cynisca; and, after causing great misery
by her very innocence, voluntarily returns to the original stone.

=Pyncheon= (_pin´chon_).--The name of an ancient but decayed family in
Hawthorne’s romance _The House of the Seven Gables_. There are: (1)
Judge Pyncheon, a selfish, cunning, worldly man. (2) His cousin
Clifford, a delicate, sensitive nature, reduced to childishness by long
imprisonment and suffering. (3) Hepzibah, the latter’s sister, an old
maid who devotes herself to the care of Clifford. (4) A second cousin,
Phœbe, a fresh, cheerful young girl, who restores the fallen fortunes of
the family and removes the curse which rested on it.

=Q=

=Quasimodo= (_kwā-si-mō´dō_).--_Notre Dame de Paris_, Hugo. A misshapen
dwarf, one of the prominent characters in the story. He is brought up in
the cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris. One day, he sees Esmeralda, who
had been dancing in the cathedral close, set upon by a mob, and he
conceals her for a time in the church. When, at length, the beautiful
gypsy girl is gibbeted, Quasimodo disappears mysteriously, but a
skeleton corresponding to the deformed figure is found after a time in a
hole under the gibbet.

=Quaver.=--_The Virgin Unmasked_, Fielding. A singing-master, who says,
“if it were not for singing-masters, men and women might as well have
been born dumb.” He courts Lucy by promising to give her
singing-lessons.

=Queen Lab.=--_Arabian Nights._ The queen of magic, ruler over the
enchanted city, in the story of Beder, prince of Persia. She transforms
men into horses, mules, and other animals. Beder marries her, defeats
her plots against him, but is himself turned into an owl for a time.

=Quentin Durward= (_kwen´tin der´wärd_).--A novel by Sir Walter Scott. A
story of French history. The delineations of Louis XI. and Charles the
Bold of Burgundy will stand comparison with any in the whole range of
fiction or history.

=Quickly, Mistress.=--_Merry Wives of Windsor_, Shakespeare. A serving
woman to Dr. Caius, a French physician. She is the go-between of three
suitors for “sweet Anne Page,” and with perfect disinterestedness wishes
all three to succeed.

=Quickly, Mistress Nell.=--Hostess of a tavern in Eastcheap, frequented
by Harry, Prince of Wales, Sir John Falstaff, and all their disreputable
crew.

=Quidnunkis.=--Title and name of hero in a fable found or written by
Gay in 1726. This hero was a monkey which climbed higher than its
neighbors, and fell into a river.

=Quilp= (_kwilp_).--_Old Curiosity Shop_, Dickens. A hideous dwarf,
cunning, malicious, and a perfect master in tormenting. Of hard,
forbidding features, with head and face large enough for a giant, he
lived on Tower hill, collected rents, advanced money to seamen, and kept
a sort of wharf, calling himself a ship-breaker.

=Quintus Fixlein.=--Title of a romance by Jean Paul Richter and the name
of the principal character.

=Quirk, Gammon, and Snap.=--A firm of rascally, scheming, hypocritical
solicitors in Warren’s _Ten Thousand a Year_.

=R=

=Raby, Aurora.=--In Byron’s _Don Juan_. She was a rich, noble English
orphan, “a rose with all its sweetest leaves yet folded.”

=Radigund.=--_Faërie Queene_, Spenser. Queen of the fabled Amazons.
Having been rejected by Bellodant “the Bold,” she revenged herself by
degrading all the men who fell into her power by dressing them like
women, and giving them women’s work.

=Ramayana= [(_rä´-mä´yȧ-nȧ_); _Rāma-ayana_, the goings or doings of
Rama].--One of the two great epics of India, the other being the
Mahabharata. It is ascribed to a poet, Valmiki, and consists at present
of about twenty-four thousand stanzas, divided into seven books. It is
the production of one man, though many parts are later additions, such
as those in which Rama is represented as an incarnation of Vishnu, all
the episodes in the first book, and the whole of the seventh. It was at
first handed down orally, and variously modified in transmission, and
afterward reduced to writing.

=Ramona= (_ra-mō´nä_).--Title of a romance by Helen Hunt Jackson. Ramona
saw the American Indian followed by “civilization” while retreating
slowly but surely toward his own extinction, and had herself a share in
the tragedy. Ramona is considered the great romance of Indian life.

=Random= (_ran´dom_).--_Roderick Random_, Smollett. A young Scotch
scapegrace in quest of fortune. At one time he revels in prosperity,
again he is in utter destitution. He roams at random, in keeping with
his name.

=Rappaccini= (_rap-ä-chē´nē_).--_Mosses from an Old Manse_, Hawthorne. A
doctor in whose garden grew strange plants whose juices and fragrance
were poison. His daughter, nourished on these odors, became poisonous
herself. Her lover found an antidote which she took, but the poison
meant life and the antidote meant death to her.

=Rasselas= (_ras´e-las_).--An imaginary romance by Dr. Johnson.
According to the custom of his country, Abyssinia, Rasselas was confined
in paradise, with the rest of the royal family. This paradise was in the
valley of Amhara, surrounded by high mountains. It had only one
entrance, a cavern concealed by woods, and closed by iron gates. He
escaped with his sister Nekayah and Imlac the poet, and wandered about
to find what condition or rank of life was the most happy. After
investigation, he found no lot without its drawbacks, and resolved to
return to the “Happy Valley.”

=Raud the Strong.=--_Tales of a Wayside Inn_, Henry W. Longfellow. The
viking who worshiped the old gods and lived by fire and sword. King Olaf
went against him, sailing from Drontheim to Salten Fjord.

=Raven, The.=--A poem by Edgar Allan Poe, published in 1845, which has
attained a world-wide popularity. For the author’s account of the mode
of its construction, see _The Philosophy of Composition_, an essay, in
the collected edition of his works. The last verse runs:

    And the Raven, never flitting, still is sitting, still is sitting,
    On the pallid bust of Pallas, just above my chamber door;
    And his eyes have all the seeming of a demon’s that is dreaming,
    And the lamplight o’er him streaming throws his shadow on the floor;
    And my soul from out that shadow that lies floating on the floor
        Shall be lifted--Nevermore!

=Ravenswood.=--_Bride of Lammermoor_, Scott. The lord of Ravenswood, an
old Scotch nobleman and a decayed royalist. His son Edgar falls in love
with Lucy Ashton, daughter of Sir William Ashton, Lord-Keeper of
Scotland. The lovers plight their troth, but Lucy is compelled to marry
Frank Hayston, laird of Bucklaw. The bride, in a fit of insanity,
attempts to murder the bridegroom and dies. Bucklaw goes abroad. Colonel
Ashton, seeing Edgar at the funeral of Lucy, appoints a hostile meeting;
and Edgar, on his way to the place appointed, is lost in the quicksands.
A prophecy, noted as a curse, hung over the family and was thus
fulfilled.

=Raymond.=--In _Jerusalem Delivered_, by Tasso. Raymond was known as the
Nestor of the crusaders, slew Aladine, the king of Jerusalem, and
planted the Christian standard upon the tower of David.

=Rebecca.=--_Ivanhoe_, Scott. Daughter of Isaac the Jew, in love with
Ivanhoe.

=Red-cross Knight.=--The Red-cross Knight is St. George, the patron
saint of England, and, in the obvious and general interpretation,
typifies holiness, or the perfection of the spiritual man in religion.
In Spenser’s _Faërie Queene_ the task of slaying a dragon was assigned
to him as the champion of Una.

=Redgauntlet= (_red-gänt´let_).--One of the principal characters in Sir
Walter Scott’s novel of the same name, a political enthusiast and
Jacobite, who scruples at no means of upholding the cause of the
Pretender and finally accompanies him into exile. His race bore a fatal
mark resembling a horseshoe which appeared on the face of Red-gauntlet
as he frowned when angry.

=Red-Riding-Hood.=--This nursery tale is, with slight variations, common
to Sweden, Germany, and France. In Charles Perrault’s _Contes des Fées_
it is called _Le Petit Chaperon Rouge_.

=Religio Medici= (_rē-lij´i-ō med´i-sī_).--A prose work by Sir Thomas
Browne. “_The Religio Medici_,” says the elder Lytton, “is one of the
most beautiful prose poems in the language; its power of diction, its
subtlety and largeness of thought, its exquisite conceits and images,
have no parallel out of the writers of that brilliant age when Poetry
and Prose had not yet divided their domain, and the Lyceum of Philosophy
was watered by the mixing of the wine!”

=Representative Men.=--A work by Emerson which more nearly than any of
his other works, gives expression to his system as a whole. The topics
are: (1) Plato, the Philosopher; (2) Swedenborg, the Mystic; (3)
Montaigne, the Skeptic; (4) Shakespeare, the Poet; (5) Napoleon, the Man
of the World; (6) Goethe, the Writer. The mental portraits sketched
under these six heads give us Emerson himself, so far as he is capable
of being formulated at all.

=Republic, The.=--A work composed by Plato four hundred years before
Christ. _The Republic_ is not, as the title would suggest, a political
work, like the _Politics_ of Aristotle. The principles and government of
an ideal moral organism, of which the rulers shall be types of fully
developed and perfectly educated men, are the real subject. In the
_Republic_ we find the necessity of virtue to the very idea of social
life proved in the first book; then the whole process of a complete
moral and scientific education is set forth. It has been said that the
most complete record of the beliefs or opinions of Plato are found in
this work.

=Reveries of a Bachelor.=--By D. G. Mitchell. The _Reveries_ is a
collection of sketches of life and character, painted in such a
dreamlike, delicate manner as to make the reader lose for the time being
the full consciousness of his surroundings. It has called forth a number
of imitators more or less successful, no one of whom, however, is
comparable to the original.

=Reynard= (_rā´närd_, or _ren´ärd_) =the Fox=.--A beast-epic, so called.
This prose poem is a satire on the state of Germany in the middle ages.
Reynard represents the Church; Isengrin the wolf (his uncle) typifies
the baronial element; and Nodel the lion stands for the regal power. The
plot turns on the struggle for supremacy between Reynard and Isengrin.
Reynard uses all his endeavors to victimize everyone, especially his
uncle Isengrin, and generally succeeds.

=Richelieu= (_rēsh-y-lōō´_), or _The Conspiracy_.--A drama in five acts,
by Edward, Lord Lytton; produced in 1839, the part of the hero being
played by Macready. For some of the incidents the author confesses
himself indebted to the authors of _Cinq Mars_ and _Picciola_. Among the
characters are Baradas, the favorite; De Mauprat, in love with Julie;
Julie de Mortemar herself; Marion de Lorme, mistress of Orleans; Orleans
himself; Louis XIII., and others.

=Rights of Man, The.=--“Being an answer to Mr. Burke’s Attack on the
French Revolution,” by Thomas Paine. This work, which was published in
1791-1792, procured for the writer the distinction of a trial for
sedition, which he escaped by flying to France.

=Rinaldo= (_ri-nal´dō_).--A Christian hero in Tasso’s _Jerusalem
Delivered_. He was the son of Bertoldo and Sophia, and nephew of
Guelpho, but was brought up by Matilda. He was one of Charlemagne’s
paladins, and cousin to Orlando. Having killed Charlemagne’s nephew
Berthelot, he was banished and outlawed. After various adventures and
disasters, he went to the Holy Land, and, on his return, succeeded in
making peace with the emperor.

=Ring and the Book, The.=--A poem by Robert Browning, published in 1869.
It is the story of a tragedy which took place at Rome in 1698. The
versified narrative of the child Pompilia’s sale to Count Guido, of his
cruelty and violence, of her rescue by a young priest, the pursuit, the
lawful separation, the murder by Guido of the girl and her putative
parents, the trial and condemnation of the murderer, and the affirmation
of his sentence by the pope--all this is made to fill out a poem of
twenty-one thousand lines; but these include ten different versions of
the tale, besides the poet’s prelude, in which latter he gives a general
outline of it. The chapters which contain the statements of the priest
lover and Pompilia are full of tragic beauty and emotion. The pope’s
soliloquy, though too prolonged, is a wonderful piece of literary
metempsychosis.

=Rip Van Winkle.=--A tale by Washington Irving, adapted from the old
German legend of Peter Klaus, a goatherd, who drank a miraculous draught
of wine in a dell of the Harz mountains, which brought on sleep from
which he did not wake until twenty years after, when he returned to his
native village to find everything changed, and no one who knew him. In
Irving’s tale the hero is a Dutchman living in America, and the scene is
the Catskill mountains. The story is most picturesquely told, and has
been effectively dramatized, the leading personage being illustrated by
the genius of Jefferson.

=Rivals, The.=--A comedy by Richard Brinsley Sheridan, produced at
Covent Garden, London, in 1775, and described by Hazlitt as “a play of
even more action and incident, but of less wit and satire, than _The
School for Scandal_. It is as good as a novel in the reading, and has
the broadest and most palpable effect upon the stage.”

=Roaring Camp, The Luck of.=--A prose sketch by Francis Bret Harte, an
American poet, in which the softening effects of the presence of a
little child in a camp of ruffians are very touchingly described. It has
been dramatized.

=Rob Roy.=--A romance by Sir Walter Scott which is founded on some
passages in the career of the famous Highlander, Robert MacGregor, who
was popularly called Rob Roy. The nominal hero of _Rob Roy_ is Francis
Osbaldistone; the heroine, Diana Vernon. Among the other characters are
Baillie Nicol Jarvie, “The Dougal Cratur” Andrew Fairservice, Helen
MacGregor, Sir Frederick Vernon, and Rashleigh Osbaldistone. The novel
has been dramatized in a version which still holds the stage in
Scotland. Scott speaks of Rob as “the Robin Hood of Scotland--the dread
of the wealthy, but the friend of the poor, and possessed of many
qualities, both of head and heart, which would have graced a less
equivocal profession than that to which his fate condemned him.”

=Roderick=, or =Roderic= (_rod´er-ik_) =Dhu=.--_Lady of the Lake_,
Scott. An outlaw and chief of a band of Scots who resolved to win back
what had been lost to the Saxons. In connection with Red Murdock he
sought the life of the Saxon Fitz-James.

=Roderigo= (_rod-e-rē´gō_).--In Shakespeare’s _Othello_, a Venetian in
love with Desdemona, who, when the lady eloped with Othello, hated the
“noble Moor.”

=Roland= (_rō´land_).--The hero of one of the most ancient and popular
epics of early French or Frankish literature, and, according to
tradition, the favorite nephew and captain of the Emperor Charlemagne.
Roland is the hero of Théroulde’s _Chanson de Roland_; of Turpin’s
_Chronique_; of Bojardo’s _Orlando Innamorato_; of Ariosto’s _Orlando
Furioso_.

=Romance of the Rose.=--A poetical allegory, begun by Guillaume de
Lorris in the latter part of the thirteenth century, and continued by
Jean Meung in the first half of the fourteenth century. The poet dreams
that Dame Idleness conducts him to the Palace of Pleasure, where he
meets many adventures among the attendant maidens, Youth, Joy, Courtesy,
and others, by whom he is conducted to a bed of roses. He singles out
one, when an arrow from Love’s bow stretches him fainting on the ground.
Fear, Slander, and Jealousy are afterward introduced.

=Romeo.=--In Shakespeare’s tragedy of _Romeo and Juliet_, a son of
Montague, in love with Juliet, the daughter of Capulet, who was the head
of a noble house of Verona, in feudal enmity with the house of Montague.

=Romeo and Juliet.=--A tragedy by William Shakespeare. Romeo, a son of
Montague, in love with Juliet, the daughter of Capulet; but between the
houses of Montague and Capulet there existed a deadly feud. As the
families were irreconcilable, Juliet took a sleeping draught, that she
might get away from her parents and elope with Romeo. Romeo, thinking
her to be dead, killed himself; and when Juliet awoke and found her
lover dead, she also killed herself.

=Romola= (_rom´ō-lä_).--A novel of Italian life and character by George
Eliot. _Romola_ is a marvelously able story of the revival of the taste
and beauty and freedom of Hellenic manners and letters, under Lorenzo
de’ Medici and the scholars of his court, side by side with the revival
of Roman virtue, and more than the ancient austerity and piety, under
the great Dominican Savonarola. This period of history is one which of
all others may well have engrossing interest for George Eliot. Treasures
of learning and discipline, amassed for mankind ages before, for ages
stored and hidden away, see again the sun, are recognized and put to
use. What use they will be put to, with what new and fruitful effects on
the state and the citizen, with what momentary and with what lasting
consequences, this she strives to discover; this she follows through the
public history of Italy during the modern invasion of Charles VIII., and
the events which succeed his invasion, and through the private fortunes
of her admirably chosen group of characters, some of them drawn from
life, all of them true to nature.

=Rosetta= (_rō-zet´tä_) =Stone=.--Found at Rosetta in the delta of the
Nile, contains equivalent inscriptions in hieroglyphics in demotic and
in Greek letters. The meaning of the Greek text being known, the
hieroglyphics could be translated.

=Rowena= (_rō-ē´nä_).--A Saxon princess, ward of Cedric of Rotherwood,
in Sir Walter Scott’s romance of _Ivanhoe_.

=Rumpelstilzchen.=--_Old German Tales._ According to Grimm, this name is
a compound, but the spirit represented is one familiar to all German
children. The original story tells of him as a dwarf who spun straw into
gold for a certain miller’s daughter.

=S=

=Sacripant= (_sak´ri-pant_), =King=.--(1) King of Circassia, and a lover
of Angelica, in Bojordo and Ariosto. (2) A personage in Tassoni’s mock
heroic poem, _Rape of the Bucket_, represented as false, brave, noisy
and hectoring.

=Sagas= (_sä´gas_).--Title of the ancient traditions which form the
substance of the history and mythology of the Scandinavian races. The
language in which they are written is supposed to be the old Icelandic.
In the _Edda_ there are numerous sagas. As our Bible contains the
history of the Jews, religious songs, moral proverbs, and religious
stories, so the _Edda_ contains the history of Norway, religious songs,
a book of proverbs, and numerous stories. The original _Edda_ was
compiled and edited by Sæmund Sigfusson, an Icelandic priest and scald,
in the eleventh century. It contains twenty-eight parts or books, all of
which are in verse. Two hundred years later Snorri Sturleson, of
Iceland, abridged, rearranged, and reduced to prose the _Edda_, and his
work was called _The Younger Edda_. In this we find the famous story
called by the Germans the _Nibelungenlied_. Besides the sagas contained
in the Eddas, there are numerous others, and the whole saga literature
makes over two hundred volumes. Among them are the _Völsunga Saga_,
which is a collection of lays about the early Teutonic heroes. The _Saga
of St. Olaf_ is the history of this Norwegian king. _Frithjof’s Saga_
contains the life and adventures of Frithjof of Iceland. Snorri
Sturleson, at the close of the twelfth century, made the second great
collection of chronicles in verse, called the _Heimskringla Saga_. This
is a most valuable record of the laws, customs and manners of the
ancient Scandinavians.

=Sakuntala.=--A famous drama by Kâlidasa. The daughter of Viswamita and
a water nymph, abandoned by her parents, and brought up by a hermit. One
day, King Dushyanta came to the hermitage, and persuaded Sakuntala to
marry him. In due time a son was born, but Dushyanta left his bride at
the hermitage. When the boy was six years old, his mother took him to
the king, and Dushyanta recognized his wife by a ring which he had given
her. Sakuntala was now publicly proclaimed queen, and the boy (whose
name was Bhârata) became the founder of the glorious race of the
Bhâratas.

=Samson Agonistes= (_sam´son ag-o-nis´tēz_).--A sacred drama by Milton.
Samson, blind and bound, triumphs over his enemies. As in the Bible
story, he grasps two of the supporting pillars, and perishes in the
general ruin.

=Sancho Panza= (_sang´kō pan´zä_).--The esquire and counterpart of Don
Quixote in Cervantes’ famous novel. He has much shrewdness in practical
matters, and a store of proverbial wisdom. He rode upon an ass and was
noted for his proverbs.

=Sartor Resartus= (_sär´tor rē-sär´tus_), (_i. e._, _The Tailor
Patched_).--The title of an old Scottish ballad, being _The Life and
Opinions of Herr Teufelsdröckh, in Three Books_, by Thomas Carlyle. It
may be described as a kind of philosophical romance, in which the author
gives us, in the form of a review of a supposed German work on dress,
and a notice of the writer, his opinions on things in general. The hero,
it has been said, seems to be intended for a portraiture of human nature
as affected by the moral influence to which a cultivated mind would be
exposed by acquaintance with the transcendental philosophy of Fichte.

=Satyrane= (_sat´i-rān_), =Sir=.--_Faërie Queene_, Spenser. A noble
knight who delivered Una from the fauns and satyrs. The meaning seems to
be that Truth, driven from the towns and cities, took refuge in caves
and dens where for a time it lay concealed. At length Sir Satyrane
(Luther) rescues Una from bondage; but no sooner is this the case than
she falls in with Archimago, to show how very difficult it was at the
time of the Reformation to separate Truth from Error.

=Sawyer, Bob.=--_Pickwick Papers_, Dickens. A drinking young doctor who
tries to establish a practice at Bristol, but without success. Sam
Weller calls him “Mr. Sawbones.”

=Scalds=, or =Skalds=.--Court poets and chroniclers of the ancient
Scandinavians. They resided at court, were attached to the royal suite,
and attended the king in all his wars. These bards celebrated in song
the gods, the kings of Norway, and national heroes. Few complete Skaldic
poems have survived, but a multitude of fragments exist.

=Scarlet Letter, The.=--A romance by Nathaniel Hawthorne, published in
1850. The heroine, Hester Prynne, was condemned to wear conspicuously
the letter “A” in scarlet, token of her sin as mother of her child,
Pearl, whose father was not known. She was first exposed in disgrace on
a raised scaffold, then served a term in prison, and afterward gained a
moderate support for herself and child by embroidering. She refused to
reveal the name of the father, although she might then be allowed to lay
aside the letter. He was always near, held an important position, and
lived a life of wearing remorse. After his death Hester Prynne took her
child to another country, but returned to spend her old age in seclusion
and comfort in the same place that had witnessed her punishment. She
always bore herself proudly, but not defiantly, and brought to herself
such love and respect that the scarlet letter became a badge of honor.
Roger Chillingworth, Hester’s husband, appeared as a learned foreign
physician, visited her in prison, but promised not to reveal his
relation to her, and devoted his life to learning her secret. The
characters in the story are intense, and the analysis of motives subtle.

=Scheherazade=, or =Sheherazade= (_she-hē´rä-zād_).--_Arabian Nights._
The fabled relater of the stories in these “Entertainments.”

=Scaramouche= (_skar´a-mouch_).--An Italian character whose traits are
cowardice and boastfulness. He is of Spanish creation, copied into
Italian comedy.

=Schlemihl= (_shlem´el_), =Peter=.--The name of the hero of a little
work by Chamisso, a man who sells his shadow to the devil. The name has
become a byword for any poor, silly, and unfortunate fellow.

=Schneider= (_shnī´der_).--Rip Van Winkle’s dog, in Boucicault’s
dramatization of Irving’s _Rip Van Winkle_. The name of the dog in the
story is “Wolf.”

=School for Scandal, The.=--A comedy by Richard Brinsley Sheridan,
produced at Covent Garden, London, in 1777, and characterized by Hazlitt
as, “if not the most original, perhaps the most finished and faultless
comedy which we have. The scene in which Charles Surface sells all the
old family pictures but his uncle’s, who is the purchaser in disguise,
and that of the discovery of Lady Teazle when the screen falls, are
among the happiest and most highly wrought that comedy, in its wide and
brilliant range, can boast. Besides the art and ingenuity of this play,
there is a genial spirit of frankness and generosity that relieves the
heart as well as clears the lungs. While it strips off the mask of
hypocrisy, it inspires a confidence between man and man.”

=School for Wives= [_L’Ecole des Femmes_ (_lä-kol´ dā fam´_)].--A comedy
by Molière. Arnolph has a crotchet about the proper training of girls to
make good wives, and tries his scheme upon Agnes, whom he adopts from a
peasant’s cottage, and designs in due time to make his wife. He sends
her from early childhood to a convent, where difference of sex and the
conventions of society are wholly ignored. When removed from the
convent, she treats men as if they were schoolgirls, kisses them, plays
with them, and treats them with girlish familiarity. The consequence is,
a young man name Horace falls in love with her, and makes her his wife,
and Arnolph loses his painstaking.

=School of Husbands= [_L’Ecole des Maris_ (_lä-kol´ da mä-re´_)] A
comedy by Molière. Ariste and Sganarelle, two brothers, bring up Léonor
and Isabelle, two orphan sisters, according to their systems for making
them in time their model wives. Sganarelle’s system was to make the
woman dress plainly, live retired, attend to domestic duties, and have
few indulgences. Ariste’s system was to give the woman great liberty,
and trust to her honor. Isabelle, brought up by Sganarelle, deceived him
and married another; but Léonor, brought up by Ariste, made him a fond
and faithful wife.

=Scottish Chiefs, The.=--A romantic story by Jane Porter, published in
1810, and counting among its heroes Robert Bruce and Sir William
Wallace.

=Scourge of God.=--Attila, king of the Huns. A. P. Stanley says the term
was first applied to Attila in the Hungarian _Chronicles_. It is found
in a legend belonging to the eighth or ninth century.

=Scrooge= (_skröj_), =Ebenezer=.--_Christmas Carol_, Dickens. The
prominent character, made partner, executor, and heir of old Jacob
Marley, stockbroker.

=Seasons, The.=--A series of poems by James Thomson, which appeared in
the following order: _Winter_; _Summer_; _Spring_; and _Autumn_; the
whole being republished, with the famous _Hymn_. Horace Walpole said
that he would rather have written the most absurd lines by Lee than _The
Seasons_; but Wordsworth, on the other hand, speaks of it as “a work of
inspiration. Much of it,” he says, “is written from himself, and nobly
from himself.”

=Sebastian= (_se-bas´tian_).--(1) Brother of Viola, in _Twelfth Night_.
They were twins, and so much alike that they could not be distinguished
except by their dress. Sebastian and his sister being shipwrecked,
escaped to Illyria. Here Sebastian was mistaken for his sister (who had
assumed man’s apparel), and was invited by the Countess Olivia to take
shelter in her house from a street broil. Olivia was in love with Viola,
and thinking Sebastian to be the object of her love, married him. (2)
Brother of Alfonso, king of Naples, in _The Tempest_. (3) Father of
Valentine and Alice, in Beaumont and Fletcher’s _Mons. Thomas_.

=Sedley, Mr.=--_Vanity Fair_, Thackeray. A wealthy London stockbroker,
brought to ruin in the money market just prior to the battle of
Waterloo.

=Selith.=--One of the two guardian angels of the Virgin Mary and St.
John the divine, in Klopstock’s _Messiah_.

=Sempronius= (_sem-prō´ni-us_).--In Shakespeare’s _Timon of Athens_, a
flatterer of Timon, who excuses himself from lending Timon money on the
ground that others had been asked first.

=Senena.=--_Madoc_, Southey. A Welsh maiden in love with Caradoc. Under
the assumed name of Mervyn she became the page of the Princess Goervyl,
that she might follow her lover to America, where Madoc colonized
Caer-Madoc. Senena was promised in marriage to another; but when the
wedding day arrived the bride was nowhere to be found.

=Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy.=--By Laurence Sterne,
published in 1768. Sterne describes this work as follows: “It is a
subject which works well, and suits the frame of mind in which I have
been for some time past. I told you my design in it was to teach us to
love the world and our fellow creatures better than we do--so it runs
most upon these gentler passions and affections which add so much to
it.”

=Serena= (_sā-rā´nä_).--_Faërie Queene_, Spenser. Allured into the
fields by the mildness of the weather, to gather wild flowers for a
garland, she was attacked by the Blatant Beast, which carried her off in
its mouth. Her cries attracted to the spot Sir Calidore, who compelled
the beast to drop its prey.

=Sesame.=--In Arabian tales given as the talismanic word which would
open or shut the door leading into the cave of the forty thieves. In
order to open it, the words to be uttered were, “Open, Sesame!” and in
order to close it, “Shut, Sesame!” Sesame is a plant yielding grain
which is sometimes used for food, and from which an oil is expressed.
When Cassim forgot the word, he substituted “Barley,” but without
effect. Sesame has come into general use in connection with any word or
act which will open the way for accomplishment of the thing desired.

=Seven Lamps of Architecture, The.=--A treatise on architecture by
Ruskin, published in 1849. The “seven lamps” are those of Sacrifice,
Truth, Power, Beauty, Life, Memory, and Obedience. They are symbolic
rules for the guidance of the student.

=Sganarelle= (_sgä-nä-rel´_).--The hero of Molière’s comedy _La Mariage
Force_. He is represented as a humorist of about fifty-three, who,
having a mind to marry a fashionable young woman, but feeling a doubt,
consults his friends upon this momentous question. Receiving no
satisfactory counsel, and not much pleased with the proceedings of his
bride elect, he at last determines to give up his engagement, but is
cudgeled into compliance by the brother of his intended.

=Shallow.=--A braggart and absurd country justice in Shakespeare’s
_Merry Wives of Windsor_, and in the second part of _King Henry IV._

=Shandy, Mrs.=--The mother of Tristram Shandy in Sterne’s novel of this
name. She is the ideal of nonentity, a character individual from its
very absence of individuality.

=Shandy, Tristram.=--The nominal hero of Sterne’s _The Life and Opinions
of Tristram Shandy, Gent._

=Shandy, Walter.=--The name of Tristram Shandy’s father in Sterne’s
novel of this name, a man of an active and metaphysical, but at the same
time a whimsical, cast of mind, whom too much and too miscellaneous
learning had brought within a step or two of madness.

=Sharp, Becky.=--A leading character in Thackeray’s _Vanity Fair_, the
daughter of a poor painter, dashing, selfish, unprincipled, and very
clever.

=Shepherd of Salisbury Plain, The.=--The hero and title of a religious
tract by Hannah More. The shepherd is noted for his homely wisdom and
simple piety.

=Shepherd’s Calendar, The.=--Twelve eclogues in various meters, by
Spenser, one for each month. January: Colin Clout (Spenser) bewails that
Rosalind does not return his love. February: Cuddy, a lad, complains of
the cold, and Thenot laments the degeneracy of pastoral life. March:
Willie and Thomalin discourse of love. April: Hobbinol sings a song on
Eliza. May: Palinode exhorts Piers to join the festivities of May, but
Piers replies that good shepherds who seek their own indulgence expose
their flocks to the wolves. June: Hobbinol exhorts Colin to greater
cheerfulness. July: Morrel, a goatherd, invites Thomalin to come with
him to the uplands. August: Perigot and Willie contend in song, and
Cuddy is appointed arbiter. September: Diggon Davie complains to
Hobbinol of clerical abuses. October: On poetry. November: Colin being
asked by Thenot to sing, excuses himself because of his grief for Dido,
but finally sings her elegy. December: Colin again complains that his
heart is desolate. Thenot is an old shepherd bent with age, who tells
Cuddy, the herdsman’s boy, the fable of the oak and the brier, one of
the best-known fables included in the calendar.

=Shepherd’s Pipe.=--Pan, in Greek mythology, was the god of forests,
pastures, and flocks, and the reputed inventor of the shepherd’s flute
or pipe.

=Sheridan’s Ride.=--A lyric by T. B. Read, one of the few things written
during the heat of the Civil war that is likely to survive.

=She Stoops to Conquer.=--A comedy by Oliver Goldsmith, said to have
been founded on an incident which actually occurred to its author. When
Goldsmith was sixteen years of age, a wag residing at Ardagh directed
him, when passing through that village, to Squire Fetherstone’s house as
the village inn. The mistake was not discovered for some time, but all
concerned enjoyed the joke. _She Stoops to Conquer_ is one of the
gayest, pleasantest, and most amusing pieces of English comedy.

=Shingebis.=--In Longfellow’s _Hiawatha_, the diver who challenged the
North Wind and put him to flight in combat.

=Shocky.=--_The Hoosier Schoolmaster_, Edw. Eggleston. The little lad
from the poorhouse who adores the schoolmaster and early warns him of
plans for upsetting his authority. He is also a small poet, not in
rhyming, but in comprehension of things about him and in his way of
looking at life, and he grows to be a helper in the _Church of the Best
Licks_, founded by the schoolmaster.

=Shylock.=--A sordid, avaricious, revengeful Jew, in Shakespeare’s
_Merchant of Venice_.

=Siege Perilous, The.=--The Round Table contained sieges, or seats, in
the names of different knights. One was reserved for him who was
destined to attainment in the quest of the Holy Grail. This seat was
called “perilous” because if anyone sat therein except he for whom it
was reserved, he would “lose himself.” It finally bore the name of Sir
Galahad.

=Siegfried= (_sēg´frēd_).--The hero of various Scandinavian and Teutonic
legends, particularly of the old German epic poem, the _Nibelungenlied_.
He is represented as a young warrior of physical strength and beauty,
and in valor superior to all men of his time. He cannot easily be
identified with any historical personage.

=Sikes, Bill.=--A brutal thief and housebreaker in Dickens’ novel
_Oliver Twist_. He murders his mistress, Nancy, and, in trying to lower
himself by a rope from the roof of a building where he had taken refuge
from the crowd, he falls, and is choked in a noose of his own making.
Sikes had an ill-conditioned, savage dog, the beast-image of his master,
which he kicked and loved, ill-treated and fondled.

=Silas Marner= (_mär´ner_).--A novel by George Eliot, published in 1861.
This novel is one of the authoress’ most beautiful stories, the most
poetical of them all--the tale of Silas Marner, who deems himself
deserted and rejected utterly of God and man, and to whom, in his
deepest misery, in place of lost gold, a little foundling girl is sent.
This tale is the most hopeful of all her books. The contemplation of the
renewal of enterprise and energy, which comes with little children, and
of the promise with which each new generation gilds the crown of honor
for its sires, is pleasant and grateful to her. She writes upon her
title page the lines of Wordsworth:

    A child, more than all other gifts
    That earth can offer to declining man,
    Brings hope with it and forward-looking thoughts.

The weaver of Raveloe and Eppie are creations after Wordsworth’s own
heart.

=Silken Thread.=--_Gulliver’s Travels._ In the kingdom of Lilliput, the
three great prizes of honor are “fine silk threads six inches long, one
blue, another red, and a third green.” The thread is girt about the
loins, and no ribbon of the Legion of Honor, or of the Knight of the
Garter, is worn more worthily or more proudly.

=Sindbad= (_sind´bad_) =the Sailor.=--A character in the _Arabian
Nights_, in which is related the story of his strange voyages and
wonderful adventures.

=Sinon.=--In Vergil’s _Æneid_ the cunning Greek who, by a false tale,
induced the Trojans to drag the wooden horse into Troy.

=Sir Roger de Coverley= (_kuv´er-li_).--In Addison’s _The Spectator_.
The prototype of this famous character was Sir John Pakington, a
hypothetical baronet of Coverley or Cowley, near Oxford.

=Skeleton in Armor, The.=--A lyric by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow,
suggested to him while riding on the seashore at Newport. A year or two
previous a skeleton had been dug up at Fall River, clad in broken and
corroded armor; and the idea occurred to him of connecting it with the
Round Tower at Newport, generally known hitherto as the Old Windmill,
though now claimed by the Danes as a work of their early ancestors.

=Sketch-Book, The.=--A series of short tales, sketches, and essays,
published by Washington Irving in 1820. They are chiefly descriptive of
English manners and scenery, and have often been reprinted.

=Skylark, Ode to the.=--By Percy Bysshe Shelley, written in 1820. “In
sweetness,” says Leigh Hunt, “and not even there in passages, the _Ode
to the Skylark_ is inferior only to Coleridge--in rapturous passion to
no man. It is like the bird it sings--enchanting, profuse, continuous,
and alone; small, but filling the heavens.”

    Hail to thee, blithe spirit!
      Bird thou never wert,
    That, from heaven, or near it,
      Pourest thy full heart
    In profuse strains of unpremeditated art.

=Slick, Sam.=--The hero of various humorous narratives, by Haliburton,
illustrating and exaggerating the peculiarities of the Yankee character
and dialect.

=Slop, Dr.=--The name of a choleric and uncharitable physician in
Sterne’s _Tristram Shandy, Gent._

=Slough of Despond.=--_Pilgrim’s Progress_, Bunyan. A deep bog, which
Christian had to pass on his way to the Wicket Gate.

=Sly, Christopher.=--_Taming of the Shrew_, Shakespeare. A keeper of
bears and a tinker and a sad drinker, son of a peddler.

=Sofronia= (_sof-rō´ni-ä_).--A young Christian of Jerusalem, the heroine
of an episode in Tasso’s _Jerusalem Delivered_. She and her lover,
Olinda, are condemned to death by Aladine, king of Jerusalem. The king
finally, at the solicitation of Clorinda, spares them and they are
married.

=Sohrab= (_sö-hrâb´_) =and Rustum.=--An episode, or narrative in verse,
by Matthew Arnold. The story is told in prose in Sir John Malcolm’s
_History of Persia_. “The powerful conception of the relation between
the two chieftains, and the slaying of the son by the father, are,” says
Stedman, “tragical and heroic. The descriptive passage at the close
beginning--

    But the majestic river floated on,

for diction and breadth of tone would do honor to any living poet.”

=Song of Roland.=--An ancient song recounting the deeds of Roland, the
renowned nephew of Charlemagne, slain in the pass of Roncesvalles. At
the battle of Hastings, Taillefer advanced on horseback before the
invading army, and gave the signal for onset by singing this famous
song.

=Spanker, Lady Gay.=--In _London Assurance_, by Boucicault, is a woman
of great spirit, devoted to the chase.

=Speed.=--An inveterate punster and the clownish servant of Valentine,
one of the two “gentlemen” in Shakespeare’s _The Two Gentlemen of
Verona_.

=Spenlow= (_spen´lō_).--_Lavinia_ and _Clarissa_, in Dickens’ _David
Copperfield_, two spinster aunts of Dora Spenlow, with whom she lived at
the death of her father.

=Squeers.=--Name of a family prominent in Dickens’ _Nicholas Nickleby_.
Wackford Squeers, master of Dotheboys Hall, in Yorkshire, is a vulgar,
conceited, ignorant schoolmaster, overbearing and mean. He steals the
boys’ pocket money, clothes his son in their best suits, half starves
them, and teaches them next to nothing. Ultimately he is transported for
theft. Mrs. Squeers, a raw-boned, harsh, heartless virago, with no
womanly feeling for the boys put under her charge. Miss Fanny Squeers,
daughter of the schoolmaster. Miss Fanny falls in love with Nicholas
Nickleby, but later hates him because he is insensible to the soft
impeachment. Master Wackford Squeers, over-bearing, self-willed and
passionate.

=Squire of Dames.=--A personage introduced by Spenser in the _Faërie
Queene_, and whose curious adventures are there recorded. The expression
is sometimes applied to a person devoted to the fair sex.

=Steerforth= (_stēr´fōrth_), =James.=--_David Copperfield_, Dickens. The
young man who led little Em’ly astray. When tired of his toy, he
proposed to her to marry his valet. Steerforth, being shipwrecked off
the coast of Yarmouth, Ham Peggotty tried to rescue him, but both were
drowned.

=Stentor= (_sten´tor_).--A Grecian herald in the Trojan war whom Homer
describes as great-hearted, brazen-voiced Stentor, accustomed to shout
as loud as fifty other men.

=Stephano= (_stef´a-nō_).--(1) In Tasso’s _Jerusalem Delivered_, earl of
Carnuti, the leader of four hundred men in the allied Christian army. He
was noted for his military prowess and wise counsel; (2) a drunken
butler in Shakespeare’s _The Tempest_; (3) servant to Portia in
Shakespeare’s _Merchant of Venice_.

=Stiggins, Rev. Mr.=--A red-nosed, hypocritical “shepherd,” or Methodist
parson, in Dickens’ _Pickwick Papers_, with a great appetite for
pineapple rum. He is the spiritual adviser of Mrs. Weller, and lectures
on temperance.

=Strephon= (_stref´on_).--The shepherd in Sir Philip Sidney’s _Arcadia_,
who makes love to the beautiful Urania. It is a stock name for a lover,
Chloe being usually the corresponding lady.

=Strongback.=--One of the seven attendants of Fortunio, in D’Aulnoy’s
_Fairy Tales_. He could never be overweighted, and could fell a forest
in a few hours without fatigue.

=Summer, St. Martin’s.=--The fine weather which generally occurs in
October and November; referred to in _Henry VI._

=T=

=Tabard= (_tab´ārd_), =The.=--Is the inn, in High Street, Southwark,
London, from which Chaucer makes his pilgrims start on their journey to
Canterbury. It took its name from its sign--a tabard.

=Tale of Two Cities, A.=--A novel, by Charles Dickens, originally
produced in _All the Year Round_ for 1859, and afterward republished in
complete form. The author says he first conceived the main idea of the
story when acting, with his children and friends, in Wilkie Collins’
drama of _The Frozen Deep_. His narrative is drawn from the scenes of
the French revolution of 1789; and it was one of Dickens’ hopes, he
says, to add something to the popular and picturesque means of
understanding that terrible time; “though no one,” he continues, “can
hope to add anything to the philosophy of Carlyle’s wonderful book.”

=Tales of a Wayside Inn.=--Name given by Longfellow to a collection of
short poems arranged by himself and collected together much in the same
form as Chaucer’s _Canterbury Tales_. These “tales” were mostly gathered
from old literature and translated into Longfellow’s own verses--only
one, _The Birds of Killingworth_, being said to be entirely original.
Seven narratives are represented: the Landlord, the Student, the Spanish
Cavalier, the Jew, the Sicilian, the Musician, and the Theologian. Four
colonial tales are included in the work: _Paul Revere’s Ride_,
_Elizabeth_, _Lady Wentworth_, and _The Rhyme of Sir Christopher_.

=Taming of the Shrew, The.=--A comedy by Shakespeare. The incident of
Vincentio’s personation by the pedant was borrowed by Shakespeare from
George Gascoigne’s _Supposes_. The chief characters are Petruchio and
his wife Katharine, the shrew.

=Tam O’Shanter.=--The title of a poem by Burns, and the name of its
hero, a farmer, who, riding home very late and very drunk from Ayr, in a
stormy night, had to pass by the kirk of Alloway, a place reputed to be
a favorite haunt of the devil and his friends and emissaries. On
approaching the kirk, he perceived a light gleaming through the windows;
but, having got courageously drunk, he ventured on till he could look
into the edifice, when he saw a dance of witches. His presence became
known, and in an instant all was dark; and Tam, recollecting himself,
turned and spurred his horse to the top of her speed, chased by the
whole fiendish crew. It is a current belief that witches, or any evil
spirits, have no power to follow a poor wight any farther than the
middle of the next running stream. Fortunately for Tam, the River Doon
was near, and he escaped, while the witches held only the tail of his
mare Maggie. It has been said of _Tam O’Shanter_ that in no other poem
of the same length can there be found so much brilliant description,
pathos, and quaint humor, nor such a combination of the terrific and the
ludicrous.

=Tancred= (_tang´kred_).--In Tasso’s _Jerusalem Delivered_, was the
greatest of all the Christian warriors, except Rinaldo.

=Tartufe=, or =Tartuffe= (_tār-tūf´_).--One of Molière’s best known
comedies. Tartuffe is a religious hypocrite and impostor, who uses
“religion” as the means of gaining money, covering deceit, and promoting
self-indulgence. He is taken up by one Orgon, a man of property, who
promises him his daughter in marriage; but, his true character being
exposed, he is not only turned out of the house, but is lodged in jail
for felony.

Isaac Bickerstaff adapted Molière’s comedy to the English stage, under
the title of _The Hypocrite_. Tartuffe he calls “Dr. Cantwell,” and
Orgon “Sir John Lambert.” It is thought that “Tartuffe” is a caricature
of Père la Chaise, the confessor of Louis XIV., who was very fond of
truffles (French, _truffes_), and that this suggested the name to the
dramatist.

=Task, The.=--A poem by William Cowper. “_The Task_,” says Southey, “was
at once descriptive, moral, and satirical. The descriptive parts
everywhere bore evidence of a thoughtful mind and a gentle spirit, as
well as of an observant eye; and the moral sentiment which pervaded them
gave a charm in which descriptive poetry is often found wanting. The
best didactic poems, when compared with _The Task_, are like formal
gardens in comparison with woodland scenery.” “_The Task_,” says
Hazlitt, “has fewer blemishes than _The Seasons_; but it has not the
same capital excellence, the ‘unsought grace’ of poetry, the power of
moving and infusing the warmth of the author’s mind into that of the
reader.”

=Teazle= (_tē´zl_), =Lady.=--The heroine of Sheridan’s comedy _The
School for Scandal_, and the wife of Sir Peter Teazle, an old gentleman
who marries late in life. She is represented as being “a lively and
innocent, though imprudent, country girl, transplanted into the midst of
all that can bewilder and endanger her, but with enough of purity about
her to keep the blight of the world from settling upon her.”

=Teazle, Sir Peter.=--A character in Sheridan’s play _The School for
Scandal_, husband of Lady Teazle.

=Télémaque= (_tā-lā-mȧk´_), =Les Aventures de:= “_Adventures of
Telemachus_”.--A romance by Fenelon, published in 1699. It is founded on
the legendary history of Telemachus, and is one of the classics of
French literature. Though the beautiful fiction of _Telemachus_, which
has much in common with, and was doubtless suggested to Fenelon by the
_Argenis_, be rather an epic poem in prose than a romance, it seems to
have led the way to several political romances, or, at least, to have
nourished a state for this species of composition.

=Tell, William.=--Title of a drama by Schiller. The hero is chief of the
confederates of the forest cantons of Switzerland, and son-in-law of
Walter Fürst. Having refused to salute the Austrian cap which Gessler,
the Austrian governor, had set up in the market-place of Altdorf, he was
condemned to shoot an apple from the head of his own son. He succeeded
in this perilous task, but, letting fall a concealed arrow, was asked by
Gessler with what object he had secreted it. “To kill thee, tyrant,” he
replied, “if I had failed.” The governor now ordered him to be carried
in chains across the Lake Lucerne to Küssnacht Castle, “there to be
devoured alive by reptiles”; but, a violent storm having arisen on the
lake, he was unchained, that he might take the helm. Gessler was on
board; and, when the vessel neared the castle, Tell leaped ashore, gave
the boat a push into the lake, and shot the governor. After this he
liberated his country from the Austrian yoke.

=Tempest, The.=--One of Shakespeare’s fairy plays. The story runs:
Prospero, duke of Milan, was dethroned by his brother Antonio, and left
on the open sea with his three-year-old daughter Miranda, in “a rotten
carcass of a boat.” In this they were carried to an enchanted island,
uninhabited except by a hideous creature, Caliban, the son of a witch.
Prospero was a powerful enchanter, and soon had not only Caliban, but
all the spirits of the region under his control, including Ariel, chief
of the spirits of the air. Years afterward Antonio, Alfonso, Sebastian
and other friends of the usurper came near the island. Prospero, by his
magic, raises a storm which casts their ship on the shore and the whole
party are spellbound and brought to Prospero. Plots and counterplots
follow, bringing in Caliban and clowns; but all are made ridiculous and
are defeated by Prospero and Ariel.

=Tessa= (_tes´ä_).--In George Eliot’s novel of _Romola_ is the peasant
girl who is deceived into marriage with Tito Melema.

=Thangbrand.=--_Tales of a Wayside Inn_, Henry W. Longfellow. King
Olaf’s drunken priest, “short of stature, large of limb,” who was sent
to Iceland, found the people poring over their books, and sailed backed
to Norway to say to Olaf “little hope is there of these Iceland men.”

=Theagenes= (_thē-aj´e-nēz_)= and Chariclea= (_kar-i-klē´ä_).--The chief
characters in a Greek love story, by Heliodorus, bishop of Trikka,
fourth century. A charming fiction, largely borrowed from by subsequent
novelists, and especially by Mdlle. de Scudéri, Tasso, Guarini, and
D’Urfé.

=Thekla.=--The daughter of Wallenstein in Schiller’s drama of this name.
She is an invention of the poet.

=Theodorus.=--The name of a physician, in Rabelais’ romance of
_Gargantua_. At the request of Ponocrates, Gargantua’s tutor, he
undertook to cure the latter of his vicious manner of living, and
accordingly “purged him canonically with Anticyrian hellebore,” by which
medicine he cleared out all the perverse habits of his brain, so that he
became a man of honor, sense, courage, and piety.

=Theresa=, or =Teresa= (_te-rē´sä_, or _tā-rā´sä_).--Daughter of the
count palatine of Padolia, beloved by Mazeppa, in Byron’s _Mazeppa_.

=Thersites= (_ther-sī´tēz_).--A scurrilous Grecian chief, loquacious,
loud and coarse, in the _Iliad_. His chief delight was to inveigh
against the kings of Greece. He squinted, halted, and on his tapering
head grew a few white patches of starveling down.

=Thopas, Sir.=--In the _Canterbury Tales_, a capital sportsman, archer,
wrestler, and runner, who resolved to marry no one but an “elf queen,”
and accordingly started for Faëryland. Story left unfinished.

=Thorberg Skafting.=--_Tales of a Wayside Inn_, Henry W. Longfellow. The
master-builder ordered by King Olaf to build a ship twice as long and
twice as large as the _Dragon_, built by Raud the Strong, which was
stranded.

=Three Musketeers= [_Trois Mousquetaires_ (_trwä mös-ke-tar´_),
_Les_].--A novel by Alexander Dumas _père_, published in 1844. The scene
is laid in the time of Richelieu. The three musketeers are Athos,
Porthos, and Aramis, but D’Artagnan is the principal character. He is a
young Gascon of an adventurous yet practical nature, with a genius for
intrigue, who goes up to Paris to seek his fortune with an old horse, a
box of miraculous salve given to him by his mother, and his father’s
counsels. His career is one of hairbreadth escapes (with death, in the
end, on the field of battle) in the society of the three musketeers.

=Thyestean Banquet.=--Referred to in Milton’s _Paradise Lost_. A
cannibal feast. Thyestes was given his own two sons to eat at a banquet
served up to him by his brother Atreus.

=Thyrsis= (_ther´sis_).--A herdsman introduced in the _Idylls_ of
Theocritos, and in Vergil’s _Eclogues_.

      Hard by, a cottage chimney smokes
    From betwixt two aged oaks,
    Where Corydon and Thyrsis, met,
    Are at their savory dinner set.
                       Milton, _L’Allegro_.

=Timias.=--King Arthur’s squire in Spenser’s _Faërie Queene_. He went
after the “wicked foster,” from whom Florimel fled, and the “foster”
with his two brothers, falling on him, were all slain.

=Tobey, Uncle.=--A character in Sterne’s _Tristram Shandy_. A captain
who was wounded at the siege of Namur, and was obliged to retire from
the service. He is the impersonation of kindness, benevolence, and
simple-heartedness; his courage is undoubted, and his gallantry
delightful for its innocence and modesty.

=Tommy Atkins.=--_Barrack-Room Ballads_, Kipling. The name is here used
in its general meaning, a British soldier. The name came from the little
pocket ledgers served out, at one time, to all British soldiers. In
these manuals were to be entered the name, the age, the date of
enlistment, etc. The war office sent with each little book a form for
filling it in, and the hypothetical name selected was _Tommy Atkins_.
The books were instantly so called, and it did not require many days to
transfer the name from the book to the soldier.

=Tom Sawyer, Adventures of.=--By Mark Twain. An “elastic” youth whose
performances delight both old and young readers. Queer enterprises,
influenced by the old superstitions among slaves and children in the
Western states give reliable pictures of boy-life in the middle of the
nineteenth century.

=Topsy.=--_Uncle Tom’s Cabin_, Mrs. Stowe. A young slave-girl, who never
knew whether she had either father or mother, and being asked by Miss
Ophelia St. Clare how she supposed she came into the world, replied, “I
’spects I growed.”

=Touchstone= (_tuch´stōn_).--A clown in Shakespeare’s _As You Like It_.
His seven degrees of the lie are: (1) The retort courteous, (2) the quip
modest, (3) the reply churlish, (4) the reproof valiant, (5) the
countercheck quarrelsome, (6) the lie circumstantial, (7) the lie
direct.

=Townley Mysteries.=--Certain religious dramas; so called because the
MS. containing them belonged to P. Townley. These dramas are supposed to
have been acted at Widkirk abbey, in Yorkshire.

=Tranio= (_trā´ni-ō_).--In Shakespeare’s _Taming of the Shrew_, one of
the servants of Lucentio, the gentleman who marries Bianca, sister of
Katharina “the Paduan shrew.”

=Triads.=--Three subjects, more or less connected, formed into one
continuous poem or subject; thus the “Creation, Redemption, and
Resurrection” would form a triad.

=Trim, Corporal.=--Uncle Toby’s attendant, in Sterne’s novel, _The Life
and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gent._, distinguished for his fidelity
and affection, his respectfulness, and his volubility.

=Tristram= (_tris´tram_), =Sir.=--One of the most celebrated heroes of
mediæval romance. His adventures form an episode in the history of
Arthur’s court, and are related by Thomas the Rhymer, as well as by many
romancists.

=Tubal= (_tū´bal_).--A wealthy Jew, the friend of Shylock, in
Shakespeare’s _The Merchant of Venice_.

=Tuck, Friar.=--_Ivanhoe_, Scott. The father-confessor of Robin Hood and
connected with Fountain’s Abbey. He is represented as a clerical
Falstaff, very fat and self-indulgent, very humorous, and somewhat
coarse. His dress was a russet habit of the Franciscan order. He was
sometimes girt with a rope of rushes. Friar Tuck also appears in the
“morris dance” on Mayday.

=Turveydrop.=--_Bleak House_, Dickens. A conceited dancing-master, who
imposes on the world by his majestic appearance and elaborate toilette.
He is represented as living upon the earnings of his son, who has a most
slavish reverence for him as a perfect “master of deportment.”

=Tutivillus= (_tū-ti-vil´us_).--In Langland’s _Visions of Piers
Plowman_, the demon who collects all the fragments of words omitted,
mutilated, or mispronounced by priests in the performance of religious
services, and stores them up in that “bottomless” pit which is “paved
with good intentions.”

=Tweedledum and Tweedledee.=--The prince of Wales was the leader of the
Handel party, supported by Pope and Dr. Arbuthnot; and the duke of
Marlborough led the Bononcinists, and was supported by most of the
nobility.

=Twelfth Night.=--A drama by Shakespeare. The story is said to have come
from a novelette written early in the sixteenth century. A brother and
sister, twins, are shipwrecked. Viola, dressed like her brother, becomes
page to the duke Orsino. The duke was in love with Olivia, and, as the
lady looked coldly on his suit, he sent Viola to advance it; but the
willful Olivia, instead of melting toward the duke, fell in love with
his beautiful page. Sebastian, the twin-brother of Viola, was attacked
in a street brawl before Olivia, and, thinking him to be the page, she
invited him in. The result was the marriage of Sebastian to Olivia, and
of the duke to Viola.

=Twice-Told Tales.=--A collection of tales by Nathaniel Hawthorne, some
of which had been already published in the _Token_, and other
periodicals. They are mystical and, though in prose form, are the work
of a poet. The tales are nearly all American in subject, but are treated
from the spiritual rather than the practical side.

=Two Gentlemen of Verona= (_vā-rō´nä_).--A drama by Shakespeare, the
story of which is taken from the Diana of Montemayor (sixteenth
century). The plot resembles that of _Twelfth Night_, as Julia,
disguised as a page, is a prominent figure.

=U=

=Uarda= (_ö-är´dä_).--A novel by Ebers, published in 1877. The scene is
laid chiefly in Egypt at the time of the reign of Rameses II.

=Ubaldo.=--_Jerusalem Delivered_, Tasso. One of the older crusaders, who
had visited many regions. He and Charles the Dane went to bring back
Rinaldo from the enchanted castle.

=Ubeda.=--_Don Quixote_, Cervantes. A noted artist who one day painted a
picture, but was obliged to write under it, “This is a cock,” in order
that the spectator might know what was intended to be represented.

=Thule= (_thū´lē_).--“_Ultima Thule._” The extremity of the world; the
most northern point known to the ancient Romans. Pliny and others say it
is Iceland.

=Una= _(ū´nä_).--_Faërie Queene_, Spenser. The personification of truth.
She goes, leading a lamb and riding on a white ass, to the court of
Gloriana, to crave that one of her knights might undertake to slay the
dragon which kept her father and mother prisoners. The adventure is
accorded to the Red Cross Knight. Being driven by a storm into Wandering
Wood, a vision is sent to the knight which causes him to leave Una, and
she goes in search of him. In her wanderings a lion becomes her
attendant. After many adventures, she finds St. George, “the Red Cross
Knight,” but he is severely wounded. Una takes him to the House of
Holiness, where he is carefully nursed, and then leads him to Eden.

=Uncle Tom’s Cabin.=--A work of fiction by Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe.
It had an enormous sale, and at once made the author famous. As a
picture of slave life as it once obtained in the Southern states of
America it is certainly unsurpassed. The scenes described in it are so
terrible that Mrs. Stowe deemed it advisable to publish in 1853 a _Key_
to the work, showing the large extent to which it is founded upon fact.
The hero is, of course, Uncle Tom.

Uncle Tom was an old negro slave of unaffected piety, and most faithful
in the discharge of all his duties. His master, a humane man, becomes
embarrassed in his affairs, and sells him to a slave-dealer. After
passing through various hands, and suffering intolerable cruelties, he
dies. The figure next in interest is Legree, the brutal slave-owner.
Everyone, also, will remember Eva and Topsy.

=Urganda= (_ör-gän´dä_).--In the romance of _Amadis de Gaul_, a powerful
fairy sometimes appearing in all the terrors of an evil enchantress.

=Uriel= (_ū´ri-el_), or =Israfil=.--In the _Koran_, the angel who is to
sound the resurrection trumpet. Longfellow, in _The Golden Legend_,
calls him “the minister of Mars,” and says that he inspires man with
“fortitude to bear the brunt and suffering of life.”

=Uther= (_ū´ther_).--Son of Constans, one of the fabulous or legendary
kings of Britain, and the father of Arthur.

=Utopia= (_ū-tö´pi-ä_).--The name of an imaginary island described in
the celebrated work of Sir Thomas More, in which was found the utmost
perfection in laws, politics, and social arrangements. More’s romance
obtained a wide popularity, and the epithet _Utopian_ has since been
applied to schemes for the improvement of society which are deemed not
practicable.

=Uzziel.=--In _Paradise Lost_, the next in command to Gabriel. The word
means “God’s strength.”

=V=

=Valentine= (_val´en-tīn_).--(1) One of the heroes in the old romance of
_Valentine and Orson_. (2) One of the _Two Gentlemen of Verona_, by
Shakespeare. (3) A gentleman attending on the duke in Shakespeare’s
_Twelfth Night_. (4) One of the characters in Goethe’s _Faust_. He is a
brother of Margaret.

=Valerian= (_va-lē´ri-an_).--_Canterbury Tales_, Chaucer. The husband of
St. Cecilia. Cecilia told him she was beloved by an angel, who
constantly visited her; and Valerian requested to see this visitant.
Cecilia replied that he could do so if he went to Pope Urban to be
baptized. This he did, and on returning home the angel gave him a crown
of lilies, and to Cecilia a crown of roses, both from the garden of
paradise.

=Valley of Humiliation.=--_Pilgrim’s Progress_, Bunyan. The place where
Christian encountered Apollyon, just before he came to the “Valley of
the Shadow of Death.”

=Vanity Fair.=--A novel without a hero, by Thackeray. “There are scenes
of all sorts,” says the author in his preface to the work, “some
dreadful combats, some grand and lofty horse-riding, some scenes of high
life and some of very middling indeed, some love making for the
sentimental, and some light comic business; the whole accompanied by
appropriate scenery, and brilliantly illuminated by the author’s own
candle.”

=Vathek= (_vath´ek_).--By Beckford. Originally written in French. “It
was composed,” says the author, “at twenty-two years of age. It took me
three days and two nights of hard labor. I never took off my clothes the
whole time.” The description of the Hall of Eblis, which is often
quoted, was taken, it appears, from the old hall at Fonthill, Beckford’s
residence, probably the largest in any private house in England. “It was
from that hall I worked, magnifying and coloring it with Eastern
character. All the female characters were portraits drawn from the
domestic establishment of old Fonthill, their good or evil qualities
ideally exaggerated to suit my purpose.” _Vathek_ was translated into
English, it is not known by whom, immediately on its appearance. “It was
one of the tales,” says Byron, “I had a very early admiration of. For
correctness of costume, beauty of description, and power of imagination,
it far surpasses all European imitations, and bears such marks of
originality that those who have visited the East will find some
difficulty in believing it to be more than a translation.”

=Veck, Toby.=--_The Chimes_, Dickens. A ticket-porter who went on
errands and bore the nickname Trotty. One New Year’s eve he had a
nightmare and fancied he had mounted to the steeple of a neighboring
church, and that goblins issued out of the bells. He was roused from his
sleep by the sound of the bells ringing in the new year.

=Veiled Prophet.=--_Lalla Rookh_, Moore. He assumed to be a god, and
maintained that he had been Adam, Noah, and other representative men.
Having lost an eye, and being otherwise disfigured in battle, he wore a
veil to conceal his face, but his followers said it was done to screen
his dazzling brightness.

=Vernon, Di=, or =Diana=.--_Rob Roy_, Scott. The heroine of the story, a
high-born girl of great beauty and talents. She is an enthusiastic
adherent to a persecuted religion and an exiled king.

=Vicar of Wakefield.=--A novel by Goldsmith. The hero is Dr. Primrose, a
simple-minded, pious clergyman, with six children. He begins life with a
good fortune, a handsome house, and wealthy friends, but is reduced to
poverty without any fault of his own, and, being reduced like Job, like
Job he is restored.

=Vincentio= (_vin-sen´shiō_).--The duke of Vienna in Shakespeare’s
_Measure for Measure_. He commits his scepter to Angelo, under the
pretext of being called to take an urgent and distant journey, and by
exchanging the royal purple for a monk’s hood, observes incognito the
condition of his people.

=Vincy= (_vin´si_), =Rosamond.=--One of the principal female characters
in George Eliot’s novel _Middlemarch_.

=Viola.= (_vi´ō-lä_)--_Twelfth Night_, Shakespeare. A sister of
Sebastian. They were twins, and so much alike that they could be
distinguished only by their dress. When they were shipwrecked Viola was
brought to shore by the captain, but her brother was left to shift for
himself. Being in a strange land, Viola dressed as a page, and, under
the name of Cesario, entered the service of Orsino, duke of Illyria. The
duke greatly liked his beautiful page, and, when he discovered her true
sex, married her.

=Violenta.=--_All’s Well That Ends Well_, Shakespeare. A character in
the play who enters upon the scene only once, and then she neither
speaks nor is spoken to. The name has been used to designate any young
lady nonentity; one who contributes nothing to the amusement or
conversation of a party.

=Virgilia= (_ver-jil´i-ä_).--In Shakespeare’s _Coriolanus_, was the wife
of Coriolanus, and Volumnia his mother; but historically Volumnia was
his wife and Veturia his mother.

=Virginia= (_ver-jin´i-ä_).--A young Roman plebeian of great beauty,
decoyed by Appius Claudius, one of the decemvirs, and claimed as his
slave. Her father, Virginius, being told of it, hastened to the forum,
and arrived at the moment when Virginia was about to be delivered up to
Appius. He seized a butcher’s knife, stabbed his daughter to the heart,
rushed from the forum, and raised a revolt. This has been the subject of
a host of tragedies. It is one of Lord Macauley’s lays (1842), supposed
to be sung in the forum on the day when Sextus and Licinius were elected
tribunes for the fifth time.

=Vivian= (_viv´i-an_), or =Viviane=, or =Vivien=.--In the Arthurian
cycle of romance, an enchantress, the mistress of Merlin. She brought up
Lancelot in her palace, which was situated in the midst of a magical
lake; hence her name “the Lady of the Lake.”

=Volpone= (_vol-pō´ne_), or the _Fox_.--A comedy by Ben Jonson, written
in 1605. Hazlitt calls it his best play; prolix and improbable, but
intense and powerful. It seems formed on the model of Plautus in unity
of plot and interest. The principal character is represented as a
wealthy sensualist, who tests the character of his friends and kinsmen
by a variety of strategems, obtains from them a large addition to his
riches by the success of his impostures, and finally falls under the
vengeance of the law. “_Volpone_,” says Campbell, “is not, like the
common misers of comedy, a mere money-loving dotard, a hard, shriveled
old mummy, with no other spice than his avarice to preserve him--he is a
happy villain, a jolly misanthrope, a little god in his own selfishness;
and Mosca is his priest and prophet. Vigorous and healthy, though past
the prime of life, he hugs himself in his harsh humor, his successful
knavery and imposture, his sensuality and his wealth, with an unhallowed
relish of selfish existence.”

=W=

=Wallenstein= (_väl´len-stīn_).--A trilogy by Schiller, comprising
_Wallenstein’s Lager_, _Die Piccolomini_, and _Wallenstein’s Tod_.
Schiller conceives his hero in these dramas as the type of the practical
realist, serious, solitary, and reserved.

=Wandering Jew, The=--(F. _Le Juif Errant_).--A novel by Eugene Sue. The
chief character is an imaginary person in a legend connected with the
history of Christ’s passion. As the Savior was on the way to the place
of execution, overcome with the weight of the cross, he wished to rest
on a stone before the house of a Jew, who drove him away with curses.
Driven by fear and remorse, he has since wandered, according to the
command of the Lord, from place to place, and has never yet been able to
find a grave.

=War and Peace.=--An historical novel by Tolstoi, published 1865-1868.
The scene is laid in the time of the Czar Alexander I., and the novel is
a picture of Russian society during the Russo-French wars.

=Waverley= (_wā´ver-li_) =Novels.=--General name given to Scott’s
historical novels.

=Wayside Inn, Tales of a.=--Poems in various meters by Henry Wadsworth
Longfellow. The first series includes a Prelude (_The Wayside Inn_), the
Landlord’s Tale (_Paul Revere’s Ride_), the Student’s Tale (_The Falcon
of Ser Federigo_), the Spanish Jew’s Tale (_The Legend of Rabbi Ben
Levi_), the Sicilian’s Tale (_King Robert of Sicily_), the Musician’s
Tale (_The Saga of King Olaf_), the Theologian’s Tale (_Torquemada_),
the Poet’s Tale (_The Birds of Killingworth_), several Interludes, and
Finale.

=Weller= (_wel´er_), =Sam.=--In Dickens’ celebrated _Pickwick Papers_. A
servant to Mr. Pickwick, to whom he becomes devotedly attached. Rather
than leave his master when he is sent to the Fleet, Sam Weller gets his
father to arrest him for debt. He is an inimitable compound of wit,
simplicity, quaint humor, and fidelity. Tony Weller, father of Sam; a
coachman of the old school, who drives between London and Dorking. On
the coachbox he is a king, elsewhere a mere London “cabby.” He marries a
widow, and his constant advice to his son is, “Sam, beware of the
vidders.”

=Westward Ho!=--A novel by Charles Kingsley, the scene of which is laid
in “the spacious times of great Elizabeth,” when the safety of England
was threatened by the Spanish armada. Several historical personages
figure in the story, such as Sir Walter Raleigh, Sir Richard Grenville,
Admiral Hawkins, and Sir Francis Drake; and the narrative carries the
reader from Bideford to London, and from thence to Ireland, to the
Spanish main, and the South American continent, back again to Bideford
and Plymouth, whence the hero, Amyas Leigh, sails to take part in the
famous sea-fight.

=Wild= (_wīld_), =Jonathan.=--A cool, calculating, heartless villain,
with the voice of a Stentor, hero of Defoe’s romance of the same name.

=Wilford.=--(1) In Knowles’ _The Hunchback_, supposed to be earl of
Rochdale. (2) In Knowles’ _The Beggar of Bethnal Green_, the truant son
of Lord Woodville, who fell in love with Bess, the daughter of the
“blind beggar of Bethnal Green.”

=Wilhelm Meister= (_vil´helm mīs´ter_).--Title of a philosophic novel by
Goethe. The object is to show that man, despite his errors and
shortcomings, is led by a guiding hand, and reaches some higher aim at
last. This is considered to be the first true German novel.

=Wimble= (_wim´bl_), =Will.=--A member of the fictitious _Spectator
Club_, said to be intended as a portrait of a Mr. Thomas Morecroft, a
gentleman of simple habits and good nature.

=Winter’s Tale, The.=--A play by Shakespeare. Leontês, King of Sicily,
invites his friend Polixenês to visit him, becomes jealous, and commands
Camillo to poison him. Camillo warns Polixenês, and flees with him to
Bohemia. Leontês casts his queen, Hermionê, into prison, where she gives
birth to a daughter. Hermoinê is reported dead and the child is brought
up by a shepherd, who calls it Perdita. Florizel sees Perdita and falls
in love with her; but Polixenês, his father, tells her that she and the
shepherd shall be put to death if she encourages the suit. Florizel and
Perdita flee to Sicily, and being introduced to Leontês, it is soon
discovered that Perdita is his lost daughter. Polixenês tracks his son
to Sicily, and consents to the union. The party are invited to inspect a
statue of Hermoinê, and the statue turns out to be the living queen.

=Worldly-Wiseman, Mr.=--One of the characters in Bunyan’s _Pilgrim’s
Progress_, who converses with Christian by the way, and endeavors to
deter him from proceeding on his journey.

=Wrayburn= (_rā´bern_) =Eugene.=--_Our Mutual Friend_, Dickens.
Barrister-at-law; an indolent, moody, whimsical young man, who loves
Lizzie Hexam. After he is nearly killed by Bradley Headstone, he reforms
and marries Lizzie, who saved his life.

=Y=

=Yahoo= (_yȧ-hö´_).--A name given by Swift, in his satirical romance of
_Gulliver’s Travels_, to one of a race of brutes having the form and all
the vices of man. The Yahoos are represented as being subject to the
Houyhnhnms, or horses endowed with reason.

=Yorick= (_yor´ik_).--(1) The King of Denmark’s jester, mentioned in
Shakespeare’s _Hamlet_. Hamlet picks up his skull in the churchyard and
apostrophizes it. (2) A humorous and careless parson in Sterne’s
_Tristram Shandy_.

=Z=

=Zadig.=--The title of a novel by Voltaire. Zadig is a wealthy young
Babylonian, and the object of the novel is to show that the events of
life are beyond human control.

=Zanoni= (_za-nō´ni_).--Hero of a novel, so-called, by Lord Lytton.
Zanoni is supposed to possess the power of communicating with spirits,
prolonging life, and producing gold, silver, and precious stones.

=Zara= (_zä´rä_; French, _zaire_), a tragedy by Voltaire. Zara is the
daughter of Lusignan d’Outremer, king of Jerusalem and brother of
Nerestan. For twenty years Lusignan and his two children were captives
at the court of the sultan Osman. The latter loves Zara, and was jealous
of Nerestan, of whose relationship he was ignorant, and stabbed her to
the heart. Nerestan being brought before the sultan, told him he had
slain his sister. Osman then stabbed himself out of remorse.

=Zenobia= (_ze-nō´bi-ä_).--_Blithedale Romance_, Hawthorne. A
strong-minded woman, beautiful and intelligent, who was interested in
playing out the pastoral of the life at Brook Farm. She is represented
as disappointed in love, and at last she drowned herself.

=Zephon.=--A “strong and subtle spirit” in Milton’s _Paradise Lost_,
whom Gabriel dispatched with Ithuriel to find Satan.

=Zillah.=--One of Southey’s characters, beloved by Hamuel, a brutish
sot. Zillah rejected his suit, and Hamuel vowed vengeance. Accordingly,
he gave out that Zillah had intercourse with the devil, and she was
condemned to be burnt alive. God averted the flames, which consumed
Hamuel; but Zillah stood unharmed, and the stake to which she was bound
threw forth white roses, “the first ever seen on earth since paradise
was lost.”

=Zimri= (_zim´ri_).--In Dryden’s _Absalom and Achitophel_, is intended
for George Villiers, duke of Buckingham, who had satirized Dryden in
_The Rehearsal_ as Bayes.

=Zophiel= (_zō´fi-el_).--In Milton’s _Paradise Lost_, an angelic scout.

=Zuleika= (_zū-lē´kä_).--The heroine in Byron’s poem of _The Bride of
Abydos_, in love with Selim:

    “Fair, as the first that fell of womankind...
    Soft, as the memory of buried love;
    Pure, as the prayer which childhood wafts above:
    Such was Zuleika--such around her shone
    The nameless charms unmark’d by her alone:
    The light of love, the purity of grace,
    The mind, the music breathing from her face,
    The heart whose softness harmonized the whole--
    And, oh! that eye was in itself a soul!”

[Illustration: This beautiful Roman temple, said to have been erected by
Agrippa in 27 B. C, was dedicated to all the gods of Greece and Rome. It
is lighted by a single aperture in the center of its magnificent dome.
(See illustration on next page.)]


GODS, HEROES AND MYTHICAL WONDER TALES

A myth is a story told about gods or heroes. Mythology is a term applied
to the collected myths of a nation or people, sometimes to the
scientific study of myths. The first to busy itself in a large sense
with mythology was the Greeks, whose myths had the most luxuriant and
fanciful development. When the Romans received the arts and sciences
from the Greeks, they adopted also their gods and their entire religious
system. Thus it was that the Greek and Roman mythologies were to a great
extent the same.


THE IMPORTANCE OF MYTHOLOGY IN EDUCATION

On account of their great beauty and universal interest, myths were made
the themes of poets, priests, artists and commentators alike. Not only
were the myths the inspiration of classical literature, art and
religion, but they kept their place in later civilizations, and
mythological allusions are so frequent in our own literature that an
acquaintance with classic fable is a necessary part of modern education.


HOW THE MYTHS ORIGINATED

A large proportion of these myths are due to men’s observations of
Nature, and her various active and creative forces, which appeared to
their lively Southern fancy as manifestations of single supernatural
beings. These were regarded now as friendly, now as hostile, to man; and
men therefore strove as eagerly to gain their favor as to appease their
wrath. Of the appearance of the deities who thus manifested themselves
in the workings of nature, men necessarily formed at first very crude
and fantastic ideas. But later, when men emerged from the simple
conditions of the early patriarchal epoch, and began to dwell in regular
political communities, they gradually ceased to regard the gods as mere
personifications of natural forces. They began to regard them as beings
acting in accordance with unchangeable moral laws, and endowed with
forms similar to those of men. They brought the gods into connection
with each other by means of genealogies in a great measure artificial,
and built up a vast political system, which has its center in Zeus, or
Jupiter, the “father of gods and men.” (See Chart on following pages.)


HOW THE GODS RESEMBLE MORTALS

The ancient Greeks believed their gods to be of the same shape and form
as themselves, but of far greater beauty, strength, and dignity. They
also regarded them as being of much larger size than men; for in those
times great size was esteemed a perfection, supposed to be an attribute
of divinities, to whom they ascribed all perfections. A fluid named
ichor supplied the place of blood in the veins of the gods. They were
immortal, but they might be wounded or otherwise injured. They could
make themselves visible or invisible to men, and assume the forms of
men or of animals. Like men they stood in daily need of food and sleep.
The meat of the gods was called ambrosia, their drink nectar. The gods,
when they came among men, often partook of their food and hospitality.

[Illustration: Glimpse into the interior of the Pantheon at Rome showing
statues of the gods and the marvelous effects of lighting.]

Like mankind, the gods were divided into two sexes; namely, gods and
goddesses. They married and had children. Often a god became enamored of
a mortal woman, or a goddess was smitten with the charms of a handsome
youth, and these love tales form a large portion of Grecian mythology.

To make the resemblance between gods and men more complete, the Greeks
ascribed to their deities all human passions, both good and evil. They
were capable of love, friendship, gratitude, and all affections; on the
other hand, they were frequently envious, jealous, and revengeful. They
were particularly careful to exact all due respect and attention from
mankind, whom they required to honor them with temples, prayers, costly
sacrifices, splendid processions, and rich gifts; and they severely
punished insult or neglect.


HOW AND WHERE THE GODS LIVED

If we look to the employment of the gods, we find that it consists
chiefly in pleasant idleness; though they endeavor, like the rich among
mankind, to make time fly by indulging in their favorite pastimes. They
take their meals in common, and assemble for this purpose in the palace
of Zeus, on the windy heights of Olympus. There they refresh themselves,
while Hebe ministers to their wants, listening to the strains of
Apollo’s lute, and to the songs of the sweet-voiced Muses, and
entertaining themselves with pleasant conversation. Not always, indeed,
is the company so peaceful and pleasant. At times these great gods
quarrel finely; nay, even small conspiracies arise to interrupt the
uniformity of their existence, such as that of Hera, Poseidon, and
Athene against Zeus during the Trojan war, which is related in the
fifteenth book of the “Iliad.”


RELATIONSHIP AND DOMINION OF THE GODS

Lastly, that no point in their resemblance to mankind may be omitted,
all the different deities are united in one great family, of which Zeus,
or Jupiter, the father of men and the ruler of the gods, is the head and
center. Zeus has, however, a special dominion over the celestial deities
only, those of the sea and waters being subjected to Neptune or
Poseidon, and those of the lower world to Hades, or Pluto.


A PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF MYTHOLOGY


KEY TO PRONUNCIATION

  The long (marked) vowels are pronounced as in the following words;
  _fāte_, _fāre_, _far_; _mē_; _mīne_; _mōte_; _mūte_. The short
  vowels, which include all not marked as above, are pronounced as in
  the following words: _pat_; _pet_; _pit_; _pot_; _put_. The accented
  syllable in each word is indicated by a mark placed immediately
  after it. (_q.v._), _quod vide_ (L)--which see.

=A=

=Abaris= (_ab´a-ris_).--A mythical personage who is said to have taken
no earthly food, and to have ridden on an arrow--the gift of Apollo,
whose priest he was--through the air.

=Absyrtus= (_ab-sir´tus_).--A son of Æetes, king of Colchis, sister of
Medea. (See “Medea.”)

=Acamas= (_ak´a-mās_).--(_i_) Son of Theseus and Phædra; went with
Diomedes to Troy to recover Helen.

=Acantha= (_ak-an´tha_).--A nymph beloved by Apollo and changed into the
acanthus.

=Acca Laurentia= (_ak´ka law-ren´shi-a_).--The nurse of Romulus and
Remus, after they had been taken from the she-wolf. (See “Romulus.”)

=Achates= (_a-kā´tēz_).--A friend of Æneas--“_fidus Achates_” famous for
his fidelity.

=Acheloiades= (_a-ke-lō´i-a-dẽz_).--The Sirens, so called because they
were the daughters of Achelous.

=Achelous= (_ak-el´ō-us_).--The river-god was the son of Oceanus and
Tethys, and the eldest of three thousand brothers. He and Hercules both
loved Deianira, and fought for the possession of her. Hercules conquered
him, when he took the form of a bull, but was defeated again and
deprived by Hercules of one of his horns. Achelous, who was looked upon
as the representative of all fresh water, was considered a great
divinity throughout Greece.

=Acheron= (_ak´er-ōn_).--Generally signifies the whole of the lower
world. Properly, it is the river of the lower world, around which the
shades of the departed hover, and into which the Cocytus and
Pyriphlegethon flow. There are other rivers also named Acheron.

=Achilles= (_a-kill´ẽz_).--The great hero of the Iliad. He was the son
of Peleus, king of the Myrmidones, and the Nereid Thetis. His mother,
wishing to make him immortal, plunged him, when an infant, into the
river Styx, and succeeded with the exception of the ankles, by which she
held him. He was educated by Phoenix and Chiron, the centaur--the former
teaching him eloquence and the arts of war, the latter the healing art.
When he was but nine years old, Calchas declared that Troy could not be
taken without his aid. His mother, knowing that this war would be fatal
to him, disguised him as a girl and sent him to dwell with the daughters
of Lycomedes, at whose court he was called Pyrrha (_pir´ra_), _i.e._,
red or tawny, on account of his auburn hair. Seeing, however, that Troy
could not be taken without his aid, the crafty Ulysses, disguised as a
merchant, sought him out, offering for sale jewels and articles of
feminine attire, among which he had placed some arms. The ruse
succeeded, as Achilles, by eagerly seizing the arms, at once betrayed
his sex, and accompanied Ulysses to the Greek army before Troy. While at
Lycomedes’ court he became by Deidamia the father of Pyrrhus, or
Neoptolemus. Before Troy he performed great feats of valor. After
killing numbers of Trojans, he at length met Hector, whom he chased
thrice round the walls of the city, and, having slain him, tied his body
to his chariot and dragged it to the ships of the Greeks. He had an
invulnerable suit of armor made, at his mother’s request, by Vulcan.
Finally, he was slain by Paris, son of Priam, who shot him in the heel,
his only vulnerable part. He is the principal hero of the _Iliad_, and
is represented as the handsomest and bravest of all the Greeks. After
his death Achilles became one of the judges in the lower world, and
dwelt in the islands of the blessed, where he was united to Medea, or
Iphigenia.

=Acis= _(ā´sis_).--A Sicilian shepherd, beloved by the nymph Galatea. He
was crushed, through jealousy, under a huge rock by Polyphemus, the
Cyclop, and his blood gushing forth from under was changed by the nymph
into the river Acis, at the foot of Mount Etna.

=Actæon= (_ak-tē´ōn_).--A mighty huntsman, son of Aristæus and Autonoë.
One day while hunting he saw Diana and her nymphs bathing, and was
immediately changed by the goddess into a stag, in which form he was
torn to pieces by his fifty dogs.

=Admetus= (_ad-mē´tus_).--King of Pheræ, in Thessaly. On the death of
his first wife he sued for the hand of Alcestis, whom he obtained, by
Apollo’s aid, only on coming in a chariot drawn by a lion and a wild
boar. The god (Apollo) tended the flocks of Admetus for nine years, when
he was compelled to serve a mortal for having slain the Cyclops. Apollo
prevailed on the Fates to grant that Admetus should never die if another
would lay down his life for him. This Alcestis did, but was brought back
from the lower world by Hercules.

=Adonis= (_a-dō´nis_).--A beautiful youth beloved by Venus. While
hunting he was killed by a wild boar, and was changed by Venus into the
anemone. The grief of Venus was so great that the gods of the nether
regions allowed him to spend six months of every year with Venus upon
the earth. (This myth seems to refer to the apparent death of nature in
winter and its revival in spring; hence Adonis spends six months in the
lower and a like period in the upper world.)

=Æacus= (_ē´ak-us_).--Son of Jupiter and Ægina. It is related that at
his birth in the island of Ægina, which was named after his mother,
there were no inhabitants on the island, and that Jupiter changed the
ants there into men; hence the latter were called Myrmidones (Gr. ants),
and Æacus ruled over them. Æacus was renowned throughout Greece for his
justice and piety, and after his death became one of the three judges in
Hades (the other two being Rhadamanthus and Minos).

=Aedon= (_a-ē´dōn_).--Daughter of Pandareus and wife of Zethus, king of
Thebes. Jealous of Niobe, her brother Amphion’s wife, having six sons
and six daughters, while she had but one son, she determined to kill the
eldest of Niobe’s sons, but by mistake slew her own son Itylus. Jupiter
changed her into a nightingale, whose melancholy notes are represented
as Ædon’s lamentations for her son.

=Æetes= (_ē-ē´tēz_) or =Æeta=, (_ē-ē´ta_).--Son of Helios (the sun) and
Persëis, and king of Colchis at the time Phrixus had fled to his court
on a ram with golden fleece, the gift of Mercury. (See “Phrixus.”) After
having sacrificed to Jupiter the ram that had carried him, Phrixus gave
its golden fleece to Æetes, who suspended it to an oak tree in the grove
of Mars, where it was guarded day and night by an ever-watchful dragon.
It was, however, greatly coveted, and an expedition was fitted out,
consisting of all the great heroes of the age, with the special object,
which proved successful, of obtaining it. (See “Argonautæ.”)

=Ægæon= (_ē-jē´ōn_).--Son of Uranus (heaven) and Gæa (earth). Ægæon and
his brothers, Gyas and Cottus, were huge monsters with a hundred arms
and fifty heads. Ægæon and his brothers, who are often called the
Uranids, conquered the Titans when they made war upon the gods, and
secured the victory to Jupiter, who thrust the Titans into Tartarus,
and placed Ægæon and his brothers to guard them. Ægæon is often referred
to under the name Briareus.

=Æneas= (_ē-nē´as_), the hero of Virgil’s great epic poem the _Æneid_
(_ē-ne´id_), was the son of Anchises and Venus, and was born on Mount
Ida. Having been attacked on Mount Ida by Achilles, who also drove away
his flocks, he led the Dardanians against the Greeks, and at once took
part in the Trojan war. Æneas and Hector were the great Trojan heroes,
and the former, being beloved by gods and men, was on more than one
occasion saved in battle by the gods. Venus saved him from Diomedes, and
Neptune from Achilles, when the latter was on the point of killing him.
From the flames of Troy he carried on his back his father, Anchises, and
the household gods, and led Ascanius, his son, leaving his wife, Creusa,
daughter of Priam, to follow. Æneas then set out on those wanderings
that form the subject of the _Æneid_. After visiting Epirus and Sicily
he was driven by a storm on the coast of Africa, where he met with Dido,
queen of Carthage, who hospitably entertained him and became enamored of
him. Æneas, however, left suddenly, and Dido (_q.v._) killed herself. He
then sailed to Latium, where he married Lavinia, the daughter of King
Latinus, and founded the town of Lavinium, so named in honor of his
wife. Turnus, to whom Lavinia had been betrothed, made war against
Latinus and Æneas, but was slain by the latter, who now became ruler of
the Aborigines and Trojans. Soon afterwards, however, he was slain in
battle by the Rutulians.

=Æolus= (_ē´o-lus_).--The happy ruler of the Æolian Islands. He had been
given, by Jupiter, dominion over the winds, which he kept enclosed in a
mountain. When Ulysses was on his journey from Troy to Ithaca, Æolus
gave him all the adverse winds in bags, but his companions, from
curiosity, opened them.

=Æsculapius= (_ēs-kū-lā´pi-us_).--The god of healing. He was the son of
Apollo and Coronis, and was brought up by Chiron, the centaur, who
instructed him in the art of healing and in hunting. When he was grown
up, he not only healed the sick, but recalled the dead to life. He was
killed by a thunderbolt by Jupiter, who feared lest men should, by his
aid, escape death altogether. Serpents were sacred to him, and the cock
was sacrificed to him.

=Agamemnon= (_ag-a-mem´nōn_).--King of Mycenæ, and brother of Menelaus.
He married Clytemnestra, who bore him Iphigenia, Chrysothemis, Laodice
(Electra) and Orestes. He was the most powerful prince in Greece. When
Helen (_q.v._) was carried off by Paris, and the Greek chiefs sought to
regain her, Agamemnon was chosen commander-in-chief of the expedition.
He is not, however, the hero of the _Iliad_, as he is the inferior of
Achilles in true nobility of character. At the capture of Troy he
received Cassandra, the daughter of Priam, as his prize. On his return
home he was murdered by Ægisthus, who, during his absence at Troy, had
been living with Agamemnon’s wife Clytemnestra. His son Orestes avenged
his father’s death by slaying both Ægisthus and Clytemnestra.

=Aganippe= (_ag-a-nip´pē_).--A fountain at the foot of Mount Helicon, in
Bœotia, sacred to the Muses, who were hence called Aganippides
(_ag-a-nip´pi-dēz_).

=Ajax= (_ā´jaks_).--There are two heroes having this name, Ajax the
Great, or Ajax Telamonius, and The Lesser Ajax, or Ajax Oïleus. (i) Ajax
the Great was son of Telamon, king of Salamis, and grandson of Æacus. He
took a very prominent part in the Trojan war, and was placed second to
Achilles alone in bravery. He was conquered by Ulysses in struggle for
the armor of Achilles, and this, according to Homer, was the cause of
his death. (ii) The Lesser Ajax, or Ajax, son of Oïleus, also took part
in the Trojan war. He was, next to Achilles, the most swift-footed among
the Greeks.

=Alcathous= (_al-kath´o-us_).--Son of Pelops and Hippodamia. Obtained
his wife by slaying the Cithæronian lion, which had killed the king’s
son, and succeeded his father-in-law as king of Megara, the walls of
which he restored.

=Alcestis= or =Alceste= (_al-ses´tē_).--Wife of Admetus (_q.v._).

=Alcmene= (_alk-mē´nē_).--Wife of Amphitryon. Jupiter, who appeared
disguised as her husband, became by her the father of Hercules.

=Alcyone= (_al´si-on-ē_) or =Halcyone=.--Daughter of Æolus and wife of
Ceyx. Her husband having perished in a shipwreck, Alcyone’s grief became
so intense that she threw herself into the sea. Out of compassion the
gods changed the two into birds, and while these birds (halcyons) were
breeding the sea always remained calm.

=Alecto= (_a-lek´tô_).--One of the Furies (_q.v._).

=Aloeus= (_al-lō´-ūs_).--Son of Neptune and Canace. His wife had, by
Neptune, two sons, Otus and Ephialtes, the Aloidæ (_a-lō´i-dē_), who
were of extraordinary size and strength. At the age of nine years they
attempted to scale heaven by piling Mount Ossa upon Olympus and Pelion
upon Ossa. To prevent them accomplishing this when they grew older
Apollo destroyed them before their beards began to appear.

=Althæa= (_al-the´a_).--Wife of Æneus and mother of Meleager (_q.v._).

=Amalthea= (_am-al-thē´a_).--Nurse of the infant Jupiter in Crete, whom
she fed with goat’s milk. Jupiter broke off one of the horns of the goat
and gave it the power of becoming filled with whatever the possessor
might wish; hence it was called the _cornucopia_--_i.e._, horn of
plenty.

=Amazones= (_a-māz´on-ēz_).--The Amazones, a mythical race of warlike
women living near the river Thermodon. The female children had their
right breasts cut off that they might use the bow with greater ease;
hence their name _Amazon_, which means, “without breast.” One of the
twelve labors of Hercules was to obtain the girdle of Hippolyte, the
queen of the Amazons. They came, under their queen, Penthesilea, to the
assistance of Priam in the Trojan war; but she was killed by Achilles.

=Amphion= (_am-fi´ōn_).--Son of Jupiter and Antiope, and twin-brother of
Zethus. They were born on Mount Cithæron, and were brought up by a
shepherd. Amphion received a lyre from Mercury, on which he learned to
play with marvelous skill. Amphion married Niobe (_q.v._).

=Amphitrite= (_am-fi-trī´tē_).--Wife of Neptune and goddess of the sea.
She was the mother of Triton.

=Ancæus= (_an-sē´us_).--One of the Argonauts. Having left a cup of wine
untasted to pursue a wild boar, he was killed by it, which gave rise to
the proverb. “There’s many a slip twixt the cup and the lip.”

=Anchises= (_an-kī´sēz_).--Son of Capys and Themis, the daughter of
Ilus, king of Dardanus, on Mount Ida. He was so handsome that he was
beloved by Venus, who became by him the mother of Æneas. On the capture
of Troy by the Greeks, he was carried off on his son’s shoulders from
the burning city. He set forth with Æneas for Italy, but died and was
buried in Sicily.

=Androgeos= (_an-droj´e-ōs_).--Son of Minos and Pasiphaë. Slain at the
instigation of King Ægus, after having overcome all his opponents in the
Panathenæa, at Athens. To avenge his death Minos made war on the
Athenians, and compelled them to send every year to Crete seven youths
and seven maidens to be devoured by the Minotaur (_q.v._). Theseus,
however, slew the monster, and so delivered them from the terrible
tribute.

=Andromache= (_an-drom´a-kē_); literal meaning, “fighting with
men.”--Daughter of King Eëtion and wife of Hector, by whom she had a
son, Scamandrius, or Astyanax. On the taking of Troy she fell to the lot
of Neoptolemus (Pyrrhus), the son of Achilles, who took her to Epirus,
and treated her as his wife. She afterwards married Hector’s brother
Helenus.

=Andromeda= (_an-drom´e-da_).--Daughter of Cepheus, king of Æthiopia,
and Cassiopea. Her beauty was so great that her mother boasted that she
surpassed in that respect the Nereids, the marine nymphs of the
Mediterranean. Consequently, Neptune sent a sea-monster to lay waste the
country. The oracle of Ammon promised deliverance, on condition that
Andromeda was chained to a rock and left to the fury of the monster.
This was done, but she was saved by Perseus (_q.v._), who slew the
monster and obtained Andromeda for his wife. Having been previously
promised to her uncle Phineus, however, the latter appeared at the
wedding, and a great fight ensued in which Phineus and all associated
with him were slain. After her death Andromeda was placed among the
stars.

=Antaeus= (_an-tē´us_).--A giant of Libya (_i.e._ Africa), son of
Neptune and Earth, who remained invincible so long as he touched his
mother Earth. Hercules, having discovered this, held him up in the air
and squeezed him to death.

=Antenor= (_ant-ē´nor_).--One of the wisest of the elders of Troy. When
Menelaus and Ulysses came to Troy as ambassadors he received them, and
advised the Trojans to give up Helen to Menelaus, which, however, they
refused to do. When the city was captured by the Greeks Antenor’s life
was spared.

=Aphrodite= (_af-ro-di´tē_)--_i.e._ sea-foam.--The goddess of love and
beauty, called Aphrodite by the Greeks, because she was supposed to have
been born from the sea-foam. She was called Venus by the Romans. See
“Venus.”

=Apollo= (_a-poll´ō_).--The sun-god. He was the son of Jupiter and
Latona, and twin-brother of Diana. Apollo was the god of music and the
fine arts, of prophecy, and the god who protects flocks and cattle. He
is also represented as taking great interest in the foundation and
government of cities, and was looked upon as the god who punishes; hence
carrying a bow and arrows. He had a celebrated oracle at Delphi. The
invention of the flute and lyre was ascribed to Apollo. He was
challenged to musical contests by Marsyas and Pan (see “Marsyas” and
“Midas”). Apollo, as sun-god, is frequently called Phœbus--_i.e._ the
bright one. There are several statues of Apollo, the most beautiful
being the Apollo Belvedere at Rome.

=Arachne= (_ar-ak´nē_).--A Lydian maiden who so greatly excelled in the
art of weaving that she challenged Minerva to a trial of skill. Being
defeated, she hanged herself, and was changed by the goddess into a
spider. This fable indicates that man learned the art of weaving from
the spider, and that it was first pursued in Lydia. Arachne is the Greek
word for spider.

=Ares= (_ā´rēz_).--The Greek god of war. See “Mars.”

=Arethusa= (_a-re-thū´sa_).--One of the Nereids or marine nymphs of the
Mediterranean. She was the nymph of the celebrated fountain of Arethusa
in the island of Ortygia, near Syracuse. Arethusa was being pursued by
the river-god Alpheus, when she was changed by Diana into the fountain
of the same name.

=Argonautæ= (_ar-go-naw´tē_).--The Argonauts, or sailors of the Argo,
were the heroes who went with Jason on the celebrated expedition to
Colchis to recover the golden fleece. The origin of the expedition was
as follows: Jason’s father had been deprived of his kingdom by his
half-brother Pelias, who also, to make himself more secure, attempted to
take the life of Jason, then an infant. The latter, was, however, saved,
and given over to the care of the centaur Chiron. When he grew up Pelias
promised to surrender the kingdom to him on what he considered to be an
impossible condition--namely that he brought him the golden fleece. This
golden fleece (for the history of which see “Phrixus”) was suspended to
an oak in the grove of Mars, in Colchis, and was guarded day and night
by a dragon. Jason at once undertook the enterprise, and instructed
Argus, son of Phrixus, to build a ship with fifty oars, which he called
the Argo, from the name of the builder. Minerva herself superintended
the building of the ship. In the expedition Jason was accompanied by all
the great heroes of the age--Hercules, Laertes, Theseus, Ajax, etc.--to
the number of fifty. After an adventurous voyage they at length arrived
at their destination. Æëtes (_q.v._), king of Colchis, on learning the
object of their visit, promised to give up the golden fleece if Jason
would perform the following feats: first, tame two bulls, which had
brazen feet and vomited fire, and yoke them to a plow; second, sow the
unused teeth of the dragon slain by Cadmus (_q.v._), from which armed
men would spring, and slay them with his own hand; third kill the dragon
who guarded the fleece. Medea, daughter of Æëtes, who was well skilled
in magic, enabled Jason, with whom she had fallen in love, to do all
these things; and, after taking the treasure, he and his Argonauts and
Medea embarked by night and sailed away. After another eventful journey
they finally reached Colchis again.

=Argus= (_ar´gus_).--A being with a hundred eyes; hence called
“Panoptes” (_pan-op´tēz_).--_i.e._ the all-seeing. Juno appointed him to
watch over the cow into which Io had been changed; but Mercury, at the
command of Jupiter, lulled him to sleep by playing on his flute, and
then cut off his head. Juno transplanted his eyes to the tail of the
peacock, her favorite bird.

=Ariadne= (_ar-i-ad´nē_).--Daughter of Minos and Pasiphaë. When Theseus
was sent as part of the yearly tribute of seven youths and seven maidens
to be devoured in the labyrinth by the Minotaur, Ariadne fell in love
with him, and gave him the clue of thread, by means of which he escaped
from the labyrinth. Theseus promised to marry her, and they left Crete
together; but he deserted her in Naxos, where she was found by Bacchus,
who made her his wife. At their marriage he gave her a crown of seven
stars, which after her death was made a constellation.

=Aricia= (_a-ri´si-a_).--A town of Latium, sixteen miles from Rome, near
which was a celebrated grove and temple of Diana.

=Arion= (_a-rī´on_).--A celebrated lyric poet and cithara player of
Methymna, in Lesbos, about B. C. 625. Once, when returning from a
successful musical contest in Sicily, the sailors, in order to possess
themselves of his presents, were about to murder him, but, on his urgent
entreaty, allowed him to play once more on his cithara. He then invoked
the gods, and threw himself into the sea. He was not drowned, however,
for one of a number of dolphins that had been attracted round the vessel
by his sweet strains took him on his back and bore him safely to land.

=Aristæus= (_ar-is-tē´us_).--Son of Apollo and Cyrene, who is said to
have taught men the management of bees, and to have first planted olive
trees. He was, after his death, worshiped as a god, and regarded as the
protector of flocks and shepherds, of vine and olive plantations.

=Artemis= (_ar´tem-is_).--The Greek name of Diana (_q. v._).

=Ascanius= (_as-kā´ni-us_).--Son of Æneas and Creusa, afterwards called
Iulus. He founded Alba Longa, and was succeeded on the throne by his son
Silvius.

=Asgard.=--In Scandinavian mythology Asgard represents the city of the
gods, situated at the center of the universe, and accessible only by the
bridge Bifrost _i. e._, the rainbow.

=Asir.=--In northern mythology the most powerful, though not the oldest,
of the deities; usually reckoned as twelve gods and twelve goddesses.
The gods are Odin, Thor, Baldur, Niörd, Frey, Tyr, Bragi, Heimdall,
Vidar, Vali, Ullur, and Forseti; the best-known of the goddesses,
Frigga, Freyja, Iduna, and Saga.

=Assaracus= (_as-sar´a-cus_).--King of Troy, son of Tros, father of
Capys, the father of Anchises.

=Astarte= (_as-tar´tē_).--A powerful goddess of Syria, corresponding to
the Roman Venus.

=Astræa= (_as-trē´a_).--Goddess of justice, daughter of Jupiter and
Themis; lived during the golden age among men.

=Astræus= (_as-trē´us_).--A Titan, husband of Aurora (the goddess of the
dawn), and father of the winds and the stars.

=Astyanax= (_as-tī´an-ax_)--_i. e._ lord of the city.--A name given by
the people of Troy to Scamandrius (or Scamander), son of Hector and
Andromache, because his father was the protector of Troy. His mother
saved him from the flames at the fall of Troy, but the Greeks hurled him
down from the walls.

=Atalanta= (_at-a-lan´ta_).--A maiden of great beauty and exceedingly
swift of foot, who determined to live in celibacy. She was the daughter
of Iasus and Clymene, and was exposed by her father in her infancy. She
was, however, suckled by a she-bear, the symbol of Diana. She took part
in the celebrated Calydonian boar hunt, and received the boar’s hide
from Meleager, who slew the animal. She was subsequently recognized by
her father, who desired her to marry. She agreed to do so on condition
that every suitor should run a race with her, and that the first that
outran her should be her husband, but all those whom she beat in the
race should be put to death. In this way many suitors perished; but at
last came Milanion (_mī-lan´i-on_), who, with the aid of Venus, reached
the goal first, and was rewarded with her hand. The goddess gave him
three golden apples, which he dropped during the race, one after the
other. Attracted by their beauty, Atalanta stopped to pick them up, thus
enabling Milanion to reach the goal first. “Atalanta’s race” has formed
the subject of several magnificent pictures.

=Athamas= (_ath´am-as_).--King of Orchomenus, in Bœotia. He married
Nephele, who bore him Helle and Phrixus. He fell in love, however, with
Ino, daughter of Cadmus, whom he married, and became by her the father
of Melicertes and Learchus. As he had married Nephele at the command of
Juno, he thus incurred the wrath of both Juno and Nephele, and was
seized with madness. In this state he slew his son Learchus. Ino and
Melicertes then leaped into the sea and became changed into marine
deities, Leucothea and Palæmon respectively.

=Athena= (_a-thē´na_).--The great divinity of the Greeks, corresponding
to the Roman Minerva (_q. v._).

=Athenæum= (_a-thē-nē´um_).--A school founded by the emperor Hadrian at
Rome, about A. D. 133, for the advancement of literature and philosophy.
The name Athenæum means a place sacred to Minerva, who was the goddess
of wisdom.

=Atlas= (_at´las_).--A Titan, son of Japetus and Clymene, and brother of
Prometheus and Epimetheus. It is related that Perseus, after his
conquest of the Gorgons, asked Atlas to shelter him, which Atlas
declined to do. Whereupon Perseus, by exposing Medusa’s head, changed
him into the mountain Atlas (in the northwest of Africa), on which
rested heaven and all the stars. Atlas married Pleione (_plē´i-ō-nē_),
daughter of Oceanus, and became by her the father of the Pleiades
(_plē´i-a-dēz_).

=Atreus= (_ā´trūs_).--Son of Pelops and Hippodamia, and brother of
Thyestes. By his first wife, Cleola, he was the father of Plisthenes,
and by his second--Aërope, widow of his son Plisthenes--the father of
the heroes Agamemnon and Menelaus, and a daughter, Anaxibia. Atreus
became king of Mycenæ. His brother, Thyestes, having seduced his wife
Aërope, Atreus banished him. Thyestes then sent, from his place of
exile, Atreus’s son Plisthenes to slay his own father, but the converse
actually took place, Atreus unwittingly killing his son. Atreus took
terrible revenge on Thyestes for this. He recalled him to Mycenæ, and in
a banquet placed before him the flesh of Thyestes’ two sons, whom he had
slain, and Thyestes unknowingly partook of the horrible repast. After
the feast, Atreus produced the heads of Thyestes’ sons, and convinced
him of what had been done. Thyestes fled with horror, and the gods
cursed Atreus and his house. The country was now visited by famine, and
Atreus, following the advice of the oracle, went in search of Thyestes.
In the course of his wanderings he married, as his third wife, Thyestes’
daughter Pelopia, thinking she was the daughter of Thesprotus. Pelopia
became, by her own father, the mother of Ægisthus, who afterwards slew
his uncle, Atreus, because the latter had commanded him to kill his
father, Thyestes. This tragic story forms the foundation of several
Greek plays.

=Atropos= (_at´rop-os_).--One of the Fates or Parcæ (_q.v._).

=Atys= (_ā´tis_).--A beautiful shepherd of Phrygia, beloved by Cybele
(_sib´el-ē_). Having proved unfaithful, the goddess caused him to become
mad, and he was changed into a fir tree.

=Augeas= (_aw´je-as_), or =Augias= (_aw-jī´as_).--A king of Elis, whose
stable, containing three thousand head of cattle, uncleansed for thirty
years, was cleaned out in one day by Hercules (_q.v._).

=Aulis= (_aw´lis_).--A harbor in Bœotia, where the Greek fleet assembled
before sailing for Troy.

=Aurora= (_aw-ror´a_).--The goddess of the dawn, called Eos (_ē´ōz_) by
the Greeks; daughter of Hyperion and Thia, wife of Tithonus. She is
represented as rising, at the close of every night, from the river
Oceanus, in her rose-colored chariot drawn by swift horses, and opening
with her rosy fingers the gates of the East. She bore Memnon to
Tithonus.

=Auster= (_aws´ter_); the Greek _Notus_, the southwest wind. In the
winter it brought fogs and rain; but in the summer it was a harmful dry
and parching wind.

=Autolycus= (_aw-tol´ik-us_).--A very dexterous robber, who could
transform himself into various shapes. He was the son of Mercury (the
god of cunning and theft) and Chione (_kī´on-ē_), and the father of
Anticlea, the mother of Ulysses, who was celebrated for his cunning.

=Avatar.=--The incarnation or descent of the deity Vishnu, of which nine
are believed to be past, and the tenth is yet to come, when Vishnu will
descend from heaven on a white-winged horse, and introduce on earth a
golden age of virtue and peace.

=Avernus lacus= (_a-ver´nus lā´kus_).--Lake Avernus. A lake near Cumæ,
enclosed by steep and wooded hills, whose deadly exhalations were said
to kill the birds flying over it. Near it was the cave of the Sibyl,
through which Æneas (see _Æneid_, Book VI.) descended to the lower
world. Sometimes Avernus is used to mean the lower world itself. In the
latter sense it is used in the well-known quotation, _Facilis descensus
Averno_, “The descent to hell is easy.”

=Azazel.=--Ewald considers Azazel to have been a demon belonging to the
pre-Mosaic religion. Another opinion identifies him with Satan, or the
devil. Milton makes him Satan’s standard bearer.

=Azrael=.--Meaning in Hebrew “help of God.” In the Jewish and the
Mohammedan mythology, the name of an angel who watches over the dying,
and separates the soul from the body.

=B=

=Baal.=--A sun god, the center of whose worship was Phœnicia, whence it
spread to neighboring countries.

=Bacchantes= (_bak-an´tez_), or =Bacchæ= (_bak´ē_).--Priestesses of
Bacchus.

=Bacchus= (_bak´us_); called Dionysus (_dī-on-ī´sus_) by the Greeks. The
god of wine; was the son of Jupiter and Semele, the daughter of Cadmus.
Bacchus went on a traveling expedition through Syria and Asia, returning
to Europe through Thrace, during which he taught men the cultivation of
the vine and the elements of civilization. He married Ariadne (_q.v._).
Feasts in honor of Bacchus were called Bacchanalia, and were of a very
noisy and riotous character. The vine, ivy and laurel were sacred to
him, as were also the tiger, lynx, panther, ass, serpent and dolphin.
Rams were usually sacrificed to his honor.

=Banshee.=--The domestic spirit of certain Irish or Scottish families,
supposed to wail shortly before the death of one of the family. The
banshee is allowed only to families of pure stock.

=Baldur= (_bâl´dör_,) or =Balder= (_bâl´der_).--In old Norse mythology,
a son of Odin, and one of the principal gods. Baldur’s characteristics
are those of a sun-god. He is the “whitest” of the gods, and so
beautiful and bright that a light emanates from him. He is the wisest,
most eloquent and mildest of the Ases, His dwelling is Breidablik. His
wife is Nanna. He is finally slain, at the instigation of Loki, by a
twig of mistletoe in the hands of the blind god Hodur. Baldur is
specifically a Northern god; among the other Germanic races there is no
existing record of him whatsoever.

=Bellerophon= (_bel-ler´o-fon_).--Son of Glaucus and grandson of
Sisyphus. He incurred the hatred of Antea, wife of Proetus, king of
Argos, who sent him to his father-in-law (Iobates) with a letter
requesting the latter to put the young man to death. Iobates selected
what seemed to be a sure method of compassing his death, by asking him
to go and kill the Chimæra (_kī-mē´ra_) (_q.v._). Bellerophon, however,
obtained possession of the winged horse Pegasus (_q.v._), which enabled
him to rise in the air. He then slew the monster with his arrows.
Iobates then sent him against the Solymi, a warlike race in Lycia, and
afterwards against the Amazons; but in these expeditions also he was
successful. Finally, he attempted to fly to heaven on Pegasus; but
Jupiter sent a gad-fly to sting the horse, which threw its rider on to
the earth.

=Bellona= (_bel-lō´na_).--The Roman goddess of war, sister of Mars.

=Belphegor.=--A god of evil, worshiped by the Moabites. An archfiend who
had been an archangel.

=Belus.=--The name of the Chaldean sun-god.

=Berg Folk.=--Pagan spirits doomed to live on the Scandinavian hills
till the day of redemption.

=Bertha.=--The white lady who guards good German children, but is the
terror of the bad, who fear her iron nose and big feet. Corresponds to
the Italian La Befana.

=Bheem.=--One of the five brotherhoods of Indian demigods, famous for
strength.

=Bifrost.=--In Norse mythology, a bridge between earth and heaven, over
which none but the gods could travel. It leads to the palace of the
Fates.

=Bilskirnir.=--A wonderful palace built by Thor for the use of peasants
after death.

=Bona Dea= (_bon´a de´a_), or =Fauna=, or =Fatua=.--A Roman goddess,
sister, wife or daughter of Faunus. She was the goddess of chastity and
prophecy, and revealed her oracles to females only. During her annual
festival on the first of May, in the house of the consul or prætor, no
male person was allowed to be present.

=Boreas= (_bor´e-as_).--The north wind; was the son of Astræus and
Aurora, and brother of the other three winds, Notus, Zephyrus and
Hesperus. He was worshiped at Athens, where a festival was celebrated in
his honor.

=Bosphorus=, or =Bosporus=.--The Straits of Constantinople, so called
from Io, who, in the form of a heifer, swam across it (Bosphorus =
Ox-ford). See “Io.”

=Brahma.=--The supreme god of the Hindus, represented with four heads
and four arms. He is regarded as the creator of the universe, and forms,
with Vishnu the preserver, and Síva the destroyer, the divine triad.

=Briareus= (_brī-ār´e-us_).--A hundred-armed giant, also called Ægæon
(_q.v._). Pope thus expresses his admiration for Handel:--

    “Strong in new arms the giant Handel stands,
    Like bold Briareus with a hundred hands.”

=Briseis= (_brī-sē´is_).--Daughter of Brises and beloved by Achilles.
She was the occasion of a feud between Achilles and Agamemnon.

=Bucephalus= (_bū-sef´a-lus_)--_i. e._ bull-headed. The favorite charger
of Alexander the Great, so named because he was branded with a bull’s
head. No one but Alexander was able to mount this celebrated horse,
which always knelt down to receive his master. He died in India after
carrying Alexander through all his campaigns. Alexander built a city
near the place where he died, and named it Bucephala in memory of him.

=Busiris= (_bū-sī´ris_).--A king of Egypt who cruelly sacrificed
strangers to Jupiter. He attempted to sacrifice Hercules, but the latter
slew him and all his ministers.

=Buto= (_bū´tō_).--An Egyptian goddess identified with Latona.

=C=

=Cacus= (_kā´kus_).--Son of Vulcan; a huge giant and notorious robber;
lived in a cave on Mount Aventine. He stole the oxen of Hercules, which
the latter had taken from Geryon, in Spain, whereupon Hercules slew him.

=Cadmus= (_kad´mus_).--Son of the Phœnician king Agenor, and brother of
Europa. His father sent him to search for his sister, who had been
carried off by Jupiter, and he was directed to follow a certain cow, and
to build a city on the spot where the cow fell down with fatigue. In
this way he became the founder of Thebes, in Bœotia. Near this place was
a well guarded by a dragon, which Cadmus slew, and sowed the teeth of
the monster. From these arose armed men, who killed each other, with the
exception of five, who were the ancestors of the Thebans. All this he
did on the direction of Minerva, and Jupiter gave him Harmonia for his
wife. The marriage was celebrated in the citadel of Thebes, and all the
Olympian gods were present at the ceremony. Cadmus gave Harmonia a
famous robe of state (peplus) and a necklace (see “Harmonia”) which he
had received from Vulcan. Their children were Autonoë, Ino, Semele,
Agave, Polydorus and Illyrius. Cadmus introduced among the Greeks an
alphabet of sixteen letters.

=Cæneus= (_sē´nūs_).--Originally a maiden, named Cænis, who was beloved
by Neptune and changed by him into a boy, and at the same time made
invulnerable. In the lower worlds she recovered her female form.

=Calchas= (_kal´kas_).--The most eminent of the Greek soothsayers at the
siege of Troy. He died of grief on meeting Mopsus, who was a wiser
soothsayer, and predicted things which Calchas could not.

=Calliope= (_kal-lī´op-ē_).--The Muse of epic poetry. See “Musæ.”

=Callirrhoe= (_kal-lir´ro-ē_).--Second wife of Alcmæon. She induced her
husband to get the peplus and necklace of Harmonia, whereupon he was
slain. See “Alcmæon.”

=Callisto= (_kal-lis´tō_).--An Arcadian nymph beloved by Jupiter, by
whom she became the mother of Arcas. Jupiter changed her into a
she-bear, and afterwards placed her among the stars as _Ursa major_.

=Calpe= (_kal´pē_).--One of the Pillars of Hercules; now Gibraltar.

=Calydon= (_kal´i-dōn_).--A very ancient town in Ætolia. In the
mountains around it the celebrated _Calydonian Boar Hunt_ took place.
The story is as follows: During the reign of Œneus, king of Calydon,
Diana sent a huge boar to devastate the country, because the king had
neglected her divinity. All the heroes of the age joined together for
the purpose of killing this boar. Meleager, son of Œneus, slew the boar,
and gave its hide to Atalanta, with whom he was in love. See “Atalanta.”

=Calypso= (_kal-ip´sō_).--A nymph who ruled in the island of Ogygia, on
which Ulysses was shipwrecked on his journey home from Troy. She desired
Ulysses to marry her, and detained him on the island for seven years.

=Camenæ= (_kam-ē´nē_).--Originally prophetic nymphs belonging to the
religion of ancient Italy, afterwards identified with the Muses.

=Campus Martius= (_kam´pus mar´shi-us_)--_i. e._ the plain of Mars; so
named because it was consecrated to the god Mars. An open plain outside
the walls of Rome, where the Roman youths performed their gymnastic and
warlike exercises, and where the Roman people met for the purpose of
electing magistrates.

=Capitolium= (_kap-it-ō´li-um_).--The temple of Jupiter and the citadel
of Rome.

=Cassandra= (_kas-san´dra_).--Daughter of Priam, king of Troy, and
Hecuba. She possessed great beauty, and was beloved by Apollo, who
bestowed on her the gift of prophecy. She disappointed him, however,
whereupon the god ordained that no one should believe her predictions.
On the fall of Troy she fell to the share of Agamemnon, who took her to
Mycenæ, where she was murdered by Clytæmnestra.

=Castor= and =Pollux= (_kas´tor_, _pol´luks_).--Twin brothers, often
called the Dioscuri (_di-os´ku-rī_), _i. e._ sons of Zeus (Jupiter),
because they were the sons of Jupiter and Leda, the wife of Tyndareus,
king of Sparta. Castor was famous for his skill in managing horses, and
Pollux for his ability as a boxer. Castor was supposed to be mortal,
while Pollux was immortal. They took part in the celebrated expedition
of the Argonauts, and assisted the Romans against the Latins in the
great battle of Lake Regillus. They were greatly attached to each other,
and were placed by Jupiter among the stars as Gemini (_jem´in-ī_), _i.
e._ twins, where they served as a guide to mariners. They were worshiped
more especially as the protectors of sailors.

=Cauther.=--In Mohammedan mythology the lake of paradise, whose waters
are as sweet as honey, as cold as snow, and as clear as crystal; and any
believer who tastes thereof is said to thirst no more.

=Cecrops= (_sē´krops_).--The most ancient king of Attica, founder of
Athens. He decided in favor of Athena (Minerva) when she and Neptune
contended for the possession of Attica. The citadel of Athens was called
Cecropia after him.

=Celeus= (_sel´e-us_).--King of Eleusis, husband of Metanira, and father
of Triptolemus and Demophon. He entertained the goddess Ceres, who in
return taught his son Triptolemus (_q.v._) agriculture.

=Centauri= (_sen-taw´rī_), or =Centaurs=--_i.e._ the bull-killers--were
a fabulous race living in Thessaly, half men and half horses. They were
defeated in a famous fight with the Lapithæ (_q.v._), and expelled from
their country. Chiron (_kī´ron_) was the most celebrated of them
(_q.v._).

=Cephalus= (_sef´al-us_).--Was beloved by Aurora, whose advances he
rejected from love of his wife Procris. Aurora asked him to try the
fidelity of Procris. Having metamorphosed him into a stranger, he
appeared, laden with rich presents, before her. The presents caused her
to yield, whereupon her husband discovered himself. She fled in shame to
Crete, but afterwards returned, disguised as a youth, with a dog and
spear (the gifts of Diana) that never missed their object. To obtain
these, Cephalus promised to love the youth, who then made herself known
to him as his wife Procris. In this way a reconciliation was effected.
Afterwards Cephalus, while out hunting, accidentally killed her with the
never-erring spear.

=Cepheus= (_sē´fūs_).--King of Ethiopia and father of Andromeda.

=Cerberus= (_ser´ber-us_).--The three-headed dog that guarded the
entrance to the lower world.

=Ceres= (_sē´rēz_).--The goddess of agriculture, especially of the
cultivation of corn; called Demeter (_dē-mē-tēr_) by the Greeks. She was
the daughter of Saturn and Rhea, and sister of Jupiter and Pluto. She
became by Jupiter the mother of Proserpine. The latter was carried off
by Pluto. When Ceres found this out, she did not allow the earth to
bring forth any fruits, and Jupiter was compelled to send Mercury into
the lower world to fetch back Proserpine. Pluto consented, but gave
Proserpine part of a pomegranate to eat. In consequence of this she was
obliged to spend one-third of the year with Pluto. The earth then
brought forth fruit again. This legend evidently refers to the
concealment of seed-corn in the earth and its subsequent reappearance
above the surface. The Romans sacrificed pigs to Ceres. The decrees of
the senate were deposited in her temple.

=Ceyx= (_sē´ix_).--Son of Lucifer and husband of Alcyone.

=Charites= (_char´it-ēz_)--Gr., the =Graces=--were the goddesses who
confer all grace. They were the daughters of Jupiter and were three in
number, their names being Aglaia (_ag-lā´i-a_), _i. e._ the bright one;
Euphrosyne (_ū-fros´i-nē_), _i. e._ the cheerful or mirthful one; and
_Thalia_ (_thal-ī´a_), _i. e._ the blooming one. They were the
personifications of grace and beauty, and enhanced by refinement and
gentleness the enjoyments of life. They were the friends of the Muses
and specially favored poetry.

=Charon= (_kär´on_).--Son of Erebus; was the ferryman of Hades who
conveyed the souls of the departed across the rivers Acheron and Styx,
receiving in return the obolus placed in the mouth of every corpse
before burial.

=Charybdis= (_ka-rib´dis_).--A dangerous whirlpool between Italy and
Sicily, opposite Scylla (_q.v._).

=Chibiabos.=--A musician, ruler in the land of spirits, and friend of
Hiawatha. Personification of harmony in nature.

=Chimæra= (_ki-mē´ra_)--_i. e._ a she-goat.--A fabulous, fire-breathing
monster with a lion’s head, a serpent’s tail, and a _goat’s_ body. She
was killed by Bellerophon, mounted on Pegasus. The myth relates to a
volcano in Lycia.

=Chione= (_ki´on-ē_).--Daughter of Dædalion. She was shot by Diana
because she compared her beauty with that of the goddess.

=Chiron= (_kī´ron_).--A centaur famous for his knowledge of medicine,
plants, music and divination. Son of Saturn and Philyra, the tutor of
Æsculapius, Achilles and Hercules. Being accidentally wounded by one of
the poisoned arrows of Hercules, he gave up his immortality and was
changed into the constellation Sagittarius.

=Chloris= (_klor´is_).--The Greek goddess of flowers, identical with
Flora.

=Chou.=--An Egyptian god corresponding to the Roman Hercules.

=Circe= (_sir´sē_).--Daughter of Helios (the sun) and Perse, famous for
her magic arts. She lived on the Island of Ææa, on which Ulysses was
cast on his voyage home from Troy. Circe met his companions, whom he had
sent to explore the country, and offered them a magic cup, on tasting
which they all became, with the single exception of Eurylochus, changed
into swine. Ulysses, on hearing of it, obtained from Mercury the root
_moly_, which fortified him against enchantment, and compelled Circe to
restore his companions to their former shape. He then remained with her
for a year, and she bore him a son, Telegonus.

=Clio= (_klē´o_).--The Muse of history. See “Musæ.”

=Clotho= (_klō´tho_).--The spinner of the thread of life; one of the
Fates. See “Parcæ.”

=Clusium= (_klū´si-um_).--One of the oldest and most important of the
twelve Etruscan cities, the residence of Porsena, in the neighborhood of
which was the famous sepulchre of this king in the form of a labyrinth.

=Clytæmnestra= (_klī-tem-nes´tra_).--Daughter of Tyndarus and Leda, and
sister of Helen, Castor and Pollux; wife of Agamemnon, and mother of
Orestes, Electra and Iphigenia. While her husband was absent at Troy she
lived with Ægisthus, and on his return the guilty pair murdered him. In
revenge for this deed, her own son Orestes put her to death.

=Cnidus= (_knī´dus_), or =Gnidus=.--A city on the southwestern coast of
Caria, in Asia Minor, highly celebrated for the statue of Venus, by
Praxiteles, the famous sculptor, which stood in her temple there.

=Cocytus= (_ko-sī´tus_)--i.e. the river of wailing. A river in the lower
world.

=Colchis= (_kol´chis_).--A country in Asia, lying on the eastern part of
the Black Sea, celebrated on account of the Golden Fleece (see
“Argonautæ”).

=Comus= (_kō´mus_).--The god of mirth and joy, represented as a winged
youth.

=Concordia= (_kon-kor´di-a_).--The Roman goddess of concord. Camillus,
in B. C. 367, erected a temple in her honor to celebrate the
reconciliation between the patricians and plebians.

=Corybantes= (_kor-i-ban´tes_).--Priests of Cybele (_sib´el-ē_), or
Rhea, in Phrygia, who worshiped her with riotous dances to the sound of
cymbals.

=Creusa= (_kre-ū´sa_).--Daughter of Priam and Hecuba, wife of Æneas, and
mother of Ascanius. She perished at the capture of Troy.

=Cronos= (_kron´os_).--The Greek divinity corresponding to the Roman
Saturnus (_q.v._).

=Cumæ= (_kū´mē_).--A very ancient town on the coast of Campania, said to
have been founded B. C. 1050. It was celebrated as the residence of the
earliest Sibyl. Tarquinius Superbus died here.

=Cupido= (_kū-pī´dō_), or =Cupid= (_kū´pid_); called Eros (_er´ōz_) by
the Greeks. The god of love, son of Venus, his father being either
Jupiter, Mars or Mercury. He is represented as a boy with golden wings,
armed with a bow and a golden quiver full of arrows. He is so
mischievous that he shoots his arrows at gods and men alike. Sometimes
his eyes are covered, so that he acts blindly. He is the usual companion
of his mother.

=Cybele= (_sib´e-lē_); called Rhea (_rē´a_) by the Greeks. A goddess,
originally Phrygian, regarded as goddess of the earth. She was daughter
of Uranus (_ū´ran-us_) and Ge (_jē_), and the wife of Saturn, and the
mother of Jupiter, Juno, Pluto, Neptune, Ceres and Vesta. As Saturn
devoured all her children, Cybele, just before the birth of Jupiter,
went to Crete. When Jupiter was born, she gave Saturn a stone wrapped up
like an infant, which the god, supposing it to be the child, swallowed.
Cybele is usually figured seated on a throne and having a crown of
towers on her head. She is frequently referred to as the “tower-crowned
Cybele.” The lion was sacred to her.

=Cyclopes= (_sī-klō´pēz_), or =Cyclops= (_sī´klops_)--_i. e._ beings
with one _circular eye_ in the middle of their foreheads. These were a
fabulous race of giants living in Sicily. They were shepherds, but
devoured human beings. They were also Vulcan’s workmen, volcanoes,
especially Mount Ætna in Sicily, being regarded as their workshops, in
which they made the armor for gods and heroes. The chief among them was
Polyphemus (_q.v._).

=Cyllene= (_sil-lē´nē_).--The highest mountain in Peloponnesus, on which
Mercury was born.

=Cynthus= (_sin´thus_).--A mountain of Delos, celebrated as the
birthplace of Apollo and Diana, who are hence called, respectively,
Cynthius and Cynthia (_sin´thi-a_).

=Cyprus= (_sī´prus_).--A large island in the Mediterranean, renowned in
ancient, no less than in modern, times for its fertility. It was one of
the chief seats of the worship of Venus.

=Cythera= (_si-thē´ra_).--An island in the Ægean Sea, celebrated for the
worship of Venus.

=D=

=Dædalus= (_dē´da-lus_).--A mythical personage skillful as a sculptor
and architect. He made the wooden cow for Pasiphaë, and when Pasiphaë
gave birth to the monster, the Minotaur, Dædalus constructed the
labyrinth in which it was kept. For doing this Minos, king of Crete,
imprisoned him; but he escaped, and as Minos had seized all the ships on
the coast of the island, Dædalus made wings for himself and his son
Icarus, and they flew away. Dædalus flew safely over the Ægean,
alighting at Cumæ, in Italy; but Icarus was slower in his flight, and
the rising sun melted the wax by which the wings were fastened to his
body, and he fell into the sea and was drowned; hence that part of the
sea was called _Icarian_.

=Danae= (_dan´a-ē_).--Daughter of Acrisius, king of Argos. Her father
confined her in a brazen tower, as an oracle declared that she would
have a son that would kill his grandfather. Here, however, Jupiter
visited her in a golden shower, and she became the mother of Perseus.
Acrisius then shut up mother and child in a chest, which he threw into
the sea; but Jupiter caused the chest to come ashore at the island of
Seriphos, when Dictys, a fisherman, found them and took them to the king
of the country. See “Perseus.”

=Danai= (_dan´a-ī_).--The Greeks. See “Danaus.”

=Danaides= (_dan-ā´i-dēz_).--The fifty daughters of King Danaus
(_q.v._).

=Danaus= (_dan´a-us_).--Son of Belus and twin-brother of Ægyptus (see
“Ægyptus”). Lynceus, son of Belus, whose life was spared by
Hypermnestra, avenged the death of his brothers by killing his
father-in-law, Danaus. The fifty daughters of Danaus--called the
Danaides--were punished in the lower world by being compelled
everlastingly to pour water into a sieve. From Danaus, who was king of
Argos (which was the most ancient city of Greece), the Greeks
collectively were called Danai.

=Daphne= (_daf´nē_).--Daughter of the river-god Peneus. Her great beauty
attracted the god Apollo, who pursued her; but just as she was being
overtaken her prayer for aid was answered by her being changed into a
laurel tree, the Greek word for which is Daphne. This tree consequently
became the favorite tree of Apollo and was sacred to him.

=Dardanus= (_dar´dan-us_).--Son of Jupiter and Electra, the mythical
ancestor of the Trojans.

=Deianira= (_dē-ya-nī´ra_).--Daughter of Œneus and wife of Hercules. She
was beloved by the river god Achelous and by Hercules; but Hercules
overcame his opponent in a fight for her, and obtained her as his wife.
She accidentally killed her husband by giving him a poisoned garment to
wear, and on seeing what she had done hanged herself (see “Hercules”).

=Deidamia= (_dē-id-a-mī´a_).--Daughter of Lycomedes, at whose court
Achilles was concealed in maiden’s attire. She became, by Achilles, the
mother of Pyrrhus or Neoptolemus.

=Deiphobus= (_dē-if´ob-us_).--Son of Priam and Hecuba. After the death
of Paris he married Helen. He was killed in a barbarous manner by
Menelaus, Helen’s first husband.

=Delos= (_dē´los_).--The smallest of the Cyclades (islands), the
birthplace of Apollo and Diana, and the most holy seat of the worship of
the former.

=Delphi= (_del´fī_).--A small town in Phocis, very celebrated on account
of its oracle of Apollo. Homer always refers to it under its old name,
Pytho. It was looked upon as the central point of the whole earth, and
was hence called “the navel of the earth.” The oracle was consulted in
the center of the splendid temple of Apollo. Here there was a small
opening in the ground, from which a mephitic vapor occasionally arose. A
tripod was placed over this opening, and the priestess--called Pythia,
from Pytho--sat on it. In this way she inhaled the vapor, and the words
she then uttered were believed to be inspired by Apollo. The priests
took the words down and communicated them to the persons who had desired
to consult the oracle.

=Demeter= (_dē-mē-tēr_). See “Ceres.”

=Deucalion= (_dū-kā´li-on_).--Son of Prometheus, king of Phthia, in
Thessaly, and husband of Pyrrha. He and his wife were the only human
survivors of a great deluge which Jupiter sent to destroy mankind. They
were preserved during the nine days’ flood in a ship which Deucalion
built on the advice of his father. The ship finally rested on Mount
Parnassus, in Phocis. On the direction of Themis, Deucalion and his wife
threw “the bones of their mother,” _i. e._ the stones of the earth,
behind them, those thrown by Deucalion becoming men, and those thrown by
Pyrrha becoming women. In this way the earth was repeopled.

=Diana= (_dī-ā´na_).--Twin-sister of Apollo, the virgin goddess of the
moon and of hunting, called by the Greeks Artemis (_ar´te-mis_). She was
the daughter of Jupiter and Latona, and was born on the island of Delos.
She is represented as armed with a bow, quiver and arrows, and was also
regarded as identical with the moon (in Greek, Selene), her brother
Apollo being looked upon as the sun (or Helois).

=Dido= (_dī´dō_).--Daughter of the Tyrian king Belus, and reputed
founder of Carthage. Æneas, on his journey from Troy, landed at
Carthage, and was handsomely entertained by Dido. She fell in love with
the hero, and, on his leaving her to proceed to Italy, she, in despair,
destroyed herself on a funeral pile. Dido is also called Elissa.

=Diomedes= (_di-o-mē´dēz_).--A famous hero at the siege of Troy. He was
the son of Tydeus and Deïpyle, and is hence frequently called Tydides
(_ti-dī´dēz_). Next to Achilles, he was the bravest hero in the Greek
army. The gods themselves were supposed to be taking part in this
memorable siege, some being ranged on one side and some on the other.
Diomedes was under the special protection of Minerva. He not only
engaged in conflict with the Trojan heroes, Hector and Æneas, but even
wounded both Venus and Mars, who had espoused the cause of the Trojans.
Diomedes and Ulysses carried off the palladium from the city of Troy,
the safety of which was contingent on its possession (see “Troy”). At
the end of the Trojan war he returned to Argos, where he found his wife
(Ægialea) living in adultery with Hippolytus--a punishment visited upon
him by the angry Venus. He consequently left Argos, and went to Ætolia.
He afterwards settled at Daunia, in Italy, where he married Evippe, the
daughter of Daunus, and died at an advanced age.

=Dione= (_di-ō´nē_).--A female Titan who became, by Jupiter, the mother
of Venus.

=Dirce= (_dir´sē_).--Wife of Lycus, king of Thebes, who married her
after divorcing his former wife, Antiope (_an´ti-o-pē_). On account of
the cruelty with which she treated Antiope, Amphion and
Zethus--Antiope’s sons by Jupiter--took terrible vengeance on Dirce.
They tied her to a wild bull, which dragged her about till she perished,
and then threw her body into a fountain near Thebes, which was from that
time called the Fountain of Dirce.

=Dis= (_dīs_).--A contraction of Dives, _i. e._ rich; the god of the
infernal regions. See “Pluto.”

=Discordia= (_dis-kor´di-a_); in Greek, Eris (_er´is_).--The goddess of
strife or discord. She was the sister of Mars, and, with him, delighted
in the noise and tumult of war. It was she who threw the celebrated
golden apple into the assembly of gods, for a full account of the
results of which see “Paris.”

=Donar.=--A name given, sometimes, to Thor, the thunder-god, in Norse
mythology.

=Doris= (_dōr´is_).--Daughter of Oceanus and Thetis. She married her
brother Nereus (_q.v._), and became the mother of the fifty Nereides.

=Draupnir.=--The marvelous ring belonging to Odin, with which he worked
magic. It was burned on the funeral pyre of his son Balder.

=Droma.=--The chain forged for the purpose of binding the Fenris wolf,
but which he broke. Hence the proverb, “to dash out of Droma.”

=Dryades= (_dry´a-dez_), or =Dryads=.--Wood-nymphs. See “Nymphæ.”

=E=

=Echidna= (_e-kīd´na_).--A monster, half woman and half serpent. She was
the mother of the Chimæra, Cerberus, the Lernean Hydra, and other
monsters. She was killed in her sleep by Argus with the hundred eyes.

=Echo= (_ek´ō_).--A nymph who, because she kept Juno in incessant
conversation while Jupiter was sporting with the nymphs, was punished by
being changed into an echo. In this state she fell in love with
Narcissus--a beautiful youth, who was incapable of the tender
passion--and, as her love was not returned, she pined away till nothing
remained but her voice.

=Elbegast.=--One of the dwarfs of Scandinavian mythology who dwelt in a
magnificent palace underground, and drew their servants from the bosom
of the earth.

=Elberich.=--In the German hero-legends a dwarf who aided the Lombard
emperor Otnit to win the daughter of the soldan of Syria. He is
identical with the Oberon of French and English fairy mythology.

=Egil.=--The Vulcan of northern mythology, one of the three brothers who
married the swan-maidens. He was a great archer, killed his brother,
Volünd, by command of the king, and himself later became a peasant.

=Electra= (_e-lek´tra_).--Daughter of Agamemnon and Clytæmnestra. She
saved the life of her brother Orestes, and afterwards the two avenged
the death of Agamemnon by slaying their mother, Clytæmnestra. See
“Orestes.”

=Eira.=--An attendant of the goddess Fuigga, and a skillful nurse. She
gathered herbs and plants for the cure of both sickness and wounds and
taught the science to women.

=Eleusis= (_el-ū´sis_).--A very ancient city of Attica, famous for its
mysteries of Ceres, to whom was erected a magnificent temple.

=Elis= (_ē´lis_).--A country on the west coast of the Peloponnesus. In
it was Olympia, where every four years a splendid festival was held in
honor of Jupiter.

=Elysium= (_e-lizh´i-um_).--The Elysian fields. That part of the lower
world which forms the abode of the blessed.

=Enceladus= (_en-sel´ad-us_).--One of the hundred-armed giants who made
war upon the gods. He was slain by Jupiter, and buried under Mount Ætna.

=Endymion= (_en-dim´i-on_).--A youth of surpassing beauty who so moved
the cold heart of the virgin goddess of the moon (Diana or Selene), that
she kept him in a perpetual sleep on Mount Latmus, in Caria, that she
might kiss him without his knowledge.

=Eos= (_ē´ōz_).--See “Aurora.”

=Ephesus= (_ef´e-sus_).--The chief of the twelve Ionian cities in Asia
Minor, with a celebrated temple of Diana. The latter was regarded as one
of the wonders of the world. It was always a very flourishing city, and
was visited by St. Paul and St. John.

=Elf.=--The water sprite, known also as Elb, from which the name of the
river Elbe is said to be derived. Elves are more properly known as
mountain fairies, or those airy creatures that dance on the grass or sit
in the leaves of trees and delight in the full moon.

=Elivagar.=--In Norse mythology the name of a great stream in Chaos,
flowing from a fountain in the land of mist. This stream was much
frequented by the elves at their creation.

=Erato= (_er’a-tō_).--The Muse of amatory poetry. See “Musæ.”

=Erebus= (_er´e-bus_).--The god of darkness, son of Chaos and brother of
Nox (night). The name signifies darkness, and is frequently used to
designate the lower world.

=Erechtheus= (_e-rek´thūs_).--An ancient and mythical king of Athens.
See “Athenæ.”

=Eridanus= (_ē-rid´an-us_).--The Greek name of the river Padus (Po),
into which Phaethon fell when struck by the lightning of Jupiter. See
“Phaethon.”

=Erinyes= (_er-in´i-es_).--The Furiæ (_q.v._).

=Erl-king.=--Name given to the king of the elves, or a spirit of the
air. According to tradition, its home is in the Black Forest of Germany,
and it appears as a goblin, working harm and ruin, especially among
children.

=Eryx= (_er´ix_).--A high mountain in the northwest of Sicily, on the
summit of which stood an ancient and celebrated temple of Venus.

=Eumenides= (_ū-men´i-dēz_).--See “Furiæ.”

=Euphrosyne.=--See “Charites.”

=Europa= (_ū-rō´pa_).--The beautiful daughter of the Phœnician king
Agenor. Jupiter was so charmed with her that he obtained possession of
her by the following stratagem: He assumed the form of a bull among the
herds of Agenor, and Europa and her maidens were delighted with the
tameness of the noble animal, so much so that at length Europa ventured
to mount his back, whereupon the god plunged into the sea and carried
her over to Crete. Here Jupiter assumed his proper shape, and Europa
bore him Minos, Rhadamanthus and Sarpedon.

=Eurydice= (_ū-rid´i-sē_).--Wife of Orpheus (_q.v._).

=Eurystheus= (_ū-ris´thūs_).--Son of Sthenelus and grandson of Perseus,
a king of Mycenæ. Jealous of the fame of Hercules, and wishing to
destroy him, Eurystheus, at the command of Juno, imposed upon Hercules
his famous twelve labors.

=Euterpe= (_ū-ter´pē_).--One of the Muses (_q.v._).

=F=

=Fada.=--A fée or kobold of the south of France, sometimes called
“Hada.” These house-spirits, of which, strictly speaking, there are but
three, bring good luck in their right hand and ill luck in their left.

=Fafnir.=--In northern mythology the eldest son of the dwarf king
Hreidmar. The slaying of Fafnir is the destruction of the demon of cold
or darkness who had stolen the golden light of the sun.

=Fates.=--See “Parcæ.”

=Faunus= (_faw´nus_).--Son of Picus, grandson of Saturn, institutor of
tillage and grazing, and after his death the protecting deity of
agriculture and of shepherds, and also a giver of oracles. He is
identical with the Greek god Pan, and is represented with horns and
goat’s feet.

=Faustulus= (_faws´tu-lus_).--A shepherd who brought up Romulus and
Remus.

=Flora= (_flō´ra_).--The Roman goddess of flowers and spring.

=Fortuna= (_for-tū´na_); called Tyche (_tik´ē_) by the Greeks. The
goddess of fortune. She is variously represented: with the horn of
plenty, indicative of the plentiful gifts of fortune; with a rudder, to
signify that she guides the affairs of men; with a ball, emblematic of
the shifting and changing character of the fickle goddess.

=Freki= and =Geri=.--The two wolves of Odin. When Odin, seated on his
throne, overlooks heaven and earth, his two wolves lie at his feet.

=Frey.=--Scandinavian god of the sun and of rain, and hence of fertility
and peace. He was one of the most popular of the northern divinities. No
weapons were ever allowed in Frey’s temple, although oxen and horses
were sacrificed to him. His name was connected with the taking of any
solemn oath, a heavy gold ring being dipped in the blood of the
sacrifice and the oath sworn upon the ring. One of the most celebrated
of the temples built to Frey was at Therva, in Iceland.

=Freyja.=--She was the sister of Frey, and the wife of Odur, who
abandoned her on her loss of youth and beauty, and was changed into a
statue by Odin, as a punishment. She is known as the northern goddess of
beauty and love; plants were called Freyja’s hair, and the butterfly,
Freyja’s hen.

=Frigga.=--In Scandinavian mythology the wife of Odin, the queen of the
gods, and the mother of Baldur, Thor, etc. She sometimes typifies the
earth, as Odin does the heavens. The Anglo-Saxons worshiped her as Frea.
The name survives in Friday.

=Frodi.=--The son of Frey, a god of peace. Under his direction two
giantesses turned a pair of magic millstones which ground out gold
according to his wish and filled his coffers. Excited by greed he forced
them to labor, allowing rest only long enough for the singing of one
verse. When Frodi himself slept, the giantesses changed their song and
proceeded to grind out an army of troops to invade the land. These
troops represent the vikings.

=Furiæ= (_fū´ri-ē_).--The Furies; called Eumenides (_ū-men´-i-dēz_), _i.
e._ the gracious or well-meaning ones, by the Greeks; three goddesses of
vengeance, whom the Greeks so much dreaded that they dared not to call
them by their real names, hence referred to them by the euphemism
Eumenides. The Romans also called them Diræ (_dī´rē_). Their names were
Alecto (_a-lek´tō_), Megæra (_me-gē´ra_) and Tisiphone (_tī-sif´-onē_).
They were the daughters of Earth or of Night, and were terrible winged
maidens with serpents twined in their hair and with blood dripping from
their eyes. They were stern and inexorable, punishing the guilty both in
this world and after death. They dwelt in Tartarus--_i. e._ Hades. The
sacrifices offered to them were black sheep and a drink of honey mixed
with water, the latter, called a _libation_ (_lī-bā´shun_), being poured
forth out of a cup in their honor.

=G=

=Galatea= (_gal-a-tē´a_).--A sea nymph. See “Acis.”

=Ganesa.=--Goddess of wisdom, in Hindu mythology.

=Gangler.=--The gate-keeper in Odin’s palace who gave the explanation of
the northern mythology that it might be recorded.

=Ganymedes= (_gan-i-mē´dēz_), or =Ganymede= (_gan´i-mēd_).--Son of Tros
and Callirrhoe, a beautiful youth who was carried off by Jupiter’s eagle
from Mount Ida to heaven, that he might be cup-bearer to the gods in
place of Hebe. Jupiter compensated his father by presenting him with a
pair of divine horses.

=Garm.=--A fierce dog that kept guard at the entrance of Hel’s kingdom,
the realm of the dead. He could be appeased by the offering of a
Hel-cake which always appeared in the hand of one who, on earth, had
given bread to the needy.

=Genius= (_jē´ni-us_).--The protecting spirit or genius of a person,
place, etc.; called by the Greeks Dæmon. They were represented as the
guardians of men and of justice, and the Greek philosophers held that
every human being at his birth had a dæmon assigned to him, which
accompanied him throughout life. Every place, also, had its genius,
which appeared in the form of a serpent eating fruit placed before him.
In works of art genii are commonly represented as winged beings.

=Gerda.=--Wife of Frey, and daughter of the frost giant Gymir. She is so
beautiful that the brightness of her naked arms illuminates both air and
sea.

=Giallar Bridge.=--The bridge of death, over which all must pass.

=Giallar Horn, The.=--Heimdall’s horn, which went out into all worlds
whenever he chose to blow it. According to northern mythology, he blew a
long-expected blast as a rallying call to the battle which ended the
reign of the gods Odin, Frey, and Tyr.

=Gian ben Gian.=--In Arabia, king of the Ginns or Genii, and founder of
the Pyramids. He was overthrown by Azazel or Lucifer.

=Gigantes= (_ji-gan´tēz_).--A fabulous race of huge beings, with
terrible countenances and the tails of dragons. They endeavored to storm
the heavens, being armed with huge rocks and trunks of trees; but the
gods, with the assistance of Hercules, destroyed them all, and buried
them under Ætna and other volcanoes. This story probably had its origin
in volcanic convulsions.

=Glaucus= (_glaw´kus_).--(i) A fisherman who became a sea-god by eating
a part of the divine herb sown by Saturn, (ii) Son of Sisyphus. Was torn
to pieces by his own mares, because he had despised the power of Venus.
(iii) The commander of the Lycians in the Trojan war. He was slain by
Ajax.

=Golden Fleece.=--See “Argonautæ.”

=Gill.=--The infernal river of Scandinavian mythology.

=Ginungagap.=--In Norse mythology the vast chaotic gulf of perpetual
twilight which existed before the present world, and separated the
region of fog from the region of heat. Giants were the first beings who
came to life among the icebergs that filled this vast abyss.

=Gorgons= (_gor’gonz_).--Three frightful female monsters who turned all
they looked upon into stone. Their names were Medusa (_me-dū´-sa_),
Euryale (_ū-rī´al-e_) and Stheno (_sthē´no_), and they were daughters of
Phorcys and Ceto. Their heads were covered with serpents in place of
hair, and they had wings, frightful teeth and brazen claws. Of the
three, Medusa alone was mortal. She was killed by Perseus (_q.v._).

=Gladsheim.=--The palace of Odin, in which were the great hall Valhalla
(the hall of the slain) and the twelve seats occupied by the gods when
holding council.

=Glasir.=--A marvelous grove in Asgard, in which the leaves were all of
shimmering red gold.

=Glendoveer.=--In Hindu mythology is a kind of sylph, the most lovely of
the good spirits.

=Gnome.=--One of a class of spirits or imaginary beings which were
supposed to tenant the interior parts of the earth, and in whose charge
mines, quarries, etc., were left. Rübezahl, of the German legends, is
often cited as a representative of the class.

=Goblins and Bogies=.--Familiar demons of popular superstition, a spirit
which lurks about houses. It is also called hobgoblin. Goblin is used in
a serious sense by Shakespeare in _Hamlet_, where the ghost is supposed
to be a “spirit of health or goblin damned.”

=Graces, The Three.=--See “Charites.”

=Gradivus= (_grad-i´vus_).--_i. e._ the marching one. A surname of Mars.

=Grææ= (_grē´ē_), lit., “the old women” (Gr.).--So called because they
had gray hair from their birth. They were the sisters of the Gorgons,
and were three in number. They had but one eye and one tooth to use
between them.

=Gyas= (_jī´as_), =Gyes= (_jī´ēz_), or =Gyges= (_jī´jēz_).--One of the
giants with a hundred hands who made war upon the gods.

=H=

=Hades= (_hā´dez_).--See “Pluto.”

=Hæmon= (_hē´mon_).--Son of Creon, king of Thebes. He loved Antigone,
and killed himself on hearing that she was condemned by Creon to be shut
up in a subterranean cave.

=Harmonia= (_har-mō´ni-a_).--Daughter of Mars and Venus, and wife of
Cadmus. On the wedding-day Cadmus received a necklace, which afterwards
became famous, inasmuch as it became fatal to all who possessed it.

=Harpocrates= (_har-pok´ra-tēz_).--The god of mystery and silence, and,
on that account, represented as having been born with his finger in his
mouth. He was the son of Osiris. His statue stood at the entrance of
most of the Egyptian temples.

=Harpyiæ= (_har´pi-ē_).--The Harpies--_i. e._ the Robbers or Spoilers,
hideous rapacious monsters, half bird and half woman. They were three in
number. Homer described them as carrying off people who had disappeared.

=Hebe= (_hē-bē_).--The goddess of youth, daughter of Jupiter and Juno.
She was the cup-bearer to the gods, in which office she was afterwards
supplanted by Ganymede. She became the wife of Hercules after he was
deified.

=Hecate= (_hek´a-tē_).--Daughter of Perses and Asteria, the presider
over enchantments, etc. She was looked upon as a kind of threefold
goddess--viz., Luna (the moon) in heaven, Diana on earth, and Proserpine
in the lower world--and is accordingly represented with three bodies or
three heads. Dogs, honey and black female lambs were sacrificed to her.

=Hector= (_hek´tor_).--Eldest son of Priam, king of Troy, and Hecuba,
and husband of Andromache. He was the chief hero of the Trojans in their
war with the Greeks. He was slain in single combat by Achilles, who
chased him thrice round the walls of the city, and, after having slain
him, tied his body to his chariot and dragged it thrice round the walls.
The character of Hector as a warrior, husband, father and son is very
finely drawn by Homer in the _Iliad_.

=Hecuba= (_hek´u-ba_).--Wife of Priam, king of Troy. After the fall of
Troy she was carried away as a slave by the Greeks and suffered great
misfortunes.

=Heimdall.=--In northern tales a god who lived in the celestial fort
Himinsbjorg, under the farther extremity of the bridge Bifrost, and kept
the keys of heaven. He is the watchman or sentinel of Asgard, sees even
in sleep, can hear the grass grow, and even the wool on a lamb’s back.
Heimdall, at the end of the world, will wake the gods with his trumpet.

=Helena= (_hel´en-a_), or =Helene= (_hel´en-ē_); commonly called Helen
of Troy. Daughter of Jupiter and Leda, and sister of Castor and Pollux.
She was the greatest beauty of her age, and her hand was sought by the
noblest chiefs of Greece. She chose Menelaus (_men-e-lā´us_), and became
by him the mother of Hermione. She eloped with Paris (_q.v._) to Troy,
and hence arose the Trojan war, as all the Greek chiefs, who had been
former suitors of Helen, resolved to avenge her abduction, and sailed
with Menelaus against Troy. After the death of Paris she married his
brother Deiphobus (_de-if´ob-us_). On the capture of Troy, after a ten
years’ siege, she became reconciled to Menelaus, and returned with him
to Sparta, where they lived for a number of years in peace and
happiness.

=Helenus= (_hel´e-nus_).--A celebrated soothsayer, son of Priam, king of
Troy, and Hecuba. He deserted his countrymen and joined the Greeks--some
say voluntarily, others that he was taken prisoner by the Greeks.

=Heliades= (_hē´li-a-dēz_).--Daughters of the Sun (Helios). They
lamented the death of their brother Phaethon so bitterly that the gods,
in compassion, metamorphosed them into poplar trees and their tears into
amber.

=Helicon= (_hel´i-kon_).--A mountain in Bœotia, sacred to Apollo and the
Muses. The famous fountains of the Muses, Aganippe and Hippocrene,
sprang here.

=Helios= (_hē´li-os_).--The god of the sun. See “Phœbus” and “Apollo.”

=Helle= (_hel´lē_).--Sister of Phrixus (_q.v._). When she and her
brother were riding through the air upon the ram with the golden fleece
she fell into the sea, which was thence called the Hellespont--_i. e._
the sea of Helle; now called the Dardanelles.

=Hephæstus= (_hē-fēs´tus_).--The god of fire. See “Vulcan.”

=Hera.=--See “Juno.”

=Hercules= (_her´kū-lēz_); called Heracles (_hē´ra-klēz_) by the
Greeks.--The most celebrated hero of antiquity, noted especially for his
Twelve Labors. He was the son of Jupiter and Alcmene. He showed his
prowess at a very early age, for when the jealous Juno sent two serpents
to destroy him as he lay in his cradle, the infant hero strangled them
with his own hands. His first great adventure happened while he was
tending the oxen of his supposititious father, Amphitryon, the husband
of Alcmene. A huge lion devastated the flocks of Amphitryon and
Thespius, king of Thespiæ. Hercules slew the lion, and thenceforth wore
the skin as a garment, although some state that the lion’s skin of
Hercules was taken from the Nemean lion which Hercules killed as one of
his labors. Next he defeated and killed King Erginus, to whom the
Thebans paid tribute. Creon, king of Thebes, gave him his daughter
Megara in marriage, and she bore him several children. Soon afterwards
Juno drove him mad, and in this state he killed his children. His grief
was so great that he went into voluntary exile and was purified by
Thespius. He then consulted the celebrated oracle at Delphi as to where
he should settle, and was ordered to live at Tiryns and to serve
Eurystheus (_ū-ris´thūs_) for twelve years, after which he should become
immortal. It was at the bidding of Eurystheus that he performed the
following Twelve Labors. Hercules usually carried a huge club which he
had cut for himself in the neighborhood of Nemea.

(i) _The fight with the Nemean lion._ Eurystheus ordered Hercules to
bring him the skin of this monster. Finding his club and arrows useless,
he strangled the animal with his own hands.

(ii) _The fight against the Lernean Hydra._ This monster, which had nine
heads, of which the middle one was immortal, dwelt in a swamp, and
ravaged the country of Lerna, near Argos. When Hercules struck its heads
with his club, for each head he struck off two more appeared. With the
assistance of his servant he then burned off its heads, and buried the
immortal one under a huge rock. Having done this, he poisoned his arrows
with the bile of the monster, thus rendering the wounds inflicted by
them incurable.

(iii) _Capture of the Arcadian stag._ This animal had golden antlers and
brazen feet, and Hercules was ordered to bring it alive to Eurystheus.
After pursuing it in vain for a whole year, he at length wounded it with
an arrow, caught it, and bore it away on his shoulders.

(iv) _Capture of the Erymanthian boar._ Hercules chased this animal
through the deep snow, and at last caught it in a net and delivered it
alive to Eurystheus.

(v) _Cleansing of the stables of Augeas._ Augeas, king of Elis, had a
herd of three thousand oxen, whose stalls had not been cleansed for
thirty years, and Hercules was ordered to cleanse them in one day. He
did it by turning the rivers Alpheus and Peneus through the stalls.

(vi) _Destruction of the Stymphalian birds._ These birds had brazen
claws, wings and beaks, used their feathers as arrows, and ate human
flesh. They dwelt on a lake near Stymphalus, in Arcadia. Minerva
provided Hercules with a brazen rattle, by the noise of which he roused
the birds and then killed them with his arrows.

(vii) _Capture of the Cretan bull._ This was a mad bull that made great
havoc in the island of Crete. Hercules caught it, and brought it home on
his shoulders.

(viii) _Capture of the mares of Diomedes._ These mares were fed with
human flesh. Hercules, with a few friends, seized them and led them to
Eurystheus.

(ix) _Seizure of the girdle of the queen of the Amazons._ The daughter
of Eurystheus having expressed a desire to obtain the girdle of
Hippolyte, queen of the Amazons, Hercules was sent to fetch it. After an
eventful journey he at length reached the country of the Amazons, and
was kindly received by Hippolyte. Juno, however, excited the Amazons
against him, and in the contest that ensued Hercules killed Hippolyte
and carried off her girdle.

(x) _Capture of the oxen of Geryon._ Geryon was a monster with three
bodies. His cattle were guarded by a giant and a two-headed dog. On his
journey he erected two pillars (Calpe and Abyla) on the two sides of the
Straits of Gibraltar, which were hence called the Pillars of Hercules.
He slew the giant, the dog and Geryon himself, and reached home safely
with the oxen.

(xi) _Bringing the golden apples of the Hesperides_ (_Hes-per´id-ēz_).
These apples, which were given by Ge (the earth) to Juno at her wedding,
were kept by the Hesperides and a dragon on Mount Atlas. Hercules
obtained the apples, and afterwards dedicated them to Minerva, who
restored them to their former place.

(xii) _Bringing Cerberus from the lower world._ This was not only the
last, but the most difficult of the Twelve Labors of Hercules. Pluto,
the god of the lower world, having given Hercules permission to carry
off Cerberus provided he did not use force of arms, he succeeded in
seizing the monster and carrying it to the upper world, taking it back
again after having shown it to Eurystheus.

Having concluded his Twelve Labors, Hercules was released from the
servitude of Eurystheus and returned to Thebes. Later, he became a
servant to Omphale (_om´fal-ē_), queen of Lydia and widow of Tmolus, and
lived with her in an effeminate manner, he wearing woman’s attire, while
Omphale put on his lion’s skin. He afterwards married Deianira (_q.v._),
who accompanied him into exile after he had accidentally killed the boy
Eunomus. Having to cross a river, Hercules went on first, leaving his
wife to be carried over by the centaur Nessus. The latter attempted to
do violence to her, but her screams were heard by Hercules, who shot an
arrow into the heart of Nessus. Deianira preserved some of the blood of
the centaur, as he told her it would enable her to keep the love of her
husband. Unfortunately, however, the blood was poisoned with the arrow
with which Hercules had shot Nessus, so that when Hercules put on a
garment which had been steeped in the blood he speedily suffered most
terrible torture, and in endeavoring to wrench the garment off, tore
whole pieces of flesh from his body. Deianira, on seeing what she had
unwittingly done, hanged herself. Hercules was carried off by the gods
to Olympus and married Hebe.

=Hermes= (_her´mēz_).--See “Mercury.”

=Hermione= (_her´mi-o-nē_).--The beautiful daughter of Menelaus and
Helen. She was married, first to Neoptolemus and secondly to Orestes.

=Hero= (_he´rō_).--A priestess of Venus in Sestos, beloved by Leander
(_q.v._).

=Hesione= (_hē´si-o-nē_).--Daughter of Laomedon, king of Troy, who was
exposed by her father to the fury of a sea-monster in order to appease
the anger of Apollo and Neptune. Hercules rescued her and gave her to
Telamon, to whom she bore Teucer.

=Hesperides= (_hes-per´id-ēz_).--The guardians of the golden apples
given by Ge (the Earth) to Juno at her marriage with Jupiter. They were
three in number, and were the daughters of Atlas and Hesperis. See
“Hercules.”

=Hestia.=--See “Vesta.”

=Hippocrene= (_hip-po-krē´nē_)--_i. e._ the Fountain of the Horse. A
fountain near Mount Helicon, sacred to the Muses, and which is fabled to
have been produced by a stroke of the hoof of the winged horse Pegasus.

=Hippodamia= (_hip-po-da-mī´a_).--Wife of Pirithous, at whose nuptials
took place the celebrated fight between the Centaurs and Lapithæ.

=Hippolyte= (_hip-pol´it-ē_).--Daughter of Mars and queen of the
Amazons. She was slain by Hercules (_q.v._).

=Hippolytus= (_hip-pol´it-us_).--Son of Theseus and Hippolyte. In
consequence of a false accusation brought against him by his stepmother
Phædra, he was thrown out of his chariot and dragged along the ground
till he was dead. He was restored to life by Æsculapius.

=Hippomenes= (_hip-pō´men-ēz_).--Son of Megarus, who conquered Atalanta
(_q.v._) in a race.

=Hobomoko.=--An evil spirit known among American Indians.

=Hōdeken.=--A famous German kobold, or domestic fairy servant; so called
from wearing a little felt hat pulled down over his face.

=Hoder.=--In Norse mythology a blind god who destroyed his brother
Baldur, at the instigation of Loki, without meaning to do so. He is the
type of night and darkness, as Baldur is of light and day.

=Hofvarpnir.=--The fleet steed of Ina, in Scandinavian legend, which
traveled through fire and air and enabled this messenger of the gods to
see all that was happening on the earth.

=Honir.=--In Asgard tales, name given to the god of mind or thought.

=Horæ= (_ho´rē_); the Hours.--Daughters of Jupiter and Themis. They
presided over the changes of the seasons, and kept watch at the gates of
Olympus.

=Horn of Plenty.=--See “Amalthea.”

=Horus.=--The Egyptian god of the sun, son of Osiris and Isis, who was
also worshiped in Greece and at Rome.

=Hugin.=--One of Odin’s two ravens, which carried him news from earth,
and when not thus employed, perched upon his shoulders. The
personification of thought or intellect.

=Hugon.=--A kind of evil spirit in the popular superstition of France--a
sort of ogre made use of to frighten children.

=Hyacinthus= (_hi-a-sin´thus_).--A beautiful Spartan youth, beloved by
Apollo, but accidentally killed by a blow of his quoit. From his blood
sprang the flower of the same name.

=Hyades= (_hī´a-dēz_)--_i. e._ the Rainers. The name of seven nymphs
forming a group in the head of Taurus. They were so called because when
they rise simultaneously with the sun rainy weather is announced.

=Hygeia= (_hi-jē´i-a_).--The goddess of health, daughter of Æsculapius.
She is often represented as a maiden in a long robe, and feeding a
serpent from a cup.

=Hylas= (_hi´las_).--A beautiful youth who accompanied Hercules in the
Argonautic expedition. On landing for water on the coast of Mysia, he
was carried off by the Naiads.

=Hymen= (_hi´men_).--The god of marriage; represented as a handsome
youth carrying in his hand a bridal torch.

=Hymettus= (_hi-met´tus_).--A mountain near Athens, famed for its honey
and its marble.

=Hyperborei= (_hī-per-bor´e-ī_)--lit. “beyond the north wind.” A
fabulous people living in the extreme north in a land of perpetual
sunshine, in a state of perfect happiness.

=Hyperion= (_hī-per-ī´ōn_)--lit. “he who goes above.” (i) A name applied
to the sun. (ii) A Titan, father of the sun.

=Hypsipyle= (_hip-sip´i-lē_).--Daughter of Thoas, king of Lemnos, in the
time of the Argonauts.

=I=

=Iacchus= (_i-ak’us_).--A name of Bacchus.

=Iapetus= (_i-ap’et-us_), or Japetus.--One of the Titans; father of
Atlas, Prometheus and Epimetheus.

=Icarus= (_ī-kar’us_).--See “Dædalus.”

=Ichthyophagi= (_ik-thi-of´a-jī_)--_i. e._ fish-eaters.--A name given by
the ancients to various peoples on the coasts of Asia and Africa.

=Ida= (_ī´da_).--(i) A mountain range near Troy, celebrated as the scene
of the judgment of Paris (_q.v._). From the summit of Ida the gods
watched the battles in the plain of Troy. (ii) A high mountain in Crete,
on which Jupiter was brought up.

=Idomeneus= (_ī-dom´en-ūs_).--King of Crete, and leader of the Cretans
against Troy. He rashly vowed to Neptune that, if the god granted him a
safe return, he would sacrifice to him whatever he should first meet on
landing. He was met by his son, whom he accordingly sacrificed. A plague
came in consequence, and the Cretans expelled Idomeneus.

=Iduna=, or =Idun=.--Daughter of the dwarf Svald, and wife of Bragi. She
kept in a box the golden apples which the gods tasted as often as they
wished to renew their youth. Loki on one occasion stole the box, but the
gods compelled him to restore it. Iduna seems to personify that part of
the year when the sun is north of the equator. Her apples indicate
fruits generally. Loki carries her off to Giant-land when the sun
descends below the equator, and he steals her apples. In time, Iduna
makes her escape, in the form of a sparrow, when the sun again rises
above the equator; and both gods and men rejoice in her return.

=Ifing.=--In Scandinavian mythology the great stream between the earth
and the sacred lands, whose waters never froze.

=Ilioneus= (_ī´li-o-nūs_).--The youngest son of Niobe.

=Ilium= (_ī´li-um_).--A poetical name for Troy, derived from Ilus, the
son of Tros, its founder. See “Troja.”

=Indra.=--In Hindu mythology the ever-youthful god of the firmament, and
the omnipotent ruler of the elements. He is a most important personage
in Indian fable. In the Vedic period of the Hindu religion, he occupied
a foremost rank, and, though degraded to an inferior position in the
Epic, he long enjoyed a great legendary popularity. In works of art he
is represented as riding on an elephant.

=Ino= (_ī´nō_).--Daughter of Cadmus and Hermione, wife of Athamas, king
of Thebes.

=Io= (_ī´ō_).--Daughter of a king of Argos; beloved by Jupiter, and
through fear of Juno changed into a cow (see “Argus”). Juno now
tormented her with a gadfly, and drove her from land to land, swimming
the Bosphorus (_i. e._ ox-ford), until she found rest at length in
Egypt, where she regained her original form. She was afterwards
worshiped as an Egyptian divinity under the name of Isis.

=Iolaus= (_ī-o-lā´us_).--The faithful companion and charioteer of
Hercules.

=Iphigenia= (_if-i-jen-ī´a_).--Daughter of Agamemnon and Clytæmnestra,
who was to have been offered up by way of expiation for an offense
committed by her father against Diana in killing a hart in her sacred
grove; but the goddess put a hart in her place and conveyed her to
Tauris, when she became the priestess of the goddess. Here she
afterwards saved her brother Orestes (_q.v._).

=Iris= (_ī´ris_).--The swift-footed messenger of the gods, the
personification of the rainbow. She was the sister of the Harpies.

=Isis= (_ī´sis_).--One of the chief Egyptian goddesses. See “Io.”

=Isocrates= (_ī-sok´ra-tēz_).--A celebrated orator and teacher of
rhetoric at Athens. He acquired a large fortune by his profession. He
put an end to his life B. C. 338, aged ninety-eight.

=Israfil.=--Known among Arabians as the angel of music, who possessed
the most melodious voice of all God’s creatures. This is the angel who
is to sound the resurrection trump, and make music for the saints in
paradise. Israfil, Gabriel and Michael were the three angels that warned
Abraham of Sodom’s destruction.

=Ithaca= (_ith´ak-a_).--An island in the Ionian Sea, celebrated as the
birthplace and the kingdom of Ulysses.

=Iulus= (_i-ūl´us_).--Son of Ascanius and grandson of Æneas.

=Ixion= (_iks-ī´on_).--King of the Lapithæ, in Thessaly, and father of
Pirithous. Jupiter purified him of a treacherous murder, yet he was
sufficiently ungrateful to attempt to win the love of Juno. Jupiter then
hurled him into Tartarus, where he was bound fast to a perpetually
revolving wheel.

=J=

=Jamshid.=--King of the genii, famous for a golden cup full of the
elixir of life. This cup, hidden by the genii, was discovered while
digging the foundations of Persepolis.

=Janus= (_jā´nus_).--An old Latin deity, the sun-god. He presided over
the beginning of everything; he opened the year, and hence the first
month of the year was called after him. He was the porter of heaven. His
temple in the Forum had two doors opposite each other, which in time of
war were open and in time of peace were shut. The latter happened only
thrice in Roman history. He is represented with a face at the back, as
well as one at the front, of his head.

=Japetus.=--See “Iapetus.”

=Jason= (_jā´son_).--The famous leader of the Argonauts; was the son of
Æson, king of Thessaly, who reigned at Iolcus. The principal part of his
history is given under “Argonautæ.” During his absence, while on the
Argonautic expedition, his uncle Pelias had slain his father. In order
to avenge this deed Medea, the wife of Jason, persuaded the daughters of
Pelias to cut their father to pieces and boil him, in the belief that he
would thus be restored to youth and vigor. Medea, who was well versed in
magic arts, had previously changed a ram into a lamb by similar
treatment. In this way, then, Pelias perished miserably, and his son
Acastus expelled Jason and Medea from Iolcus. They then went to Corinth,
where they lived happily for several years, until Jason deserted her in
favor of Creusa, the daughter of Creon, king of Corinth. Medea took
fearful vengeance. She sent Creusa a poisoned garment, which burned her
to death when she put it on; the palace also took fire, and her father,
Creon, perished in the flames. Medea then killed her children, and fled
to Athens in a chariot drawn by winged dragons.

=Jinn.=--A sort of fairies in Arabian mythology, the offspring of fire.
They are governed by a race of kings named Suleyman, one of whom “built
the pyramids.” Their chief abode is the mountain Kâf, and they appear to
men under the forms of serpents, dogs, cats, monsters, or even human
beings, and become invisible at pleasure. The evil jinn are ugly, but
the good are beautiful. According to fable, they were created from fire
two thousand years before Adam was made of earth.

=Jord.=--Daughter of Night and mother of Thor. In Scandinavian mythology
the name given to primitive earth.

=Juggernaut=, or =Jaggernaut=.--A Hindu god. The temple of this god is
in a town of the same name in Orissa.

=Juno= (_jū´no_); called Hera (_hē´ra_) by the Greeks.--The sister and
wife of Jupiter, and queen of heaven; daughter of Saturn and Rhea. She
was the guardian deity of women, and presided over marriage. She
specially watched over the birth of children, and was then invoked under
the name of Lucina (_lū-sī´na_). Homer described her as being of a
jealous, obstinate and quarrelsome disposition. In consequence of the
judgment of Paris (_q.v._), she was hostile to the Trojans, and
accordingly sided with the Greeks in the Trojan war. The peacock was
sacred to Juno. Juno was also regarded as the guardian of the finances,
and had a temple on the Capitoline hill, which contained the mint. Mars,
Vulcan and Hebe were her children.

=Jupiter= (_jū´pit-er_); called Zeus (_zūs_) by the Greeks.--King of
heaven, and greatest of the Olympian gods; was a son of Saturn and Rhea.
He dwelt on Mount Olympus, in Thessaly. He was the father and supreme
ruler of gods and men. His first wife was Metis (_q.v._). By Juno, his
second wife, he had two sons, Mars and Vulcan, and one daughter, Hebe.
The eagle, the oak, and doves were sacred to Jupiter. He was armed with
thunderbolts, and surrounded with thick clouds, the former being
provided for him by the Cyclops who worked under the direction of
Vulcan. Jupiter was regarded as the special protector of Rome, and had a
temple on the Capitol. He was looked upon as the guardian of law and the
protector of justice and virtue. He was also the ruler of the lower air,
hence rain and storms were supposed to come from him. In this connection
the Romans applied the surname _Pluvius_ (_i. e._ the rain-bringer) to
him, and special sacrifices were offered to him during long-protracted
droughts.

=Juventas= (_jū-ven´tas_).--The Roman name for Hebe (_q.v._), the
goddess of youth.

=K=

=Kama.=--The Hindu god of love. His wife is Rati (voluptuousness), and
he is represented as riding on a sparrow, holding in his hand a bow of
flowers and five arrows, each tipped with the bloom of a flower supposed
to conquer one of the senses. His power is so much exalted that even the
god Brahma is said to succumb to it.

=Kami.=--The gods of ancient Japan. The name, in modern times,
designates any spiritual saint, and may also be applied to a prince.

=Kaswa.=--The camel admitted into Moslem paradise, the favorite camel of
Mohammed which fell on its knees in adoration when “the prophet”
delivered the last clause of the Koran to the assembled multitude at
Mecca.

=Kederli.=--In Mohammedan mythology is a god corresponding to the
English St. George, and is still invoked by the Turks when they go to
war.

=Kelpie.=--In mythology of Scotland a spirit of the water seen in the
form of a horse. Each lake has its kelpie.

=Kobold.=--A house-spirit in German superstition. In northern lands the
name is sometimes used in place of elf or dwarf, representing an
underground spirit. Probably the same as the Scotch brownie.

=Koppelberg.=--The hill which miraculously opened to receive the
children who followed the Pied Piper. This belongs to mythology, as
people in the middle ages considered Odin as the leader of disembodied
spirits, and from this came the Pied Piper. The rats were the restless
souls of the dead, which the Pied Piper released by drowning.

=Krishna.=--In Hindu mythology the eighth incarnation of Vishnu.
According to some authorities, he is considered distinct from all the
Avatars, as these had only a portion of the divinity, and Krishna was
Vishnu himself in the form of “the Black One.”

=L=

=Ladon= (_lā´don_).--The dragon that guarded the apples of the
Hesperides. It was slain by Hercules.

=Laertes= (_lā-er´tēz_).--King of the island of Ithaca and father of
Ulysses. He took part in the Calydonian boar hunt, and in the Argonautic
expedition. He lived to see the return of his son to Ithaca, after the
fall of Troy.

=Laius= (_lā´i-us_).--King of Thebes and father of Œdipus.

=Laocoon= (_lā-ok´o-on_).--A Trojan, priest of Apollo, who strenuously
opposed the admission of the wooden horse into Troy (_q.v._). As he was
preparing to sacrifice a bull to Neptune, two fearful serpents swam out
of the sea and strangled both him and his two sons.

=Laodamia= (_lā-od-a-mī´a_).--Daughter of Acastus and wife of
Protesilaus.

_Laodice_ (_la-od´i-sē_).--(i) Daughter of Priam and Hecuba. (ii) The
name given by Homer to Electra, daughter of Agamemnon and Clytæmnestra.

=Laomedon= (_lā-om´e-don_).--King of Troy, father of Priam.

=Lapithæ= (_lap´i-thē_).--A mythical people inhabiting the mountains of
Thessaly. They were ruled by Pirithous, who, as Ixion’s son, was
half-brother of the Centaurs. When Pirithous married Hippodamia, and
invited the Centaurs to the marriage feast, the latter, fired by wine,
attempted to carry off the bride and the other women. Hence arose the
celebrated fight between the Centaurs and the Lapithæ, in which the
former were defeated. The Lapithæ are said to have invented bits and
bridles for horses.

=Lares= (_lār´ēz_).--Household divinities--the divinities presiding over
the hearth, and the whole house. In great houses the images of the Lares
were placed in a separate compartment. At meal times some portion was
offered to the Lares, and on festive occasions they were adorned with
wreaths.

=Latinus= (_la-tī´nus_).--King of Latium, who gave Æneas his daughter
Lavinia in marriage.

=Latmus= (_lat´mus_).--A mountain in Caria, on which Endymion (_q.v._)
lay in perpetual sleep.

=Latona= (_la-tō´na_); called Leto (_lē´tō_) by the Greeks. The mother
of Apollo and Diana, by Jupiter. She was persecuted by Juno, and
wandered from place to place till she came to Delos, which was then a
floating island, but which Jupiter fastened by adamantine chains to the
bottom of the sea. Here Apollo and Diana were born.

=Lavinia= (_la-vin´i-a_).--Daughter of Latinus and wife of Æneas.

=Leander= (_lē-an´der_).--A young man of Abydos (_a-bī´dos_), who swam
across the Hellespont every night to visit Hero, the priestess of Venus,
in Sestus. One night, however, during a storm, he perished; and when his
corpse was washed on the coast, on the following morning, Hero threw
herself into the sea.

=Leda= (_lē´da_).--Wife of Tyndarus, king of Sparta. Jupiter visited her
in the form of a swan, and she became the mother of Castor and Pollux,
the celebrated Helen of Troy, and Clyæmnestra.

=Lemnos= (_lem´nos_).--One of the largest islands in the Ægean Sea; the
abode of Vulcan, who was said to have fallen here when he was hurled
down from Olympus. It is now called Stalimene.

=Lemures.=--The specters or spirits of the dead. They were said to
wander about at night, as specters, and to torment and frighten the
living. In order to propitiate them the Romans celebrated the festival
of the _Lemuralia_ or _Lemuria_.

=Lerna= (_ler´na_).--A forest and marsh near Argos, through which flowed
a stream of the same name. Here Hercules killed the famous Lernean
hydra. See “Hercules.”

=Lesbos= (_les´bos_).--A celebrated island in the Ægean Sea, off the
coast of Mysia. Its principal city was Mytilene. It was the birthplace
of Sappho, Arion, Alcæus and Theophrastus.

=Lethe= (_lē´thē_)--_lit._ “forgetfulness” (Gr.).--A river in the lower
world, the water of which was drunk by the shades, who thus obtained
forgetfulness of the past.

=Leto.=--See “Latona.”

=Liber= (_lī´ber_).--An old Italian deity who presided over planting and
fructification. Subsequently the name was applied to Bacchus.

=Libera= (_lī´ber-a_).--Another name for Proserpine, daughter of Ceres,
and sister of Liber.

=Libitina= (_lib-i-tī´na_).--The goddess of the dead, in whose temple at
Rome everything pertaining to burials was sold or hired out.

=Lidskialf.=--The throne of Alfadir, whence he can view the whole
universe.

=Lif.=--In Norse mythology the name given to a man who is to occupy the
purified earth when goodness resumes its sway.

=Lilinau.=--In American Indian folk-lore Lilinau was wooed by a phantom.
She followed his green waving plume through the forest, and was never
seen again.

=Lilith.=--In Hebrew mythology a female specter who lies in wait for
children in order to destroy them. The older traditions tell of Lilith
as a former wife of Adam and the mother of demons. Amulets were worn as
protection from her powers.

=Lobaircin.=--In Irish mythical tales a fairy shoemaker resembling an
old man, who resorts to out-of-way places where he is discovered by the
noise of his hammer. He is rich, and, while anyone keeps his eye fixed
upon him, cannot escape, but the moment the eye is withdrawn he
vanishes.

=Lofu.=--The Scandinavian god who guards friendship.

=Lofua.=--The Scandinavian goddess who reconciles lovers.

=Loki.=--The great god of fire in Norse mythology.

=Lorelei.=--In German legend a siren who haunted a rock of the same name
on the right bank of the Rhine. She combed her hair with a golden comb,
and sang a wild song which enticed fishermen and sailors to destruction
on the rocks and rapids at the foot of the precipice. In northern
mythology Lorelei is represented as immortal, a daughter of the Rhine,
and dwelling in the river bed.

=Lotis= (_lō´tis_).--A nymph who, to escape from Priapus, son of
Bacchus, was changed into the lotus tree.

=Lotophagi= (_lō-tof´a-jī_)--_i. e._ lotus-eaters.--A people visited by
Ulysses during his voyage homewards from Troy. The lotus was a fruit the
taste of which was so delicious that all who ate it lost all desire to
return to their native land.

=Lua= (_lu´a_).--A goddess to whom were devoted the arms taken in
battle.

=Lucifer= (Lat.), or =Phosphorus= (Gr.)--_i. e._ the light-bringer. The
planet Venus when it appears as the morning-star.

=Lucina= (_lū-sī´na_).--The goddess that presides over the birth of
children. It was used as a surname for Juno.

=Lud.=--In ancient British mythology the king of the Britons.

=Luna= (_lū´na_).--Goddess of the moon, called by the Greeks Selene
(_sel-ē´nē_), and identified with Diana.

=Lupercus= (_lu-per´kus_).--A deity who protected the flocks from
wolves.

=Lycæus= (_li-sē´us_).--A lofty mountain in Arcadia, where Jupiter and
Pan were worshiped.

=Lycaon= (_li-kā´ōn_).--King of Arcadia, who impiously placed a dish of
human flesh before Jupiter when the god visited him. He and all his sons
were metamorphosed into wolves.

=Lyceum= (_li-sē´um_).--A gymnasium at Athens, outside of the city;
celebrated as the place where Aristotle and the Peripatetics taught. It
derived its name from the temple of Apollo Lyceus (_li-sē´us_) in the
neighborhood.

=Lycomedes= (_li-ko-mē´dēz_).--King of Scyros, to whose court Achilles
was sent, disguised as a maiden, by his mother Thetis, in order to
prevent him going to the Trojan war.

=Lycurgus= (_li-sur´gus_).--Son of Dryas, and king of the Edones in
Thrace. He prohibited the worship of Bacchus, and was hence driven mad
by the gods, and subsequently killed.

=Lynceus= (_lin´sūs_).--One of the Argonauts, famous for the keenness of
his sight.

=Lyncus= (_lin´sus_).--A Scythian king, who was changed by Ceres into a
lynx.

=M=

=Machaon= (_ma-kā´on_).--Son of Æsculapius, a famous surgeon of the
Greeks before Troy.

=Maia= (_mā´i-a_)--Daughter of Atlas and Pleione, and the eldest and
most beautiful of the several Pleiades. She became, by Jupiter, the
mother of Mercury.

=Manes= (_mā´nēz_)--_lit._ “the good, benevolent.”--The name given by
the Romans to the souls of the dead, who were worshiped as gods.

=Mani.=--Name given in ancient Norse mythology to the moon. Later known
as the son of Mundilfori; taken to heaven by the gods to drive the
moon-car. He is followed by a wolf, which, when time shall be no more,
will devour both Mani and his sister Sol.

=Manitou.=--The great spirit of American Indians.

=Marica= (_ma-rī´ka_).--A Latin nymph, the mother of Latinus.

=Mars= (_märz_); called by the Greeks Ares (_ā´rē_).--The god of war, of
husbandry, of shepherds, and seers, who, as father of Romulus, was the
progenitor of the Roman people. He was the son of Jupiter and Juno. He
loved, and was beloved by Venus. The wolf and the woodpecker were sacred
to Mars.

=Marsyas= (_mar’si-as_).--A satyr who, having found the flute which
Minerva had thrown away because it distorted her features whilst playing
it, rashly challenged Apollo to a musical contest. Apollo played upon
the cithara and Marsyas upon the flute, and the Muses were the umpires.
They decided in favor of Apollo, who then bound Marsyas to a tree and
flayed him alive in accordance with the conditions of the
contest--namely, that the victor should do what he pleased with the
vanquished.

=Medea= (_mē-dē´a_).--Daughter of Æëtes, king of Colchis; celebrated for
her skill in magic. She assisted Jason in obtaining the Golden Fleece
(see “Argonautæ”), and accompanied him to Greece. She effectually
stopped her father’s pursuit by killing her brother Absyrtus (_q.v._),
and strewing his body cut in pieces on the seashore. See “Jason.”

=Medusa= (_me-dū´sa_).--See “Gorgons.”

=Megæra= (_me-gē´ra_).--See “Furiæ.”

=Megin-giord.=--A magic belt worn by the god Thor. He once proposed to
show his strength by lifting great weights, but when challenged to pick
up the giant’s cat, he tugged and strained, only to succeed in raising
one paw from the floor, although he had taken the precaution to enhance
his strength as much as possible by tightening his belt Megin-giord.

=Meleager= (_mel-e-ā´ger_).--Son of Œneus, king of Calydon; was one of
the Argonauts, and also the leader of the heroes who took part in the
celebrated Calydonian boar hunt. See “Calydon.”

=Melicerta= (_mel-i-ser’ta_), or =Melicertes=.--Son of Ino and Athamas.
When Athamas was seized with madness he pursued Ino and Melicertes, who
in order to escape had to throw themselves into the sea, whereupon both
were changed into marine deities. Ino becoming Leucothea, and Melicertes
a sea-god, called by the Greeks Palaemon, and by the Romans Portunus.

=Melos= (_mē´los_).--An island in the Ægean Sea, and the most
southwesterly of the Cyclades. It is now called Milo, and here was found
the celebrated statue known as the “Venus of Milo.” See “Venus.”

=Melpomene= (_mel-pom’en-ā_).--The muse of tragedy. See “Musæ.”

=Memnon= (_mem’nōn_).--The handsome son of Tithonus and Aurora; was king
of the Ethiopians. He went to the aid of Priam, king of Troy, towards
the end of the Trojan war, but was slain by Achilles. His colossal
marble statue at Thebes (which, however, in reality represented the
Egyptian king Amenophis) when struck by the first rays of the rising sun
was said to emit a sound resembling that of a plucked string.

=Menelaus= (_men-e-lā´us_).--Son of Atreus, the husband of the beautiful
Helen and father of Hermione; king of Lacedæmon (or Sparta), younger
brother of Agamemnon. Paris (_q.v._), having been promised the most
beautiful woman in the world for his wife, sailed to Greece under the
protection of Venus, and was hospitably received in the palace of
Menelaus at Sparta. Here he succeeded in carrying off Helen, and thus
arose the Trojan war, the object of which was to recover Helen. In the
Trojan war Menelaus met Paris in single combat, and would have killed
him had he not been carried off in a cloud by Venus. After the death of
Paris, Helen married his brother Deiphobus, who was barbarously put to
death by Menelaus at the taking of Troy. Helen secretly introduced
Menelaus into the chamber of Deiphobus, and thus became reconciled to
him. Menelaus and Helen then sailed away from Troy, and after eight
years’ wandering about the shores of the Mediterranean finally reached
Sparta, where they passed the rest of their lives in peace and wealth.

=Mentor= (_men’tor_).--The faithful friend of Ulysses.

=Mephistopheles.=--One of the seven chief devils in the old demonology,
the second of the fallen archangels, and the most powerful of the
infernal legionaries after Satan. He figures in the old legend of _Dr.
Faustus_ as the familiar spirit of that magician. To modern readers he
is chiefly known as the cold, scoffing, relentless fiend of Goethe’s
_Faust_, and the attendant demon in Marlowe’s _Faustus_.

=Mercurius= (_mer-kū´ri-us_), or =Mercury= (_mer´kū-ri_), called Hermes
(_her´mēz_) by the Greeks.--Son of Jupiter and Maia; the messenger of
the gods, and the god of commerce and gain. As the herald of the gods,
he was the god of eloquence. He was the god of prudence and cunning,
also of fraud and theft. Being the messenger of the gods, he was
likewise looked upon as the god of roads who protected travelers; and
was the god of music and of chemistry, hence the words _hermetic_,
_hermetically_ (sealed). He was employed by the gods to conduct departed
souls to the lower world. He invented the lyre, which he first made by
stretching strings across the shell of a tortoise. The palm tree, the
tortoise, the number 4, and several kinds of fish were sacred to him. He
is generally represented with a hat having two wings; a pair of winged
sandals, which carried him with the speed of wind across land and sea;
and, as messenger of the gods, he carries in his hand a wand or
_caduceus_ (_ka-dū´se-us_), having two serpents intertwined at one end
of it.

=Meriones= (_mē´ri-o-nēz_).--The charioteer of Idomeneus, and one of the
bravest heroes in the Trojan war.

=Mermaids.=--Wave maidens of northern mythology and classed with nymphs
in Grecian and Roman. They were generally represented as young and
beautiful virgins, partially covered with a veil or thin cloth, bearing
in their hands vases of water, or shells, leaves, or grass, or having
something as a symbol of their appropriate offices. They were attendants
of the gods.

=Meru.=--In Hindu mythology a sacred mountain, eighty thousand leagues
high, situated in the center of the world. It is the abode of Indra, and
abounds with every charm that can be imagined. The Olympus of the
Indians.

=Merope= (_mer´o-pē_).--Daughter of Atlas, one of the Pleiades.

=Metis= (_mē´tis_)--_lit._ wisdom, prudence (Gr.).--Daughter of Oceanus
and Tethys, and the first wife of Jupiter. Fearing that she might give
birth to a child who should become more powerful than himself, Jupiter
swallowed her. Afterwards Minerva sprang from his head.

=Midgard.=--In Scandinavian mythology the name given to the earth. Out
of the giant’s flesh they fashioned Midgard (middle garden), as the
earth was called, which was placed in the exact center of the vast
space, and hedged all around with Ymir’s eyebrows, which formed its
bulwarks or ramparts. The solid portion of Midgard was surrounded by the
giant’s blood or sweat, which now formed the ocean, while his bones made
the hills, his flat teeth the cliffs, and his curly hair the trees and
all vegetation.

=Midgard Sormen= (earth’s monster).--The great serpent that lay in the
abyss at the root of the celestial ash. Child of Loki.

=Milo.=--The modern name for the island of Melos (_q.v._).

=Mimir.=--In Scandinavian mythology the god of wisdom. Also god of the
ocean, which is called “Mimir’s well,” in which wit and wisdom lay
hidden, and of which he drank every morning from the horn Gjallar.

=Minerva= (_min-er´va_); called Athena (_a-thē´na_), Pallas Athene
(_pal´las_), or simply Pallas, by the Greeks.--The goddess of wisdom, of
the arts and sciences, of poetry and of spinning and weaving, and the
protectress of agriculture. She was also a goddess of war. She was the
daughter of Jupiter and Metis (_q.v._). She was the protective deity of
Athens, which was so named in honor of her (Athena): see “Athenæ.” The
owl, serpent, cock and olive tree were sacred to her.

=Minos= (_mī´nos_).--(i) Son of Jupiter and Europa, brother of
Rhadamanthus, king and lawgiver in Crete, and after death one of the
three judges of the shades in the infernal regions (the other two being
Rhadamanthus and Æacus). (ii) Grandson of the former, likewise king of
Crete, the husband of Pasiphaë and the father of Ariadne and other
children. His son Androgeos (_q.v._) having been shamefully treated by
the Athenians, he made war against the latter and compelled them to send
every year to Crete, as tribute, seven young men and seven maidens to be
devoured by the Minotaur. This Minotaur was a terrible monster, with the
head of a bull and the body of a man, the offspring of Pasiphaë and a
bull. It was kept in a labyrinth constructed by Dædalus, but was slain
by Theseus (_q.v._), with the help of Ariadne, the daughter of Minos.

=Minotaur= (_mī´no-tawr_)--_i.e._ the bull of Minos (Lat.).--See
“Minos.”

=Minyæ= (_min´i-ē_).--The Minyans, an ancient Greek race dwelling in
Thessaly. The Argonauts, being mainly Minyans, are called Minyæ.

=Mithras= (_mith´ras_).--The sun-god of the Persians.

=Mjolnir.=--From mythology of northern lands. The name of Thor’s
celebrated hammer--a type of the thunderbolt--which, however far it
might be cast, was never lost, as it always returned to his hand; and
which, whenever he wished, became so small that he could put it in his
pocket.

=Mnemosyne= (_nē-mos´i-nē_)--_i. e._ memory (Gr.).--The mother of the
Muses.

=Moakkibat.=--A class of angels, according to the Mohammedan mythology.
Two angels of this class attend every child of Adam from the cradle to
the grave. At sunset they fly up with the record of the deeds done since
sunrise. Every good deed is entered ten times by the recording angel on
the credit or right side of his ledger, but when an evil deed is
reported the angel waits seven hours, “if happily in that time the
evil-doer may repent.”

=Moloch.=--A god of the Phœnicians to whom human victims, principally
children, were sacrificed. Moloch is figurative of the influence which
impels us to sacrifice that which we ought to cherish most dearly.

=Momus= (_mō´mus_).--The god of mockery and censure.

=Mona= (_mon´a_).--The isle of Anglesey; sometimes supposed to be the
isle of Man. It was one of the chief seats of the Druids.

=Moneta= (_mon-ē´ta_).--A Roman surname of Juno as the protectress of
money.

=Mopsus= (_mop´sus_).--The name of two soothsayers, one being the
prophet of the Argonauts, and the other the son of Apollo and Manto. He
contended in prophecy with Calchas (_q.v._), whose superior he proved
himself to be.

=Morpheus= (_mor´fe-us_).--The son of sleep and the god of dreams. The
name signifies (Gr.) the fashioner, moulder, so called from the shapes
he calls up before the sleeper.

=Mowis.=--The bridegroom of Snow, who (according to American Indian
tradition) wooed and won a beautiful bride; but when morning dawned,
Mowis left the wigwam, and melted into the sunshine. The bride hunted
for him night and day in the forests, but never saw him more.

=Musæ= (_mū´zē_).--The Muses, daughters of Jupiter and Mnemosyne, were
nine in number, and presided over the different kinds of poetry, the
arts and sciences. Their names and special attributes were as follows:
(i) Calliope (_kal-lī´o-pē_), the muse of epic poetry; (ii) Clio
(_klī´ō_), of history; (iii) Erato (_er´a-tō_), of erotic poetry and
mimic imitation; (iv) Euterpe (_ū-ter´pē_), of lyric poetry; (v)
Melpomene (_mel-pom´en-ē_), of tragedy; (vi) Polyhymnia
(_pol-i-him´ni-a_), of the sublime hymn; (vii) Terpsichore
(_terp-sik´o-rē_), of choral song and dancing; (viii) Thalia
(_tha-li´a_), of comedy; and (ix) Urania (_ū-rā´ni-a_), of astronomy.
The favorite haunt of the Muses was Mount Helicon in Bœotia, where were
the sacred fountains of Aganippe and Hippocrene. Mount Parnassus was
also sacred to them.

=Myrmidones= (_mer-mid´on-ēz_), or =Myrmidons= (_mer´mid-ons_).--A
people of Thessaly, under the rule of Achilles, whom they accompanied to
Troy.

=Myrtilus= (_mer´til-us_).--Son of Mercury, and charioteer of Œnomaus.
See “Pelops.”

=Mysterious Three, The.=--In Scandinavian mythology were Har “the
Mighty,” the “Like-Mighty,” and the “Third Person,” who sat on three
thrones above the rainbow. Then came the Æsir, of which Odin was chief,
who lived in Asgard (between the rainbow and earth); next came the
Vanir, or gods of the ocean, air, and clouds, of which deities Niörd was
chief.

=N=

=Naiades= (_nā´i-a-dēz_), or =Naiads= (_nā´yadz_).--The nymphs of
freshwater. See “Nymphæ.”

=Naraka.=--The hell of the Hindus. It has twenty-eight divisions, in
some of which the victims are mangled by ravens and owls; in others they
are doomed to swallow cakes boiling hot, or walk over burning sands.

=Narcissus= (_nar-sis´us_).--A beautiful youth, inaccessible to the
feeling of love. The nymph Echo fell in love with him, but, her love not
being returned, she pined away in grief (see “Echo”). In order to punish
him, Nemesis made him see his own reflected image in a fountain,
whereupon he became so enamored of it that he gradually pined away until
changed into the flower that bears his name.

=Nausicaa= (_naw-sik´a-a_).--Daughter of Alcinous, who conducted
Ulysses, when shipwrecked on the coast of Scheria (an island), to her
father’s court.

=Neleus= (_nē´lūs_).--Son of Neptune and the nymph Tyro; king of Pylos,
in Peloponnesus, and father of Nestor (_q.v._).

=Nemea= (_ne-mē´a_).--A city in Argolis, near which Hercules slew the
Nemean lion.

=Nemesis= (_nem´e-sis_)--_i. e._ vengeance (Gr.).--The goddess of
retribution, who brings down all immoderate good fortune. She was also
regarded as the goddess who punished crimes. She was the daughter of
Night, and was represented as a crowned virgin, of great beauty and
grace, with a whip in one hand and a pair of scales in the other.

=Neoptolemus= (_ne-op-tol´em-us_).--Son of Achilles and Deidamia. He was
also called Pyrrhus (_pir´us_), on account of his reddish hair (Gr.);
his other name, Neoptolemus, which signifies _New-to-war_ (Gr.), having
been given to him because he _came late to Troy_. He displayed great
valor at Troy, and was one of the heroes concealed in the wooden horse
(see “Troy”). He slew Priam and his daughter Polyxena. At the
distribution of captives Andromache, the widow of Hector, fell to his
lot, and he took her to Epirus. He married Hermione, the beautiful
daughter of Menelaus and Helen, but was slain by Orestes, to whom she
had been previously promised.

=Neptunus= (_nep-tū´nus_), or =Neptune=; called Poseidon (_po-sī´don_)
by the Greeks.--The god of the sea and other waters, the brother of
Jupiter, and husband of Amphitrite. His palace was in the depth of the
sea, near Ægæ, in Eubœa, where he kept his horses with brazen hoofs and
golden manes, which drew his chariot over the waves of the sea. His
celebrated contest with Minerva for the possession of Athens is narrated
under “Athenæ.” In the Trojan war he sided with the Greeks. He not only
created the horse, but also taught men the art of managing horses by the
bit and bridle. The symbol of his power was a trident, or spear with
three prongs, with which he called forth or hushed storms, shook the
earth, etc. Besides the trident, his attributes are the dolphin and the
horse.

=Nereides= (_nē´re-i-dēz_ or _nē-rē´id-ēz_); the Nereids
(_nē´-re-ids_).--The fifty daughters of Nereus and Doris. They were the
marine nymphs of the Mediterranean (see “Nymphæ”). Thetis, the mother of
Achilles, was a Nereid.

=Nereus= (_nē´rūs_).--Son of Pontus and Gæa, and husband of Doris,
father of the fifty Nereids. He dwelt at the bottom of the sea, and was
regarded as the wise old man of the sea. Like other marine divinities,
he was supposed to have the power of prophesying the future, and of
appearing to mortals in various shapes. The Ægean Sea was his
empire--possibly the whole of the Mediterranean.

=Nessus= (_ness´us_).--A Centaur who was slain with a poisoned arrow by
Hercules (_q.v._).

=Nestor= (_nes´tor_).--Son of Neleus and king of Pylos. He was famous
among the heroes before Troy for his wisdom, justice and eloquence. In
early life he was a distinguished warrior, and took part in the fight
between the Centaurs and the Lapithæ, and was one of the Calydonian
hunters and one of the Argonauts. He is said to have lived through three
generations of men. He safely reached Pylos again after the fall of
Troy.

=Nicneven.=--A gigantic and malignant female spirit of the old popular
Scottish mythology. The hag is represented as riding at the head of
witches and fairies at Hallowe’en.

=Nidhogg.=--The dragon that gnaws at the root of Yggdrasil, the tree of
the universe in Scandinavian mythology.

=Niflheim.=--Mist-home of old Norse mythology. The region of endless
cold and everlasting night, ruled over by Hela. It consists of nine
worlds, to which are consigned those who die of disease or old age. This
region existed “from the beginning” in the north, and in the middle
thereof was the well Hvergelmir, from which flowed twelve rivers.

=Niobe= (_nī´o-bē_).--Daughter of Tantalus and wife of Amphion, king of
Thebes. Having seven sons and seven daughters, she imprudently boasted
of her superiority to Latona, who had but two children--Apollo and
Diana. The latter, indignant at her presumption, slew all her children
with their arrows. Niobe herself was changed into a stone.

=Niord.=--The Scandinavian sea-god. He was not one of the Æsir. Niord’s
son was Frey (the fairy of the clouds), and his daughter was Freyja. His
home was Noatun. Niord was not a sea-god like Neptune, but the spirit of
water and air. The Scandinavian Neptune was Ægir, whose wife was Skadi.
His temples were near the seashore and all aquatic plants belonged to
him.

=Nisus= (_nī´sus_).--A friend of Euryalus (_ū-rī´a-lus_).--The two
accompanied Æneas to Italy, and perished in a night attack on the
Rutulian camp.

=Nix.=--Little creatures not unlike the Scotch brownie and German
kobold. They wear a red cap, and are ever ready to lend a helping hand
to the industrious and thrifty.

=Nokomis.=--Daughter of the moon, American Indian myths. Sporting one
day with her maidens on a swing made of vine canes, a rival cut the
swing, and Nokomis fell to earth, where she gave birth to a daughter
named Wenonah.

=Nornir=, or =Norns=.--The three fates of Scandinavian mythology, past,
present, and future. They spin the events of human life, sitting under
the ash-tree Yggdrasil which they carefully tend. Their names are Urda
(the past), Verdandi (the present), and Skuld (the future). Besides
these three Norns, every human creature has a personal Norn or fate. The
home of the Norns is called in Scandinavian mythology Doomstead.

=Notus= (_nō´tus_) (Gr.); called Auster by the Romans.--The south or
southwest wind.

=Nox= (_noks_); called Nux (_nūks_) by the Greeks.--Night, daughter of
Chaos.

=Numitor= (_nū´mi-tor_).--A king of Alba, grandfather of Romulus and
Remus.

=Nymphæ= (_nim´fē_), or =Nymphs=.--Lesser female divinities supposed by
the Greeks to dwell in the sea, springs, rivers, grottoes, trees and
mountains. They had distinctive names, according to their habitat, as
follows:

(i) The sea-nymphs, which were divided into two classes--the Oceanides
(_ō-se-an´id-ēz_), or Nymphs of the Ocean, who were daughters of Oceanus
(_ō-sē´an-us_); and the Nereides (_nē´re-id-ēz_ or _nē-rē´id-ēz_), or
Nereids (_nē´re-ids_), the nymphs of the Mediterranean, who were the
daughters of Nereus.

(ii) The nymphs of fresh-water (rivers, lakes, brooks or springs);
called Naiades (_nā´i-a-dēz_), or Naiads (_nā´yads_).

(iii) Oreades (_o-rē´ad-ēz_), the nymphs of mountains and grottoes.

(iv) Napææ (_na-pē´ē_), the nymphs of glens.

(v) Dryades (_drī´ad-ēz_), or Dryads, and Hamadryades
(_ham-a-dri´ad-ēz_), the nymphs of trees; these nymphs died with the
trees that had been their abode, and with which they had come into
existence.

=Nysa= (_nī´sa_).--A city in India, where Bacchus was brought up.

=O=

=Oceanus= (_ō-sē´an-us_).--Son of Heaven and Earth, the god of the water
that was supposed to surround the whole earth, the husband of Tethys,
and the father of all the river-gods and water-nymphs of the whole
earth. The ancient Greeks imagined the earth to be flat and circular,
and to be surrounded by a river, which flowed perpetually around it, and
which they called Oceanus. It was the great Outward Sea, opposed to the
Inward or Mediterranean.

=Odhærir.=--In Scandinavian mythology the mead or nectar made of
Kvasir´s blood, kept in three jars. The second of these jars is called
“Sohn,” and the third “Bohn.” Probably the nectar is the “spirit of
poetry.”

=Odin.=--The king of gods and men, and the reputed progenitor of the
Scandinavian kings. He corresponds both to the Jupiter and the Mars of
classical mythology. As god of war, he holds his court in Valhalla,
surrounded by all warriors who have fallen in battle, and attended by
two wolves, to whom he gives his share of food; for he himself lives on
wine alone. On his shoulders he carries two ravens, Hugin (mind) and
Munin (memory), whom he dispatches every day to bring him news of all
that is doing throughout the world. He has three great treasures,
namely, Sleipnir, an eight-footed horse of marvelous swiftness; Gungnir,
a spear, which never fails to strike what it is aimed at; and Draupnir,
a magic ring, which every ninth night drops eight other rings of equal
value. The German tribes worshiped Odin under the name of “Woden.” The
fourth day of the week, Wednesday, was sacred to him.

=Odur.=--In Scandinavian mythology, husband of Freyja, whom he deserted.
He abandoned his wife on her loss of youth and beauty, and was punished.

=Odysseus= (_od-is´sūs_).--The Greek form of Ulysses, king of Ithaca,
whose return from Troy to Ithaca forms the subject of the Odyssey. See
“Ulysses.”

=Œneus= (_ē´nūs_).--King of Pleuron and Calydon, in Ætolia, husband of
Althæa, and father of Meleager, Deianira, and other children. During his
reign the boar that laid waste the lands of Calydon gave rise to the
celebrated Calydonian boar hunt.

=Œnone= (_ē-nō´nē_).--Wife of Paris of Troy, before he carried off
Helen.

=Oileus= (_o-ī´lūs_).--King of the Locrians, father of the lesser Ajax,
and one of the Argonauts.

=Olympia= (_o-lim´pi-a_).--A plain in Elis, where the Olympian games
were held. In the plain was the sacred grove of Jupiter, which contained
the masterpiece of Greek art--the colossal statue of Jupiter by Phidias.
The Olympic games were held every four years, this interval being called
an Olympiad.

=Olympus= (_o-lim´pus_).--A mountain range on the boundary of Macedonia
and Thessaly, of great height, and consequently regarded as the abode of
the gods. Once the giants tried to reach heaven, and to do so piled
Mount Pelion on Mount Ossa (both being high mountains in the
neighborhood of Olympus); but Jupiter used his thunderbolts against
them, and, with the assistance of Hercules, destroyed them all, and
buried them under Mount Ætna.

=Omphale= (_om´fa-lē_).--A queen of Lydia, whom Hercules served as a
slave a short time. She put on his lion´s skin, and carried his club,
whilst he donned woman´s attire and spun wool.

=Ops.=--Wife of Saturn, the goddess of plenty and fertility, and
especially the patroness of husbandry.

=Oreades.=--See “Nymphæ.”

=Orestes= (_o-res´tēz_).--Son of Agamemnon and Clytæmnestra, who, on the
murder of Agamemnon, after his return from Troy, by Clytæmnestra and her
paramour Ægisthus, was saved from the same fate by his sister Electra.
He went to Strophius, king of Phocis, who was the husband of his aunt
Anaxibia. Here he formed a memorable friendship with Pylades
(_pī´la-dēz_), the king’s son. Later he avenged his father’s death by
slaying his mother and Ægisthus; but was, in consequence, seized with
madness and wandered from place to place. Apollo told him he could
recover from his madness only by bringing the statue of Diana from the
Tauric Chersonesus. Accordingly he set out, in company with his friend
Pylades; but on their arrival they would have been sacrificed by the
Tauri (_q.v._) to Diana had not Orestes’ sister Iphigenia, who was the
priestess of Diana, recognized him and intervened in time to save their
lives. All three then escaped with the statue of the goddess. After this
Orestes became king of Mycenæ, his father’s kingdom, and married the
beautiful Hermione, daughter of Menelaus and Helen (of Troy), after
slaying Neoptolemus (_q.v._).

=Orion= (_o-rī´on_).--A handsome giant and hunter. He was beloved by
Diana, which so displeased Apollo that he asserted that she was unable
to hit, with one of her arrows, a distant point he showed her in the
sea. This point was the head of Orion, who was swimming in the sea. Thus
Orion perished, and he was placed among the stars, where he appears as a
giant with a girdle, sword, a lion’s skin, and a club.

=Orlog.=--A god of Norse fable personifying the eternal law of the
universe, from whose decree there was no appeal.

=Ormuzd.=--The name of the supreme deity of the ancient Persians, and of
their descendants, the Parsees and Ghebers. He is an embodiment of the
principle of good, and was created by the will of the great eternal
spirit, Zervan-Akharana, simultaneously with Ahriman, the principle of
evil, with whom he is in perpetual conflict. Ormuzd is the creator of
the earth, sun, moon, and stars, to each of which he originally assigned
its proper place, and whose various movements he continues to regulate.

=Orpheus= (_or´fe-us_).--A pre-Homeric poet, son of Œagrus and Calliope,
lived in Thrace, and accompanied the Argonauts in their celebrated
expedition. He played so skillfully on the lyre, which had been
presented to him by Apollo, and which he had been taught to play by the
Muses, that not only were wild beasts made tame, but even the rocks and
trees moved from their places to follow him. He married the nymph
Eurydice (_ū-rid´is-ē_), who died from the bite of a snake. He followed
her into the lower world, where his beautiful strains of music even
suspended the punishment of the wicked. Pluto promised to yield back his
wife to him on the condition that he did not look back until he arrived
in the upper world again. At the very moment, however, of passing the
fatal bounds, Orpheus glanced back to see if she were following him, and
just beheld her snatched back into the infernal regions. His grief for
the loss of Eurydice was such that he treated all the Thracian women
with contempt, and they in revenge, during the Bacchanalian orgies, tore
him to pieces.

=Ortygia= (_or-tij´i-a_).--The ancient name of Delos, where Apollo and
Diana were born.

=Osiris= (_o-sī´ris_).--A great deity of the Egyptians, husband of Isis.
The ancients differ in opinion concerning this celebrated god, but they
all agree that as ruler of Egypt he took care to civilize his subjects,
to improve their morals, to give them good and salutary laws, and to
teach them agriculture. He was worshiped under the form of an ox.

=Ossa= (_os’sa_).--A celebrated mountain in the northeast of Thessaly,
near Mount Olympus. When the giants tried to scale heaven, they heaped
Pelion, another mountain, on Ossa in order to reach the lofty mount
Olympus, on the top of which Jupiter and the other gods dwelt.

=P=

=Pæan= (_pē´an_)--_lit._ “physician” (Gr.).--The name of the physician
of the gods. Later the name was transferred to Apollo, and afterwards it
was applied to a choral song, hymn or chant addressed to Apollo, and
also to a war song before battle or after a victory.

=Pagasæ= (_pag´a-sē_), or =Pagasa=.--A maritime town of Thessaly, where
the Argo (see “Argonautæ”) was built.

=Paimosaid.=--In American Indian myths a walking thief, especially one
who walks through cornfields about harvest time to pluck the ears of
maize or corn.

=Palæmon= (_pal-ē´mon_).--A sea-god; originally called Melicerta
(_q.v._).

=Palamedes= (_pal-a-mē´dēz_).--Son of Mauplius, and one of the Greek
heroes who sailed against Troy. Having exposed Ulysses (_q.v._) when he
feigned madness in order to avoid going to Troy, the latter, who was
famous for his craft, revenged himself by contriving to get a letter,
purporting to be written by Priam, king of Troy, concealed under
Palamedes’ bed. Ulysses then accused Palamedes of treachery, the fatal
letter apparently established the charge, and Palamedes was stoned to
death by the Greeks. Palamedes is credited with having added four
letters--θ, ξ, χ, φ--to the original Greek alphabet of Cadmus, and also
with the invention of quoits, dice, lighthouses, measures, scales, etc.

=Pales= (_pal´ēz_).--The Roman protecting deity of flocks and shepherds.

=Palici= (_pal-ī´sī_).--Twin sons of Jupiter and the nymph Thalia. They
were worshiped in Sicily, in the neighborhood of Mount Ætna.

=Palinurus= (_pal-i-nū´rus_).--The pilot of Æneas, who fell into the sea
off the west coast of Lucania.

=Palladium= (_pal-lad´i-um_).--Properly any statue of Pallas--_i. e._
Minerva; but the Palladium was an ancient image of the goddess at Troy,
on the preservation of which the safety of the city was supposed to
depend. Ulysses and Diomedes succeeded in carrying it off and afterwards
took it to Greece. See “Troy.”

=Pallas= (_pal´las_).--The Greek name of Minerva (_q.v._).

=Pan.=--The chief god of shepherds and flocks; son of Mercury, and the
inventor of the syrinx or shepherd’s flute. He was also god of woods, in
which he dwelt, and occasionally appeared suddenly before travelers,
whose consequent fright was hence called “Panic fear.” Pan is usually
represented as a being with horns, puck-nose and goat’s legs and feet.

=Pandarus= (_pan´da-rus_).--A celebrated archer in the Trojan army.

=Pandora= (_pan-dō´ra_)--_lit._ “giver of all” (Gr.).--A beautiful
woman, made by Vulcan at Jupiter’s command, _who received presents from
the gods_--hence her name. She was the first woman on earth, and was
designed to work the ruin of man in revenge for Prometheus having stolen
fire from heaven and thus benefited mankind against the will of Jupiter.
Venus adorned her with beauty, Mercury endowed her with boldness and
cunning, and the gods, each and all, provided her with a combination of
destructive powers wherewith to work out the ruin of man. Thus provided,
Mercury took her to Epimetheus (_i. e._ afterthought), who made her his
wife, forgetting, till _too late_, that his brother Prometheus (_i. e._
forethought) had strictly enjoined him not to receive any gifts from the
gods. Pandora brought with her from heaven a box containing every human
ill, which, with feminine curiosity, she opened, and out of it they all
flew, to afflict mankind, Hope alone remaining.

=Paphos= (_paf´os_).--A town in Cyprus; the chief seat of the worship of
Venus.

=Parcæ= (_par´sē_).--The Fates; called by the Greeks Moiræ
(_moy´rē_).--They were three in number; and their names were:

(i) Clotho (_klō´tho_), the spinner of the thread of life.

(ii) Lachesis (_lak´e-sis_), the disposer of lots in life.

(iii) Atropos (_at´ro-pos_)--_lit._ “the inflexible”--the fate that
cannot be avoided. To these mighty goddesses both gods and men must
submit. Sometimes Atropos is represented as cutting the thread of life
spun by Clotho.

=Paris=, usually called Alexander (_lit._ “defending men”) in the
_Iliad_. The second son of Priam, king of Troy, and Hecuba. He was
brought up on Mount Ida by a shepherd, who gave him the name Paris. He
was afterwards called Alexander on account of the bravery he displayed
in defending the flocks and shepherds. He married Œnone (_ē-nō´nē_), the
daughter of the river-god Cebren. He soon deserted her, however, in the
following manner: At the marriage of Peleus and the Nereid Thetis all
the gods, with the single exception of the goddess of Discord, were
invited. Annoyed at being thus passed over, she threw among the guests a
golden apple--usually called the Apple of Discord--with the inscription,
“To the fairest.” Three were claimants for it--Juno, Venus and Minerva.
Jupiter ordered Mercury to take the three goddesses to Mount Ida, and
submit the matter to the judgment of the shepherd Paris, hence giving
rise to the celebrated “Judgment of Paris,” which has formed the subject
of so many masterpieces of art. In order to influence him in their favor
severally, Juno promised him the sovereignty of Asia, Minerva renown in
war, and Venus the most beautiful woman in the world for his wife. Paris
decided in favor of Venus, and awarded her the golden apple. He then,
under the guidance of Venus, sailed for Greece, to the court of
Menelaus, king of Sparta, whose wife, Helen, was the most beautiful of
women. He succeeded in carrying Helen off, and so gave rise to the
famous Trojan war, as all the chiefs in Greece joined with Menelaus in
an expedition to fetch her back from Troy (see “Helena”). Paris fought
with Menelaus before the walls of Troy, and would have been slain by
him, had not Venus interposed and carried him off in a cloud. He was
killed by the celebrated archer Philoctetes, who shot him with one of
the poisoned arrows of Hercules. When wounded he returned to his
long-neglected wife Œnone, and requested her to heal the wound; but she
refused, and he died in consequence. Œnone soon repented, however, and
put an end to her own life. During the Trojan war Paris killed Achilles
(_q.v._).

=Parnassus= (_par-nas´sus_).--A high mountain in Phocis (Greece), with
two peaks, sacred to Apollo and the Muses. Near it was the town of
Delphi; and on the mountain was the famous Castalian spring, also sacred
to Apollo and the Muses, in which the Pythia, the priestess, at Delphi,
used to bathe.

=Parthenopæus= (_par´then-o-pē´us_).--Son of Meleager and Atalanta, and
one of the “Seven against Thebes.”

=Parthenope= (_par-then´o-pē_).--One of the Sirens (_q.v._), and the
name of an ancient city forming the site of the present city of Naples
(Neapolis).

=Pasiphae= (_pā-sif´a-ē_).--Daughter of the Sun and Perseis, wife of
Minos and mother of Androgeos, Ariadne and Phædra; also of the Minotaur
(see “Minos”).

=Patroclus= (_pa-trok´lus_).--The beloved friend of Achilles. Whilst
Achilles remained inactive during part of the Trojan war, Patroclus was
allowed by Achilles to lead the latter’s Myrmidons against the Trojans
at a critical time. Achilles, in order to enhance the effect, equipped
him with his own armor and arms. Patroclus, whom the Trojans supposed to
be Achilles himself, drove them back to the walls of Troy, where,
however, he was slain by Hector. To avenge his death, Achilles quickly
reappeared in the field, and slew Hector in single combat.

=Pauguk.=--Name given to the great power, death, in American Indian
mythology.

=Pau-Puk-Keewis.=--In American Indian folk-lore a mischievous magician,
who is pursued by Hiawatha, goes through a series of wonderful
transformations in his endeavors to escape, and finally becomes an
eagle.

=Peboan.=--In American Indian folk-lore the personification of winter in
form of a great giant who shook the snow from his hair and turned water
into stone by his breath.

=Pegasus= (_peg´a-sus_).--The winged horse which sprang from the blood
of the Gorgon Medusa, when her head was struck off by Perseus (_q.v._).
It was named Pegasus from _the springs_ of Ocean, near which Medusa was
killed. With a blow of his hoof he caused the fountain of the Muses
(Hippocrene) to spring from Mount Helicon. Bellerophon rode him when he
slew the Chimæra (_ki-mē´ra_).

=Peleus= (_pē´lūs_).--Son of Æacus, king of the Myrmidons in Thessaly,
husband of Thetis and father of Achilles. The Nereid Thetis, who was his
second wife, had the power, possessed also by Proteus, of assuming any
form she pleased, a power she exercised in order to escape from Peleus.
But the latter, having been taught by Chiron, held the goddess fast till
she promised to marry him. At their marriage all the gods, save one,
were present, and the uninvited one, the goddess of strife, threw the
celebrated golden apple among the guests (see “Paris”). Peleus survived
the death of his famous son Achilles.

=Pelias= (_pe´li-as_).--King of Ioclus, in Thessaly. In order to get rid
of his nephew Jason, who claimed the throne, he sent him to fetch the
golden fleece, thus giving rise to the celebrated expedition of the
Argonauts (see “Argonautæ”). When Jason returned with Medea, the latter
persuaded the daughters of Pelias to cut him in pieces and boil him,
with the idea of thus restoring him to youth and vigor. In this way he
perished. See “Jason.”

=Pelion= (_pē´li-on_).--A lofty range of well-wooded mountains in
Thessaly. The giants heaped it on Mount Ossa, in their attempt to scale
heaven (see “Ossa” and “Olympus”). The Centaur Chiron dwelt in a cave
near its summit. The Argo (see “Argonautæ”) was built from timber felled
here.

=Pelops= (_pē´lops_).--Son of Tantalus, king of Phrygia, father of
Atreus and Thyestes, grandfather of Agamemnon and Menelaus. When a boy
he was cut in pieces and boiled to make a savory dish to set before the
gods, whom Tantalus, the favorite of the gods, had invited to a repast;
but the gods would not touch it, and ordered Mercury to again put him
into a caldron, whereby he was restored to life. Being driven out of
Phrygia, he went to Elis, a province of Peloponnesus, and there obtained
the hand of Hippodamia, daughter of King Œnomaus, whom he succeeded on
the throne. He afterwards became so powerful that the whole peninsula
was called after him “the island of Pelops.” In order to gain Hippodamia
(_hip-po-da-mī´a_) he had first to engage in a chariot race with Œnomaus
(_ē-nom´a-us_), a condition which the latter imposed on every suitor for
his daughter’s hand, as an oracle had declared that he would be killed
by his son-in-law. His horses being swifter than those of any mortal,
many a suitor had suffered death, the stipulated penalty of defeat.
Pelops, however, bribed Myrtilus, the charioteer of Œnomaus, to remove
the linchpins of his master’s chariot, the bribe being the promise of
half the kingdom. In the race the wheels of Œnomaus’ chariot soon came
off, and Œnomaus was thrown out, and killed. Pelops thus gained
Hippodamia, but was unwilling to keep faith with Myrtilus, whom he threw
from a cliff into the sea.

=Penates= (_pē-nā´tēz_).--Old Latin guardian deities both of a household
and of the state. The images of these gods were kept in the penetralia
(_pen-e-trā´li-a_)--that is, the _innermost_ or central part of the
house. The Lares (_q.v._) formed part of the Penates. On the hearth a
perpetual fire was kept up in their honor, and the table, which was also
sacred to them, always contained the salt-cellar and offerings of first
fruits for them.

=Penelope= (_pe-nel´o-pē_).--The wife of Ulysses; celebrated for her
constancy to her husband during his twenty years’ absence from Ithaca.
She was the daughter of Icarius and Peribœa, of Sparta, and was won by
Ulysses in the following way: Her father promised her to the suitor who
should win a foot-race; but when Ulysses was the successful competitor
her father tried to persuade her not to leave him. Ulysses left her free
to act as she pleased in the matter, whereupon she covered her face with
her veil to hide her blushes, and thus intimated that she preferred to
accompany him as her husband. By Ulysses she became the mother of an
only child, Telemachus. During Ulysses’ long absence she was the object
of much undesired attention on the part of a host of importunate
suitors, who declared that Ulysses must surely be dead. Penelope at last
promised to make a selection of one of their number to be her husband as
soon as she had finished a robe she was making for Ulysses’ aged father,
Laërtes (_lā-er´tēz_). This was only a ruse (generally referred to as
“Penelope’s web”), however, to put them off, as she undid every night
the work done during the day. At last the secret was betrayed by one of
her servants, and she was importuned more than ever. Ulysses now arrived
home after twenty years’ absence at Troy and his subsequent celebrated
wanderings, and came at first disguised as a beggar to see how the land
lay. Having soon ascertained his wife’s noble fidelity, he still further
tested her by getting her to promise her hand to the suitor who could
draw his bow. This none of them could do, so Ulysses took it up and slew
them all. He then made himself known to Penelope, and went to see his
aged father.

=Peneus= (_pē-nē´us_).--The principal river of Thessaly, which flows in
the valley of Tempe, between Mount Pelion and Mount Ossa, into the sea;
also the river-god, who was the father of Daphne and Cyrene.

=Penthesilea= (_pen-thes-i-lē´a_).--The young and beautiful queen of the
Amazons, who fought against the Greeks before Troy, and was slain by
Achilles.

=Pentheus= (_pen´thūs_).--Grandson of Cadmus, whom he succeeded as king
of Thebes. He was opposed to the introduction of the worship of Bacchus
into his kingdom, and in consequence was torn to pieces by his mother
and her sisters, who in their Bacchic frenzy imagined him to be a wild
beast.

=Perdix= (_per´diks_).--The nephew of Dædalus (_q.v._), the inventor of
the chisel, saw, compasses, etc.

=Peri.=--Peris are delicate, gentle, fairy-like beings of eastern
mythology, begotten by fallen spirits. They direct with a wand the pure
in mind the way to heaven. These lovely creatures, according to the
Koran, are under the sovereignty of Eblis; and Mohammed was sent for
their conversion, as well as for that of man.

=Persephone= (_per-sef´on-ē_).--The Greek name for Proserpina (_q.v._).

=Perseus= (_per´sūs_).--Son of Jupiter and Danaë (_q.v._). His most
heroic deed was the slaying of the Gorgon Medusa, which he accomplished
in the following manner: With the aid of Mercury and Minerva he
possessed himself of the winged sandals, the magic wallet, and the
helmet of Pluto, which rendered the wearer invisible, and further
received from Mercury a sickle, and from Minerva a mirror. Thus
provided, he rose into the air and made his way to the abode of the
Gorgons. He found them asleep, and cut off with the sickle the head of
Medusa, looking at her terrible form in the mirror, as a single glance
would have immediately changed him into stone. Perseus placed her head
in the magic wallet, which he carried on his back, and escaped in safety
from the pursuit of the two other Gorgons, the helmet rendering him
invisible. He then proceeded to Æthiopia, where he slew the sea-monster,
and saved and married the beautiful Andromeda (_q.v._). The latter
having been previously promised, however, to her uncle Phineus, he and
several armed companions made their appearance at the nuptials, and
endeavored to carry off the bride; but Perseus brought out Medusa’s
head, and they were all turned into stone. Perseus afterwards gave the
head of Medusa to Minerva, who placed it in the middle of her
breastplate or shield. In fulfillment of the oracle he accidentally
killed his grandfather Acrisius (_q.v._) with a quoit. He is said to
have founded Mycenæ.

=Phæaces= (_fē-ā´sēz_).--A fabulous people represented in the _Odyssey_
as inhabiting the island of Scheria (afterwards Corcyra; now Corfu), and
famous as sailors. Alcinous (_q.v._) was their king.

=Phaethon= (_fā´e-thon_)--_lit._ “the shining” (Gr.).--Son of the sungod
(Apollo) and Clymene (_klī´men-ē_). Having obtained permission from his
father to drive the chariot of the sun across the heavens for one day,
he drove so near the earth that he almost set it on fire, his strength
being insufficient to keep the horses in the right track. Consequently
Jupiter hurled him down with a thunderbolt into the river Padus (Po).

=Phaon= (_fā´ōn_).--A boatman at Mytilene, who, originally an ugly old
man, was made young and handsome by Venus, whom he had carried across
the sea without payment. Sappho (_q.v._) thus fell in love with him,
and, on her love not being returned, threw herself into the sea.

=Philoctetes= (_fil-ok-tē´tēz_).--A very famous archer, a friend of
Hercules, who gave him at his death the poisoned arrows without which
Troy could not be taken. In the tenth year of the Trojan war he was
specially fetched from Lemnos, where he had been detained by a wound, by
Ulysses and Diomedes. On arriving at Troy, Æsculapius or his sons cured
his wound. He slew Paris and other Trojans.

=Phlegethon= (_fleg´e-thon_)--_lit._ “the blazing” (Gr.).--A river in
the lower world, which ran with fire instead of water.

=Phœbe= (_fē´bē_).--A feminine form of Phœbus (_lit._ “the bright one”);
applied to Diana, the sister of Apollo, as the goddess of the moon.

=Phœbus= (_fē´bus_)--_lit._ “the bright one” (Gr.).--An epithet applied
to Apollo as the god of the sun. See “Apollo.”

=Phœnix= (_fē´nix_).--(i) A fabulous bird described as being as large as
an eagle; its head finely crested with a beautiful plumage, its neck
covered with gold-colored feathers, its tail white, and its body purple
or crimson. (ii) Son of Amyntor, the teacher of Achilles, and his
companion during the Trojan war.

=Phorcys= (_for´sis_), or =Phorcus= (_for´kus_).--A sea-god, father of
the Gorgons and of the Grææ.

=Phrixus= (_frix´us_).--Son of Athamas and Nephele. Athamas having
neglected Nephele (_nef´el-ë_), and married Ino, the latter persuaded
him to sacrifice Nephele’s son Phrixus to Jupiter. Nephele, however,
enabled her two children, Phrixus and Helle, to escape by means of a ram
with golden fleece, the gift of Mercury, which carried them through the
air. Helle fell into the sea (see “Helle”), but Phrixus arrived safely
in Colchis, the kingdom of Æëtes (_q.v._). Here he sacrificed the ram to
Jupiter, and gave its golden fleece to Æëtes, who suspended it to an oak
tree in the grove of Mars. To fetch this golden fleece the famous
expedition of the Argonauts (see “Argonautæ”) was undertaken.

=Picus= (_pī´kus_).--Son of Saturn and father of Faunus. He was changed
by Circe into a woodpecker, because he did not requite her love. The
Romans regarded the woodpecker as a prophetic bird, sacred to Mars.

=Pieria= (_pī-er´i-a_).--A district of Macedonia, in the north of
Greece; celebrated as one of the earliest seats of the worship of the
Muses, who are hence called Pierides (_pī-er´id-ēz_). Hence the
following lines:--

    “A little learning is a dangerous thing;
    Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring.”
                     Pope’s _Essay on Criticism_.

=Pirene= (_pī-rē´nē_).--A noted fountain at Corinth, at which
Bellerophon caught Pegasus.

=Pirithous= (_pī-rith´o-us_).--Son of Ixion, whom he succeeded as king
of the Lapithæ; famous for his friendship with Theseus. When Pirithous
was invading Attica he was opposed by Theseus, king of Athens, for whom
he soon conceived feelings of admiration, which afterwards deepened into
a lasting friendship. At the marriage of Pirithous with Hippodamia
(_hip-po-da-mī´a_) the bride was seized by a drunken Centaur, and thus
arose the celebrated fight between the Centaurs and Lapithæ (_q.v._), in
which, with the assistance of Theseus, Pirithous and the Lapithæ came
off victorious. On the death of Hippodamia, Pirithous conceived the bold
project of carrying off Proserpine, wife of Pluto. Accordingly the two
friends descended into the lower world, but were seized by Pluto and
chained to a rock, where they both remained till Hercules visited that
region. Hercules then delivered Theseus, who was suffering punishment
merely on account of his friendship for Pirithous; but the latter he
left to his fate.

=Pleiades= (_plē´ya-dēz_).--The seven daughters of Atlas and Pleione
(_plē´yo-nē_).--They were the virgin companions of Diana, and when
pursued by Orion were changed into doves and placed among the stars.

=Pluto= (_plū´tō_).--The god of the nether world; originally called
Hades (_hā´dēz_), the name Pluto (_lit._ “wealth”) being applied to him
because corn, the _wealth_ of early times, was sent from beneath the
earth as his gift. He was the son of Saturn and Rhea, brother of Jupiter
and Neptune, and the husband of Proserpine. He possessed a celebrated
helmet, which rendered the wearer invisible, and which Perseus (_q.v._)
borrowed when he went to slay the Gorgon Medusa. Black sheep were
sacrificed to him. Pluto was also called Dis (_dīs_) and Orcus
(_or´-kus_).

=Plutus= (_plū´tus_).--The god of wealth; represented as blind.

=Pluvius= (_plū´vi-us_)--lit. “rain-bringing” (Lat.).--A surname of
Jupiter, to whom sacrifices were offered in times of drought. See
“Jupiter.”

=Pollux.=--See “Castor.”

=Polyhymnia.=--See “Musæ.”

=Polyphemus= (_pol-i-fē´mus_).--Son of Neptune; was one of the
celebrated Cyclops living in Sicily. He was a huge monster, having but
one eye in the center of his forehead, and ate human flesh. Being
rejected by the nymph Galatea in favor of Acis, he crushed the latter
under an enormous rock. Ulysses, during his wanderings on his journey
homeward after the fall of Troy, was driven upon Sicily, and at once
seized by Polyphemus, who shut him and his companions in the great cave
in which he dwelt. In the evening he drove his flock into the cave,
closed the mouth of the cave with a heavy rock, and ate two of Ulysses’
companions for his supper. The next morning he led his sheep out to
pasture, closing the mouth of the cave after him. The wily Ulysses then
contrived and successfully carried out the following plan of escape:
When the monster returned in the evening, Ulysses offered him some wine
he had brought with him, and gave him enough to make him intoxicated.
Polyphemus asked Ulysses his name, and the latter gave that of Noman.
The giant then fell asleep, whereupon Ulysses and his companions, having
made everything ready, bored out his eye with a red-hot piece of timber.
Polyphemus roared out, and the other Cyclops dwelling on the island came
to the mouth of the cave and inquired what was the matter; Polyphemus
replied that _no man_ had injured him, whereupon they all went away.
Even now, however, Ulysses could not escape, the cave being closed by
such a heavy rock, and had to wait till the following morning.
Polyphemus then removed the rock, but sat by the opening and felt the
back of each sheep as it passed out. Ulysses, whose name is synonymous
with craft itself, had foreseen this, however, and he and his six
companions safely passed out by clinging to the wool on the bellies of
the sheep. They then made their way to their ships, and quickly put out
from the shore. When a little way out Ulysses derided Polyphemus,
whereupon the latter threw several immense rocks after him, one of which
nearly struck his ship. See _Odyssey_, Book IX.

=Polyxena= (_pol-ix´en-a_).--Daughter of Priam and Hecuba. She was
beloved by Achilles, and sacrificed at the grave of the latter by his
son Pyrrhus.

=Pomona= (_pō-mō´na_).--The goddess of fruit and fruit trees. Her name
is derived from Lat. pomum, fruit (of any kind).

=Ponemah.=--In American Indian mythology the name of the land of the
future life, or the spirit land.

=Portunus= (_por-tū´nus_), or =Portumnus= (_por-tum´nus_).--The
protecting god of harbors.

=Poseidon= (_po-sī´don_).--See “Neptune.”

=Priam= (_prī´am_).--Son of Laomedon, the famous king of Troy at the
time of the Trojan war. The name Priam (Gr.) means the Chief, or Leader.
He was the husband of Hecuba, and the father of Paris, Hector,
Deiphobus, Cassandra, Polyxena, etc. On the capture of Troy he was slain
by Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles.

=Priapus= (_pri-ā´pus_).--Son of Bacchus and Venus. The god of
fruitfulness in general, and the protector of flocks of sheep and goats,
of bees, of the vine, and of all garden produce.

=Procas= (_prō´kas_).--King of Alba Longa, and father of Numitor and
Amulius.

=Procne= (_prok´nē_).--Sister of Philomela (_q.v._).

=Procris= (_prō´kris_).--Wife of Cephalus (_q.v._).

=Procrustes= (_prō-krus´tēz_)--_lit._ “the Stretcher” (Gr.).--The name
of a famous robber of Greece, who used to make all his captives fit into
his iron bed, either by cutting pieces off their legs if they were too
long, or by stretching them out if they were too short. He was slain by
Theseus.

=Prometheus= (_pro-mē´thūs_)--_lit._ “Forethought” (Gr.).--Son of the
Titan Iapetos, brother of Epimetheus (_ep-i-mē´thūs_), or
“After-thought.” The great benefactor of mankind, in spite of Jupiter.
He stole fire from Olympus (heaven), and was the inventor of many arts,
especially of working in metal and clay, whence he is said to have made
man from clay. As a set-off against these advantages, Jupiter gave
Pandora (_q.v._) to Epimetheus. He also chained Prometheus to a rock,
where in the daytime an eagle consumed his liver, which grew again
during each succeeding night. From this perpetual torture he was
delivered by Hercules, who killed the eagle.

=Proserpina= (_pro-ser´pin-a_); usually called =Proserpine=
(_pros´er-pīn_); called by the Greeks Persephone
(_per-sef´on-ē_).--Daughter of Jupiter and Ceres, and queen of the lower
world. Her father, unknown to her mother, promised her to Pluto, who
carried her off by causing the earth to open beneath her as she was
gathering flowers. In consequence of this, Ceres did not allow the earth
to bring forth any fruits, and Jupiter was obliged to send Mercury into
the lower world to fetch Proserpine back. Pluto allowed her to go, but
first gave her a pomegranate to eat. Having thus eaten in the lower
world, she was obliged to spend one-third of the year with Pluto,
remaining during the other two-thirds with her mother (see “Ceres”).
Pluto and Proserpine ruled over the souls of the dead in the lower
world.

=Proteus= (_prō´tūs_).--A sea-god who had the power of assuming any form
he pleased. He tended the flocks (seals) of Neptune, and at midday rose
from the sea and slept in the shade of the rocks. At such times he was
much sought after, his prophetic powers being highly valued. When seized
by the person wishing to consult him, he, in order to escape, assumed
several different shapes in succession; but, if firmly held, he speedily
returned to his original form, and prophesied.

=Psyche= (_si´kē_)--_lit._ “the soul” (Gr.).--The following beautiful
story shows in an allegorical manner how the human soul is purified by
misfortunes and prepared for the enjoyment of true and lasting happiness
hereafter: Psyche was the youngest and most beautiful of the three
daughters of a king, and by her beauty excited the jealousy of Venus.
The goddess consequently ordered Cupid to inspire her with love for some
utterly unworthy object; but instead of doing this Cupid himself fell in
love with her. He accordingly visited her every night, leaving her
always at daybreak. Her jealous sisters, however, made her believe that
her midnight lover was a monster, and accordingly she one night brought
a lamp while Cupid was asleep, and was astonished to behold the lovely
god. In her excitement she let fall a drop of hot oil on the shoulder of
Cupid, and so awoke him. He blamed her for her mistrust, and fled. In
misery Psyche now wandered from temple to temple, inquiring after her
lover, and at length came to the palace of Venus. Here she was treated
with great severity and compelled to perform hard and menial tasks,
which would have overcome her had not Cupid secretly and invisibly
sustained her. At length she overcame the jealousy of Venus, and,
becoming immortal, was united to Cupid forever. In works of art Psyche
is represented as a maiden with the wings of a butterfly.

=Pukwana.=--The smoke from the calumet or peace pipe among American
Indians. The pipe was made from stone found near the headwaters of the
Mississippi. A quarry, located near the mountains, was famous among the
Indians, who had made the adjacent territory neutral ground. Here they
came and provided themselves with pipes. To apply the stone to any other
use than that of pipe-making would have been sacrilege in their mind.
From the color, they even fancied it to have been made, at the great
deluge, out of the flesh of the perishing Indian.

=Puk-Wudjies.=--The pygmies of American Indian folklore; little wild men
of the woods.

=Pygmalion= (_pig-mā´li-on_).--King of Cyprus, who became enamored of an
ivory statue which he had made. Venus having answered his prayer to her
to breathe life into it, he married the maiden.

=Pylades= (_pi´la-dēz_).--Nephew of Agamemnon, and celebrated as the
friend of Orestes (_q.v._). He married Electra, the sister of Orestes.

=Pyramus= (_pī´ra-mus_).--The lover of Thisbe (_q.v._).

=Pyrrhus= (_pir´us_).--See “Neoptolemus.”

=Python= (_pi´thon_).--The famous serpent produced from the mud left
after the subsidence of the deluge of Deucalion. It was slain near
Delphi by Apollo, who founded the Pythian games to commemorate the
victory.

=Q=

=Quirinus= (_kwi-rī´nus_).--The name of Romulus after his deification.

=R=

=Rachaders.=--In Indian mythology the second tribe of giants or evil
genii, who had frequently made the earth subject to their kings, but
were ultimately punished by Siva and Vishnu.

=Radegaste.=--In Slavonic mythology a tutelary god of the Slavi. The
head was that of a cow, the breast was covered with an ægis, the left
hand held a spear, and a cock surmounted its helmet.

=Ragnarök= (twilight of the gods).--The day of doom, when the present
world and all its inhabitants will be annihilated. Vidar and Vali will
survive the conflagration, and reconstruct the universe. In Scandinavian
mythology the belief is taught that after this time the earth or realm
will become imperishable and happiness sure.

=Rahu.=--In Hindu mythology the demon that causes eclipses. One day Rahu
stole into Valhalla to quaff some of the nectar of immortality. He was
discovered by the Sun and Moon, who informed against him, and Vishnu cut
off his head. As he had already taken some of the nectar into his mouth,
the head was immortal; and he ever afterward hunted the Sun and Moon,
which he caught occasionally, causing eclipses.

=Rakshas.=--Evil spirits in Hindu myths, who guard the treasure of
Kuvera, the god of riches. They haunt cemeteries and devour human
beings; assume any shape at will, and their strength increases as the
day declines. Some are hideously ugly, but others, especially the female
spirits, allure by their beauty.

=Ravana.=--According to Indian mythology, was fastened down between
heaven and earth for ten thousand years by Siva’s leg, for attempting to
move the hill of heaven to Ceylon. He is described as a demon giant with
ten faces.

=Ravens.=--According to an oracle from the gods, delivered at ancient
Athens, ravens prognosticate famine and death because they bear the
characteristics of Saturn, the author of these calamities, and have a
very early perception of the malign influence of that planet.

=Remus= (_rē´mus_).--The brother of Romulus (_q.v._).

=Rhadamanthus= (_rad-a-man´thus_).--Son of Jupiter and Europa, and
brother of Minos. He was one of the three judges in the lower world, the
other two being Æacus and Minos.

=Rhea= (_rē´a_).--See “Cybele.”

=Rhea Silvia= (_rē´a sil´vi-a_).--Daughter of Numitor, and mother of
Romulus and Remus.

=Rhesus= (_rē´sus_).--A Thracian prince, who went to the assistance of
Troy. As an oracle had declared that Troy would never be taken if the
snow-white horses of Rhesus once drank of the Xanthus and fed on the
grass of the Trojan plain. Diomedes and Ulysses slew Rhesus on the night
of his arrival on Trojan territory, and carried off his horses.

=Rhodope= (_rod´o-pē_).--A lofty mountain range in Thrace, which, like
the rest of Thrace, was sacred to Bacchus.

=Romulus= (_rom´u-lus_).--The founder and first king of Rome;
twin-brother of Remus, son of Silvia by Mars. Silvia was the daughter of
Numitor and a vestal virgin, hence the twins were condemned to be thrown
into the Tiber. This was done; but the cradle stranded, and they were
suckled by a she-wolf. They were afterwards found by Faustulus, the
shepherd of king Amulius, who handed them over to the care of his wife
Acca Larentia. When grown up, they decided to found a city on the Tiber;
but in a dispute as to the site, Romulus killed Remus. When the city was
built, it was found that women were very scarce. Romulus accordingly
proclaimed that games were to be celebrated, and invited his neighbors,
the Latins and Sabines, to the festival, during which the Roman youths
carried off the maidens--this being generally referred to as “The Rape
of the Sabine Women.” Hence arose a war between the two peoples, which
was brought to a termination by the Sabine women rushing in between the
armies and praying them to be reconciled. After a reign of thirty-seven
years, Romulus was taken up to heaven by his father Mars in a fiery
chariot. He was then worshiped by the Romans as Quirinus (_kwi-rī´nus_).

=S=

=Saga.=--Goddess of history in Scandinavian mythology.

=Salamander.=--A fabulous animal supposed by the ancients to live in and
have the quality of eating fire.

=Salmoneus= (_sal-mō´nūs_).--Son of Æolus and brother of Sisyphus. He
presumed to imitate the thunder and lightning of Jupiter, and was
consequently hurled down to Tartarus with a thunderbolt by the father of
the gods.

=Sarpedon= (_sar-pē´don_).--(i) Son of Jupiter and Europa, king of the
Lycians. Jupiter granted him the privilege of living three generations.
(ii) Grandson of the preceding; assisted the Trojans in the Trojan war,
but was slain by Patroclus.

=Saturnus= (_sā-tur´nus_); usually called =Saturn= (_sat´urn_); called
by the Greeks Cronos.--A mythical king of Italy, whose reign was the
“golden age.” He was the son of Uranus (Heaven) and Gæa (Earth), the
husband of Rhea, and the father of Jupiter, Juno, Pluto, Neptune, etc.
He was the god of agriculture and of civilization in general. He was
dethroned from the government of the world by his son Jupiter. His
temple in Rome was used as the state treasury.

=Satyri= (_sat´er-ī_), or =Satyrs= (_sat´erz_).--A kind of wood-deities,
resembling apes, with two goats-feet, and very lascivious. The older
Satyrs were generally called Sileni (_sī-lē´nī_), and the younger ones
Satyrisci. They were described as fond of wine, sleep, and music.

=Scamander= (_ska-man´der_).--A celebrated river near Troy.

=Scamandrius= (_ska-man´dri-us_), or =Scamander=.--Son of Hector and
Andromache (_an-drom´a-kē_), whom the Trojans called Astyanax (_q.v._).

=Sciron= (_sĩ´ron_).--A famous robber of Attica, slain by Theseus. He
compelled those he robbed to wash his feet on the Scironian rock (which
was named after him), and at the completion of the process kicked them
over the rock into the sea. At the base of the rock was a tortoise,
which devoured them.

=Scylla= (_sill´a_), and =Charybdis= (_ka-rib´dis_).--The names of two
rocks, opposite to one another, between Italy and Sicily. In the one
nearest to Italy was a cave in which dwelt Scylla, who was a terrible
creature (female) with six long necks and heads, each of which contained
three rows of sharp teeth, twelve feet, and barking like a dog. On the
opposite rock, Charybdis, dwelt a being of the same name under an
immense fig tree. Thrice a day she swallowed the waters of the sea and
thrice threw them up again. Between these rocks, Scylla and Charybdis,
the sea was very narrow and very dangerous. Hence mariners had to
exercise great vigilance lest while avoiding Scylla they did not fall on
Charybdis. This last expression is often used in speaking of cases where
a middle course has to be carefully steered between two threatening
difficulties.

=Scyros= (_sī´ros_).--An island in the Ægean Sea, near Eubœa. Here
Achilles--at the court of King Lycomedes--was concealed, dressed as a
woman, by his mother Thetis, in order to prevent his going to the Trojan
war.

=Sedrat.=--The lotus tree which stands on the right hand side of the
invisible throne of Allah. Its branches extend wider than the distance
between heaven and earth. Its leaves resemble the ears of an elephant.
Each seed of its fruit incloses an houri; and two rivers issue from its
roots. Numberless birds sing among its branches, and numberless angels
rest beneath its shade.

=SCENES FROM THE STORY OF PSYCHE AND VENUS=

[Illustration: =PSYCHE’S PARENTS CONSULT THE ORACLE=]

[Illustration: =A ZEPHYR BORE PSYCHE FROM THE EARTH=]

[Illustration: =BURNING OIL FELL ON CUPID’S SHOULDER=]

[Illustration: =A FISHERMAN SHELTERS PSYCHE=]

[Illustration: =SHE OPENED THE BOX=]

[Illustration: =PSYCHE’S SISTERS ASKED WHAT SORT OF A PERSON HER HUSBAND
WAS=]

[Illustration: =VENUS AND PSYCHE BECOME RECONCILED=]

[Illustration: =“DRINK THIS, PSYCHE, AND BE IMMORTAL”=]

[Illustration: =THE MARRIAGE OF CUPID AND PSYCHE=

This symbolical picture represents the conscious union of the Soul of
Man, figured as a young girl (Psyche), with the divine Spirit of Love
(Cupid). Their starry or celestial environment signifies the emergence
of the soul from matter into a permanent, uninterrupted or eternal life.
The beautiful Greek story as a whole is simply an allegory describing
the fall of the soul of man into earthly conditions; the labors and
pains there undergone in order that, refined and redeemed, it may once
more be raised into the heavenly world.]

=Semele= (_sem´el-ē_).--Daughter of Cadmus and Harmonia, and mother, by
Jupiter, of Bacchus. Juno, actuated by jealousy, persuaded her to ask
Jupiter to appear before her in his terrible majesty as king of heaven.
Having promised to grant whatever she desired, Jupiter did so; but
warned her of the danger she would incur. The result was that she was
consumed by the lightning; but Jupiter saved her child Bacchus.

=Serapis= (_se-rā´pis_).--An Egyptian divinity (male), whose worship was
introduced into Rome, together with that of Isis, toward the end of the
republic.

=Seven Sages.=--Same as _Seven Wise Men of Greece_ (_q.v._).

=Seven Wise Men of Greece.=--The title applied to seven Greeks of the
sixth century B. C., who were distinguished for their practical wisdom
and their terse maxims or principles of life. Their names are as
follows: Bias, Chilo, Cleobulus, Periander (in place of whom some give
Epimenides), Pittacus, Solon and Thales. They were the authors of the
following famous mottoes, inscribed in later times in the temple of
Apollo at Delphi: “Most men are bad,” _Bias_; “Consider the end,”
_Chilo_; “Avoid excess,” _Cleobulus_; “Nothing is impossible to
industry,” _Periander_; “Know thy opportunity,” _Pittacus_; “Know
thyself,” _Solon_; “Suretyship is the precursor of ruin,” _Thales_.

=Seven Wonders of the World.=--A name applied to seven very remarkable
objects of the ancient world. They are usually given as follows:

(i) The Pyramids of Egypt.

(ii) The Pharos (_fā´ros_) of Alexandria, which was a lofty lighthouse
built by Ptolemy II. on the island of the same name, just opposite to
Alexandria and united to it by a mole.

(iii) The walls and hanging gardens of Babylon. The walls are described
under “Ninus.” The hanging gardens of Nebuchadnezzar were laid out upon
terraces, which were raised one above another on arches.

(iv) The Temple of Diana at Ephesus.

(v) The colossal statue of the Olympian Jupiter by Phidias. It was made
of ivory and gold, and the god was represented as seated on a throne of
cedar wood, adorned with gold, ivory, ebony and precious stones.

(vi) The mausoleum of Artemisia.

(vii) The Colossus of Rhodes.

=Sibyllæ= (_si-bil´lē_), or =Sibyls=.--Prophetesses, supposed to be ten
in number. The most famous of them is the Cumæan, who was consulted by
Æneas before he descended into the lower world and gave him the sop to
throw to Cerberus, which, when he had devoured it, threw him into a deep
sleep and so enabled Æneas to slip by.

=Sichæus= (_si-kē´us_).--Dido’s uncle and husband; often called Acerbas.
He was murdered by Pygmalion, Dido’s brother.

=Silenus= (_si-lē´nus_).--A name specially applied to a satyr (_q.v._)
who brought up and instructed Bacchus and was his constant companion. He
is described as a bald-headed, jovial old man, generally intoxicated,
and hence unable to trust his own legs to carry him safely. He generally
rode on an ass. He possessed prophetic powers, which he could be made to
exercise by surrounding him with chains of flowers while he was drunk
and asleep.

=Silvanus= (_sil-vā´nus_).--A Latin deity presiding over woods and
forests.

=Sinon= (_sin´on_).--Son of Æsimus, who allowed the Trojans to take him
prisoner, and then persuaded them to take the famous wooden horse into
their city. See “Troy.”

=Sirenes= (_sī-rē´nēz_), or =Sirens= (_si´renz_).--Sea nymphs, three in
number, who had the power of enticing mariners to their destruction on
dangerous rocks by their sweet music. In order to get his ship away in
safety from them, Ulysses stuffed the ears of his companions with wax
and then tied himself to the mast of the vessel, and did not release
himself till he could no longer hear their charming voices. They dwelt
on an island near the southwest coast of Italy.

=Sisyphus= (_sis´i-fus_).--Son of Æolus and king of Corinth; notorious
for his avarice and deceit. His punishment in the lower world was to
roll to the top of a hill a huge marble block, which no sooner reached
the top than it rolled down again: hence a never-ending punishment.

=Siva.=--The third of the Hindu triad of divinities, who, among a
thousand names, bears also that of Mahadeva. The greatest confusion
exists as to his attributes; now he is said to be the destroyer, and now
the creative principle.

=Somnus= (_som´nus_).--The god of sleep; was a son of Night and a
brother of Death.

=Soracte= (_sō-rak´tē_).--A high mountain, near the Tiber, in Etruria,
on the summit of which was a temple of Apollo.

=Specter of the Brocken.=--Among German myths, a singular colossal
apparition seen in the clouds, at certain times of the day, by those who
ascend the Brocken, or Blocksberg, the highest peak of the Hartz
mountains.

=Sphinx= (_sfingks_).--A she-monster, who proposed a riddle to the
Thebans, and murdered all who failed to guess it (see “Œdipus”). In
works of art she is represented with a woman’s bust on the body of a
lioness. The word Sphinx (Gr.) means the _Throttler_, from her manner of
killing her victims.

=Stentor= (_sten´tor_).--A Grecian herald in the Trojan war. His voice
was as loud as that of fifty ordinary men together: hence our word
_stentorian_.

=Stheno.=--See “Gorgons.”

=Stymphalus= (_stim-fā´lus_).--A town in Arcadia; the haunt of the
terrible birds slain by Hercules. See “Hercules (vi).”

=Styx= (_stiks_)--_i. e._, “the hateful, horrible” (Gr.).--The principal
river of the lower world, around which it flows seven times. Charon
(_q.v._) ferried the souls of the departed across it. By the Styx the
gods swore their most sacred oaths.

=Surya.=--The sun-god, according to the Hindu _Veda_, whose car is drawn
by seven green horses, the charioteer being Dawn.

=Sybaris= (_sib´ar-is_).--A Greek town in Lucania, notorious for the
luxury of its inhabitants: hence our word _Sybarite_.

=Syphax= (_sif´ax_).--King of one of the tribes of the Numidians. See
“Sophonisba.”

=Syrinx= (_sī´rinks_).--A nymph, who, being pursued by Pan, was
metamorphosed into a reed, of which Pan then made his shepherd’s pipe,
usually called Pan’s pipe.

=T=

=Tantalus= (_tan´ta-lus_).--Son of Jupiter and the nymph Pluto; father
of Pelops and Niobe. Having divulged some of his father’s secrets, he
received a terrible punishment in the lower world. He was made to stand
up to his chin in water, being at the same time afflicted with a raging
thirst, and over his head hung branches of tempting fruit, yet when he
attempted to drink the waters receded from him, and when he would pluck
the fruit the branches immediately sprang out of his reach. Moreover, a
huge rock was suspended above his head, threatening every moment to
crush him. (Hence our word _tantalize_, meaning to torment by holding
out hopes or prospects which cannot be realized.)

=Tarpeia= (_tar-pē´ya_).--Daughter of the governor of the Roman citadel:
was tempted by the gold bracelets of the Sabines, who, in the time of
Romulus, were besieging the fortress, to treacherously open one of the
gates. As they rushed in they threw their shields upon her and crushed
her to death. The Tarpeian Rock (_tar-pē´yan_), from which criminals
were hurled headlong, was named after her.

=Tartarus= (_tar´ta-rus_).--The place of punishment of the wicked in the
lower world, as opposed to the Elysian Fields, the abode of the blessed.
Sometimes it means the lower world generally.

=Taygete= (_tā-ij´et-ē_).--Daughter of Atlas and Pleione, one of the
Pleiones.

=Tecmessa= (_tek-mes´sa_).--Daughter of Teleutas, king of Phrygia, and
mistress of Ajax the Great.

=Telamon= (_tel´a-mōn_).--Son of Æacus and brother of Peleus. He was
king of Salamis and father of Ajax the Great (or Telamonius) and of
Teucer, the celebrated archer. He was one of the Argonauts, and took
part in the Calydonian boar hunt.

=Telegonus= (_te-leg´on-us_).--Son of Ulysses and Circe. He killed his
father without knowing it. See “Ulysses.”

=Telemachus= (_tē-lem´ak-us_).--Son of Ulysses (_q.v._) and Penelope.

=Telephus= (_tē´le-fus_).--Son of Hercules and king of Mysia. He married
Laodice, daughter of Priam, king of Troy. He was wounded by the spear of
Achilles, but was afterward cured by its rust.

=Tenedos= (_ten´e-dos_).--A small island in the Ægean Sea, off the coast
of Troas. Hither the Greeks brought their fleet when they pretended to
sail away from Troy (_q.v._).

=Tereus= (_tē´rūs_).--Son of Mars, king of Thrace and husband of Procne,
by whom he became the father of Itys. He hid Procne and married
Philomela (q.v.). Procne killed her son Itys and served him up in a dish
to Tereus. She then fled with her sister Philomela. Procne was
afterwards changed into a swallow, Philomela into a nightingale, and
Tereus into a hawk.

=Terpsichore.=--See “Musæ.”

=Tethys= (_tē´this_).--Wife of Oceanus and mother of the sea-nymphs and
sea-gods.

=Teucer= (_tū´ser_).--(i) Brother of Ajax the Great, and the most
skillful archer among the Greeks before Troy. (ii) The first king of
Troy: whence the Trojans are sometimes called Teucri.

=Thalia.=--See “Musæ.”

=Themis= (_them´is_).--The goddess of justice and of prophecy. She is
generally represented holding a cornucopia and a pair of scales.

=Thersites= (_ther-sī´tēz_).--A Greek before Troy, notorious for his
ugliness and scurrility. He was killed by Achilles.

=Theseus= (_thē´sūs_).--The great legendary hero of Attica; was the son
of Ægeus, king of Athens, and of Æthra. He went of his own accord as
part of the yearly tribute of Athens to the Minotaur (_q.v._). Ariadne,
the daughter of Minos, however, fell in love with the hero, and gave him
a sword wherewith he slew the monster, and a clue of threads by means of
which he found his way out of the labyrinth. Theseus then sailed away in
company with Ariadne, but he abandoned her (see “Ariadne”) in the island
of Naxos. When approaching Attica, he forgot to hoist the white sail, as
a token of success, and so caused the death of his father (see “Ægeus”).
Theseus thus became king of Athens. His life was full of adventure. He
was an Argonaut, and took part in the Calydonian boar hunt. His
friendship with Pirithous is proverbial. He even accompanied Pirithous
into the lower world with the object of carrying off Proserpine (see
“Pirithous”). On his return from the lower world he found himself unable
to re-establish himself as king of Athens, and retired to the island of
Scyros, where he was killed by Lycomedes, the king, who treacherously
thrust him down a rock.

=Thetis= (_thet´is_).--A sea-nymph; daughter of Nereus and Doris, wife
of Peleus and mother of Achilles. At her wedding with Peleus occurred
the celebrated incident of the Golden Apple (see “Paris”).

=Thisbe= (_this´be_).--A beautiful maiden of Babylon, beloved by Pyramus
(_pi´ra-mus_).--Their parents being averse to their union, they used to
converse secretly through a hole in the wall, as they lived in adjoining
houses. Once they agreed to meet at the tomb of Ninus. Thisbe arrived
first, but perceiving a lioness devouring an ox, she took flight. While
running she lost her garment, which the lioness seized and soiled with
blood. Meanwhile Pyramus came on the scene, and finding her garment
soiled with blood, he imagined that she had been slain, and killed
himself. Thisbe returned later, and finding the dead body of her lover
killed herself also.

=Thor.=--In Scandinavian mythology the eldest son of Odin and Frigga;
strongest and bravest of the gods. He launched the thunder, presided
over the air and the seasons, and protected man from lightning and evil
spirits. His wife was Sif (“love”); his chariot was drawn by two
he-goats; his mace or hammer was called Mjolner; his belt was
Megin-giord, and whenever he put it on his strength was doubled; his
palace, Thrudvangr, contained five hundred and forty halls; Thursday is
Thor’s day. This word means “refuge from terror.”

=Thyone= (_thi-ō´nē_).--The name given to Semele when she was brought
from the lower world by her son Bacchus and placed among the immortals.

=Tiresias= (_tī-res´i-as_).--A celebrated blind soothsayer of Thebes. He
was blind from his seventh year; but lived to a great age. He was one of
the most famous soothsayers in all antiquity.

=Tiryns= (_tī´rins_).--A town in Argolis; one of the most ancient in all
Greece, where Hercules was brought up. Remains of the city are still to
be seen.

=Tisiphone.=--See “Furiæ.”

=Titanes= (_tī-tā´nēz_).--The Titans; the six sons and six daughters of
Uranus (Heaven) and Ge (Earth), who contended with Jupiter for the
sovereignty of heaven, but were overcome by him and precipitated into
Tartarus.

=Tithonus= (_tī-thō´nus_).--Son of Laomedon and brother of Priam. He was
beloved by the goddess Aurora, who endowed him with immortality, but not
with eternal youth. Consequently, with the gradual decay of nature, he
became at length a decrepit old man, whose immortality with
ever-weakening physical vigor became a terrible burden to him. Aurora
eventually changed him into a grasshopper.

=Trimurti.=--The name of the Hindu triad of deities; or Brahma, Vishnu,
and Siva united in one god-head, and spoken of as an inseparable unity.

=Triptolemus= (_trip-tol´em-us_).--Son of Celeus, king of Eleusis. He
was the favorite of Ceres, and the inventor of the plow and agriculture:
hence introduced civilization, which follows the latter. He introduced
the worship of Ceres.

=Triton= (_trī´ton_).--A sea-god; son of Neptune, who blows through a
shell to calm the sea. He is represented with a man’s head and body, the
lower part being that of a fish.

=Troas= (_trō´as_).--The region about Troy (or Ilium), forming one of
the five parts into which Mysia, a district occupying the northwest
corner of Asia Minor, was divided. Troas is frequently called _The
Troad_.

=Troilus= (_trō´il-us_).--Son of Priam and Hecuba; slain by Achilles.

=Troja= (_trō´ja_), or =Troy=, called by the Greeks =Ilium=
(_ī´li-um_).--A city of Asia Minor, situated in the Troad, famous for
its ten years’ siege by the Greeks. The name Troy was derived from king
Tros (_trōs_), who gave his name originally to the district (Troas) and
the people; Ilium from Ilus, son of Tros, who founded the city--which,
however, was also called, after his father, Troy. The Trojan war forms
the subject of Homer’s immortal poem, the _Iliad_. The history of this
celebrated war may be briefly told as follows: The war arose from the
abduction of Helen, wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta, and the most
beautiful woman of her time, by Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy. The
cause of her abduction is given under “Paris” and “Helen.” All the
chiefs of Greece, who had been former suitors of Helen, joined Menelaus
in an expedition to Troy to bring her back. They accordingly massed all
their forces and sailed for the coast of Troas. Even the gods took an
active part in the contest: Juno and Minerva, owing to the judgment of
Paris, were hostile to the Trojans, and accordingly sided with the
Greeks; while Venus, to whom Paris had awarded the golden apple, took
the side of the Trojans. The innumerable incidents of the siege itself
must be passed over; only the remarkable way in which, after a ten
years’ siege, the city was finally taken, must be told. The city
contained an ancient statue of Pallas (_i. e._ Minerva), called the
Palladium, (_q.v._) on the preservation of which the safety of the city
was supposed to depend. Accordingly the Greeks make a night attack on
Troy, and Ulysses and Diomedes succeeded in carrying off this Palladium.
A little later the Greeks returned to their ships and sailed away,
pretending that they had relinquished the siege. On the plain before the
city, however, they left behind them the celebrated _wooden horse_, the
invention of Ulysses, which was hollowed out in the interior
sufficiently to admit of the presence of its wily inventor and a few
other heroes within it. Meanwhile Sinon, a relation of Ulysses, had
allowed himself to be taken prisoner by the Trojans, and then persuaded
them to draw this wooden horse, which he pretended was an atonement for
the Palladium, into the city. They foolishly believed him and dragged
the horse into the city, and in the dead of night Sinon let the Greeks
out of the horse, and they at once set fire to the city. Meanwhile the
main body of the Greeks, who had gone no farther than the island of
Tenedos, returned and rushed through the gates of the city, opened by
their friends within, and in this way the city was taken. The date most
generally accepted for the capture of Troy is B. C. 1184.

=Trolls.=--Dwarfs of Northern mythology, living in hills or mounds; they
are represented as stumpy, misshapen, and humpbacked, inclined to
thieving, and fond of carrying off children or substituting one of their
own offspring for that of a human mother. They are called hill-people,
and are especially averse to noise, from a recollection of the time when
Thor used to fling his hammer after them.

=Tydeus= (_tī´dēs_).--Son of Œneus, king of Calydon, and father of
Diomedes, who was one of the principal Greek heroes at the Trojan war.
Hence Diomedes is often called by his patronymic Tydides (_ti-dī´dēz_).

=Tyndareus= (_tin´dar-ūs_).--King of Sparta and husband of Leda. He
invited Menelaus to come to Sparta, and handed over the kingdom to him.

=Typhoeus= (_ti-fō´ūs_), or =Typhon= (_ti´fon_).--A giant who wished to
acquire the sovereign power over gods and men, but was overcome with a
thunderbolt from Jupiter and buried under Mount Ætna.

=Tyr.=--In Norse mythology, a warrior deity, and the protector of
champions and brave men; he was also noted for his sagacity. When the
gods wished to bind the wolf Fenrir, Tyr put his hand into the demon’s
mouth as a pledge that the bonds should be removed again. But Fenrir
found that the gods had no intention of keeping their word, and revenged
himself in some degree by biting the hand off. Tyr was the son of Odin
and brother of Thor.

=U=

=Ulin.=--An enchantress, who had no power over those who remained
faithful to Allah and their duty; but if any fell into error or sin, she
had full power to do as she liked. Thus, when Misnar (sultan of India)
mistrusted the protection of Allah, she transformed him into a toad.
When the Vizier Horam believed a false report, obviously untrue, she
transformed him also into a toad. And when the Princess Hemjunah, to
avoid a marriage projected by her father, ran away with a stranger, her
indiscretion placed her in the power of the enchantress, who transformed
her likewise into a toad. Ulin was ultimately killed by Misnar, sultan
of Delhi, who felled her to the ground with a blow.

=Ulysses= (_ū-lis´ēz_), or =Ulixes= (_u-lix´ēz_); called =Odysseus=
(_od-is´sūs_) by the Greeks.--A king of Ithaca, famed among the Grecian
heroes of the Trojan war for his craft and eloquence; the son of
Laertes, husband of Penelope, and father of Telemachus and Telegonus (by
Circe). In order to escape from going with the other Greek heroes
against Troy, he feigned madness, ploughing the sea-shore with a horse
and bull yoked together and sowing salt. The imposture, however, was
laid bare by Palamedes (_q.v._), who placed Telemachus, the infant son
of Ulysses, in the furrow, when the latter at once turned aside the
plough; but the wily Ulysses had his revenge on Palamedes. Ulysses, in
his turn, sought out and obtained the indispensable assistance of
Achilles (_q.v._). At the siege of Troy his cunning and valor were of
the greatest service to the Greeks. In company with Diomedes he slew the
horses of Rhesus, and also carried off the Palladium (_q.v._). Perhaps
the crowning effort of his ingenuity was the invention of the famous
wooden horse, by means of which the city of Troy (_q.v._) was ultimately
taken by the Greeks. After the taking of Troy Ulysses set out for
Ithaca, which, however, he did not reach for twenty years. During this
time he passed through the adventures which form the subject of Homer’s
glorious poem, the _Odyssey_, which takes its name from Odysseus, the
Greek name for Ulysses. He thus visited Circe (_q.v._), Polyphemus
(_q.v._), the Lotophagi, and other persons and places. In order to get
safely past the island of the Sirens, he, with his usual sagacity,
devised special means, which proved entirely successful (see “Sirens”).
He lost six of his companions while sailing between Scylla (_q.v._) and
Charybdis. He then suffered shipwreck, he alone escaping by means of the
mast and planks. In ten days he was drifted on to the island of Ogygia,
inhabited by Calypso (_q.v._), with whom he stayed for eight years. He
then constructed a raft, and made his way to the island of Scheria
(_q.v._), whence he obtained a ship that carried him to Ithaca. He did
not, however, make himself known at once to his wife and son. In order
to see how the land lay, he disguised himself as a beggar, but was
kindly received by the old swineherd. Meanwhile his son Telemachus, now
grown up to manhood, returned from a journey to Pylos and Sparta,
undertaken with a view to gleaning what information he could as to the
probable whereabouts of his father. Ulysses then made himself known to
Telemachus, and the two resolved on a plan of revenge on the numerous
unfortunate suitors for the hand of the virtuous and constant Penelope
(_q.v._). With great difficulty she was induced (being, as yet, unaware
of the safe arrival of her husband) to promise her hand to that suitor
who could shoot with the bow of Ulysses. Not one of them, however, was
able to draw this bow, whereupon Ulysses himself took it up and slew
them all. He then made himself known to Penelope, and went to see his
father Laertes, bowed down with grief and years. Now Circe, who had had
a son, Telegonus, by Ulysses, sent him in search of his father.
Telegonus encountered a storm which cast his ship on the coast of
Ithaca, and being pressed by hunger, he began to plunder the fields.
Ulysses and Telemachus hearing of this, went out against the spoliator;
but Telegonus, not knowing Ulysses, ran him through the body with a
spear given to him by his mother. Thus the famous hero died at the hands
of his own son. Telegonus afterwards married Penelope, and became by her
the father of Italus.

=Urania= (_ū-rā´ni-a_).--The muse of astronomy. See “Musæ.”

=Uranus= (_ū´ra-nus_), or =Heaven=.--Husband of Gæa (Earth), and father
of Oceanus, Hyperion, Rhea, Themis, Cronos, and other children. At the
instigation of Gæa he was dethroned by Cronos.

=Utgard-Loki.=--The chief of the giants, in Norse mythology.

=V=

=Varuna=, or =Vrauna=.--In Hindu mythology, the deity who presides over
the waters of the ocean, corresponding with _Neptune_ of classic
mythology.

=Valhalla.=--In Scandinavian mythology the palace of immortality wherein
are received the souls of heroes slain in battle.

=Valkyrs.=--The battle-maidens of Scandinavian mythology. They were
mounted on swift horses and held drawn swords. They rushed into battle
and selected those destined to death and conducted them to Valhalla. The
number of Valkyrs differs greatly according to the various mythologists
and ranges from three to sixteen, the greater part of them, however,
naming only nine.

=Venus= (_vē´nus_); called by the Greeks =Aphrodite=
(_af-ro-dī´tē_)--_i. e._ “sea-foam.”--The goddess of love and beauty.
She was supposed to have sprung from the foam of the sea: hence her
Greek name. She was the wife of Vulcan, but was very unfaithful to him.
She loved the gods Mars, Bacchus, Neptune and Mercury, and the mortals
Adonis and Anchises. She was considered by Paris (_q.v._) the most
beautiful of the goddesses and had awarded to her the celebrated Golden
Apple. Anyone who wore her magic girdle immediately became beautiful and
the object of love and desire. She is generally accompanied by her son
Cupid. The month of April, as the commencement of spring, was considered
peculiarly sacred to the goddess of love. The myrtle, rose, apple and
poppy, and the sparrow, dove, swan and swallow, were all sacred to her.
She was probably originally identical with Astarte, a Syrian goddess,
called by the Hebrews Ashtoreth. As might have been anticipated, the
representation of the Queen of Beauty on canvas and in marble has
resulted in some of the finest works of the most celebrated painters and
sculptors of antiquity. Among the former, Apelles’ masterpiece of Venus
rising from the sea deserves special mention; and among the latter the
“Cnidian Venus” (so called because it stood in her temple at Cnidus), by
Praxiteles, is unquestionably the most famous. Phryne (_q.v._) sat as
model for both of these noble works of art. The fame of the “Cnidian
Venus” was so great that travelers from all parts of the civilized world
resorted to Cnidus in order to see it. In fact, Pliny and others
declared it to be the finest statue in the world. The “Venus of Milo”
is, however, the noblest extant representation of Venus. It was found,
in 1820, in the island of Melos, the modern Milo (hence the epithet),
which is one of the group of islands named the Cyclades, in the Ægean
Sea. It now forms one of the treasures of the Louvre, Paris.

=Vertumnus= (_ver-tum´nus_).--The god of the changing year--that is, of
the seasons and their productions. His festival was celebrated by the
whole Roman people on the 23rd of August.

=Vesta= (_ves´ta_); called by the Greeks =Hestia= (_hes´ti-a_)--_i. e._
“the hearth.”--One of the twelve great Roman deities, the goddess and
guardian of the hearth and home. She was the daughter of Saturn and
Rhea. In her temple in the Forum at Rome stood no statue, the goddess
being represented by the eternal fire burning on her altar as her
abiding symbol. This fire was kept up and attended to by a number of
virgin priestesses, called Vestals, who were chaste and pure like the
goddess herself. On March 1 in every year the sacred fire was renewed,
and on June 15 her temple was cleaned and purified.

=Vidar.=--The Scandinavian god of wisdom, noted for his thick shoes, and
not infrequently called “The god with the thick shoes.”

=Vishnu.=--In Hindu mythology one of the great deities of the Hindu
triad, ranking as the _Preserver_, after Brahma, the _Creator_, and
before Siva, the _Destroyer_. It is believed that he has appeared on
earth nine times, his tenth _avatar_, or incarnation, having yet to
come.

=Volumnia= (_vol-um´ni-a_).--Wife of Coriolanus (_q.v._).

=Vulcanus= (_vul-kā´nus_), or =Vulcan=; called =Hephæstus=
(_hē-fēs´tus_) by the Greeks. The god of fire. He was the son of Jupiter
and Juno, and was lame from his birth. Besides being the god of fire, he
was master of the arts which need the aid of fire, especially of working
in metal. He made all the palaces of the gods on Olympus, the armor of
Achilles, the fatal necklace of Harmonia, the fire-breathing and
brazen-hoofed bulls of Æëtes (see “Argonautæ”), etc. The Cyclops were
his workmen, and his workshops were situated under Mount Ætna in Sicily.
Vulcan’s wife was Venus. His favorite abode on the earth was the island
of Lemnos. His great festival was celebrated on the 23rd of August.

=W=

=White Lady.=--In German folk-lore, the ancient Teutonic goddess Holda
or Berchta, who was the receiver of the souls of maidens and children,
and who still exists as the White Lady, not infrequently, in German
legends, transforming herself, or those whom she decoys into her home,
into a white mouse.

=Wild Huntsman, The.=--A spectral hunter in folk-lore, especially in
German folk-lore; the subject of a ballad by Bürger.

=Woden= (_wō´den_), or =Wotan=.--The Anglo-Saxon form of the
Scandinavian god Odin; Wednesday is called after him.

=Y=

=Yama.=--In the _Rigveda_, the name of the god who rules in heaven over
the blessed--the Manes, Fathers, or Pitris--and is therefore called
king.

=Yggdrasil.=--In Scandinavian mythology the great ash tree which binds
together heaven, earth, and hell. Its branches extend over the whole
earth, its top reaches heaven, and its roots hell. The three nornas, or
fates, sit under the tree, spinning the events of man’s life.

=Z=

=Zem.=--The sacred well of Mecca. According to Arab tradition, this is
the very well that was shown to Hagar when with Ishmael in the desert.
It is supposed to be in the heart of the city of Mecca.

=Zephyrus= (_zef´i-rus_).--The west wind, or properly, the northwest.

=Zeus= (_zūs_).--See “Jupiter.”

=Zohak.=--The giant of Persian mythology who keeps the “mouth of hell.”
He was the fifth of the Pischdadian dynasty, and was a lineal descendant
of Shedâd, king of Ad. He murdered his predecessor, and invented both
flaying men alive and killing them by crucifixion. The devil kissed him
on the shoulders, and immediately two serpents grew out of his back and
fed constantly upon him. He was dethroned by the famous blacksmith of
Ispahan, and appointed by the devil to keep hell-gate.

=Zohara.=--An oriental queen of love, and mother of mischief. When Harût
and Marût were selected by the host of heaven to be judges on earth,
they judged righteous judgment till Zohara, in the shape of a lovely
woman, appeared before them with her complaint. They then both fell in
love with her and tried to corrupt her, but she flew from them to
heaven; and the two angel-judges were forever shut out.

=Zulzul.=--According to Chinese mythology the sage whose life was saved
in the form of a rat by Gedy, the youngest of the four sons of Corcud.
Zulzul gave him, in gratitude, two poniards, by the help of which he
could climb the highest tree or most inaccessible castle.


=EXPLANATORY CHART OF GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY: SHOWING THE ORIGIN,
RELATIONSHIP AND DESCENT OF CHIEF MYTHS=

  The relationship of these mythical personages are quite unlike those
  of mortals and are full of inconsistencies. To reconcile all the
  contradictions of the poets and mythologists is impossible. Perhaps
  this chart is as consistent with their fabulous tales as can well be
  made.

  CHAOS Produced EREBUS, god of _darkness_, NOX, goddess of _night_, and
  TERRA, _Earth_.

  TERRA or TITÆA produced CŒLUS or URANUS, _Heaven_.

  CŒLUS or URANUS, i.e. _Heaven_, and TERRA or TITÆA, i.e. _Earth_. had
  |
  +->=TITAN= Oldest of the twelve Titans.
  |
  +->=THE CYCLOPS= Giants, at first three in number: Arges, Brontes,
  |   Steropes.
  |
  +->=BRIAREUS= A famous giant called by men Ægæon, and by the gods
  |   Braireus.
  |
  +->=TETHYS= Wife of _Oceanus_; for offspring, see =Oceanus=.
  |
  +->=THEA= Wife of _Hyperion_; the mother of rivers, and of about three
  |   thousand daughters, called _Ocean´i-des_.
  |
  +->=SATURN= or =Cronos=, god of Time, had by _Rhea_ same as _Ops_,
  |   same as _Cybele_.
  |  |
  |  +->=JUNO=, wife and sister of Jupiter, queen of the gods, and of
  |  |  Heaven and Earth.
  |  |
  |  +->=JUPITER= or =Zeus=, the most powerful of all the gods; king of
  |  |  gods and men, had
  |  |  |
  |  |  +->_By Them´is._
  |  |  |  |
  |  |  |  +->=Astræa=, the goddess of _justice_;
  |  |  |  |
  |  |  |  +->=Nemesis=, of _vengeance_.
  |  |  |
  |  |  +->_By Juno._
  |  |  |  |
  |  |  |  +->=Mars=, the god of _war_; by _Venus_, Anteros, Harmonia;
  |  |  |  |  the goddess of _youth_; once cupbearer to Jupiter.
  |  |  |  |
  |  |  |  +->=Hebe=, by her husband _Hercules_, Alexiares and Anicetus.
  |  |  |  |
  |  |  |  +->=Typhon=, by the monster _Echidna_, Chimæra and Sphinx.
  |  |  |  |
  |  |  |  +->=Vulcan=, the god of _fire_ and of _blacksmiths_, and
  |  |  |     husband of Venus; by his wife _Venus_, Cupid; by
  |  |  |     _Medusa_, Cacus, by _Juno_, Cæculus.
  |  |  |
  |  |  +->_By Lato´na._
  |  |  |  |
  |  |  |  +->=Apollo=, the god of _poetry_, _music_, _eloquence_,
  |  |  |  |  _medicine_, _the fine arts_, _augury_, and _archery_.
  |  |  |  |
  |  |  |  +->=Diana=, the goddess of _hunting_, the patroness of
  |  |  |     chastity, presided also over childbirth.
  |  |  |
  |  |  +->_By Ma´ia._
  |  |  |  |
  |  |  |  +->=Mercury=, the _messenger_ of the gods, the god of
  |  |  |     _eloquence_ and _commerce_, the patron of _travellers_,
  |  |  |     _thieves_, and _knaves_, and the conductor of the souls of
  |  |  |     the dead to the infernal regions. By _Penelope_, Pan. By
  |  |  |     the Greeks he was called _Hermes_.
  |  |  |
  |  |  +->_By Mnemos´y-ne._
  |  |  |  |
  |  |  |  +->=The Nine Muses.=
  |  |  |     |
  |  |  |     +->_Cli´o_ presided over History. }
  |  |  |     |                                 }
  |  |  |     +->_Calli´o-pe_ presided over     }
  |  |  |     |  eloquence and epic poetry.     }
  |  |  |     |                                 }
  |  |  |     +->_Er´ato_ presided over lyric   }
  |  |  |     |  and amorous poetry.            }
  |  |  |     |                                 }
  |  |  |     +->_Thali´a_ presided over        }
  |  |  |     |  pastoral and comic poetry and  }
  |  |  |     |  festivals.                     }
  |  |  |     |                                 }See
  |  |  |     +->_Melpom´e-ne_ presided over    }Dictionary of
  |  |  |     |  tragedy.                       }Mythology.
  |  |  |     |                                 }
  |  |  |     +->_Terpsich´o-re_ presided over  }
  |  |  |     |  dancing.                       }
  |  |  |     |                                 }
  |  |  |     +->_Euter´pe_ presided over music.}
  |  |  |     |                                 }
  |  |  |     +->_Polyhym´nia_ presided over    }
  |  |  |     |  singing and rhetoric.          }
  |  |  |     |                                 }
  |  |  |     +->_Ura´nia_ presided over        }
  |  |  |        astronomy.                     }
  |  |  |
  |  |  +->_By Euryn´o-me._
  |  |  |  |
  |  |  |  +->=Graces.=
  |  |  |     |
  |  |  |     +->_Agla´ia_     }Three beautiful virgins, attendants on
  |  |  |     |                }Venus; presided over kindness and good
  |  |  |     +->_Thali´a_     }offices, and were supposed to give to
  |  |  |     |                }beauty its charms; represented dancing
  |  |  |     +->_Euphros´y-ne_}in a circle with their hands joined.
  |  |  |
  |  |  +->_By Sem´e-le._
  |  |  |  |
  |  |  |  +->=Bacchus=, god of _wine_; by his wife _Ariadne_, Thoas,
  |  |  |     Œnopion, Ceranus, Tauropolis, and others.
  |  |  |
  |  |  +->_By Metis._
  |  |  |  |
  |  |  |  +->=Minerva=, the goddess of _wisdom_, _war_, and the
  |  |  |     _liberal and useful arts_.
  |  |  |
  |  |  +->_By Dione._
  |  |  |  |
  |  |  |  +->=Venus=, said to have been borne in the foam of the sea;
  |  |  |     the goddess of _love_ and _beauty_, and mistress of the
  |  |  |     graces; wife of _Vulcan_; for offspring, see =Vulcan=.
  |  |  |
  |  |  +->_By Ceres._
  |  |  |  |
  |  |  |  +->=Pros´erpine=, wife of Pluto, _queen_ of hell, presided
  |  |  |     over death. She was stolen away by Pluto while gathering
  |  |  |     flowers in Sicily, and became the mother of the Fates and
  |  |  |     Furies, which see under Dictionary.
  |  |  |
  |  |  +->_By Euro´pa._
  |  |  |  |
  |  |  |  +->=Minos=, =Rhadamanthus=, and =Æ´acus=, three inflexible
  |  |  |     judges of Hades.
  |  |  |
  |  |  +->_By Leda._                 }
  |  |  |  |                          }
  |  |  |  +->=Castor= and =Pollux=.  }
  |  |  |                             }
  |  |  +->_By Dan´a-e._              }
  |  |  |  |                          }See Dictionary
  |  |  |  +->=Per´seus.=             }of Mythology.
  |  |  |                             }
  |  |  +->_By Anti´o-pe._            }
  |  |  |  |                          }
  |  |  |  +->=Amphi´on= and =Zethus=.}
  |  |  |
  |  |  +->_By Segesta._
  |  |  |  |
  |  |  |  +->=Æolus=, whose offspring were the various Winds.
  |  |  |
  |  |  +->_By Alcmena._
  |  |     |
  |  |     +->=Hercules=, whose descendants were the Heraclidæ.
  |  |
  |  +->=VESTA=, the goddess of _fire_, and patroness of _Vestal
  |  |  Virgins_, who had the care of the sacred fire in the temple of
  |  |  Vesta at Rome, which was kept continually burning.
  |  |
  |  +->=CERES=, the goddess of _corn_ and _harvest_. The famous
  |  |  _Eleusinian mysteries_ were celebrated in honor of Ceres, during
  |  |  the representation of which it was death to speak; as it was
  |  |  also to reveal afterwards what took place.
  |  |
  |  +->=LATONIA=, celebrated for her beauty, and for being greatly
  |  |  beloved by Jupiter and persecuted by Juno.
  |  |
  |  +->=NEPTUNE=, the god of the _sea_, the father of rivers and
  |  |  fountains, and, next to Jupiter, the most powerful deity; had by
  |  |  _Amphitrite_, TRITON, his father’s companion and herald.
  |  |
  |  +->=PLUTO=, the god of the _infernal regions_, of _death_ and
  |     _funerals_; the dog _Cer´berus_, a frightful mastiff with three
  |     heads, and a tail like a serpent, watches at his feet, and three
  |     _Har´pies_, winged monsters, hover about him.
  |
  +->=MNEMOSYNE= Mother of the nine _Muses_.
  |
  +->=THEMIS= Mother of Astræa, goddess of Justice.
  |
  +->=CYBELE= OPS or RHEA, wife of _Saturn_; the goddess of _all
  |  things_; styled _Magna Mater_ or _Great Mother_, _Bona Mater_ or
  |  _Good Mother_; for off-spring, see =Saturn=.
  |
  +->=OCEANUS= The god of water, to whom the ancients recommended
  |  themselves when going on a voyage, had by Tethys.
  |  |
  |  +->AMPHITRITE had by _Neptune_   TRITON, who had no offspring.
  |  |
  |  +->CYLMENE had by    _Japetus_   ATLAS, also Menœtius, Prometheus,
  |  |                                Epimetheus, and others.
  |  |
  |  +->PHORCYS had by    _Ceto_      {The Gorgons, viz., Medusa,
  |  |                                {Stheno, and Euryale; three
  |  |                                {sisters whose heads were covered
  |  |                                {with vipers.
  |  |                                {The Graiæ, viz., Pephredo, Enyo,
  |  |                                {and Dinon.
  |  |
  |  +->ACHELOUS had by   _Calliope_. The _Sirens_ were three sea
  |  |                                nymphs, named _Parthen´ope_,
  |  |                                _Lige´ia_, and _Leuco´sia_, having
  |  |                                the form of a woman above the
  |  |                                waist, and the rest of the body
  |  |                                like a flying fish.
  |  |
  |  +->The Harpies, viz., Aello, Ocypete, and Celæus.
  |
  +->=HYPERION=, god of the Sun, had by _Thea_, AURORA, the goddess of
  |  the _morning_; represented riding in a rose-colored chariot drawn
  |  by white horses, usually covered with a veil, the morning star
  |  appearing overhead. She was called _rosy-fingered_, because she
  |  scattered roses; by _Tithon´us_, a mortal, she had Memnon and
  |  Æmathion.
  |
  +->=JAPETUS=, father of mankind, had by _Clymene_, ATLAS, also
     Prometheus, Epimetheus, Menœtius, and others, called _Japitonides_.

                            }_Nox_ or _Night_, _Mors_ or _Death_,
  EREBUS }   {Light, or Day,}_Somnus_ or _Sleep_, and _Morpheus_ (the
    and  }had{Somnus, Mors, }minister of Somnus, who brought dreams to
    NOX  }   {and Charon,   }men) were infernal divinities.
             {the Ferryman  }_Momus_, god of laughter and satire, son of
                            }Somnus and Nox.

  Ancient Roman Sun-god--=Janus=, the god of the _year_, presided over
  the gates of heaven, and over peace and war; represented with two
  faces. His temple in Rome was open in time of war and shut in time of
  peace.

[Illustration: =SCREENS OF LIGHT CAST BY INVISIBLE ATOMS=

=IMMENSELY ENLARGED REPRESENTATIONS OF ATOMS=

=(1) of Ordinary Matter; (2) of Radium=]

[Illustration: Here is seen an invisible speck of radium throwing out
invisible atoms that sparkle into sight on a film. This stream of atoms
will pour forth for 2500 years before the radium ceases to exist, thus
showing the marvelous energy stored up in the smallest particle. These
flying particles fall on the screen or film like hailstones splashing on
the surface of water, and the splash is visible, while the radium itself
and flying atoms are not. This is the nearest men have yet come to
seeing an actual atom.]



BOOK OF THE SCIENCES AND INVENTION


  HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCIENCES

  OUTLINES OF SCIENCE FOR SCHOOLS

  PRACTICAL MATHEMATICS FOR DAILY USE: BUSINESS AND INDUSTRIAL
  ARITHMETIC, EVERYDAY APPLICATIONS OF PERCENTAGE, WEIGHTS AND
  MEASURES, MENSURATION AND ITS APPLICATIONS

  COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL LAW

  PHYSICS: ITS PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS

  CHEMISTRY: ITS THEORY AND USES

  THE CHEMISTRY OF COMMON THINGS

  REVISED TABLE OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

  GREAT INVENTIONS AND SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES

  RELATION OF THE GOVERNMENT TO SCIENCE


BOOK OF SCIENCE AND INVENTION

Science in its widest significance is sometimes defined as the
correlation of all knowledge. In this sense it would include
_philosophy_. In a more restricted and generally accepted sense, the
term is applied to the _systematized_ divisions of knowledge.

Science and philosophy _resemble_ each other in so far as they both have
to do with knowledge; but while the latter deals with the whole sum of
knowledge and goes back to generalized first principles, the former
takes up special branches of it. That is, a science is such in fact when
a sufficient number of interrelated facts are so arranged and classified
by referring them to the general truths and principles on which they are
founded that they constitute a well-certified and more or less complete
branch of knowledge.

From the present development of knowledge the separate entities of the
universe are five--namely, ether, matter, energy, life, and mind. The
first three are inseparable agents in the simplest phenomena that occur
in nature. They may ultimately be reduced to two, or, conceivably, to
one. It is with these that the various branches of science have to
deal--to observe, to experiment, to classify, to define.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE SCIENCES.--The sciences may be grouped in two
ways. _First_, from what has been said above, they may be divided into:

(a) the _physical_ sciences, which have to do with inorganic
nature--that is with the laws and properties of matter, energy, and
ether;

(b) the _biological_ sciences, which consider the laws of life; and

(c) the _psychical_ sciences, which deal with the phenomena of mind.

_Second._--Another, and probably more practical, division is that of (a)
_pure_ or _theoretic_ sciences, and (b) _applied_ or _practical_
sciences. The latter consist of those branches which deal with facts,
events, or phenomena as explained, accounted for, or produced by means
of powers, causes, or laws; the former as the knowledge of these powers,
causes, or laws, considered apart or as pure from all applications. To
the class of pure or fundamental sciences belong mathematics, physics,
chemistry, psychology, and sociology; to the applied or concrete belong
geology, mineralogy, botany, zoology, meteorology, geography, ethics,
politics, law, jurisprudence, logic, grammar, rhetoric, philology, and
political economy; navigation, engineering, and practical mechanics;
surgery, medicine, materia medica, etc.

METHODS OF SCIENCE.--The great method of scientific inquiry is
experiment--the laboratory. Contrasted with _experiment_ is
_observation_. But even in astronomy, emphatically an observational
science, experiment plays an important part. The dynamical knowledge
which Newton developed into the cosmic law of gravitation was founded on
experiment. Meteorology, again, has made great strides in these days by
appealing to laboratory experiments for elucidation of its phenomena.
Likewise in biology, botany, and zoology experiment has led to striking
discoveries; while such branches as embryology and bacteriology are as
truly experimental as chemistry itself.

In the psychical group of sciences the method of experimenting still
awaits development. The complexity of the problems presented, and the
manner in which they affect the welfare and happiness of humanity,
render social and political experimenting excessively hazardous. Such
sciences as those studied by the economist, the ethnologist, the
moralist, or the theologian are of necessity essentially observational.


APPLIED ARITHMETIC, WEIGHTS AND MEASUREMENTS

It would be difficult to overestimate the extent to which mathematics
enters into the conditions of everyday life. In its elementary stages,
as the science of number, it teaches us the relations of magnitude, and
enables us to build up a system of calculation and measurement which,
applied to the relations observed to exist in nature, gives results of
far-reaching importance.

The properties of number are investigated in arithmetic, and methods
examined by which those engaged in practical science are able to work
out their results to any degree of approximation.

With the help of algebra, we arrive at a system of logarithms by which
many of these results may be reached with the minimum of labor.

The measurement of lines and angles, by methods investigated in geometry
and trigonometry, enables us to calculate areas, and work out various
problems met with in surveying, and is of the first importance in
astronomy.

_Arithmetic_, which deals with the properties of numbers, forms the
basis of all mathematical calculation. (For the _primary_ treatment of
numbers, see under The Child World.)


COMMON FRACTIONS

A Fraction is one or more of the equal parts into which a unit has been
divided. A _Common Fraction_ is expressed by two numbers; the one
written above the line is called the Numerator, the one below, the
Denominator: both, called the Terms, denote the value of the fraction.

Thus, in the fraction 3/4, the denominator 4, denotes that a unit or
whole thing has been divided into four equal parts; and the numerator 3,
shows that three of those parts are taken or expressed in the fraction.

A _Proper Fraction_ is one whose numerator is less than its denominator;
as 1/2, 3/4, 7/8, etc. Its value is always less than 1.

An _Improper Fraction_ is one whose numerator is equal to, or greater
than its denominator, as 5/5, 9/7, 30/12, etc. Its value is never less
than 1.

A _Mixed Number_ is a whole number and a fraction; as 3-2/5, 10-1/2,
6-2/3.

The mixed number means that there are whole things taken together with a
fraction of another.

A _Complex Fraction_ is one in which the numerator or denominator, or
both, are fractions.

        3-1/7      1      15/17
  Thus, -----, ---------, -----, are complex fractions.
        2-3/8  5/6 × 3/4    8


SIMPLE FRACTIONS

A very good method of learning the combinations in small fractions is by
the use of paper or cardboard disks.

Cut out a large number of them, and, in order to avoid trouble later on,
it might be better to have the disks all of one size--about 4 inches in
diameter.


LEARNING THE FRACTION 1/2 WITH DISKS

EXPLANATION:--Take a circular disk and cut it into two equal parts. Then
proceed in this manner: What is this part called? What is other part
called? How many halves in the whole circle? One-half and one-half are
what? One-half taken away from one leaves what? If I take a half two
times, what do I get? How many halves in a whole?

Now I will write these--

  1   1
  - + - =
  2   2

  1 ÷ 2 =

         1
  1 less - =
         2

      1
  1 - - =
      2

      1
  2 × - =
      2
               1
  1 divided by - =
               2

Give me the answers and I will write them.

Drawings showing the “placing” of disks for number combinations can then
be made; as,

[Illustration]

[Illustration]

Make similar drawings to tell about halves.

Proceed like this--How many halves in a pie? If a pie cost 10 cents,
what will half a pie cost? Who can tell other stories about halves? etc.

Learn fourths along with halves.


LEARNING THE FRACTION 1/3 AND OTHERS WITH DISKS

Cut several disks into thirds and have children practice on cutting, so
that they will be able to make the three parts of each disk equal.
Frequently children will find pleasure in “teaching” one another.

[Illustration]

Then proceed like this: What do you call each of these parts? Why are
they called thirds? How many thirds in a circle? I am going to take a
circle and cut it any way, so as to make three parts; do I call these
unequal parts thirds? Why not? Let me write one-third on a piece of
paper for you. (Write, 1/3.) Draw a circle for me. Instead of cutting
it, draw lines where you would cut it to make thirds. Write one-third
(1/3) on each third of a circle. I write this (1/3 + 1/3). Who can tell
me what the answer is? Are two-thirds and two-thirds more than one? How
much more? I have two-thirds of an apple and give Mary one-third, how
much have I left? Who can give other story problems about thirds?
Everybody try, etc.

Learn sixths along with thirds. Use disks, dots, marks, sticks, and
inches to illustrate.

Remember that no advance should be made until each little part is
understood. Then have fifths compared with fourths, thirds, and halves.

Teach tenths along with fifths.

When twelfths are taught, show the relations between twelfths and
sixths, fourths, thirds, and halves.


EQUAL FRACTIONS IN DIFFERENT FORMS

Have the children see how fractions may differ in form but still remain
the same in value.

Begin with his knowledge of smaller fractions as

  1  2  3  4       5
  -, -, -, -, and -- of an apple.
  2  4  6  8      10

Let them show by the use of drawings that fractions may have large or
small terms but be equal in value.

Write a number of proper fractions, improper fractions, and mixed
numbers, and have the children pick out those of each kind; as,

  3           5  19  20  18  11
  -, 27-1/2, --, --, --, --, --, 3-1/2, 16-2/3
  8          11  20  20  16   5


PRINCIPLES OF FRACTIONS

_1. A fraction’s value is the quotient obtained by dividing the
numerator by the denominator._

  6                        6
  - = 3  3 is the value of -
  2                        2

  2   2  2                 2
  - = -  - is the value of -
  3   3  3                 3

_2. Multiplying the denominator of a fraction divides the fraction by
that number._

  1       1
  -     = -
  2 × 4   8

  3        3
  -     = --
  7 × 3   21

  2        2
  -     = --
  3 × 9   27

_3. Dividing the denominator of a fraction multiplies the fraction by
that number._

  3       3
  -     = -
  8 ÷ 4   2

  10       10
  --     = --
   9 ÷ 3    3

   3       3
  --     = -
  10 ÷ 5   2

_4. Multiplying the numerator of a fraction multiplies the fraction by
that number._

  2 × 2   4
  -     = -
  3       3

  1 × 8   8
  -     = -
  9       9

  5 × 3   15
  -     = --
  8        8

_5. Dividing the numerator of a fraction divides the fraction by that
number._

  4 ÷ 2   2
  -     = -
  7       7

  12 ÷ 12    1
  --      = --
  16        16

  3 ÷ 3   1
  -     = -
  7       7

_6. Multiplying both numerator and denominator of a fraction by the same
number does not change the value of the fraction._

  1 × 3   3   1
  -     = - = -
  3 × 3   9   3

  6 × 2   12   6
  -     = -- = -
  7 × 2   14   7

_7. Dividing both numerator and denominator of a fraction by the same
number does not change the value of the fraction._

  12 ÷ 3   4   12
  --     = - = --
  15 ÷ 3   5   15

  18 ÷ 9   2   18
  --     = - = --
  27 ÷ 9   3   27


REDUCTION OF FRACTIONS

is the process of changing their forms without altering their values.

To reduce a fraction to its lowest terms:

RULE.--Divide both terms by their greatest common divisor.

Reduce 8/12 to its lowest terms.

  WORK:  4) 8/12 (2/3  _Ans._ 2/3

Four is the G. C. D. of 8 and 12; hence 8/12 ÷ 4 = 2/3.

Reduce 35/56 to its lowest terms.

  WORK:  7) 35/56 (5/8  _Ans._ 5/8

Seven is the G. C. D. of 35 and 56; hence 35/56 ÷ 7 = 5/8.

A fraction whose terms have no common divisor is in its lowest terms, as
9/16.

To reduce an improper fraction to a whole or mixed number:

RULE.--Divide the numerator by the denominator; the quotient will be the
whole or mixed number.

How many units in 30/6?

  WORK:  30 ÷ 6 = 5  _Ans._ 5.

There are as many units in 30 sixths as 6 is contained times in 30.

Reduce 75/4 to a mixed number.

  WORK:  75 ÷ 4 = 18 + 3  _Ans._ 18-3/4.

In 75 fourths there are 18 units, and 3 fourths over, which equals
18-3/4.

To reduce a mixed number to an improper fraction:

RULE.--Multiply the whole number by the denominator of the fraction; add
the numerator to the product, and write the sum over the denominator.

Reduce 18-3/4 to an improper fraction.

  WORK:  18 × 4 = 72

  72/4 + 3/4 = 75/4

  _Ans._ 75/4.

In 18 are 72 fourths, plus the 3 fourths, equals 75 fourths.

To reduce two or more fractions to their least common denominator:

RULE.--Find the least common multiple of the given denominators for a
common denominator. Then for each new numerator take such a part of this
common denominator as the fraction is part of 1.

Reduce 1/2, 2/3 and 3/4 to their L. C. D.

WORK:

  1    6
  - = --
  2   12

  2    8
  - = --
  3   12

  3    9
  - = --
  4   12

_Ans._ 6/12, 8/12 and 9/12.

The L. C. M. of the denominators 2, 3 and 4 is 12. Hence, 12 is the L.
C. D. to which the given fractions can be reduced. Then to change 1/2 to
12ths, say, 1/2 of 12 is 6, and write it over 12; to change 2/3 to
12ths, say 2/3 of 12 is 8, and write it over 12; to change 3/4 to 12ths,
say, 3/4 of 12 is 9, and write it over 12.

Fractions must be reduced to a common denominator to be added or
subtracted.


ADDITION OF FRACTIONS

If two or more fractions have the same denominator, their sum is
obtained by adding the numerators.

  WORK: 1   4   5   1 + 4 + 5   10    3
        - + - + - = --------- = -- = 1-
        7   7   7       7        7    7

If the fractions have different denominators, we must first express them
as equivalent fractions with the same denominator.

EXAMPLE 1: Find the value of

  1   3    5   2
  - + - + -- + -
  9   7   21   3

The lowest common multiple is 63. The several denominators, when divided
into 63, give 7, 9, 3, 21 respectively, for quotients. Therefore, we
multiply the numerators and denominators of the fractions by 7, 9, 3,
21, and add the numerators to obtain the required sum. The result must
be reduced to a mixed number or to lower terms, if necessary.

WORK:

  1   3    5   2
  - + - + -- + -
  9   7   21   3

    7 + 27 + 15 + 42
  = ----------------
           63

  = 91/63 = 1-28/63 = 1-4/9 _Ans._

In adding mixed numbers, first add the whole numbers, then the
fractions, finally adding the two results.

EXAMPLE 2: Add together 3-1/8 + 7/24 + 7-11/15 + 4-3/20. Given
expression:

                1    7   11    3
  = 3 + 7 + 4 + - + -- + -- + --
                8   24   15   20

         15 + 35 + 88 + 18
  = 14 + -----------------
                120

         156          36      3
  = 14 + --- = 14 + 1--- = 15-- _Ans._
         120         120     10


SUBTRACTION OF FRACTIONS

The principle is the same as in addition. Reduce the fractions, if they
have different denominators, to a common denominator, and then take the
difference of the numerators. In the case of mixed numbers, subtract the
whole numbers and the fractions separately.

EXAMPLE 1: Take 4-5/21 from 6-3/7.

   3     5           3    5
  6- - 4-- = 6 - 4 + - - --
   7    21           7   21

                 9 - 5
           = 2 + -----
                   21

                  4    4
           = 2 + -- = 2--  _Ans._
                 21    21

If the fractional part of the number to be subtracted be greater than
the fractional part of the other number, we proceed as follows:

EXAMPLE 2: From 7-4/15 take 4-11/25.

    4    11            4   11
  7-- - 4-- = 7 - 4 + -- - --
   15    25           15   25

                  20 - 33
            = 3 + -------
                    75

                  75 + 20 - 33
            = 2 + ------------
                       75

                  62    62
            = 2 + -- = 2--  _Ans._
                  75    75

EXAMPLE 3: Simplify 3-2/9 + 4-5/7 - 5-13/21 + 2/35 - 1-14/15. Given
expression:

                    2   5   13    2   14
  = 3 + 4 - 5 - 1 + - + - - -- + -- - --
                    9   7   21   35   15

        70 + 225 - 195 + 18 - 294
  = 1 + -------------------------
                   315

        313 - 489[15]
  = 1 + ---------
           315

    628 - 489   139
  = --------- = ---  _Ans._
       315      315

  [15] Obtained by adding all the numerators with + before them, and
  then all those with - before them.


MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS

(i) When the multiplier is a whole number. This, as in the case of whole
numbers, means that we have to find the sum of a given number of
repetitions of the fraction.

EXAMPLE 1:

  7           7   7   7   7          28
  - × 4 means - + - + - + -, _i.e._, --; or
  9           9   9   9   9           9

  7 × 4
  -----
    9

Hence, to multiply a fraction by a whole number, simply multiply the
numerator by that number.

Since the multiplier thus becomes a factor of the numerator, we cancel
any common factors contained in the multiplier and the denominator; and
this may be done before we perform the actual multiplication:

EXAMPLE 2: Multiply 19/46 by 69.

  19        19 × 69   19 × 3                    57
  -- × 69 = ------- + ------ (cancelling 23), = -- = 28-1/2  _Ans._
  46          46         2                       2

It follows that if the multiplier be itself a factor of the denominator,
we may, to multiply a fraction by a whole number, divide the denominator
by that number.

(ii) When the multiplier is a fraction.

EXAMPLE: In performing the operation 7 × 9, it is plain that we do to 7
what we do to a unit to obtain 9. Similarly, 3/5 × 4/11 may be looked
upon as doing to 3/5 what we do to the unit to obtain 4/11.

Now, to obtain 4/11 from the unit, we must divide the unit into 11 equal
parts and take 4 of them.

Therefore, to find the value of 3/5 × 4/11 we must divide 3/5 into 11
equal parts and take 4 of them.

But 3/5 = 33/55 = 3/55 × 11, so that, the eleventh part of 3/5 is 3/55;
and, if we take 4 of these parts, we get 3/55 × 4 or 12/55.

        3    4   12
  Thus, - × -- = --.    Now 12 = 3 × 4, and 55 = 5 × 11.
        5   11   55

Hence we have the following rule: To multiply two fractions together,
multiply the numerators for a new numerator and the denominators for a
new denominator.

As in Example 2 the work is shortened if we cancel common factors from
the numerators and denominators.

EXAMPLE: Multiply 22/91 by 13/77.

                 2
                2̸2̸ × 1̸3̸     2
  The product = -------- = --  _Ans._
                9̸1̸ × 7̸7̸    49
                 7    7

Here, the 22 of the numerator and the 77 of the denominator contain a
common factor, 11. Therefore, we cross out the 22 and write 2 above it,
and cross out the 77 and write 7 under it. Similarly, we cancel the
factor 13 from 13 and 91. There is now 2 left for numerator and 7 × 7
for denominator.

To multiply more than two fractions together, we proceed in the same
way.

In multiplication of fractions, mixed numbers must first be expressed as
improper fractions.

EXAMPLE: Simplify 5-1/7 × 11/27 × 1-11/24.

                      3̸          5
                     3̸6̸    11   3̸5̸   55     1
  Given expression = --  × -- × -- = -- = 3--   _Ans._
                      7̸    2̸7̸   2̸4̸   18     18
                            9    2


DIVISION OF FRACTIONS

(i) When the divisor is a whole number. Suppose we have to divide 7/9 by
4.

We know 7/9 = 28/36. This fraction means that the unit is divided into
36 equal parts, and 28 of the parts taken. If we divide the 28 parts by
4, we get 7 of them--_i.e._ 7/36. Hence 7/9 ÷ 4 = 7/36.

Therefore, to divide a fraction by a whole number, we multiply the
denominator by that number.

In the same way as already explained for multiplication, we cancel any
common factors contained in the divisor and the numerator. Hence, if the
numerator be exactly divisible by the divisor, we may divide a fraction
by a whole number by dividing the numerator by that number.

EXAMPLE 1:

                3
  27           2̸7̸      3
  -- ÷ 18 = ------- = --   _Ans._
  31        31 × 1̸8̸   62
                  2

EXAMPLE 2:

  36        4
  -- ÷ 9 = --   _Ans._
  41       41

(ii) When the divisor is a fraction.

In the operation 24 ÷ 3, we have to find the number which, when
multiplied by 3, will give 24. Similarly, to find the value of 3/7 ÷ 5/9
we have to find the fraction which, when multiplied by 5/9, will give
3/7.

      3 × 9
  But -----  is the fraction which gives 3/7 when multiplied by 5/9.
      7 × 5

             3   5   3 × 9
  Therefore, - ÷ - = -----.
             7   9   7 × 5

Hence, to divide by a fraction, invert the divisor and multiply.

As in multiplication, mixed numbers must first be reduced to improper
fractions.

EXAMPLE 3: Divide 3-1/14 by 5-5/42.

                                3
    1     5   43   215   4̸3̸    4̸2̸   3
  3-- ÷ 5-- = -- ÷ --- = -- × --- = -  _Ans._
   14    42   14    42   1̸4̸   2̸1̸5̸   5
                                5


DECIMAL FRACTIONS

Differ in form from common fractions, in not having a written
denominator; and from whole numbers, by having the decimal point (.)
prefixed; which also separates the integral part from the decimal. The
word decimal is derived from the Latin word _decem_, which signifies
ten. The denominator of a decimal is always 10, or some power of 10, as
100, 1000, etc.

A Complex Decimal is a decimal with a common fraction at the right, as,
.12-1/2.

A Mixed Decimal is a whole number with a decimal fraction to its right,
as, 34.5.

The denominations of United States money are based on the decimal
system--the dollar occupying the unit’s place, the dime the tenth’s
place, the cent the hundredth’s place, and the mill the thousandth’s
place.

_The rules given for addition, subtraction, and so on, also apply to
decimals._


ADDITION IN DECIMALS

EXAMPLE: 27.295 + .0287 + 591.68 + 9.1846.

   27.295
     .0287
  591.68
    9.1846
  --------
  628.1883 _Ans._

Write the numbers so that the same powers of 10 come under one another,
or, what is the same thing, write the numbers so that the decimal points
come under one another. Then, adding the ten-thousandths first, 6, 13,
carry 1, etc.


SUBTRACTION IN DECIMALS

EXAMPLE: Subtract .07295 from 21.651.

  21.651
    .07295
  --------
  21.57805 _Ans._

Write the first number under the second, so that the point comes
under the point. Remember that we may consider there are 0’s above
the 9 and 5, since in 21.651 there are no ten-thousandths and no
hundred-thousandths.

Say, mentally 5 and 5 make 10, carry 1. 10 and 0 make 10, carry 1. 3 and
8 make 11, carry 1, etc.


MULTIPLICATION IN DECIMALS

RULE.--Multiply as in whole numbers, and point off from the right of the
product as many places as there are decimal places in both multiplier
and multiplicand--prefixing ciphers if necessary.

EXAMPLE 1: Multiply 87.432 by 564.

     87.432
        564
  ---------
  43716.0
   5245.92
    349.728
  ---------
  49311.648 _Ans._

Place the multiplier so that its unit’s digit comes under the right-hand
digit of the multiplicand. Then place the first figure of each product
underneath the multiplying digit. The decimal point of the answer will
then be directly under the decimal point of the multiplicand.

EXAMPLE 2: Multiply 31.56 by 5.49.

   31.56
       5.49
   --------
  157.80
   12.624
    2.8404
  ---------
  173.2644 _Ans._

As before, place the unit’s figure of the multiplier--that is, the
5--under the right-hand digit of 31.56, and proceed as above.

Note.--The number of decimal places in the product will always be equal
to the sum of the number of decimal places in the multiplier and the
multiplicand. Thus, in Example 2, there are two places of decimals
(_i.e._ two figures to the right of the point) in 31.56, and two places
of decimals in 5.49; and we found 2 + 2 = 4 places in the product
173.2644.

To multiply a decimal by 10, 100, etc.

Rule.--Remove the (.) as many places to the right as there are ciphers
in the multiplier.

  Work: 8.75 ×   10 =   87.5
        8.75 ×  100 =  875.
        8.75 × 1000 = 8750.


DIVISION OF DECIMALS

RULE.--Divide as in whole numbers, annexing ciphers to the dividend, if
necessary; then point off from the right of the quotient as many places
as the decimal places in the dividend exceed those in the
divisor--prefixing ciphers if necessary.

(a) Division of a decimal by a whole number.

EXAMPLE 1: Divide 18.2754 by 4.

  4)18.2754
   --------
     4.56885

We divide 4 into 18 (units) and have 4 (units) quotient and 3
units remainder. Since the 4 is the unit’s figure of the quotient,
we write the decimal point immediately after it. Then, the 2 units
remainder and the 2 tenths of the dividend make 22 tenths to be divided
by 4, and so on. Having reached the 4 (ten-thousandths) of the
dividend, we find 8 (ten-thousandths) quotient and 2 remainder. This
remainder is 20 hundred-thousandths, which when divided by 4 gives 5
(hundred-thousandths) and no further remainder.

EXAMPLE 2: Divide 18.2758 by 11.

  11)18.2758
    --------
      1.66143636

Here we find the digits 3, 6 repeated indefinitely in the quotient.
Decimals of this sort will be fully considered later.

EXAMPLE 3: Divide 354.43 by 184.

  184)354.43(1.92625 _Ans._
     ----
      1704
      ----
        483
        ---
        1150[16]
        ----
          460
          ---
           920
           ---

Here we find the first figure of the quotient is obtained by dividing
184 into 354 units. Having now reached the decimal point in the dividend
we also put the decimal point in the answer, and go on as before.

  [16] At this stage there is a remainder 115 hundredths. We bring
  down 0 from the dividend, and obtain 1150 thousandths, etc.

(b) Division of a decimal.

EXAMPLE 4: Divide 10.6603 by 7.85.

Thus:

  785)1066.03(1.358 _Ans._
     -----
       2810
       ----
        4553
        ----
         6280
         ----

Here 7.85 is 785 hundredths, and 10.6603 is 1066.03 hundredths; so that
the required quotient is obtained by dividing 1066.03 by 785.

Therefore, to divide by a decimal, move the point as many places to the
right as will make the divisor a whole number; move the point in the
dividend the same number of places to the right. Then proceed as in
Example 3.

EXAMPLE 5: Divide 176.4 by .00012.

     12)17640000
       ---------
  _Ans._ 1470000

Here, to make the divisor a whole number, we have to move the point 5
places. Therefore we also move the point 5 places to the right in the
dividend, first writing enough 0’s after the 176.4 to enable us to do
so.

To divide a decimal by 10, 100, etc.

RULE.--Remove the (.) as many places to the left as there are ciphers in
the divisor.

WORK:

  62.5 ÷   10 = 6.25
  62.5 ÷  100 =  .625
  62.5 ÷ 1000 =  .0625

Expression of decimal fractions as common fractions.

EXAMPLE: Express 5.375 as a common fraction.

             .375 = 375 thousandths.

                      375    3
  Therefore 5.375 = 5---- = 5-  _Ans._
                     1000    8

RULE.--_Take the digits of the decimal for numerator; for the
denominator put down 1 followed by as many ciphers as there are digits
in the decimal. Reduce this fraction to its lowest terms._

Expression of common fractions as decimals.

We have seen that a common fraction represents the quotient of the
numerator divided by the denominator. Therefore, to convert a common
fraction to a decimal fraction, we divide the numerator by the
denominator.

EXAMPLE: Express 3/32 as a decimal.

  4) 3.0
   ---------
  8)  .75
   ---------
      .09375  _Ans._

It will be found in many cases that there is always a remainder, so that
the quotient can be continued indefinitely.


CIRCULATING DECIMALS

The learner has already discovered that some common fractions cannot be
changed to exact decimal fractions, as--

  1/3 =.33333 on to infinity.
  2/3 =.66666 on to infinity.
  7/33 =.212121, etc.

These decimals are known as _Circulates_, _Recurring_ or _Circulating_
decimals.

The part which recurs is called the _Repetend_.

This is marked by putting a dot over the first and last figures of it.
For instance, if we write the 21 in the last case above, this way: 2̊1̊,
it indicates that, if written out, the result would be 21212121, etc.,
on to infinity.

Where a circulating decimal occurs in work, it is best to reduce it to a
common fraction. If need be, it may be expressed in the result as a
circulate to any number of decimal places.

To change a pure circulate to a common fraction.

RULE.--Omit the (.) and write the figures of the repetend for the
numerator, and as many 9’s for the denominator as there are places in
the repetend.

EXAMPLES: Change the pure circulates .3̊, .2̊7̊, .1̊42857̊, to common
fractions.

      (3   1)
  .3̊, (- = -)  _Ans._ 1/3.
      (9   3)

       (27    3)
  .2̊7̊, (-- = --)  _Ans._ 3/11
       (99   11)

           (142857   1)
  .1̊42857̊, (------ = -)  _Ans._ 1/7
           (999999   7)

To change a mixed circulate to a common fraction.

RULE.--From the whole decimal subtract the finite part, and make the
remainder the numerator. For the denominator, write as many 9’s as there
are figures in the repetend, and annex as many 0’s as there are finite
places.

EXAMPLE: Change the mixed circulates .16̊ and .416̊ to common fractions.

               15    1
  16 - 1 = 15, --- = -.  _Ans._ 1/6.
               90    6

                  375    5
  416 - 41 = 375, --- = --   _Ans._ 5/12.
                  900   12

To add, subtract, multiply and divide circulates, reduce them to common
fractions, then apply the respective rules.


SHORT METHODS IN MERCHANDISING

When one of the numbers is an _aliquot part_ of 100, the process of
multiplication and division can often be very much shortened, as shown
below.

Find cost of 27 yards of goods at 16-2/3c ($1/6) per yard. At $1 per
yard, 27 yards cost $27; at $1/6, (27 ÷ 6), $4-1/2. _Ans._ $4-1/2.

Find cost of a bale of cotton, 528 pounds at 8-1/3c ($1/12) per pound.
At $1 per pound, 528 pounds cost $528; at $1/12 (528 ÷ 12) $44. _Ans._
$44.

Find cost of 1845 pounds of iron, at 3-1/3c ($1/30) per pound. Take 1/30
of 1845, since 3-1/3c is 1/30 of $1. (1845 ÷ 30 = 61-1/2). _Ans._
$61-1/2.

Find cost of 16 pounds of butter at 37-1/2c ($3/8) per pound. Here we
take 3/8 of 16. Say 1/8 of 16 is 2, and 3/8 is (2 × 3) 6. Or say 3 times
16 is 48, and 1/8 of 48 is 6. _Ans._ $6.

Find cost of 17-1/2 bushels of apples at 75c ($3/4) per bushel. The
shortest way to find 3/4 of $17.50 is to diminish it by 1/4 of itself.

  4)17.50     at $1
   ------
     4.37-1/2 at $1/4
    13.12-1/2 at $3/4

_Ans._ $13.12-1/2.

At 6-1/4c per pound how much sugar will $5 buy? As 6-1/4c is 1/16 of $1,
evidently each dollar will buy 16 pounds. _Ans._ 80 pounds.

In multiplying by a fraction, write the quantity in a line with the
numerator and cancel common factors.

Find cost of 72 yards of carpet, at 87-1/2c ($7/8) a yard. Cancel 8,
also 72 and write 9 instead. _Ans._ $63.

  7 × 7̸2̸ 9 = 63
  -
  8̸

Of 28 pounds of coffee, at 18-3/4c ($3/16) per pound. Cancel 28 and 16,
write 7 and 4. _Ans._ $5-1/4.

   3 × 2̸8̸ 7   21
  ----      = -- or 5-1/4
  1̸6̸ 4         4

At 66-2/3c ($2/3) per bushel, how many bushel of wheat will $34 buy?
_Ans._ 51 bushel.

  3 × 3̸4̸ 17 = 51
  -
  2̸

In division, invert terms of fraction.

How much syrup, at 41-2/3c ($5/12) per gallon can be bought for $15?
_Ans._ 36 gallons.

  12 × 1̸5̸ 3 = 36
  --
   5̸

TABLE OF ALIQUOT PARTS OF 100

   3-1/3 is 1/30
   6-1/4 is 1/16
   8-1/3 is 1/12
  12-1/2 is 1/8
  16-2/3 is 1/6
  18-3/4 is 3/16
  20     is 1/5
  25     is 1/4
  31-1/4 is 5/16
  33-1/3 is 1/3
  37-1/2 is 3/8
  40     is 2/5
  41-2/3 is 5/12
  43-3/4 is 7/16
  50     is 1/2
  56-1/4 is 9/16
  58-1/3 is 7/12
  60     is 3/5
  62-1/2 is 5/8
  66-2/3 is 2/3
  68-3/4 is 11/16
  75     is 3/4
  80     is 4/5
  81-1/4 is 13/16
  83-1/3 is 5/6
  87-1/2 is 7/8
  91-2/3 is 11/12
  93-3/4 is 15/16

This table embodies all the aliquot parts of 100 and their equivalent
fractions which are generally used in practical calculations.


PROBLEMS IN GRAIN, STOCK, COTTON, COAL, HAY, LUMBER, ETC.

To find the value of articles sold by the unit, hundred or thousand.

RULE.--Multiply the quantity by the price, or vice versa, and point off
the proper number of decimal places in the result.

Find the cost of a bale (518 pounds) of cotton at 7-3/8c per pound.

  518 × .07     = 36.26
   „    .00-3/8 =  1.94-1/4
                  ---------
          _Ans._ $38.20-1/4

At 7c (.07) per pound, 518 pounds cost $36.26; at 3/8c, $1.94-1/4. For
3/8 of 518, multiply by 3, and divide product by 8.

Find cost of a lot of hogs, weighing 8740 pounds, at $4.35 per
hundredweight.

     87.40
      4.35
  --------
  380.1900

The price being $4.35 per 100 pounds and as in 8740 pounds there are
87.40 hundredweight, four decimal places are pointed off. _Ans._
$380.19.

Find the cost of 2864 feet of lumber, at $17-1/4 per 1000 feet.

Price being dollars per 1000, point off three places. (2.864 × 17-1/4 =
49.404.) _Ans._ $49.40.

To find the value of articles sold by the ton (2000 pounds).

RULE.--Multiply the weight by the price and take half of the product.

Find the cost of 2680 pounds of hay, at $11-1/2 per ton.

Point off three places, when price is dollars; five if dollars and
cents. (2680 × 11-1/2 = 30820; 30820 ÷ 2 = 15.410.) _Ans._ $15.41.

When the long ton of 2240 pounds is used.

RULE.--Multiply the weight by the price and divide the product by 2.240.

Find the cost of 4800 pounds coal, at $6-3/4 per long ton. (4800 ×
6-3/4) ÷ 2.24 = $14.46, _Ans._

To find the cost of grain, when the price per bushel and weight is
given.

RULE.--Reduce the weight to bushels, and multiply by the price.

Find the cost of 3570 pounds of shelled corn, at 36c per bushel.

  56)3570(63.75 bu.
            .36
         ------
  _Ans._ $22.9500

To reduce pounds of shelled corn to bushels, divide by 56. At 36c per
bushel, 63.75 bushels come to $22.95.

Find cost of 2900 pounds of wheat, at 57c per bushel.

To reduce pounds of wheat to bushels divide by 60. 2900 ÷ 60 = 48-1/3
bushels; 48-1/3 × .57 = $27.55, _Ans._

In computing the value of grain, the operation can often be abbreviated
by cancellation.

RULE.--Write the weight and price per bushel, on the right of a vertical
line, and the number of pounds to the bushel on the left. Then cancel
common factors, as explained above.

Find the cost of 3230 bushels of wheat, at 72c per bushel.

        60 ¦  3230
           ¦ 72 12
  323 × 12 = 38.76

Here we cancel the 0’s on both sides; then, 6 and 72, which leaves 323
and 12. Their product being the answer.

At 28c per bushel, what will 4080 pounds of oats cost?

  32 ¦ 4080 510
   4 ¦ 28     7
         ------
  _Ans._ $35.70

Oats, 32 pounds to the bushel. See table, page 861. Cancel 32 and 4080,
then, 4 and 28, leaving the factors 510 and 7.

Other short cuts for computing cost of merchandise, produce, etc.

Find cost of 26-1/2 dozen eggs, at 18-1/2c a dozen.

              26 × 18 = 4.68
            1/2 of 44 =  .22
                   ---------
  1/2 × 1/2 = 1/4   4.90-1/4
  _Ans._ $4.90.

When both fractions are 1/2. To product of the whole numbers, add 1/2 of
their sum, and annex 1/4 to answer.

Of 53-3/4 pounds of butter, at 28-3/4c per pound.

            53 × .28  = 14.84
            3/4 of 81 =   .60-3/4
                        ---------
  3/4 × 3/4 = 9/16      15.45
  _Ans._ $15.45-9/16.

To the product of the whole numbers, add 3/4 of their sum, plus the
square of 3/4.

Of 13-1/4 yards of flannel, at 31-1/4c per yard.

13 × .31 = 4.03 + .11 = 4.14, _Ans._

To 4.03 add .11, 1/4 of 44 (13 + 31). The 1/16 (1/4 × 1/4) is
disregarded.


DENOMINATE NUMBERS

_Simple denominate numbers._--When we speak of measures, whether they
are of money, extension, time, or weight, we use terms like 5 dollars, 4
yards, 3 hours, or 10 pounds to express the quantity we are talking
about.

Sometimes we use two or more terms or names to express the measure, as 3
hours, 15 minutes, 10 seconds; 4 gallons, 3 quarts, 1 pint. _These are
compound denominate numbers._

The chief differences between compound numbers and simple numbers is,
that with the exceptions of United States money, and the metric system
of weights and measures, the denominations of compound numbers do not
increase or decrease by the scale of ten.

REDUCTION.--Reduction of Compound Numbers is the process of changing
them from one denomination to another without altering their value.

_Reduction Descending_ is changing the denomination of a number to
another that is lower, as: 2 hours = 120 minutes; 2 feet = 24 inches.

_Reduction Ascending_ is changing the denomination of a number to
another that is higher, as: 120 minutes = 2 hours; 24 inches = 2 feet.


RULES FOR ADDITION OF DENOMINATE NUMBERS

First.--Write the names of the different units to be used in addition,
placing them in a horizontal row, the largest to the left.

Next.--Write the numbers of each unit to be added, below the names of
the units, each in its proper place.

Then.--Add and place each sum below the column added.

EXAMPLE: Add 7 hours 15 minutes 30 seconds, 9 hours 30 minutes 40
seconds, and 11 hours 40 minutes 32 seconds.

WORK:

  hours    minutes    seconds
    7        15          30
    9        30          40
   11        40          32
  ---------------------------
   28        26          42

EXPLANATION: 32 seconds + 40 seconds + 30 seconds = 102 seconds. But,
102 seconds = 1 minute 42 seconds. Write the 42 below and carry the 1
minute. 1 minute (carried) + 15 minutes + 30 minutes + 40 minutes = 86
minutes. But, 86 minutes = 1 hour 26 minutes. Write the 26 and carry the
1 hour. 1 hour + 11 hours + 9 hours + 7 hours = 28 hours. Result = 28
hours 26 minutes 42 seconds.


SUBTRACTION OF DENOMINATE QUANTITIES

EXAMPLE: Subtract 6 tons 12 cwt. 9 pounds 10 ounces from 15 tons 7 cwt.
13 pounds 9 ounces.

WORK:

  Tons    Cwt.    Pounds    Ounces
   15       7       13         9
    6      12        9        10
  --------------------------------
    8      15        3        15

EXPLANATION: (1) Place as in addition of denominate quantities. 10
ounces cannot be taken from 9 ounces, so we must take 1 pound from the
13 pounds and add it to the nine ounces. 16 ounces + 9 ounces = 25
ounces. 25 - 10 = 15. Write the 15 below.

(2) Now there are only 12 pounds left to take the 9 from. 12 - 9 = 3.
Write the 3 below.

(3) 12 is larger than 7. 1 ton + 7 cwt. = 27 cwt. 27 - 12 = 15. Write
the 15 below.

(4) 14 - 6 = 8. Write the 8 below.

(5) Result = 8 tons 15 cwt. 3 pounds 15 ounces.


MULTIPLICATION OF DENOMINATE QUANTITIES

EXAMPLE: Multiply 21 yards 2 feet 11 inches by 6.

WORK:

  Yards   Feet   Inches
   21       2      11
                    6
  ---------------------
  131       2       6

EXPLANATION: (1) 6 × 11 inches = 66 inches = 5 feet 6 inches. Write the
6 below and carry the 5.

(2) 6 × 2 feet = 12 feet. 12 feet + 5 feet (carried) = 17 feet, or 5
yards 2 feet. Write the 2 below and carry the 5.

(3) 6 × 21 yards = 126 yards. 126 yards + 5 yards = 131 yards.

(4) Result = 131 yards 2 feet 6 inches.


DIVISION OF DENOMINATE QUANTITIES

PROBLEM: Divide 3 years 9 months 4 days by 12.

WORK

   Years    Months    Days    Hours
  12)3        9        4        0
  ---------------------------------
     0        3       22       20

EXPLANATION: (1) We cannot divide 3 by 12, so we reduce 3 years to
months. 3 years = 36 months. 36 months + 9 months = 45 months. 45 ÷ 12 =
3, and a remainder 9. Write the 3 and carry the remainder 9.

(2) 9 months (carried) = 270 days. 270 days + 4 days = 274 days. 274 ÷
12 = 22, and a remainder 10. Write the 22 and carry the 10.

(3) 10 days = 240 hours. 240 ÷ 12 = 20. Write the 20.

(4) Result = 3 months 22 days 20 hours.


REDUCTION ASCENDING

RULES: 1. Divide the given denomination by the number which will reduce
it to the next higher denomination. Divide the quotient in the same
manner, and continue the operation until the entire quantity is reduced.

2. To the last quotient annex the several remainders in their proper
order. The result will be the answer.

EXAMPLE: Reduce 201458 inches to higher denominations.

  WORK:                             SOLUTION:
   12    | 201458 inches            201458 inches = 16788 feet 2 inches.
         +-------------------------
    3    |  16788 feet 2 inches     16788 feet 2 inches = 5596 yards 2
         +------------------------- inches.
    5-1/2|   5596 yards             5596 yards 2 inches = 1017 rods 2
    2    |      2                   yards 1 foot 8 inches.
  -------+-------------------------
   11    |  11192 half yards
         +-------------------------
  320    |   1017 rods 5 half yards 1017 rods 2 yards 1 foot 8 inches =
         +----------------\/------- 3 miles 57 rods 2 yards 1 foot 8
         |3 miles 57 rods ||        inches.
         +----------------/\-------
         | 2 yds.  1 ft.  6 in.

201458 inches = 3 miles 57 rods 2 yards 1 foot 8 inches.


REDUCTION DESCENDING

RULES: 1. Write the given quantity in the order of its denominations,
beginning with the highest, and supply vacant denominations with
ciphers.

2. Multiply the highest denomination by the number which will reduce it
to the next lower denomination, and add to the product the units of the
lower denomination, if there be any.

3. Proceed in the same manner until the entire quantity is reduced to
the required denomination.

EXAMPLE: Reduce 10 yards 8 feet 10 inches to inches.

  WORK:               SOLUTION:
  Yards  Feet  Inches
   10     8      10   10 yards = 10 × 3 feet = 30 feet. 30 feet and 8
    3                 feet are 38 feet.
  ---
   38                 38 feet = 38 × 12 inches, or 456 inches. 456
   12                 inches + 10 inches = 466 inches.
  ---
  456
   10
  ---
  466

Note.--To prove the above work, use reduction ascending, beginning with
the result.


LONG OR LINEAR MEASURE

Long or linear measure is used in measuring lines and distances.

There are two systems in use in the United States, the _English System_
and the _French System_. The English system is the one commonly used,
while the French system is used in making scientific measurements. (See
under Metric System.)


TABLE OF LONG MEASURE

     12 inches (in.)          =  1 foot (ft.)
      3 feet                  =  1 yard (yd.)
  5-1/2 yards, or 16-1/2 feet =  1 rod (rd.)
    320 rods, or 5280 feet    =  1 mile (mi.)
   1760 yards                 =  1 mile

  mi.  rd.    yd.    ft.    in.
   1 = 320 = 1760 = 5280 = 63360

Architects, carpenters, and mechanics frequently write ′ for foot, and
′′ for inch. Thus 8′ 7′′ means 8 feet 7 inches.

Other measures of length are:

  1 hand     =  4 in.    Used in measuring the height of horses.
  1 fathom   =  6 ft.    Used in measuring depths at sea.
  1 knot, nautical or geographical mile = 1.1526-2/3 miles or 6086 feet.

The knot is used in measuring distances at sea. It is equivalent to 1
minute of longitude at the equator.


SURVEYORS’ LINEAR MEASURE

  7.92 inches            =  1 link (l.)
    25 links             =  1 rod (rd.)
     4 rods or 100 links =  1 chain (ch.)
    80 chains            =  1 mile (mi.)

  mi.  ch.  rd.    l.     in.
   1 = 80 = 320 = 8000 = 63360

The linear unit commonly employed by surveyors is Gunter’s chain, which
is 4 rods or 66 feet.

An engineers’ Chain, used by civil engineers, is 100 feet long, and
consists of 100 links.


MEASURES OF LENGTH

The following measures of length are also used:

  3 barleycorns           =  1 inch. Used by shoemakers.
  4 inches                =  1 hand. Used to measure the height of
                             horses.
  6 feet                  =  1 fathom. Used to measure depths at sea.
  3 feet                  =  1 pace. } Used in pacing distances.
  5 paces                 =  1 rod.  }
  8 furlongs              =  1 mile.
  1.15 statute miles      =  1 geographical, or nautical mile.
  3 geographical miles    =  1 league.

  60 geographical miles}            {of Latitude on a Meridian,
                       } = 1 degree {or of Longitude
  69.16 statute miles  }            {on the Equator.

The length of a degree of latitude varies. 69.16 miles is the average
length, and is that adopted by the United States Coast Survey.

The standard unit of length is identical with the imperial yard of Great
Britain.

The standard yard, under William IV., was declared to be fixed by
dividing a pendulum which vibrates seconds in a vacuum, at the level of
the sea, at 62 degrees Fahrenheit, in the latitude of London, into
391,393 equal parts, and taking 360,000 of these parts for the yard.

The following denominations also occur: The span = 9 inches; 1 common
cubit (the distance from the elbow to the end of the middle finger) = 18
inches; 1 sacred cubit = 21.888 inches.


SURFACE MEASURES

Square Measure, used in measuring surfaces, such as cloth, ceilings,
floors, etc.; paving, glazing, and stone-cutting, by the square foot;
roofing, flooring, and slating by the square of 100 feet.

A surface has two dimensions, length and breadth.

A square is a figure that has four equal sides and four right angles.

The unit of measure for surfaces is a square, each of whose sides is a
linear unit. Thus, a square inch is a square, each of whose sides is one
inch long; a square foot is a square, each of whose sides is one foot
long, etc.

The area of a square is the product of two of its sides. Thus, the area
of a surface 3 feet square is 3 × 3 = 9 square feet.

Hence, to find the area of a rectangle:

RULE.--Multiply the length by the breadth expressed in units of the same
denomination.

As the area of a rectangle is found by taking the product of the numbers
representing its length and breadth, it is evident that if the area be
divided by either of those numbers, the quotient will be the other
number. Hence, to find either side of a rectangle when its area and the
other side are given:

RULE.--Divide the area by the given side. The quotient will be the
required side.

Table of Square Measure

  144 square inches (sq. in.)   = 1 square foot (sq. ft.)
  9 square feet                 = 1 square yard (sq. yd.)
  30-1/4 square yards           = 1 square rod (sq. rd.)
  160 square rods               = 1 acre (A.)
  640 acres                     = 1 square mile (sq. mi.)

Sq. ′ and sq. ′′ are frequently used for square foot and square inch.
Thus, 15 sq.′ 6 sq.′′ means 15 square feet 6 square inches.

A square is 100 square feet. It is used in measuring roofing.


PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF SQUARE MEASURE


PAPERING

Facts about Wall Paper:

(1) Wall paper in this country is 1/2 yard wide, and comes in rolls 8
yards long, or in double rolls, 16 yards long.

(2) It is sold by the roll only.

(3) Bordering is sold by the linear yard.

(4) Make liberal allowances for waste in matching figures.

(5) If the border is wide, the strips need not extend to the ceiling.

Rules for Measuring:

(1) Measure the distance around the room in feet.

(2) Deduct the width of doors and windows.

(3) Divide the difference by 1-1/2, and the quotient will be the number
of strips needed.

(4) Multiply the number of strips by the number of yards in a strip, and
the product is the _number of yards needed_, approximately.

(5) Divide the number of yards by 8, and the result is the _number of
single rolls needed_.

EXAMPLE: A room of ordinary height, 16 feet by 24 feet, has three
windows and 2 doors, each 4 feet wide. How many rolls of paper are
needed to paper the sides?

SOLUTION:

  Distance around the room   =          80 feet

  Width of doors and windows =          20 feet
                                        -------
  After deducting for doors and windows 60 feet 60 ÷ 7 = 8-4/7, or 9
  double rolls.


CARPETING

Facts about Carpets:

(1) Carpets are usually 3/4 yard wide and are sold by the linear yard.

(2) Always draw a diagram of the floor or stairs to be covered.

(3) The number of yards required depends on which way the strips
run--whether lengthwise or across the room. Sometimes by running the
strips lengthwise, there is less waste in matching the pattern.

(4) The part cut off in matching patterns is charged to the purchaser.

Rules for Estimating:

The number of yards required will be the number of yards in a strip
(including the waste for matching), multiplied by the number of strips.

EXAMPLE: What is the cost of carpeting a room 16 feet by 24 feet at 85c
per yard? The carpet is 2-1/4 feet wide and the strips run lengthwise.

SOLUTION:

16 ÷ 2-1/4 = 7-1/9. Hence, I must buy 8 strips.

24 ÷ 3 = 8, which is the number of yards in a strip.

8 × 8 yards = 64 yards.

64 yards will cost 64 × 85c, or $54.40.

To this must be added the cost of sewing, the laying of the carpet, and
the waste in matching the pattern.


LAND MEASURE

RULE.--To find the number of acres in a tract of land, divide the number
of square rods by 160, or number of square chains by 10.

EXAMPLE: (1) How many square rods, also acres, in a field 80 rods long
and 62-1/2 rods wide?

80 × 62-1/2 = 5000 square rods; 5000 ÷ 160 = 31-1/4 acres.

_Ans._ 31-1/4 acres.

(2) In tract, 79 chains 84 links (79.84 chains) by 41 chains 25 links
(41.25 chains)?

79.84 × 41.25 = 3293.4 square chains; 3293.4 ÷10 = 329.34 acres. _Ans._
329.34 acres.

Table showing one side of a Square Tract or Lot containing

  1     acre  = 208.7 feet =  43,560 square feet
  1-1/2 acres = 255.6 feet =  65,340 square feet
  2     acres = 295.2 feet =  87,120 square feet
  2-1/2 acres = 330   feet = 108,900 square feet
  3     acres = 361.5 feet = 130,680 square feet
  5     acres = 466.7 feet = 217,800 square feet
  10    acres = 660   feet = 435,600 square feet
  1/10  acre  =  66   feet =   4,356 square feet
  1/8   acre  =  73.8 feet =   5,445 square feet
  1/6   acre  =  85.2 feet =   7,260 square feet
  1/4   acre  = 104.4 feet =  10,890 square feet
  1/3   acre  = 120.5 feet =  14,520 square feet
  1/2   acre  = 147.6 feet =  21,780 square feet
  3/4   acre  = 180.8 feet =  32,670 square feet

TABLE OF SURVEYORS’ SQUARE MEASURE

  272-1/2 square feet = 1 square rod
       16 square rods = 1 square chain
      160 square rods, or 10 square chains = 1 acre
      640 acres = 1 square mile, or section
       36 square miles, or 36 sections = 1 township

TEXAS LAND MEASURE

(Also used in Mexico, New Mexico, Arizona, and California)

  26,000,000     square varas (square of 5,099     varas)
                 = 1 league and 1 labor
                 = 4,605.5   acres
   1,000,000     square varas (square of 1,000     varas)
                 = 1 labor
                 =   177.136 acres
  25,000,000     square varas (square of 5,000     varas)
                 = 1 league
                 = 4,428.4   acres
  12,500,000     square varas (square of 3,535.5   varas)
                 = 1/2 league
                 = 2,214.2   acres
   8,333,333     square varas (square of 2,886.7   varas)
                 = 1/3 league
                 = 1,476.13  acres
   6,250,000     square varas (square of 2,500     varas)
                 = 1/4 league
                 = 1,107.1   acres
   7,225,600     square varas (square of 2,688     varas)
                 = 1,280     acres
   3,612,800     square varas (square of 1,900.8   varas)
                 = 1 section
                 =   640     acres
   1,806,400     square varas (square of 1,344     varas)
                 = 1/2 section
                 =   320     acres
     903,200     square varas (square of   950.44  varas)
                 = 1/4 section
                 =   160     acres
     451,600     square varas (square of   672     varas)
                 = 1/8 section
                 =    80     acres
     225,800     square varas (square of   475     varas)
                 = 1/16 section
                 =    40     acres
       5,645.376 square varas (square of    75.137 varas)
                 = 4,840 square yards
                 =     1     acre

To find the number of acres in any number of square varas, multiply the
latter by 177 (or to be more exact, by 177-1/8), and cut off six
decimals.

1 vara = 33-1/3 inches

1,900.8 varas = 1 mile.

[Illustration]


THE MEASURE OF SOLIDS, OR CUBIC MEASURE

Just as the rectangle is the chief surface considered in arithmetic, so
the rectangular solid is the chief solid body.

A rectangular solid is bounded by six rectangular surfaces, each
opposite pair of rectangles being equal and parallel to each other.

A rectangular solid thus has three dimensions--length, breadth, and
thickness.

If the length, breadth, and thickness are all equal to one another, the
solid is called a cube. Hence, a cubic foot, the unit of volume, is a
solid body whose length, breadth, and thickness are each a linear foot.
Similarly, a cubic inch measures one linear inch in length, breadth, and
thickness; and a cubic yard measures one linear yard in length, breadth,
and thickness.

[Illustration: One cubic foot]

The number of cubic feet (or inches, or yards) in the volume of a
rectangular solid is equal to the number of linear feet (or inches, or
yards) in the length, multiplied by the number of linear feet (or
inches, or yards) in the breadth, multiplied by the number of linear
feet (or inches, or yards) in the thickness.

This is usually abbreviated into

Length × breadth × thickness = volume, or cubic content.

For example, suppose the solid in the diagram is 10 feet in length, 8
feet in breadth, and 5 feet in thickness. It is clear that the solid can
be cut into five slices, each 1 foot thick, by planes parallel to the
bottom. But, the bottom contains 10×8 square feet and above each square
foot there is a cubic foot. Thus, each slice contains 10×8 cubic feet.
Therefore, since there are five slices, the whole solid contains 10×8×5,
or 400 cubic feet.

Since length × breadth × thickness = cubic content, it follows that, if
we know any three of these four quantities, we can find the fourth.

The student should remember that

(a) A cubic foot of water weighs 1000 ounces (avoirdupois)
approximately.

(b) A gallon of pure water weighs 10 pounds (avoirdupois).

We have thus a relation between weight, capacity, and cubic content.

TABLE OF CUBIC MEASURE

  1728 cubic inches (cu. in.) = 1 cubic foot (cu. ft.)
  27 cubic feet               = 1 cubic yard (cu. yd.)
  128 cubic feet              = 1 cord (C.)

  Cubic  Cubic    Cubic
  Yard    Feet    Inches
  1    =   27  =  46656

A _cord_ of wood or stone is a pile 8 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 4 feet
high.

A pile of wood 4 feet high, 4 feet wide and 1 foot long makes a _cord
foot_. 8 cord feet = 1 cord.

A _perch_ of stone or masonry is 16-1/2 feet long, 1-1/2 feet thick, and
1 foot high, and contains 24-3/4 cubic feet.

A _cubic yard_ of earth is considered a _load_.

Brick work is commonly estimated by the thousand bricks.

Bricklayers, masons, and joiners commonly make a deduction of one half
the space occupied by windows and doors in the walls of buildings.

In computing the contents of walls, masons and bricklayers multiply the
entire distance around on the outside of the wall by the height and
thickness. The corners are thus measured twice.

A cubic foot of distilled water at the maximum density, at the level of
the sea, and the barometer at 30 inches, weighs 62-1/2 pounds or 1000
ounces avoirdupois.

By actual measurements, it has been found that a bushel, dry measure,
contains about 1-1/4 cubic feet. This makes it easy to estimate about
how many bushels any bin will hold.


PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF CUBIC MEASURE

EXAMPLE: An open tank made of iron 1/4 inch thick, is 4 feet long, 2
feet 6 inches broad, and 2 feet deep, outside measurement. Assuming that
iron weighs 7.8 times as much as water, find the weight of the tank.

The external volume of the tank = 2 × 2-1/2 × 4 cubic feet = 20 cubic
feet.

Since the iron is 1/4 inch thick, the inside length is 1/2 inch less
than the outside, the inside breadth is 1/2 inch less than the outside,
and the inside depth is 1/4 inch less than the outside.

Therefore the interior volume

  = 29-1/2 × 47-1/2 × 23-3/4 cubic inches

    59 × 95 × 95
  = ------------ cubic inches
         16

  = 33279-11/16 cubic inches

Therefore, volume of iron in the tank

  = 20 cubic feet - 33279-11/16 cubic inches
  = 1280-5/16 cubic inches.

But 1 cubic foot of iron weighs as much as 7.8 cubic feet of water, _i.
e._, 7.8 × 1000 ounces, or 7800 ounces.

                     1280-5/16 × 7800
  ∴ Weight of tank = ---------------- pounds.
                         1728 × 16

                   = 361.199 pounds, _Ans._

EXAMPLE: A wood pile is 8 feet high and 40 feet long. The sticks are 4
feet long. How many cords in it?

SOLUTION: Being 8 feet high, it is 2 cords high. 40 feet in length equal
5 cords in length. Hence, the pile contains 2 × 5 cords, or 10 cords.

To estimate a bin:

(1) Find the number of cubic feet in the bin.

(2) Divide the number of cubic feet by 1-1/4.

(3) The result is the number of bushels.

EXAMPLE: How many bushels will a bin hold, if its inside measurements
are, length 20 feet, width 12 feet, depth 8 feet?

SOLUTION: The number of cubic feet in a bin is 8 × 12 × 20, or 1920.

If 1 bushel contains 1-1/4 cubic feet, in 1920 cubic feet there are as
many bushels as 1-1/4 is contained times in 1920, or 1536.

WORK:

  8 × 12 × 20  = 1920
  1920 ÷ 1-1/4 = 1536.

The work may be indicated in this way as well:--

  8 × 12 × 20 × 4/5 = 1536.

To get the number of heaped bushels of corn in the ear in a crib:

(1) Multiply the length of the crib in inches by the width in inches.

(2) Multiply the product obtained, by the height of the corn in the crib
in inches.

(3) Divide the result by 2748.

EXAMPLE: How much corn in the ear can I put into a crib 12 feet wide, 20
feet long, and 10 feet deep?

SOLUTION: The number of cubic inches in the crib is 144 × 240 × 120, or
4,147,200.

Since 2748 cubic inches hold 1 bushel, 4,147,200 cubic inches hold as
many bushels as 2748 is contained times in 4,147,200, or 1509+ bushels.

WORK:

  144 × 240 × 120
  --------------- = 1509+.
        2748


MEASURES OF CAPACITY

Measures used in telling the extent of room in vessels are called
_measures of capacity_.

There are two kinds of capacity measures, dry measures and liquid
measures.

Dry measures are used to measure grain, seeds, and the like.

Liquid measures are used to measure water, milk, oils, etc.

[Illustration: Liquid measures]

COMMON LIQUID MEASURE TABLE

       4 gills (gi.) = 1 pint (pt.)
       2 pints       = 1 quart (qt.)
       4 quarts      = 1 gallon (gal.)
  31-1/2 gallons     = 1 barrel (bbl.)
       2 barrels     = 1 hogshead (hhd.)

  Gallon   Quarts   Pints   Gills
    1    =   4    =   8   =  32

A pint, quart, or gallon, dry measure, is more than the same quantity,
liquid measure; for a quart, dry measure, is 1/32 of a bushel, or 1/32
of 2150.4 cubic inches, which is about 67-1/5 cubic inches, while a
quart liquid measure is 1/4 of 231 cubic inches, or 57-3/4 cubic inches.

                   Cu. In.    Cu. In.    Cu. In.    Cu. In.
                  in 1 Gal.   in 1 Qt.   in 1 Pt.   in 1 Gi.
  Liquid measure     231       57-3/4     28-7/8     7-7/32
  Dry measure        268-4/5   67-1/5     33-3/5     8-2/5

In determining the capacity of cisterns, reservoirs, etc., 31-1/2
gallons are considered a barrel (bbl.), and 2 barrels, or 63 gallons, a
hogshead (hhd.). In commerce, however, the barrel and hogshead are not
fixed measures.

Casks of large size, called tierces, pipes, butts, tuns, etc., do not
hold any fixed quantity. Their capacity is usually marked upon them.

The standard gallon of the United States contains 231 cubic inches, and
will hold a little over 8-1/3 pounds of distilled water. The imperial
gallon, now adopted by Great Britain, contains 277.274 cubic inches, or
10 pounds of distilled water, temperature 62 degrees Fahrenheit, the
barometer standing at 30 inches.

TABLE OF APOTHECARIES’ LIQUID MEASURE

These measures are used in mixing medicines.

  60 minims (m)   = 1 fluid dram (_f_ʒ)
   8 fluid drams  = 1 fluid ounce (_f_℥)
  16 fluid ounces = 1 pint (_O._)
   8 pints        = 1 gallon (_Cong._)

A minim is about 1 drop.

TABLE OF DRY MEASURE

  2 pints (pt.) = 1 quart (qt.)
  8 quarts      = 1 peck (pk.)
  4 pecks       = 1 bushel (bu.)

  Bushel   Pecks   Quarts   Pints
    1    =   4   =   32   =  64

A common Winchester bushel (the standard of the United States) contains
2150.42 cubic inches.

A dry quart contains 67.2 cubic inches.

A liquid quart contains 57.75 cubic inches.

EXAMPLE 1: Reduce 5 bushels 2 pecks 4 quarts 1 pint to pints.

OPERATION:

          4      8       2
  bu.   pk.    qt.    pts.
    5     2      4       1
    4
  ---
   22 pk.
    8
  ---
  180 qt.
    2
  ---
  361 pt.

EXPLANATION: As there are 4 pecks in 1 bushel, any number of bushels is
equal to 4 times that number of pecks. Then, 5 bushels = 20 pecks, and 2
pecks added make 22 pecks. As there are 8 quarts in 1 peck, any number
of pecks is equal to 8 times that number of quarts. Then 22 pecks = 176
quarts, and 4 quarts added make 180 quarts. As there are 2 pints in 1
quart, any number of quarts is equal to 2 times that number of pints.
Then, 180 quarts = 360 pints, and 1 pint added make 361 pints. Hence, 5
bushels 2 pecks 4 quarts 1 pint = 361 pints.

EXAMPLE 2: Reduce 361 pints to bushels.

  OPERATION:
  2 |361 pt.
    +---
  8 |180 qt. + 1 pt.
    +---
  4 | 22 pk. + 4 qt.
    +---
    |  5 bu. + 2 pk.

EXPLANATION: As there are 2 pints in 1 quart, 361 pints are equal to
one-half that number of quarts = 180 quarts, with a remainder of 1 pint.
Also, 180 quarts are equal to one-eighth of that number of pecks = 22
pecks, with a remainder of 4 quarts. Finally, 22 pecks are equal to
one-fourth of that number of bushels = 5 bushels, with a remainder of 2
pecks. Hence, 361 pints are equal to 5 bushels 2 pecks 4 quarts 1 pint.


MEASURES OF WEIGHT


AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT

Avoirdupois Weight is used for weighing heavy articles as grain,
groceries, coarse metals, etc.

   16 ounces (oz.)  = 1 pound (lb.)
  100 pounds        = 1 hundredweight (cwt.)
   20 hundredweight = 1 ton (T.)

          Hundred-
  Ton     weight     Pounds   Ounces
  1    =    20     =  2000  = 32000

Scale.--20, 100, 16.

In weighing coal at the mines and in levying duties at the United States
Custom House, the long ton of 2240 pounds is sometimes used.

The ounce is considered as 16 drams.

The unit is the pound. It contains 7000 grains.

The following denominations are also used:

   14 pounds                     = 1 stone
  100 pounds butter              = 1 firkin
  100 pound grain or flour       = 1 cental
  100 pounds dried fish          = 1 quintal
  100 pounds nails               = 1 keg
  196 pounds flour               = 1 barrel
  200 pounds pork or beef        = 1 barrel
  280 pounds salt at N. Y. works = 1 barrel


TROY WEIGHT

Troy Weight is used in weighing gold, silver, and jewels.

TABLE

  24 grains (gr.) = 1 pennyweight (pwt.)
  20 pennyweights = 1 ounce (oz.)
  12 ounces       = 1 pound (lb.)

                     Penny-
  Pounds   Ounces   weights   Grains
  1      =   12   =   240   =  5760

In weighing diamonds, pearls, and other jewels, the unit commonly
employed is the _carat_, which is equal to 4 carat grains, or 3.168 Troy
grains.

The term _carat_ is also used to express the fineness of gold, and means
1/24 part. Thus, gold that is 18 carats fine is 18/24 gold, and 6/24
alloy.

The _standard unit_ of weight is the _Troy pound_. It is equal to the
weight of 22.7944 cubic inches of distilled water at its maximum
density, the barometer being at 30 inches. It is identical with the Troy
pound of Great Britain.

[Illustration]

The following are approximate avoirdupois weights of certain articles of
produce according to the laws of the United States, and in the majority
of States:

=Table I. UNITED STATES LEGAL WEIGHTS= (_in pounds_) =PER BUSHEL=

=Prepared by the United States Bureau of Standards=

  ================+============+====+=============+=====+=====+=====+======
      STATE OR    |   APPLES   |    |    BEANS    |     |     |     |
     TERRITORY    +-----+------+    +-----+-------+     |     |     |
                  |Apple| Dried|BAR-|Beans| Castor|BEETS|BLUE-|BRAN*|BROOM-
                  |  *  |Apples| LEY|  *  | Beans,|     |GRASS|     | CORN
                  |     |      |    |     |Shelled|     | SEED|     | SEED
  ----------------+-----+------+----+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+------
  =United States= |  ...|   ...|  48|   60|     50|  ...|  ...|  ...|   ...
                  +-----+------+----+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+------
  =Alabama=       |  ...|    24|  47|   60|    ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|   ...
  =Arizona=       |  ...|   ...|  45|_a_55|    ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|   ...
  =Arkansas=      |_b_50|    24|  48|_a_60|    ...|  ...|   14|   20|    48
  =California=    |  ...|   ...|  50|  ...|    ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|   ...
  =Colorado=      |  ...|   ...|  48|   60|    ...|  ...|   14|  ...|   ...
  =Connecticut=   |   48|    25|  48|   60|    ...|_c_60|  ...|   20|   ...
  =Delaware=      |  ...|   ...| ...|  ...|    ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|   ...
  =Florida=       |_b_48|    24|  48|_d_60|     48|  ...|  ...|   20|   ...
  =Georgia=       |  ...|    24|  47|_e_60|    ...|  ...|   14|_f_20|   ...
  =Hawaii=        |  ...|   ...|  48|  ...|    ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|   ...
  =Idaho=         |  ...|    28|  48|  ...|    ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|   ...
  =Illinois=      |  ...|    24|  48|_e_60|     46|  ...|   14|   20|   ...
  =Indiana=       |  ...|    25|  48|   60|     46|  ...|   14|  ...|   ...
  =Iowa=          |   48|    24|  48|   60|     46|   56|   14|   20|    50
  =Kansas=        |_b_48|    24|  48|   60|     46|   56|_h_14|   20|   ...
  =Kentucky=      |  ...|    24|  47|_e_60|    *45|  ...|   14|   20|   ...
  =Louisiana=     |  ...|   ...|  32|  ...|    ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|   ...
  =Maine=         |   44|   ...|  48|   60|    ...|   60|  ...|  ...|   ...
  =Maryland=      |  ...|    28| ...|  ...|     50|  ...|   14|   20|   ...
  =Massachusetts= |   48|    25|  48|_k_60|    ...|   60|  ...|   20|   ...
  =Michigan=      |   48|    22|  48|   60|     46|  ...|   14|  ...|   ...
  =Minnesota=     |_b_50|    28|  48|   60|    ...|   50|   14|  ...|    57
  =Mississippi=   |  ...|    26|  48|_e_60|  _m_46|  ...|   14|   20|   ...
  =Missouri=      |   48|    24|  48|_m_60|     46|  ...|   14|   20|   ...
  =Montana=       |   45|   ...|  48|   60|    ...|   50|   14|   20|   ...
  =Nebraska=      |   48|    24|  48|_e_60|     46|  ...|   14|   20|   ...
  =Nevada=        |_b_48|    24|  48|   60|     46|   56|  _h_|   20|   ...
  =New Hampshire= |   48|    25|  48|   62|    ...|   60|  ...|   20|   ...
  =New Jersey=    |   50|    25|  48|   60|    ...|   60|  ...|  ...|   ...
  =New York=      |   48|    25|  48|   60|    ...|  ...|  ...|   20|   ...
  =North Carolina=|   48|   ...|  48|  ...|    *46|  ...|   14|  ...|    46
  =North Dakota=  |   50|   ...|  48|   60|    ...|   60|  ...|   20|    30
  =Ohio=          |   50|    24|  48|   60|    ...|   56|  ...|  ...|   ...
  =Oklahoma=      |   48|    24|  48|   60|    ...|   60|   14|   20|    30
  =Oregon=        |   45|    28|  46|  ...|    ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|   ...
  =Pennsylvania=  |  ...|   ...|  47|  ...|    ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|   ...
  =Rhode Island=  |   48|    25|  48|   60|     46|   50|  ...|   20|   ...
  =South Carolina=|  ...|   ...| ...|  ...|    ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|   ...
  =South Dakota=  |  ...|   ...|  48|   60|    ...|   60|  ...|   20|    30
  =Tennessee=     |_b_50|    24|  48|_p_60|     46|   50|   14|   20|    42
  =Texas=         |   45|    28|  48|_e_60|    ...|  ...|  ...|   20|   ...
  =Vermont=       |   46|   ...|  48|   62|    ...|   60|  ...|  ...|   ...
  =Virginia=      |   45|    28|  48|_e_60|    ...|  ...|   14|  ...|   ...
  =Washington=    |_b_45|    28|  48|  ...|    ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|   ...
  =West Virginia= |  ...|    25|  48|   60|    ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|   ...
  =Wisconsin=     |   50|    25|  48|   60|    ...|   50|  ...|   20|   ...
  ----------------+-----+------+----+-----+-------+-----+-----+-----+------

  ================+=====+====+=====+=====+====+=============+====
      STATE OR    |     |    |     |     |    |    CORN     |
     TERRITORY    |     |    |     |     |    +-----+-------+
                  |BUCK-|CAR-| CLO-| COAL|COKE|Corn |Shelled|CORN
                  |WHEAT|ROTS| VER |     |    | in  |  Corn |MEAL
                  |     |    | SEED|     |    | Ear |       |  *
  ----------------+-----+----+-----+-----+----+-----+-------+----
  =United States= |   48| ...|  ...|   80| ...|  ...|    ...| ...
                  +-----+----+-----+-----+----+-----+-------+----
  =Alabama=       |  ...| ...|  ...|  ...| ...|   70|     56| ...
  =Arizona=       |  ...| ...|  ...|  ...| ...|  ...|    ...| ...
  =Arkansas=      |   52| ...|   60|  ...| ...|   70|     56|  48
  =California=    |   40| ...|  ...|  ...| ...|  ...|    ...| ...
  =Colorado=      |   52| ...|   60|   80| ...|   70|    ...|  50
  =Connecticut=   |   48|  50|   60|   80| ...|  ...|    ...|  50
  =Delaware=      |  ...| ...|  ...|  ...| ...|  ...|    ...| ...
  =Florida=       |  ...| ...|  ...|  ...| ...|   70|     56|  48
  =Georgia=       |   52| ...|   60|   80| ...|   70|     56|  48
  =Hawaii=        |  ...| ...|  ...|  ...| ...|  ...|    ...| ...
  =Idaho=         |   42| ...|   60|  ...| ...|  ...|     56| ...
  =Illinois=      |   52| ...|   60|   80| ...|   70|     56|  48
  =Indiana=       |   50| ...|   60|   80| ...|_g_68|     56|  50
  =Iowa=          |   52|  50|   60|   80|  38|   70|     56|  50
  =Kansas=        |   50|  50|   60|   80| ...|   70|  _i_56| ...
  =Kentucky=      |   56| ...|   60|   76| ...|_j_70|     56|  50
  =Louisiana=     |  ...| ...|  ...|  ...| ...|  ...|    ...| ...
  =Maine=         |   48|  50|  ...|  ...| ...|  ...|    ...|  50
  =Maryland=      |  ...|  50|   60|   80| ...|  ...|     56|  48
  =Massachusetts= |   48|  50|   60|  ...| ...|  ...|  _l_56|  50
  =Michigan=      |   48| ...|   60|   80| ...|   70|     56|  50
  =Minnesota=     |   50|  45|   60|   80| ...|   70|     56| ...
  =Mississippi=   |   48| ...|   60|   80| ...|   72|     56|  48
  =Missouri=      |   52|  50|   60|   80| ...|   70|     56|  50
  =Montana=       |   52|  50|   60|   76| ...|   70|     56|  50
  =Nebraska=      |   52| ...|   60|   80| ...|   70|     56|  50
  =Nevada=        |   50|  50|   60|  ...| ...|   70|     56|  48
  =New Hampshire= |   48|  50|   60|  ...| ...|_e_50|    ...|  50
  =New Jersey=    |   50|  50|   64|  ...| ...|  ...|    ...| ...
  =New York=      |   48|  50|   60|  ...| ...|  ...|    ...|  50
  =North Carolina=|   50| ...|   60|  ...| ...|  ...|    ...|  48
  =North Dakota=  |   42| ...|   60|   80| ...|   70|     56| ...
  =Ohio=          |   50|  50|   60|_n_80|  40|   68|     56| ...
  =Oklahoma=      |   52|  50|   60|   80| ...|   70|     56|  50
  =Oregon=        |   42| ...|   60|  ...| ...|  ...|    ...| ...
  =Pennsylvania=  |   48| ...|   60|_o_76|  40|  ...|    ...| ...
  =Rhode Island=  |   48|  50|   60|   80|  40|   70|     56|  50
  =South Carolina=|  ...| ...|  ...|  ...| ...|  ...|    ...|  48
  =South Dakota=  |   42| ...|   60|   80| ...|   70|     56| ...
  =Tennessee=     |   50|  50|_q_60|   80|  40|   70|     56| ...
  =Texas=         |   42| ...|   60|   80| ...|   70|     56| ...
  =Vermont=       |   48|  50|   60|  ...| ...|  ...|    ...| ...
  =Virginia=      |   52| ...|   60|   80| ...|   70|     56|  50
  =Washington=    |   42| ...|   60|  ...| ...|  ...|    ...| ...
  =West Virginia= |   52| ...|   60|   80| ...|  ...|    ...| ...
  =Wisconsin=     |   50|  50|   60|  ...| ...|  ...|    ...|  50
  ----------------+-----+----+-----+-----+----+-----+-------+----

=Table I. UNITED STATES LEGAL WEIGHTS= (_in pounds_) =PER
BUSHEL--Continued=

  ================+======+======+=============+=====+=====+======+=====+=====
      STATE OR    |      |      | COTTON SEED |     |     |      |     |
     TERRITORY    |      |      +------+------+     |     |      |     |
                  | CORN | CORN |Cotton|Sea-  |CRAN-|FLAX-|GOOSE-|PLAS-|HEMP-
                  | MEAL,| MEAL,| Seed*|Island| BER-| SEED| BER- | TER-| SEED
                  |BOLTED|  UN- |      |      | RIES|(LIN-| RIES | ING |
                  |      |BOLTED|      |      |     |SEED)|      | HAIR|
  ----------------+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+------+-----+-----
  =United States= |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|  ...|   56|   ...|  ...|  ...
                  +------+------+------+------+-----+-----+------+-----+-----
  =Alabama=       |   ...|   ...|    32|   ...|  ...|  ...|   ...|  ...|  ...
  =Arizona=       |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|  ...|  ...|   ...|  ...|  ...
  =Arkansas=      |   ...|   ...|33-1/3|   ...|  ...|   56|   ...|  ...|  ...
  =California=    |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|  ...|  ...|   ...|  ...|  ...
  =Colorado=      |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|  ...|  ...|   ...|  ...|   44
  =Connecticut=   |   ...|   ...|    30|    44|  ...|   55|   ...|  ...|  ...
  =Delaware=      |    44|    48|   ...|   ...|  ...|  ...|   ...|  ...|  ...
  =Florida=       |   ...|   ...|    32|    46|  ...|  ...|   ...|  ...|  ...
  =Georgia=       |   ...|   ...|    30|   ...|  ...|   56|   ...|    8|   44
  =Hawaii=        |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|  ...|  ...|   ...|  ...|  ...
  =Idaho=         |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|  ...|   56|   ...|  ...|  ...
  =Illinois=      |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|  ...|   56|   ...|    8|   44
  =Indiana=       |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|   33|  ...|   ...|  ...|   44
  =Iowa=          |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|  ...|   56|    40|  ...|   44
  =Kansas=        |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|  ...|   56|   ...| _r_8|   44
  =Kentucky=      |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|  ...|   56|   ...|    8|   44
  =Louisiana=     |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|  ...|  ...|   ...|  ...|  ...
  =Maine=         |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|  ...|  ...|   ...|   11|  ...
  =Maryland=      |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|  ...|   56|   ...|  ...|   44
  =Massachusetts= |   ...|   ...|    30|    44|   32|   55|   ...|  ...|  ...
  =Michigan=      |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|   40|   56|   ...|  ...|   44
  =Minnesota=     |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|   36|  ...|    40| _r_8|   50
  =Mississippi=   |    44|    48|    32|   ...|  ...|   56|   ...|  ...|   44
  =Missouri=      |   ...|   ...|    33|   ...|  ...|   56|   ...|  ...|   44
  =Montana=       |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|  ...|   56|   ...|  ...|   44
  =Nebraska=      |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|  ...|   56|   ...|    8|   44
  =Nevada=        |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|  ...|   56|   ...|  ...|   48
  =New Hampshire= |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|   32|   56|   ...|  ...|  ...
  =New Jersey=    |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|  ...|   55|   ...|  ...|  ...
  =New York=      |   ...|   ...|    30|    44|  ...|   55|   ...|  ...|  ...
  =North Carolina=|    48|    48|    30|    44|  ...|   55|   ...|  ...|   44
  =North Dakota=  |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|  ...|   56|   ...|  ...|  ...
  =Ohio=          |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|  ...|   56|   ...|  ...|   44
  =Oklahoma=      |   ...|   ...|    32|   ...|  ...|   56|   ...|  ...|   44
  =Oregon=        |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|  ...|  ...|   ...|  ...|  ...
  =Pennsylvania=  |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|  ...|  ...|   ...|  ...|  ...
  =Rhode Island=  |   ...|   ...|    30|    44|  ...|   56|   ...|  ...|   44
  =South Carolina=|    48|    48|    30|   ...|  ...|  ...|   ...|  ...|  ...
  =South Dakota=  |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|  ...|   56|   ...|  ...|  ...
  =Tennessee=     |    50|    48|    28|   ...|  ...|   56|    48|    8|   44
  =Texas=         |   ...|   ...|    32|   ...|  ...|   56|   ...|  ...|   44
  =Vermont=       |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|  ...|  ...|   ...|  ...|  ...
  =Virginia=      |   ...|   ...|    32|   ...|  ...|   56|   ...|    8|   44
  =Washington=    |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|  ...|   56|   ...|  ...|  ...
  =West Virginia= |   ...|   ...|   ...|   ...|  ...|   56|   ...|  ...|  ...
  =Wisconsin=     |   ...|   ...|    30|    44|  ...|   56|   ...|    8|   44
  ----------------+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+------+-----+-----

  ================+=====+======+====+====+=========+=====+=====+=====+=======
      STATE OR    |     |      |    |    |  ONIONS |     |     |     |
     TERRITORY    |     |      |    |    +----+----+     |     |     |
                  | HER-| HUN- |MIL-|OATS| On-| On-| OR- |OSAGE|PARS-|PEACHES
                  | DES |GARIAN| LET|    |ions| ion|CHARD| OR- | NIPS|
                  |GRASS| GRASS|    |    |  * |Sets|GRASS| ANGE|     |
                  |     | SEED |    |    |    |    | SEED| SEED|     |
  ----------------+-----+------+----+----+----+----+-----+-----+-----+-------
  =United States= |  ...|   ...| ...|  32|  57| ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|    ...
                  +-----+------+----+----+----+----+-----+-----+-----+-------
  =Alabama=       |  ...|   ...| ...|  32| ...| ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|    ...
  =Arizona=       |  ...|   ...| ...|  32| ...| ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|    ...
  =Arkansas=      |  ...|   ...|  50|  32|  57| ...|   14|  ...|  ...|    ...
  =California=    |  ...|   ...| ...|  32| ...| ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|    ...
  =Colorado=      |  ...|   ...| ...|  32|  57| ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|    ...
  =Connecticut=   |   45|   ...| ...|  32|  52| ...|  ...|  ...|   45|    ...
  =Delaware=      |  ...|   ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|    ...
  =Florida=       |  ...|   ...|  50|  32|  56| ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|     54
  =Georgia=       |  ...|   ...| ...|  32|  57| ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|    ...
  =Hawaii=        |  ...|   ...| ...|  32| ...| ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|    ...
  =Idaho=         |  ...|   ...| ...|  36| ...| ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|    ...
  =Illinois=      |  ...|   ...| ...|  32|  57| ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|    ...
  =Indiana=       |  ...|   ...|  50|  32|  48| ...|   14|   33|   55|    ...
  =Iowa=          |  ...|    50|  50|  32|  57| ...|   14|   32|   42|     48
  =Kansas=        |  ...|    50|  50|  32|  57| ...|  ...|  ...|   52|     48
  =Kentucky=      |  ...|    50|  50|  32|  57|  36|   14|  ...|  ...|    ...
  =Louisiana=     |  ...|   ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|    ...
  =Maine=         |   45|   ...| ...|  32|  52| ...|  ...|  ...|   45|    ...
  =Maryland=      |   45|    50|  50|  32|  57| ...|   14|  ...|  ...|     40
  =Massachusetts= |   45|   ...| ...|  32|  52| ...|  ...|  ...|   45|     48
  =Michigan=      |  ...|    50|  50|  32|  54| ...|   14|   33|  ...|    ...
  =Minnesota=     |  ...|    48|  48|  32|  52| ...|   14|  ...|   42|    ...
  =Mississippi=   |  ...|    50|  50|  32|  57| ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|    ...
  =Missouri=      |  ...|    48|  50|  32|  57|  28|   14|   36|   44|     48
  =Montana=       |  ...|    50| ...|  32|  57| ...|  ...|  ...|   50|    ...
  =Nebraska=      |  ...|    50|  50|  32|  57|  25|  ...|   32|  ...|    ...
  =Nevada=        |  ...|    50|  50|  32|  57| ...|  ...|  ...|   50|     48
  =New Hampshire= |   45|   ...| ...|  32|  52| ...|  ...|  ...|   45|     48
  =New Jersey=    |  ...|   ...| ...|  30|  57| ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|     50
  =New York=      |   45|   ...| ...|  32|  57| ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|    ...
  =North Carolina=|  ...|   ...|  50|  32|  57| ...|   14|  ...|  ...|    ...
  =North Dakota=  |  ...|   ...|  50|  32|  52| ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|    ...
  =Ohio=          |  ...|    50|  50|  32|  55| ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|     48
  =Oklahoma=      |  ...|   ...|  50|  32|  57|  28|   14|   36|   44|     48
  =Oregon=        |  ...|   ...| ...|  32| ...| ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|    ...
  =Pennsylvania=  |  ...|   ...| ...|  32|  50| ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|    ...
  =Rhode Island=  |  ...|    50|  50|  32|  50| ...|  ...|  ...|   50|     48
  =South Carolina=|  ...|   ...| ...| ...|  52| ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|    ...
  =South Dakota=  |  ...|   ...| ...|  32|  52| ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|    ...
  =Tennessee=     |  ...|    48|  50|  32|  56|  28|   14|   33|   50|     50
  =Texas=         |  ...|    48|  50|  32|  57| ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|     50
  =Vermont=       |   45|   ...| ...|  32|  52| ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|    ...
  =Virginia=      |   12|    48|  50|  30|  57|  28|   14|   34|  ...|    ...
  =Washington=    |  ...|   ...| ...|  32| ...| ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|    ...
  =West Virginia= |  ...|   ...| ...|  32| ...| ...|  ...|  ...|  ...|    ...
  =Wisconsin=     |  ...|    48|  50|  32|  57| ...|  ...|  ...|   44|    ...
  ----------------+-----+------+----+----+----+----+-----+-----+-----+-------

=Table I. UNITED STATES LEGAL WEIGHTS= (_in pounds_) =PER
BUSHEL--Continued=

  ================+=======+====+=====+============+====+=====+====+=====
      STATE OR    |       |    |     |     PEAS   |    |     |    |
     TERRITORY    |       |    |     +-------+----+    |     |    |
                  | DRIED |PEA-|PEARS| Green |Peas| PO-|SWEET|RED-|ROUGH
                  |PEACHES|NUTS|  *  | Peas  |  * | TA-| PO- |TOP | RICE
                  |PEELED |    |     |  Un-  |    |TOES| TA- |SEED|
                  |       |    |     |shelled|    |    | TOES|    |
  ----------------+-------+----+-----+-------+----+----+-----+----+-----
  =United States= |    ...| ...|  ...|    ...|  60|  60|  ...| ...|  ...
                  +-------+----+-----+-------+----+----+-----+----+-----
  =Alabama=       |     38| ...|  ...|    ...|  60|  60|   55| ...|  ...
  =Arizona=       |    ...| ...|  ...|    ...| ...| ...|  ...| ...|  ...
  =Arkansas=      |     33| ...|  ...|    ...|  60|  60|   50|  14|  ...
  =California=    |    ...| ...|  ...|    ...| ...| ...|  ...| ...|  ...
  =Colorado=      |    ...| ...|  ...|    ...| ...|  60|  ...| ...|  ...
  =Connecticut=   |     33| ...|  ...|    ...|  60|  60|   54| ...|   45
  =Delaware=      |    ...| ...|  ...|    ...| ...| ...|  ...| ...|  ...
  =Florida=       |     33|  22|   60|    ...| ...|  60|   60| ...|  ...
  =Georgia=       |     38| ...|  ...|    ...|  60|  60|   55| ...|   43
  =Hawaii=        |    ...|  25|  ...|    ...| ...| ...|  ...| ...|  ...
  =Idaho=         |    ...| ...|   45|    ...| ...|  60|  ...| ...|  ...
  =Illinois=      |    ...| ...|  ...|    ...| ...|  60|   50| ...|  ...
  =Indiana=       |    ...| ...|  ...|    ...| ...|  60|   55| ...|  ...
  =Iowa=          |    ...|  20|  ...|     50|  60|  60|   46|  14|  ...
  =Kansas=        |    ...| ...|  ...|    ...| ...|  60|   50| ...|  ...
  =Kentucky=      |     39|  24|  ...|    ...|  60|  60|   55| ...|  ...
  =Louisiana=     |    ...| ...|  ...|    ...| ...| ...|  ...| ...|  ...
  =Maine=         |    ...| ...|  ...|    ...|  60|  60|  ...| ...|  ...
  =Maryland=      |    ...|  22|  ...|    ...|  60|  60|   60|  14|  ...
  =Massachusetts= |     33|  20|   58|    ...|  60|  60|   54| ...|   45
  =Michigan=      |     28| ...|  ...|    ...|  60|  60|   56|  14|  ...
  =Minnesota=     |     28| ...|  ...|    ...|  60|  60|   55|  14|  ...
  =Mississippi=   |     33|  24|  ...|    ...|  60|  60|   60| ...|  ...
  =Missouri=      |     33| ...|   48|     56|  60|  60|   56|  14|  ...
  =Montana=       |    ...| ...|   45|    ...|  60|  60|  ...| ...|  ...
  =Nebraska=      |     33| ...|  ...|    ...|  60|  60|   50| ...|  ...
  =Nevada=        |    ...| ...|   58|    ...|  60|  60|   50| ...|  ...
  =New Hampshire= |    ...|  20|  ...|    ...|  60|  60|   54| ...|  ...
  =New Jersey=    |     33| ...|  ...|    ...|  60|  60|   54| ...|  ...
  =New York=      |     33| ...|  ...|    ...|  60|  60|   54| ...|   45
  =North Carolina=|    ...|  22|  ...|    ...|  60|  60|   56|  14|   44
  =North Dakota=  |    ...| ...|  ...|    ...|  60|  60|   46| ...|  ...
  =Ohio=          |     33| ...|  ...|    ...|  60|  60|   50| ...|  ...
  =Oklahoma=      |    ...|  22|   48|     56|  60|  60|   55|  14|  ...
  =Oregon=        |     28| ...|   45|    ...| ...|  60|  ...| ...|  ...
  =Pennsylvania=  |    ...| ...|  ...|    ...| ...|  56|  ...| ...|  ...
  =Rhode Island=  |     33| ...|  ...|    ...|  60|  60|   54| ...|  ...
  =South Carolina=|    ...| ...|  ...|    ...| ...| ...|  ...| ...|  ...
  =South Dakota=  |    ...| ...|  ...|    ...|  60|  60|   46| ...|  ...
  =Tennessee=     |     26|  23|   56|     30|  60|  60|   50|  14|  ...
  =Texas=         |     28| ...|  ...|    ...| ...|  60|   55| ...|  ...
  =Vermont=       |    ...| ...|  ...|    ...|  60|  60|  ...| ...|  ...
  =Virginia=      |     40|  22|  ...|    ...|  60|  56|   56|  12|  ...
  =Washington=    |     28| ...|   45|    ...| ...|  60|  ...| ...|  ...
  =West Virginia= |     33| ...|  ...|    ...| ...|  60|  ...| ...|  ...
  =Wisconsin=     |     33| ...|  ...|    ...|  60|  60|   54| ...|   45
  ----------------+-------+----+-----+-------+----+----+-----+----+-----

  ================+=====+====+===+======+====+====+====+====+=====
      STATE OR    |     |    |   |      |    |    |    |    |
     TERRITORY    |     |    |   |      |    |    |    |    |
                  |RUTA-| RYE|RYE|SHORTS|SOR-| TO-|TIM-|TUR-|WHEAT
                  |BAGAS|MEAL|   |   *  |GHUM| MA-|OTHY|NIPS|
                  |     |    |   |      |SEED|TOES|SEED|    |
                  |     |    |   |      |    |    |    |    |
  ----------------+-----+----+---+------+----+----+----+----+-----
  =United States= |  ...| ...| 56|   ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|   60
                  +-----+----+---+------+----+----+----+----+-----
  =Alabama=       |  ...| ...| 56|   ...| ...| ...| ...|  55|   60
  =Arizona=       |  ...| ...| 56|   ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|   60
  =Arkansas=      |  ...| ...| 56|   ...|  50| ...|  60|  57|   60
  =California=    |  ...| ...| 54|   ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|   60
  =Colorado=      |  ...| ...| 56|   ...| ...| ...|  45| ...|   60
  =Connecticut=   |   60|  50| 56|    20| ...| ...| ...|  50|   60
  =Delaware=      |  ...| ...|...|   ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|   60
  =Florida=       |  ...| ...| 56|   ...|  56| ...| ...|  54|   60
  =Georgia=       |  ...| ...| 56|   ...| ...| ...|  45|  55|   60
  =Hawaii=        |  ...| ...| 56|   ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|   60
  =Idaho=         |  ...| ...| 56|   ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|   60
  =Illinois=      |  ...| ...| 56|   ...| ...| ...|  45|  55|   60
  =Indiana=       |  ...| ...| 56|   ...| ...| ...|  45|  55|   60
  =Iowa=          |   50| ...| 56|   ...|  50|  50|  45|  55|   60
  =Kansas=        |  ...| ...| 56|   ...|  50|  56|  45|  55|   60
  =Kentucky=      |  ...| ...| 56|   ...| ...| ...|  45|  60|   60
  =Louisiana=     |  ...| ...| 32|   ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|   60
  =Maine=         |   60|  50| 50|   ...| ...| ...| ...|  50|   60
  =Maryland=      |  ...| ...| 56|   ...|  50|  60|  45|  50|   60
  =Massachusetts= |  ...|  50| 56|    20| ...|  56|  45|  55|   60
  =Michigan=      |  ...| ...| 56|   ...| ...| ...|  45|  58|   60
  =Minnesota=     |   52| ...| 56|   ...|  57| ...|  45| ...|   60
  =Mississippi=   |  ...| ...| 56|   ...|  42| ...|  45|  55|   60
  =Missouri=      |   50| ...| 56|   ...|  42|  45|  45|  42|   60
  =Montana=       |  ...| ...| 56|   ...| ...| ...|  45|  50|   60
  =Nebraska=      |  ...| ...| 56|   ...|  50| ...|  45|  55|   60
  =Nevada=        |  ...| ...| 56|   ...|  50|  56|  45|  56|   60
  =New Hampshire= |  ...|  50| 56|    20| ...|  56|  45|  55|   60
  =New Jersey=    |  ...| ...| 56|   ...| ...| ...|  45| ...|   60
  =New York=      |  ...|  50| 56|    20| ...| ...|  45| ...|   60
  =North Carolina=|  ...| ...| 56|   ...|  50| ...|  45|  50|   60
  =North Dakota=  |  ...| ...| 56|   ...| ...| ...|  45|  60|   60
  =Ohio=          |  ...| ...| 56|   ...| ...|  56|  45|  60|   60
  =Oklahoma=      |   50| ...| 56|   ...|  50|  45|  45|  60|   60
  =Oregon=        |  ...| ...| 56|   ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|   60
  =Pennsylvania=  |  ...| ...| 56|   ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|   60
  =Rhode Island=  |  ...|  50| 56|    20| ...|  56|  45|  50|   60
  =South Carolina=|  ...| ...|...|   ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|  ...
  =South Dakota=  |  ...| ...| 56|   ...| ...| ...|  42|  60|   60
  =Tennessee=     |  ...| ...| 56|   ...|  50|  56|  45|  50|   60
  =Texas=         |  ...| ...| 56|   ...| ...|  55|  45|  55|   60
  =Vermont=       |  ...| ...| 56|   ...| ...| ...|  45|  60|   60
  =Virginia=      |  ...| ...| 56|   ...| ...| ...|  45|  55|   60
  =Washington=    |  ...| ...| 56|   ...| ...| ...| ...| ...|   60
  =West Virginia= |  ...| ...| 56|   ...| ...| ...|  45| ...|   60
  =Wisconsin=     |   56|  50| 56|    20| ...| ...|  45|  42|   60
  ----------------+-----+----+---+------+----+----+----+----+-----

  *   Not defined.
  _a_ Small white beans, 60 pounds.
  _b_ Green apples.
  _c_ Sugar beets and mango-wurzels.
  _d_ Shelled beans, 60 pounds; velvet beans, 78 pounds.
  _e_ White beans.
  _f_ Wheat bran.
  _g_ Corn in ear, 70 pounds until December 1st next after growth; 68
      pounds thereafter.
  _h_ English blue-grass seed, 22 pounds; native blue-grass seed, 14
      pounds.
  _i_ Rice corn.
  _j_ Corn in ear from November 1st to May 1st following, 70 pounds; 68
      pounds from May 1st to November 1st.
  _k_ Soy beans, 58 pounds.
  _l_ Cracked corn, 50 pounds.
  _m_ Green unshelled beans, 30 pounds.
  _n_ Cannel coal, 70 pounds.
  _o_ Standard weight in borough of Greensburg, 75 pounds.
  _p_ Dried beans; green unshelled beans, 30 pounds.
  _q_ Red and white.
  _r_ Unwashed plastering hair, 8 pounds; washed plastering hair, 4
      pounds.

=Table II. LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL FIXED IN BUT ONE OR TWO STATES=

  ===================+======+============================================
        ARTICLE      |WEIGHT|                    STATES
  -------------------+------+--------------------------------------------
                     |Pounds|
  Blackberries       |    30|Iowa. Tennessee, 48 pounds; dried 28 pounds.
  Blueberries        |    42|Minnesota.
  Canary seed        |    60|Tennessee.
  Cantaloupe melon   |    50|Tennessee.
  Cement             |    80|Tennessee.
  Cherries           |    40|Iowa. Tennessee, with stems 56 pounds;
                     |      |without stems, 64 pounds.
  Chestnuts          |    50|Tennessee. Virginia, 57 pounds.
  Cotton seed, staple|    42|South Carolina.
  Cucumbers          |    48|Iowa, Tennessee, Missouri. Wisconsin,
                     |      |50 pounds.
  Currants           |    40|Iowa and Minnesota.
  Grapes             |    40|Iowa. Tennessee, with stems, 48 pounds;
                     |      |without stems, 60 pounds.
  Hickory nuts       |    50|Tennessee.
  Hominy             |    60|Ohio. Tennessee, 62 pounds.
  Horse-radish       |    50|Tennessee.
  Kaffir corn        |    56|Kansas.
  Kale               |    30|Tennessee.
  Land plaster       |   100|Tennessee.
  Mustard            |    30|Tennessee.
  Plums              |    40|Florida. Tennessee, 64 pounds.
  Plums, dried       |    28|Michigan.
  Popcorn            |    70|Iowa, Indiana, Tennessee. Ohio, in the ear,
                     |      |42 pounds; Iowa, shelled, 56 pounds.
  Prunes, dried      |    28|Idaho; green, 45 pounds.
  Quinces            |    48|Florida, Iowa and Tennessee.
  Rape seed          |    50|Wisconsin.
  Raspberries        |    32|Iowa, Kansas, Tennessee, 48 pounds.
  Rhubarb            |    50|Tennessee.
  Salads             |    30|Tennessee.
  Sand               |   130|Iowa.
  Spinach            |    30|Tennessee.
  Strawberries       |    32|Iowa. Tennessee, 48 pounds.
  Sugar-cane seed    |    57|New Jersey.
  Velvet-grass seed  |     7|Tennessee.
  Walnuts            |    50|Tennessee, Iowa.
  -------------------+------+--------------------------------------------


APOTHECARIES’ WEIGHT

Apothecaries’ Weight is used by apothecaries and physicians weighing
medicines for prescriptions.

                      TABLE
  20 grains (gr.) = 1 scruple (sc., or ℈)
   2 scruples     = 1 dram (dr., or ʒ)
   8 drams        = 1 ounce (oz., or ℥)
  12 ounces       = 1 pound (lb., or ℔)

  Pound   Ounces   Drams   Scruples   Grains
    1   =   12   =  96   =   288    =  5760

1. In writing prescriptions, physicians express the number in Roman
characters, using j instead of i final. They also write the symbol
first; thus: ℥v, ʒvj, ℈ij.


MEDICAL SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS

℞ (Lat. Recipe), take; āā, of each; ℔, pound; ℥, ounce; ʒ, drachm; ℈,
scruple; ♏, minim, or drop; O or o, pint; f℥, fluid ounce; fʒ, fluid
drachm; as, ℥ss, half an ounce; ℥i, one ounce; ℥iss, one ounce and a
half; ℥ij, two ounces; gr. grain; Q. S., as much as sufficient; Ft.
Mist., let a mixture be made; Ft. Haust., let a draught be made; Ad.,
add to; Ad lib., at pleasure; Aq., water; M., mix; Mac., macerate;
Pulv., powder; Pil., pill; Solv., dissolve; St., let it stand; Sum., to
be taken; D., dose; Dil., dilute; Filt., filter; Lot., a wash; Garg., a
gargle; Hor. Decub., at bed time; Inject., injection; Gtt., drops; ss,
one-half; Ess., essence.


COMPARISON OF WEIGHTS

TABLE

  1 pound avoirdupois         = 7000 grains
  1 ounce avoirdupois         =  437-1/2 grains
  1 pound Troy, or apothecary = 5760 grains
  1 ounce Troy, or apothecary =  480 grains

[Illustration]


CIRCULAR MEASURES

_Circular or Angular Measures_ are used in surveying, navigation,
astronomy, geography, reckoning latitude and longitude, and computing
differences in time.

A _Circle_ is a plane figure bounded by a curved line, every point of
which is equally distant from a point within, called the center.

The _Circumference_ is the bounding line of a circle.

The _Radius_ of a circle is a straight line drawn from the circumference
to the center.

The _Diameter_ is a straight line drawn through the center, with the
ends terminating in the circumference.

An _Arc_ of a circle is any portion of the circumference.

An _Angle_ is the difference in direction between two straight lines
which meet.

If two diameters divide a circle into four equal parts, these diameters
make _right angles_ with each other.

An angle less than a right angle is an _acute angle_.

The circumference of a circle may be divided into 360 equal parts,
called _degrees_. If the circle is large, the degree is large, and if
the circle is small, the degree is small, but the degree is always 1/360
part of the circumference, whatever the size of the circle.

An angle at the center of a circle is measured by the arc which bounds
it.

If the angle is a right angle, it is measured by 1/4 of 360 degrees, or
90 degrees; hence, any angle of 90 degrees is a right angle.

An acute angle is always less than 90 degrees.

An obtuse angle is always more than 90 degrees.

TABLE OF CIRCULAR MEASURE

  60 seconds (′′) = 1 minute (′)
  60 minutes      = 1 degree (°)
  360 degrees     = 1 circumference (cir.)

  Circumference   Degrees   Minutes    Seconds
       1        =   360   =  21,600 = 1,296,000

A _quadrant_ is 1/4 of a circumference, or 90°; a _sextant_ is 1/6 of a
circumference, or 60°.

The length of a degree of longitude on the earth’s surface at the
Equator is 69.16 miles.

In astronomical calculation 30° are called a _sign_, and there are
therefore 12 signs in a circle.


LONGITUDE AND TIME

The earth’s circumference (which has the form of a circle) at the
equator is (3.1416 × 7926), 24900 miles; which divided by 360, gives
69.17 miles for 1 degree of longitude at the equator. Leaving the
equator, degrees of longitude gradually diminish, since all meridians
converge at the poles. Thus, 1 degree of longitude, at 10 degrees of
latitude, is 68.1 miles; at 20 degrees 65 miles; at 30 degrees 59.9
miles; at 40 degrees 53 miles; at 50 degrees 44.5 miles; at 60 degrees
34.6 miles; at 70 degrees 23.7 miles; at 80 degrees 12 miles; at 90
degrees 0.

Imaginary lines running north and south, through these degrees, from
pole to pole, are called _meridians_. Those east and west, _parallels_.

One meridian which runs through Greenwich, near London, England, is
called the _prime meridian_, and all the other meridians are reckoned as
east or west of it.

_Longitude_ is distance east or west of the prime meridian. When we say
that the longitude of Paris is 2° 20′ East, we mean that the meridian
running through Paris is 2° 20′ east of the prime meridian that runs
through Greenwich, England. The longitude of Washington, D. C., is 77°
7′ West. That means that the meridian which passes through Washington is
77° 7′ west of the prime meridian.

The longitude of a place tells in degrees, minutes, and seconds, the
distance it is east or west of the prime meridian.

[Illustration]

RULE.--_To find the difference of time between two places, when the
difference of longitude is known, or vice versa, multiply the given
longitude, expressed in degrees, by 4. This gives the equivalent time in
minutes. Dividing the given time, expressed in minutes, by 4, gives the
equivalent longitude in degrees._

EXAMPLE: The difference of longitude between Boston and San Francisco is
nearly 51-1/4°, what is the difference of time?

51-1/4 × 4 = 205. 205 minutes equal 3 hours and 25 minutes. _Ans._ 3
hours and 25 minutes.

The difference of time between London and New York is about 4 hours and
55-1/2 minutes, what is the difference of longitude?

4 hours and 55-1/2 minutes equals 295-1/2 minutes. 295-1/2 ÷ 4 = 73-7/8.
_Ans._ 73-7/8°.


MEASURES OF TIME

The unit of time measurement is the same among all nations. Practically
it is 1-86400 of the mean solar day, but really it is a perfectly
arbitrary unit, as the length of the mean solar day is not constant for
any two periods of time. There is no constant natural unit of time.

Time measures are used in telling the time of day, in problems in
longitude and time, in figuring interest on notes and bills, and in
numerous other ways.

TABLE OF THE DIVISIONS OF TIME

  60 seconds (sec.) = 1 minute (min.)
  60 minutes        = 1 hour (hr.)
  24 hours          = 1 day (da.)
  7 days            = 1 week (wk.)
  30 days           = 1 commercial month (mo.)
  52 weeks          = 1 year (yr.)
  12 months         = 1 year
  360 days          = 1 commercial year
  365 days          = 1 common year
  366 days          = 1 leap year
  100 years         = 1 century

  Century   Years   Months    Days     Hours     Minutes
     1    =  100  =  1,200 = 36,500 = 876,000 = 52,560,000

Centennial years exactly divisible by 400, and other years exactly
divisible by 4, are _Leap Years_.


WHY WE HAVE LEAP YEAR

The average time it takes the earth to revolve once around the sun
(_one_ year) is 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 47.8 seconds, or about
365-1/4 days.

The change in the length of the mean sidereal day, _i.e._, of the time
of the earth’s rotation upon its axis, amounts to 0.01252 seconds in
2400 mean solar years.

Instead of reckoning this part of a day each year, it is disregarded,
and an addition is made when this amounts to one day, which is very
nearly every fourth year. This addition of one day is made to the month
of February. Since the part of a day that is disregarded when 365 days
are considered as a year, is a little less than one quarter of a day,
the addition of one day every fourth year is a little too much, and, to
correct this excess, addition is made to only every fourth centennial
year.


STANDARD TIME

By this is meant time which differs from Greenwich mean time by whole
hours.

The earth revolves on its axis from west to east, nearly 17.3 miles in 1
minute at the equator; at the latitude of New Orleans, nearly 15 miles
in 1 minute; at Memphis, 14 miles; at Chicago, 13 miles; at London, 10.8
miles; at St. Petersburg, 8.6 miles. That is, a watch would gain one
minute going west, or lose one minute going east that distance, in the
latitudes of the respective cities.

The globe is divided into zones of 15 degrees or one hour breadth, the
Greenwich meridian being in the center of the zero zone. Thus Belgium
and Holland (since 1892) keep Greenwich time; Denmark, Sweden,
Switzerland (1894), Austrian railroads, Germany, and Italy (1893) keep
the time of longitude 15 degrees East--i.e. one hour earlier than
Greenwich. In North America again five zones are distinguished. The
corresponding times are distinguished as Eastern (67-1/2 to 82-1/2
degrees), Central (82-1/2 to 97-1/2 degrees), Mountain (97-1/2 to
112-1/2 degrees), and Pacific (112-1/2 to 127-1/2 degrees) times.

New York people are in the Eastern Time Belt. If they rise at six
o’clock in the morning, they will be up a whole hour before Chicago
people, who get up at the same hour.

[Illustration: The clock at Greenwich, near London, England, from which
the standard time of the world is reckoned.]

Thus, each day begins an hour sooner in New York than in Chicago, two
hours before Denver, and three hours before San Francisco.

Standard time in Japan is nine hours earlier than Greenwich time.

In the western parts of Canada the twenty-four hour system has been
adopted, under which four P. M. becomes sixteen o’clock and so on. Steps
are being taken to introduce it generally in India, Belgium, and the
United States. It is of special convenience in the construction of
railroad time tables; and it has long been used by the Italians and by
astronomers.

[Illustration: SIMULTANEOUS TIME IN LONDON, NEW YORK, AND BOMBAY

This diagram illustrates the curious fact that a telegram despatched
from London may be delivered in New York apparently before the time it
was sent off, and why a telegram apparently takes so long to reach
Bombay.]

[Illustration: COMPARATIVE TIME ALL OVER THE WORLD WHEN NOON AT
GREENWICH]


THE CALENDAR

The reckoning of time among the ancients was very inaccurate. This was
owning to their ignorance of astronomy, and also to changes that were
made from time to time for political reasons. The calendar was reformed
by Julius Cæsar, 46 B. C., who made the year consist of 365-1/4 days,
adding one day every fourth year. In 1582, the error in the calendar
established by him had increased to 10 days; that is, too much time had
been reckoned as a year, until the civil year was 10 days behind the
solar year. To correct this error, Pope Gregory XIII. decreed that 10
days should be stricken from the calendar, that the day following the 3d
day of October, 1582, should be made the 14th, and that henceforth only
those centennial years should be leap years which are divisible by 400.

Most Catholic countries adopted the Gregorian Calendar soon after it was
established. Great Britain did not adopt it until 1752, when the error
amounted to 11 days. By Act of Parliament, the 3d of September was
called the 14th. The civil year by the same act was made to commence on
the 1st of January, instead of the 25th of March, as was previously the
case.

[Illustration: THE COMPARATIVE TIME ZONES OF THE WORLD]

Dates reckoned by the Julian calendar are called Old Style (O.S.), and
those reckoned by the Gregorian calendar are called New Style (N.S.).
The difference now amounts to 12 days.


PERPETUAL CALENDAR

To find the day of the week for any given date.

1. Take the last two figures of the year, add one-fourth of them
(neglecting remainder). Thus: 1949 = 49 + 12 = 61.

2. Add for the month, if for January or October, 1; May, 2; August, 3;
February, March, or November, 4; June, 5; September or December, 6;
April or July, 0; if leap year (that is, if it be divisible by 4 without
remainder) January 0; February 3.

3. Add day of month.

Divide the sum of these three by 7, and remainder gives the number of
the day of the week.

Thus:--What day of the week is 15th July, 1908?

  1.  8 + 2 = 10
  2.  July  =  0
  3.  15th  = 15
              --
              25 = 7 × 3 + 4

4th day of the week = Wednesday.

What day of the week was December 25th, 1905?

  1.  5 + 1 = 6
  2.  Dec.  = 6
  3.  25th = 25
             --
             37 = 7 × 5 + 2

2nd day of the week = Monday.

The above only applies to 20th Century. For 19th Century, add 2; for
21st Century, add 6; 18th Century, 4; but before 1752 the “old style”
was used.


WHERE THE DAY BEGINS

The day begins earlier as you go east until you meet the 180th meridian.
This is where the day begins. Starting here, it travels westward, giving
the whole world a new day. The 180th meridian is called the
_International Date Line_ (_I. D. L._) but in reality, the date line is
a crooked line which zigzags across the 180th meridian.

From the time the day starts at the International Date Line, until the
sun again reaches that line, the same day is in progress the world over.

As marked now, the International Date Line passes southward through
Behring Sea, then westerly, then returns to the 180th meridian at about
40 degrees north. It then follows the 180th meridian to 10 degrees
south, where it swerves east but returns again to the 180th meridian at
about 50 degrees south. It then follows that meridian.

[Illustration]

TIME ON SHIPBOARD.--The twenty-four hours are divided on board ship into
seven parts, and the crew is divided into two parts or watches,
designated port and starboard watches. Each watch is on duty four hours,
except from four to eight p. m., which time is divided into two watches
of two hours each, called dog watches, by means of which the watches are
changed every day, and each watch gets a term of eight hours’ rest at
night. First watch, eight p. m. to midnight; middle watch, midnight to
four a. m.; morning watch, four to eight a. m.; forenoon watch, eight a.
m. to noon; afternoon watch, noon to four p. m.; first dog watch, four
to six p. m.; second dog watch, six to eight p. m. The bell is struck
every half-hour to indicate the time, as follows:

  1 bell  12:30 A.M.  1 bell  12:30 P.M.
  2 bells  1:00 A.M.  2 bells  1:00 P.M.
  3 bells  1:30 A.M.  3 bells  1:30 P.M.
  4 bells  2:00 A.M.  4 bells  2:00 P.M.
  5 bells  2:30 A.M.  5 bells  2:30 P.M.
  6 bells  3:00 A.M.  6 bells  3:00 P.M.
  7 bells  3:30 A.M.  7 bells  3:30 P.M.
  8 bells  4:00 A.M.  8 bells  4:00 P.M.
  1 bell   4:30 A.M.  1 bell   4:30 P.M.
  2 bells  5:00 A.M.  2 bells  5:00 P.M.
  3 bells  5:30 A.M.  3 bells  5:30 P.M.
  4 bells  6:00 A.M.  4 bells  6:00 P.M.
  5 bells  6:30 A.M.  1 bell   6:30 P.M.
  6 bells  7:00 A.M.  2 bells  7:00 P.M.
  7 bells  7:30 A.M.  3 bells  7:30 P.M.
  8 bells  8:00 A.M.  4 bells  8:00 P.M.
  1 bell   8:30 A.M.  1 bell   8:30 P.M.
  2 bells  9:00 A.M.  2 bells  9:00 P.M.
  3 bells  9:30 A.M.  3 bells  9:30 P.M.
  4 bells 10:00 A.M.  4 bells 10:00 P.M.
  5 bells 10:30 A.M.  5 bells 10:30 P.M.
  6 bells 11:00 A.M.  6 bells 11:00 P.M.
  7 bells 11:30 A.M.  7 bells 11:30 P.M.
  8 bells 12:00 noon  8 bells 12:00 night


HOW THE MONTHS GOT THEIR NAMES

January, from Janus, was the sacred month of the year to the Romans. To
them, Janus was the god of the year. During the 18th century, the
Europeans started to recognize it as the first month, but previous to
this, March was considered the first.

February comes from februa, the name of a Roman festival celebrated on
the 15th of the second month.

March is from Mars, the god of war. March was the first month of the
year to the Romans.

April, from the Latin _aperire_, “to open,” was probably so called
because during this month buds begin to open.

May is from Maia, the mother of Mercury. The Romans offered sacrifices
to this goddess on the first day of May.

The sixth month in our calendar, June, got its name from Juno, the wife
of Jupiter.

July was so named in honor of Julius Cæsar, who was born in this month.

Emperor Augustus Cæsar commanded that the eighth month be named August
after him.

September is from the Latin septem, meaning seven. At the time when
March was the first month of the year, September was the seventh.

October, November, and December were originally the eighth, ninth and
tenth months. _Octo_, _novem_, and _decem_ are Latin numerals for
eighth, ninth, and tenth.


HOW THE DAYS GOT THEIR NAMES

Sunday (that is, day of the sun, like Monday day of the moon), the first
day of the week, the Lord’s day, was sacred to Sol or the Sun.

Monday (that is, moon-day; Anglo-Saxon, _Monandæg_, German, _Montag_),
the second day of our week, was formerly sacred to the moon.

Tuesday, the third day of the week, is so called from _Tiwesdæg_, the
day of Tiw or Tiu, the old Saxon name for the god of war. The day bears
a corresponding name in the other Germanic dialects.

Wednesday, the fourth day of the week, the _Dies Mercurii_ of the
Romans, the _Mittwoch_ of the modern Germans. The name Wednesday is
derived from the Northern mythology, and signifies Woden’s or Odin’s
day. The Anglo-Saxon form was _Wôdanesday_, the Old German
_Woutanestac_. The Swedish and Danish is _Onsdag_.

Thursday, (Swedish _Thorsdag_, German _Donnerstag_), the fifth day of
the week, is so called from Donar, or Thor (see Dictionary of Myths),
who, as god of the air, had much in common with the Roman Jupiter, to
whom the same day was dedicated. (Latin _Jovis dies_, French _Jeudi_).

Friday, the sixth day of the week, from the Anglo-Saxon _Frige-dæg_, is
the day sacred to _Frigga_ or to _Freya_, the Saxon Venus.

Saturday (Anglo-Saxon _Sæterdæg_, _Sæterndæg_--_Sæter_, _Sætern_, for
Saturn, and _dæg_, a day--the day presided over by the planet Saturn),
is the seventh or last day of the week; the day of the Jewish Sabbath.


MEASURES OF VALUE

The common measure of value is _Money_.

It is also called Currency, and is of two kinds, viz.: coin and paper
money.

Stamped pieces of metal having a value fixed by law are _Coin_ or
_Specie_.

Notes and bills issued by the government and banks, and authorized to be
used as money, are _Paper Money_.

All moneys which, if offered, legally satisfy a debt are a _Legal
Tender_.


UNITED STATES MONEY

The unit of United States or Federal money is the Dollar.

The dollar mark is probably a combination of U. S., the initials of the
words “United States.”

The standard of United States money is the gold dollar. Gold is used
because in itself it has great worth and little bulk, and because it
varies very little in value.


NAMES OF UNITED STATES COINS

  _Bronze_:
  One-cent piece

  _Nickel_:
  Five-cent piece

  _Silver_:
  Dollar         =  $1.00
  Half-dollar    =   0.50
  Quarter-dollar =   0.25
  Dime           =   0.10

  _Gold:_
  Double eagle   = $20.00
  Eagle          =  10.00
  Half eagle     =   5.00
  Quarter eagle  =   2.50

It may be interesting to know that the word _dollar_ is supposed to have
come from _Dale_, the name of a small town where dollars were first
coined.

_Dime_ is from the French word _disme_, which means tenth.

_Cent_ comes from the Latin word _centum_, meaning hundred.

_Mill_ is also from the Latin, coming from _mille_, a thousand.

_Eagles_ were named after our national bird.

[Illustration]

WEIGHTS OF THE UNITED STATES COINS

And the Amounts for Which They are Legal Tender

GOLD

  ====================+=======+================
    DENOMINATIONS     |WEIGHT |AMOUNT FOR WHICH
                      |GRAINS | A LEGAL TENDER
  --------------------+-------+----------------
  Double eagle, $20   | 516.  |Gold coins of
  Eagle, $10          | 258.  |denomination
  Half eagle, $5      | 129.  |are legal
  Three dollars       |  77.4 |tenders for
  Quarter eagle, $2.50|  64.5 |any amount.
  Dollars             |  25.8 |
  --------------------+-------+----------------

SILVER

  ====================+=======+=================
    DENOMINATIONS     |WEIGHT |AMOUNT FOR WHICH
                      |GRAINS |A LEGAL TENDER
  --------------------+-------+-----------------
  Standard dollar     | 412.5 |Unlimited.
  Trade Dollar        | 420.  |Demonetized--Not
                      |       |a legal tender.
  Half dollars        | 192.9 |Ten dollars.
  Quarter dollars     |  96.45|Ten dollars.
  Twenty-cent pieces  |  77.16|Five dollars.
  Dimes               |  38.58|Ten dollars.
  Half-dimes          |  19.29|Five dollars.
  Three-cent pieces   |  11.52|Five dollars.
  --------------------+-------+-----------------

MINOR COINS

  ====================+=========+================
    DENOMINATIONS     |WEIGHT | AMOUNT FOR WHICH
                      |GRAINS | A LEGAL TENDER
  --------------------+-------+------------------
  Five cents          |  77.6 |Twenty-five cents.
  Three cents         |  30.  |Twenty-five cents.
  Two cents           |  96.  |Twenty-five cents.
  Cents               |  48.  |Twenty-five cents.
  --------------------+-------+------------------

Besides the coins there is paper money, founded on credit. It represents
value, but in itself has no value.

This paper money is made up of paper promises to pay the amounts named,
in gold or silver, on demand.

It includes bank bills, United States treasury notes, government bonds,
etc. They represent the values $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, $100, $500,
$1,000 and $10,000.


NOTATION OF UNITED STATES MONEY

Dollars and cents are written together. Thus, two dollars and sixteen
cents is written, $2.16.

The dollars are separated from the cents by a period. If the number of
cents is less than ten, the tens’ place is filled by a 0. Thus, we write
twenty dollars and two cents, $20.02.

Mills, or tenths of a cent, are written to the right of the cents. Five
dollars, six cents, four mills is written, $5.064.

NOTE.--The rules and processes of decimals apply to the addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division of United States money.


ENGLISH OR STERLING MONEY

_Sterling Money_ is currency of Great Britain and Ireland.

Table of Sterling Money

   4 farthings (far.)    = 1 penny (d.)
  12 pence (not pennies) = 1 shilling (s.)
  20 shillings           = 1 pound (£), or sovereign
   5 shillings           = 1 crown
  21 shillings           = 1 guinea

The standard unit of Sterling Money is 1 pound or sovereign, whose value
in our money is $4.8665.

The coins of Great Britain in general use are:--

_Gold_: Sovereign, half-sovereign, and guinea, which is equal to 21
shillings.

_Silver_: The crown (equal to 5 shillings), half-crown, florin (equal to
2 shillings), shilling, six-penny and three-penny pieces.

_Copper_: Penny and half-penny.

EXAMPLE: I have £5 sterling. What is the value in United States money?

SOLUTION:

The value is 5 × $4.8665, or $24.33


FRENCH MONEY

In France the currency is decimal. The unit is the _Franc_.

  TABLE

  10 centimes (ct.) [pronounced _son-teems_] = 1 decime (de.)
  10 decimes        [pronounced _des-seems_] = 1 franc (fr.)

                        _Scale._--Decimal

The value of the franc, as determined by the Secretary of the Treasury,
is $.193 in United States money.

The coins of France are of gold, silver, bronze, and copper. The gold
coins are the _hundred_, _forty_, _twenty_, _ten_, and _five_ franc
pieces; the silver coins are the _five_, _two_, and _one_ franc pieces;
also the _fifty_ and _twenty-five_ centime pieces. The bronze coins are
the _ten_, _five_, _two_, and _one_ centime pieces. There are also
copper coins in _ten_ and _five_ centime pieces.

EXAMPLE: When in France, I bought goods as follows:--

3 books at 2 francs,

1/2 dozen pipes at 1 franc,

2 pictures at 4 francs.

What was the cost in United States money?

WORK:

  3 books at 2 francs cost         6 francs
  1/2 dozen pipes at 1 franc cost  6 francs
  2 pictures at 4 francs cost      8 francs
  -----------------------------------------
          Cost of all             20 francs

  20 francs   = 20 × 19.3 cents, or $3.86


GERMAN MONEY

German money is legal currency of the German Empire.

TABLE

  100 pfennigs = 1 mark

  _Scale._--Decimal

1. The unit is the _mark_. Its value is $.2385 in United States money.

2. The coins of the German Empire are of gold, silver, nickel, and
copper. The gold coins are the 20-mark piece, the 10-mark piece, and the
5-mark piece. The silver coins are the _two_ and _one_ mark pieces; the
nickel coins are the _ten_ and _five_ pfennig pieces; and the copper
coins are the _two_ and one _pfennig_ pieces.


PHILIPPINES WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

  1 pulgada (12 linea) =    .927  inch
  1 pie                =  11.125  inches
  1 vara               =  33.375  inches
  1 gantah             =    .8796 gallon
  1 caban              =  21.991  gallons
  1 libra (16 onzo)    =   1.0144 pounds average
  1 arroba             =  25.360  pounds average
  1 catty (16 tael)    =   1.394  pounds average
  1 pecul (100 catty)  = 139.482  pounds average


PAPER MEASURE

  24 sheets = 1 quire (qr.)
  20 quires = 1 ream (rm.)
  2 reams   = 1 bundle
  5 bundles = 1 bale

Although a ream contains 480 sheets, 500 sheets are usually sold as a
ream.


NUMBER TABLE

  12 units = 1 dozen
  12 dozen = 1 gross
  12 gross = 1 great gross
  20 units = 1 score


PERCENTAGE AND ITS BUSINESS APPLICATIONS

The expression “per cent,” which is an abbreviation of the Latin words
“per centum,” means “for each hundred.”

The symbol % is often used to denote “per cent.” Thus, 7 per cent, or
7%, means 7 parts out of every 100 parts, _i.e._, 7/100 of the whole.

Since per cent means hundredths, we may write any fraction whose
denominator is 100 as so many per cent. In some cases the corresponding
common fractions are so simple that it is advisable to remember them.
For example:

         25   1
  25% = --- = -,
        100   4

         50   1
  50% = --- = -,
        100   2

         75   3
  75% = --- = -,
        100   4

            33-1/3   1
  33-1/3% = ------ = -,
             100     3

            66-2/3   2
  66-2/3% = ------ = -,
             100     3

        5     1
  5% = --- = --,
       100   20

           2-1/2    1
  2-1/2% = ----- = --,
            100    40

            12-1/2   1
  12-1/2% = ------ = -,
             100     8

and so on.

The _number_ per cent is called the _rate_ per cent.

TABLE OF ADDITIONAL VALUES

  SYMBOL   DECIMAL    COMMON FRACTION
    1%   =   .01   =   1/100
    2%   =   .02   =   2/100  =  1/50
    3%   =   .03   =   3/100
    4%   =   .04   =   4/100  =  1/25
    5%   =   .05   =   5/100  =  1/20
    6%   =   .06   =   6/100  =  3/50
    7%   =   .07   =   7/100
    8%   =   .08   =   8/100  =  2/25
    9%   =   .09   =   9/100
   10%   =   .10   =  10/100  =  1/10
   20%   =   .20   =  20/100  =  1/5
   25%   =   .25   =  25/100  =  1/4
   50%   =   .50   =  50/100  =  1/2
  100%   =  1.00   = 100/100  =  1

Here are a few others that should be learned:--

   6-1/4% = 1/16 of 100%   16-2/3% = 1/6 of 100%
   8-1/2% = 1/12 of 100%   33-1/3% = 1/3 of 100%
  12-1/2% = 1/ 8 of 100%   66-2/3% = 2/3 of 100%


A DECIMAL AS PER CENT

Write the decimal as hundredths, and the number expressing the number of
hundredths is the per cent.

  EXAMPLES:

               40
  .4 = .40 =  ---   = 40%
              100

               80
  .8 = .80 =  ---   = 80%
              100

               25
       .25 =  ---   = 25%
              100

             33-1/3
  .33-1/3% = ------ = 33-1/3%
               100

               50
       .50 =  ---   =  50%
              100

             87-1/2
   .87-1/2 = ------ = 87-1/2%
               100

If the decimal has more than two decimal places, the figures after the
second one are written as a fraction of a per cent, as,--

          25-1/2
  .255 =  ------ = 25-1/2%.
            100

         16-3/10
  .163 = ------- = 16-3/10%.
           100

To change a common fraction to per cent:

1. _Change the fraction to a decimal._

2. _Express the decimal as hundredths._

3. _The result is the per cent desired._

EXAMPLES:

   1/ 2 = .5        = .50   = 50%
   3/ 4 = .75       = 75%
   2/ 3 = .66-2/3   = 66-2/3%
   9/10 = .90       = 90%
   8/ 9 = .88-8/9   = 88-2/9%
   7/ 8 = .87-1/2   = 87-1/2%
  25/26 = .96-2/13  = 96-2/13%

Or, they may be written this way:

               100      75
  3/4 = 3/4 of --- = ------ = 75%
               100     100

               100   66-2/3
  2/3 = 2/3 of --- = ------ = 66-2/3
               100     100

               100      50
  1/2 = 1/2 of --- = ------ = 50%
               100     100


TERMS USED IN PERCENTAGE

In _Percentage_, there are five terms or quantities considered; namely,
the _Base_, _Rate per cent_, _Percentage_, _Amount_ and _Proceeds_ or
_Difference_; any two being given, a third one may be found.

The base and rate given, to find the percentage.

RULE.--_Multiply the base by the rate per cent expressed decimally._

EXAMPLE: How many dollars is 6% of $50?

    $50,  the _Base_, or number on which percentage is computed.
    .06,  the _Rate_, or term denoting number of hundredths taken.
  ------
   $3.00, the _Percentage_, or the product of the base and rate per
          cent.
  $53.00, the _Amount_, or the base increased by the percentage.
  $47.00, the _Proceeds_, or _Difference_, the base less the percentage.

_Ans._ $3.00.

When the rate per cent is an aliquot part of 100, the percentage is
readily found by taking such a part of the base as the rate per cent is
part of 100. Thus, at 10%, take 1/10 of base; at 12-1/2%, 1/8; at
16-2/3%, 1/6, etc.

The base and percentage given, to find the rate.

RULE.--_Divide the percentage by 1% of the base_

EXAMPLE: Bought a watch for $15 and sold it for $18; what per cent did I
make?

  .15)3.00
     -----
        20

  _Ans._ 20%

Here, $15.00 is the base, and ($18 - $15) $3.00, the gain or percentage.
Now, as 1% of 15.00 is .15, it is evident that 3.00 is as many per cent
of 15.00, as .15 is contained times is 3.00, which is 20.

Proof: 20% or 1/5 of $15 = $3.

The percentage and rate given, to find the base.

RULE.--_Divide the percentage by the rate per cent expressed decimally_.

EXAMPLE: Received $6.40, percentage or interest, for money loaned at 4%,
what was the base or principal?

      .04)6.40
         -----
  _Ans._ $160

If $1 produces .04 (4 cents) in a certain time, $6.40 must be the
percentage of as many dollars as .04 is contained times in $6.40, which
is 160.

Proof: 4% of $160 (160 × .04) = $6.40.

The amount and rate given, to find the base.

RULE.--_Divide the given amount by 1.00 plus the rate per cent_.

EXAMPLE: Bought a horse at a certain price, and sold him for $84, making
12% on cost; what did he cost?

  1.12)84.00
      ------
  _Ans._ $75


If I made 12% on cost, every dollar invested gained 12 cents; hence, the
horse cost as many dollars as 1.12 is contained times in 84.00, which is
75.

Proof: 12% of $75 (75 × .12) = $9; $75 + $9 = $84.

The proceeds and the rate given, to find the base.

RULE.--_Divide the given proceeds by 1.00 minus the rate per cent_.

EXAMPLE: Sold a wagon for $51, which is 40% less than it cost; what did
it cost?

   .60)51.00
      ------
  _Ans._ $85

If I lost 40%, or 40 cents on the dollar, I received only 60 cents for
every dollar the wagon cost; hence, it cost as many dollars as .60 is
contained times in 51.00, which is 85.

Proof: 40% of $85 (85 × .40) = $34; $85 - $34 = $51.

NOTE.--The principles of percentage, in one form or another, enter into
nearly all commercial calculations, besides many others. It is therefore
of the utmost importance to business men, clerks, accountants,
bookkeepers, and others, to become expert in percentage, and to adopt
the easiest, simplest and shortest methods in computing interest,
partial payments, trade discount, profit and loss, commission,
insurance, stocks, bonds, taxes, exchange, etc.


PROFIT AND LOSS

When a thing is sold for more than it cost the seller, it is said to be
sold at a profit. If it is sold for less than the cost, it is sold at a
loss. Hence,

  Profit = Selling Price - Cost Price.

  Loss   = Cost Price    - Selling Price.

A profit or loss is generally reckoned as a percentage.

It is always understood that the percentage is reckoned on the cost
price.

EXAMPLE: I buy wheat at 60 cents and sell it for 75 cents. What per cent
do I gain?

SOLUTION: I gain the difference between 75 cents and 60 cents, or 15
cents. 15 cents is 25% of the cost. Hence, I gain 25%.

WORK:

  75 cents - 60 cents = 15 cents.

  15 cents ÷ 60 cents = .25, or 25%.

EXAMPLE: I bought flour at $3.50 per barrel. For what must I sell it to
gain 20%?

SOLUTION: I must sell it for 100% of the cost plus 20% of the cost, or
120% of the cost.

  120% of $3.50 = $4.20.

  ∴ I must sell it at $4.20.

EXAMPLE: I sold my carriage for 80% of its cost and received $90 for it.
What was the cost?

SOLUTION:

  1% of the cost is 1/80 of $90, or $1.125.

  100% of the cost = 100 × $1.125, or $112.50.


COMMISSION

is a percentage paid for buying or selling real estate, goods, etc. A
consignment is a quantity of goods, sent to an agent, broker or
commission merchant, for sale. The consignor is the one who sends the
goods, the consignee the one to whom they are sent.

PRINCIPLES:

1. _The commission is some number or per cent of the price of what is
bought or sold._

2. _The proceeds equal the selling price minus the commission._

3. _The amount equals the selling price plus the commission._

Commission presents two classes of problems. One of these classes may be
called “buying problems.” The other may be called “selling problems.”

BUYING PROBLEM: I sent my agent $1977.60 to _buy_ wild farm lands in
northern Wisconsin, at $3 per acre. He was to receive 3% for his work.
How many acres did he buy?

WORK AND EXPLANATION:

  3% of $3 = $.09.

  Cost to me of 1 acre is $3 + .09 = $3.09

For $1977.60 he buys as many acres as $3.09 is contained times in
$1977.60, or 640. Hence, he buys 640 acres.

SELLING PROBLEM: My agent _sells_ 360 pounds of butter for me at 20
cents. He pays $4.20 freight charges and $9.60 for storage. His
commission is 5%. What does he send me?

WORK AND EXPLANATION:

              360 pounds at 20 cents = $72.00
                    Freight is $4.20
                    Storage is  9.60
  Commission is 5% of $72, or   3.60
                       Total charges =  17.40
                                       ------
        He sends me the difference, or $54.60


TRADE DISCOUNT

is an allowance made by manufacturers and jobbers from their list or
marking prices. When the market varies, they change the discount
accordingly, or make several discounts instead of changing the list.

Trade discount is a certain per cent off, or from list or marking price;
while profit and loss is computed on the cost or purchase price.

The amount of the discount allowed depends sometimes upon the amount of
order, and sometimes upon the terms of settlement. Very often two or
more discounts are deducted in succession. Thus, 10% and 5% off; or, as
it is generally expressed in business, 10 and 5 off, means a discount
of 10%, and then 5% from what is left; 20, 10, and 5 off, means three
successive discounts. A retailer’s profit is smaller when he is allowed
10 and 5 off, than if he were allowed 15 off. The result is not affected
by the order in which the discounts are taken.

EXAMPLE: I receive a bill of goods amounting to $100, 20% off. What is
the net cost?

  FIRST WAY:

  20% of $100 =$20

  $100 - $20 = $80

  SECOND WAY:

  100% - 20%  = 80%

  80% of $100 = $80

EXAMPLE: A merchant receives two bills of $200 each. On one there is a
discount of 25%; on the other, 15% and 10%. What must he pay on each,
net?

  FIRST BILL:

  100% - 25% = 75%, or 3/4

  3/4 of $200 = $150.

  SECOND BILL:

  100% - 15% = 85%

  100% - 10% = 90%

  90% of 85% = 76.5%

  .765 × $200 = $153.


PROMISSORY NOTES

A _note_ is a written promise to pay a specified sum at a certain time.

The person who promises is called the _maker_, and the person to whom he
promises is called the _payee_.

The FACE of a note is the sum of money promised.

A _negotiable note_ is one which is made payable to the bearer, or to
the order of the payee. A negotiable note can be sold or transferred.

A note is _non-negotiable_ when it is payable only to the person or
persons named in the note.

An _indorser_ of a note is a person who writes his name on the back of
it. The person who indorses, by so doing guarantees its payment. An
_indorsement in blank_ is simply the signature of the indorser written
across the back of the note or draft. When indorsed in this way the note
or draft is made payable without further indorsement to any person
holding.

A note or draft is _indorsed in full_ when the indorser states, over his
signature, the person to whose order the note or draft is to be paid. If
an indorser does not wish to guarantee the payment of a note or draft,
he writes “Without recourse” over his name when indorsing it.

A _protest_ of a negotiable note or draft is a formal statement by a
notary public that said note or draft was presented for payment or
acceptance and refused.

A note, when due, must be presented at the place at which it is made
payable. The _day of maturity_ is the day on which a note becomes due.

The _days of grace_ are the three days beyond the specified time for
payment. Days of grace are now practically abolished throughout the
United States.

KINDS OF NOTES.--There are three principal kinds of notes--_Time Notes_,
_Joint Notes,_ and _Joint and Several Notes._

A _Time Note_ must be paid in a specified time.

A _Joint Note_ is one signed by two or more persons who are jointly
liable for its payment.

A _Joint and Several Note_ is a note signed by two or more persons who
are both jointly and individually liable for its payment. Each man who
signs the note is as much responsible for the payment of the whole sum
as if he had signed alone.


LEGAL RULES THAT APPLY TO NOTES

A note made out on _Sunday_ is void.

If a note does not state that _interest_ is to be paid, it does not bear
interest until after it is due.

If anyone obtains a note _by fraud_ or from an _intoxicated person,_ he
cannot collect.

_To be negotiable_ an instrument must be in writing and signed by the
maker (of a note) or drawer (of a bill or check).

_It must contain_ an unconditional promise or order to pay a certain sum
in money.

Must be payable on demand, or at a fixed future time.

Must be payable to order or to bearer.

In a bill of exchange (check), the party directed to pay must be
reasonably certain.

Every negotiable instrument is presumed to have been issued for a
valuable consideration, and want of consideration in the creation of the
instrument is not a defense against a bona-fide holder.

_An instrument is negotiated_, that is completely transferred, so as to
vest title in the purchaser, if payable to bearer, or indorsed simply
with the name of the last holder, by mere delivery; if payable to order,
by the indorsement of the party to whom it is payable and delivery.

One who transfers an instrument by indorsement warrants to every
subsequent holder that the instrument is genuine, that he has title to
it, and that if not paid by the party primarily liable at maturity, he
will pay it upon receiving due notice of non-payment.

_To hold an indorser liable_ the holder upon its non-payment at maturity
must give prompt notice of such non-payment to the indorser and that the
holder looks to the indorser for payment. Such notice should be sent
within twenty-four hours.

_When an indorser is thus compelled to pay_ he may hold prior parties,
through whom he received the instrument, liable to him by sending them
prompt notice of non-payment upon receiving such notice from the holder.

One who transfers a negotiable instrument by delivery, without indorsing
it, simply warrants that the instrument is genuine, that he has title to
it, and knows of no defense to it, but does not agree to pay it if
unpaid at maturity.

_The maker of a note is liable_ to pay it, if unpaid at maturity,
without any notice from the holder or indorser.

Notice to one of several partners is sufficient notice to all.

_When a check is certified_ by a bank the bank becomes primarily liable
to pay it without notice of its non-payment, and when the holder of a
check thus obtains its certification by the bank, the drawer of the
check and previous indorsers are released from liability, and the holder
looks to the bank for payment.

_A bona-fide holder_ of a negotiable instrument, that is, a party who
takes an instrument regular on its face, before its maturity, pays value
for it and has no knowledge of any defenses to it, is entitled to hold
the party primarily liable responsible for its payment, despite any
defenses he may have against the party to whom he gave it, except such
as rendered the instrument void in its inception. Thus, if the maker of
a note received no value for it, or was induced to issue it through
fraud or imposition, that does not defeat the right of a bona-fide
holder to compel its payment from him.

The dates and amounts of _partial payments_ on a note, before it is
finally paid in full, are placed on the back.

The _place of payment_, if not mentioned, is at the maker’s place of
business or residence, during reasonable business hours.

If a _note_ or a _check_ received in payment of a debt is _dishonored_,
the debt revives.

_Ignorance_ of the law does not excuse anyone. No _contract_ is good
unless there be a _consideration_. No consideration is good that is
_illegal_.

The _maker_ of an _accommodation note_ is not bound to the person
accommodated; but he is bound to any other person receiving the note for
value.


BANK DISCOUNT

The sum charged by a _bank_ for cashing a note or time draft is called
_bank discount_. This discount is the simple interest, paid in advance,
for the number of days the note has to run. Wholesale business houses
usually sell goods on _time_ and take notes from the retailers in
payment. These notes are not often for a longer period than _three
months_. Some are placed in the banks for collection, others are
_discounted_. When a note is discounted at a bank the payee _indorses_
it, making it payable to the bank. Both maker and payee are then
responsible to the bank for its payment. If the note is drawing interest
the discount is reckoned on and deducted from the amount due at
maturity. Most notes discounted at banks do not draw interest. The
_time_ in bank discount is always the number of days from the date of
discounting to the date of maturity.

EXAMPLE: A note of $250, dated July 7, payable in 60 days, is discounted
July 7 at 6%; find the proceeds.

EXPLANATION: This note is due in 63 days, or September 8. The accurate
interest of $250 for 63 days at 6% is $2.59. The proceeds, then, will be
$250-$2.59, or $247.41.

The _Present Worth_ of a note or debt is a sum, which, if put at
interest, will amount to that debt in the given time.

The _True Discount_ is the difference between the debt at maturity and
its present worth.

REMEMBER:

1. _To allow three days of grace, if the debt discounted is a note._

2. _To add the interest due at maturity to the principal, before
discounting, if the note bears interest._

EXAMPLES: Case I.--Note not bearing interest.

What is the present worth and true discount on a note of $200, if paid 6
months before due, the discount being 6%.

SOLUTION: Amount of $1 for 6 months at 6% = $1.03. If $1.03 = amount of
$1, $200 is the amount of as many dollars as 200/1.03, or $194.17+.

$194.17 is the present worth. $200 - $194.17 = $5.83 true discount.

The following rule can be deduced from the foregoing solution:--

RULE: 1. _To find the present worth, divide the debt by the amount of $1
for the given time._

2. _To find the true discount, subtract the present worth from the
debt._

Case II.--Note bearing interest.

What is the present worth of a note of $300, bearing 6% interest, due in
2 years 4 months, if money is worth 10%.

SOLUTION: Interest on $300 for 2 years 4 months at 6% = $42.

$300 + $42 = $342. Amount due at maturity.

Amount of $1 for 2 years 4 months at 10% = $1.23-1/3.

If $1.23-1/3 = amount of $1, then $3.42 is the amount of

     342
  $--------, or $277.29.
   1.23-1/3

$277.29 = present worth.


INTEREST

If a person borrows money, he usually pays something for the loan.

The sum of money he borrows is called the _Principal_; the money he pays
for the use of the principal is called _Interest_. Interest is generally
reckoned at so much for the use of each $100 for one year. This amount
is called the _Rate per cent per Annum_.

Thus, if we say that $200 is borrowed for three years at 4 per cent per
annum, we mean that the borrower, at the end of each year, pays the
lender $4 for each $100 borrowed--_i.e._, $8 interest for each year.

In the above example the interest is supposed to be paid to the lender
at the end of each year. Interest thus reckoned is called _Simple
Interest_.

The sum obtained by adding the interest for any given time to the
principal is called the _Amount_ in that time.


COMMON INTEREST METHODS

If we were to find the interest on a sum of money for 3 years 4 months 5
days, we would find the interest for 1 year, then for 1 month (1/12 of a
year), then for 1 day (1/360 of a year). Having the interest for 1 year
1 month 1 day, it is a simple matter of multiplication to get it for 3
years 4 months 5 days.

EXAMPLE:

What is the interest on $520 for 1 year 3 months at 6%?

WORK:

  1 year 3 months  = 1-1/4 year

      $520 principal
       .06
  --------
  4)$31.20 interest 1     year
  --------
     $7.80 interest   1/4 year
  --------
    $39.00 interest 1-1/4 year


THE 60-DAY INTEREST METHOD

In what is called the 60-Day Method, 360 days are considered one year,
and 30 days one month. Upon this basis the interest for 60 days, or two
months, at any rate, will be 1/6 of the interest for one year; and when
the rate is 6% the interest for 60 days is one per cent or 1/100 of the
principal. Thus, the interest of $247 for 60 days at 6% is $2.47.

EXAMPLE: Find the interest of $1728 for 80 days at 6%.

WORK:

  $17¦28 = interest for 60 days.
    5¦76 = interest for 20 days.
  ---+--
  $23¦04 = interest for 80 days.

EXPLANATION:

The interest of $1728 for 60 days at 6% is 1% of $1728, or $17.28; and
the interest for 20 days (1/3 of 60) is 1/3 of $17.28, or $5.76. Hence
for 80 days it will be $17.28 plus $5.76, or $23.04.


METHODS OF RECKONING TIME

_The Common Method._--When the time is long, generally 30 days are
considered a month.

_The Exact Method._--When the time is short, the exact number of days is
generally counted but we sometimes find the exact number of days also
when the time is long.

_The Bankers’ Method._--Bankers get the exact number of days between two
dates, but each day is reckoned as 1/360 of a year.

PROBLEM, when the time is long.

Find the time between April 12, 1895, and September 22, 1899.

BEST METHOD

  From April 12, 1895, to April 12, 1899, is 4 _years_.

  From April 12, 1899, to Sept. 12, 1899, is 5 _months_.

  From Sept. 12, 1899, to Sept. 22, 1899, is 10 _days_.

  Time between dates = 4 years 5 months 10 days.

ANOTHER METHOD

  1899  9 22
  1895  4 12
  ----------
     4  5 10

PROBLEM, when the time is short. Find the difference in time between
April 12 and July 15, 1902.

WORK:

  Number of days left in April = 18
                      in May   = 31
                      in June  = 30
                      in July  = 15
                                 --
         Total number of days  = 94

NOTE.--If the rate and principal are given, it is a simple matter to
find the interest, now that we have the time.

Example of the use of Table: What is the time from February 10 to
October 18, in the same year. February 10 is numbered 41, and October 18
is numbered 291; 291 - 41 = 250, _Ans._ This includes the last day, but
not the first. If both days are taken, subtract 40 from 291 = 251,
_Ans._ When February 29 occurs in a term, count an additional day. The
day of the date of a note is not included in its term; thus, required
the last day of grace of a note dated March 24, at 90 days. March 24 =
83; 83 + 93 = 176 = June 25, _Ans._

TABLE OF TIME, IN DAYS

The following table gives the exact time, in days, between two dates.

  ====+====+=====+=====+===+====+====+====+=====+====+====+====
  Jan.|Feb.|March|April|May|June|July|Aug.|Sept.|Oct.|Nov.|Dec.
  ----+----+-----+-----+---+----+----+----+-----+----+----+----
     1|  32|   60|   91|121| 152| 182| 213|  244| 274| 305| 335
     2|  33|   61|   92|122| 153| 183| 214|  245| 275| 306| 336
     3|  34|   62|   93|123| 154| 184| 215|  246| 276| 307| 337
     4|  35|   63|   94|124| 155| 185| 216|  247| 277| 308| 338
     5|  36|   64|   95|125| 156| 186| 217|  248| 278| 309| 339
     6|  37|   65|   96|126| 157| 187| 218|  249| 279| 310| 340
     7|  38|   66|   97|127| 158| 188| 219|  250| 280| 311| 341
     8|  39|   67|   98|128| 159| 189| 220|  251| 281| 312| 342
     9|  40|   68|   99|129| 160| 190| 221|  252| 282| 313| 343
    10|  41|   69|  100|130| 161| 191| 222|  253| 283| 314| 344
    11|  42|   70|  101|131| 162| 192| 223|  254| 284| 315| 345
    12|  43|   71|  102|132| 163| 193| 224|  255| 285| 316| 346
    13|  44|   72|  103|133| 164| 194| 225|  256| 286| 317| 347
    14|  45|   73|  104|134| 165| 195| 226|  257| 287| 318| 348
    15|  46|   74|  105|135| 166| 196| 227|  258| 288| 319| 349
    16|  47|   75|  106|136| 167| 197| 228|  259| 289| 320| 350
    17|  48|   76|  107|137| 168| 198| 229|  260| 290| 321| 351
    18|  49|   77|  108|138| 169| 199| 230|  261| 291| 322| 352
    19|  50|   78|  109|139| 170| 200| 231|  262| 292| 323| 353
    20|  51|   79|  110|140| 171| 201| 232|  263| 293| 324| 354
    21|  52|   80|  111|141| 172| 202| 233|  264| 294| 325| 355
    22|  53|   81|  112|142| 173| 203| 234|  265| 295| 326| 356
    23|  54|   82|  113|143| 174| 204| 235|  266| 296| 327| 357
    24|  55|   83|  114|144| 175| 205| 236|  267| 297| 328| 358
    25|  56|   84|  115|145| 176| 206| 237|  268| 298| 329| 359
    26|  57|   85|  116|146| 177| 207| 238|  269| 299| 330| 360
    27|  58|   86|  117|147| 178| 208| 239|  270| 300| 331| 361
    28|  59|   87|  118|148| 179| 209| 240|  271| 301| 332| 362
    29|  --|   88|  119|149| 180| 210| 241|  272| 302| 333| 363
    30|  --|   89|  120|150| 181| 211| 242|  273| 303| 334| 364
    31|  --|   90|   --|151|  --| 212| 243|   --| 304|  --| 365
  ----+----+-----+-----+---+----+----+----+-----+----+----+----


COMPOUND INTEREST

Interest computed, at regular intervals, on the sum of the principal and
any unpaid interest, is called _compound interest_. In other words, as
soon as interest becomes due and is unpaid, it begins to draw interest
at the same rate as the principal. Compound interest is generally paid
on the deposits in savings banks and is used in calculating amortization
and sinking funds.

Interest may be compounded quarterly, semi-annually, annually, or at the
end of any other period agreed upon. In some States the collection of
compound interest is not permitted.

EXAMPLE: Find the amount and the compound interest of $1200 at 6% for
two years, interest compounded semi-annually.

SOLUTION:

  $1200.00 First principal
     36.   Interest for 6 months
  --------
   1236.   Principal at beginning of second 6 months
     37.08 Interest for second 6 months
  --------
   1273.08 Principal at beginning of third period
     38.19 Interest for third period
  --------
   1311.27 Principal at beginning of fourth period
     39.34 Interest for fourth period
  --------
  $1350.61 Amount at end of two years
  ========
  $1350.61 Amount at end of two years
   1200.00 Principal
  --------
    150.61 Compound interest.


EXCHANGE

in commerce is a method of making payments in distant places, without
the actual transmission of money, but by a Bill of Exchange called
_Draft_, which is a written request upon one person to pay a certain sum
to another or to his order. The person who orders the money to be paid,
is called the _Drawer_; the one who is directed to pay it, the _Drawee_,
and the one to whom it is directed to be paid, the _Payee_.

_Domestic_ or _Inland Exchange_ is exchange between places in the same
country: _Foreign Exchange_, between different countries.

If, for every little business transaction, money had to be sent from one
business center to another, much needless inconvenience and expense
would be incurred.

A man in Chicago owes a man in New York City a sum of money. He can send
it to him in one of five ways:--

1. By Check.

2. By Post-office Order

3. By Express Order

4. By Bill of Exchange

5. By Telegraph

Suppose Mr. White of Chicago owes Mr. Brown of Boston $200 for groceries
and Mr. Allen of Boston owes Mr. Warner of Chicago $200 for rent.
Wouldn’t it save expense and trouble if Mr. White should go to Mr.
Warner and Mr. Allen to Mr. Brown? Thereby two debts are cancelled by
two city transactions and no money need be sent from one city to
another.

This is all there is to Exchange, only in business life banks instead of
individuals transact the business.

Only a small percentage of the money really passes from one city to
another.

Exchange in the United States is carried on mostly by banks located in
the large cities, which charge a small fee for transacting the
business.

TABLE OF COMMERCIAL LAW IN THE STATES

  =====================================================================+
                              INTEREST LAWS                            |
  ----------------+----------------------------------------------------+
     LEGAL RATE   |            PER CENT ALLOWED BY CONTRACT            |
      PER CENT    |               AND PENALTY FOR USURY                |
  ----------------+----------------------------------------------------+
  Alabama        8|  8; Forfeit interest                               |
  Arizona        6| 12; No provision                                   |
  Arkansas       6| 10; Forfeit principal and interest                 |
  California     7|Any; No provision                                   |
  Colorado       8|Any; No provision                                   |
  Connecticut    6| 15; Fine or imprisonment, or both                  |
  Delaware       6|  6; Principal and interest forfeited               |
  Dist. of Col.  6|  6; Forfeit interest                               |
  Florida        8| 10; Forfeit interest                               |
  Georgia        7|  8; Forfeit excess of interest                     |
  Idaho          7| 12; Forfeit interest and 10% of principal          |
  Illinois       5|  7; Forfeit interest                               |
  Indiana        6|  8; Excess interest forfeited                      |
  Iowa           6|  8; Forfeit interest and 8% of principal           |
  Kansas         6| 10; Forfeit of double amount of usurious interest  |
  Kentucky       6|  6; Forfeit of interest                            |
  Louisiana      5|  8; Forfeit interest                               |
  Maine          6|Any; No provision                                   |
  Maryland       6|  6; Forfeit interest                               |
  Massachusetts  6|Any; No provision                                   |
  Michigan       5|  7; Forfeit interest                               |
  Minnesota      6| 10; Forfeit interest                               |
  Mississippi    6| 10; Forfeit interest                               |
  Missouri       6|  8; Forfeiture or misdemeanor                      |
  Montana        8|Any; No provision                                   |
  Nebraska       7| 10; Forfeit interest                               |
  Nevada         7|Any; No provision                                   |
  New Hampshire  6|  6; Forfeit three times excess                     |
  New Jersey     6|  6; Forfeit interest and costs                     |
  New Mexico     6| 12; Forfeit of twice the amount of interest        |
  New York       6|  6; Forfeit of principal and interest; misdemeanor |
  North Carolina 6|  6; Forfeit interest                               |
  North Dakota   7| 12; Forfeit interest                               |
  Ohio           6|  8; Forfeit interest over 6%                       |
  Oklahoma       6| 10; Forfeit interest                               |
  Oregon         6| 10; Forfeit principal and interest                 |
  Pennsylvania   6|  6; Forfeit excess of interest                     |
  Rhode Island   6|Any; No provision                                   |
  South Carolina 7|  8; Forfeit interest                               |
  South Dakota   7| 12; Misdemeanor                                    |
  Tennessee      6|  6; Forfeit of excess interest                     |
  Texas          6| 10; Forfeit interest                               |
  Utah           8| 12; Forfeit excess interest                        |
  Vermont        6|  6; Forfeit of excess interest                     |
  Virginia       6|  6; Forfeit interest                               |
  Washington     6| 12; Forfeit of double accrued interest and costs   |
  West Virginia  6|  6; Forfeit excess interest                        |
  Wisconsin      6| 10; Forfeit treble amount of usurious interest paid|
  Wyoming        8| 12; Forfeit interest                               |
  ----------------+----------------------------------------------------+

  =========================================+=====================
           STATUTES OF LIMITATION          |    EXEMPTION LAWS
  --------------+---------+-------+--------+---------+-----------
                |JUDGMENTS| NOTES |  OPEN  |PERSONAL |HOMESTEAD,
                |         |       |ACCOUNTS|PROPERTY,|  EXEMPT
                |         |       |        | EXEMPT  |
  --------------+---------+-------+--------+---------+-----------
  Alabama       | 20 yrs. | 6 yrs.| 3 yrs. | $1,000  |  $2,000
  Arizona       |  4 yrs. | 4 yrs.| 3 yrs. |    500  |   2,500
  Arkansas      | 10 yrs. | 5 yrs.| 3 yrs. |    500  |   2,500
  California    |  5 yrs. | 4 yrs.| 4 yrs. |    ...  |   5,000
  Colorado      |  6 yrs. | 6 yrs.| 6 yrs. |    ...  |   2,000
  Connecticut   |  7 yrs. | 6 yrs.| 6 yrs. |    ...  |   1,000
  Delaware      | 10 yrs. | 6 yrs.| 3 yrs. |    200  |    ...
  Dist. of Col. | 12 yrs. | 3 yrs.| 3 yrs. |    300  |    ...
  Florida       | 20 yrs. | 5 yrs.| 3 yrs. |  1,000  |160 acres
  Georgia       |  7 yrs. | 6 yrs.| 4 yrs. |    300  |   1,600
  Idaho         |  6 yrs. | 5 yrs.| 4 yrs. |    ...  |   5,000
  Illinois      | 20 yrs. |10 yrs.| 5 yrs. |    400  |   1,000
  Indiana       | 20 yrs. |10 yrs.| 6 yrs. |    600  |  or 600
  Iowa          | 20 yrs. |10 yrs.| 5 yrs. |    200  |or 40 acres
  Kansas        |  5 yrs. | 5 yrs.| 3 yrs. |    ...  | 160 acres
  Kentucky      | 15 yrs. |15 yrs.| 5 yrs. |    250  |   1,000
  Louisiana     | 10 yrs. | 5 yrs.| 3 yrs. |    ...  |Total 2,000
  Maine         | 20 yrs. |20 yrs.| 6 yrs. |    ...  |     500
  Maryland      | 12 yrs. | 3 yrs.| 3 yrs. |    100  |     ...
  Massachusetts | 20 yrs. | 6 yrs.| 6 yrs. |    ...  |     800
  Michigan      | 6 and 10| 6 yrs.| 6 yrs. |    500  |   1,500
  Minnesota     | 10 yrs. | 6 yrs.| 6 yrs. |    500  | 80 acres
  Mississippi   |  7 yrs. | 6 yrs.| 3 yrs. |    ...  |   2,000
  Missouri      | 10 yrs. |10 yrs.| 5 yrs. |    300  |1,500(min.)
  Montana       | 10 yrs. | 8 yrs.| 5 yrs. |    ...  |   2,500
  Nebraska      |  5 yrs. | 5 yrs.| 4 yrs. |    500  |or 2,000
  Nevada        |  6 yrs. | 6 yrs.| 4 yrs. |    ...  |   5,000
  New Hampshire | 20 yrs. | 6 yrs.| 6 yrs. |    ...  |     500
  New Jersey    | 20 yrs. | 6 yrs.| 6 yrs. |    200  |   1,000
  New Mexico    |  7 yrs. | 6 yrs.| 4 yrs. |    500  |   1,000
  New York      | 20 yrs. | 6 yrs.| 6 yrs. |    250  |   1,000
  North Carolina| 10 yrs. | 3 yrs.| 3 yrs. |    500  |   1,000
  North Dakota  | 10 yrs. | 6 yrs.| 6 yrs. |  1,000  |   5,000
  Ohio          |  5 yrs. |15 yrs.| 6 yrs. |    100  |   1,000
  Oklahoma      |  5 yrs. | 5 yrs.| 3 yrs. |    ...  |   5,000
  Oregon        | 10 yrs. | 6 yrs.| 6 yrs. |    ...  |   1,500
  Pennsylvania  | 20 yrs. | 6 yrs.| 6 yrs. |    300  |    ...
  Rhode Island  | 20 yrs. | 6 yrs.| 6 yrs. |    800  |    ...
  South Carolina| 20 yrs. | 6 yrs.| 6 yrs. |    500  |   1,000
  South Dakota  | 20 yrs. | 6 yrs.| 6 yrs. |    750  |   5,000
  Tennessee     | 10 yrs. | 6 yrs.| 6 yrs. |    ...  |   1,000
  Texas         | 10 yrs. | 4 yrs.| 2 yrs. |    500  |   5,000
  Utah          |  8 yrs. | 6 yrs.| 4 yrs. |    ...  |   2,000
  Vermont       |  8 yrs. | 6 yrs.| 6 yrs. |    200  |     500
  Virginia      | 20 yrs. | 5 yrs.| 2 yrs. |    ...  |   2,000
  Washington    |  6 yrs. | 6 yrs.| 3 yrs. |  1,000  |   2,000
  West Virginia | 10 yrs. |10 yrs.| 5 yrs. |    200  |   1,000
  Wisconsin     | 20 yrs. | 6 yrs.| 6 yrs. |    200  |   5,000
  Wyoming       |  5 yrs. | 5 yrs.| 8 yrs. |    500  |   1,500
  --------------+---------+-------+--------+---------+-----------

NOTE.--In many of the States it is impossible to place a fixed amount on
personal property exempt. In the table above these states have no amount
given in the personal property column. Days of grace have been abolished
in all states except the following: Arkansas, Mississippi, South
Carolina and Texas.

If the drawee accepts the draft, he writes across the face of it
“_Accepted_” with the date and his signature. This is called an
_Acceptance_.

Once accepted, the draft becomes a note, with the same laws regulating
it. If the draft is not accepted, it is not binding and we say that it
has been “_dishonored_.”

A bill of exchange is entitled to days of grace, if it is payable in a
State where grace is allowed, unless a particular day is named in the
draft. In most States, no grace is allowed on sight drafts.


PRINCIPLES OF EXCHANGE

To find the cost of a draft, the face and rate per cent of exchange
being given.

RULE.--_Find the percentage of the given rate per cent of exchange and
add it to, or subtract it from the amount of draft._

EXAMPLE: What is the cost, in Chicago, of a sight draft on Denver for
$400, if exchange is 3/4% premium; and how much if 1/2% discount?

  $400 × .00-3/4 = $3; $400 + $3 = $403, at 3/4% premium.

  $400 × .00-1/2 = $2; $400 - $2 = $398, at 1/2% discount.

To find the face of a draft, cost and rate per cent of exchange given.

RULE.--_Divide by the cost of a draft for $1, at given rate per cent of
exchange._

EXAMPLE: Find face of draft that can be bought for $1000 at 1% premium;
at 1% discount.

  $1000 ÷ 1.01 = $990.10, at 1% premium.

  $1000 ÷ .99 = $1010.10, at 1% discount.

Time Drafts, when negotiated before maturity, are subject to discount
which is computed on the face of the draft, the same as interest.

EXAMPLE: What is the proceeds of a 60-day draft for $800, at 5/8%
premium, and discounted at 7%?

  $805.00, face + 5/8% premium
     9.33, interest (7%, 60 days)
  -------
  $795.67, proceeds.   _Ans._

Foreign Drafts are usually made payable in the money of the country on
which they are drawn.

To find the equivalent of foreign money in United States money and vice
versa.

RULE.--_Multiply, or divide (as the case may require) the given sum, by
the equivalent of a unit in United States money._

EXAMPLE: What is the cost of a draft on London for £125, reckoning
exchange at $4.8665?

  125 × 4.8665 = 608.31.  _Ans._ $608.31.

Wishing to remit $182.50 to Ireland, for what amount must I buy a draft
on London?

  182.50 ÷ 4.8665 = 37.5.  _Ans._ £37-1/2.

How many francs in $100?

  100.000 ÷ .193 = 518.13.  _Ans._ 518.13 francs.

How many dollars in 7500 German marks?

  7500 × .238 = $1785,  _Ans._

How many Swedish crowns in $750?

  750 ÷ .268 = 2798-1/2 crowns,  _Ans._

How many dollars in 4635 rubles?

  4635 × .772 = $3578.32,  _Ans._

A simple method to reduce pounds sterling to United States money, and
vice versa; exchange being at $4.8665.

RULE.--_Multiply pounds sterling by 73, and divide the product by 15. Or
multiply dollars by 15 and divide the product by 73._

EXAMPLES: How many dollars in £85?

  85 × 73/15 = 413.67.  _Ans._ $413.67.

How many £’s in $748.25?

  748.25 × 15/73 = 153-3/4.  _Ans._ £153-3/4.

Another method to change pounds sterling, shillings and pence, to
dollars and cents.

RULE.--_Reduce pounds sterling to shillings, add the shillings, and
multiply the sum by .24-1/3--the product will be cents. Add 2 cents for
each pence, if any._

EXAMPLE: Change £46, 13s. 9d. to United States money.

  46 × 20 = 920    933 × .24-1/3  = 227.03
             13               9d. =    .18
            ---                    -------
            933             _Ans._ $227.21

Tourists of today patronize express companies for _Foreign Money
Orders_. These are made out similar to regular express money orders and
may be cashed in any of the larger cities of all foreign countries. They
take the place, to a large extent, of _Letters of Credit_, which are
letters from banking houses in one country to those in another, allowing
sums to be drawn not to exceed a total named in the letter.


STOCKS AND BONDS

_Stocks_ is a general name given to the capital of incorporated
companies. They are divided into equal parts, usually of $100 each,
called _Shares_, the owners of which are called _Stockholders_. A
_Dividend_ is a part of the net income of the company, divided among the
stockholders.

A _certificate of stock_ is a written paper signed by the proper
officers of the corporation, naming the number of shares to which the
person named therein is entitled, and the original value of the same.

_Preferred stock_ is stock which is given a preference over the common
stock. Ordinarily, a dividend is paid on the preferred stock before any
is paid on the common shares.

_Common stock_ is the ordinary stock of a corporation, which has no
preference, in the payment of dividends, over any other.

The _par value_ of a share of stock is the value named in the
certificate of stock.

When a corporation is prosperous, its shares of stock often sell for
more than the value named in the certificate of stock. They are then
said to be _above par_, or _at a premium_. In times of business
depression, often these shares of stock sell below their face value.
They are then said to be _below par_, or _at a discount_.

The _market value_ of a share of stock is the value for which it sells
in the open market.

A _stock broker_ is one who makes a business of buying and selling
stocks and bonds. He charges a commission for this which is called
_brokerage_.

A _surplus_ is a part of the earnings of a corporation.

The _gross earnings_ of a corporation are its total receipts from all
sources.

The _net earnings_ are the profits remaining when all expenses, losses,
interest and debts due are paid.

An _assessment_ is a sum levied proportionate to stock held by
stockholders, to help out the business when it is not prospering, or
when more money is needed to carry it on. It is levied as so many
dollars on each share at its par value.

The _directors_ are those shareholders elected by all to manage the
affairs of the corporation.

A _bond_ is, in form, a carefully drawn interest-bearing promissory
note. Ordinarily, it runs for a period of years with interest often
payable semi-annually. It is more formal than the ordinary promissory
note. Bonds are usually issued by national, state, county, or local
governments, or by corporations, when they wish to raise large sums of
money for immediate use.


DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STOCKS AND BONDS

A bond runs for a specified time. It bears a specified interest, and is
an absolute promise to pay the face of it at maturity. It matures at a
definite time, and at that time the holder is paid its _face value_ and
no more, by the organization that issued it, unless such organization is
insolvent, or has repudiated its debts.

_Stocks._--A certificate of stock is no promise to pay. It simply shows
that the holder owns as much stock in the corporation as is shown by the
face of the certificate. It bears no interest and has no date of
maturity.

The interest returns of the bondholder are certain and definite. The
returns of the stockholder, dividends, are uncertain and depend on the
profits of the business.

Consequently, no table can be arranged to show at what rate stocks can
be bought to yield a definite return; but with bonds, tables may be made
which show at a glance what the return will be from a purchase made at
any rate.


APPLICATION OF PERCENTAGE TO STOCKS

1. To find the value of stocks, when above or below par.

RULE.--_Multiply the price per share, by the number of shares._

EXAMPLE: Find cost of 65 shares of bank stock, at $107 per share, or 7%
premium. Also of 48 shares of railroad stock, at $87-1/2 per share, or
12-1/2% discount.

  (1)  65 × 107 = 6955.      _Ans._ $6955.

  (2)  48 × 87-1/2 = 4200.   _Ans._ $4200.

2. To find what rate per cent is realized by investing in stocks or
bonds when above or below par.

RULE.--_Annex two ciphers to the fixed rate per cent, and divide by the
cost per share._ Or by proportion: _As the cost per share is to the
fixed rate, so is 100 to the required rate_.

EXAMPLE: Mr. Warren bought ten shares of Illinois Central Railroad stock
at 96. What does he get when a dividend of 6% is declared? What per cent
is that on his investment?

WORK AND EXPLANATION:

  (1)  1 share at 6% yields $6
      10 shares yield 10 × $6 = $60.

  (2) Each share at 96 costs $96.
      Each share yields $6.

  _Query?_ $6 is what per cent of $96?
           $6 is 6/96 of 100%, or 6-1/4%.
          ∴ the investment yields 6-1/4%.

3. To find which is the more profitable investment.

RULE.--_Find the rate per cent that each investment yields, by rule,
under item 2; then compare rates._

EXAMPLE: Which is the better investment; 6% mortgages at 10% premium, or
5% bonds at 10% discount?

  (1)  110)600(5-5/11%.

  (2)   90)500(5-5/9%.    5/9 - 5/11 = 10/99, practically 1/10.

  _Ans._ The latter, by 1/10 of 1%, nearly.


TAXES AND TAXATION

A _tax_ is a contribution levied on persons, property, incomes, or
business, for public purposes.

SOME USES FOR TAXES.--The _National Government_ requires money to
support the army and navy, to pay the salaries of government employes,
to pay pensions, and to finance other activities carried on by the
nation.

The _State Governments_ require money for the expense of their officers,
and to support their various institutions, schools, universities,
asylums, and penitentiaries.

The _counties_ require money for the building of bridges, the trial of
criminal cases, the salaries of officers, the relief of the poor, etc.

_Cities_ must pay for police and fire protection, care of streets, etc.

_School districts_ contribute to the support of the public schools.

The money required for all these expenses is raised by taxes, licenses,
fees, assessments, and fines.

STATE AND LOCAL TAXES.--The amount of tax paid by any individual to
state and local governments depends upon the value of the property which
he owns and the tax rate. In many places the adult male citizen pays a
poll tax.

The tax levied on property is called a _property tax_.

The tax levied on persons is called a _poll tax_. This is sometimes
called a _capitation_ (by the head) _tax_.

Sometimes a man’s income is taxed. This is an _income tax_.

After the amount of money to be raised by tax is decided upon, a man,
called the _assessor_, examines each piece of taxable personal property
and real estate, and places a value upon it. This is taken as a basis
for proportioning the tax among the property owners.

A _tax collector_ is one who collects the taxes. He is sometimes paid a
salary. Sometimes he gets only a percentage of the money he collects.

The _treasurer_ receives and takes care of the money collected by the
tax collector. He is paid a salary.

THE TAX RATE.--Sometimes the rate is fixed by law or by vote of the
citizens. More often the lump sum to be raised is named, and the
assessor determines the rate.

When the assessor is to determine the rate, he proceeds in this way:
First, he assesses each piece of property, usually not at its full
market value. Then he determines the total value of all the property in
his district. Next, he divides the total tax to be raised by the total
value of the property in his district. The result is the _rate of tax_
on the dollar.

USE OF THE MILL IN TAXES.--When a tax is apportioned, it is usually
found that if a few mills are paid on each dollar’s worth of property in
the district, the aggregate amount is equal to the whole sum of tax
needed. Consequently, we often hear of tax levies of so many _mills_ on
the _dollar_, as, 2 mills on the dollar, 5 mills on the dollar, etc.

The denomination of our money system called the _mill_ has practically
its only use in the levy of taxes.

Assessors make use of a table like the one given on the following page.
This table is based on a tax levy of 9 mills on the dollar.

The following tax rates are equivalent:

  16 mills (on the dollar);

  1.6%;

  $1.60 (on each hundred dollars).

EXPLANATION OF TABLE. The second column shows the tax at nine mills on
the dollar, for values of $1 to $30. The fourth column shows the tax
for values of $40 and multiples of ten, to $600. The sixth column shows
the tax for values of $700 and multiples of one hundred, to $10,000.

TAX TABLE

  ========+========+========+=======+=========+=======
  PROPERTY|        |PROPERTY|       |PROPERTY |
   VALUE  |   TAX  | VALUE  |  TAX  | VALUE   |  TAX
  --------+--------+--------+-------+---------+-------
   $ 1    | $0.009 |$ 40    | $0.36 |$  700   |$ 6.30
     2    |  0.018 |  50    |  0.45 |   800   |  7.20
     3    |  0.027 |  60    |  0.54 |   900   |  8.10
     4    |  0.036 |  70    |  0.63 | 1,000   |  9.00
     5    |  0.045 |  80    |  0.72 | 2,000   | 18.00
     6    |  0.054 |  90    |  0.81 | 3,000   | 27.00
     7    |  0.063 | 100    |  0.90 | 4,000   | 36.00
     8    |  0.072 | 200    |  1.80 | 5,000   | 45.00
     9    |  0.081 | 300    |  2.70 | 6,000   | 54.00
    10    |  0.09  | 400    |  3.60 | 7,000   | 63.00
    20    |  0.18  | 500    |  4.50 | 8,000   | 72.00
    30    |  0.27  | 600    |  5.40 | 9,000   | 81.00
  --------+--------+--------+-------+---------+-------

THE AMOUNT OF TAX.--To find the amount of tax to be paid by any property
owner.

Rule.--_Multiply the assessed value of the property by the tax rate._

EXAMPLE: Taylor’s property is assessed at $3800. The rate is 24 mills.

  SOLUTION:   $3800 assessed valuation
                        .024 tax rate in mills
                      ------
                      $91.20 tax.

EXAMPLE: The town of Grant is to raise $4725 in tax. The property in the
town has an assessed valuation of $395,140. What is the rate?

If on $395,140 a tax of $4725 is to be raised, on $1 as much tax must be
raised as $395,140 is contained times in $4725, which is .0119+, or
about $.0119. This would be called $0.012, or 12 mills on the dollar.

EXAMPLE: Finch’s property is assessed at $5470. The tax rate is $1.95.

  SOLUTION:
     $1.95 the rate per hundred dollars
     54.70 the number of hundreds of dollars assessed value
   -------
   $106.67 the tax.

INDIRECT TAXES are taxes placed upon goods by the national government,
and collected before the goods are sold to the consumer.

The national government needs this money to pay:--

1. Interest on the public debt.

2. To support an army and navy, to build vessels, and keep up arsenals
and forts.

3. To pay pensions.

4. To improve the rivers and harbors.

5. To pay the salaries of its officers; as, the president, cabinet
officers, judges, ministers to foreign countries, congressmen, etc.

Indirect taxes are of two kinds, _customs or duties_, and _excises_ or
_internal revenue_.

_Excises_ or _internal revenue_ are taxes levied on certain domestic
goods, as, manufactured tobacco, liquors, and the like.

Indirect taxes levied by the government on imported goods or merchandise
are called _duties_ or _customs_.

A _custom house_ is a government office where duties are collected and
where vessels are entered and cleared. Nearly every seaport of
consequence has a custom house. So also have important towns near the
Canadian and Mexican boundaries.

Duties are of two kinds, _specific_ and _ad valorem_.

A _specific_ duty is one levied at a specified sum per yard, gallon,
ton, etc.

An _ad valorem_ duty is one levied at a certain percentage of the value
of the goods, at the port of export.

_Tare_ is an allowance made for the weight of bags, barrels, or cases,
in which merchandise is shipped.

_Leakage_ is an allowance made for loss of liquids from casks, barrels,
etc., in shipping.

_Breakage_ is an allowance made for the loss of liquids from bottles in
shipping.

EXAMPLE: Find the duty on 4 dozen bottles of cologne, allowing 4% for
leakage and 3% for tare. The invoice value is 90 cents a bottle and the
duty is 25% ad valorem and 20 cents specific. Find the total cost per
bottle.

WORK AND EXPLANATION:

  Leakage and tare are 4% + 3% = 7%.

  4 dozen bottles = 48 bottles.

  The invoice value of 48 bottles is 48 × 90 cents = $43.20
  Tare and leakage are 7% of $43.20                = $ 3.024
                                                    --------
              Value on which duty is paid            $40.176

  Ad valorem duty is 25% of $40.176 = $10.044
  Specific duty is 48 × 20 cents    =   9.60
                                     --------
             Total duty               $19.644

  The total cost is

  Invoice value   $43.20
  Ad valorem duty  10.04
  Specific duty     9.60
                  ------
                  $62.84

The total cost per bottle is 1/48 of $62.84, or $1.31-.


SQUARE ROOT AND CUBE ROOT

POWERS AND ROOTS.--When a product consists of the same factor repeated
any number of times it is called a _power_ of that factor.

7 × 7 is the _second power_, or the _square_ of 7.

7 × 7 × 7 is the _third power_, or the _cube_ of 7.

A power of a number is generally expressed by writing the number only
once, and placing after it, above the line, a small figure to show how
many factors are to be taken. The small figure is called an _index_.

Thus, 7² = 49; 7³ = 343; 7⁴ = 2401.

A number is called the _square root_ of its square.

Since 7² = 49, the square root of 49 is 7.

The “square root of 49” is written √49.

Again, a number is called the _cube root_ of its cube. 7³ = 343.
Therefore, the cube root of 343 is 7.

The “cube root of 343” is written ∛343.

A _perfect square_ is a number whose square root is a whole number. A
_perfect cube_ is a number whose cube root is a whole number.

SQUARE ROOT.--If a number can be put into prime factors, its square root
can be written down by inspection.

EXAMPLE: Find the square root of 27225.

  Since 27225 = 3² × 5² × 11².

  ∴ √27225 = 3 × 5 × 11 = 165  _Ans._

RULE FOR DIGITS.--We know that √1 = 1, and √100 = 10. Therefore, the
square root of any number which lies between 1 and 100 lies between 1
and 10; _i.e._, if a number contains one or two digits, its square root
consists of one digit.

Similarly, since √100 = 10 and √10000 = 100, the square root of a number
between 100 and 10000 lies between 10 and 100. That is, if a number
contains three or four digits, its square root consists of two digits.

Proceeding in this way, we obtain a general result--viz., the square of
a number has either twice as many digits as the number, or one less than
twice as many.

Hence, to ascertain the number of digits in the square root of a perfect
square, mark off the digits in pairs, beginning from the right. Each
pair marked off gives a digit in the square root; and, if there is an
odd digit remaining, that digit also gives a digit in the square root.

EXAMPLES: There are three digits in the square root of 546121, and four
in the square root of 5774409.

For, marking off the digits from the right, we get in the first case
54,61,21, giving three digits in the square root, and in the second case
5,77,44,09, the odd digit giving the fourth in the square root.

The method of finding the square root of a given number depends on the
_form_ of the square of the sum of two numbers.

EXPLANATION: The square root of 144 is 12. Let us see how we found it.

  12 = 1 ten + 2 units.

  12² is the same as (10 + 2)².

Let us square (10 + 2), that is, multiply 10 + 2 by 10 + 2.

  10  + 2
  10  + 2
  ---------------
  10² +  (10 × 2)
      +  (10 × 2) + 2²
  --------------------
  10² + 2(10 × 2) + 2²

Then, 12² = 10² + 2(10 × 2) + 2²

RULE.--_The square of any number made up of tens and units is equal to
the square of the tens, plus twice the product of the tens by the units,
plus the square of the units._

ANOTHER EXPLANATION: Find the square root of 45369.

SOLUTION:

      4·53·69)213
      4       ---
  ---+--------
   41|53
     |41
     +----
  423|1269
     |1269
     +----
     |

(1) Point off the number into periods of two figures each, as before.

(2) The square root of the first period is 2. 2 × 2 = 4. Write the 2 in
the root and subtract the 4 from 4. Bring down the next period, 53.

(3) 2 × 2 = 4. (Remember the 4 is to be used as a trial divisor, being 2
× the _tens_.)

4 is contained in 5 about 1 time.

Place 1 in the root, also on the right of the 4 in the divisor. Multiply
41 by 1. Subtract and bring down the next period.

(4) 2 × 21 = 42. 42 is the _trial divisor_. 126 ÷ 42 = _about_ 3 times.
Place the 3 in the root also at the right of the 42 in the divisor.
Multiply out.

Square root = 213.

CUBE ROOT.--The _cube root_ of a number is one of the three equal
factors of that number.

Thus, 5 is the cube root of 125, because 5 × 5 × 5 = 125.

The _radical sign_ with a figure 3 over it (∛) means that the cube root
of the number following it is to be taken.

∛125 reads, “The cube root of 125.”

If we can find the prime factors of any perfect cube, we can write down
its cube root by inspection.

EXAMPLE: Find the cube root of 74088.

  8|74088
   +-----
  9| 9261
   +-----  ∴ 74088 = 8 × 9 × 3 × 7 × 7 × 7
  3| 1029          = 2³ × 3³ × 7³
   +-----
  7|  343  ∴ ∛74088 = 2 × 3 × 7
   +-----           = 42 _Ans._
  7|   49
   +-----
   |    7
   +-----

RULE FOR DIGITS.--Since 1³ = 1 and 10³ = 1000, therefore the cube of a
number which lies between 1 and 10 lies between 1 and 1000, _i. e._, the
cube of a number of one digit contains either one, two or three digits.

Again, since 10³ = 1000 and 100³ = 1000000, the cube of a number of two
digits contains either four, five, or six digits.

Proceeding in this way, we see that the cube of a number contains three
times, or one less or two less than three times, as many digits as the
number.

Hence, to find the number of digits in the cube root of a given number,
we mark off the digits in sets of three, beginning at the decimal point,
and marking both to the right and to the left.

[Illustration: =FIGURES REPRESENTING THE PROCESSES OF FINDING CUBE
ROOT=]

Thus, 289383 will be pointed off into two periods--289·383--and we
readily see there will be only 2 figures in the root.

The simplest method of finding the cube root of numbers whose prime
factors are not known is analogous to the method of finding square root,
being based upon the form of the cube of the sum of two numbers.

EXPLANATION: The cube root of 1728 is 12. Let us see how we found it.

  12  = 1 ten + 2 units
  12³ = (10 + 2)³
  (10 + 2)³ means 10 + 2 × 10 + 2 × 10 + 2
  10  + 2
  10  + 2
  --------------
  10² + (10 × 2)
      + (10 × 2) +2²
  --------------------
  10² + 2(10 × 2) + 2²
  10     + 2
  -----------------------------
  10³ + 2(10² × 2) +  (10 × 2²)
      +  (10² × 2) + 2(10 × 2²) + 2³
  ----------------------------------
  10³ + 3(10² × 2) + 3(10 × 2²) + 2³

That is, the cube of any number made up of tens and units equals--

_The cube of the tens + three times the product of the square of the
tens by the units + three times the product of the tens by the square of
the units + the cube of the units_,

or

tens³ + 3(tens² × units) + 3(tens × units²) + units³.

For graphic illustration the geometrical representation of the cube of
units and tens in the drawings is helpful.

After the process is understood, this short method of writing the work
may be used by the pupil:

EXAMPLE: Find the cube root of .0163956, carrying the root to 3 decimal
places.

WORK:

     .016·395·600).254+
        8        ------
  ------+-----
    1200|8395
     300|
      25|
    ----+
    1525|7625
        +-------
        | 770600
  187500|
    3000|
      16|
  ------+
  190516| 762064
        +-------
        |   8536


CHEMISTRY

  ITS USE AND IMPORTANCE -- WHAT IT IS -- HOW IT DIFFERS FROM PHYSICS
  -- ITS DIVISIONS -- DISTINCTION BETWEEN THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL
  CHEMISTRY -- OUTLINE OF THEORETICAL CHEMISTRY -- LAWS OF CHEMISTRY
  -- ATOMIC THEORY -- CHEMICAL NOTATION -- MOLECULAR WEIGHTS --
  REACTIONS -- CHEMICAL ARITHMETIC -- BASES -- QUANTIVALENCE -- TESTS
  -- TABLE OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS -- -CHEMISTRY OF FAMILIAR THINGS --
  COMMON NAMES OF CHEMICALS -- RADIO-ACTIVITY AND RADIO-ACTIVE
  SUBSTANCES -- RADIUM AND ITS USES -- THE SPINTHARISCOPE


IMPORTANCE OF CHEMISTRY

A certain amount of knowledge of chemistry is eminently useful in almost
every walk of life. An intelligent knowledge of the chemistry involved
in the processes of the kitchen, the dairy, the dye-house, the farm, or
the manufactory, places the possessor engaged in any of these processes
on a different level from the rule-of-thumb worker, who is as ignorant
of the reason for adopting a particular method as he is of the
properties of the materials he employs.

_Technical_ chemistry deals especially with the application of the
principles and processes of chemistry to the arts and manufactures, and
it is to those who are engaged in manufactures of almost every kind that
a knowledge of chemistry is a particular advantage.

It is not a question of expediency alone, but one of absolute necessity
that a technical education, including chemistry as one of its principal
subjects, should form not the least important part of the equipment for
his work of any artisan who is to excel in his employment in
intelligence and skill.

_What is chemistry?_

Chemistry is that branch of science which treats of the _intimate
composition of matter_, and the changes produced in it when subjected to
particular conditions--such as _temperature_, _pressure_, _mass_,
_light_, _catalysis_, etc.

_How does chemistry differ from physics?_

The two branches, physics and chemistry, overlap a great deal, it being
very difficult to draw the line of demarcation between them,
particularly in the higher stages of the _physical_ and _chemical_
changes of matter.

For example, a steel needle rubbed on a magnet in a definite way
undergoes _physical_ change by means of which it acquires the power of
the magnet. On the other hand, a match rubbed on a match-box undergoes a
_chemical_ change by means of which flame is produced. Thus it is
possible to make a distinction between the sciences of physics and
chemistry. A chemical change involves some alteration in the essential
nature of the substance. The match having been ignited has undergone a
permanent change, whereby it is no longer combustible. The physical
change quoted above involves no alteration in the substance itself, and
the acquired property is further only temporary and can be continually
lost and reacquired.

The difficulty occurs in this fact, however, that every chemical change
is accompanied by physical change, and the physical change may often be
the only sign that chemical change has taken place.

_What are the chief divisions of chemistry?_

ORGANIC AND INORGANIC CHEMISTRY.--There are two great divisions in the
science of chemistry, organic and inorganic. The branch which is best
known is that of inorganic chemistry, which covers the chemistry of all
the purely mineral substances. Organic chemistry has to do primarily
with that of substances obtained from animal or vegetable sources. Now,
however, it has resolved itself into the study of the compounds of
carbon, always bearing in mind the fact that many carbon compounds have
no organic origin, and therefore really fall outside the scope of
organic chemistry.

The fundamentals of both branches are the same, and the real reason for
the division is the number of the carbon compounds and their highly
complex character. It is in this realm that the graphic formula is of
most service, and in its organic branch chemistry most nearly approaches
biology.

The branch of inorganic chemistry which treats of the composition, etc.,
of naturally occurring minerals, receives the title of _mineralogical
chemistry_.

PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY explains processes, formulates laws for these
processes, and is divided within itself again into electro-chemistry and
thermo-chemistry, etc. One branch of physical chemistry in which great
strides have been made, is the study of the general properties of gases.
But it is really as much in the realm of physics as it is in the realm
of chemistry.

The study of the chemical nature of substances entering into the
constitution of the animal organism, and the chemical changes taking
place during the life processes of animals, forms the domain of
_physiological chemistry_.

The investigation of the influence of soils, and manures, etc., of
different compositions, upon vegetable life, and the chemical principles
underlying the art of agriculture, are included in the province of
_agricultural chemistry_.

_Pharmaceutical chemistry_ deals with the nature and mode of preparation
of the various drugs, ointments, etc., employed for medicinal purposes.

The science in its relations to the arts, manufactures, and industrial
processes is embraced in the wide titles of _technical_ and _applied
chemistry_.

_What is the difference between theoretical and practical chemistry?_

There are in every science two great divisions. These are known as the
“theory” and the “practice” (or, as they are sometimes called, the
science and the art). The theory of any science is that part of it which
forms the answer in any case to the question “Why?” The practice in the
same way answers to the question “How?”

If we find, for example, that by putting a fire under a vessel of water,
the water gradually begins to boil, as we say, “boils away,” we have
learned something that relates to _practice_. We have learned how to
change water into vapor. It is not necessary that we should know why the
result is brought about, so long as we are satisfied with the result
alone.

But as soon as we begin to wish to bring about any result in the best
possible way, we must inquire why a certain course of action causes the
result; and in the case of the water, we ask why heat should make water
boil and then disappear. The answer to the question “How?” is usually a
simple one. It can be found out by experiment. Once having found out, we
may usually repeat the work as often as we choose.

But the question “Why?” lies deeper, and sometimes cannot be answered at
all. The answer to it is in all cases merely a guess--an attempt to
explain more or less fully and satisfactorily. If we find that our
explanation or theory makes it possible to foretell what will happen in
new cases, then we may safely trust it and believe in it.

_Give a clear, succinct outline of the essentials of theoretical
chemistry._

The whole matter of molecules and atoms is one of _theory_. None of our
senses can enable us to know directly either molecules or atoms. We can
only imagine that they exist, and then give reasons why their existence
makes clear to us the action of elements or of compounds one upon the
other.

But in a course of descriptive chemistry, a good knowledge of
theoretical chemistry is necessary in order to fully understand all that
will be taken up.


THEORETICAL CHEMISTRY

(1) DEFINITIONS.--An element is a substance that _cannot_ be decomposed.

A compound is a substance that _can_ be decomposed into other different
substances; and if the decomposition goes far enough, these substances
will be elements.

A mixture is made up of two or more components (elements and compounds
or both), _physically_ put together. It differs from a compound whose
compounds are _chemically_ united.

(2) LAWS.--_Law of Definite Proportions_: All specimens of a compound
contain the same elements in the same proportions.

_Law of Multiple Proportions_: When two compounds consist of the same
elements, the proportion of one is a simple multiple of the proportion
of the other.

_Law of Combining Proportions_: Each element enters into all its
compounds by a fixed proportional weight.

The fundamental laws of chemistry are proved by experiment.

(3) THE ATOMIC THEORY.--The atomic theory teaches that matter is
composed of minute particles which themselves cannot be divided, but
which unite to form molecules which can be divided.

A _molecule_, then, is the smallest amount of a substance that can exist
in a free state.

The diameters of molecules have been ascertained by Jeans to be--

  Hydrogen      20.3
  Nitrogen      29.1
  Oxygen        27.3

These figures express number of billionths of a meter.

An _atom_ is an indivisible particle of an element, and goes to make up
the molecule.

(4) CHEMICAL NOTATION.--The symbols used to represent the different
elements (_e.g._ H for hydrogen, O for oxygen, etc.), when used in
chemical compounds, refer to the number of atoms which go to make up the
molecule of that particular compound. For example, the expression H₂SO₄
means that in one molecule of that acid there are 2 atoms of hydrogen, 1
of sulphur, and 4 of oxygen.

(5) MOLECULAR WEIGHTS.--To determine the molecular weight of a compound
it is necessary to know _Avogadro’s Law_: Equal volumes of all gases
under the same conditions contain the same number of molecules; and
Molecular Weight = Vapor Density × 2.

(6) REACTIONS.--A reaction or chemical equation is a method of
representing a chemical change.

In chemistry we have three kinds of reactions, namely:

(1) _Analytical_ reaction, which is the breaking up of compound bodies
into simple, _e.g._, H₂CO₃ can be broken up into its components, H₂O and
CO₂, _e.g._, H₂CO₃ = H₂O + CO₂.

(2) _Synthetical_ reaction is the building up of a compound body by the
union of two or more simple bodies, _e.g._, H₂ + O = H₂O and H + Cl =
HCl.

(3) _Metathetical_ reaction consists in the interchange of two radicals
in two substances, _e.g._,

2HCl + Zn = ZnCl₂ + H₂. Here the H of the acid is replaced by the Zn.

KCl + AgNO₃ = AgCl + KNO₃. Here the Ag and the K change places.

(7) THE CHEMICAL ARITHMETIC by which from the molecular weights of two
substances, and the weight of one substance we are enabled to get the
weight of the required substance is called Stoichiometry.

EXAMPLE: Required the amount of zinc necessary to generate 10 grams of
hydrogen.

Atomic weights of H, Cl, and Zn are respectively 1, 35.5, and 65.3.

The reaction is as follows:--

Zn + 2HCl = ZnCl₂ + H₂, and shows that 2 atoms of H are used for every 1
of Zn.

  (Mol. Wt. Zn.) (Mol. Wt. H₂)     (Wt. Zn.) (Wt. H₂.)
      65.3      :       2        =    x    :    10

  65.3 × 10
  --------- = x = 326.5 grams of Zn.
      2

(8) BERTHOLLET’S LAW.--Berthollet established the following law, which
is of great importance. When two substances can form a substance
insoluble or volatile, under the condition of the reaction, that
substance will be formed till one of the factors is exhausted.

(9) RADICALS.--A radical is an atom or group of atoms which changes
places in a reaction. A compound radical is made up of different sorts
of radicals, as NH₄.

A basic radical is a metal, or a compound radical which behaves like a
metal, _e.g._, Zn and NH₄.

(10) HYDRATES.--A hydrate is a substance formed from water by replacing
half of its hydrogen by a radical, _e.g._, H₂O + 2Na = 2NaOH + H₂, where
the sodium has taken the place of one atom of hydrogen.

(11) BASE.--If a hydrate is formed by a basic radical, the hydrate is
called a base, _e.g._, ZnO₂H₂.

(12) ALKALI.--An alkali is a soluble base, _e.g._, NaOH, KOH, NH₄OH,
LiOH.

(13) ACID.--An acid is a substance containing hydrogen which may be
replaced by a basic radical, _e.g._, 2HCl + Zn = ZnCl₂ + H₂.

(14) SALTS.--A salt is a substance formed from an acid replacing its
hydrogen by a basic radical, _e.g._ 2HCl + Zn = ZnCl₂ + H₂.

An acid salt is a compound derived from an acid which has not all of its
hydrogen replaced, _e.g._, 2NaCl + H₂SO₄ = NaHSO₄ + HCl + NaCl.

(15) CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE.--_Termination_ “--UM” is now applied to all
_Metals_, though the older-known metals retain the former names,
_e.g._--Aluminium, Tellurium, etc.

_Termination_ “--IDE” denotes a _Binary Compound_, that is, a substance
composed of only two elements, _e.g._, Sodium Chloride (NaCl).

_Termination_ “--OUS” is applied to the first of two elements when it
exists in a greater proportion than in another combination with the same
element, _e.g._, one atom of phosphorus and three atoms of chlorine form
_Phosphorous Chloride_.

_Termination_ “--IC,” when the first exists in a lesser proportion,
_e.g._, one atom of phosphorus with five atoms of chlorine form
_Phosphoric Chloride_.

_Prefixes_ “MONO--,” “BI--,” “TRI--,” etc., indicate the proportion of
the latter of two elements, and are sometimes used instead of the above
termination. Thus phosphorous chloride may also be called _Phosphorous
Tri-Chloride_; so one atom of carbon with one atom of oxygen is _Carbon
Monoxide_.

_Prefix_ “HYPO--” (under) and “PER--” (over), specify compounds formed
by the same two elements containing less (or more) of an element than is
in the usual compound.

_Nomenclature of Salts._--From the common acids we get the following
salts:--

  HCl     forms chlorides.
  HNO₃    forms nitrates.
  H₂SO₄   forms sulphates.
  H₂S     forms sulphides.
  H₂CO₃   forms carbonates.
  H₂O     forms no salts.
  H₂SiO₄  forms silicates.
  H₃PO₄   forms phosphates.

A rough rule for the nomenclature of acids may be made from the above.
Acids with the prefix _hydro_ and the suffix _ic_ form salts in _ide_;
with suffix _ate_, salts in _ate_; with suffix _ous_, salts in _ite_.

(16) BASICITY.--The basicity of a substance is measured by the amount of
hydrogen which it contains that can be replaced by a basic radical,
_e.g._, H₂SO₄ is di-basic, _i.e._, the two atoms of hydrogen can be
replaced by a basic radical. H₂SO₄ + CaCl₂ = CaSO₄ + 2HCl.

(17) QUANTIVALENCE.--The quantivalence of an element is measured by the
number of atoms of hydrogen it combines with or replaces. _E.g._, Na is
univalent, for when added to HCl it replaces one atom of hydrogen; Ca is
bivalent, for, as seen in the above reaction, it replaces two atoms of
hydrogen.

(18) TEST FOR A CHLORIDE.--To test for HCl or any chloride, add to the
solution to be tested a little AgNO₃, and if a chloride is present, a
milky-white precipitate will be formed. The reaction is as follows: HCl
+ AgNO₃ = AgCl (white precipitate) + HNO₃. A metal almost invariably
changes places with hydrogen.

_Caution._--In diluting H₂SO₄ add the acid to the water; for the
evolution of heat from the process will cause the water to boil, and
reversing this process will cause the liquid to boil over and possibly
result disastrously.

(19) IMPURITY IN H₂SO₄.--Commercial sulphuric acid contains PbSO₄ as an
impurity. This gives it the colored appearance, plumbic sulphate being
soluble in strong sulphuric acid.

(20) H₂S.--Sulphuretted hydrogen is somewhat soluble in water, slightly
poisonous, and is a reducing agent.

(21) CARBONIC ACID.--H₂CO₃ does not exist as an acid. We infer its
existence from the presence of its salts. Na₂CO₃ + 2HCl = 2NaCl + H₂CO₃,
but the H₂CO₃ is so unstable that it breaks up at once into H₂O and CO₂.

(22) TEST FOR A CARBONATE.--To test for a carbonate, treat the substance
with an acid; CO₂ is formed; pour the gas into a solution of lime-water,
and a white insoluble precipitate is formed, CaCO₃.


=TABLE OF ALL THE KNOWN CHEMICAL ELEMENTS=

  The _Chemical Elements_ are the simplest known constituents of all
  compound substances. Chemists regard them as elements or elementary
  substances only when they have been proved to be _not_ compound. The
  elements are somewhat arbitrarily divided into metals and
  non-metals, the former constituting by far the larger class. Several
  elements occupy positions on the border line. Below is a list of the
  elements at present known with certainty, and of their atomic
  weights as fixed by the various kinds of evidence obtained by very
  numerous, and in many cases varied, experiments. The values are all
  referred to oxygen as standard with atomic weight 16, and are those
  adopted, for 1910, by the International Commission on Atomic
  Weights. The standard O = 16 has been pretty generally adopted by
  chemists as, upon the whole, more satisfactory than H = 1.

  =Abbreviations.=--At. wt., atomic weight; S. G., specific gravity;
  M. P., melting point; B. P., boiling point; C. T., critical
  temperature.

  +==============+===============================+==========================+
  |   NAME AND   |  OCCURRENCE, PREPARATION AND  | COMPOUNDS AND CHIEF USES |
  |IMPORTANT DATA|            PROPERTIES         |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Aluminum.=   |OCC.--cryolite AlF₃, 3NaF;     |Used for cooking utensils,|
  |Symbol Al.    |bauxite, impure Al(OH)₃; in    |boat-building, military   |
  |At. wt. 27.1. |feldspars, micas and clay;     |accouterments and small   |
  |Valence III.  |emery, ruby, sapphire (Al₂O₃). |articles requiring light- |
  |S. G. 2.7.    |PREP.--com’l, by electrolysis  |ness and strength; for    |
  |M. P. 658°.   |of Al₂O₃, from bauxite, dis-   |electric leads. The pow-  |
  |B. P. 1800°.  |solved in cryolite, water-power|dered metal is used as a  |
  |              |usually furnishing the electri-|body for paint; and its   |
  |              |cal energy.                    |mixture with ferric oxide,|
  |              |PROP.--silver-white, ductile,  |called thermite, is used  |
  |              |malleable at 120°, tensile     |for producing very high   |
  |              |strength (wrought) 16 tons per |temperatures (up to       |
  |              |sq. in. A better conductor of  |3700°C.) for welding      |
  |              |electricity, weight for weight,|rails, etc. Many metals   |
  |              |than copper. Molten metal not  |are reduced from their    |
  |              |mobile enough to make castings.|oxides by means of Al,    |
  |              |It turns badly in the lathe.   |hence its use in casting  |
  |              |Acted upon by dil. hydrochloric|steel. Aluminum bronze    |
  |              |acid, slowly by sulphuric, but |(10% Al), rolled, has ten-|
  |              |not by nitric or the acids     |sile strength of 40 tons  |
  |              |occurring in foods. Soluble in |per sq. in. Its sulphate  |
  |              |alkaline hydroxides. The tar-  |forms alums, e.g.,        |
  |              |nishing action of moist air    |KAl(SO₄)₂, 12H₂O, common  |
  |              |soon comes to an end as the    |alum.                     |
  |              |tarnish acts as an adherent    |                          |
  |              |protective coating.            |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Antimony.=   |OCC.--free, and as stibnite    |The metal is a constituent|
  |Symbol Sb.    |(Sb₂S₃).                       |of the alloy type metal,  |
  |At. wt. 120.2.|PREP.--roasting stibnite gives |Britannia metal and       |
  |Valence III.  |Sb₂O₄, which is then reduced by|Babbitt metal (used for   |
  |and V.        |heating with carbon.           |bearings). Its oxide      |
  |S. G. 6.6.    |PROP.--white, brittle, crystal-|(Sb₂O₃) is both basic and |
  |M. P. 630.7°. |line metal. Its alloys expand  |acidic. The trichloride,  |
  |B. P. 1440°.  |on solidification, and there-  |butter of antimony        |
  |              |fore give very sharp castings, |(SbCl₃), is easily hydro- |
  |              |e.g., for type. It does not    |lyzed. Tartar emetic      |
  |              |tarnish, but may be burned in  |(SbOKC₄H₄O₆) is used in   |
  |              |air, and unites directly with  |medicine and in dyeing.   |
  |              |the halogens.                  |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Argon.=      |Present in the air 0.94% by    |Forms no compounds, hence |
  |Symbol A.     |volume. To isolate, air is     |its name--does no work. Is|
  |At. wt. 39.86.|freed from CO₂ by soda-lime,   |a monatomic gas and is    |
  |Valence nil.  |water by P₂O₅, oxygen by red-   |identified by its charac-|
  |Density 39.9  |hot copper, nitrogen by magne- |teristic spectrum seen by |
  |(oxygen = 32).|sium and calcium. From the     |examining the light       |
  |B. P. -186°.  |residual mixture argon is ob-  |emitted when the gas is   |
  |M. P. -190°.  |tained by fractional distilla- |placed in a vacuum tube at|
  |              |tion.                          |low pressure and sparked. |
  |              |                               |More soluble in water than|
  |              |                               |nitrogen, 100 vols. water |
  |              |                               |dissolving 4 vols. argon  |
  |              |                               |under ordinary conditions.|
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Arsenic.=    |OCC.--free, as arsenical       |Used for hardening lead   |
  |Symbol As.    |pyrites (FeSAs), as orpiment   |for shot. All its com-    |
  |At. wt. 74.96 |(As₂S₃) and as realgar (As₂S₂).|pounds are poisonous.     |
  |Valence III.  |PREP.--by heating arsenical    |White arsenic (As₂O₃) is  |
  |and V.        |pyrites, FeSAs--FeS + As.      |partly basic, forming a   |
  |S. G. 5.7.    |PROP.--a steel-gray, dully-    |chloride and partly acid- |
  |B. P. 616°    |metallic and crystalline ele-  |ic, forming arsenites.    |
  |(sublimes).   |ment classed as a metalloid    |Scheele’s green (CuHAsO₃) |
  |M. P. about   |because intermediate between   |is a pigment dangerous in |
  |800° (under   |metals and non-metals. Its     |wallpapers. Traces of     |
  |pressure).    |vapor has a density correspond-|arsenic are detected by   |
  |              |ing to As₄ at 644°, and to As₂ |Marsh’s test in which the |
  |              |at 1700°. It burns in air and  |intensely poisonous arsine|
  |              |unites directly with the halo- |(AsH₃) is formed.         |
  |              |gens, sulphur and with many    |                          |
  |              |metals.                        |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Barium.=     |OCC.--as barytes or heavy-spar |The peroxide (BaO₂) is    |
  |Symbol Ba.    |(BaSO₄), and as witherite      |used in the manufacture of|
  |At. wt.       |(BaCO₃).                       |oxygen and of hydrogen    |
  |137.37.       |PREP.--by electrolysis of the  |peroxide. The nitrate and |
  |Valence II.   |fused chloride.                |chlorate in pyrotechny to |
  |S. G. 3.8.    |PROP.--a silver-white, lus-    |give green fires. The sul-|
  |M. P. 850°.   |trous, malleable metal harder  |phate as the body for a   |
  |              |than lead. Like calcium, it    |permanent white paint and |
  |              |acts slowly on water to give   |for filling glazed paper. |
  |              |barium hydroxide and hydrogen. |All soluble compounds are |
  |              |The vapors of its compounds    |poisonous.                |
  |              |impart a green color to the    |                          |
  |              |Bunsen flame.                  |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Bismuth.=    |OCC.--free and as trioxide     |Used for making fusible   |
  |Symbol Bi.    |(Bi₂O₃) and trisulphide        |alloys, e.g. Wood’s metal,|
  |At. wt. 208.0 |(Bi₂S₃).                       |M. P. 60.5°, which are    |
  |Valence III.  |PREP.--the ore is roasted and  |used in plugs of fire     |
  |(and V.).     |then heated with charcoal and  |sprinklers and boiler     |
  |S. G. 9.8.    |metallic iron (to remove traces|safety valves, and for    |
  |M. P. 270.9°. |of sulphur.)                   |taking casts. The oxy-    |
  |B. P. 1420°.  |PROP.--an exceedingly brittle, |nitrate is used in med-   |
  |              |crystalline shining metal,     |icine and as a cosmetic.  |
  |              |white with a tinge of pink.    |                          |
  |              |Bismuth expands on solidifica- |                          |
  |              |tion. It does not tarnish, but |                          |
  |              |can be burnt in air. Dissolves |                          |
  |              |in oxygen acids.               |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Boron.=      |OCC.--as boric acid (H₃BO₃),   |The compounds are analo-  |
  |Symbol B.     |borax (Na₂B₄O₇, 10H₂O), coleman-|gous to those of silicon.|
  |At. wt. 11.0. |ite (Ca₂B₆O₁₁, 5H₂O).          |Borax is used as a flux,  |
  |Valence III.  |PREP.--amorphous boron by re-  |and, in solution, as a    |
  |S. G.         |ducing B₂O₃ with Mg. Impure    |mild alkali on account of |
  |(amorph.) 2.4;|cryst. boron by reducing B₂O₂  |its hydrolysis. Boric acid|
  |(cryst.) 2.5. |with excess of Al.             |is used as a weak anti-   |
  |B. P. 3500°   |PROP.--amorphous boron is a    |septic and preservative.  |
  |(sublimes).   |greenish-black powder that     |                          |
  |              |burns in air at 700°, forming  |                          |
  |              |B₂O₃ and also BN. It is oxi-   |                          |
  |              |dized, by hot conc. sulphuric  |                          |
  |              |or nitric acids, to boric acid.|                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Bromine.=    |OCC.--in seawater as alkali    |Potassium bromide is used |
  |Symbol Br.    |bromide, and in the upper      |in medicine, silver       |
  |At. wt. 79.22 |layers of salt deposits as     |bromide in photography.   |
  |Valence I.    |sodium and magnesium bromide.  |Bromine is used in course |
  |S. G. 3.1     |PREP.--by treatment of the     |of the preparation of     |
  |B. P. 59°.    |brines with sulphuric acid and |organic dyes.             |
  |M. P. -7.3°.  |manganese dioxide, or else with|                          |
  |              |chlorine.                      |                          |
  |              |PROP.--a dark red liquid,      |                          |
  |              |smelling like chlorine, whose  |                          |
  |              |vapor irritates eyes, throat   |                          |
  |              |and nose. Dissolves in thirty  |                          |
  |              |parts of water (bromine water).|                          |
  |              |Combines directly with most    |                          |
  |              |other elements, but less vigor-|                          |
  |              |ously than chlorine.           |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Cadmium.=    |OCC.--in association with the  |All the compounds are     |
  |Symbol Cd.    |zinc ores, as carbonate and    |poisonous, and little     |
  |At. wt.       |sulphide.                      |ionized. The sulphide     |
  |112.40.       |PREP.--in the distillation of  |(CdS) is the basis of     |
  |Valence II.   |impure zinc, the cadmium comes |“cadmium yellow.” The     |
  |S. G. 8.6.    |over in the first portions.    |iodide is used in medi-   |
  |M. P. 320.9°. |PROP.--a silver-white metal,   |cine.                     |
  |B. P. 766°.   |more ductile and malleable than|                          |
  |              |zinc. It burns in air, and is  |                          |
  |              |attacked by dilute acids.      |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Caesium.=    |OCC.--in certain micas, and in |The compounds are charac- |
  |Symbol Cs.    |the ashes of certain plants.   |terized by giving, es-    |
  |At. wt.       |PREP.--by heating the hydroxide|pecially, two bright lines|
  |132.81.       |(CsOH) with magnesium.         |in the blue of the        |
  |Valence I.    |PROP.--a white, silvery metal  |spectrum (caesius sky-    |
  |S. G. 1.9.    |resembling potassium. It is one|blue).                    |
  |M. P. 26.3°.  |of the most active of metals,  |                          |
  |B. P. 670°.   |and decomposes water violently.|                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Calcium.=    |OCC.--as carbonate (Iceland    |Calcium oxide (quicklime) |
  |Symbol Ca.    |spar, calcite, aragonite,      |is used for mortar and to |
  |At. wt. 40.07.|marble, chalk, limestone),     |remove hair from hides.   |
  |Valence II.   |sulphate (gypsum), phosphate   |The hydroxide [Ca(OH)₂]   |
  |S. G. 1.55.   |(apatite), fluoride (fluor     |mixed with sand forms     |
  |M. P. 803°.   |spar), and as complex silicates|mortar; its solution is   |
  |              |in great variety (feldspars,   |limewater. Plaster of     |
  |              |pyroxenes, amphiboles, etc.).  |paris, a less hydrated    |
  |              |PREP.--by electrolysis of the  |sulphate, takes up water  |
  |              |fused chloride.                |on setting to form CaSO₄, |
  |              |PROP.--a white crystalline     |2H₂O. The phosphates are  |
  |              |metal, harder than lead, that  |fertilizers. Bleaching    |
  |              |can be cut, drawn, rolled and  |powder is CaClOCl and     |
  |              |turned. It attacks water, and  |calcium carbide is CaC₂.  |
  |              |burns in the air at a red heat |Common glass contains     |
  |              |forming the oxide (CaO) and the|silicates of calcium and  |
  |              |nitride (Ca₃N₂). It unites with|sodium.                   |
  |              |hydrogen to CaH₂, whose action |                          |
  |              |on water is a source of        |                          |
  |              |hydrogen for balloons.         |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Carbon.=     |OCC.--as diamond and graphite, |The carbon compounds form |
  |Symbol C.     |in the free state; in combina- |the subject of “Organic   |
  |At. wt.       |tion with hydrogen as petro-   |Chemistry.” Carbon dioxide|
  |12.005.       |leum, with oxygen as carbon di-|results from the burning  |
  |Valence IV.   |oxide in the air, with these   |of coal, coke, wood, oil  |
  |S. G. diamond |and other elements as coal, and|or illuminating gas; from |
  |3.5: graphite |in plant and animal tissues;   |fermentation and decay,   |
  |2.3: amorphous|and as many carbonates.        |which are slow burnings;  |
  |1.9           |PREP.--by dry distillation of  |and is exhaled in the     |
  |M. P.--not    |wood or coal, yielding charcoal|breath. Carbon monoxide,  |
  |realized;     |and coke respectively.         |arising from recently-    |
  |estimated at  |PROP.--diamond is crystalline  |stoked fires, is an ex-   |
  |4400°.        |and the hardest of minerals,   |ceedingly poisonous gas.  |
  |              |the dark-colored “bort” being  |                          |
  |              |used for cutting and grinding. |                          |
  |              |Graphite has a black metallic  |                          |
  |              |luster, is crystalline and may |                          |
  |              |be scratched by the finger-    |                          |
  |              |nail. Charcoal is amorphous,   |                          |
  |              |and possesses the power of ab- |                          |
  |              |sorbing gases and also coloring|                          |
  |              |matters. All three forms burn  |                          |
  |              |in oxygen to produce carbon    |                          |
  |              |dioxide.                       |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Cerium.=     |OCC.--as silicate in cerite,   |Welsbach incandescent gas |
  |Symbol Ce.    |along with Nd, Pr and La; also |mantles contain one per   |
  |At. wt.       |in monazite sand.              |cent of cerium dioxide,   |
  |140.25.       |PREP.--by electrolysis of the  |CeO₂.                     |
  |Valence III., |fused chloride.                |                          |
  |IV. (and VI.).|PROP.--a metal with the color  |                          |
  |S. G. 6.8;    |and luster of iron, like tin in|                          |
  |M. P. 623°.   |hardness, and very ductile and |                          |
  |              |malleable. Burns in air more   |                          |
  |              |easily and brightly than       |                          |
  |              |magnesium.                     |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Chlorine.=   |OCC.--in seawater as chlorides |The gas is used in ex-    |
  |Symbol Cl.    |of the alkalis and alkaline    |tracting gold and in pre- |
  |At. wt. 35.46.|earths, and as like compounds  |paring bleaching and dis- |
  |Valence I.    |in salt deposits.              |infecting agents. In pre- |
  |(and VII.).   |PREP.--by electrolysis of      |sence of water it bleaches|
  |S. G. (liquid)|alkali chloride, fused or in   |many coloring matters.    |
  |1.3.          |solution; or by the action of  |Forms chlorides (as NaCl, |
  |M. P. -101°.  |manganese dioxide on hydro-    |HCl, CaCl₂), hypochlorides|
  |B. P. -33.6°. |chloric acid.                  |[as solution of Ca(OCl)₂],|
  |C. T. +146°.  |PROP.--a greenish-yellow gas of|chlorates (as KClO₃, used |
  |              |characteristic odor, with a    |for matches and in pyro-  |
  |              |violent action on the respira- |techny), and perchlorates |
  |              |tory tract. Unites directly    |(as KClO₄).               |
  |              |with all elements save oxygen, |                          |
  |              |nitrogen and the argon family. |                          |
  |              |Displaces bromine and iodine   |                          |
  |              |from bromides and iodides, and |                          |
  |              |substitutes hydrogen in organic|                          |
  |              |compounds.                     |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Chromium.=   |OCC.--as chromite [Fe(CrO₂)₂]. |The alloy ferrochromium is|
  |Symbol Cr.    |PREP.--by reducing Cr₂O₃ with  |used in steel-making.     |
  |At. wt. 52.0. |aluminum filings.              |Chrome green, the pigment,|
  |Valence II.,  |PROP.--a steel-gray, lustrous, |is Cr₂O₃. Chrome yellow is|
  |III. and VI.  |brittle and very hard metal. At|PbCrO₄. Bichromates (as   |
  |S. G. 6.6.    |high temperatures it burns in  |K₂Cr₂O₇) are used in      |
  |M. P. 1515°.  |air to green Cr₂O₃. It is      |photo-processes, tanning  |
  |B. P. 2200°.  |attacked by dilute sulphuric or|and dyeing and as oxi-    |
  |              |hydrochloric acid, but not by  |dizing agents, e.g., in   |
  |              |nitric acid.                   |batteries.                |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Cobalt.=     |OCC.--as smaltite (CoAs₂) and  |Its intensely blue sili-  |
  |Symbol Co.    |cobaltite (CoAsS).             |cates are used in coloring|
  |At. wt. 58.97.|PREP.--by igniting the oxide in|porcelain and constitute  |
  |Valence II.   |hydrogen.                      |the pigment smalt.        |
  |and III.      |PROP.--a white, magnetic, mal- |                          |
  |S. G. 8.6.    |leable metal, less tenacious   |                          |
  |M. P. 1490°.  |than iron. By exposure it turns|                          |
  |              |pinkish. It is less active     |                          |
  |              |chemically than iron.          |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Columbium=   |OCC.--in the mineral columbite.|The hydride (CbH) burns in|
  |(Niobium)     |PREP.--by reduction of CbO₂ by |air. The compounds occur  |
  |Symbol Cb.    |paraffin.                      |with those of tantalum,   |
  |At. wt. 93.5. |PROP.--a light-gray, malleable |which they closely        |
  |Valence I.,   |and ductile metal, as hard as  |resemble.                 |
  |II., IV. and  |wrought iron, which is not     |                          |
  |V.            |affected by acids, even by aqua|                          |
  |S. G. 12.7.   |regia.                         |                          |
  |M. P. 1950°.  |                               |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Copper.=     |OCC.--free, as cuprite (Cu₂O), |The metal is used for     |
  |Symbol Cu.    |copper glance (Cu₂S), chalcopy-|coins, electroplating,    |
  |At. wt. 63.57.|rite (Cu₂S, Fe₂S₃), malachite  |electric leads, roofing,  |
  |Valence I. and|[CuCO₃, Cu(OH)₃].              |cooking vessels and for   |
  |II.           |PREP.--after removal of iron   |making alloys, such as    |
  |S. G. 8.9.    |and sulphur, the oxide is re-  |brass, bell and gun       |
  |M. P. 1083°.  |duced by heating with carbon.  |metals, German silver and |
  |B. P. 2310°.  |It is refined electrolytically.|the bronzes. The soluble  |
  |              |PROP.--a red, lustrous, very   |compounds are poisonous,  |
  |              |ductile and malleable metal of |and are therefore used as |
  |              |tensile strength fourteen tons |germicides in agriculture.|
  |              |per square inch, second only to|Blue vitriol is CuSO₄     |
  |              |silver in electrical conductiv-|5H₂O; the basic acetate is|
  |              |ity. In ordinary air it gradu- |verdigris.                |
  |              |ally becomes coated with basic |                          |
  |              |carbonate. In absence of air,  |                          |
  |              |nitric acid alone among the    |                          |
  |              |dilute acids attacks it, but in|                          |
  |              |presence of air even the acids |                          |
  |              |found in foodstuffs can dis-   |                          |
  |              |solve it.                      |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Dysprosium.= |OCC.--in monazite, gadolinite, |The salts are green or    |
  |Symbol Dy.    |etc.                           |yellow in color and show  |
  |At. wt. 162.5.|PREP.--not yet isolated.       |characteristic absorption |
  |Valence III.  |PROP.--the oxide dysprosia,    |bands.                    |
  |              |along with three other rare    |                          |
  |              |earths, constitutes erbia.     |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Erbium.=     |OCC.--same as for dysprosium.  |The salts are rose-       |
  |Symbol Er.    |PREP.--not yet isolated pure.  |colored, and show charac- |
  |At. wt. 167.7.|PROP.--crude erbia has been    |teristic absorption       |
  |Valence III.  |separated into erbia, holmia,  |spectra.                  |
  |S. G. 4.8.    |thulia, and dysprosia.         |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Europium.=   |OCC.--in monazite and other    |The salts are pinkish and |
  |Symbol Eu.    |rare minerals.                 |show a faint absorption   |
  |At. wt. 152.0.|PREP.--not yet isolated.       |spectrum.                 |
  |Valence III.  |PROP.--this element so closely |                          |
  |              |resembles samarium that the    |                          |
  |              |analytical separation of the   |                          |
  |              |two is difficult.              |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Fluorine.=   |OCC.--as cryolite (AlF₃, 3NaF),|Hydrogen fluoride is used |
  |Symbol F.     |fluor spar (CaF₂) and very     |for etching glass and in  |
  |At. wt. 19.0. |widely elsewhere in small quan-|silicate analysis. Silver |
  |Valence I.    |tities.                        |fluoride is soluble and   |
  |S. G. (liquid)|PREP.--by electrolysis of dry  |calcium fluoride insolu-  |
  |1.11 at -187°.|hydrogen fluoride at -23°.     |ble, in contrast with the |
  |M. P. -223°.  |PROP.--a pale yellowish-green  |other halides of these    |
  |B. P. -187°.  |gas that unites with every     |metals.                   |
  |              |element excepting oxygen and   |                          |
  |              |the argon family. It rapidly   |                          |
  |              |displaces oxygen from water or |                          |
  |              |chlorine from hydrogen         |                          |
  |              |chloride.                      |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Gadolinium.= |OCC.--in gadolinite and        |The salts are colorless   |
  |Symbol Gd.    |samarskite.                    |and show no absorption    |
  |At. wt. 157.3.|PREP.--not yet isolated.       |bands.                    |
  |Valence III.  |PROP.--This element closely    |                          |
  |              |resembles terbium in its       |                          |
  |              |compounds.                     |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Gallium.=    |OCC.--in zinc blende and in    |It forms two chlorides    |
  |Symbol Ga.    |bauxite.                       |(GaCl₃ and GaCl₂) which   |
  |At. wt. 69.9. |PREP.--by electrolysis of a    |yield spark spectra very  |
  |Valence III.  |suitable solution of its salts.|characteristic of gallium.|
  |S. G. 5.9.    |PROP.--a bluish-white, tough   |                          |
  |M. P. 30.1°.  |metal that may be cut with a   |                          |
  |              |knife. Like aluminum, it is    |                          |
  |              |soluble in hydrochloric acid   |                          |
  |              |and in caustic alkali, but not |                          |
  |              |in nitric acid.                |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Germanium.=  |OCC.--in the rare mineral      |The close relation of this|
  |Symbol Ge.    |argyrodite.                    |element to carbon and     |
  |At. wt. 72.5. |PREP.--by the reduction of the |silicon is shown in the   |
  |Valence II.   |dioxide (GeO₂) by carbon.      |compound germanium chloro-|
  |and IV.       |PROP.--a grayish-white, brit-  |form (GeHCl₃).            |
  |S. G. 5.5.    |tle, lustrous metal, insoluble |                          |
  |M. P. 958°.   |in hydrochloric acid. It com-  |                          |
  |              |bines directly with the halo-  |                          |
  |              |gens.                          |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Glucinum= (or|OCC.--in beryl [Al₂Gl₂(SiO₃)₆].|Its hydroxide [Gl(OH)₂] is|
  |Beryllium).   |PREP.--by electrolysis of the  |feebly acidic as well as  |
  |Symbol Gl.    |fused double fluoride, GlF₂,   |basic, thus resembling the|
  |At. wt. 9.1.  |2KF.                           |hydroxide of zinc. Emerald|
  |Valence II.   |PROP.--a hard, white metal that|is beryl colored green by |
  |S. G. 1.7.    |tarnishes when heated in air,  |chromium.                 |
  |M. P. below   |and is soluble in dilute acids |                          |
  |960°.         |when powdered.                 |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Gold.=       |OCC.--chiefly free, but also as|Pure gold is called 24-   |
  |Symbol Au.    |telluride; many specimens of   |carat gold. American,     |
  |At. wt. 197.2.|iron are auriferous.           |French and German gold    |
  |Valence I. and|PREP.--from gold-bearing sands |coins are 21.6 carat,     |
  |III.          |by washing away the lighter    |while British sovereigns  |
  |S. G. 19.32.  |material, and dissolving the   |are 22 carat, the balance |
  |M. P. 1062.4°.|gold from the residue by mer-  |in all these cases being  |
  |              |cury, which is subsequently    |copper. Jewelry is made in|
  |              |separated from the gold by     |18, 14, 9, etc., carat    |
  |              |distillation. Quartz ores are  |gold, the addition of     |
  |              |pulverized in stamping mills,  |copper increasing the     |
  |              |and the powder is then carried |hardness and rigidity.    |
  |              |by water over amalgamated      |Sodium chloraurate        |
  |              |copper plates on which the gold|(NaAuCl₄) is used for     |
  |              |collects.                      |“toning” in photography,  |
  |              |PROP.--a soft, bright-yellow   |while potassium auri-     |
  |              |metal, easily scratched by the |cyanide [KAu(CN)₄] is used|
  |              |knife, an excellent conductor  |in electro-gilding.       |
  |              |of heat and of electricity. The|                          |
  |              |most ductile and the most mal- |                          |
  |              |leable of all the metals.      |                          |
  |              |Chemically, gold is rather in- |                          |
  |              |ert, and is not attacked by the|                          |
  |              |oxygen of the air, by hydrogen |                          |
  |              |sulphide, nor, indeed, by any  |                          |
  |              |single one of the common acids.|                          |
  |              |It is attacked by fused alka-  |                          |
  |              |lis, yielding aurates, and by  |                          |
  |              |aqua regia, yielding chlorauric|                          |
  |              |acid (HAuCl₄).                 |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Helium.=     |OCC.--in air to the extent of  |It is one of the decompo- |
  |Symbol He.    |one to two volumes per million;|sition products of certain|
  |At. wt. 4.00. |also occluded in certain       |other (radio-active)      |
  |Valence 0.    |minerals.                      |elements.                 |
  |S. G. (liquid |PREP.--neon and helium are     |                          |
  |at B.P.)      |boiled off crude argon, and the|                          |
  |0.122.        |neon solidified by cooling.    |                          |
  |M. P. -272°.  |PROP.--the lightest gas after  |                          |
  |B. P. -268.7°.|hydrogen, transparent, odorless|                          |
  |              |and colorless, very inert,     |                          |
  |              |forming no compounds with other|                          |
  |              |elements.                      |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Holmium.=    |...                            |...                       |
  |Symbol Ho.    |                               |                          |
  |At. wt. 163.5.|                               |                          |
  |Valence III.  |                               |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Hydrogen.=   |OCC.--in air to the extent of  |Its two oxides are water  |
  |Symbol H.     |one volume per 20,000 volumes  |(H₂O) and hydrogen per-   |
  |At. wt. 1.008.|air; combined, in water (11.19%|oxide (H₂O₂), the latter  |
  |Valence I.    |by weight) natural gas, petro- |of which is used in solu- |
  |S. G. (liquid |leum and all animal and vege-  |tion as a bleaching agent.|
  |at B.P.) 0.07.|table bodies.                  |Every acid contains hydro-|
  |M. P. -259°.  |PREP.--by treating zinc with   |gen as an essential con-  |
  |B. P. -252.5°.|hydrochloric or sulphuric acid;|stituent. Its compounds   |
  |              |by electrolysis of water.      |with carbon and other     |
  |              |PROP.--the lightest gas, trans-|elements number over      |
  |              |parent, odorless and colorless,|100,000. Hydrogen gas is  |
  |              |soluble in water (2 volumes in |used for the oxyhydrogen  |
  |              |100 volumes water under every- |flame and for filling     |
  |              |day conditions), in platinum,  |balloons.                 |
  |              |in palladium (502 volumes in 1 |                          |
  |              |of Pd). Burns in air and in    |                          |
  |              |chlorine, and unites with many |                          |
  |              |of the other elements.         |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Indium.=     |OCC.--in zinc blende (ZnS).    |Its compounds color the   |
  |Symbol In.    |PREP.--electrolytically from   |nonluminous gas flame blue|
  |At. wt. 114.8.|solutions of its salts.        |and show a characteristic |
  |Valence III.  |PROP.--a white metal, malleable|blue line in the spectrum.|
  |and I.        |and softer than lead.          |                          |
  |S. G. 7.3.    |                               |                          |
  |M. P. 155°.   |                               |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Iodine.=     |OCC.--in the ocean, in certain |Its tincture is used in   |
  |Symbol I.     |seaweeds, and in Chili salt-   |medicine as a counterirri-|
  |At. wt.       |peter, always in the combined  |tant. Potassium iodide    |
  |126.92.       |state.                         |(KI) and iodoform (CHI₃)  |
  |Valence I., V.|PREP.--from iodides by dis-    |likewise find application |
  |and VII.      |placement of their iodine by   |in medicine. The alkyl    |
  |S. G. 4.94.   |chlorine.                      |iodides (e.g., C₂H₅I) are |
  |M. P. 114°.   |PROP.--a dark gray, brittle    |much used in synthetic    |
  |B. P. 184°.   |solid with a metallic luster.  |organic chemistry.        |
  |              |Its vapor is violet, as are its|                          |
  |              |solutions in chloroform and in |                          |
  |              |carbon bisulphide. It requires |                          |
  |              |over 5,000 parts of water for  |                          |
  |              |its solution. Combines directly|                          |
  |              |with many elements, but is much|                          |
  |              |less active than chlorine and  |                          |
  |              |bromine.                       |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Iridium.=    |OCC.--along with platinum.     |It is used for pointing   |
  |Symbol Ir.    |PREP.--by a complex series of  |gold pens. Its alloy with |
  |At. wt. 193.1.|operations from platinum ores. |nine parts of platinum is |
  |Valence III.  |PROP.--a white metal, brittle  |used for standard meter   |
  |and IV.       |when cold, and very hard. It is|bars on account of its    |
  |S. G. 22.4.   |attacked by fused alkalies, but|inalterability.           |
  |M. P. 2300°.  |not by aqua regia.             |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Iron.=       |OCC.--as magnetic oxide        |The metal is used as a    |
  |Symbol Fe.    |(Fe₂O₄), hematite (Fe₂O₃),     |structural material, for  |
  |At. wt. 55.85.|limonite (2Fe₂O₃, 3H₂O),       |rails, machinery, tools,  |
  |Valence II.   |siderite (Fe₂CO₃), which are im-|etc. Jeweler’s rouge and |
  |and III.      |portant ores; iron pyrites     |Venetian red consist of   |
  |S. G. 7.86;   |(FeS₂); in rocks as complex    |the oxide (Fe₂O₃). Rust is|
  |pig 7.03 to   |silicates, and in plants and   |chiefly the hydrated oxide|
  |7.73.         |animals.                       |(FeO, OH). Hammer scale   |
  |M. P. 1515°.  |PREP.--pig iron is prepared in |and loadstone have the    |
  |B. P. 2450°.  |the blast furnace by reduction |composition Fe₃O₄. Ferric |
  |wrought 1100°-|of the ore by means of carbon  |chloride (FeCl₃), ferrous |
  |1500°.        |monoxide in presence of a      |iodide (FeI₂) and other   |
  |steel 1375°.  |suitable flux. From pig iron,  |iron compounds are used in|
  |gray pig      |wrought iron is obtained by    |medicine. Green vitriol   |
  |1275°.        |puddling, and steel by the     |(FeSO₄, 7H₂O) is used in  |
  |white pig     |Bessemer, Siemens-Martin or    |making ink, and in dyeing.|
  |1075°.        |other process.                 |Potassium ferrocyanide    |
  |              |PROP.--a white, malleable,     |[K₄Fe(CN)₆] is used for   |
  |              |ductile, magnetic metal, un-   |making Prussian blue,     |
  |              |changed in dry air or air-free |potassium cyanide, etc.   |
  |              |water, but rusting in moist    |                          |
  |              |air. Easily attacked by dilute |                          |
  |              |acids, but not by fused alka-  |                          |
  |              |lies. Cast iron contains 2 to  |                          |
  |              |5% of carbon and other impuri- |                          |
  |              |ties, and is hard and brittle. |                          |
  |              |Wrought iron contains less than|                          |
  |              |0.2% of carbon, and is softer  |                          |
  |              |and tougher, with a tensile    |                          |
  |              |strength of 22 to 25 tons per  |                          |
  |              |square inch. Steel contains    |                          |
  |              |from 0.2 to 1.5% of carbon, is |                          |
  |              |permanently magnetic, may be   |                          |
  |              |tempered, and possesses tensile|                          |
  |              |strength up to 100 tons        |                          |
  |              |per square inch.               |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Krypton.=    |OCC.--in minute quantity in the|It forms no compounds, and|
  |Symbol Kr.    |air.                           |is identified by its      |
  |At. wt. 82.92.|PREP.--from crude argon by     |characteristic spectrum.  |
  |Valence 0.    |fractional distillation.       |                          |
  |S. G. (Liquid |PROP.--an inert, colorless,    |                          |
  |at B. P.) 2.2.|odorless gas, resembling, but  |                          |
  |M. P. -169°.  |denser than, argon.            |                          |
  |B. P. -152°.  |                               |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Lanthanum.=  |OCC.--as lanthanite [La₂(CO₃)₃,|When heated in air it     |
  |Symbol La.    |8H₂O].                         |forms oxide (La₂O₃) and   |
  |At. wt. 139.0.|PREP.--by electrolysis of fused|nitride (LaN).            |
  |Valence III.  |LaCl₃.                         |                          |
  |and V.        |PROP.--an iron-gray metal      |                          |
  |S. G. 6.15.   |tarnishing in air to steel-    |                          |
  |M. P. 810°.   |blue; malleable and ductile.   |                          |
  |              |Attacked slowly even by cold   |                          |
  |              |water.                         |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Lead.=       |OCC.--as galena (PbS), and in  |The metal is used for     |
  |Symbol Pb.    |silver ores.                   |water pipes, roofs and    |
  |At. wt.       |PREP.--by calcination of par-  |gutters and storage bat-  |
  |207.20.       |tially roasted galena. Purifi- |teries. For shot it is    |
  |Valence II.,  |cation is effected by Parkes   |alloyed with 0.4% of      |
  |IV.           |process.                       |arsenic. Typemetal con-   |
  |S. G. 11.4.   |PROP.--a soft, gray metal,     |tains 20% of antimony.    |
  |M. P. 327.2°. |malleable, but of low tensile  |Babbitt metal, for bear-  |
  |B. P. 1525°.  |strength. In presence of air,  |ings, contains over 70% of|
  |              |water acts on lead to produce  |lead. Solder and pewter   |
  |              |the hydroxide, which being     |are alloys of lead and    |
  |              |slightly soluble, may cause    |tin. The basic carbonate  |
  |              |lead poisoning, if present in  |[Pb(OH)₂, 2PbCO₃], “white |
  |              |water supplies. When heated in |lead,” is the basis of    |
  |              |air it is oxidized to litharge |most oil paints.          |
  |              |(PbO), and, under suitable con-|                          |
  |              |ditions, to minimum (Pb₃O₄)    |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Lithium.=    |OCC.--as a mixed fluoride with |The carbonate [Li₂(CO₃)]  |
  |Symbol Li.    |aluminium in amblygonite.      |is used in medicine as a  |
  |At. wt. 6.94. |PREP.--by electrolysis of the  |solvent for uric acid,    |
  |Valence I.    |fused chloride.                |lithium urate being solu- |
  |S. G. 0.53.   |PROP.--a silver-white metal,   |ble. The lithium salts    |
  |M. P. 186°.   |softer than lead, that tar-    |give a carmine flame      |
  |B. P. above   |nishes quickly in air, and is  |coloration.               |
  |1400°.        |easily acted upon by water.    |                          |
  |              |When heated, it unites vigor-  |                          |
  |              |ously with nitrogen.           |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Lutecium.=   |OCC.--in euxenite.             |Its compounds resemble    |
  |Symbol Lu.    |PREP.--it has not been         |those of ytterbium.       |
  |At. wt. 175.0.|isolated.                      |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Magnesium.=  |OCC.--as magnesite (MgCO₂),    |The sulphate (MgSO₄, 7H₂O)|
  |Symbol Mg.    |dolomite (MgCO₃, CaCO₃),       |is known as epsom salts   |
  |At. wt. 24.32.|carnallite (MgCl₂, KCl, 6H₂O)  |and is used in medicine,  |
  |Valence II.   |and in very many complex sili- |as are the oxide (magne-  |
  |S. G. 1.75.   |cates.                         |sia), the carbonates and  |
  |M. P. 650°.   |PREP.--by electrolysis of      |citrate. Magnalium is a   |
  |B. P. 1120°.  |dried, fused carnallite.       |light, hard alloy with    |
  |              |PROP.--a silver-white metal,   |aluminum.                 |
  |              |ductile when hot. It tarnishes |                          |
  |              |in air, and acts slowly upon   |                          |
  |              |water, rapidly on steam. Burns |                          |
  |              |in air to the oxide MgO,       |                          |
  |              |emitting a very bright light   |                          |
  |              |used in photography. It unites |                          |
  |              |directly with nitrogen.        |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Manganese.=  |OCC.--as pyrolusite (MnO₂),    |Ferromanganese and        |
  |Symbol Mn.    |beaunite (Mn₂O₃), hausmannite  |spiegeleisen are alloys   |
  |At. wt. 54.93.|(Mn₃O₄) and manganese spar     |with iron, used in steel  |
  |Valence II.,  |(MnCO₃).                       |making. With copper it    |
  |III., IV., VI.|PREP.--by heating Mn₃O₄ with   |forms the hard, tough     |
  |and VII.      |aluminum filings.              |manganese bronzes, with   |
  |S. G. 7.3.    |PROP.--a steel-gray, hard,     |tensile strength up to 30 |
  |M. P. 1120°.  |brittle metal with a pinkish   |tons per square inch. Im- |
  |B. P. 1900°.  |tinge. It rusts in moist air   |pure sodium permanganate  |
  |              |and is attacked by dilute      |(NaMnO₄) is used in disin-|
  |              |acids.                         |ecting as Condy’s fluid.  |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Mercury.=    |OCC.--free and as cinnabar     |It is used for filling    |
  |Symbol Hg.    |(HgS).                         |thermometers and baro-    |
  |At. wt. 200.6.|PREP.--by roasting cinnabar HgS|meters. Its alloys are    |
  |Valence I. and|+ O₂--Hg + SO₂.                |called amalgams, some of  |
  |II.           |PROP.--a silver-white, mobile  |which are used in dentist-|
  |S. G. 13.6.   |liquid with a vapor pressure at|ry. Calomel (HgCl) is     |
  |M. P. -39.5°. |0° of 0.0002 mm. It tarnishes  |administered internally in|
  |B. P. 356.95°.|but slowly in air and is       |medicine; corrosive sub-  |
  |              |attacked only by dilute nitric |limate (HgCl₂) forms a    |
  |              |among the dilute acids. The    |solution with very power- |
  |              |vapor is monatomic.            |ful germicidal properties.|
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Molybdenum.= |OCC.--as molybdenite (MoS₂) and|The ferromolybdenum alloys|
  |Symbol Mo.    |wulfenite (PbMoO₄).            |are used in the manufac-  |
  |At. wt. 96.0. |PREP.--by reducing the oxides  |ture of special steels.   |
  |Valence III., |with aluminum powder.          |                          |
  |IV., V. and   |PROP.--a white metal, as malle-|                          |
  |VI.           |able as iron, that will not    |                          |
  |S. G. 10.0.   |scratch glass. Insoluble in    |                          |
  |M. P. 2450°.  |hydrochloric or dilute sulphur-|                          |
  |              |ic acid.                       |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Neodymium.=  |OCC.--with cerium and          |The salts are rose-violet |
  |Symbol Nd.    |lanthanum.                     |in color, and their solu- |
  |At. wt. 144.3.|PREP.--by electrolysis of the  |tions show characteristic |
  |Valence III.  |fused chloride.                |absorption spectra.       |
  |and IV.       |PROP.--a yellowish metal, tar- |                          |
  |S. G. 7.0.    |nishing in air.                |                          |
  |M. P. 840°.   |                               |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Neon.=       |OCC.--in minute quantity in the|It forms no compounds, and|
  |Symbol Ne.    |atmosphere.                    |is recognized by its      |
  |At. wt. 20.2. |PREP.--neon and helium are     |characteristic spectrum.  |
  |Valence 0.    |boiled out of crude argon, and |                          |
  |B. P. ca.     |the neon separated from helium |                          |
  |-243°.        |by cooling with liquid hydro-  |                          |
  |              |gen.                           |                          |
  |              |PROP.--a colorless, trans-     |                          |
  |              |parent, odorless, inert gas,   |                          |
  |              |resembling argon.              |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Nickel.=     |OCC.--as nicollite (NiAs) and  |The metal furnishes a pro-|
  |Symbol Ni.    |nickel glance (NiAsS).         |tective coating when      |
  |At. wt. 58.68.|PREP.--by igniting the oxalate |plated on iron. German    |
  |Valence II.   |in hydrogen.                   |silver is an alloy of     |
  |and III.      |PROP.--a white, very hard,     |nickel, copper and zinc.  |
  |S. G. 8.8.    |lustrous metal, malleable,     |Nickel steel is used for  |
  |M. P. ca.     |ductile and tenacious. It rusts|armor plates. Manganin,   |
  |1452°.        |but slowly in air, and is      |containing nickel, copper |
  |B. P. ca.     |attacked easily by only nitric |and manganese, is used for|
  |2600°.        |acid.                          |electrical resistances.   |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Nitrogen.=   |OCC.--free nitrogen forms about|Nitrous oxide (N₂O), or   |
  |Symbol N.     |four-fifths of air by volume.  |laughing gas, is used by  |
  |At. wt. 14.01.|As Bengal saltpeter (KNO₃),    |dentists. Nitric acid     |
  |Valence III.  |Chili saltpeter (NaNO₃); and as|(HNO₃) has many applica-  |
  |and V.        |an essential constituent of    |tions in technical        |
  |S. G. (liquid |vegetable and animal proto-    |chemistry. Ammonia (NH₃)  |
  |at B. P.)     |plasm.                         |is a very soluble gas.    |
  |0.81.         |PREP.--by heating ammonium     |Ammonium sulphate         |
  |M. P. -214°.  |nitrite, by oxidation of       |[(NH₄)₂SO₄] and Chili     |
  |B. P. -194°.  |ammonia, etc.                  |saltpeter are used as     |
  |              |PROP.--a colorless, odorless,  |nitrogenous manures.      |
  |              |transparent gas, rather in-    |Nitrogen is a constituent |
  |              |active chemically. At ordinary |of the aniline dyes, the  |
  |              |temperature and pressure, 100  |proteins and many other   |
  |              |volumes of water dissolve 1.5  |important classes of      |
  |              |volumes of nitrogen. It unites |organic substances.       |
  |              |directly with strongly heated  |                          |
  |              |boron, lithium, calcium and    |                          |
  |              |magnesium.                     |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Osmium.=     |OCC.--along with platinum.     |Its alloy with iridium is |
  |Symbol Os.    |PREP.--by reducing OsO₄.       |used in tipping gold pens.|
  |At. wt. 190.9.|PROP.--a gray metal, harder    |Osmium tetroxide (OsO₄) is|
  |Valence II.,  |than glass, the heaviest of    |used as a microscopic     |
  |III., IV., VI.|known bodies.                  |stain for fat.            |
  |and VIII.     |                               |                          |
  |S. G. 22.477. |                               |                          |
  |M. P. 2500°.  |                               |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Oxygen.=     |OCC.--free oxygen forms about  |The gas is sold compressed|
  |Symbol O.     |one-fifth of air by volume.    |in mild steel cylinders,  |
  |At. wt. 16.00.|Water contains 88.88% of oxy-  |and is used for the oxy-  |
  |Valence II.   |gen. The rocks of the earth’s  |hydrogen blowpipe and in  |
  |S. G. (liquid |crust contain about 45% in     |medicine, besides for     |
  |at B. P.)     |combination, chiefly as sili-  |chemical purposes. It is  |
  |1.13.         |cates.                         |necessary to support      |
  |M. P. -218.4°.|PREP.--in the laboratory by    |animal respiration and to |
  |B. P. -182.5°.|heating potassium chlorate     |sustain ordinary combus-  |
  |              |(KClO₃). Commercially, from the|tion. It enters as a con- |
  |              |air.                           |stituent into all oxides, |
  |              |PROP.--a colorless, odorless,  |most salts and many       |
  |              |tasteless, transparent gas,    |organic compounds.        |
  |              |slightly heavier than air. At  |                          |
  |              |ordinary temperature and pres- |                          |
  |              |sure, 100 volumes of water dis-|                          |
  |              |solve 3 volumes of oxygen. It  |                          |
  |              |is very active chemically, com-|                          |
  |              |bining directly with all but a |                          |
  |              |few of the other elements to   |                          |
  |              |form oxides. Sulphur, phospho- |                          |
  |              |rus, etc., burn much more      |                          |
  |              |vigorously in oxygen than in   |                          |
  |              |air. Liquid oxygen is magnetic.|                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Palladium.=  |OCC.--along with platinum, and |Since it does not tarnish,|
  |Symbol Pd.    |with gold in Brazil.           |it is used for coating    |
  |At. wt 106.7. |PREP.--by a complex series of  |silver goods, and by      |
  |Valence II.   |processes from platinum ores.  |dentists as a substitute  |
  |and IV.       |PROP.--a silvery, malleable and|for gold.                 |
  |S. G. 11.9.   |ductile metal, related to      |                          |
  |M. P. 1549°.  |platinum, unlike which, how-   |                          |
  |              |ever, it is attacked by nitric |                          |
  |              |acid. Under suitable conditions|                          |
  |              |it can take up over 900 volumes|                          |
  |              |of hydrogen.                   |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Phosphorus.= |OCC.--as phosphates, such as   |Red phosphorus is used in |
  |Symbol P.     |apatite [CaF(PO₄)₃]; in bones, |the manufacture of        |
  |At. wt. 31.04.|teeth, brain and seeds of      |matches, as also is the   |
  |Valence III.  |plants.                        |compound P₄S₃. In the form|
  |and V.        |PREP.--by reduction of calcium |of superphosphate of lime |
  |S. G.         |phosphate by carbon in the     |[CaH₂(PO₄)₂] phosphorus is|
  |white, 1.82.  |electric furnace in presence of|an important artificial   |
  |red, 2.25.    |a suitable flux.               |manure. The chlorides     |
  |M. P. white,  |PROP.--phosphorus exists in two|(PCl₃ and PCl₅) are much  |
  |44°.          |allotropic modifications: white|used in organic chemistry.|
  |B. P. 289°.   |phosphorus is waxy in consis-  |                          |
  |              |tency, soluble in carbon bi-   |                          |
  |              |sulphide, evil smelling and    |                          |
  |              |poisonous; red phosphorus is a |                          |
  |              |solid, insoluble in carbon bi- |                          |
  |              |sulphide, odorless and not     |                          |
  |              |poisonous. White phosphorus has|                          |
  |              |a low ignition temperature,    |                          |
  |              |hence its former use in        |                          |
  |              |matches.                       |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Platinum.=   |OCC.--free, alloyed with the   |On account of its resis-  |
  |Symbol Pt.    |platinum metals, as nuggets in |tance to acids, platinum  |
  |At. wt. 195.2.|alluvial sands in the Urals,   |is much used for chemical |
  |Valence II.   |California, etc.               |vessels. Since platinum   |
  |and IV.       |PREP.--it is freed from the    |has a coefficient of      |
  |S. G. 21.48.  |metals with which it is alloyed|expansion very close to   |
  |M. P. 1753°.  |by a complex series of proces- |that of glass, platinum   |
  |              |ses.                           |wires can be fused through|
  |              |PROP.--a silvery, tenacious,   |glass without danger of   |
  |              |ductile and malleable metal,   |breakage on cooling. The  |
  |              |unaltered in moist air and un- |salts are used in photo-  |
  |              |attacked by any single common  |graphy.                   |
  |              |acid. Aqua regia, fused alka-  |                          |
  |              |lies, alkali nitrates and      |                          |
  |              |cyanides attack it, however.   |                          |
  |              |Platinum “sponge” and “black”  |                          |
  |              |are finely divided forms.      |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Potassium.=  |OCC.--as sylvite (KCl),        |An alloy with sodium is   |
  |Symbol K.     |carnallite (KCl, MgCl₂, 6H₂O); |used in filling high-     |
  |At. wt. 39.10.|in plant and animal ashes, and |temperature thermometers. |
  |Valence I.    |in many complex silicates.     |Bengal saltpeter is the   |
  |S. G. 0.86.   |PREP.--by reduction or by      |nitrate and is used in    |
  |M. P. 62.5°.  |electrolysis of fused potassium|pyrotechny, for gunpowder |
  |B. P. 762°.   |hydroxide (KOH).               |and as a preservative. The|
  |              |PROP.--a silver-white, lustrous|iodide (KI) is used in    |
  |              |metal, as soft as wax, tarnish-|medicine. The chlorate,   |
  |              |ing instantly in moist air.    |like the nitrate, is used |
  |              |Chemically it is a very active |as a source of oxygen in  |
  |              |metal, decomposing water in the|pyrotechny and for match  |
  |              |cold and uniting violently with|heads. Caustic potash     |
  |              |the halogens, sulphur and      |(KOH) has many chemical   |
  |              |oxygen.                        |applications. The cyanide |
  |              |                               |(KCN) is used in gold ex- |
  |              |                               |traction.                 |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Praseodym-   |OCC.--with cerium and          |The salts are leek-green  |
  |ium.=         |lanthanum.                     |in color, and their solu- |
  |Symbol Pr.    |PREP.--by electrolysis of the  |tions have characteristic |
  |At. wt. 140.9.|fused chloride.                |absorption spectra.       |
  |Valence III.  |PROP.--a yellowish metal, re-  |                          |
  |and IV.       |maining untarnished in air.    |                          |
  |S. G. 6.47.   |                               |                          |
  |M. P. 940°.   |                               |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Radium=.     |OCC.--in minute quantity in    |The rays from radium com- |
  |Symbol Ra.    |pitchblende and other uranium  |pounds (such as RaBr₂,    |
  |At. wt. 226.0.|minerals.                      |RaCl₂, RaCO₃) act destruc-|
  |Valence II.   |PREP.--the metal has recently  |tively on living tissues  |
  |M. P. 700°.   |been isolated; the bromide is  |and on bacteria. One gram |
  |              |separated from the barium      |of radium in any of its   |
  |              |bromide prepared from pitch-   |compounds gives off about |
  |              |blende by fractional crystalli-|100 calories of heat per  |
  |              |zation.                        |hour.                     |
  |              |PROP.--in all of its compounds,|                          |
  |              |the metal has the power of     |                          |
  |              |emitting certain radiations.   |                          |
  |              |These can pass through matter  |                          |
  |              |that is opaque to light, render|                          |
  |              |air a conductor, affect a      |                          |
  |              |photographic plate and cause a |                          |
  |              |zinc-sulphide screen to        |                          |
  |              |fluoresce visibly.             |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Rhodium.=    |OCC.--in the ores of platinum. |The red chloride (RhCl₃)  |
  |Symbol Rh.    |PREP.--by a complex series of  |is formed by the action of|
  |At. wt. 102.9.|processes from platinum ores.  |chlorine upon the metal.  |
  |Valence II.,  |PROP.--a silvery, malleable and|                          |
  |III. and IV.  |ductile metal, not tarnishing  |                          |
  |S. G. 12.1.   |in air and not attacked by aqua|                          |
  |M. P. 1970°.  |regia.                         |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Rubidium.=   |OCC.--the salts are associated |The compounds show charac-|
  |Symbol Rb.    |with salts of potassium.       |teristic flame-spectra,   |
  |At. wt. 85.45.|PREP.--similar to that of      |and were recognized as    |
  |Valence I.,   |potassium.                     |those of a new element    |
  |III. and V.   |PROP.--a silver-white metal    |spectroscopically by      |
  |S. G. 1.53.   |resembling potassium, like     |Bunsen.                   |
  |M. P. 38.5°.  |which it attacks water vigor-  |                          |
  |B. P. 69.8°.  |ously.                         |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Ruthenium.=  |OCC.--in the ores of platinum. |The following oxides are  |
  |Symbol Ru.    |PREP.--by a complex series of  |known: Ru₂O₃, RuO₂, RuO₄, |
  |At. wt. 101.7.|processes from platinum ores.  |as well as salts corre-   |
  |Valence III., |PROP.--a hard, white, brittle  |sponding to RuO₃ and      |
  |IV., VI., VII.|metal, oxidized when heated in |Ru₂O₇.                    |
  |and VIII.     |air, scarcely attacked by aqua |                          |
  |S. G. 12.1.   |regia.                         |                          |
  |M. P. above   |                               |                          |
  |1950°.        |                               |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Samarium.=   |OCC.--in the mineral           |The salts are topaz-yellow|
  |Symbol Sa.    |samarskite.                    |in color, and are similar |
  |At. wt. 150.4.|PREP.--by electrolysis of the  |to those of lanthanum.    |
  |Valence II.   |chloride.                      |                          |
  |and III.      |PROP.--a whitish-gray metal,   |                          |
  |S. G. ca. 7.7.|tarnishing in air.             |                          |
  |M. P. 1300 to |                               |                          |
  |1400°.        |                               |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Scandium.=   |OCC.--in the minerals euxenite |The chloride (ScCl₃) shows|
  |Symbol Sc.    |and gadolinite.                |a characteristic spark    |
  |At. wt. 44.1. |PREP.--the metal has not been  |spectrum.                 |
  |Valence III.  |isolated.                      |                          |
  |              |PROP.--the existence of this   |                          |
  |              |element, whose oxide was dis-  |                          |
  |              |covered in 1879, was predicted |                          |
  |              |by Mendeléeff in 1869.         |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Selenium.=   |OCC.--free in some specimens of|Selenium cells are used as|
  |Symbol Se.    |sulphur, and in combination    |indicators of intensity of|
  |At. wt. 79.2. |with lead, iron and other      |illumination. The com-    |
  |Valence II.,  |metals, as in pyrites.         |pounds strongly resemble  |
  |IV. and VI.   |PREP.--(amorphous) by reducing |those of sulphur. Hydrogen|
  |S. G.         |selenious acid (H₂SiO₃) by     |selenide is an evil-      |
  |amorphous     |sulphur dioxide.               |smelling inflammable gas. |
  |4.26.         |PROP.--three varieties are     |Selenic acid (H₂SeO₄) is a|
  |monoclinic    |known: (1) red amorphous,      |more powerful oxidizer    |
  |4.47          |soluble in carbon bisulphide,  |than sulphuric acid and   |
  |hexagonal 4.8.|from which it is deposited as  |dissolves gold.           |
  |M. P.         |(2) red translucent monoclinic |                          |
  |amorphous 50°.|crystals, soluble in carbon bi-|                          |
  |monoclinic 170|sulphide, (3) blue-gray metal- |                          |
  |to 180°.      |lic selenium, insoluble in     |                          |
  |hexagonal     |carbon bisulphide. This last   |                          |
  |217°.         |form conducts electricity many |                          |
  |B. P. 688°.   |times better when exposed to   |                          |
  |              |light, and the better the      |                          |
  |              |brighter the light.            |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Silicon.=    |OCC.--silicon dioxide (SiO₂)   |The “pigs” of silicon made|
  |Symbol Si.    |occurs as flint, quartz, quartz|at Niagara are used in    |
  |At. wt. 28.3. |sand, etc. The igneous rocks   |steel-making. The ornamen-|
  |Valence IV.   |are composed largely of sili-  |tal varieties of quartz   |
  |S. G.         |cates, and this element consti-|find uses as gemstones, as|
  |amorphous 2.3.|tutes over 25% of the earth’s  |do several natural sili-  |
  |crystalline   |crust.                         |cates. Silicon carbide,   |
  |2.34.         |PREP.--by reducing sand with   |“carborundum” (SiC), is   |
  |M. P. 1458°.  |coke in the electric furnace.  |used as an abrasive.      |
  |B. P. ca.     |PROP.--amorphous silicon is a  |Sodium silicate solution  |
  |3500°.        |brown powder that burns when   |is “water glass,” used to |
  |              |heated in air. Crystalline     |protect sandstone and to  |
  |              |silicon forms black needles. It|preserve eggs. Common     |
  |              |is less active than the amor-  |glass is a mixture of     |
  |              |phous variety and is attacked  |sodium and calcium sili-  |
  |              |only slowly by a mixture of    |cates.                    |
  |              |hydrofluoric and nitric acids. |                          |
  |              |It unites with fluorine, how-  |                          |
  |              |ever, at ordinary temperatures.|                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Silver.=     |OCC.--native, as sulphide      |It is employed for arti-  |
  |Symbol Ag.    |(Ag₂S) often associated with   |cles of use and of orna-  |
  |At. wt.       |galena; chloride (AgCl), etc.  |ment and for coinage.     |
  |107.88.       |PREP.--from lead by the        |U. S. sterling silver con-|
  |Valence I.    |Pattison or Parkes process;    |tains 90% silver and 10%  |
  |S. G. 10.53.  |from the ores by the Mexican   |copper. Lunar caustic is  |
  |M. P. 960°.   |and other processes.           |silver nitrate. This salt |
  |B. P. 1955°.  |PROP.--a white, highly lus-    |and the halides of silver |
  |              |trous, tough, very ductile and |are extensively used in   |
  |              |malleable metal, the best con- |photography. For electro- |
  |              |ductor of heat and electricity |plating, a bath of potas- |
  |              |known. Liquid silver dissolves |sium argenticyanide       |
  |              |oxygen. It is unaffected by the|[KAg(CN)₂] is used.       |
  |              |oxygen of moist air, and its   |                          |
  |              |tarnishing is due to the action|                          |
  |              |of hydrogen sulphide. It dis-  |                          |
  |              |solves in dilute nitric and in |                          |
  |              |concentrated hot sulphuric     |                          |
  |              |acid.                          |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Sodium.=     |OCC.--in the sea as chloride   |The metal is used in the  |
  |Symbol Na.    |(NaCl); in salt deposits as    |manufacture of several    |
  |At. wt. 23.00.|chloride, borate, nitrate; in  |chemicals. Sodium chloride|
  |Valence I.    |many complex silicates in      |(NaCl) is a necessity of  |
  |S. G. 0.97.   |rocks.                         |life to most animals; and |
  |M. P. 965°.   |PREP.--by electrolysis of fused|is used in the manufacture|
  |B. P. 883°.   |sodium hydroxide (NaOH).       |of hydrochloric acid,     |
  |              |PROP.--a silver-white metal, as|chlorine and sodium com-  |
  |              |soft as wax, that may be welded|pounds. Sodium carbonate  |
  |              |at ordinary temperature. Like  |(NaCO₃, 10H₂O) or washing |
  |              |potassium it is very active,   |soda, and sodium hydroxide|
  |              |uniting directly with many     |(NaOH) are used for       |
  |              |other elements, and attacking  |cleaning, and in the manu-|
  |              |water vigorously in the cold.  |facture of soap and chemi-|
  |              |                               |cals. Baking soda is      |
  |              |                               |sodium bicarbonate        |
  |              |                               |(NaHCO₃). The sulphate    |
  |              |                               |(Na₂SO₄, 10H₂O) is known  |
  |              |                               |as Glauber’s salt; the    |
  |              |                               |thiosulphate, by photo-   |
  |              |                               |graphers, as “hypo.”      |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Strontium.=  |OCC.--as strontianite (SrCO₃)  |The nitrate and chlorate  |
  |Symbol Sr.    |and celestine (SrSO₄).         |are used in pyrotechny for|
  |At. wt. 87.63.|PREP.--by electrolysis of the  |red fire. All volatile    |
  |Valence II.   |fused chloride.                |compounds color the Bunsen|
  |S. G. 2.55.   |PROP.--a white metal, softer   |flame red.                |
  |M. P. ca.     |than calcium and harder than   |                          |
  |800°.         |sodium, tarnishing to a yellow |                          |
  |              |tint. Like calcium it is active|                          |
  |              |enough to attack water vigor-  |                          |
  |              |ously in the cold.             |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Sulphur.=    |OCC.--native, in combination   |Sulphur is used to prepare|
  |Symbol S.     |with most metals as sulphides, |sulphur dioxide (SO₂),    |
  |At. wt. 32.06.|and with some metals as sul-   |which is used in making   |
  |Valence II.,  |phates.                        |sulphuric acid and sul-   |
  |IV. and VI.   |PREP.--by melting the free sul-|phites, and for bleaching;|
  |S. G.         |phur away from the rocky       |also for vulcanizing      |
  |rhombic 2.06. |matrix, and subsequent purifi- |rubber and in the manufac-|
  |monoclinic    |cation by distillation.        |ture of black gunpowder,  |
  |1.96.         |PROP.--natural sulphur is rhom-|fireworks and matches.    |
  |M. P.         |bic in crystalline form, yel-  |Sulphuric acid (H₂SO₄) is |
  |rhombic       |low, brittle, of vitreous      |to chemical industry what |
  |112.4°.       |luster, and a poor conductor of|iron is to engineering.   |
  |monoclinic    |heat and electricity. This and |                          |
  |119°.         |the monoclinic variety are     |                          |
  |B. P. 444.9°. |soluble in carbon bisulphide,  |                          |
  |              |while amorphous sulphur is not.|                          |
  |              |When heated, sulphur unites    |                          |
  |              |directly with most of the other|                          |
  |              |elements.                      |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Tantalum.=   |OCC.--in tantalite and many    |The metal is used for     |
  |Symbol Ta.    |other rare minerals.           |filaments for electric    |
  |At. wt. 181.5.|PREP.--by the action of sodium |lamps, which possess twice|
  |Valence II.,  |on sodium tantalofluoride      |the efficiency of the     |
  |IV. and V.    |(Na₂TaF₇).                     |carbon filament lamp.     |
  |S. G. 16.6.   |PROP.--a hard, silver-white    |                          |
  |M. P. bet.    |metal, ductile and malleable   |                          |
  |2250° and     |when hot, of very high tensile |                          |
  |2300°.        |strength. The hot metal can ab-|                          |
  |              |sorb 740 volumes of hydrogen.  |                          |
  |              |It is not attacked by aqua     |                          |
  |              |regia.                         |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Tellurium.=  |OCC.--free and as tellurides.  |The compounds find few ap-|
  |Symbol Te.    |PREP.--by reducing tellurious  |plications. Telluric acid |
  |At. wt. 127.5.|acid (H₂TeO₃) by means of sul- |(H₆TeO₆) has basic as well|
  |Valence II.,  |phur dioxide.                  |as acid characters, in    |
  |IV. and VI.   |PROP.--the crystalline variety |keeping with the position |
  |S. G. cryst.  |is white, has metallic luster, |of the element between    |
  |6.2.          |and conducts heat and electri- |metals and nonmetals.     |
  |M. P. cryst.  |city. The precipitated variety |                          |
  |455°.         |is black and of lower density. |                          |
  |B. P. 1400°.  |The element is related to sul- |                          |
  |              |phur but is more metallic in   |                          |
  |              |character.                     |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Terbium.=    |OCC.--in gadolinite,           |The salts show no absorp- |
  |Symbol Tb.    |samarskite, and other rare     |tion spectrum.            |
  |At. wt. 159.2.|minerals.                      |                          |
  |Valence III.  |PREP.--the metal has not been  |                          |
  |              |prepared.                      |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Thallium.=   |OCC.--in crookesite, and in    |It forms two sets of      |
  |Symbol Tl.    |small quantities in many       |salts, the thallous (e.g.,|
  |At. wt. 204.0.|samples of iron pyrites.       |TlCl) and the thallic     |
  |Valence I.,   |PREP.--it is precipitated by   |(e.g., TlCl₃). All the    |
  |and II.       |zinc from a solution obtained  |compounds show a charac-  |
  |S. G. 11.8.   |by suitable treatment of the   |teristic green line in the|
  |M. P. 303.    |flue dust from sulphuric acid  |spectrum.                 |
  |B. P. 1515°.  |works.                         |                          |
  |              |PROP.--a bluish-white, lead-   |                          |
  |              |like metal, rather soft, malle-|                          |
  |              |able, but of low tensile       |                          |
  |              |strength. It decomposes water  |                          |
  |              |rapidly at red heat, and dis-  |                          |
  |              |solves in dilute acids.        |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Thorium.=    |OCC.--in monazite sand.        |The nitrate [Th(NO₃)₄,    |
  |Symbol Th.    |PREP.--by reducing potassium   |6H₂O] is used in making   |
  |At. wt. 232.4.|thorium chloride with sodium,  |Welsbach incandescent     |
  |Valence IV.   |or by electrolysis of the      |mantles, which consist of |
  |S. G. 11.0.   |chloride in a mixture of fused |99% of ThO₂. All the com- |
  |M. P. above   |potassium and sodium chlorides.|pounds are radio-active.  |
  |1700°.        |                               |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Thullium.=   |OCC.--in gadolinite and other  |The salts are of a pale   |
  |Symbol Tm.    |yttrium minerals.              |bluish color which is     |
  |At. wt. 168.5.|PROP.--a metal with the color  |destroyed very easily by  |
  |Valence III.  |of nickel, that can be burnt in|minute quantities of      |
  |M. P. 1700°.  |air. Hydrochloric acid attacks |erbium.                   |
  |              |it but slowly.                 |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Tin.=        |OCC.--as cassiterite (SnO₂).   |Large quantities of tin   |
  |Symbol Sn.    |PREP.--after roasting, the ore |are used in the tinning of|
  |At. wt. 118.7.|is reduced by heating with     |iron for tinplate. It is a|
  |Valence II.   |carbon.                        |constituent of the alloys |
  |and IV.       |PROP.--a silver-white, rather  |Britannia metal, pewter,  |
  |S. G.         |soft, very malleable and duc-  |solder, bronze, etc. Tin  |
  |white 7.3.    |tile metal, practically un-    |forms two sets of salts,  |
  |gray 5.7.     |changed in air. When heated, it|stannous (e.g., SnCl₂) and|
  |M. P. 231.8°. |may be burned in air. Dilute   |stannic (e.g., SnCl₄).    |
  |B. P. 2275°.  |nitric acid is the only dilute |“Pink salt” [(NH₄)₂SnCl₆] |
  |              |acid that attacks it rapidly.  |is used in dye. “Mosaic   |
  |              |When kept long at temperatures |gold” is SnS₂.            |
  |              |below zero Centigrade, ordinary|                          |
  |              |tin changes to a brittle, gray,|                          |
  |              |powdery modification. This form|                          |
  |              |is the stable one below 20°.   |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Titanium.=   |OCC.--as rutile (TiO₂) and in  |The element is very widely|
  |Symbol Ti.    |titanic iron ore (FeTiO₃).     |disseminated, though in   |
  |At. wt. 48.1. |PREP.--by reducing the chloride|small quantity. It is con-|
  |Valence II.,  |(TiCl₄) by means of sodium.    |tained in the ashes of all|
  |III. and IV.  |PROP.--a hard, brittle metal,  |plants.                   |
  |S. G. 4.5.    |resembling polished steel in   |                          |
  |M. P. below   |appearance, that may be forged |                          |
  |1850°.        |at a low red heat. It dissolves|                          |
  |              |in dilute sulphuric acid, and  |                          |
  |              |decomposes steam at 800°. It   |                          |
  |              |unites easily with nitrogen.   |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Tungsten.=   |OCC.--as wolfram (FeWO₄) and as|The metal is used for the |
  |Symbol W.     |scheelite (CaWO₄).             |filaments of incandescent |
  |At. wt. 184.0.|PREP.--by reducing tungstic    |electric lamps, giving an |
  |Valence II.,  |acid (H₂WO₄) by carbon at a high|efficiency of 1.3 watts  |
  |IV., V. and   |temperature.                   |per candle power. Tungsten|
  |VI.           |PROP.--a hard, brittle, gray   |steel has 5% W. Sodium    |
  |S. G. 19.3.   |metal, attacked by chlorine    |tungstates are used as    |
  |M. P. 3177°.  |only at 250°, although it can  |mordants in dyeing.       |
  |B. P. ca.     |be caused to burn in air. It is|                          |
  |3700°.        |slowly acted upon by dilute    |                          |
  |              |acids and even by water.       |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Uranium.=    |OCC.--as pitchblende, which    |All the compounds of ura- |
  |Symbol U.     |contains U₃O₈.                 |nium are radioactive in   |
  |At. wt. 238.2.|PREP.--by reducing the oxides  |proportion to their ura-  |
  |Valence III., |with aluminum.                 |nium content. Glass to    |
  |IV., V. and   |PROP.--a white, lustrous metal,|which uranium compounds   |
  |VIII.         |tarnishing in air and attacking|have been added shows a   |
  |S. G. 18.7.   |water slowly in the cold. It   |greenish-yellow fluores-  |
  |M. P. ca.     |combines directly with many of |cence.                    |
  |1500°.        |the other elements.            |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Vanadium.=   |OCC.--in a few rather rare     |Vanadium added to steel in|
  |Symbol V.     |minerals.                      |even small quantity (0.2%)|
  |At. wt. 51.0. |PREP.--by reduction of the di- |increases the tenacity and|
  |Valence II.,  |chloride (VCl₂) in hydrogen.   |elastic limit without     |
  |III., IV. and |PROP.--a silver-white, lustrous|reducing the ductility.   |
  |V.            |metal, harder than quartz. It  |                          |
  |S. G. 5.7.    |does not tarnish nor attack    |                          |
  |M. P. ca.     |water at ordinary temperatures,|                          |
  |1715°.        |but can be burnt in oxygen.    |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Xenon.=      |OCC.--in minute quantity in the|It forms no compounds.    |
  |Symbol Xe.    |air, less than one volume in   |                          |
  |At. wt. 130.2.|100 million.                   |                          |
  |Valence 0.    |PREP.--by fractionation of     |                          |
  |B. P. -109°.  |liquid argon.                  |                          |
  |S. G. (liquid |PROP.--a transparent, colorless|                          |
  |at B. P.)     |and odorless gas, very inert   |                          |
  |3.82.         |like its congener argon. It is |                          |
  |              |the densest of the argon       |                          |
  |              |family.                        |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Ytterbium=   |OCC.--in gadolinite, euxenite  |The compounds show a char-|
  |(Neoytter-    |and other rare minerals.       |acteristic spark spectrum.|
  |bium).        |PREP.--the metal has not been  |                          |
  |Symbol Yb.    |isolated.                      |                          |
  |At. wt. 173.5.|                               |                          |
  |Valence III.  |                               |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Yttrium.=    |OCC.--in gadolinite, euxenite  |The chloride yields a     |
  |Symbol Y.     |and other rare minerals.       |characteristic, though    |
  |At. wt. 88.9. |PREP.--by electrolysis of      |complex, spectrum.        |
  |Valence III.  |sodium yttrium chloride.       |                          |
  |S. G. 3.8.    |PROP.--a gray, lustrous metal. |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Zinc.=       |OCC.--as zinc blende (ZnS),    |Sheet zinc is used for    |
  |Symbol Zn.    |calamine (ZaCO₂), zincite      |roofs and gutters. Iron is|
  |At. wt. 65.37.|(ZnO), etc.                    |galvanized by dipping it  |
  |Valence II.   |PREP.--after roasting, the ore |in molten zinc, and so    |
  |S. G. 6.9 to  |is reduced by coal, the metal  |protected from rusting.   |
  |7.2.          |distilling off.                |Zinc is used for galvanic |
  |M. P. 419.3°. |PROP.--a bluish-white, lus-    |batteries and, alloyed    |
  |B. P. 906°.   |trous, brittle metal, that is  |with copper, to make      |
  |              |malleable and ductile at 120°. |brass. The salts are used |
  |              |It tarnishes in moist air,     |in medicine; the chloride |
  |              |attacking water slowly in the  |and sulphate antiseptic   |
  |              |cold and rapidly when heated in|solutions.                |
  |              |steam. It dissolves in dilute  |                          |
  |              |acids and in sodium hydroxide  |                          |
  |              |solution.                      |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+
  |=Zirconium.=  |OCC.--as zircon (ZrSiO₄).      |The oxide is contained in |
  |Symbol Zr.    |PREP.--by reducing the oxide   |some incandescent gas     |
  |At. wt. 90.6. |(ZrO₂) with carbon in the elec-|mantles.                  |
  |Valence IV.   |tric furnace.                  |                          |
  |S. G. 6.4.    |PROP.--a hard, gray metal, re- |                          |
  |              |maining bright in air and only |                          |
  |              |slowly oxidized at a white     |                          |
  |              |heat. It is dissolved by aqua  |                          |
  |              |regia and by caustic potash    |                          |
  |              |solution.                      |                          |
  +--------------+-------------------------------+--------------------------+


CHEMISTRY OF THINGS FAMILIAR

  WHAT IS STARCH? -- HOW MANUFACTURED? -- COMPOSITION OF WHEAT FLOUR
  -- ACIDS -- ALKALIES -- SULPHURIC, NITRIC, AND MURIATIC ACIDS --
  SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN -- TANNING OF HIDES TO FORM LEATHER -- VINEGAR
  -- ALCOHOL -- YEAST -- FRUIT, HOW PRESERVED -- DECAY IN WOOD -- WHAT
  IS ETHER? -- DISINFECTING AGENTS -- HOW SMOKING PRESERVES MEAT --
  WHAT IS ALBUMEN? -- WHAT IS A POISON? -- ARSENIC -- CERTAINTY OF ITS
  DETECTION -- LEAD PIPES, HOW POISON WATER -- VERDIGRIS -- CALOMEL --
  PRESERVATION OF WOOD -- COMMON NAMES OF CHEMICALS

  _What is starch?_

The name starch is given to a _mealy substance_ which is deposited in
_most vegetables_ at the time of ripening, from the juices with which
the cells of the plants are filled.

  _What common vegetable especially abounds in starch?_

The _potato_, which consists entirely of cells filled with starch and
water.

A cell is a little membranous bladder filled with a solid or fluid
substance.

  _Why does a laundress find it necessary to boil starch before using
  it for stiffening linen, etc.?_

The starch, consisting of little granules, is _insoluble in cold water_;
but when acted upon by hot water, the granules burst and allow their
contents, which are soluble, to become mingled with the water.

  Starch is manufactured as follows:--

Potatoes, for example, from which most of the starch of commerce is
manufactured, after being pared, are grated to a pulp. This pulp is put
upon a sieve and stirred about, while at the same time a little stream
of water is made to flow upon it. A milky liquid runs through the sieve,
but the fibrous portion of the potato, the vegetable tissue, remains
behind. This liquid, after a short interval, deposits a white powder,
which is the starch. By the simple process of tearing up the vegetable
tissue, and removing the inclosed starch by washing, this substance may
be procured from a great variety of plants.

  _Why do potatoes, beans, rice, and most of the common vegetables,
  swell up when boiled with water?_

Because the _starch absorbs water_ at the boiling temperature, which
causes the _cells to swell_, thereby giving to the vegetable a rounded
appearance.

  _What is the composition of wheat flour?_

_Starch_ is one of the principal constituents of wheat flour, as well as
of all other kinds of meal. The other principal constituent is a gray,
tough, viscous substance, called _gluten_.

  _To what does paste, made of wheat or rye flour, owe its
  adhesiveness?_

In some measure to the _starch_, but principally to the _gluten_
contained in it.

  _Can starch be converted into gum and sugar?_

It _can_; _fruits and plants effect this change naturally_: we can also
produce the change artificially by chemical processes.

  _Why are potatoes frozen and thawed sweet?_

Because by the _freezing action_ the starch of the potato is in part
converted into sugar.

  _Why are apples, pears, grapes, etc., in their unripe state sour,
  and in their ripe condition sweet?_

In the unripe fruits mentioned _starch is present_; in the ripe fruits
it is _absent_; in the process of ripening the starch is _converted into
sugar_, and the fruit becomes sweet.

  _What are acids?_

Acids are substances which excite the _taste of sourness_ when applied
to the tongue; they change the _blue juices_ of vegetables to _red_, and
combine with alkalies to form neutral compounds.

  _What is an alkali?_

An _alkali_ is a body that possesses properties the _converse of those
of an acid_. It has a _highly bitter, acrid taste_, changes the _blue
juices_ of vegetables to _green_, or the juices of vegetables which have
been changed red by an acid, back again to blue. Potash and soda are the
representatives of the alkalies.

  _When sulphur is burned in the air what is the product formed?_

_Sulphurous acid._

  _What causes the suffocating odor of a lighted brimstone match?_

The _sulphurous acid_ generated by the combustion of the sulphur.

  _What is sulphuric acid or oil of vitriol?_

It is a compound of _sulphur and oxygen_, containing one-third more
oxygen than sulphurous acid.

  _What is sulphuretted hydrogen?_

A _gas_ formed by the union of _sulphur and hydrogen_. It possesses an
offensive odor, and is very poisonous.

  _How is sulphuretted hydrogen formed in nature?_

Principally from the _decomposition of animal substances_, as blood,
flesh, hair, etc.

  _Why does the yolk of an egg tarnish a silver spoon?_

Because it contains a _little sulphur_, which, at the temperature of an
egg just boiled, will decompose the water or moisture upon the spoon,
and produce _sulphuretted hydrogen gas_, which will tarnish silver.

Both the white and the yolk contain sulphur, but the latter the most
abundantly.

  _What is it that makes an open or foul sewer so destructive of
  health to any district in which it may be situated?_

The evolution of _sulphuretted hydrogen_. When inhaled, it acts directly
upon the blood, thickening it, and turning it black.

  _Why do surfaces painted with lead paints, in the vicinity of
  sewers, soon turn black, or become discolored?_

Through the action of _sulphuretted hydrogen_.

  _What is nitric acid?_

Nitric acid, or aqua-fortis, is a compound of five parts of oxygen and
one of nitrogen.

It is _liquid_; when pure, _colorless_, and highly _corrosive_; it
attacks almost all dead, unorganized substances, and destroys living
tissues.

  _What is muriatic, or, more properly, hydrochloric acid?_

A compound of _hydrogen and chlorine_ usually prepared from salt. It is
an acid much used in the arts.

  _What is “lunar caustic”?_

A compound of _nitric acid_ and _oxide of silver_.

  _Why, when lunar caustic is applied to the flesh, does it burn and
  destroy it?_

Through the agency of the _nitric acid_ contained in it.

  _Do plants produce acids?_

Acids are formed in the _vegetable kingdom_ in _great abundance_; they
especially exist in unripe fruits, imparting to them a sour taste.

Acids formed from mineral substances are called “mineral acids”; acids
formed by or from vegetable substances are called “organic acids.”

  _Why does tanning hides convert them into leather?_

Hides are steeped in water, with ground bark of the oak, hemlock, or
other trees; these barks contain large quantities of _tannic acid_,
which combine with the skin of animals, and form a combination which is
insoluble in water and not subject to putrefaction--viz., leather.

  _What is ordinary vinegar?_

An acid, called _acetic acid_, and water.

  _If wine or beer be imperfectly corked, why does it rapidly turn
  sour?_

Because air gets into the liquor, and the oxygen of the air combining
with the alcohol of the liquor produces acetic acid, or _vinegar_.

  _What is alcohol?_

Alcohol is the _spirit_ existing in wine, beer, cider, etc., _obtained
in the process of fermentation_.

  _What is a ferment?_

A ferment is a substance containing _nitrogen_ in a state of
_decomposition_, which is able to excite fermentation in solutions of
sugar; old cheese, putrefying flesh, blood, etc., all of them are
ferments.

  _What is yeast?_

We apply the term yeast to a particular species of ferment; the _foam of
beer_ (or of some similar liquor), produced by _fermentation_.

  _Can you explain why it is that a body in a state of fermentation or
  putrefaction should cause unlimited quantities of similar matter to
  pass into the same state?_

We only _know the fact_: the reason we are _ignorant of_. The most
minute portion of milk, paste, juice of grapes, flesh, or blood, in a
state of fermentation or putrefaction, causes fresh milk, paste, grape
juice, flesh, or blood, to pass into the same condition, when in contact
with them.

  _In storing or packing fruit for future use why is it necessary to
  carefully remove every decayed specimen?_

Because the decayed portions of one specimen will quickly _communicate
decay to the fresh fruit in contact_ with it, and soon the whole mass of
fruit will become putrescent.

  _If in a vessel, or any other structure, one timber becomes decayed
  what course ought to be adopted?_

It should be removed _immediately_, or the decomposition once commenced
will in time affect the whole structure.

It sometimes happens that physicians, in dissection, are seriously
poisoned by the slightest cut of a knife which has been used upon the
dead body. The knife introduces to the healthy blood, through the wound,
a _minute portion of matter in the state of decomposition or
putrefaction_. This acts as a _ferment_, and causes the healthy matter
in contact with it to pass into the same decomposed state. The action
once commenced rapidly extends, until the whole body becomes affected,
and death ensues. It is almost impossible to heal wounds of this
character.

  _Why is it especially dangerous to eat fruit or meats partially
  decayed?_

Because the _decayed portions_ of the substance eaten are liable to
induce the _same condition_ in the healthy organs of the stomach with
which they may come in contact.

  _Why do fruit preserves frequently turn sour?_

Because, owing to the action of some fermenting substance present either
in the fruits themselves or in the air, the sugar used in preserving is
_converted into alcohol_, and the alcohol into vinegar.

  _Why does the housewife scald her preserved fruits to prevent their
  turning sour?_

Because fermenting substances and fermenting action are _destroyed_ by a
boiling temperature.

  _Why do we keep preserves, beer, cider, or other substances liable
  to turn sour, in a cool place?_

Because a depression of temperature _arrests fermentation_, though it
does not prevent its renewal when the temperature in increased.

  _What is ether?_

Ether is a product obtained by _distilling strong alcohol_ and
_sulphuric acid_. The product is called sulphuric ether, but it does not
contain sulphuric acid, nor has it any sulphur in its composition.

  _What are the properties of ether?_

It is an _exceedingly volatile, inflammable_ body, producing
insensibility when inhaled, and readily dissolving all fatty and oily
bodies.

  _Why will ether remove spots of oil, paint, or grease from
  garments?_

Because it is a _solvent_ for all greasy, oily matters.

  _What are the best agents for depriving putrid and decaying animal
  and vegetable substances of their offensive odors?_

_Chloride of lime_ is the most effectual agent; and _chloride of zinc_
and _sulphate of iron_ (green vitriol) are also exceedingly efficient.
On a large scale, as in the sanatory cleansing of towns, pulverized
charcoal, burnt clay, and quicklime are to be recommended.

  _What effect does the use of perfumes or the burning of pastiles
  have upon offensive odors?_

They merely _disguise_ the odor, but do _not remove or destroy it_.

  _By adopting what precautions may a person safely enter sick rooms,
  or visit, without risk, the most dangerous receptacles of filth?_

By moistening a linen cloth with vinegar, and sprinkling over it
finely-powdered chloride of lime.

Air breathed through this, applied to the mouth and nostrils, will enter
the lungs charged with a minute quantity of chlorine, which will
effectually destroy any noxious vapors or miasms that escape from
diseased bodies, or from decaying animal and vegetable substances.

  _What three conditions are requisite to produce putrefaction in
  animal and vegetable substances?_

It is necessary that they should be exposed to the combined influence of
_air_, _heat_, and _moisture_.

  _Why is a substance preserved from decay by drying, or by the
  exclusion of air from it?_

Because by so doing we _remove_ the _moisture_ and _air_ essential to
the process of decay.

  _Why does the smoking of fish or flesh contribute to their
  preservation?_

Because the volatile matters of the smoke, such as creosote,
pyroligneous acid, and the like, effect a species of _chemical
combination_ with the fiber of the meat, and with the substances
contained in the natural juices of the flesh, which combinations are
_less liable_ to decay than the substances themselves.

  _What is albumen?_

Albumen is an _animal substance_ as well as _vegetable_. It exists most
abundantly, and in its purest natural state, in the _white of an egg_,
from whence it derives its name (_album ovi_), which is the Latin for
the white of an egg.

The serum or fluid portion of the blood (which, after exposure to the
air, is separated from the more solid part), the vitreous and
crystalline humors of the eye, the brain, the spinal marrow, and nerves,
all contain albumen.

  _What is the yolk of an egg?_

This also consists of _albumen_, but contains in addition a _yellow
oil_, which imparts to it its color.

  _Why is meat tough which has been boiled too long?_

Because the _albumen_ becomes hard, like the white of a hard-boiled egg.

The best way of boiling meat to make it tender is this: Put your joint
in very brisk boiling water; after a few minutes add a little cold
water. The boiling water will _fix_ the albumen, which will prevent the
water from soaking into the meat, keep all its juices in, and prevent
the muscular fiber from contracting. The addition of cold water will
secure the cooking of the _inside_ of the meat, as well as of the
surface.

  _Why is meat always tough if it be put into the boiler before the
  water boils?_

Because the water is not hot enough to _coagulate_ the albumen between
the muscular fibers of the meat, which therefore runs into the water,
and rises to the surface as scum.

  _Why is the flesh of old animals tough?_

Because it contains _very little_ albumen, and much muscular fiber.

  _What is a poison?_

A poison is any agent capable of producing a dangerous effect upon
anything endowed with life.

  _In cases of poisoning by substances taken into the stomach, what
  course should be pursued, in the absence of medical attendance?_

The first step is to evacuate the stomach by means of powerful emetics,
and when vomiting has taken place, warm water and the white of eggs may
almost always be given with advantage.

  _Can poisons administered for criminal purposes be almost certainly
  detected?_

They can; chemical science within the last few years has made such
advances that the most minute quantities of all the best known poisons
can be detected with certainty long after death.

There is no poison _so liable_ and _certain_ to be found as _arsenic_,
and in almost every case of poisoning with mineral poisons, science is
enabled to detect the substance, even when life has been extinct for
years, and the body nearly decomposed.

  _What is arsenic?_

Metallic arsenic is an _exceedingly brittle metal_, of a _steel-gray
color_. It vaporizes, when heated, with a strong odor of garlic, a
property not possessed by any other metal.

The substance used as poison, and sometimes known as ratsbane, is
arsenious acid, a compound of arsenic and oxygen. Arsenious acid has the
form and appearance of a fine white powder.

  _What is the best remedy in cases of poisoning with arsenic?_

The _hydrated peroxide of iron_ (iron rust) is considered the best
remedy.

The following is the best method for preparing this substance: Take
common copperas (sulphate of iron) four ounces; dissolve in warm water
in a glass, or porcelain dish, and add a small quantity of sulphuric
acid, and afterwards ammonia solution, so long as a dense red
precipitate is formed. This precipitate carefully strained off, and
thoroughly washed in a filter with water, is hydrated peroxide of iron.
So long as kept moist, it may be preserved for a great length of time.

  _Is lead a poison?_

Lead and nearly all its compounds are _dangerous_ and _secret poisons_;
when received into the system, it frequently remains dormant for years,
and then suddenly manifests itself in various forms of disease.

  _What is the disease called “painter’s colic”?_

A disease to which painters and others _working in lead are liable_, in
consequence of receiving into their system, imperceptibly, portions of
lead.

  _Is it dangerous to sleep in, or breathe the air of, a room newly
  painted with paints containing lead?_

It is _highly dangerous_, since the air is filled with a vapor of the
lead compound used as paint.

  _Why are some waters, when conveyed through lead pipe, poisonous?_

Waters which are _very pure_ and contain _much oxygen_ dissolved in
them; waters which contain _nitric acid_ compounds, such as those
flowing from the vicinity of barn-yards, manure heaps, and those which
contain _common salt_ or _organic matter_, as water flowing from swamps
and fields; waters containing soluble _carbonates_--all dissolve lead
from the pipes through which they may be made to pass. Constant use of
such waters, in the process of time, will introduce sufficient lead into
the system to produce disease, which is often attributed to other
causes.

  _What is verdigris?_

Verdigris is a compound of copper, oxygen, and acetic acid. This, and
all the compounds of copper, are _very poisonous_. The most efficacious
antidotes for poisoning with copper are white of eggs and milk.

  _What is calomel?_

It is a compound of _two parts of mercury_ united to one of _chlorine_,
forming the sub-chloride of mercury. The preparation, commonly known in
medicine as “blue pill,” is a preparation of calomel.

  _What is corrosive sublimate?_

A compound of _mercury and chlorine_ united in equal proportions,
forming the perchloride of mercury.

  _Are both these compounds, calomel and corrosive sublimate,
  poisons?_

They _are_; corrosive sublimate, especially, is a most _deadly poison_.
In case of poisoning by it, the most effectual antidote is white of
eggs.

  _What is the process of preserving wood from decay, commonly termed
  “kyanizing”?_

It consists in _saturating_ the fibers of the wood with a _solution of
corrosive sublimate_.

Poisonous substances, and corrosive sublimate especially, have the
property of protecting animal and vegetable substances from decay. The
skins of stuffed birds and animals, and the plants of a herbarium, may
be protected from insects and decay, by washing them with a solution of
corrosive sublimate. It should not, however, be forgotten that these
substances by such treatment become themselves poisonous.

  _Give a list of the chief antidotes for poisons._

(See Book of the Human Body.)

  _What are the common names of familiar chemical substances?_

COMMON NAMES OF CHEMICALS

  _Common Names_         _Chemical Names and Formulæ_

  Alum                   Sulphate of Aluminum and Potassium
  Aqua Fortis            Nitric Acid, HNO₃
  Aqua Regia             Nitro-Hydrochloric Acid
  Calomel                Mercurous Chloride, Hg₂Cl₂
  Carbolic Acid          Phenol, C₆H₅OH
  Caustic Potash         Potassium Hydrate, KOH
  Caustic Soda           Sodium Hydrate, NaOH
  Chalk                  Calcium Carbonate, CaCO₃
  Copperas               Sulphate of Iron
  Corrosive Sublimate    Mercuric Chloride, HgCl₂
  Cream of Tartar        Potassium Bitartrate
  Epsom Salts            Magnesium Sulphate
  Ether                  Diethyl Oxide, (C₂H₅)₂O
  Fire Damp              Light Carburetted Hydrogen
  Galena                 Lead Sulphide, PbS
  Glauber’s Salt         Sodium Sulphate
  Glucose of Grape Sugar Dextrose, C₆H₁₂O₆
  Goulard Water          Basic Acetate of Lead
  Iron Pyrites           Iron Di-Sulphide, FeS₂
  Jewelers’ Putty        Oxide of Tin
  Laughing Gas           Nitrous Oxide, N₂O
  Lime                   Calcium Oxide, CaO
  Lunar Caustic          Silver Nitrate, AgNO₃
  Mosaic Gold            Bi-Sulphide of Tin
  Muriatic Acid          Hydrochloric Acid, HCl
  Olefiant Gas           Ethylene, C₂H₄
  Plaster of Paris       Calcium Sulphate
  Quartz                 Silicon Dioxide, SiO₂
  Realgar                Arsenic Di-Sulphide, As₂S₂
  Red Lead               Oxide of Lead, Pb₃O₄
  Rochelle Salt          Sodium Potassium Tartrate
  Salammoniac            Ammonium Chloride
  Salt, Common           Sodium Chloride, NaCl
  Salt of Tartar         Potassium Carbonate
  Saltpeter              Potassium Nitrate, KNO₃
  Salts of Lemon         Oxalic Acid
  Slaked Lime            Calcium Hydrate
  Soda                   Sodium Carbonate
  Spelter                Zinc
  Spirits of Hartshorn   Amm. Hydroxide, NH₄OH
  Spirits of Salt        Hydrochloric Acid, HCl
  Sugar of Lead          Lead Acetate
  Tartar Emetic          Potass. Antimony Tartrate
  Verdigris              Basic Copper Acetate
  Vermilion              Sulphide of Mercury
  Vinegar                Dilute Acetic Acid
  Vitriol, Blue          Copper Sulphate
  Vitriol, Green         Ferrous Sulphate
  Vitriol, Oil of        Sulphuric Acid, H₂SO₄
  Vitriol, White         Zinc Sulphate
  Volatile Alkali        Ammonia

  _What is meant by radio-activity and radio-active substances?_

_Radio-activity_ is the phenomenon associated with substances which
spontaneously emit rays of unique penetrating power through the escape
of electrons and their striking against other substances. Chief of the
radio-active substances are radium, polonium, actinium, thorium, etc.

  _What is the history of these substances?_

Henri Becquerel in 1896 first observed this in the case of potassium
uranyl sulphate, the rays from which he found affected a photographic
plate through black paper, thin plates of metal, etc.; the property was
further traced in other uranium salts and in uranium itself. These rays
are known as _Becquerel rays_, and have the further power to render air
a conductor of electricity, and thus to discharge any electrified
substance placed near them.

A charged electroscope forms a test of radioactivity, and the rate at
which the leaves fall measures the degree. Different uranium salts have
different degrees of radio-activity; some varieties of pitchblende, as
also chalcolite, show the property in excess of uranium contained.

Madame Curie, by using the activity test for every precipitate obtained
from pitchblende, succeeded in discovering the elements _polonium_ and
_radium_ in 1898. The next year Debierne discovered _actinium_, another
radio-active element in the same substance. Meanwhile Schmidt and Madame
Curie independently found that the same properties were associated with
_thorium_, its compounds and the minerals containing it. In 1903 Ramsay
and Soddy discovered that radium continuously produces helium, the
lightest of the inactive gases discovered by Ramsay in 1896.

Twenty-eight elements are now classed in three divisions with the three
parents, uranium, thorium, and actinium. Potassium and rubidium have
been shown to be radio-active, but otherwise the alkaline metals do not
enter the classes.

  _Describe radium and its special properties._

WHAT IT IS LIKE.--To the eye a tiny sample of radium--or, to speak more
correctly, of one of the radium salts, for radium in a pure state
(_i.e._ the metal) has not been obtained as yet--presents no very
striking appearance. All one sees is a few tiny crystals, or perhaps a
few specks of whitish-looking powder, glowing in the dark with a faint
phosphorescent light similar to that sometimes emitted by a piece of
decaying fish.

THE RADIATIONS are of three kinds, comparable with those of the vacuum
tube: _Alpha_-rays are heavy particles, positively charged, similar to
the canal rays; _Beta_-electrons, negative like cathode rays;
_Gamma_-rays resemble Röntgen rays. They penetrate matter to different
degrees, behave differently under the action of a magnetic field, but
under ordinary circumstances travel in straight lines.

But rays from different elements vary in penetration, and also with the
absorbing substance, varying roughly with the density.

The _Alpha_-rays have a velocity of from 1.56 × 10₉ centimeters per
second (radium) to 2.25 × 10₉ centimeters per second (thorium); they are
particles of helium carrying a double charge of electricity. _Beta_-rays
have a greater range of velocity and approach that of light. Both
_Alpha_- and _Beta_-rays are absorbed by a thickness of one centimeter
of lead, but _Gamma_-rays pass through an inch of lead; they carry no
charge of electricity, yet ionize the air and discharge the
electrometer.

All the rays on impinging on solid particles give rise to _secondary
rays_, sometimes called _Delta_-rays, electrons moving with
comparatively low velocity. The _Alpha_-rays possess ninety-five per
cent of the energy evolved and produce brilliant fluorescence in zinc
sulphide, diamond, etc., the other rays producing this best in willemite
and the platino-cyanides; all become absorbed and transmuted into heat.

Radium every hour generates sufficient heat to raise its own weight of
water from freezing to boiling point.

THE SPINTHARISCOPE.--This is a simple piece of apparatus invented by Sir
William Crookes, by means of which some of the effects of the
_Alpha_-ray particles can be observed in a very striking manner. It
consists of a little screen covered with powdered zinc sulphide. A small
fragment of radium is placed directly in front of the middle of the
screen and in close proximity to it. On observing this screen in the
dark through a suitable lens, scintillating little points of light are
seen to be continually flashing into view and dying away. Each tiny
spark is thought to be produced by the impact of a single _Alpha_-ray
particle. That these particles or emanations must be matter in a state
of extreme attenuation is proved by an experiment of Professor Curie’s
in which a box constructed of platinum was pierced with two holes so
minute as to be capable of retaining a vacuum, and yet these radium
emanations passed through quite freely.

  _What are the medical uses of radium?_

Ulcerous growths, birth-marks, and scars are beneficially treated, but
so far the selective action of radium on tissue has not been determined,
nor its bactericidal effect. Its results in the treatment of cancer have
not yet reached a definite stage, though it has been widely heralded as
a specific for that dreadful malady.

The application of the rays is by various methods: inhalation of the
emanation; external application or injection of the emanation condensed
on glycerine, vaseline, oil, water, etc.; or the taking of quinine,
arsenic, bismuth, etc., on which the emanation has been condensed.
Injections of very dilute solutions of radium salts, or insoluble salts
suspended in water, are made. But external applications of the rays are
considered most important; copper plates or linen are coated with
varnish containing the salts, or glass tubes contain them, and the
radiations are directly applied, the surrounding parts being protected
with lead foil.

[Illustration: GAS METER INDICATOR DIALS.]


HOW TO READ A GAS METER

The dial marked “1 thousand” in the accompanying illustration is divided
into hundreds; the dial marked “10 thousand” is divided into thousands;
that marked “100 thousand” into ten-thousands, and that marked “1
million” into hundred-thousands. When 1,000 cubic feet of gas have been
consumed, the pointer on the dial marked “1 thousand” will have made a
complete rotation and the fact will be indicated by the pointer of the
next dial at the left, which will point to the figure 1. When 10,000
cubic feet of gas have been consumed, the pointer on the “10 thousand”
dial will point to 1, and so on. In reading a gas meter, put down the
hundreds first, then the thousands, and so on, always counting the
figure just under, or which has just been passed by, the pointer. In the
illustration about half a hundred is indicated on the “1 thousand” dial,
three thousands is indicated on the next dial, two ten-thousands on the
next dial, and one one-hundred-thousand on the “1 million” dial. The
reading will be 123,050. The dial marked “ten feet” is called the units
dial. It is used for testing the meter to discover whether it is in
working order or not. Each mark represents a cubic foot and the complete
circle 10 cubic feet. If the pointer moves when no gas is burning, it
indicates a leak. If it does not move when the gas is burning, or if its
motion is unsteady, it indicates a derangement in the mechanism and
shows that the meter requires attention.


=OUTLINE COURSE OF ELEMENTARY SCIENCE FOR THE GRADES=

  ======+=========================================+=====================
  GRADES|                   LIFE                  |      STRUCTURE
  ------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
        |       ZOOLOGY      |       BOTANY       |     MINERALOGY     |
        |                    |                    |                    |
  ------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
      I.|Observe--           |Observe--           |Observe             |
     II.|1. Birds; migration,|1. Flowers; color,  |1. Pebbles and      |
    III.|nesting, feeding.   |form, parts.        |rocks; color, shape,|
        |2. Insects; butter- |2. Fruits; color,   |hardness.           |
        |flies, moths, earth-|form, etc.          |2. Kinds of rock;   |
        |worms.              |3. Leaves; shape,   |quartzose, calcites.|
        |3. Uses of birds and|color, veining.     |3. Uses; for soil   |
        |insects.            |4. Stems; form, po- |making and building.|
        |                    |sition, bark, struc-|                    |
        |                    |ture.               |                    |
        |                    |5. Conditions of    |                    |
        |                    |growth, habits, etc.|                    |
        |                    |                    |                    |
  ------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
     IV.|By observing the    |Observe characteris-|1. Sandstone        |
        |form and structure, |tics of--           |2. Argillaceous     |
        |determine some      |1. Exogens and      |rocks.              |
        |1. Orders of mam-   |Endogens.           |3. Formation of     |
        |mals.               |2. Kinds of trees,  |rocks.              |
        |2. Orders of birds. |fruits, vegetables, |  _a._ Sedimentary; |
        |3. Orders of        |grasses and grains. |  sandstone, lime-  |
        |insects.            |3. Effects of culti-|  stone, etc.       |
        |4. Orders of rep-   |vation.             |  _b._ Igneous;     |
        |tiles.              |                    |  granite, etc.     |
        |Uses of animals.    |                    |                    |
        |                    |                    |                    |
  ------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
      V.|Characteristics,    |Observe characteris-|Formation and uses--|
        |habits and uses of--|tics--              |1. Coal.            |
        |1. Fishes.          |1. Plants of the    |2. Mineral oils.    |
        |2. Oysters, crabs,  |rose, pine, pulse,  |3. Natural gas.     |
        |starfishes.         |violet, pink, mus-  |4. Iron; ores.      |
        |3. Coral animals.   |tard, composite,    |                    |
        |                    |lily, grass and fern|                    |
        |                    |families.           |                    |
        |                    |                    |                    |
        |                    |                    |                    |
        |                    |                    |                    |
        |                    |                    |                    |
        |                    |                    |                    |
  ------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
     VI.|Characteristics of  |Peculiarities,      |1. Minerals and     |
        |Animals of the--    |habits, uses--      |mines of the United |
        |1. Temperate cli-   |1. Palm, banana,    |States.             |
        |mate.               |pineapple and orchid|2. Gold and silver. |
        |2. Tropical climate.|families.           |3. Copper.          |
        |3. Polar climate.   |2. Mosses; lichens. |                    |
        |Uses made of them.  |                    |                    |
        |                    |                    |                    |
        |                    |                    |                    |
        |                    |                    |                    |
  ------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
    VII.|Animals of the dif- |1. Zones of vegeta- |Mines and minerals  |
        |ferent zones of the |tion.               |of other countries. |
        |Old World compared  |2. Limits of migra- |                    |
        |with those of the   |tion.               |                    |
        |United States. Dis- |3. Vegetable pro-   |                    |
        |tribution and migra-|ducts of commerce.  |                    |
        |tion; cause; limits.|                    |                    |
        |                    |                    |                    |
        |                    |                    |                    |
        |                    |                    |                    |
        |                    |                    |                    |
  ------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
   VIII.|Relation of animal  |1. Culture of       |Minerals.           |
        |life to vegetation  |fruits, vegetables, |1. Constituents.    |
        |and civilization.   |fibers, grains.     |2. Commercial value |
        |Checks on animal    |2. Commercial value;|and uses in the     |
        |life.               |benefits to man.    |arts, etc.          |
        |                    |                    |                    |
  ------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+

  ======+==============================================================
  GRADES|                           STRUCTURE
  ------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------
        |       GEOLOGY      |     PHYSICS AND    |     ASTRONOMY,
        |                    |      CHEMISTRY     |     METEOROLOGY
  ------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------
      I.|Rain; its effects-- |Observe qualities;  |Observe--
     II.|1. On the surface;  |elastic, porous,    |1. Sun, moon, con-
    III.|slopes, ponds, in   |etc.                |stellations.
        |valleys, streams.   |1. Forms of water;  |2. Wind, clouds,
        |2. Below the sur-   |their uses.         |rain, snow, frost,
        |face; springs, cav- |2. Atmosphere;      |dew.
        |erns, etc.          |weight, composition.|3. Their causes.
        |River Basins--      |3. Magnetism; elec- |4. Effects.
        |1. Boundary, uses,  |tricity.            |
        |etc.                |4. Solutions.       |
        |2. Alluvial de-     |5. Gases; hydrogen, |
        |posits.             |oxygen, nitrogen,   |
        |                    |carbonic acid gas.  |
  ------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------
     IV.|1. Ocean; effects of|1. Heat; sources:   |Climate; causes:
        |waves, tides,       |sun, fuel, friction.|1. Winds, direction
        |currents.           |2. Transmission;    |of sun’s rays.
        |2. Glaciers; mo-    |conduction, radia-  |2. Surface; moun-
        |raines: formation,  |tion, convection.   |tains, vegetation.
        |effects.            |3. Uses: warming,   |3. Bodies of water;
        |3. Volcanoes; gey-  |cooking, smelting.  |rivers, ocean
        |sers; earthquakes.  |4. Physical and     |currents.
        |4. Gradual elevation|chemical changes    |Twilight; duration.
        |and depression of   |observed.           |
        |the earth’s crust.  |5. Carbon; forms;   |
        |                    |uses.               |
  ------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------
      V.|Continent building--|1. Light--          |1. Prevailing winds.
        |1. Mountains,       |  _a._ Sources;     |2. U. S. weather
        |plains, coast lines.|  uses.             |maps.
        |2. Agencies;        |  _b._ Transmission,|3. Climate of the
        |  _a._ Vegetable;   |  reflection, re-   |United States.
        |  peat-bogs, swamps.|  fraction.         |
        |  _b._ Animal; coral|  _c._ Lenses,      |
        |  formation, shell  |  glasses.          |
        |  deposits.         |2. Fermentation of  |
        |  _c._ Chemical     |fruit juices; yeast.|
        |  springs, geysers, |                    |
        |  caverns, deposits |                    |
        |in lakes and seas.  |                    |
  ------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------
     VI.|1. Appalachian and  |1. Magnetism; uses: |North and South
        |Rocky mountains.    |compass, electro-   |America--
        |2. River basins and |magnets.            |1. Winds; trades,
        |great lakes of the  |2. Electricity;     |polar, variable.
        |United States.      |sources and uses.   |2. Wind zones.
        |                    |3. The levers;      |3. Weather maps.
        |                    |scales.             |
        |                    |4. Equilibrium of   |
        |                    |bodies.             |
        |                    |5. Chlorine.        |
  ------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------
    VII.|Continent struc-    |Pendulum; inertia,  |Trades and Monsoons.
        |ture--              |motion.             |1. Deserts; Sahara,
        |1. South America.   |Forces: gravitation,|Arabia, etc.
        |2. Eurasia.         |cohesion, chemical  |2. Heavy rains of
        |3. Australia.       |attraction.         |India.
        |4. Africa.          |Capillary attrac-   |
        |                    |tion; osmose pres-  |
        |                    |sure and flow of    |
        |                    |liquids. Testing air|
        |                    |and water for       |
        |                    |impurities.         |
  ------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------
   VIII.|The earth; form,    |Sound; propagation, |The Solar system.
        |crust--             |reflection, vibra-  |The moon.
        |1. Rock strata;     |tion, music.        |The sun; fixed
        |fossils.            |Examination of      |stars.
        |2. Geological ages. |soils.              |The tides; ocean
        |                    |                    |currents.
  ------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------


SOME GREAT MECHANICAL INVENTIONS


STEAM ENGINES

  _What are steam engines?_

_Steam engines_ are machines in which the elastic force of steam is used
as a motive power. In the ordinary engines the alternate expansion and
condensation of steam imparts to a piston an alternating rectilinear
motion, which is changed into a circular motion by means of various
mechanical arrangements.

  The engine is unquestionably the grandest and most influential for
  good of all the great inventions in the realm of physics. No other
  contrivance of man can be compared with this gigantic, yet tractable
  motor, in relieving both man and beast of ceaseless toil and irksome
  drudgery; in preventing suffering and starvation, and promoting
  intercourse, progress and civilization among the nations of the
  earth.

  _Give a description of the steam engine._

Every steam engine consists essentially of two distinct parts: the
apparatus in which the steam is produced, and the engine proper. We
shall first describe the former.

STEAM BOILER.--The boiler is the apparatus in which steam is generated.
Usually a cylindrical boiler is used for fixed engines; those of
locomotives and of steam vessels are very different.

The steam is produced from water at a pressure considerably above that
of the atmosphere, and is delivered to the engine with as little loss of
pressure and heat as possible. The higher the pressure of the steam, the
greater will be the amount of heat available, in a given weight of
steam, for conversion into mechanical energy. Only a fraction of the
total heat energy given to the steam in the boiler is converted into the
mechanical work in the engine. By far the greater portion still remains
in the steam after it has passed through the engine. The proportion of
heat utilized depends on the thermal efficiency of the engine, amounting
from twelve to fifteen per cent in good condensing engines; in the very
best engines of large size it may be as high as twenty per cent.

  The terms axis, axle, arbor, and shaft, in mechanics, are generally
  understood to mean the bar, or rod, which passes through the center
  of a wheel. A gudgeon is the pin, or support, on which a horizontal
  shaft turns; the pins upon which an upright shaft turns are called
  pivots.

The engine proper consists of a hollow _cylinder_ closed at both ends;
inside it is the _piston_, a sliding partition which fits the bore of
the cylinder sufficiently close to prevent the steam leaking past it,
but having sufficient freedom to allow it to move from end to end of the
cylinder with as little friction as possible.

In modern engines the pressure of the atmosphere is not employed to
drive the piston down. The steam is admitted into the cylinder above the
piston at the same time that it is condensed or withdrawn from below,
and thus exerts its expansive force in the returning as well as in the
ascending stroke. This results in a great increase of power.

The practical construction of the piston and cylinder, and the
arrangement of connecting pipes by which steam is admitted alternately
above and below the piston, is fully shown in Figure A. This gives a
sectional view of the cylinder, of the piston, and of the distribution
of steam. The entire engine is of iron. To the piston, T, is fixed a
rod, A, which slides with gentle friction in a tubulure, U, placed at
the center of the plate which closes the cylinder. As it is very
important that no steam shall escape between the piston-rod and this
tubulure, the latter is formed of two pieces, one attached to the plate,
while the other, which fits in the first, can be pressed as tightly as
is desired, so as to compress the material soaked with fat which is
between the two tubulures. This arrangement is called a _stuffing-box_;
it prevents the escape of steam without interfering with the motion of
the piston.

[Illustration: =FIGURE A=]

VALVE-CHEST.--This is the arrangement by which steam passes alternately
above and below the piston.

Figure A presents a vertical section of this valve-chest and shows its
relation to the cylinder. The steam enters the valve-chest from the
boiler by the brass tube _x_. From the valve-chest two conduits, _a_ and
_b_, are connected with the cylinder, one above and the other below. If
they were both open at once, the steam, acting equally on the two faces
of the piston, would keep it at rest. But one of these is always closed
by a _slide-valve_, _y_, fixed to a rod, _i_. This moves alternately up
and down, by means of an eccentric, _e_, placed on the horizontal shaft.
The slide-valve closes the conduit _a_, and allowing the steam to enter
at _b_, below the piston, the latter rises. But when it reaches the top
of the stroke the rod _i_ sinks, and with it the slide-valve, which then
closes the conduit _b_, and allows the steam to enter at _a_. The piston
then sinks, and so forth at each displacement of the slide-valve.

It now remains to explain what happens when the steam presses below the
piston. It must not remain above, otherwise the piston could not move.
But while the steam enters below by the conduit _b_, the top of the
cylinder, by means of the conduit _a_, is connected with a cavity, O,
from which passes the tube L. Through this tube the steam which has
already acted upon the piston passes into the atmosphere, or else is
condensed in a vessel filled with cold water, which is called the
_condenser_. If, on the other hand, the piston sinks, the vapor below
the piston passes, by the conduit _b_, to the cavity O, and to the tube
L.

TRANSMISSION OF MOTION.--The alternating rectilinear motion thus
generated within the cylinder is transmitted, by means of a rod attached
to the piston, to a strong beam _ff_, movable upon a central axis, a
system of jointed rods _ee_, called the _parallel motion_, being
interposed for the purpose of neutralizing the disturbing action which
the circular path of the beam would otherwise exert upon the piston. The
reciprocating motion of the beam is now, through the intervention of the
connecting-rod _g_ and crank _h_, converted into a circular or rotatory
motion, which is rendered continuous and uniform by the fly-wheel _i_,
to the axis of which the machinery to be impelled is connected.

The air-pump, _p_, for withdrawing the vapor and water from the
condenser, the feed-pump, _s_, for supplying the boilers, and cold-water
pump, _t_, for supplying the condenser cistern, are all worked by rods
from the beam; and the governor, _u_, for maintaining uniformity of
motion, is driven by a band from the crankshaft. The above description
refers more immediately to that class of steam engines called
_low-pressure_ engines.

TYPES OF ENGINES.--The various forms of the steam engine have received a
varied form of classification. There are the general divisions into
_condensing_ and _non-condensing_ engines, _compound_ and
_non-compound_, and _single_, _double_, or _direct acting_. Again there
is the classification connected with the position of the cylinder, as in
the _horizontal_, _vertical_, and _inclined_ cylinder engines. Another
classification divides steam engines into the uses to which they are
applied, such as stationary engines, portable engines, marine,
locomotive, electric generating, pumping, mill driving, winding, etc.

STEAM TURBINE.--The steam turbine, though the most modern form of the
steam engine in practice, is the most ancient in actual history, the
germ of the invention dating from Hero of Alexandria, in the second
century B. C.

[Illustration: =FIG. B--BEAM CONDENSING STEAM ENGINE=

_a_, The steam-cylinder; _b_, the piston; _c_, the upper steam-port or
passage; _d_, the lower steam-port; _ee_, the parallel motion; _ff_, the
beam; _g_, the connecting-rod; _h_, the crank; _ii_, the fly-wheel;
_kk_, the eccentric and its rod for working the steam-valve; _l_, the
steam-valve and valve-casing; _m_, the throttle-valve; _n_, the
condenser; _o_, the injection-cock; _p_, the air-pump; _q_, the
hot-well; _r_, the shifting-valve for creating a vacuum in the condenser
previous to starting the engine; _s_, the feed-pump for supplying the
boilers; _t_, the cold-water pump for supplying condenser cistern; _u_,
the governor.]

One kind of steam turbine is really worked on the same principle as a
windmill, only steam is used instead of the wind. Instead, however, of
the sails making one revolution in seven or eight seconds, it sometimes
makes three thousand revolutions a minute, or fifty revolutions a
second. In another kind the blades of the turbine are something like the
pockets on a water-wheel, and the steam shoves the wheel round by its
great velocity.

Turbine engines are now fitted to vessels of large dimensions, up to
ocean liners and battleships, with extremely satisfactory results.
Turbine engines have also been applied in various other ways, _e.g._, to
the driving of fans and blowers.

The principle of internal combustion, as used in gas and oil engines,
has also been applied to the turbine with marked success, and has done
much to solve the all-important problem of efficiency. It is extremely
improbable that the long-range activities of the submarine would be
nearly so effective were it not for the application of the same
principle to their engines.

[Illustration: THE MARVELOUS IRON SKELETON OF THE LOCOMOTIVE AND THE
NAMES OF ITS PRINCIPAL PARTS

    4 Air Signal Hose
    5 Air Brake Hose
   11 Front Frame
   12 Cinder Chute
   14 Extension Front
   15 Headlight Step
   16 Signal Lamp
   18 Smoke Arch Door
   19 Smoke Arch Front
   22 Headlight Case
   23 Headlight Reflector
   27 Deflector Plate
   28 Deflector Plate Adjuster
   29 Air Pump Exhaust Pipe
   38 Smoke Stack
   39 Arch Hand Rail
   44 Steam Chest
   51 Steam Passages to Chest
   52 Valve Seat
   56 Steam Ports
   57 Cylinder
   58 Back Cylinder Head
   59 Piston Packing
   60 Piston Rod
   61 Piston Head
   62 Piston Packing Rings
   64 Front Cylinder Head
   65 Cylinder Head Casing
   66 Cylinder Lagging
   67 Cylinder Casing
   68 Cylinder Cocks
   69 Cylinder Cocks Rigging
   70 Engine Truck
   71 Engine Truck Wheel
   73 Engine Truck Axle
   75 Engine Truck Box
   77 Engine Truck Frame
   80 Engine Truck Equalizer
   82 Engine Truck Spring
   86 Truck Brake
   87 Wheel Guard
   88 Signal Pipe
   92 Main Rod
   97 Main Frame
   99 Air Drum
  100 Pump Connection
  101 Train Pipe Connection
  102 Valve Stem Rod
  103 Train Pipe
  104 Wash Out Plugs
  108 Link Block
  112 Tumbling Shaft Arm
  113 Tumbling Shaft
  114 Tumbling Shaft Lever
  120 Check Valve Case
  121 Check Valve
  122 Flues
  123 Oil Pipe
  124 Horizontal Boiler Seam
  125 Circumferential Seam
  126 Boiler Lagging
  127 Boiler Jacket
  128 Jacket Bands
  132 Bell
  133 Steam Bell Ringer
  134 Sand Box
  135 Pneumatic Sander
  136 Sand Pipe
  137 Driving Wheel Tire
  138 Driving Wheel Centers
  140 Driver Brakes
  141 Driver Springs
  150 Driving Box
  151 Driving Axle
  155 Main Frame
  158 Go Ahead Eccentric
  159 Back Up Eccentric
  165 Rocking Grates
  168 Running Board
  169 Air Cylinder Brake Pump
  170 Steam Cylinder Brake Pump
  173 Drip Cock
  174 Pump Piston Packing
  177 Governor
  186 Fire Box
  192 Stand Pipe
  195 Throttle Valve
  198 Dome
  201 Safety Valves
  202 Chime Whistles
  203 Whistle Rig
  204 Ventilator
  205 Cab
  207 Air Gauge
  208 Steam Gauge
  209 Steam Turret
  213 Signal Whistle
  214 Air Pump Throttle
  215 Throttle Lever
  216 Pneumatic Sander
  216a Sand Lever
  217 Reverse Lever
  218 Engineer’s Brake Valve
  219 Gauge Cocks
  222 Fire Door
  229 Whistle Signal Valve
  233 Signal Pipe
  236 Feed Pipe]


LOCOMOTIVES

_Locomotive engines_, or simply _locomotives_, are steam engines which,
mounted on a carriage, propel themselves by transmitting their motion to
wheels.

The parallel motion, the beam, and the fly wheel of the ordinary
stationary engine form no part of a locomotive. The principal parts are
the _framework_, the _fire box_, the _casing_ of the boiler, the _smoke
box_, the _steam cylinders_, with their valves, the _driving wheels_,
and the _feed pump_.

The framework rests on the axles of the wheels. The illustration on
another page shows clearly the arrangement and parts of a typical
locomotive. It will be observed that in the lower part of the _steam
dome_ is the _fire box_, from whence the flame and the products of
combustion pass into the smoke box, and then into the chimney after
having previously traversed the numerous brass _fire tubes_ which pass
through the boiler. The _boiler_, which connects the fire box with the
smoke box, is made of iron, and is cylindrical.

The steam passes from the boiler into two _cylinders_, placed on either
side of the smoke box. There, by means of a steam chest similar to that
already described, it acts alternately on the two faces of the piston,
the motion of which is transmitted to the axle of the large driving
wheels. After having acted on the pistons, the steam is forced through
the blast pipe into the chimney, thus increasing the draft.

The motion of the pistons is transmitted to the large driving wheels by
two connecting rods, which, by means of cranks, connect the piston rods
with the axles of the wheels. The alternating motion of the slide valve
is effected by means of eccentrics placed on the axles of the large
wheels.

WHEELS OF THE LOCOMOTIVE.--The wheels range ordinarily from forty-five
to eighty-five inches in diameter for drivers, thirty to forty-two
inches for truck wheels. They are made of castiron or steel body and
steel rim shrunk on. Spoked wheels are usual for drivers, solid wheels
for trucks. The tread is four to five inches wide, the flange (one to
one and one-quarter inch high) increasing this to five and one-half to
seven inches. A counterbalance weight is cast between the spokes
opposite the crank-pin seat. The axles, forged steel, are six to eight
inches in diameter (for drivers); the wheels are forced on their ends by
a powerful press. Cranked axles (for inside cylinders) are forged to
shape, rarely built up.

CONTROL.--The locomotive is controlled by the throttle-valve and the
reverse lever. Both are located in the cab, which is built at the rear
around the fire box, and serves also as firing platform.

AUXILIARIES.--The necessary auxiliaries of the locomotive are those
required for its operation as a power generator, and those necessary to
its service as a railroad vehicle or as a tractor. The _tender_ is the
most important in the first group. It is a separate vehicle attached
behind the locomotive, carrying a water tank of three to eight or nine
thousand gallons capacity, and a coal bin of two to ten tons capacity.
Eight-wheel (two-truck) tenders are usual. The coal space is at the
front of the tender, and the water tank occupies the rear half and
extends forward along the sides of the coal bin. The coal thus is
reached directly from the rear of the engine cab.

Water is supplied to the engine by pipes leading from the tank to
injectors on the engine. Feed pumps are rarely used for pumping the
water into the boiler, injectors in duplicate being depended on. The
safety valve, mounted on the top of the boiler, is of the spring poppet
type. A steam whistle is placed alongside, for use as warning and
train-movement signal; a bell operated from the cab by a cord is also
mounted on the boiler.

The air-brake equipment of the locomotive comprises the brake mechanism
for the engine itself, and an air pump with its governor, a main
reservoir, and the engineer’s valve, for supplying and manipulating the
brakes of the entire train. The air pump is a direct-coupled compressor
whose steam and air cylinders have a common piston-rod, attached in
vertical position to the side of the boiler in front of the cab. The
cylinder diameter is eight to ten inches. It pumps air into the main
reservoir, a cylindrical tank hung under the boiler. An automatic
pressure governor starts the compressor when the pressure falls and
stops it when the full reservoir pressure is restored.

The locomotive brake equipment consist of brake cylinder and lever
system connected to the wheel brake-shoes, but its valve control differs
somewhat from that of a car, so as to permit braking the engine alone if
desired. The engineer’s valve is a flat-seat rotary valve with positions
for supplying brakes, recharging the train-pipe, and closing all
connections. A separate valve is usually supplied to operate the engine
brake alone, working this as “straight-air” or non-automatic brake.
Reservoir and train-pipe gauges are mounted in the engine cab near the
brake handles. Steam brakes are no longer fitted on American
locomotives. The driving-wheels only of the locomotive are braked, but
the tender is fully braked.

The sand-box for increasing the driving-wheel friction on wet or greasy
rail is commonly set on top of the boiler with discharge pipes ending in
front of the drivers just above the rail. A compressed-air ejector is
now often used (pneumatic sander), in which case the sand-box may be
placed on the front sill or in other convenient position with equal
effectiveness.

THE CAB, with windows in front and sides, is built around the fire box,
providing a seat on either side which commands a view ahead over the
track. The reverse lever is placed on the right-hand, or engineer’s
side, from where also the throttle lever and brake-valve handles
are reached. Injector, whistle, sander, bell, drain cocks,
traction-increaser, and other appliances are controlled from here. The
headlight, set on top of the boiler in front of the stack, is usually an
oil lamp, with parabolic reflector. Acetylene and electric headlights
are extensively used in recent years, the latter supplied by a small
steam-turbine and dynamo combination.

CLASSES AND TYPES OF LOCOMOTIVES.--The wheel-arrangement of a locomotive
is, in conjunction with its total weight, the chief characteristic.
Freight locomotives, running at slow speeds, utilize a large adhesion,
and therefore have a large proportion of their weight carried on
drivers; they have less need for good guiding quality and steadiness at
great speeds. Passenger locomotives, working at high speeds, develop a
much lower tractive force, and therefore require less weight on drivers,
but need leading wheels for guiding quality and steadiness.

The number and arrangement of cylinders is another characteristic of
classification. Most locomotives have two cylinders, both simple.
Compounds are built with two, three or four cylinders.

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS.--The chief factor in the modern modification of
locomotive types and details is increase of size. The only limiting
factors are boiler capacity and weight on drivers.

Economy of operation has brought compounding into much favor even for
single-frame engines, and more recently has led to the wide adoption of
super-heating; these improvements also allow increased power to be
obtained from a boiler of given size.

WEIGHT AND POWER.--Locomotives weighing seventy-five to one hundred and
twenty-five tons (without tender) are common. In power, road locomotives
range from three hundred to one thousand five hundred horse power and
occasionally to two thousand horse power, the more modern ranging from
seven hundred to one thousand five hundred. High-speed passenger
locomotives are usually more powerful than heavier freights.

BOILER PERFORMANCE.--The distinguishing feature of the locomotive boiler
is its high evaporative capacity, and the very high rates of
fuel-burning. At full power one hundred pounds coal are burned per
square foot of grate surface per hour, by virtue of the strong draft
produced by the exhaust-steam blast. At moderate speeds twenty-five to
forty pounds are burned.

ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES.--The operation of heavy railroad service (_i.e._
trains of freight cars and long passenger trains) by electric power
requires the use of electric locomotives in place of the car-motor
arrangement of street railroads. Such locomotives have been built since
the middle of the nineties, and in considerable number since 1905. The
earlier ones had the motors geared to the axles, or directly mounted
thereon, but recent constructions have the motors mounted on the frame
or platform, above the wheels, so that their weight is carried by the
frame springs, and the motors drive the wheels through coupling-rods
either direct or by way of an intermediate jack-shaft. This form is
found to give smoother running and exert less destructive effect on the
track than the prior forms. In wheel arrangement these locomotives vary
greatly, but recent machines exhibit combinations of coupled drivers
with leading and trailing trucks not unlike the arrangement of steam
locomotives. Electric locomotives of two thousand to three thousand
horse power have been built, and are in regular use hauling trunk-line
trains.


AËROPLANES

Flying-machines are distinguished from balloons and dirigibles in being
“heavier than air,” and consequently raised and supported by dynamic
means alone, by the reaction of the air on surfaces driven through it.

Essentially, the aëroplane may be compared to a kite in which the pull
of the string is replaced by the thrust of the propeller.

On December 17, 1903, the Brothers Wright, in America, made their first
power-flight; while the very first public flight was made in France by
Santos-Dumont on September 14, 1906.

Before it was possible to produce a power-driven aëroplane, experiments
over a long course of years were made with aëroplanes not provided with
propelling apparatus.

In its earliest form the aëroplane consisted of a flat surface moved
through the air in a position slightly inclined from the horizontal; in
its forward movement the plane experiences resistance from the air. As
this resistance is directed partly on the under side, it will be partly
converted into a lifting force. Of these two forces--head resistance or
drift, and the lifting or sustaining force or lift--the first, being
unproductive, must be reduced as far as possible; the second, lift,
must, on the other hand, be raised to the highest possible degree.

This end is achieved by employing, instead of flat surfaces or planes,
surfaces curved in the direction of flight.

THE TWO TYPES.--A _monoplane_ is a machine with a single spread of
surface supporting it. The best known example of a monoplane is the
Bleriot. _Biplanes_ have two supporting surfaces, the one above the
other; the Wright and Farman machines are machines of this type. There
are other machines which have been invented which have more supporting
surfaces than this, the most successful of them all being the Roe
triplane. But at present, at any rate, the advantage lies between the
monoplane and the biplane, the other machines not yet having reached a
sufficiently high standard to be able to compete with them.

The monoplane and the biplane have both their own special uses. The
monoplane is obviously the lighter machine, and its head resistance is
much less, hence it follows logically that its speed will be greater
than that of a biplane. But the biplane is a much more stable machine
than the monoplane; it will therefore probably be safer and will
certainly be able to carry a greater weight.

In the making of aëroplanes wood is usually used for the framework.
Specially selected wood is taken, usually from the spruce, hickory, ash,
or birch, since wood combines in itself the strength and tenacity of
metal without its weight. The fabric with which this frame is covered is
more difficult to obtain, since it must contain in itself all the
qualities of strength, lightness, smoothness, etc., without any
tendencies to shrink, or rot, or burn.

The biplane carries a load of from two and one-half to three and
one-half pounds per square foot of surface; the monoplane from three and
one-half to six pounds per square foot. The load per horse power in each
case is from thirty to forty pounds. In speed the biplane ranges from
thirty-five to forty-five miles per hour, as against forty to sixty
miles per hour attained by the monoplane.

PRACTICAL USES.--From the very first days the value of the aëroplanes,
from a military point of view, has been realized, not as a weapon of
offense so much as of intelligence. It would, in fact, be difficult to
imagine a better means of scouting and reconnoitering than is afforded
by the flying-machine. Its gradually increasing radius of action renders
it available for strategical no less than for tactical reconnaissance;
its easy mode of progress and absence of vibration allow the most
accurate observations to be made and sketch-maps to be drawn. For
dispatch-carrying over difficult country its usefulness is also
considerable. Its employment for purposes of offense is much more
hazardous. On the other hand, it is practically immune from artillery or
rifle fire from the land, especially when flying at a fair altitude.

As a commercial vehicle, and for transport, the aëroplane, owing to its
relatively low carrying power, is restricted in its usefulness. With
increasing reliability, however, it may well assume a portion of the
functions of the motor car.


THE MODERN AIRSHIP

The development of the balloon began in 1783, and was the work of two
brothers, Joseph and Etienne Montgolfier, who were the sons of a paper
manufacturer of Annonay, France.

The latest and most successful experimenter is Count Zeppelin, a German
inventor, whose name has been given to the huge dirigible airships known
as Zeppelins. Between these there has been a long list of inventors and
experimenters who met with varying degrees of success; but the Zeppelins
stand paramount.

From the year 1897 the development of the airship was the special work
of the Count Zeppelin. In 1900 he made his first flight with a dirigible
balloon which carried five men. It was made of aluminum, supported by
gas bags and driven by two motors, each about sixteen horse power. His
first experiment met with some success, but the first Zeppelin airship
was succeeded by another in 1905 with greater motor power; this was
wrecked and was succeeded by a third, which met with great success. This
airship carried eleven passengers and attained a speed of about
thirty-six miles an hour. The fourth Zeppelin airship succeeded in
traveling about two hundred and fifty miles in eleven hours, but was
wrecked by a storm in 1908, the wreckage catching fire and completely
destroying the ship.

_Zeppelin VII._ had a total length of no less than four hundred and
eighty-five feet, a diameter of forty-six feet, and a volume of 690,000
cubic feet. The vessel was fitted with three engines totaling some four
hundred and twenty horse power and capable of driving the vessel at
thirty-five miles an hour. On one occasion she carried thirty-two people
and made a journey of three hundred miles in nine hours.

In the meantime many other experiments had been carried out, notably by
Santos Dumont, who circled the Eiffel Tower in the face of a fresh wind.

_Dirigibles_ are divided into three types--(_a_) _rigid_, in which there
is a framework or skeleton, over which a skin is stretched and within
which a number of balloons are placed; (_b_) _semi-rigid_, in which the
lower part only of the balloon is distended on a flat framework; and
(_c_) _non-rigid_, when a gas-bag of elongated form has a long girder
suspended below it. The propellers are most usually mounted in pairs on
each side of the car, but Zeppelin attached them to the balloon itself.
To prevent pitching, an “empennage” of flat surfaces is usually arranged
near the after-end.

SOME FACTS ABOUT ZEPPELINS.--In shape an ordinary Zeppelin airship is a
long cylinder with semisphere-like ends and a keel running the whole
length of the bottom thereof. In appearance from a distance the cylinder
and pointed ends appear circular in shape, _i.e._ in cross-section, but
in reality this is not so, both being sixteen sided. About one-third the
distance from either end of the keel are small boat-like structures
suspended from the hull, so close to it that at these places there is a
gap in the hull to make room for them. They are rigidly connected with
the metallic hull of the airship and help to support it either when the
vessel rests on the ground or is towed or driven along the water.

Within these structures are the crew and engines, while above, but
outward on each side of the rigid hull and connected with it by means of
outriggers, are two pairs of aërial propellers. These are placed at an
equal distance out on either side and in the same horizontal plane, so
that their united propulsive action shall act centrally along the line
of head resistance. The crew can walk through the keel (originally
V-shaped) from end to end, or from one boat to the other, the passage
being illuminated by means of suitable windows. An observer can also
climb through the hull to take observation from the top. Telephones,
electric bells, and speaking-tubes are all employed to transmit orders.

CONSTRUCTION OF THE FRAME.--The frame of the rigid hull is built of
sixteen longitudinals or girders of trellised or latticed metal; it runs
the whole length of the airship and is riveted at regular intervals to
cross-sections of latticed girders. Each of these cross-sections is in
the form of a sixteen-sided figure or wheel, with latticed rims
strengthened by radial rods running from a center flange or boss to the
outer rims. The main hull is thus divided into a number of compartments,
each separated from one another by means of these latticed radial discs
or wheel-like structures and otherwise enclosed by the sixteen latticed
girder longitudinals or beams. Each of these compartments contains a
gas-bag or balloonette filled with hydrogen; the balloonette fairly
fills the compartment, and each bag exerts its proportionate lift. A
netting of ramie cords is stretched from wheel to wheel diagonally,
between the beams at their inner corners, while the outward corners of
the beams are joined by strong wires arranged diagonally for the purpose
of imparting rigidity.

The whole frame is covered externally with a strong fabric, which forms
the outer skin or wall of the hull. Air-spaces naturally exist between
this covering, the inflated balloonettes, and the wheel-like divisions.
The entire airship owes its buoyancy to the balloonettes filled with
hydrogen, while the outer framework and covering act as a protection
against the sun, foul weather, and external shocks.

WAR ZEPPELINS.--Monstrous as the above ships are, they are quite dwarfed
by the recent type of military Zeppelins. The latter carry motors
aggregating no less than nine hundred horse power. The length varies
from five hundred to eight hundred feet, and the diameter is
proportional. The gas capacity exceeds a million cubic feet.

AËROPLANE VERSUS AIRSHIP.---On the airship’s side the following strong
points are claimed: (1) Greater manœuvering power than the aëroplane,
more especially with respect to rapidity of ascent; (2) greater
offensive power, _i.e._ ability to carry heavier guns owing to its far
greater lifting capacity; (3) ability to stand still or hover in the air
over one spot (for bomb-dropping), or remain stationary in the air, end
on to the enemy, for the purpose of obtaining a steady gun platform; (4)
greater flying durability, _i.e._ ability to remain longer in the air at
a stretch; (5) ability to fly at night.

MANNING THE AIRSHIP.--The crew of a military airship includes the
following: the pilot, the engineer, the steersman, the wireless
operator, and last but by no means least the observer. The total number
of the crew varies with the size of the airship, and the particular
mission in view. The pilot is the captain of the airship, and is
responsible for (1) the route, (2) the altitude or elevation at which
the airship travels, and (3) the maintenance of the correct pressure on
the envelope. The steersman maintains the course ordered him, by means
of a compass or by special instructions which may be given him, and also
controls the altitude or elevation as ordered. The engineer naturally
looks after the engines and the mechanical part of the apparatus with
which the airship is fitted.

[Illustration: =MARVELOUS MECHANISM OF THE MODERN SUBMARINE=

Its interior is a steel maze of intricate machinery that fills it from
end to end, and makes it easily the most remarkable of modern marine
craft.]


THE SUBMARINE

Though the submarine boat has only recently been brought to a high
degree of practical efficiency, its history extends back to the
seventeenth century, and even beyond. The modern submarine, however,
whether of the American, English, or German type, has followed the
model of J. P. Holland, an American inventor who submitted designs to
the United States government in 1895.

[Illustration: =SUBMARINE WITH WIRELESS EQUIPMENT=]

In 1901 the English Admiralty gave orders to the firm of Vickers, Maxim
& Sons, of Barrow, to construct five of the _Holland_ type and
subsequently several were constructed for the United States government.

To France belongs the credit of making submarine boats a real factor in
naval warfare. In 1881 M. Goubet designed a small submarine boat, and in
1885 an improved _Goubet_, which was sixteen feet five inches in length,
the motive power being electricity. Successful experiments led the
French Admiralty to have the _Gymnote_ constructed at Toulon in 1888;
she was fifty-six feet five inches long, with a displacement of thirty
tons, her motive power being electricity stored in accumulators, which
gave her a radius of thirty-two miles at eight knots. Her trials decided
the French authorities to have more vessels built, and by 1901 there
were some eleven completed.

[Illustration: =THE PERISCOPE OF THE SUBMARINE=

is its ever watchful eye. Ordinarily the top of the periscope extends
about eighteen inches above the waves. Continually revolved at a high
rate of speed by an electric motor, the mirrors bring into focus the
whole panorama of the upper seas so that the commander can follow in the
smallest detail what is passing above him, locate vessels to be
attacked, and submerge at will in the presence of danger.]

In America, the _Hollands_ have been similarly improved, but other types
are also in use. The _Lake_ type, named after the inventor, Simon Lake,
contains an air-lock through which divers may emerge. These vessels
have been adopted by Russia.

Germany started with _Hollands_, which they have developed along their
own lines. The submarine boat is found in all navies now, and has proved
an enormously efficient craft; displacements of one thousand tons are
not unusual and speeds as well as radius of action have shown great
improvement. The Diesel engine has been largely responsible for this. In
manœuvers the craft have come up to expectation completely, the
experience in actual war has shown them to be among the most formidable
of war craft.

There are two distinct types of submarine vessel--the submarine proper,
and the submersible. The submarine sinks through the exhaustion of all
its buoyancy, and she sinks at once; the submersibles are forced under.

The latter, though equipped to travel on the surface of the water, are
specially equipped for sinking quickly out of sight as the occasion
arises. The most improved types, such as the recent German U-boats, have
lofty armor plated conning towers, torpedo tubes, mounted guns,
periscopes, and wireless equipments.

While in the present European war the submarines have shown themselves
to be formidable weapons in skillful hands, they are not so formidable
as to ring the death-knell of the large battleship, still less perhaps
of the swift battle cruiser. Victory has usually rested with the more
powerful ship and the heavier guns.

The present-day submarine suffers from two serious drawbacks: (1)
inability to see under the water; (2) inefficient speed--the latter
being much slower compared with the speed of fast surface boats. The
chief chance of a submarine attacking an enemy with success is to come
upon him unawares.

The periscopes and other optical tubes with which submarines are fitted,
suffer also from many disabilities; and the fact that many collisions
have occurred while using them, shows that they are not yet perfect.
Obviously one showing not only what is forward of the submarine but what
is on the surface of the water on every side is best. One of the
drawbacks from which they suffer is the encrustation of salt on their
reflecting surfaces; and small though the exposed surface of the
periscope may be, there is always the chance of a vigilant enemy
detecting it.

THE SUBMARINE IN PEACE.--It is pleasant to record that this invention,
like many others of its kind, has not been devoted solely to war, but
that peace also can claim its services. The recent remarkable
trans-Atlantic voyages of the German submarine _Deutschland_ to American
ports is an illustration of their importance to commercial
transportation under critical conditions. Since, too, the submarine can
sink or dive down to moderate depths, it is obvious it can be used for
purposes of underwater salvage, construction, and exploration.

As an aid in the construction of breakwaters, the blowing-up of
submerged wrecks in comparatively speaking shallow waters, in searching
for sunken treasures, and as an aid to marine explorations in suitable
waters, the peace or working submarine is likely to be of untold value.

[Illustration: =TORPEDO TUBE OF SUBMARINE--DEADLY TORPEDO SHOWN IN TUBE
ON RIGHT OF PICTURE=]


ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

  WHAT IS ELECTRICITY? -- MEANS OF EXCITING ELECTRICITY -- ELECTRIFIED
  AND NON-ELECTRIFIED BODIES -- CONDUCTORS AND NON-CONDUCTORS OF
  ELECTRICITY -- ELECTRICAL MACHINES -- POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE
  ELECTRICITY -- VELOCITY OF ELECTRICITY -- PRINCIPAL AGENTS IN NATURE
  EXCITING ELECTRICITY -- LIGHTNING -- THREE FORMS OF LIGHTNING --
  SHEET AND HEAT LIGHTNING -- DURATION OF A FLASH OF LIGHTNING --
  PLACES DANGEROUS IN A THUNDER STORM -- HOW A TREE INFLUENCES
  LIGHTNING -- LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS -- THEIR PROPER PRINCIPLE OF
  CONSTRUCTION -- FRANKLIN’S EXPERIMENT WITH A KITE -- IDENTITY OF
  LIGHTNING AND ELECTRICITY -- UTILITY OF LIGHTNING-RODS -- WHAT IS
  THUNDER? -- WHAT OCCASIONS THE ROLLING OF THUNDER? --
  AURORA-BOREALIS -- EXTENT OF THE AURORA -- HEIGHT OF THE AURORA --
  APPEARANCE -- AURORA-BOREALIS OCCURS IN THE DAY-TIME -- WHAT IS
  GALVANISM? -- HOW GALVANIC ELECTRICITY WAS DISCOVERED --
  CONSTRUCTION OF A GALVANIC BATTERY -- ORIGIN OF THE TERM “GALVANISM”
  -- POLES OF A BATTERY -- MEANS BY WHICH GALVANIC-ELECTRICITY IN
  QUANTITY CAN BE DEVELOPED -- DIFFERENT FORMS OF GALVANIC BATTERIES
  -- LIGHT AND HEAT PRODUCED BY GALVANISM -- PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES
  OF ELECTRO-METALLURGY -- MAGNETISM -- NATURAL MAGNETS -- WHERE FOUND
  -- BODIES CAPABLE OF BEING MAGNETIZED -- INDUCTION -- MAGNETIC
  NEEDLE -- THE MAGNETIC COMPASS -- DISCOVERY AND FIRST USE OF THE
  COMPASS -- ELECTRO-MAGNETISM -- WHEN AND HOW DISCOVERED -- HOW IRON
  BARS BECOME MAGNETIC -- HORSE-SHOE MAGNETS -- EXCITATION OF
  MAGNETISM -- MORSE’S MAGNETIC TELEGRAPH -- TELEGRAPH, MAGNETIC,
  PRINCIPLES OF -- INTELLIGENCE, HOW CONVEYED BY -- ELECTRIC DYNAMO
  AND MOTORS -- WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY -- WIRELESS TELEPHONE -- X-RAYS


ELECTRICITY

  _How may electricity be called into activity?_

By _mechanical power_, by _chemical action_, by _heat_, and by _magnetic
influence_.

  _What is the most ordinary way of exciting electricity?_

By _friction_.

  _Do we know any reason why the means above enumerated should develop
  electricity from its latent condition?_

We are _entirely ignorant_ upon this subject.

  _When you rub a piece of paper with India-rubber, why does it adhere
  to the table?_

Because the _friction_ of the India-rubber against the surface of the
paper develops _electricity_, to which this adhesiveness is mainly to be
attributed.

  _Does electricity present any appearance by which it can be known?_

No; electricity, like heat, is in itself _invisible_, though often
accompanied by both _light_ and _heat_.

  _When a substance, by friction or by any other means, acquires the
  property of attracting other bodies, in what state is it said to
  be?_

It is said to be _electrified_, or _electrically excited_; and its
motion towards other bodies, or of other bodies towards it, is ascribed
to a force called electric attraction.

  _Does an electrified body exercise any other influence than an
  attractive one?_

It _does_; for it will be found that light substances, after _touching_
the electrified body, will _recede from it_ just as actively as they
approached it before contact. This is termed _electric repulsion_.

Thus, if we take a dry glass rod, rub it well with silk, and present it
to a light pith ball, or feather, suspended from a support by a silk
thread, the ball or feather will be attracted towards the glass. After
it has adhered to it a moment, it will fly off, or be repelled. The same
will happen if sealing-wax be rubbed with dry flannel, and a like
experiment made; but with this remarkable difference, that when the
glass repels the ball, the sealing-wax attracts it, and when the wax
repels, the glass will attract. These phenomena are examples of
_electrical attraction_ and _repulsion_.

  _What is a non-electrified body?_

One that holds its own natural quantity of electricity _undisturbed_.

  _What happens when an electrified body touches one that is
  non-electrified?_

The electricity contained in the former is _transferred_ in part to the
latter.

Thus, on touching the end of a suspended silk-thread with a piece of
excited wax, the silk will be excited, as will be shown by its moving
towards a book, piece of metal, or any other object placed near it.

  _Do all bodies conduct or allow electricity to pass through them
  equally well?_

Although there is no substance that can _entirely prevent_ the passage
of electricity, nor any that does not oppose _some resistance_ to its
passage, yet it moves with a much greater facility through a certain
class of substances than through others. Those substances which
facilitate its passage are called conductors; those that retard or
almost prevent it, are called non-conductors.

  _What substances are good conductors of electricity?_

The _metals_, _charcoal_, the _earth_, _water_, and _most fluids_,
except oils, the _human body_, etc., are good conductors.

  _What substances obstruct the passage of electricity, or are
  “non-conductors”?_

_Glass_, _resin_, _oil_, _silk_, _sulphur_, _dry air_, etc., etc., are
non-conductors.

  _What is an electrical machine?_

An electrical machine is an arrangement by which quantities of
electricity can be collected and discharged.

One type of the electrical machine most usually employed consists of a
large circular plate of glass, mounted upon a metallic axis, and
supported upon pillars fixed to a secure base, so that the plate can, by
means of a handle, be turned with ease. Upon the supports of the glass,
and fixed so as to press easily but uniformly on the plate, are four
rubbers; and flaps of silk, oiled on one side, are attached to these,
and secured to fixed supports by several silk cords. When the machine is
put in motion, these flaps of silk are drawn tightly against the glass,
and thus the friction is increased, and electricity excited.

  _Do we know what electricity is?_

No; a complete and final answer to this question is no more possible
than the answer to the question--what is _life_? The _theory_ of
electricity, however, opens up possibilities of the most fascinating
nature; it gives us a wonderfully clear conception of which might be
called the inner mechanism of electricity; and it even introduces us to
the very atoms of electricity.

  _Give a short outline of the theory of electricity._

EARLY THEORIES.--Early writers on the nature of electricity supposed it
to be either a fluid of peculiar properties or else two fluids whose
properties were complementary to each other or of opposite kinds;
Franklin held the _one fluid_ theory. Later physicists arrived at the
conclusion that whatever electricity might be, it was not a material
substance. As an alternative it was suggested that electricity was a
form of energy, but this proved untenable.

[Illustration: =HOW ELECTRICITY IS PRODUCED BY THE ACTIVITY OF
ELECTRONS=

_Diagram of the Atoms composing the finest point of a piece of Amber_

_ELECTRONS flying off from the SILK Atoms, across on to the AMBER Atoms,
and so charging the Amber with what is called NEGATIVE Electricity_

_Diagram of the Atoms composing the thinnest possible thread of SILK;
each Atom charged with innumerable NEGATIVE ELECTRONS whirling around
within or on the Atoms._]

ELECTRON THEORY.--This, with certain reservations, is held by the
scientific world of today. All matter is believed to be constituted of
minute particles called “atoms,” whose diameter has been estimated at
about one millionth of a millimeter. Up to a few years ago the atom was
believed to be quite indivisible, but it has been proved beyond doubt
that this is not the case. An atom may be said to consist of two parts,
one much larger than the other. The smaller part is negatively
electrified, and is the same in all atoms; while the larger part is
positively electrified, and varies according to the nature of the atom.
The small negatively electrified portion of the atom consists of
particles called “electrons,” and these electrons are believed to be
indivisible units or atoms of negative electricity.

The electrons in an atom are not fixed, but move with great velocity, in
definite orbits. They repel one another, and are constantly endeavoring
to fly away from the atom, but they are held in by the attraction of
the positive core. So long as nothing occurs to upset the constitution
of the atom, a state of equilibrium is maintained and the atom is
electrically neutral; but immediately the atom is broken up by the
action of an external force of some kind, one or more electrons break
their bonds and fly away to join some other atom. An atom which has lost
some of its electrons is no longer neutral, but is electro-positive; and
similarly, an atom which has gained additional electrons is
electro-negative.

THE ELECTRIC CURRENT.--A current of electricity is believed to be
nothing more or less than a stream of electrons, set in motion by the
application of an electro-motive force. Some substances are good
conductors of electricity, while others are bad conductors or
non-conductors. In order to produce an electric current, that is a
current of electrons, it is evidently necessary that the electrons
should be free to move. In good conductors, which are mostly metals, it
is believed that the electrons are able to move from atom to atom
without much hindrance, while in a non-conductor their movements are
hampered to such an extent that interatomic exchange of electrons is
almost impossible.

  _Does electricity seem to exist in two different states or
  conditions?_

It does; and to designate these two conditions, the terms positive and
negative have been employed. Thus a body which has an overplus of
electricity is called positive, and one that has less than its natural
quantity is called negative.

  _Do light, heat, and electricity appear to have some properties in
  common?_

They _do_; each may be made, under certain circumstances, to _produce_
or _excite_ the other. All are so light, subtle, and diffusive, that it
has been found impossible to recognize in them the ordinary
characteristics of matter. Some suppose that light, heat, and
electricity are all _modifications_ of some common principle.

  _Why does the fur of a cat sparkle and crackle when rubbed with the
  hand in cold weather?_

Because the friction between the hand and fur produces an excitation of
_positive electricity_ in the _hand_ and _negative_ in the _fur_, and an
interchange of the two causes a spark, with a slight noise.

  _Why does this experiment work best in very cold weather?_

Because the air is then _very dry_, and does not _convey away_ the
electricity as fast as it is excited; if the air, on the contrary, were
_moist_, the electricity would be _conducted off_ nearly as fast as it
was excited by friction, and its effects would not therefore be so
manifest.

  _With what velocity is electricity transmitted through good
  conductors?_

With a velocity so great that the most rapid motion produced by art
appears to be actual rest when compared to it. Some authorities have
estimated that electricity will pass through copper wire at the rate of
_two hundred and eighty-eight thousand miles in a second_ of time--a
velocity greater than that of light.

  _What agents are undoubtedly the most active in producing and
  exciting electricity in the operations of nature?_

The _light_ and the _sun’s rays_.

  _Do some animals have the power of exciting electricity within
  themselves?_

There _are_ certain animals which are _gifted_ with the extraordinary
power of _producing electrical phenomena_ by an effort of muscular or
nervous energy. Among these the electrical eel and the torpedo are most
remarkable.

  _How powerful a charge of electricity can the electrical eel send
  forth when in full vigor?_

Sufficient to _knock down a man or stun a horse_.

  _Is the electricity generated by these animals the same as that
  occasioned by the ordinary electrical machine?_

It _is the same_, and produces the _same effects_.

  _Do vital action and muscular movements in man and animals give rise
  to electricity?_

They _do_; and it can be shown by direct experiment that a person cannot
even _contract the muscles of the arm_ without exciting an electrical
action.

  _Does change of form or state in bodies generally produce electrical
  excitation?_

Change of form or state is one of the _most powerful methods_ of
exciting electricity.

Water, in passing into steam by artificial heat, or in evaporating by
the action of the sun or wind, generates large quantities of
electricity. The crystallization of solids from liquids, all changes of
temperature, the growth and decay of vegetables, are also instrumental
in producing electrical phenomena.

  _What is lightning?_

Lightning is _accumulated electricity_, generally discharged _from the
clouds_ to the earth, but sometimes from the earth to the clouds.

  _What causes the discharge of an electric cloud?_

When a cloud _overcharged_ with electric fluid approaches another which
is _undercharged_, the fluid rushes from the former _into the latter_,
till both contain the _same quantity_.

  _Is there any other cause of lightning besides the one just
  mentioned?_

Yes; sometimes mountains, trees, and steeples will discharge the
lightning from a cloud floating near, and sometimes the electricity
passes from the earth into the clouds.

  _How high are the lightning clouds from the earth?_

Sometimes they are elevated _four or five miles high_, and sometimes
actually touch the earth with one of their edges; but they are rarely
discharged in a thunder storm when they are more than seven hundred
yards above the surface of the earth.

  _What is a thunder storm?_

The _disturbance_ caused in the _air_ when successive discharges of
accumulated electricity take place.

  _Into how many kinds has lightning been divided?_

_Three._

  _What are they?_

The _zig-zag lightning_, _sheet lightning_, and _ball lightning_.

  _Why is lightning sometimes forked?_

Because the lightning cloud is at a _great distance_; and the
_resistance of the air_ is so great that the electrical current is
diverted into a zig-zag course.

  _How does the resistance of the air make the lightning zig-zag?_

As the lightning condenses the air in the immediate advance of its path,
it flies from side to side, in order to pass where there is the _least
resistance_.

  _Why is the flash sometimes quite straight?_

Because the lightning cloud is near the earth, and as the flash meets
with very little resistance, it is not diverted; in other words, the
flash is straight.

  _What is sheet lightning?_

Either the reflection of distant flashes not distinctly visible or
beneath the horizon, or else _several flashes intermingled_.

[Illustration: =FRANKLIN AND HIS KITE=]

  _What other form does lightning occasionally assume?_

Sometimes the flash is _globular_, which is the most dangerous form of
lightning.

  _Does a discharge produce a flash when it passes through good
  conductors?_

It _does not_, but passes quietly and invisibly.

  _What is heat lightning?_

Sometimes it is the _reflection_ in the atmosphere of the lightnings of
storms _very remote_, the storms themselves being so far distant that
their thunders cannot be heard. This phenomenon is also occasioned by
the play of silent flashes of electricity between the earth and the
clouds, the amount of electricity developed not being sufficient to
produce any other effects than the mere flash of light.

  _Why is lightning more common in summer and in autumn than in spring
  and winter?_

Because the heat of summer and autumn produces _great evaporation_, and
the conversion of _water into vapor_ always develops _electricity_.

  _How long is the duration of a flash of lightning?_

Arago has demonstrated that it does not exceed the _millionth part of a
second_.

  _With what velocity is lightning, or the electric fluid which gives
  rise to its appearance, supposed to move?_

Not less than _two hundred and fifty thousand miles per second_.

  _By whom was the identity of lightning and electricity first
  established?_

By _Dr. Franklin_, at Philadelphia, in 1752.

The manner in which this fact was demonstrated, was as follows:

Having made a kite of a large silk handkerchief stretched upon a frame,
and placed upon it a pointed iron wire connected with the string, he
raised it upon the approach of a thunder storm. A key was attached to
the lower end of the hempen string holding the kite, and to this one end
of a silk ribbon was tied, the other end being fastened to a post. The
kite was now insulated, and the experimenter for a considerable time
awaited the result with great solicitude. Finally, indications of
electricity began to appear on the string; and on Franklin presenting
his knuckles to the key, he raised an electric spark. The rain beginning
to descend, wet the string, increased its conducting power, and vivid
sparks in great abundance flashed from the key.

  _Why was the kite insulated when Franklin fastened the key to the
  post with a silk ribbon?_

Because the silk was a _non-conductor_, and would not allow the
electricity received upon the kite to pass off by means of the string to
the ground.

  _Was this experiment one of great danger and risk?_

It was; because the whole amount of electricity contained in the thunder
cloud was _liable to pass from_ it, by means of the string, to the
earth, notwithstanding the use of the silk insulator.

  _Have we any proof of the utility of lightning rods?_

The experience of a hundred years has shown that when all the _necessary
rules_ have been _observed_, the protection is perfect, as far as human
effort can avail.

  _Is a building more or less liable to be struck when furnished with
  a good lightning conductor?_

Lightning conductors do _not_, as many suppose, _attract the lightning
toward the building_ on which they are situated; they simply _direct its
course_, and _facilitate_ the _passage_ of the _fluid_ in the most
direct way to the earth, only when a discharge must inevitably occur.
There is no attraction, but the lightning takes the road which offers
the least resistance.

  _What is thunder?_

It is a certain _noise_ proceeding apparently from the clouds, which
usually follows, after a greater or less interval, the appearance of a
flash of lightning.

  _How is it supposed to be occasioned?_

The usual explanation offered is a _sudden displacement of the air_
produced by the electrical discharges in which the lightning is evolved.

Others have supposed that the passage of the electric current creates a
vacuum, and that the air rushing in to fill it produces the sound. Any
explanation that has yet been offered is not altogether satisfactory.

  _What occasions the rolling of the thunder?_

It has been ascribed to the _effect of echo_; but the true cause
probably is, that the sound is developed by the lightning in passing
through the air, and consequently separate sounds are produced at every
point through which the lightning passes.

  _Why is thunder sometimes one vast crash?_

Because the lightning cloud is _near the earth_; and as all the
vibrations of the air (on which sound depends) reach the ear at _the
same moment_, they seem like one vast sound.

  _Why is the thunder generally heard several moments after the
  flash?_

Because it has a _long distance_ to travel. Lightning travels nearly a
_million_ times faster than thunder; if, therefore, the thunder has _a
great distance to come_, it will not reach the earth till a considerable
time _after the flash_.

  _Can we not tell the distance of a thunder cloud by observing the
  interval which elapses between the flash and the peal?_

Yes; the flash is instantaneous, but the thunder will take a whole
_second of time_ to travel three hundred and eighty yards; hence, if the
flash be five seconds before thunder, the cloud is nineteen hundred
yards off.

_i.e._ 380 × 5 = 1900 yards.

  _What is the aurora borealis or northern lights?_

_Luminous appearances_ seen in the _sky_ at night-time. Sometimes
streaks of blue, purple, green, red, etc., and sometimes flashes of
light, are seen.

  _What is the cause of the aurora borealis or northern lights?_

_Electricity_ in the higher regions of the atmosphere is undoubtedly an
active agent in producing this phenomenon.

  _Is the aurora ever seen in other parts of the heavens than towards
  the north?_

In the northern hemisphere it always appears in the _north_, but in the
southern hemisphere it appears in the _south_: it seems to originate at
or near the _poles of the earth_, and is consequently seen in its
greatest perfection within the arctic and antarctic circles.

  _What is known concerning the extent of the aurora?_

It is not _local_, but it is seen simultaneously at places widely remote
from each other, as in Europe and America.

  _What calculations have been made respecting the height of the
  aurora?_

The height of the appearances varies from _one to two hundred miles_;
they sometimes appear within the region of the clouds, and very near to
the earth.

  _Do the auroras appear at any particular seasons and times?_

They appear more frequently in the _winter_ than in the summer, and are
only seen at _night_.

  _Do they also occur in the day-time?_

The aurora is known to _affect the magnetic needle_ and the telegraph;
and as the effects upon these instruments are noticed by day as well as
by night, there can be no doubt of the occurrence of the aurora at all
hours. The intense light of the sun renders the auroral light invisible
during the day.

  _Of what utility are the auroral appearances in the polar regions?_

During the long polar night, when the sun is absent, the aurora appears
with a magnificence unknown in other regions, and affords _light
sufficient_ for many of the _ordinary outdoor employments_.


MAGNETISM

  _Is there any connection between magnetism and electricity?_

There is every reason to believe that magnetism and electricity are but
_modifications of one force_.

  _What is a loadstone or a natural magnet?_

It is an _ore of iron_, known as the “_protoxide of iron_,” or
“_magnetic oxide of iron_,” which is capable of attracting other pieces
of iron to itself; and if suspended freely by a thread, and left to take
its own position, it will arrange itself so that its extremities will
point towards the north and south poles of the earth.

  _Are natural magnets rare?_

They are _not_; they are found in many places in the _United States_. In
_Arkansas_, especially, an ore of iron possessing remarkably strong
attractive powers is very abundant.

The magnetic ore is usually of a dark gray hue, and possesses but little
metallic luster. If a piece of this ore be dipped in iron filings, or a
number of small needles, they will generally be found collected and
clinging together in great quantities at two opposite extremities,
whilst the middle portion is nearly destitute. The magnetic property,
whatever it may be, seems therefore to be collected and act with the
greatest energy at two opposite extremes; these have been termed
_poles_.

  _What is the origin of the terms “magnet” and “magnetism”?_

The loadstone or natural magnet was first found at _Magnesia_, in Lydia,
Asia, whence were derived the names.

  _Can a natural magnet communicate its attractive properties to other
  bodies by contact?_

It _can_, and that too without any _apparent loss_ of attractive
strength.

  _What bodies are capable of being magnetized by contact with natural
  magnets?_

_Iron_ and _steel_ are the substances most susceptible of this
influence, but brass, nickel, and cobalt can also become magnets.

  _Does the magnetism imparted to a piece of soft iron, or steel, by
  contact with a natural magnet, remain permanent in their
  substances?_

In the _steel_ it _does_, but the soft iron _loses its power_ as soon as
it is removed from the magnet.

  _Is it necessary that absolute contact should take place between a
  magnet and a piece of soft iron to render the latter a magnet?_

No, every piece of soft iron brought _near_ a magnet becomes by
induction itself a magnet.

  _What do you mean by induction?_

It is the production of _like effects_ in _contiguous bodies_. In
electricity or magnetism, it is the influence exerted by an electrified
or magnetized body through a non-conducting medium without any apparent
communication of a current.

  _What is meant by the directive power of the magnet?_

It is that power which will cause a magnet, when suspended freely, to
constantly _turn the same part_ towards the north pole and the opposite
part towards the south pole of the earth.

  _What are the poles of a magnet?_

They are the _ends_ of the magnet, and are denominated north and south,
according as they point to the north or south poles of the earth.

  _What are the poles of the earth?_

The _extremities of the earth’s axis_, or the points on the surface of
the globe through which the axis passes.

  _What is a magnetic needle?_

Simply a _bar of steel_ which is a _magnet_, suspended in such a way
that it can _freely turn_ to the north or south.

[Illustration: =DIAGRAM SHOWING THE VARIATION OF THE MAGNETIC AND
GEOGRAPHICAL POLES=]

  _What is a mariner’s compass?_

It is a _delicate steel bar or needle_ balanced upon a pivot placed
beneath its center of gravity in such a way that it can turn
horizontally without obstruction. This needle is usually inclosed in a
box, upon the bottom of which is a card, with the various points--north,
south, east, west, etc., etc., marked upon it.

Such a needle, if the box containing it be placed on a level surface,
will generally be observed to vibrate more or less, till it settles in
such a direction that one of its extremities or poles will point towards
the north, and the other consequently towards the south. If the position
of the box be altered or reversed, the needle will always turn and
vibrate again, till its poles have attained the same direction as
before.

  _Does the compass needle always point exactly north and south?_

It does _not_; its natural direction is towards the north and south
poles, but it seldom points due north or south.

  _Who first discovered the fact that a magnet would invariably point
  to the north and the south, and made use of this knowledge in
  constructing a compass?_

It is claimed to have been discovered by the _Chinese_: it was known in
Europe, and used in the Mediterranean, in the thirteenth century.

  _How were the compasses of that time constructed?_

They were merely _pieces of loadstone_ fixed to a _cork_, which floated
on the surface of water.

  _Is the earth itself supposed to be a magnet?_

It is undoubtedly a _great_ magnet.

  _Is iron under certain circumstances rendered magnetic by the
  inductive action of the earth’s magnetism?_

Most _iron bars_ and _rails_, as the vertical bars of windows, that have
stood for a considerable time in a perpendicular position, will be found
to be _magnetic_.

  _If we suspend a bar of soft iron sufficiently long in the air, will
  it assume magnetic properties?_

It _will_ gradually become magnetic; and although when it is first
suspended it points indifferently in any direction, it will at last
point _north and south_.

  _How may a bar of iron, such as a kitchen poker, be made immediately
  magnetic, without resorting to the use of other magnets?_

If the bar devoid of magnetism is placed with _one end on the ground_,
slightly inclined towards the north, and then struck one _smart blow_
with a _hammer_ upon the upper end, it will immediately acquire
_polarity_, and exhibit the attractive and repellant properties of a
magnet.

  _What is a horseshoe magnet?_

It is a _magnetic bar_ bent into the _form of a horseshoe_.

When a piece of iron not magnetic is brought in contact with a common
magnet, it will be attracted by either pole; but the most powerful
attraction takes place when both poles can be applied to the surface of
the piece of iron at once. The magnetic bars are for this purpose bent
into the shape of the letter U, and are termed _horseshoe magnets_.
Several of these are frequently joined together with their similar poles
in contact; they then constitute a _magnetic battery_, and are very
powerful, either for lifting weights, or charging other magnets.

  _If we break a magnet across the middle, what happens?_

Each fragment becomes converted into a _perfect magnet_; the part which
originally had a north pole acquires a south pole at the fractured end,
and the part which originally had a south pole, gets a north pole.

  _If we divide a magnet to the extreme degree of mechanical fineness
  possible, will the pieces possess magnetic powers?_

Each fragment, however small, will be a _perfect magnet_.


GALVANISM

  _What is galvanism?_

It is the production of _electrical disturbance_ by chemical action.

  _What is the most simple manner of illustrating the production of
  this electricity?_

If we place a piece of silver on the tongue, and a piece of zinc
underneath it, no effect will be produced as long as the two metals are
kept asunder; but when their ends are brought together, a _distinct
thrill_ will pass through the tongue, a metallic taste will diffuse
itself, and, if the eyes are closed, a sensation of _light_ will be
evident at the same moment.

  _To what is this result owing?_

To a _chemical action_ developed the moment the two metals touched each
other.

The _saliva_ of the tongue _oxidizes_ a portion of the _zinc_, which
excites _electricity_, for no chemical action ever takes place without
producing electricity. Upon bringing the ends of the two metals
together, a slight current passes from one to the other.

  _By whom was the production of galvanic electricity first noticed?_

By _Galvani_, professor of anatomy at Bologna, Italy, in 1790.

Having occasion to dissect several frogs, he hung up their hind legs on
some _copper hooks_, until he might find it necessary to use them for
illustration. In this manner he happened to suspend a number of the
copper hooks on an iron balcony, when, to his great astonishment, the
limbs were thrown into violent convulsions.

  _On investigating the phenomena what did Galvani discover?_

He found that whenever the nerves of a frog’s leg were touched by one
metal and the muscles by another, convulsions took place on bringing the
two different metals in contact.

  _What is the simplest way of exciting a current of galvanic
  electricity?_

By arranging a _series of metal plates in a pile_, placing them in
pairs, with a wet cloth between them, it being necessary that one of
each pair should be more easily oxidized than the other. The simple
contact of these plates will produce a feeble and continued galvanic
current.

  _What is such an arrangement of plates for producing electrical
  currents called?_

A _galvanic_ or _voltaic battery_.

  _Why are the terms “galvanic” and “voltaic” applied?_

They originated in honor of _Galvani_ and _Volta_, the Italian
philosophers who first developed these phenomena of chemical
electricity, and the means of producing them.

[Illustration: =HIGH-RESISTANCE GALVANOMETER FOR VERY SMALL CURRENTS=]

  _Are there many metals or other substances which, when brought
  together, are capable of producing galvanic action?_

The number is _quite large_; among them we may enumerate the following:
_zinc_, _lead_, _tin_, _antimony_, _iron_, _brass_, _copper_, _silver_,
_gold_, _platinum_, _black lead_ or _graphite_, and _charcoal_.

  _Will any two of these brought together produce a galvanic current?_

They _will_; but they possess the power in _different degrees_; and the
more remote they stand from each other in the order above given, the
more decidedly will the chemical electricity be developed.

Thus zinc and lead will produce a voltaic battery, but it will be much
less active than zinc and iron, or the same metal and copper, and this
last less active than zinc and platinum, or zinc and charcoal.

  _Does galvanic or voltaic electricity appear to consist of two
  kinds, positive and negative, as in ordinary electricity?_

It does; positive electricity always flows _from the metal which is
acted upon_ most powerfully, and negative electricity _from the other_.

  _What do we mean when we speak of a galvanic circuit?_

The connection of the two metals in the battery, so that the positive
and negative electricities can _meet, and flow in opposite directions_.

  _At what point in the circuit will the manifestations of electricity
  be most apparent?_

At the point where the _two currents meet_.

  _What is meant by the poles of the battery?_

The two metals forming the elements of the battery are generally
connected by copper wires; the _ends_ of these wires, or the _terminal
points_ of any other connecting medium used, are called the poles of the
battery.

Thus, when zinc and copper poles are used, the end of the wire conveying
positive electricity from the zinc would be the positive pole, and the
end of the wire conveying negative electricity from the copper plate
would be the negative pole. Faraday describes the poles of the battery
as the doors by which electricity enters into or passes out of the
substance suffering decomposition.

A very simple, and at the same time an active, galvanic circuit may be
formed by an arrangement as represented in the accompanying
illustration. The current of positive electricity, when the circuit is
closed, passes from the zinc, through the liquid, to the copper, and
from the copper, along the conductors to the zinc. A current of negative
electricity traverses the circuit also, from the copper to the zinc, in
a direction precisely reversed.

  _By what chemical action can the greatest abundance of galvanic
  electricity be developed?_

By the _oxidation of metallic zinc_ by weak sulphuric acid.

[Illustration: =TYPES OF ELECTRIC CELLS OR “BATTERIES”=

(1) _Grove’s Cell._--Z. Zinc plate in dilute sulphuric acid; P. platinum
plate in strong nitric acid. (2) _Daniell’s Cell._--Z. Zinc rod in
porous pot P containing dilute sulphuric acid; C. copper plate in outer
vessel containing copper sulphate solution. (3) _Leclanche Cell._--Zinc
in sal-ammoniac solution; carbon slab in charcoal and manganese
dioxide.]

  _The electricity developed by the action of a single pair of plates
  immersed in acid water is very feeble: how can it be increased?_

By increasing the _number of the plates_ and the quantity of the liquid,
we increase the intensity of the electricity developed.

ACTION WITHIN A VOLTAIC CELL.--Let us try to see now how an electric
current is set up in a simple voltaic cell, consisting of a zinc plate
and a copper plate immersed in dilute acid. First we must understand the
meaning of the word _ion_.

If we place a small quantity of salt in a vessel containing water, the
salt dissolves, and the water becomes salt, not only at the bottom where
the salt was placed, but throughout the whole vessel. This means that
the particles of salt must be able to move through the water. Salt is a
chemical compound of sodium and chlorine, and its molecules consist of
atoms of both these substances. It is supposed that each salt molecule
breaks up into two parts, one part being a sodium atom, and the other a
chlorine atom, and further, that the sodium atom loses an electron,
while the chlorine atom gains one. These atoms have the power of
traveling about through the solution, and they are called ions, which
means “wanderers.”

An ordinary atom is unable to wander about in this way, but it gains
traveling power as soon as it is converted into an ion, by losing
electrons if it be an atom of a metal, and by gaining electrons if it be
an atom of a non-metal.

Returning to the voltaic cell, we may imagine that the atoms of the zinc
which are immersed in the acid are trying to turn themselves into ions,
so that they can travel through the solution. In order to do this each
atom parts with two electrons, and these electrons try to attach
themselves to the next atom. This atom, however, already has two
electrons, and so in order to accept the newcomers it must pass on its
own two. In this way electrons are passed on from atom to atom of the
zinc, then along the connecting wire, and so to the copper plate. The
atoms of zinc which have lost their electrons thus become ions, with
power of movement. They leave the zinc plate immediately, and so the
plate wastes away or dissolves. So we get a constant stream of electrons
traveling along the wire connecting the two plates, and this constitutes
an electric current.

  _What are the most ordinary effects produced by the developed
  electricity of a large galvanic battery?_

The _production of sparks_ and _brilliant flashes of light_, the heating
and fusing of metals, the deflagration of gunpowder and other
inflammable substances, and the decomposition of water, saline
compounds, and metallic oxides.

  _How may the most splendid artificial light known be produced?_

By fixing pieces of pointed charcoal or carbon to the wires connected
with opposite poles of a powerful galvanic battery, and bringing them
into contact.

  _What does this produce?_

Electric light.

  _Can intense heat be developed by the action of the galvanic battery
  as well as intense light?_

The _greatest artificial heat_ man has yet succeeded in producing has
been through the agency of the _galvanic battery_.

  _What refractory substances can be fused by the aid of the galvanic
  battery?_

All the metals, including platinum, can be _readily melted_; quartz,
sulphur, magnesia, slate and lime are liquefied; and the diamond fuses,
boils, and becomes converted into coal.

[Illustration: =HOW AN ELECTRIC BATTERY GENERATES ELECTRICITY=

The above simple voltaic battery, or cell, consists of a plate of copper
and one of zinc dipping into a vessel containing dilute sulphuric acid
to twenty of water by volume. When these plates are joined externally by
a wire or other conductor a current flows from the copper plates, called
the positive pole of the battery, to the zinc plate, called the negative
pole of the battery. This is due to the fact that a difference of
_potential_ is set up between the plates on immersion in the acid, in
consequence of which an electro-motive force is generated that drives
the current round the circuit. The potential between the plates is
maintained by the chemical action now going on in the cell. This action
results in the gradual consumption of the zinc plate with formation of
zinc sulphate and evolution of hydrogen at the copper plate. In a short
time the current in the circuit falls off in consequence of _local
action_ and _polarization_.]

  _What is electrotyping, or electro-metallurgy?_

It is the art or process of _depositing_, from a _metallic solution_,
through the agency of galvanic electricity, a _coating_ or _film_ of
metal upon some other substance.

  _Upon what principles is it accomplished?_

The process is based on the fact, that when a galvanic current is passed
through a solution of some metal, as a solution of sulphate of copper
(sulphuric acid and copper), _decomposition takes place_; the metal is
separated in a metallic state, and attaches itself to the negative pole,
or to any substance that may be attached to the negative pole; while the
acid or other substance before in combination with the metal, goes to,
and is deposited on the positive pole.

In this way a medal, a wood-engraving, or a plaster cast, if attached to
the negative pole, may be covered with a coating of copper; if the
solution had been one containing silver or gold, the substance would
have been covered with a coating of silver or gold instead of copper.

  _How can the thickness of the deposits be regulated?_

The thickness of the deposit, providing the supply of the metallic
solution be kept constant, will depend on the _length of time the object
is exposed to the influence of the battery_.


ELECTRO-MAGNETISM

  _What is electro-magnetism?_

It is the magnetism developed through the agency of _electrical_ or
_galvanic action_.

  _What were the earliest phenomena observed which indicated a
  relation between magnetism and electricity?_

It was noticed that _ships’ compasses_ have their directive power
impaired by lightning, and that sewing needles could be rendered
magnetic by electric discharges passed through them.

  _What discovery, made by Prof. Oersted of Copenhagen, established
  beyond a doubt the connection of electricity and magnetism?_

He ascertained that a magnetic needle placed near a metallic wire
connecting the poles of a galvanic battery was compelled to change its
direction, and that the new direction it assumed was determined by its
position in _relation to the wire_ and to the direction of the current
_transmitted along the wire_.

Thus, if a needle be inclosed in a wire not touching it at any point,
and a current of electricity pass through the wire, the needle will be
made to move in accordance with the direction of the current.

  _What other important discovery was made about the same time?_

It was found that if a piece of soft iron, not possessing magnetic power
sufficient to elevate a grain weight, be placed within a coil of copper
wire through which a galvanic current is passing, it will become,
through the influence of the current, a _powerful magnet_; and will, so
long as the current flows, sustain weights amounting to many hundreds of
pounds.

  _Is the magnetic power of the bar found to be wholly dependent on
  the existence of the current?_

It _is_; the moment the current stops, the weights _fall away_ from the
bar in obedience to the law of gravity.

  _How great weights have been lifted by magnets formed in this
  manner?_

An electro-magnet constructed by Prof. Henry was capable of elevating
and sustaining about a _ton weight_.

  _Upon what principle does the construction of the Morse magnetic
  telegraph depend?_

Upon the principle that a current of _electricity_ circulating about a
bar of soft iron is capable of _rendering it a magnet_.

  _Why is it necessary, in conveying the telegraph wires, to support
  them upon glass or earthen cylinders?_

These are used for the purpose of insuring the perfect _insulation_ of
the wires, since but for this the electricity would pass down a damp
pole to the earth, and be lost.

  _Is there any truth in the idea that many persons have, that some
  principle passes along the telegraphic wires when intelligence is
  transmitted?_

This supposition is _wholly erroneous_; the word current, as something
flowing, conveys a false idea, but we have no other term to express
electrical progression.

  _How can we gain an idea of what really takes place, and of the
  nature of the influence transmitted?_

The earth and all matter are _reservoirs of electricity_; if we disturb
this electricity at Boston by voltaic influence, its pulsations may be
felt in Chicago. Suppose the telegraphic wire were a tube, extending
from Boston to Chicago, filled with water. Now, if one drop more is
forced into it at Boston, a drop must fall out at Chicago, but no drop
was caused to pass from Boston to Chicago. Something similar to this
occurs in the transmission of electricity.

  _What was the earliest important industrial application of
  electricity?_

One of the earliest industrial applications of electricity was to the
driving of street cars. The first electric railway was installed by
Siemens, of Berlin, in 1882; and the system was quickly taken up and
brought to a high state of development by American engineers. It is
remarkable that the system of traction early adopted is the one
generally used in America and Europe until the present date. It consists
essentially of (_a_) a supply of _continuous current_ at five hundred to
five hundred and fifty volts, generated in (_b_) a _central powerhouse_,
and transmitted to the car by means (_c_) of _overhead conductors_,
whence by contact with a trolley wheel on a pole on the car it is led
down to (_d_) _two series-excited motors_, which are placed electrically
first _in series_ with one another _at starting_, and then _in parallel_
with one another when a sufficient speed has been attained.

  _To what well-known electrical machines did this give impetus?_

Electric _dynamos_ and motors. All such machines will convert the energy
of mechanical motion into that of electricity in motion, or the reverse.
The former conversion is done by _dynamos_, to which power is given by
steam-engines or other such prime-movers, and made to generate in
conducting circuits alternate or direct currents of electricity.
_Motors_, on the other hand, receive the energy of electrical currents,
either alternate or direct, and this produces motion of certain parts of
the structure.

The theory of the action of a dynamo was first discovered by Faraday in
1831; it is intimately associated with that of a motor, for the
principle of conservation of energy points out that either machine is
reversible--that is to say, a dynamo may be used as a motor or a motor
as a dynamo, though perhaps not so efficiently as when each fulfills the
special function for which it was designed.

THE CURRENT IN A DYNAMO OR MOTOR.--This brings us to the production of
an electric current by the dynamo. In the dynamo we have a coil of wire
moving across a magnetic field, alternately passing into this field and
out of it. A magnetic field is produced, as we have just seen, by the
steady movement of electrons, and we may picture it as being a region of
the ether disturbed or strained by the effect of the moving electrons.
When the coil of wire passes into the magnetic field, the electrons of
its atoms are influenced powerfully and set in motion in one direction,
so producing a current in the coil. As the coil passes away from the
field, its electrons receive a second impetus, which checks their
movement and starts them traveling in the opposite direction, and
another current is produced. The coil moves continuously and regularly,
passing into and out of the magnetic field without interruption; and so
we get a current which reverses its direction at regular intervals, that
is, an _alternating_ current.

[Illustration: =THE TELEGRAPH AND ITS WONDERFUL INSTRUMENTS=

THE MORSE DIRECT INKING PRINTER

THE MORSE SOUNDER]

  A .-
  B -...
  C -.-.
  D -..
  E .
  F ..-.
  G --.
  H ....
  I ..
  J .---
  K -.-
  L .-..
  M --
  N -.
  O ---
  P .--.
  Q --.-
  R .-.
  S ...
  T -
  U ..-
  V ...-
  W .--
  X -..-
  Y -.--
  Z --..
  1 .----
  2 ..---
  3 ...--
  4 ....-
  5 .....
  6 -....
  7 --...
  8 ---..
  9 ----.
  0 -----

THE MORSE TELEGRAPH CODE FOR LETTERS AND FIGURES

[Illustration: =MODERN TELEGRAPHIC TYPEWRITING ATTACHMENT=]

[Illustration: =A GOOD TYPE OF DYNAMO=]

  _What are some of the chief modern applications of electricity?_

The field of applied electricity is one of the most extensive in modern
science, invention and industry. Electricity in some form is now
utilized in connection with lighting, telegraphy, the telephone,
heating, motor boats, railways, aëroplanes, in metallurgy and the arts,
clocks, bells and alarms, wireless telegraphy and telephony, submarine
telegraphy, automobiles, cooking and domestic science, in medicine and
in military science.

  _Give a brief account of wireless telegraphy._

In the case of ordinary telegraphy we always make use of extended
metallic wires or conductors from the place from which the message is
sent to the neighborhood to which it is desired to send it. In the case
of _wireless_ telegraphy no such conductors exist.

Among the most interesting of the many systems of wireless telegraphy
now in vogue the modern Marconi, the De Forrest, the Fessenden, and the
Poulsen are noteworthy. It is, however, with the name of Marconi that
the introduction of wireless telegraphy will always be directly
associated.

In 1888 Hertz had demonstrated in a remarkable series of experiments the
existence of electro-magnetic waves, and had even shown how these might
be produced, detected, and made to exhibit all the chief phenomena of
wave-motion. Marconi’s great achievement lay in so controlling and
regulating the dispatch and receipt of such waves as to make them
record signals on a specially designed apparatus in accordance with the
well-known Morse telegraphic system. His method, as first patented in
1896, was briefly as follows:

THE TRANSMITTER, by which the electromagnetic waves were generated and
sent off into space in all directions, consisted of a battery connected
through a key to the primary of an induction coil whose secondary
terminals were joined to two brass balls between which there was a short
air-gap. From one of these balls a wire was taken to earth, and from the
other an aërial wire was led some distance up in the air. The closing of
the primary circuit led to sparks passing across the air-gap, which
produced electro-magnetic waves in the ether in exactly the same way as
the dropping of a stone into a pool produces a series of concentric
ripples.

THE COHERER.--To receive and interpret these waves Marconi employed a
“coherer” in circuit with a battery and having connection with an aërial
wire on the one side and an earth wire on the other. The coherer
consisted of a small glass tube not more than, say, two inches long by
one-quarter inch in diameter, into the ends of which were fused two
platinum wires leading to small metallic electrodes. These electrodes
were brought quite near each other, and in the narrow gap between them
was placed powdered metallic silver, antimony, etc. The resistance
offered by this powder was so high, on account of small air-gaps between
the particles, that no current could pass through.

Electro-magnetic waves, however, possess the peculiar property of
breaking down the resistance of this powder whenever they impinge upon
it. Hence as soon as a wave reached the coherer, the resistance
practically vanished and a current passed round the circuit. It was a
mere detail to arrange that this current should actuate a relay
connected with a telegraphic instrument which would record the signal,
and that a hammer would at the same time tap the coherer so as to
agitate the powder and “decohere” it, setting up the resistance again
for a fresh signal.

IMPROVEMENTS.--Since this system was devised many most important
improvements have taken place. One of the most noticeable of these was
Sir Oliver Lodge’s invention of tuning and syntonizing apparatus by
which a transmitter and receiver are tuned to the same periodic
oscillation, and thus a number of messages might be operated in the same
field without interference. Lodge accomplished this to some extent by
adding inductance coils and condensers to the circuits. Various other
methods have been adopted to secure syntonization; but the resonance
effects obtained are not great enough to make selective signaling
certain.

THE GENERATOR.--In the modern Marconi system the energy for the
transmitter is obtained from a generator working at one hundred and ten
volts. The current is led through a key and an improved form of
interruptor to the primary of the induction coil, whose secondary
terminals communicate with the spark-gap. The spark-gap is in series
with a condenser and the primary of a high tension transformer, of which
latter one secondary terminal leads to the aërial and the other to the
earth wire.

[Illustration: =THE WIRELESS MESSAGE OVER LAND AND SEA=]

THE DETECTOR.--In the receptor the metallic coherer has been discarded
for a magnetic detector. This instrument consists of a small glass tube
through which travels an endless band of iron wires, moving round two
grooved pulleys. Close to the tube are two permanent magnets, and round
it is wound a primary coil consisting of one layer of wire. One end of
this coil is led straight to earth; the other passes through a condenser
to a tuning inductance coil leading in one direction to earth and in the
other to the aërial. Above the primary coil on the glass tube a
secondary coil is wound and connects with a telephone receiver. The
action is simple. The electro-magnetic waves, reaching the aërial, set
up oscillatory currents in the primary which act upon the magnetic
field. Currents are thus generated in the secondary, which record the
message in the telephone receiver by a series of taps corresponding to
the Morse dashes and dots.

[Illustration: _Courtesy of Marconi Wireless Co._

=TELEPHONING FROM NEW YORK TO SAN FRANCISCO BY WIRELESS=]

The _De Forrest system_ is very largely used in the United States,
Japan, and elsewhere, and in its more recent modifications secures a
high efficiency by means of a number of ingenious improvements.

  _Describe the wireless telephone._

As in wireless telegraphy, all modern systems of wireless telephony are
based upon the action of electro-magnetic waves. It is impossible here
to discuss all the various methods that have been devised, but the
leading principles employed may be indicated, with special reference to
some of the best-known systems. They may be classified according to the
methods in which the waves are produced.

SPARK DISCHARGE SYSTEMS.--These rely for the generation of the Hertzian
waves upon a spark discharge across an air-gap. The _De Forrest system_
is perhaps the most popular of this type. In this system the spark
discharge is utilized to produce waves of a frequency not less than one
hundred thousand per second, the resulting sound being inaudible at the
receiving station.

A microphone transmitter is employed with this apparatus. When the
operator speaks into the transmitter, the variations of resistance act
upon the waves in such a way as to produce a new series of waves of such
frequency as to be audible at the receiver.

The receiving apparatus includes the usual antenna, and closed secondary
circuit, comprising an inductance and a variable capacity, across the
terminals of which an Audion delicate detector is introduced. This
instrument depends upon the motions of the ions in a rarefied gas. It is
one of the most sensitive detectors yet invented, and offers the great
advantage of a practically total absence of time lag in recovery.

SINGING-ARC SYSTEMS.--Duddell’s discovery of the singing arc in 1909 has
been quickly followed by its application to radio-telephony and
radio-telegraphy, first by Poulsen and subsequently by Fessenden, Stone,
De Forrest, and others. Under certain conditions the electric arc can be
made to emit a musical note, while at the same time it transforms a
portion of the energy of its own direct current into oscillations. These
are led into an oscillation circuit containing a condenser and
inductance, and associated with an antenna and earth line. The
microphone transmitter may be included in a circuit associated with the
inductance, in which case the voice acting on the resistance of the
transmitter causes variations in the oscillating currents; or it may be
associated with some part of the direct-current circuit, in which case
it acts by affecting the current passing across the arc.

Any form of receiver may be used with this arc apparatus. The great
advantage of this method is that the arc produces continuous
oscillations of constant amplitude, and that the wave-length and
frequency of the oscillations are subject to better regulation and
control.

ADVANTAGES.--The advantages of wireless telephony over wireless
telegraphy are many. One is that no skilled operator is required to
translate the dot-and-dash signals; for in the latter one hears only
long and short buzzes, whereas in the former one hears the actual spoken
words. By means of wireless telephony the transmission of intelligence
is far more direct and expeditious, and in times of emergency this not
unfrequently becomes a very vital question indeed. An important
characteristic of wireless telephonic communication is the exceptional
clearness of the articulation, owing to the absence of the electrostatic
capacity of metallic lines and cables which is always present in wire
telephony.

Stronger currents, improved sending and receiving apparatus, and the
application of new principles have now greatly extended the speaking
range; and only recently distinct communication has been established by
wireless telephony between New York and San Francisco. The use of the
wireless telephone will be greatly extended, especially in naval,
military, and shipping communication.


THE MARVEL OF X-RAYS

_Röntgen or X-Rays_, the most famous, and up to now by far the most
useful, kind of rays associated with high vacuum tubes, were discovered
by Professor W. K. Röntgen in 1895. His first observation was that a
photographic plate, which was enclosed in an opaque material and which
was lying by chance near the apparatus, was affected just as if it had
been exposed to ordinary light. This caused him to conclude that the
effect must be due to some unknown kind of rays, and the uncertainty as
to their character led him to provisionally apply to them the name of
X-rays, for _x_ in algebra generally denotes the unknown quantity.

The later sensational part of his discovery was that the property
possessed by a highly exhausted bulb of glass, fitted with suitable
electrodes, sends out rays or electric discharges capable of passing
through many bodies which are quite opaque to ordinary light, and of
either affecting a photographic plate or causing a screen coated with
certain chemicals to fluoresce or light up under their influence.

  _How are X-rays produced?_

X-rays are thus produced by the discharge of a high-potential current
through a special form of vacuum tube, known as a Crookes’ tube. The
positive terminal of an induction coil or Wimshurst machine is connected
to the anode and the negative to the cathode of the tube. The
anticathode is connected to the anode and is also positive. The vacuum
of a tube is not perfect, and the current is conveyed through the tube
by the infinitesimal quantity of air contained therein.

[Illustration: =DIAGRAM SHOWING PARTS OF X-RAY TUBE=]

The “cathodal rays” which pass from the cathode to the anticathode
consist of infinitesimal particles traveling at a high rate of speed;
when the progress of these minute bodies is arrested, X-rays are
produced. The green fluorescence on the sides of the tube opposite the
anticathode, though not caused by the X-rays, demonstrate their
presence.

WHAT THE X-RAYS ARE.--The X-rays are ethereal vibrations traveling with
much the same velocity as light. They travel in a straight line in all
directions from the point of origin, and are almost incapable of
reflection or refraction.

X-rays are invisible to the eye, but have the property of rendering
fluorescent certain substances--for example, calcium tungstate and
barium platino-cyanide. When a screen coated with these substances is
placed near the X-ray tube in a darkened room, the tungstate or barium
surface emits a fairly bright fluorescence. If an object such as the
hand or a lead pencil is placed between the screen and the tube, the
denser parts (the bones or the graphite) appear as black shadows in a
gray background.

X-rays penetrate all substances to a greater or less degree, although
heavy metals, such as lead and mercury, are, for photographic or visual
purposes, practically opaque to the rays.

The greater part of X-ray examination is conducted by photographic
methods, as the image given by the rays on a dry plate or film show far
more detail than can be seen by visual examination with the fluorescent
screen.

APPARATUS.--The apparatus required consists of a suitable source of
electrical energy, such as a battery or dynamo, etc., and a powerful
induction or a large electrostatic influence machine, combined of course
in either case with an X-ray tube and special X-ray photographic
plates. Ordinary photographic plates can be used, but do not give such
brilliant results. If we wish to take a radiograph of the hand, we must
first of all use a plate slightly larger than the hand, and enclose it
in an opaque envelope. Two such are usually employed, one red and the
other black. This is placed on the table or stand, film side uppermost,
and the hand is placed upon it, and a short distance above the hand is
located the X-ray tube. Since what we really take is a shadowgraph
picture, to give a good sharp outline, the hand should be placed as flat
as possible on the plate, and the tube some six to eight inches from it.

With some of the most powerful apparatus now in use, even the human
trunk can be radiographed in a single flash, which is an improvement on
the exposure necessary in the early days of its use, when ten, twenty,
or even forty minutes’ exposure was no uncommon practice.

THE FLUORESCENT SCREEN.--When the X-rays impinge on certain substances
they cause them to light up or “fluoresce” under their action. The
number of bodies or chemicals which do so is very large, but for
practical purposes only one or two are of any use. The best, and the one
always employed, is a chemical known as barium platino-cyanide. The
screen-holder consists of a box, preferably of pyramidal form, with a
flattened apex or top. Inserted in this apex are two tubes, like
opera-glass tubes but without lenses; through these we can look into the
box in such a manner as to prevent any outside light from entering. The
bottom of the box consists of the screen proper, a piece of cardboard or
other suitable substance, one side (the inner) of which is coated with
the substance mentioned above, because the light rays given off by the
barium platino-cyanide under the action of the X-rays cannot of course
penetrate an object opaque to light. The box should be absolutely
light-tight except for the eye-tubes.

If such a screen be held in the neighborhood of an X-ray tube, opposite
the most brilliantly phosphorescing half of the tube, it will be found
to be lighted up under the action of the X-rays. If now we place between
the tube and the screen an object such as the hand, putting it in as
close proximity to the tube as possible, we obtain a shadowgram on the
screen, varying in intensity according to the relative transparency of
the different parts of the hand to the X-rays. Since the bones are far
less transparent than the flesh, they cast a much denser shadow and are
very distinct. On such a screen it is possible to see the beats of the
heart, the rising and falling of the diaphragm, etc.

X-RAYS AT WORK.--In medical X-ray work, the patient is placed upon a
couch consisting of a wooden frame covered with canvas. A box containing
the tube moves on wheels and rails beneath the couch; it is lined with
metal to shield the operator from the X-rays. The time of exposure
depends upon the strength of current used, the power of the coil, and
the condition of the tube. A “hard” tube--that is, a tube with an
extremely high vacuum--requires less exposure than a “soft” or
low-vacuum tube.

The condition of the tube is ascertained by finding its “equivalent
spark gap.” While the coil and tube are working, the terminal points of
the induction coil are slowly brought together. If a spark passes
between the points while they are six inches or more apart, the vacuum
is too high. If no sparking takes place between the terminals till they
are within three inches of each other, the tube is low. A good working
spark gap distance is four and one-half inches. A soft, or low-vacuum,
tube gives better definition than a hard, or high-vacuum, tube, as the
rays pass less easily through dense substances and show greater
differentiation of tissue. A very high vacuum tube may show but little
difference between the bones and flesh, while a soft tube should give
the minute structure of the bones.

TIME OF EXPOSURE.--With a current of five amperes at one hundred volts
passing through the primary winding of a ten-inch coil, the exposure for
a hand or foot would be from three to fifteen seconds. The exposure for
the thicker portions of the body would be from twenty seconds to two
minutes. If an electrolytic break is used, about half the exposure would
be required. Dry plates with extra thick sensitive films are specially
prepared for radiography, the development and fixation being the same as
in ordinary photography. The image is sometimes barely visible on the
surface of the plate during development, but when fixed the negative may
give good density and definition owing to the penetration into the film
of the X-rays.

KINDS OF X-RAYS.--It is now known that these rays are not all by any
means of the same kind or of the same penetrative power. Moreover, these
differences can be still augmented by altering what is known as the
induction in the circuit, the degree of exhaustion in the tube, and the
nature of the emitting surface. The emitting surface is not the glass
walls of the tube, as many suppose; and the canary colored light emitted
by the tube is not the X-rays, which are themselves invisible. They
originate from the anode of the tube owing to the fierce bombardment to
which the cathode rays subject it. Where the cathode rays, which travel
in straight lines, first strike any material object, from that same
object the X-rays originate.

USES OF X-RAYS.--In the early days of radiography the X-rays in medical
work were confined almost solely to the detection of fractured or
injured bones, and abnormal bone growth. At the present time, however,
even a careful examination on the fluorescent screen is sufficient to
enable an expert medical radiographist to diagnose with a considerable
degree of exactitude the condition of the heart, the lungs, and the
stomach. In making such examination a tube must be chosen which has the
lowest vacuum, in order to obtain the maximum amount of contrast between
fleshy tissue not differing greatly in density.

In some cases even the liver has been outlined and part of the kidneys.

Still more important is the fact that the rays have been applied
successfully in the treatment of certain diseases which by other means
have been deemed, if not incurable, at any rate extremely difficult to
cure. Claims have been made for cancer cures by means of these same
rays; whether these have really been complete cures or not is perhaps
open to question.

X-RAY DERMATITIS.--A painful and incurable disease, of a cancerous
nature, to which radiographers are liable, caused by frequent and
prolonged exposure to X-rays. Many of the pioneers of radiography have
fallen victims to this complaint, but greater precautions are now taken
to protect the operators from the X-rays. There is little danger of
contracting this disease in X-ray photography, as the exposures are
short and the operator need not stand directly in front of the tube. The
chief risk is entailed by visual examination with the fluorescent
screen. The disease first makes its appearance in the hands and
gradually spreads to the arms and body. The skin at first appears as if
it had been burned, hence the term “X-ray burning.”

[Illustration: =THE LIGHT THAT REVEALS THE UNSEEN IN THE HUMAN BODY=

Illustration and diagram showing the apparatus ordinarily used in X-ray
photography, together with the course of the electric circuits, and a
radiograph of the hand.]

=LIQUID AIR AND ITS MARVELS OF LOW TEMPERATURE=

[Illustration: Liquid Air in water. The silvery bubbles are liquid
oxygen; the nitrogen boils away.]

[Illustration: Filtered Liquid Air in a Dewar bulb, and Liquid Air in an
ordinary glass bulb (which has collected a coating of frost).]

[Illustration: Driving a nail with a hammer made of mercury frozen by
Liquid Air.]

[Illustration: Liquid Air boiling on a block of ice, caused by the
difference of temperature.]

[Illustration: Burning steel in an ice tumbler partly filled with Liquid
Air.]

[Illustration: Liquid Air is simply its gaseous form brought into liquid
condition by the combined effect of lowering its temperature and
subjecting it to an extreme expansion. When protected from external heat
and highly exhausted it becomes a transparent, jelly-like, mass. By
means of liquid hydrogen it may be condensed into a white solid with a
faint blue tint.]



BOOK OF THE HUMAN BODY


  WHAT THE HUMAN BODY IS

  ITS DIVISIONS AND SYSTEMS

  GENERAL STRUCTURE OF THE BODY

  FRAMEWORK: BONES, MUSCLES AND CELLS

  THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND ORGANS

  CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD AND RESPIRATION: HEART,
  BLOOD VESSELS, LYMPHATICS, LUNGS AND BRONCHII

  THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM: INTESTINAL TRACT, KIDNEYS, SWEAT
  GLANDS, LUNGS

  THE NERVOUS SYSTEM: NERVES, BRAIN, SPINAL CORD

  ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE: EYE, EAR, NOSE, TONGUE, HAND
  AND SKIN

  CHARTS, TABLES AND SPECIAL FEATURES

[Illustration: =THE FRAMEWORK AND MUSCLES OF THE HUMAN BODY=

PRINCIPAL BONES OF THE BODY

   1. Collar Bone. (Clavicle)
   2. Breast Bone. (Sternum)
   3. Ribs.
   4. Arm Bone. (Humerus)
   5. Lumbar Vertebra.
   6. Haunch Bone. (Pelvis)
   7. Ulna.
   8. Radius.
   9. Wrist. (Carpus)
  10. Metacarpus.
  11. Phalanges.
  12. Thigh Bone. (Femur)
  13. Knee Cap. (Patella)
  14. Brooch Bone. (Fibula)
  15. Shin Bone. (Tibia)
  16. Tarsus.
  17. Metatarsus.
  18. Phalanges.

PRINCIPAL MUSCLES OF THE BODY

   1. Sternoclidomastoid (the muscle that bends the head).
   2. Trapezius.
   3. Pectoralis (chest muscle).
   4. Deltoid (arm lifting muscle).
   5. Coraco brachialis (rudimentary arm muscle).
   6. Triceps (forearm extension).
   7. Pronator radii teres (turns forearm and hand).
   8. Annular ligament of wrist.
   9. External oblique of abdomen.
  10. Muscular sheath of abdominal erectus muscle.
  11. Tensor fasciæ latæ (fibrous muscle covering thigh muscles).
  12. Gluteus (controls thigh and helps to keep body erect).
  13. Sartorius, or tailor, muscle (enables legs to be crossed).
  14. One of quadriceps extensor cruris muscles.
  15. Gastroenemius (bends the knee).
  16. Long extensor of toes.
  17. Peroneus longus (helps to keep foot arched).
  18. Annular ligament of ankle.
  19. Platyama.
  20. Brachialis (moves elbow joint).
  21. Biceps (flexor of arm).
  22. Supinator longus (turns hand).
  23. Extensor carpi radialis (extensor of forearm and wrist).
  24. Flexor carpi radialis (bends wrist and turns hand).
  25. Rectus abdominis (retracts abdominal wall).
  26 and 27. Vastus externus and internus.
  These, with 14 and an abductor muscle,
  together make up the quadriceps extensor,
  the largest muscle in the body. It extends
  the leg.
  28. Tibialis (extends the ankle).
  29. Extensors of the toes.

The bones which make up the framework of the body are held together by
joints of different kinds which allow of widely varying ranges of
motion. The skull, which contains twenty-two bones in all, includes the
cranium which contains the brain, and the bones which form the framework
of the face. The vertebral column, which acts as a hinged and pliable
tube down the center of which runs the spinal cord, is made up of
twenty-four true vertebræ and the sacrum and the coccyx. The thorax, the
bony box or cage protecting the heart and lungs, is made up of the
twelve dorsal vertebræ with the twelve ribs on each side and the sternum
or breast bone in front. The upper extremities consist of the
shoulder-blade or scapula, the collar-bone or clavicle, the humerus or
upper arm bone, the two fore-arm bones (radius and ulna), and the
twenty-seven bones of the hand and wrist. The pelvis is composed of the
two hip bones, together with the sacrum and coccyx. The female pelvis is
larger in all diameters than the male. The bones of the lower extremity,
which is joined to the pelvis by the head of the thigh bone (the femur),
making a ball and socket joint at the acetabulum, are the two bones of
the leg, the tibia and fibula; the patella or knee-cap; and the
twenty-six bones of the ankle and foot.]


BOOK OF THE HUMAN BODY

  The study of the Human Body involves numerous other branches of
  science, and, as a whole, is the most complex and intricate of all
  the sciences. To explain its structure and workings we apply the
  principles of Biology, Physiology, Chemistry, Physics, Psychology,
  and Metaphysics.

The individual man, as a whole, is frequently forgotten both in
physiology and in medicine, owing to the extraordinary minuteness and
exactness with which each part and organ is examined and described. At
the outset, then, it should be remembered that the human body is an
organic whole, and what makes it _one_ is not the similarity or unity of
the machines and processes, for they are unlike and many; but it is the
unity of the one governing force, the _mind_, and especially the
_unconscious mind_, which presides over the body.

Nothing in the body is merely mechanical, although there is much
mechanism; all is vital, all is united in one great aim--the health and
well-being of the individual.

All organs and systems are held together and formed into one body by
means of a framework, partly fixed and partly movable, partly rigid and
partly flexible, partly hard and partly soft.

The _skeleton_ part of the framework is made of _bone_; flexibility is
given to certain parts by means of joints, which are simply smoothed and
rounded ends of bone covered with gristle to avoid friction, and joined
together by fiber and ligament for strength. This forms the rigid and
hard parts of the framework.

The flexible and soft part, which everywhere covers organs and muscles,
is composed of a layer of fat to preserve the warmth, as fat is a
non-conductor, and an outer covering of skin.

This framework is exquisitely adapted to give strong protection to the
vital parts so that they cannot readily be injured; and the whole of the
organs are so arranged and stowed away that a perfect human body is a
beautiful object full of symmetry and graceful curves and lines.

=Divisions of the Body.=--If we divide the body into six parts--four
limbs, trunk, and head and neck--we find each part contains about thirty
bones (counting the ribs in pairs) there being about _two hundred_ in
the entire body.

The height of the body depends mainly on the length of the bones of the
lower limbs.

=Everything in Pairs.=--In the body almost everything is paired, right
and left, giving it symmetry. There are but five central bones: two in
the head, one in the throat, and the breastbone and backbone (or spine);
and there are but five single muscles, all the rest--out of many
hundreds--being in pairs. In the interior, where economy rather than
symmetry is required, it is not so; there being as many single organs as
there are double.

=The Body Viewed as a Machine.=--A favorite way of looking at the body
as a whole is to regard it as an anatomical machine. In this view the
body has an internal skeleton, of which the chief feature is the central
axis or backbone.

Considering the skull and backbone as one, the body may be said to be
built up of two tubes. The smaller posterior or neural tube includes the
cavity of the skull and the vertebral canal. Within this tube is lodged
the nervous center, or engine, of the body. The anterior, or body, tube
is much larger, consisting of the face above, and the neck and trunk
below, and it contains the _four nutritive systems_ of life, so that the
whole body in section is like an eight with the lower circle immensely
exaggerated. The limbs, of course, are not tubular, and merely form part
of the machinery.

Adopting the simile of the human engine and boiler and machinery, we see
that the limbs, etc., are the machinery; the posterior tube the engines
and force that move them; and the anterior tube the human boiler that
generates the force. This boiler, like one in a steam engine, has an
upper and lower part. The upper part is where the steam is generated (in
lungs) and sent to the engine (the brain) by the heart. The lower part
is where the fuel is burned (the stomach) and the ashes and refuse drop
through (the intestines). So that the analogy between the two is close
and striking.

=Centers of Control.=--There are two distinct seats of government in the
human body: the one in the _upper brain_, or cortex, the other
principally in the very center of the human body. That in the upper
brain, or cortex, is the human will and the conscious mind. It has
absolute control given to it over the animal part of the human
life--that is, over the part that consists in the using of force, which
includes the nervous and locomotor systems, and the special senses.

_Nutritive Systems._--The other government, situated in the lower part
of the brain and spinal cord and in the center of the body--in front of
the spine and behind the stomach--is of an entirely different order. To
put this more plainly: The four systems that lie in the
body--_digestive_, _circulatory_, _respiratory_, and _excretory_--may be
termed the nutritive systems, being designed for the maintenance and
storage of life-forces. They are almost entirely under the control of
the involuntary nerve centers, and have full and undisputed sway over
life itself--that is, over the generating and storing of vital force,
rather than over its usage.


SYSTEMS AND ORGANS OF THE BODY

=How the Body is Built.=--In a building such as the body it is well to
begin with the _unit_--the building unit. In a house this is a brick or
a stone; in all living structures, animal and vegetable, it is a _cell_.

All living structures, whether animal or vegetable, are built up of
cells (which we shall consider in due course), and these cells are
grouped together for different purposes to form different tissues. The
_tissues_ are the different materials of which the body is made. There
are eight principal tissues in the body: _bone_, _gristle_, _muscle_,
_nerve_, _skin_, _fat_, _fiber_, and _connecting tissue_.

[Illustration: =ORGANS OF CHEST CAVITY IN RELATION TO STOMACH=

=THE BRONCHIAL TUBES=

=ORGANS INVOLVED IN FIRST STAGES OF DIGESTION=]

[Illustration: =DIAGRAMS DISCLOSING HEART AND CONNECTIONS, RIBS AND
LUNGS=]

(1) The _Osseous_, or bone tissue, is the framework of the body. This
material is found, of course, in every part of the body and forms the
skeleton.

(2) The _Cartilaginous_, or gristle, forms the joints of the body. This
tissue covers the ends of the bones to form the joints; it unites the
ribs with the breastbone; it forms the rings of the windpipe and the lid
of the larynx at the back of the tongue; the lower part of the nose, the
upper eyelid, and the ear.

(3) The _Muscular_, or muscle, forms the machinery of the body. This
tissue covers all the bones with flesh, which is muscle, and is the
chief part of a number of machines by which every movement is performed.
It is also an important tissue in the wall of the abdomen and the floor
of the chest.

(4) The _Nervous_, or nerve tissue, is the moving power of the body. It
is the chief constituent of the brain and the spinal cord, inside the
backbone or spine. It also forms the nerves, which run like white
threads from the brain to all the muscles, and give them power to move.

(5) The _Epithelial_, or skin, forms the outer covering of the body.
This tissue is the skin that covers the body outside, and lines it as
mucous membrane inside, and also forms the teeth and nails.

(6) _The Adipose_, or fat, forms the under covering of the body. This
tissue is the inner protective sheathing and padding of the body,
beneath the skin, and round the internal organs. It consists of drops of
oil, enclosed in separate cells.

(7) The _Fibrous_, or fiber or sinew, is the tissue that forms the cords
and bands of the body. This tissue makes the strong tendons that fasten
the muscles to the bones, and forms the covering or sheath of the bone
itself, and the various organs.

(8) The _Connective_, or cementing tissue, joins all the parts and cells
of the body together. This substance is found everywhere, all over the
body, and is like the mortar in a house, fastening all the bricks
together. It is a sort of network of cells and long fibers.

[Illustration: =DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE ALIMENTARY CANAL=]

=Special Systems.=--These eight tissues are combined together into
various groups of _organs_ or _systems_ for special purposes. These
groups are six in number, and include: the _circulatory_, _respiratory_,
_digestive_, _excretory_ or _secretory_, _locomotor_, and _nervous
systems_. There is also the _reproductive_ system, which has to do with
the propagation of the race, and involves many important and vital
questions.

We may divide these six into three groups:

There are two in the chest:

(1) The _Circulatory system_ is that by which the blood or liquid food
is distributed throughout the body to all the tiny cells. This system
includes the _heart_ or force-pump, and the _arteries_, _capillaries_,
and _veins_ or the three kinds of pipes through which the blood travels.

(2) The _Respiratory_ system is that by which we breathe, and by which
the body is fed with oxygen, which gives the blood its bright red color.
This system includes the nostrils and mouth, the windpipe and the lungs.

Then there are two in the abdomen, or stomach:

(3) The _Digestive_ system, by which all the food is made into liquid
and changed so as to nourish the body and pass into the blood. This
system includes the mouth, gullet, stomach, liver, pancreas, intestines,
and other organs.

(4) The _Secretory_, or excretory, system (for they are best grouped as
one) manufactures the various fluids of the body, such as bile, urine,
sweat, saliva, gastric juice, etc. It consists of various glands or
secretory organs in different parts of the body, such as those in the
skin, the kidneys, the lymphatic glands, the spleen, etc. It also gets
rid of the refuse of the body.

Lastly, there are two in the head and limbs:

(5) The _Locomotor_ system, by which all movement is effected. This
includes the bones, joints, and muscles.

(6) The _Nervous_ system, by which all the body is controlled, directed,
and regulated. This system includes the brain, spinal cord, and the
special senses, such as the ear, the eye, and all the nerves.

=The Human Chest, or Thorax.=--In it, the blood is purified and
circulated. The _thorax_ is closed above and below: above, by the neck,
through which the windpipe enters it in front, conveying air to the
lungs; and by the _gullet_ behind, conveying food to the stomach. Below,
the floor, dividing it from the abdomen beneath, is formed by a very
large muscle stretching right across the body, called the _Diaphragm_,
or partition wall; also called the _Midriff_. The thorax is walled in at
the sides by the ribs, and behind by the backbone in which is the other
tube that contains the spinal cord. The thorax contains the two organs
of _respiration_ and _circulation_.

The _lungs_ are the organs of respiration. They are like two sponges
filling the right and left halves of the chest. Wherever you can feel a
rib there is part of the lung underneath. Each of these lungs is
contained in a bag, like a skin, that separates it from the ribs, and is
called the _pleura_ (from _pleuron_ = a _rib_), but the lung is not
_inside_ the bag.

The _outer_ layer of the pleura is fixed to the side of the chest, the
_inner_ layer to the lung, and the two layers move on each other like a
joint when we breathe.

The lungs are full of small air-cells with minute tubes leading from
them. These gradually increase in size as they join together, till at
last they unite in one large tube, or bronchus, for each lung. These two
bronchi join together, and form the _windpipe_, or _trachea_, which
conveys the air through the larynx into the mouth.

The windpipe is kept stretched widely open by a series of elastic rings
of gristle. Behind the windpipe is the gullet, leading to the stomach.

[Illustration: =PERICARDIUM OF THE HEART=

=LEFT AURICLE AND LEFT VENTRICLE=

The heart, the main pump of the circulatory system, rests on the
diaphragm between the two lungs. The heart is enclosed in a smooth,
moist membrane or sac, the pericardium, which allows it to dilate and
contract without friction against the adjoining parts. There are four
cavities in the heart, the right and left auricle, and the right and
left ventricle. The auricles, which are thinner walled, collect blood
from the veins, while the thicker and stronger walled ventricles force
the blood into the arteries. The left auricle pumps the purified blood
into the left ventricle, the valve between the auricle and ventricle
opening to allow this passage. When the left ventricle is full the valve
between its chamber and that of the auricle closes, the ventricle itself
contracts down, and the blood is pumped out through the aorta to supply
all the tissues of the body.

After leaving the left ventricle through the aorta the purified blood is
carried to the head, arms, trunk, and lower limbs, etc. Finally, after
being deprived of its oxygen as it passes through the tiny end-arteries,
or capillaries, of the tissues it has to nourish, it is collected in the
veins and is emptied into the right auricle. Passing from the right
auricle to the right ventricle, this impure blood, which is of a dull
purplish color, is pumped into the lungs, where it is deprived of its
waste gases and once more takes up a fresh supply of oxygen. Bright
scarlet in color again, it now is collected and carried to the left
auricle by the pulmonary veins. From the auricle it passes through the
mitral valve to the left ventricle, whence it is once more pumped out
through the aorta to supply the tissues.]

[Illustration: =RESPIRATORY SYSTEM OR AIR PASSAGES OF THE BODY=

Left: larynx from behind. Middle: cross-section of the pharynx. Right:
section through larynx.]

[Illustration: =VIEWS OF THE LARYNX, SHOWING HOW THE AIR REACHES THE
LUNGS=

The organs of respiration are the nose, throat, larynx, windpipe or
trachea, and the two lungs. On the outer walls of the nasal cavities are
three shelves known as the turbinated bones, the surfaces of which
contain blood-vessels to heat the air as it passes through the nose. The
mucus which constantly forms on the lining membrane of the nose and the
little hairs in the nostrils, act as screens, preventing dust being
breathed into the lungs. The pharynx is the cavity behind the nose,
mouth and larynx. The larynx forms a prominence in the throat known as
the “Adam’s Apple.” It contains the vocal cords, the vibrations of
which, as air from the lungs passes through them, give rise to voice
sounds. The epiglottis is a cartilaginous curtain above the larynx which
blocks up its entrance when food is being swallowed. The trachea or
windpipe is a continuation of the larynx. Shortly after entering the
chest it divides into two main branches, the right and left branches,
which lead to all parts of the lungs. The lungs, two spongy, air-filled
organs, take up most of the space in the chest-box or thorax. The
smallest end-branches of the bronchial tubes open into numerous tiny
sacs known as the air vesicles, in the walls of which the end-branches
of the capillaries ramify. Here the impure gases in the blood escape
through the vessel walls into the air vesicles, while the oxygen
breathed into the lungs is taken up the same way by the blood in the
vessels.]

[Illustration: =HOW THE HUMAN BODY IS CONTROLLED BY THE BRAIN=

=CORD WITH DURA MATER=

=THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE DURA MATER=

The nervous system consists of (1) the brain; (2) the spinal cord; (3)
the nerves which run off from these structures; and (4) the sympathetic
system. The chief mass of the brain is known as the cerebrum, or
fore-brain, the small mass at the lower part being termed the
cerebellum, or little brain. From the brain, which is contained within
the bony skull, twelve pairs of cranial nerves proceed. The most
important of these are the first or nerve of smell, the second (sight),
eighth (hearing), and twelfth (taste). The fifth, one of the most
important nerves of sensation, has three main branches running to the
orbit and forehead, the jaws and teeth, and the skin of the face. Six of
the twelve pairs of cranial nerves govern the movements of different
parts (motor nerves), others have to do with the special sense organs,
taste, smell, hearing, and sight (sensory nerves), and others are a
combination of motor and sensory nerves. The spinal cord is a
continuation of the brain, and is contained in the hollow canal running
through the vertebræ of the spine. From it thirty-one pairs of nerves
originate. The nerves which run to the arm are collected in a network
called the brachial plexus. In the same way the great nerves to the leg
come together in the lumbar plexus. The sympathetic nervous system
consists of a main nerve trunk running downward along the spine from the
skull to the coccyx. This sympathetic system communicates indirectly
with the brain and spinal cord, and also with all the great arteries and
other important structures in the abdomen.

The dura mater is the strong external cranial membrane which adheres to
the skull and also penetrates into the cavities of the brain, dividing
it into partially separate compartments. These dividing portions of the
dura mater may be seen at A, A, in the diagram above. B marks the
various venous blood sinuses of the brain, which receive blood from
veins in the different parts of the brain, and, merging into one large
sinus (seen at lower right of diagram), afterwards become the jugular
vein. C is the great cerebral vein. The Roman numerals mark the great
cranial nerves.]

We take air into the lungs to pass thence into the blood, and thus be
carried to all the cells of the body to enable them to live and breathe.

=The Heart.=--The _heart_ is at the lower part of the chest, between the
two lungs. It is a _fleshy_ or muscular organ, about the size of the
fist--flat above, and pointed below like a sugar-loaf. It lies in a
slanting direction behind the breastbone--the broad part, or the _base_,
of the heart being upwards and partly to the _right_ of the breast-bone;
the point, or apex of the heart, being downwards and to the _left_,
where it can often be seen beating against the chestwall.

The heart is hollow, and acts like a pump, forcing the blood all over
the body through the great vessel that leaves the heart at the upper
part. The heart, like the lungs, is enclosed in a double layer of folded
bag, called the _pericardium_, because it is round the heart.

The _gullet_ runs right down the back of the thorax, and passes out
through the diaphragm, which forms the floor, into the abdomen.

The _abdomen_ forms the lower half of the trunk, and is often called the
_stomach_. It is full of organs belonging to the _digestive system_ and
_secretory system_, by which the fuel or food is rendered fit for use in
the blood and the body.

The _walls_ of the abdomen are not protected by ribs like the thorax,
but are all formed of flesh or muscle. The principal organs they contain
are the _stomach_, the _liver_, the _pancreas_, or _sweetbread_, the
_spleen_ or _milt_, the _kidneys_, the _intestines_, and the _bladder_.

=The Human Brain.=--The _head_ and _spine_ contain the principal nervous
systems of the body and four organs of special sense--_sight_,
_hearing_, _smelling_, and _tasting_.

The _brain_, which fills the head, consists of two parts: the
_Cerebrum_, or greater brain, and the _Cerebellum_, or lesser brain,
placed behind and below the larger one. From this brain, nerves run to
every muscle of the body, enabling them to move the limbs and body as
the mind directs; and another set of nerves run from every part of the
body and skin to the brain, enabling the mind to know and feel all that
goes on.

The brain is connected with the spinal cord by a flat band of brain
matter, that lies on the inside of the occipital bone, called the
_Medulla Oblongata_, or the Oblong Marrow. The _spinal cord_ runs
through a large hole in the occipital bone and right down the open tube
formed by the spinal vertebræ, to the bottom of the backbone, and, all
along its course, nerves leave it and enter it, as in the brain.

The _organ of sight_ consists of the _two eyes_, which receive every
image that we see, and transmit it to the brain. The _organ of hearing_
consists of the _two ears_, by which we receive all the waves of sound
that we hear, and transmit them to the brain. The _organ of smell_ is in
the upper part of the _nose_; the _organ of taste_ at the hinder part of
the _tongue_.

The _organ of the voice_ is contained in the _larynx_ in the neck, which
joins the head to the body. Just under the chin in front of the neck you
can feel what is called the _Adam’s Apple_, which is the front of the
larynx, or voice-box, by which the air coming out of the lungs is formed
into sounds.

The _sounds_ are formed into words by the _mouth_, _tongue_, and
_teeth_.

[Illustration: =PERMANENT TEETH AND THEIR NAMES=

UPPER JAW: 1, 2, incisors; 3, canine; 4, 5, premolars; 6, 7, 8, molars.

LOWER JAW: 1, 2, incisors; 3, canine; 4, 5, premolars; 6, 7, 8, molars.]


THE FIVE GATEWAYS OF KNOWLEDGE

  These gateways--which we otherwise name the Organs of the Senses,
  and call in our mother speech, the Eye, the Ear, the Nose, the
  Mouth, and the Skin--are instruments by which we _see_, and _hear_,
  and _smell_, and _taste_, and _touch_: at once loopholes through
  which the soul gazes out upon the world, and the world gazes in upon
  the soul.


THE EAR: THE MARVELOUS ORGAN OF HEARING

The ear is divided into three parts:

(1) The external ear, made up of the outer portion and passage-way which
leads up to the drum.

(2) The middle ear or drum, the continuation of the ear passage internal
to the drum membrane, and

(3) The internal ear containing the labyrinth and the nerve of hearing.


DESCRIPTION OF THE EXTERNAL EAR

The outermost part, the skin-covered _auricle_, contains no bone, being
simply a mass of cartilage covered by skin. It acts as a sound catcher
and improves the hearing by directing sound-waves into the opening or
external _meatus_. This meatus or passage-way runs directly inward for
an inch and a half. The inner half of the passage-way runs through solid
bone, ending abruptly at the membrane or sounding-board of the ear.

[Illustration: =THE JOURNEY OF SOUND WAVES TO THE BRAIN=

This diagram shows the marvelous structure of the ear, and how sound
reaches the brain. There is marked similarity between the ear and a
telephone receiver by which we are able to receive messages from the
outside world. Hearing is simply the result of sound-waves striking the
drum of the ear which set in vibration the bones of the middle ear, and
they in turn vibrate the drum of the inner ear. This sets in motion a
fluid, and the wave motions are conveyed along the spiral staircase to
the wires, or nerves of hearing, and from there to the telephone
exchange, or brain.]


DESCRIPTION OF THE MIDDLE EAR

This part begins at the inner surface of the membrane, and extends
inward for about a quarter of an inch. The outer surface of the membrane
can be seen by the observer on pulling the top of the auricle or fleshy
part of the ear a little upward, so as to straighten out the somewhat
curved passageway or meatus. The membrane which is placed transversely
across the meatus is whitish-pink or yellowish color.


WHAT THE MIDDLE EAR CONTAINS

The chief contents of the cavity of the middle ear are three tiny bones
called the _malleus_ or hammer bone, the _incus_ or anvil bone, and the
_stapes_ or stirrup bone. In addition, an important nerve called the
_chorda tympani_ passes across the middle ear chamber. The three little
bones contained in the middle ear may be looked upon as the connecting
link between the outer ear, which gathers the sounds, and the internal
ear, which transmits the effect of the sound waves to the brain, where
they are translated into what we call hearing.

From without inward the three little bones lie touching each other, end
to end, the outer end of the first bone being implanted between the
layers of the drum membrane and the inner end of the innermost bone,
fitting into a tiny opening which connects the middle ear with the
internal ear. As the result of their lying touching each other, any
movement of the ear drum caused by a sound wave striking against its
outer aspect, moves the malleus bone; this, in turn, moves the middle
incus, and this passes the movement on to the innermost part of the
stirrup. This, in turn, passes the movement onward to the fluid or
_perilymph_ in the outermost part of the internal ear, and here the
endings of the nerve of hearing receive the stimuli which we recognize
as “sounds.” (See Plates.)


THE TWO IMPORTANT TUBES OF THE MIDDLE EAR

In addition to these contents of the middle ear there are also two tiny
openings which, very necessary for health, are nevertheless sometimes a
pathway by which serious disease may attack the ear and destroy the
hearing. The first is a small passage-way leading from the upper part of
the middle ear cavity through the bone to the _mastoid antrum_, a hollow
space in the prominent mass of bone to be felt immediately behind the
ear projecting outward and downward from the skull.

The second passage-way opening into the middle ear cavity is that of the
Eustachian tube which leads directly to the back of the throat. The
importance of this tube is that through it air can find its way directly
into the middle ear, so that the air pressure on the two sides of the
drum is always kept the same. If it were not for some such arrangement
the pressure on the outer side of the drum would become greater than
that on its inner surface. This would, of course, push the drum inward,
and greatly reduce its mobility.


EXPLANATION OF THE INTERNAL EAR

This is a complicated structure of bony passages curled on themselves,
roughly as in a snail shell, and lined with a delicate membrane. This
membrane is, so to speak, floating in fluid. The layer of fluid between
it and the bone is called the _perilymph_, while the two layers of the
membrane enclose a similar fluid termed the _endolymph_. The internal
ear or membranous labyrinth may be divided roughly into three chief
parts: (1) the cochlea, the true organ of hearing; (2) the semi-circular
canals, which control the act of balancing; and (3) the vestibule, or
introductory chamber to the semi-circular canals.

The cochlea is a collection of three tubes curled up on themselves in
snail-shell fashion.

The central canal of these three is the connecting link by which the
sound waves, passed along over the three tiny bones--the malleus, incus,
and stapes--finally reach the endings of the main nerve of hearing, the
auditory nerve. (See Plate.)

[Illustration]


THE EYE AND ITS WONDERFUL STRUCTURE

The human eye is a hollow globe containing fluids and the crystalline
lens. Surrounded by its muscles it lies embedded in a cushion of fat in
a conical bony hollow called the orbit. Through an opening in the bones
making up the back of the orbit, the optic nerve leads from the back of
the eye to the brain.


THE EYELIDS AND EYE-LASHES

The eyelids are made of layers of muscle and cartilage with an outer
surface of skin and an inner surface which is a continuation of the
conjunctiva that covers the eyeball. In the edge of the eyelid a series
of tiny glands are embedded. The mouths of these open on the margin of
the lids. The eye-lashes, whose duty it is to act as a screen,
preventing foreign bodies such as dust or other air-born objects getting
into the eye, are also inserted in the edge of the lid.


WHAT MAKES THE TEARS FLOW

About one-eighth of an inch from the internal angle of the eye, a small
projection is to be seen on the margin of the lid. In the center of this
is a tiny opening through which the tears as they collect in the eye are
led away through two small canals to the lachrymal sac in the upper part
of the nose. The lachrymal gland, which secretes the tears, or water, of
the eye, is situated above on the outer side of the eyeball, between it
and the bones of the orbit. The lachrymal gland is constantly secreting
tears, which are carried by narrow ducts to the upper surface of the
eyeball, whence they flow down over the eye, finally being collected at
the inner corner of the eye and passing into the nose through the
lachrymal punctures described above. Under certain circumstances, as
from emotion, a blow, or the irritation of a cold wind, the tear fluid
is secreted faster than it can escape through the punctures, and so
flows over the lids and down the cheeks.


HOW THE EYE IS HELD IN PLACE

The eye is held in its socket or orbit by (1) the optic nerve, (2) by
its six muscles attached to various points of its circumference, (3) by
the conjunctiva, which is reflected off from its attachments to the
outer coat of the eye directly on to the lids, and (4) by the eyelids
themselves. (See Color Plate.)


HOW THE EYE IS CONSTRUCTED

The _cornea_ is the transparent, bulging, central portion of the eye
covering the pupil and the colored iris. Made of tiny transparent cells
closely packed together, the cornea is not nourished by blood carried to
it by the blood-vessels but by lymph which permeates through it in the
tiny channels between the cells. By its curved surface it plays a part
in focusing rays of light on to the lens situated just behind the iris.

[Illustration: =PICTURE DIAGRAMS SHOWING THE DELICATE STRUCTURE OF THE
EYE AND EAR=]

Directly behind the cornea come the _iris_ and _pupil_. The latter is
nothing more than a hole in the center of the iris through which light
enters the eye.


HOW THE LIGHT IS REGULATED

The iris is the screen of the eye. Just as the photographer uses a
screen with a large opening when he wants more light to enter his camera
and a small opening when he requires less, so Nature arranges that the
iris automatically contracts or dilates to make a larger or smaller
pupil opening, according to the amount of light needed within the eye
for purposes of vision. When the light is very bright less is needed in
the eye. Thus in brilliant artificial light at night one’s pupil is
small. On the other hand, when the light is waning, as in the dusk or
semi-darkness, the pupil is enlarged by the iris contracting down to a
narrow ring under the outer circumference of the cornea.


WHAT DETERMINES THE COLOR OF THE EYE

The color of the eye depends on the position and amount of pigment cells
in the iris. In the dark brown eye there is an abundance of pigment
scattered through the substance of the iris as well as in the front
layers nearest the surface. In the blue eye the pigment cells are buried
deep in the iris and are fairly plentiful in amount. The colorless eye
of the albino is the result of a deficiency of pigment in the iris.

The iris is fixed at its outer circumference, but its inner rim, which
makes the border line of the pupil, is free, so that when the iris
contracts the pupil becomes larger, since its inner free margin is drawn
outwards toward the fixed outer margin. Close up against the deeper
surface of the iris comes the crystalline lens.


WHY AND HOW WE SEE

The lens is a compact body of transparent cells, concave in form, and
closely similar to the glass lens of a camera. The lens of the eye,
however, differs from the camera’s glass lens because it changes its
shape in focusing for objects at different distances. This focusing,
which takes place automatically, is known as “accommodation.”

The object of the change in the shape of the lens is that no matter at
what angle the rays of light reflected from the object looked at fall on
the outer surface of the lens (through the opening in the iris), they
may be accurately focused on the surface of the retina, or lining
membrane at the back of the eye. When looking at a distant object the
lens is fairly flat, because when in this position the rays of light
will be accurately focused on the retina. If the eye is now turned to an
object near at hand the rays of light from the object are more divergent
than in the previous case, and if the lens retained its previous shape
they would fail to be focused accurately on the surface of the retina.
Hence Nature has arranged that the lens of the eye is elastic,
automatically becoming flatter by the action of the ciliary muscle when
distant objects are looked at and rounder or deeper when nearer objects
are looked at.


EFFECT OF AGE UPON THE LENS

Up till middle age the eye retains in full this power of automatic
accommodation. From middle age onward, however, the lens becomes less
and less elastic. As a result the lens constantly remains more or less
flattened. Although vision for objects at some distant from the eyes
remains perfect, oldish people very frequently have to wear glasses (to
correct the too great flatness of the natural lens) to obtain clear
vision of objects close at hand.


WHAT HOLDS AND SURROUNDS THE LENS

The lens is slung in a ligament that is a part of the “ciliary body,”
which is a continuation of the choroid coat of the eyeball. This ciliary
body is a ring of tissue lying behind the iris connected with the
anterior portion of the choroid coat of the eye.

Between the iris and the underlying lens on the one hand and the inner
surface of the bulging cornea on the other is a small space or cavity
filled with a clear transparent fluid called the _aqueous humor_.


THE COATS OF THE EYE

Looking at the white of the eye, the first coat is the transparent
conjunctiva, which is reflected back on to the eyeball from the
eyelids. Next comes the sclerotic coat, formed of dense whitish tissue,
which seen through the transparent conjunctiva makes up the “white of
the eye.” The sclerotic coat covers the whole globe of the eyeball with
the exception of the transparent bulging cornea in front (which,
however, is practically a continuation of the sclerotic), and the back
of the eye where the optic nerve enters. The sclerotic is the thickest
and densest coat of the eye.

Within the sclerotic coat, and so to speak lining it, comes the choroid
coat. Countless blood vessels run through this coat, supplying both the
one above it and that beneath it. As this coat approaches the front of
the eye under the circumference of the cornea, it thickens into the
ciliary body, forming a dense ring of tissues underneath the junction of
the cornea and the sclerotic coat.


THE WORK OF THE RETINA

The innermost coat of the eye is called the retina. This coat contains
the nerve endings of the optic nerve which, coming through the opening
in the bony orbit, passes through the sclerotic and choroid coats. After
entering the eye, the optic nerve divides into myriads of fibers, which,
spreading from the point of entrance at the back of the eye, form a
fibrous network all over its inner surface. In addition to this network
of nerve fibers and highly specialized nerve cells, tiny blood vessels
entering with the optic nerve branch out on all sides over the retina.


THE RODS AND CONES

The retina is a comparatively thick membrane composed of eight layers of
different kinds of nervous tissue. The essential layer, that of the
“rods and cones,” is the seventh from within outward. Thus a ray of
light on entering the eye must pass through six superficial layers
before it reaches the “rods and cones.”

The “rods and cones” are lying on a layer of colored or pigment cells
whose duty it is to prevent diffusion of light within the eye. The
eyeball, therefore, is to all intents a camera obscura, the iris
representing the shutter, the crystalline lens the camera lens, and the
layer of “rods and cones” the sensitive plate. When a ray of light falls
on the layer of the “rods and cones,” this layer receives a nervous
stimulus which is conveyed by the optic nerve to the brain. _It is these
sensations which the brain translates into what we term sight._

Where the optic nerve enters the back of the eye, there are no “rods and
cones,” hence rays of light falling on this portion of the retina send
no stimulus to the brain; in other words, images falling on the “blind
spot” are not visible.

The “yellow spot” is a small area at the center at the back of the eye
where the retina is very thin, consisting of little more than a single
layer of “cones.” Images which fall upon this region are seen with the
greatest distinctness.


HOW THE SENSE OF SIGHT IS PRODUCED

Sight is a nervous sensation due to the translation by the brain of the
effects caused by rays of light being reflected from some object in
front of the eye on to the innermost layer of the eye, the retina.

When an object is looked at, rays of light which reach the object from
some source of light (such as the sun, a lamp, etc.) fall on the
transparent outer part of the eye, the cornea. On account of its curved
surface these rays of light are more or less bent inward so as to fall
more or less perpendicularly on the forward anterior convex surface of
the lens. If the light is weak or dim, the iris, which lies in front of
the lens, will automatically contract down so as to make the opening by
which the rays can enter the posterior chamber of the eye (the part
behind the lens) as large as possible.

If the light is very bright the muscle fibers in the iris will relax so
that the iris itself gets larger, and its central opening smaller, so
that too much light may not enter. Passing through the lens the rays are
focused by the lens so that they are brought together to a point exactly
on the surface of the retina.

Here their presence has a certain effect on the rod and cone layer of
the retina, the result of which is conducted along the optic nerve to
the brain, where it is transformed into what we know as sight.

[Illustration: =HOW WE ARE ABLE TO TASTE, SMELL AND FEEL=

=HOW THE NERVES RUN INTO THE SPINAL CORD ON THE WAY TO THE BRAIN=

The lower drawing shows how the spinal cord rests in the backbone, and
how the nerves pass in and out, those of sensation passing into the
spinal cord, as shown in the magnified section above.]

[Illustration: =THE AREAS OF THE TONGUE IN WHICH THE CELLS OF TASTE ARE
DISTRIBUTED=

The tongue is covered with various types of taste-bulbs, most of the
distinct types that appreciate the sweet, the acid, and the bitter being
found in the areas marked on the diagram.]

[Illustration: =THE OUTER SIDE OF THE NOSE, SHOWING THE NERVES OF SMELL
AND FEELING=]

[Illustration: =THE INNER PART OF THE NOSE, SHOWING THE FIBRES FROM THE
OLFACTORY BULB=]


THE NOSE: ORGAN OF SMELL

The nose is composed partly of bone and partly of cartilage, the
cartilages being firmly attached to the bones and to one another by
fibrous tissue.

The bridge consists of the two nasal bones which are projections of the
frontal bone of the forehead. From these are continued the nasal
cartilages which form one-half to two-thirds of the external nose.

The interior is a large and complicated chamber divided into the right
and left nares, or nostrils, by the partition called the _septum_. This,
like the external part, consists of cartilage in front, attached to bone
at the back.

=The Nostrils=, opening on the face in front, run backward for about two
inches and open into the pharynx behind. But the single canal is divided
into three separate passages some distance inward. This division is
effected by the turbinated bones which jut out into the nostril and thus
form the upper, middle, and lower air-channels. In this way the warm
surface with which cold inhaled air comes in contact is greatly
enlarged.

From the mouth cavity the nose is separated by the hard palate. On the
external nose, scattered near the tip, are numerous hairs, sebaceous
glands, and sweat glands. These glands are very liable to get blocked,
giving rise to inflamed spots, and when hairs are pulled out small
abscesses are apt to form.

=Membrane.=--The whole of the interior surface is lined with mucous
membrane, and as this has a large area, and is very well supplied with
blood, it raises the temperature of inspired air. The mucous membrane of
the nose is continuous with that of the pharynx. Any inflammation, such
as that which constitutes a “cold in the head,” is therefore extremely
liable to extend backward and finally reach the bronchial tubes and
lungs.

Over this membrane spread a multitude of small threads or nerves
resembling the twigs of a branch; there are many such branches within
the nostril, and they join together so as to form larger branches, which
may be compared to the boughs of a tree. These finally terminate in a
number of stems, or trunks, several for each nostril, which pass upward
through apertures provided for them in the roof of the arched cavity,
and terminate in the brain.

We have thus, as it were, a leafless nerve-tree whose roots are in the
brain, and whose boughs, branches, and twigs spread over the lining
membrane of the nostril. This nerve is termed the _Olfactory_.

When we wish to smell anything--for example, a flower--we close our lips
and draw in our breath, and the air which is thus made to enter the nose
carries with it the odorous matter, and brings it in contact with the
ramifications of the nerve of smell. Every inspiration of air, whether
the mouth is closed or not, causes any odorous substance present in that
air to touch the expanded filaments of the nerve.

In virtue of this contact or touching of the nerve and the volatile
scent, the mind becomes conscious of odor, though how it does so we know
as little as how the mind sees or hears; we are quite certain, however,
that if the olfactory nerve be destroyed, the sense of smell is lost.

Besides its endowment by the olfactory nerve, or nerve proper of smell,
the nostril, especially at its lower part, is covered by branches of
another nerve (known to anatomists as the fifth), of the same nature as
those which are found endowing every part of the body with the
susceptibility of heat, cold, smoothness, roughness, pleasure, and pain.
It is on this nerve that pungent vapors, such as those of
smelling-salts, strong vinegar, mustard, and the like, make the sharp
impression with which all are familiar.

=Can the Sense of Smell be Educated?=--The extent to which the sense of
smell may be educated far exceeds what most imagine can be realized from
this sense. There are probably as many odors as there are colors or
sounds; and the compass of one nostril in reference to the first, likely
differs as widely from that of another, as the compass of the eye or the
ear does in reference to the last two. The wine merchant, the distiller
of perfumes, the manufacturer of drugs, the grower of scented plants,
the epicure in things savory, the tobacco dealer, and many others, have
by long training educated themselves to distinguish differences of odor
which escape an uneducated and unpracticed nostril, however acute by
natural endowment.

=Perfumes.=--Much importance attaches to the use of perfumes by both
ancient and modern civilized nations. But all the ancient nations who
had attained to civilization, were addicted to the use of perfumes to an
extent to which no modern people at the present day affords any
parallel. Not merely as contributing to the luxury of the body were
perfumes so prized. They were used at every sacred ceremonial; lavishly
expended at the public religious services; and largely employed at the
solemn rites which were celebrated at the burial of the dead.


THE TONGUE: THE ORGAN OF TASTE

The organ of taste is generally held to be synonymous with the tongue,
but, in reality, the throat and the nostril are as much concerned as the
tongue in the perception of taste. The power of these portions of the
body to distinguish savors mainly depends, as in the case of the eye and
the ear, upon their connection with the brain through those fine white
nerves which have been already referred to. The tongue and the auxiliary
organs of taste are largely supplied with nerves, and through them those
sensations are experienced which we connect with the words taste, savor,
sapidity; sweet, salt, sour, bitter, and the like.

=Membrane of the Tongue.=--At certain points the membrane of the tongue
forms distinct folds, containing fibrous or muscular tissue, which act
to a certain extent as ligaments to the tongue. The most considerable of
these folds is termed the _frœnum_ (or bridle) of the tongue, and
connects its anterior free extremity with the lower jaw. Other folds of
mucous membrane pass from the base of the tongue to the epiglottis;
while from the sides of the base, passing to the soft palate, are seen
two folds on either side, the “pillars of the fauces.”

The upper surface of the tongue is divided into two parts by a long
furrow, commencing at the tip, and extending back about two-thirds of
the tongue’s length.

=Muscles of the Tongue.=--The muscles of the tongue are usually divided
into two groups--_viz._: the _extrinsic_ muscles, which attach the
tongue to certain fixed points external to it, and move it on them; and
the _intrinsic_ muscles, which pass from one part of the tongue to
another, constitute its chief bulk, and move it on itself. These
intrinsic muscular fibers run vertically, transversely, and
longitudinally, and are so interlaced as mutually to support one
another, and to act with the greatest advantage.

=The Bulbs of Taste.=--The mucous membrane is invested by stratified
cells, which, over the surface of the tongue, cover little vascular
projections termed, papillæ. At the back of the tongue are some eight or
ten papillæ of quite a different nature, called “circumvallate.” They
are arranged to form a V with its angle pointing backward. In the
epithelium lining the trenches between the papillæ, curious little
bodies called taste-bulbs are lodged. Each taste-bulb looks like a
flask-shaped barrel or box, the walls of which are composed of flat
elongated cells fitted side by side like the staves of a cask. The
taste-bulbs open each by a little pore into the trench, and into the
deeper part a nerve enters. The impressions are carried by the nerve
directly to the brain in either the fifth or the ninth cranial nerves.

Before the substance can stimulate the terminals it is necessary for its
aromatic principles to be in solution. This is generally effected
through the agency of the saliva.

Four distinct gustatory qualities are appreciated by the sense of
taste--sweetness, bitterness, acidity, and salinity. The intensity of
the sensation of taste varies with (1) the area of the surface
stimulated, (2) the concentration of the stimulant, (3) the length of
the period of application, and (4) the temperature of the substance
tasted. Tractile impressions, such as harshness, coolness, and
astringency, are erroneously attributed to taste.

=Mis-Educated and Educated Taste.=--Of all the organs of the senses,
that of taste is probably the one which receives the worst usage at our
hands. The eye, the ear, and the nose are not educated at all, or their
education is left to chance, but the tongue is deliberately
mis-educated, perverted, and led astray. We eat what we should not eat;
drink what we should not drink: eat too much of what we may eat, and
drink too much of what we may drink. And the result is, that we ruin our
health, enfeeble our bodies, dull our intellects, brutalize our
feelings, and harden our hearts.

Yet assuredly taste has its legitimate domain, and it is as unworthy of
man’s true dignity that he should be content to live upon the husks that
the swine do eat, as that he should be miserable if he do not fare
sumptuously every day. All the other senses have a direct interest in
the practical decisions of the sense of taste. Drunkenness and dyspepsia
dim the eye, dull the ear, blunt the nostril, and make the hand tremble.

=A Victim to the Other Senses.=--The sense of taste, in truth, is at the
mercy of the other senses; and though it can revenge itself for their
neglect or misuse of it, it is a sufferer by its own revenge.

Helpless, selfish, and exacting, the dependent of the other senses, and
the servant of the body rather than of the soul, it frequently links us
more with the lower animals than with higher existences, and has no
element of ethereality about it.

A feast, indeed, may furnish pleasure to every sense, but it is usually
not till hunger is appeased that the higher senses are ministered to.
But the tongue, as the organ of taste, is the commissary-general,
without whose supplies the other senses can achieve no conquests, and it
is entitled to its share in the honors assigned to the united five; but
its own sword is seldom drawn, and its aspect is not heroic.


THE HAND: CHIEF ORGAN OF TOUCH

The last of the bodily senses is _Touch_. It has the widest gateway, and
largest apparatus of them all; for though we are in the habit of
speaking of it as localized in the fingers, it reigns throughout the
body, and is the token of life in every part. The nearest approach to
death which can occur in a living body, is the condition of paralysis or
palsy, a death in life, marked in one of its forms by the loss of that
sense of touch which is so marked an endowment of every active, healthy
creature.

The tactile susceptibilities of the skin depend, as do the peculiar
endowment of the other organs of the senses, on its plentiful supply
with those wondrous living nerves, which place in vital communication
with each other all the organs of the body, on the one hand; and that,
mysterious living center, the brain (and its adjuncts), on the other.

Our simplest conception of an organ of sense is supplied by the finger,
which whether it touches or is touched, equally realizes that contact
has been made with it, and enables the mind to draw conclusions
regarding the qualities of the bodies which impress it. Now, after all,
every one of the organs of the senses is but a clothed living nerve
conscious of touch, and they differ from each other only in reference to
the kind of touch which they can exercise or feel. Keeping in view that
to touch and to be touched is in reality the same thing, so far as the
impression of a foreign body is concerned, we can justly affirm that the
tongue is but a kind of finger, which touches and is touched by savors;
that the nostril is touched by odors; the ear by sounds; and the eye by
light.

The _Hand_ is emphatically the organ of touch, not merely because the
tips of the fingers, besides being richly endowed with those nerves
which confer sensitiveness upon the skin of the whole body, possess in
addition an unusual supply of certain minute auxiliary bodies, called
“tactile corpuscles,” but because the arrangement of the thumb and
fingers, and the motions of the wrist, elbow, and arm, give the hand a
power of accommodating itself spontaneously to surfaces, which no other
part of the body possesses. Moreover, when we speak of the hand as the
organ of touch, we do not refer merely to the sensitiveness of the skin
of the fingers, but also to that consciousness of pressure upon them in
different directions, by means of which we largely judge of form.

When a blind man, for example, plays a musical instrument he is guided
in placing his fingers, not merely by the impression made upon the skin
of them, but also by impressions conveyed through the skin to these
little bundles of flesh called muscles, which move the fingers.

In many respects the organ of touch, as embodied in the hand, is the
most wonderful of the senses. The organs of the other senses are
passive, the organ of touch alone is active. The eye, the ear, and the
nostril stand simply open: light, sound, and fragrance enter, and we are
compelled to see, to hear and to smell; but the hand selects what it
shall touch, and touches what it pleases. It puts away from it the
things which it hates, and beckons toward it the things which it
desires; unlike the eye, which must often gaze transfixed at horrible
sights from which it cannot turn; and the ear, which cannot escape from
the torture of discordant sounds; and the nostril, which cannot protect
itself from hateful odors.

Moreover, the hand cares not only for its own wants, but, when the other
organs of the senses are rendered useless, takes their duties upon it.
The hand of the blind man goes with him as an eye through the streets,
and safely threads for him all the devious ways; it looks for him at the
faces of his friends, and tells him whose kindly features are gazing on
him; it peruses books for him, and quickens the long hours by its silent
readings.

It ministers as willingly to the deaf; and when the tongue is dumb and
the ear stopped, its fingers speak eloquently to the eye, and enable it
to discharge the unwonted office of a listener.

The organs of all the other senses, also, even in their greatest
perfection, are beholden to the hand for the enhancement and the
exaltation of their powers.

It constructs for the eye a copy of itself, and thus gives it a
telescope with which to range among the stars; and by another copy on a
slightly different plan, furnishes it with a microscope, and introduces
it into a new world of wonders.

It constructs for the ear the instruments by which it is educated, and
sounds them in its hearing till its powers are trained to the full.

It plucks for the nostril the flower which it longs to smell, and
distills for it the fragrance which it covets.

As for the tongue, if it had not the hand to serve it, it might abdicate
its throne as the “Lord of Taste.” In short, the organ of touch is the
minister of its sister senses, and, without any play of words, is the
handmaid of them all.

And if the hand thus munificently serves the body, not less amply does
it give expression to the genius and the wit, the courage and the
affection, the will and the power of man. Put a sword into it, and it
will fight for him; put a plow into it, and it will till for him; put a
harp into it, and it will play for him; put a pencil into it, and it
will paint for him; put a pen into it, and it will speak for him, plead
for him, pray for him.

What will it not do? What has it not done? A steam engine is but a
larger hand, made to extend its powers by the little hand of man! An
electric telegraph is but a long pen for that little hand to write with!
All our huge cannon and other weapons of war, with which we so
effectually slay our brethern, are only Cain’s hand made bigger, and
stronger, and bloodier!

What, moreover, is a ship, a railway, a lighthouse, or a palace--what,
indeed, is a whole city, a whole continent of cities, all the cities of
the globe, nay, the very globe itself, in so far as man has changed it,
but the work of that giant hand, with which the human race, acting as
one mighty man, has executed its will!

What an instrument for good it is! What an instrument for evil! and all
the day long it never is idle. There is no implement which it cannot
wield, and it should never in working hours be without one. It is the
one universal craftsman. For the queen’s hand there is the scepter, and
for the soldier’s hand the sword; for the carpenter’s hand the saw, and
for the smith’s hand the hammer; for the farmer’s hand the plow; for the
miner’s hand the pick; for the sailor’s hand the oar; for the painter’s
hand the brush; for the sculptor’s hand the chisel; for the poet’s hand
the pen; and for the woman’s hand the needle.

For each willing man and woman there is a tool they may learn to handle;
for all there is the command, “Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it
with all thy might.”

Such are the five entrance-ways of knowledge, which John Bunyan quaintly
styles Eye-gate, Ear-gate, Nose-gate, Mouth-gate, and Feel-gate.



BOOK OF BIOGRAPHY


    I. CLASSIFIED BIOGRAPHICAL CHART BY CENTURIES:

         CHRONOLOGICAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE GREAT MASTERS OF
         ACHIEVEMENT FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRESENT

      THE WORLD’S IMMORTALS: IN RELIGION AND MORAL
      REFORM, GOVERNMENT, LITERATURE, FINE ARTS, PHILOSOPHY
      AND EDUCATION, SCIENCE, AND INDUSTRY.

      THE WORLD’S LEADERS TO-DAY

   II. PRONOUNCING DICTIONARY OF BIOGRAPHY: CHRONOLOGICALLY
       ARRANGED BY CENTURIES

  III. MISCELLANEOUS TABLES AND CHARTS

(Biographical Chart only included in Single Volume Edition.)


=THE WORLD’S IMMORTALS AND MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT IN RELIGION,
GOVERNMENT, LITERATURE, FINE ARTS, PHILOSOPHY, SCIENCE AND
INDUSTRY--TABULATED BY CENTURIES AND CLASSIFIED=

  NOTE--The names of the world’s _greatest_ masters are set out in
  CAPITALS in the respective columns. In general the names are placed
  in the centuries associated with the greatest achievements of each
  individual.

  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | =Cen-|=Religion and Moral |    =Government=    |    =Literature=    |
  |  tu- |       Reform=      |                    |                    |
  | ries=|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |Founders of Systems,|  Rulers, Military  | Poets, Dramatists, |
  |      |Great Leaders, Heads| Leaders, Statesmen,|Historians, Orators,|
  |      |of Religious Bodies,|     Publicists,    |Essayists, Novelists|
  |      |  Moral and Humane  | Diplomats, Jurists |                    |
  |      |      Reformers     |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | =4000|Abraham, Heb.       |Menes, Egyptian     |Literature existed  |
  | B. C.|patriarch.          |king.               |in mere fragments   |
  |  to  |                    |                    |until the time of   |
  | 1000 |MOSES, Heb. lawgiver|Lugulzaggisi, Baby- |Homer.              |
  |B. C.=|and leader.         |lonian ruler.       |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |HOMER, Greek poet.  |
  |      |Samuel, Heb. judge  |Sargon I., Babylo-  |Ptah-hot-ep, Egypt, |
  |      |and leader.         |nian king.          |moralist.           |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |ZOROASTER, Persian  |Hammurabi, Babylo-  |                    |
  |      |religious leader and|nian ruler and law- |                    |
  |      |reformer.           |giver.              |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Khufu (Cheops),     |                    |
  |      |                    |Egyptian king.      |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Thothmes I., Egyp-  |                    |
  |      |                    |tian king.          |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Thothmes III.,      |                    |
  |      |                    |Egyptian king and   |                    |
  |      |                    |reformer.           |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Rameses II.         |                    |
  |      |                    |(Sesostris), Egyp-  |                    |
  |      |                    |tian king.          |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Amenhotep IV., Egyp-|                    |
  |      |                    |tian king.          |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | =1000|Isaiah, Hebrew      |David, Hebrew king  |...                 |
  | B. C.|prophet (8th century|and poet (10th      |                    |
  |  to  |B. C.)              |century B. C.)      |                    |
  |  700 |                    |                    |                    |
  |B. C.=|                    |Solomon, Hebrew king|                    |
  |      |                    |(10th century B. C.)|                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _7th |Jeremiah, Hebrew    |Josiah, king of     |Sappho, Greek       |
  | Cent.|prophet.            |Judah.              |poetess.            |
  |B. C._|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |Daniel, Hebrew      |Cyaxeres, king of   |                    |
  | =700 |prophet.            |Media.              |                    |
  | B. C.|                    |                    |                    |
  |  to  |                    |Draco, Greek legis- |                    |
  |  600 |                    |lator.              |                    |
  |B. C.=|                    |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _6th |Ezekiel, Hebrew     |Nebuchadnezzar,     |Æesop, Greek        |
  | Cent.|prophet.            |king of Babylonia.  |fabulist.           |
  |B. C._|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |CONFUCIUS, Chinese  |Solon, Greek law-   |Anacreon, Greek     |
  | =600 |moralist.           |giver.              |poet.               |
  | B. C.|                    |                    |                    |
  |  to  |BUDDHA, founder of  |Pisistratus, tyrant |ÆSCHYLUS, Greek     |
  |  500 |Buddhism.           |of Athens.          |poet.               |
  |B. C.=|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Croesus, king of    |                    |
  |      |                    |Lydia.              |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Cyrus the Great,    |                    |
  |      |                    |Persian king.       |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Darius I., king of  |                    |
  |      |                    |Persia.             |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _5th |...                 |Xerxes, king of     |Pindar, Greek poet. |
  | Cent.|                    |Persia.             |                    |
  |B. C._|                    |                    |Xenophon, Greek     |
  |      |                    |Hiero, tyrant of    |historian.          |
  | =500 |                    |Syracuse.           |                    |
  | B. C.|                    |                    |HERODOTUS, Greek    |
  |  to  |                    |Artaxerxes I., king |historian.          |
  |  400 |                    |of Persia.          |                    |
  |B. C.=|                    |                    |Euripides, Greek    |
  |      |                    |Artaxerxes II., king|poet.               |
  |      |                    |of Persia.          |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |SOPHOCLES, Greek    |
  |      |                    |Miltiades, Greek    |poet.               |
  |      |                    |general.            |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Thucydides, Greek   |
  |      |                    |PERICLES, Greek     |historian.          |
  |      |                    |statesman.          |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Aristophanes, Greek |
  |      |                    |Cimon, Greek comman-|humorist.           |
  |      |                    |der.                |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Themistocles, Greek |                    |
  |      |                    |statesman.          |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _4th |...                 |Philip, king of     |DEMOSTHENES, Greek  |
  | Cent.|                    |Macedon.            |orator.             |
  |B. C._|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |ALEXANDER THE GREAT,|Æschines, Greek ora-|
  | =400 |                    |Greek conqueror.    |tor.                |
  | B. C.|                    |                    |                    |
  |  to  |                    |Ptolemy Soter,      |Menander, Greek     |
  |  300 |                    |governor of Egypt.  |comic poet.         |
  |B. C.=|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Seleucus Nicator,   |                    |
  |      |                    |king of Syria.      |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Epiminondas, Greek  |                    |
  |      |                    |statesman and       |                    |
  |      |                    |general.            |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Phocion, Greek      |                    |
  |      |                    |general.            |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _3rd |...                 |Pyrrhus, Greek king |Plautus, Roman comic|
  | Cent.|                    |of Epirus.          |poet.               |
  |B. C._|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Ptolemy (Phil), king|Ennius, Roman poet. |
  | =300 |                    |of Egypt.           |                    |
  | B. C.|                    |                    |Manetho, Egyptian   |
  |  to  |                    |Antiochus Soter,    |historian.          |
  |  200 |                    |king of Syria.      |                    |
  |B. C.=|                    |                    |Bion, Greek poet.   |
  |      |                    |Ptolemy (Ever.),    |                    |
  |      |                    |king of Egypt.      |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Antiochus the Great,|                    |
  |      |                    |king of Syria.      |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Scipio Africanus,   |                    |
  |      |                    |Roman general.      |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Fabius Maximus,     |                    |
  |      |                    |Roman general.      |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Philopœmen, Greek   |                    |
  |      |                    |general.            |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |HANNIBAL, Carthagi- |                    |
  |      |                    |nian general.       |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _2nd |...                 |Judas Maccabæus,    |Cato, Roman histo-  |
  | Cent.|                    |Jewish leader.      |rian.               |
  |B. C._|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Marius, Roman       |Terence, Roman comic|
  | =200 |                    |general.            |writer.             |
  | B. C.|                    |                    |                    |
  |  to  |                    |Sulla, Roman        |Polybius, Greek his-|
  |  100 |                    |general, dictator.  |torian.             |
  |B. C.=|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Cato, Roman censor. |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Mummius, Roman      |                    |
  |      |                    |general.            |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _1st |=JESUS CHRIST=, born|Mithridates the     |CICERO, Roman ora-  |
  | Cent.|4 B. C.             |Great, king of      |tor.                |
  |B. C._|                    |Pontus.             |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Cæsar, Roman histo- |
  | =100 |                    |Cleopatra, queen of |rian.               |
  | B. C.|                    |Egypt.              |                    |
  |  to  |                    |                    |Lucretius, Roman    |
  |   1  |                    |Herod the Great,    |poet-philosopher.   |
  |A. D.=|                    |king of Judæa.      |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Catullus, Roman     |
  |      |                    |Tigranes I., king of|lyric poet.         |
  |      |                    |Armenia.            |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Sallust, Roman his- |
  |      |                    |Augustus, first     |torian.             |
  |      |                    |Roman emperor.      |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |VIRGIL, Roman epic  |
  |      |                    |JULIUS CÆSAR, Roman |poet.               |
  |      |                    |general.            |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Horace, Roman lyric |
  |      |                    |Pompey, Roman       |poet.               |
  |      |                    |general.            |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Livy, Roman histo-  |
  |      |                    |                    |rian.               |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _1st |Saint Peter, apostle|AUGUSTUS CÆSAR,     |LIVY (Titus Livius),|
  | Cent.|(?-66).             |first emperor of    |Roman historian (59 |
  |A. D._|                    |Rome (B. C. 63-A. D.|B. C.-17 A. D.).    |
  |      |SAINT PAUL, apostle |14).                |                    |
  |  =1  |of the Gentiles     |                    |CAIUS CORNELIUS     |
  | A. D.|(10?-65?).          |                    |TACITUS, Roman his- |
  |  to  |                    |                    |torian (55?-after   |
  |  100 |                    |                    |117?).              |
  |A. D.=|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |PLUTARCH, Greek bio-|
  |      |                    |                    |grapher and moralist|
  |      |                    |                    |(49?-120?).         |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _2nd |...                 |MARCUS AURELIUS     |Lucian, Greek author|
  | Cent.|                    |ANTONINUS, Roman    |(120?-200)          |
  |A. D._|                    |emperor and philos- |                    |
  |      |                    |opher (121-180).    |                    |
  | =100 |                    |                    |                    |
  | A. D.|                    |                    |                    |
  |  to  |                    |                    |                    |
  |  200 |                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D.=|                    |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _3rd |...                 |CONSTANTINE I., the |...                 |
  | Cent.|                    |Great, emperor of   |                    |
  |A. D._|                    |Rome (272-337).     |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  | =200 |                    |                    |                    |
  | A. D.|                    |                    |                    |
  |  to  |                    |                    |                    |
  |  300 |                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D.=|                    |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _4th |Sophronius Eusebius |...                 |...                 |
  | Cent.|Jerome, Latin father|                    |                    |
  |A. D._|(345?-420).         |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  | =300 |SAINT AUGUSTINE,    |                    |                    |
  | A. D.|Numidian bishop of  |                    |                    |
  |  to  |Hippo (354-430).    |                    |                    |
  |  400 |                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D.=|                    |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _5th |...                 |JUSTINIAN I., Byzan-|...                 |
  | Cent.|                    |tine emperor (482?- |                    |
  |A. D._|                    |565).               |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  | =400 |                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D. |                    |                    |                    |
  |  to  |                    |                    |                    |
  |  500 |                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D.=|                    |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _6th |MOHAMMED, founder of|...                 |...                 |
  | Cent.|Mohammedanism (571?-|                    |                    |
  |A. D._|632).               |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  | =500 |                    |                    |                    |
  | A. D.|                    |                    |                    |
  |  to  |                    |                    |                    |
  |  600 |                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D.=|                    |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _7th |...                 |Heraclius, Byzantine|...                 |
  | Cent.|                    |emperor (reigned    |                    |
  |A. D._|                    |610-641).           |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  | =600 |                    |Abu-Bekr, first     |                    |
  | A. D.|                    |caliph of Mecca     |                    |
  |  to  |                    |(571?-635).         |                    |
  |  700 |                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D.=|                    |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _8th |...                 |HAROUN AL-RASHID,   |Bede, the Venerable,|
  | Cent.|                    |caliph of Bagdad    |English monk and ec-|
  |A. D._|                    |(reigned 786-809).  |clesiastical histo- |
  |      |                    |                    |rian (672?-735?).   |
  | =700 |                    |CHARLEMAGNE, or     |                    |
  | A. D.|                    |Charles I., emperor |Flaccus Albinus     |
  |  to  |                    |of the West and king|Alcuin, English     |
  |  800 |                    |of France (742-814).|theologian (725?-   |
  |A. D.=|                    |                    |804).               |
  |      |                    |Pepin, Le Bref (the |                    |
  |      |                    |Short), king of the |                    |
  |      |                    |Franks (714?-768).  |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |CHARLES MARTEL, duke|                    |
  |      |                    |of Austrasia (694-  |                    |
  |      |                    |741).               |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _9th |...                 |ALFRED THE GREAT,   |...                 |
  | Cent.|                    |king of the West    |                    |
  |A. D._|                    |Saxons (849?-901).  |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  | =800 |                    |AL-MAMUN, or Al-    |                    |
  | A. D.|                    |Mamoun, caliph of   |                    |
  |  to  |                    |Bagdad, philosopher |                    |
  |  900 |                    |and astronomer (786-|                    |
  |A. D.=|                    |833).               |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _10th|...                 |HUGH CAPET, king of |Firdusi, Persian    |
  | Cent.|                    |France (940?-996).  |poet (died 1020).   |
  |A. D._|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |OTHO I., THE GREAT, |                    |
  | =900 |                    |emperor of Germany  |                    |
  | A. D.|                    |(912-973).          |                    |
  |  to  |                    |                    |                    |
  | 1000 |                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D.=|                    |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _11th|GREGORY VII., pope  |WILLIAM I., THE CON-|...                 |
  | Cent.|(1018?-1085).       |QUEROR, king of En- |                    |
  |A. D._|                    |gland (1027-1087).  |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  | =1000|                    |                    |                    |
  | A. D.|                    |                    |                    |
  |  to  |                    |                    |                    |
  | 1100 |                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D.=|                    |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _12th|SAINT BERNARD,      |Richard I., Cœur de |William of Malmes-  |
  | Cent.|French ecclesiastic |Lion, king of En-   |bury, English histo-|
  |A. D._|(1091-1153).        |gland (1157-1199).  |rian (1095?-1143).  |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  | =1100|Thomas à Becket,    |Frederick I., Barba-|                    |
  | A. D.|archbishop of       |rossa, emperor of   |                    |
  |  to  |Canterbury (1117-   |Germany (1121-1190).|                    |
  | 1200 |1170).              |                    |                    |
  |A. D.=|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |Peter Lombard,      |                    |                    |
  |      |Italian theologian  |                    |                    |
  |      |(1100?-1160?).      |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _13th|SAINT FRANCIS OF    |Genghis Khan, Mogul |DEGLI ALIGHIERI     |
  | Cent.|ASSISI, Italian     |conqueror (1163-    |DANTE, Italian poet |
  |A. D._|friar (1182-1226).  |1227).              |(1265-1321).        |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  | =1200|Saint Dominic, or   |Simon de Montfort,  |                    |
  | A. D.|Domingo de Gusman,  |Earl of Leicester   |                    |
  |  to  |Spanish founder of  |(1200?-1265).       |                    |
  | 1300 |the order of Domini-|                    |                    |
  |A. D.=|cans (1170-1221).   |LOUIS IX., Saint    |                    |
  |      |                    |Louis, king of      |                    |
  |      |                    |France (1215-1270). |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+

  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | =Cen-|     =Fine Arts=    |   =Philosophy and  |    =Science and    |
  |  tu- |                    |     Education=     |      Industry=     |
  | ries=|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |     Architects,    |    Philosophers,   |Inventors, Discover-|
  |      |Sculptors, Painters,|     Educators,     |   ers, Engineers,  |
  |      |      Musicians     |   Psychologists,   | Naturalists, Physi-|
  |      |                    |Moralists, Logicians|  cists, Mathemati- |
  |      |                    |                    |  cians, Chemists,  |
  |      |                    |                    |     Physicians,    |
  |      |                    |                    |     Biologists     |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | =4000|Early architecture, |Philosophy had its  |Astronomy was the   |
  | B. C.|sculpture and paint-|rise among the Egyp-|first science culti-|
  |  to  |ing made notable ad-|tians and Hindus,   |vated in the world. |
  | 1000 |vances under Babylo-|followed by the     |It was known to the |
  |B. C.=|nians, Assyrians,   |Greeks.             |Babylonians, Assyri-|
  |      |Egyptians and       |                    |ans, Egyptians,     |
  |      |Hindus; but no great|                    |Greeks and Chinese. |
  |      |individual names    |                    |                    |
  |      |were connected with |                    |                    |
  |      |it until the time of|                    |                    |
  |      |the Greeks.         |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | =1000|...                 |...                 |...                 |
  | B. C.|                    |                    |                    |
  |  to  |                    |                    |                    |
  |  700 |                    |                    |                    |
  |B. C.=|                    |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _7th |...                 |...                 |...                 |
  | Cent.|                    |                    |                    |
  |B. C._|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  | =700 |                    |                    |                    |
  | B. C.|                    |                    |                    |
  |  to  |                    |                    |                    |
  |  600 |                    |                    |                    |
  |B. C.=|                    |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _6th |...                 |Thales, Greek phi-  |...                 |
  | Cent.|                    |losopher.           |                    |
  |B. C._|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Pythagoras, Greek   |                    |
  | =600 |                    |philosopher.        |                    |
  | B. C.|                    |                    |                    |
  |  to  |                    |                    |                    |
  |  500 |                    |                    |                    |
  |B. C.=|                    |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _5th |Zeuxis, Greek       |SOCRATES, Greek phi-|Hippocrates, Greek  |
  | Cent.|painter.            |losopher.           |physician.          |
  |B. C._|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |PHIDIAS, Greek      |                    |                    |
  | =500 |sculptor.           |                    |                    |
  | B. C.|                    |                    |                    |
  |  to  |Ictinus, Greek      |                    |                    |
  |  400 |architect.          |                    |                    |
  |B. C.=|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |Polycletus, Greek   |                    |                    |
  |      |sculptor and        |                    |                    |
  |      |architect.          |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _4th |Apelles, Greek      |PLATO, Greek philos-|EUCLID, Greek geo-  |
  | Cent.|painter.            |opher.              |meter.              |
  |B. C._|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |Praxiteles.         |ARISTOTLE, Greek    |                    |
  | =400 |                    |philosopher.        |                    |
  | B. C.|                    |                    |                    |
  |  to  |                    |                    |                    |
  |  300 |                    |                    |                    |
  |B. C.=|                    |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _3rd |...                 |Epicurus, Greek phi-|Archimedes, Greek   |
  | Cent.|                    |losopher.           |mechanician.        |
  |B. C._|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Zeno, Greek Stoic   |                    |
  | =300 |                    |philosopher.        |                    |
  | B. C.|                    |                    |                    |
  |  to  |                    |                    |                    |
  |  200 |                    |                    |                    |
  |B. C.=|                    |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _2nd |...                 |...                 |...                 |
  | Cent.|                    |                    |                    |
  |B. C._|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  | =200 |                    |                    |                    |
  | B. C.|                    |                    |                    |
  |  to  |                    |                    |                    |
  |  100 |                    |                    |                    |
  |B. C.=|                    |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _1st |...                 |...                 |STRABO, Greek geo-  |
  | Cent.|                    |                    |grapher.            |
  |B. C._|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  | =100 |                    |                    |                    |
  | B. C.|                    |                    |                    |
  |  to  |                    |                    |                    |
  |   1  |                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D.=|                    |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _1st |...                 |EPICTETUS, Roman    |Pliny (Plinius), the|
  | Cent.|                    |Stoic philosopher   |elder, Roman natu-  |
  |A. D._|                    |(60-120?).          |ralist (A. D. 23-   |
  |      |                    |                    |79).                |
  |  =1  |                    |                    |                    |
  | A. D.|                    |                    |                    |
  |  to  |                    |                    |                    |
  |  100 |                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D.=|                    |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _2nd |...                 |MARCUS AURELIUS     |CLAUDIUS PTOLEMY,   |
  | Cent.|                    |ANTONINUS, Roman    |Græco-Egyptian as-  |
  |A. D._|                    |emperor, philosopher|tronomer, geographer|
  |      |                    |(121-180).          |(2d C. A. D.).      |
  | =100 |                    |                    |                    |
  | A. D.|                    |                    |Claudius Galen,     |
  |  to  |                    |                    |Roman physician and |
  |  200 |                    |                    |medical author (130-|
  |A. D.=|                    |                    |200?).              |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _3rd |...                 |...                 |...                 |
  | Cent.|                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D._|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  | =200 |                    |                    |                    |
  | A. D.|                    |                    |                    |
  |  to  |                    |                    |                    |
  |  300 |                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D.=|                    |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _4th |...                 |...                 |...                 |
  | Cent.|                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D._|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  | =300 |                    |                    |                    |
  | A. D.|                    |                    |                    |
  |  to  |                    |                    |                    |
  |  400 |                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D.=|                    |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _5th |...                 |...                 |...                 |
  | Cent.|                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D._|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  | =400 |                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D. |                    |                    |                    |
  |  to  |                    |                    |                    |
  |  500 |                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D.=|                    |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _6th |...                 |...                 |...                 |
  | Cent.|                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D._|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  | =500 |                    |                    |                    |
  | A. D.|                    |                    |                    |
  |  to  |                    |                    |                    |
  |  600 |                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D.=|                    |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _7th |...                 |...                 |...                 |
  | Cent.|                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D._|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  | =600 |                    |                    |                    |
  | A. D.|                    |                    |                    |
  |  to  |                    |                    |                    |
  |  700 |                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D.=|                    |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _8th |...                 |...                 |...                 |
  | Cent.|                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D._|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  | =700 |                    |                    |                    |
  | A. D.|                    |                    |                    |
  |  to  |                    |                    |                    |
  |  800 |                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D.=|                    |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _9th |...                 |...                 |...                 |
  | Cent.|                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D._|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  | =800 |                    |                    |                    |
  | A. D.|                    |                    |                    |
  |  to  |                    |                    |                    |
  |  900 |                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D.=|                    |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _10th|...                 |Avicenna, Mohammedan|...                 |
  | Cent.|                    |physician and phi-  |                    |
  |A. D._|                    |losopher (980-1037).|                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  | =900 |                    |                    |                    |
  | A. D.|                    |                    |                    |
  |  to  |                    |                    |                    |
  | 1000 |                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D.=|                    |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _11th|...                 |...                 |...                 |
  | Cent.|                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D._|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  | =1000|                    |                    |                    |
  | A. D.|                    |                    |                    |
  |  to  |                    |                    |                    |
  | 1100 |                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D.=|                    |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _12th|...                 |Pierre Abelard,     |...                 |
  | Cent.|                    |French scholastic   |                    |
  |A. D._|                    |and logician (1079- |                    |
  |      |                    |1142).              |                    |
  | =1100|                    |                    |                    |
  | A. D.|                    |Averroës, Arabian   |                    |
  |  to  |                    |philosopher and     |                    |
  | 1200 |                    |physician (1149?-   |                    |
  |A. D.=|                    |1198).              |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _13th|GIOVANNI CIMABUE,   |Albertus Magnus,    |ROGER BACON, English|
  | Cent.|father of modern    |Bavarian philosopher|monk and scientist  |
  |A. D._|painting, Florentine|and schoolman       |(1214-1294).        |
  |      |painter (1240?-     |(1193?-1280).       |                    |
  | =1200|1302?).             |                    |                    |
  | A. D.|                    |John Duns Scotus,   |                    |
  |  to  |Nicola Pisano,      |Scotch scholastic   |                    |
  | 1300 |Italian sculptor    |theologian (1265?-  |                    |
  |A. D.=|(1200?-1278).       |1308).              |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |SAINT THOMAS        |                    |
  |      |                    |AQUINAS, Italian    |                    |
  |      |                    |scholastic philos-  |                    |
  |      |                    |opher (1225-1274).  |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+

=THE WORLD’S IMMORTALS AND MASTERS OF ACHIEVEMENT IN RELIGION,
GOVERNMENT, LITERATURE, FINE ARTS, PHILOSOPHY, SCIENCE AND
INDUSTRY--TABULATED BY CENTURIES=

  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | =Cen-| =Religion and Moral|     =Fine Arts=    |    =Government=    |
  |  tu- |       Reform=      |                    |                    |
  | ries=|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |Founders of Systems,|     Architects,    |  Rulers, Military  |
  |      |Great Leaders, Heads|Sculptors, Painters,| Leaders, Statesmen,|
  |      |of Religious Bodies,|      Musicians     |     Publicists,    |
  |      |  Moral and Humane  |                    | Diplomats, Jurists |
  |      |      Reformers     |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _14th|...                 |...                 |Charles V., the     |
  | Cent.|                    |                    |Wise, (1337-1380).  |
  |A. D._|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |John of Gaunt, duke |
  | =1300|                    |                    |of Lancaster, son of|
  | A. D.|                    |                    |Edward III. (1340-  |
  |  to  |                    |                    |1399).              |
  | 1400 |                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D.=|                    |                    |Edward III., king of|
  |      |                    |                    |England (1312-1377).|
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Tamerlane (Timur),  |
  |      |                    |                    |Mongol conqueror    |
  |      |                    |                    |(1336?-1405).       |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Casimir III., the   |
  |      |                    |                    |Great, king of      |
  |      |                    |                    |Poland (reigned from|
  |      |                    |                    |1333, died 1370).   |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _15th|Girolamo Savonarola,|Filippo             |Jeanne d’Arc (Joan  |
  | Cent.|Italian religious   |Brunelleschi,       |of Arc), French     |
  |A. D._|reformer (1452-     |Italian architect   |heroine (1411?-     |
  |      |1498).              |and sculptor (1377- |1431).              |
  | =1400|                    |1444).              |                    |
  | A. D.|                    |                    |Cosmo I. de’ Medici,|
  |  to  |                    |LEONARDO DA VINCI,  |Chief of the Floren-|
  | 1500 |                    |Florentine painter  |tine Republic (1389-|
  |A. D.=|                    |(1452-1519).        |1464).              |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Bramante d’Urbino   |Ferdinand V. of     |
  |      |                    |(Donato Lazari),    |Castile, II. of     |
  |      |                    |Italian architect of|Aragon, III. of     |
  |      |                    |St. Peter’s (1444-  |Naples, II. of      |
  |      |                    |1514).              |Sicily, founder of  |
  |      |                    |                    |the Spanish monarchy|
  |      |                    |SANDRO BOTTICELLI,  |(1452-1516).        |
  |      |                    |Italian painter     |                    |
  |      |                    |(1447-1515).        |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _16th|SAINT IGNATIUS DE   |ALBRECHT DURER,     |Hernando Cortez,    |
  | Cent.|LOYOLA, Spanish     |German painter and  |Spanish conqueror of|
  |A. D._|founder of the So-  |engraver (1471-     |Mexico (1485-1547?).|
  |      |ciety of Jesus (the |1528).              |                    |
  | =1500|Jesuits) (1491-     |                    |Thomas Wolsey, car- |
  | A. D.|1556).              |ANTONIO ALLEGRI DA  |dinal minister of   |
  |  to  |                    |CORREGGIO, Italian  |Henry VIII. (1471-  |
  | 1600 |MARTIN LUTHER,      |painter (1494-1534).|1530).              |
  |A. D.=|leader of the German|                    |                    |
  |      |reformation (1483-  |TITIAN, or Tiziano  |Nicolo di Bernardo  |
  |      |1546).              |Vecellio, Venetian  |dei Macchiavelli,   |
  |      |                    |painter (1477-1576).|Italian statesman   |
  |      |Philip Melanchthon, |                    |and author (1469-   |
  |      |German Lutheran re- |RAPHAEL SANZIO, or  |1527).              |
  |      |former (1497-1560). |Santi d’Urbino,     |                    |
  |      |                    |Italian painter     |Johan van Olden     |
  |      |Ulrich Zwingle,     |(1483-1520).        |Barneveldt, Dutch   |
  |      |Swiss reformer      |                    |statesman (1547-    |
  |      |(1484-1531).        |MICHELANGELO        |1619).              |
  |      |                    |BUONARROTI, Italian |                    |
  |      |JOHN CALVIN, French |painter, sculptor,  |Henry VIII., king of|
  |      |theologian (1509-   |architect and poet  |England (1491-1547).|
  |      |1564).              |(1474-1563).        |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |HENRY IV., king of  |
  |      |Jacobus Arminius,   |                    |France and of       |
  |      |Dutch theologian    |                    |Navarre (1553-1610).|
  |      |(1560-1609).        |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |ELIZABETH, queen of |
  |      |John Knox, Scotch   |                    |England (1533-1603).|
  |      |religious reformer  |                    |                    |
  |      |(1505-1572).        |                    |Francis I., king of |
  |      |                    |                    |France (1494-1547). |
  |      |Faustus Socinus,    |                    |                    |
  |      |Italian theologian  |                    |CHARLES V., emperor |
  |      |(1539-1604).        |                    |of Germany and king |
  |      |                    |                    |of Spain (1500-     |
  |      |                    |                    |1558).              |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _17th|Jacques Bénigne     |BARTOLOMÉ ESTÉBAN   |HUGO GROTIUS, or De |
  | Cent.|Bossuet, French     |MURILLO, Spanish    |Groot, Dutch jurist |
  |A. D._|prelate, pulpit ora-|painter (1618-1682).|(1583-1645).        |
  |      |tor, author (1627-  |                    |                    |
  | =1600|1704).              |PAUL HARMENS        |Sir Edward Coke,    |
  | A. D.|                    |REMBRANDT VAN RYN,  |lord chief-justice  |
  |  to  |Cornelius Jansen,   |Dutch painter (1607-|of England (1549-   |
  | 1700 |Dutch theologian    |1669).              |1634).              |
  |A. D.=|(1585-1638).        |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |PETER PAUL RUBENS,  |ARMAND JEAN         |
  |      |                    |Flemish painter     |DUPLESSIS DE        |
  |      |                    |(1577-1640).        |RICHELIEU, cardinal |
  |      |                    |                    |and duke, French    |
  |      |                    |DIEGO RODRIGUEZ DE  |statesman (1585-    |
  |      |                    |SILVAY VELASQUEZ,   |1642).              |
  |      |                    |Spanish painter     |                    |
  |      |                    |(1599-1660).        |OLIVER CROMWELL,    |
  |      |                    |                    |lord protector of   |
  |      |                    |Sir Christopher     |the English common- |
  |      |                    |Wren, English archi-|wealth (1599-1658). |
  |      |                    |tect (1632-1723).   |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Count Johann        |
  |      |                    |                    |Tserclaes von Tilly,|
  |      |                    |                    |German general in   |
  |      |                    |                    |the Thirty Years’   |
  |      |                    |                    |War (1559-1632).    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Count Albrecht      |
  |      |                    |                    |Wenzel Eusebius von |
  |      |                    |                    |Wallenstein, Austri-|
  |      |                    |                    |an general (1583-   |
  |      |                    |                    |1634).              |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |DUKE OF MARLBOROUGH |
  |      |                    |                    |(John Churchill),   |
  |      |                    |                    |English general     |
  |      |                    |                    |(1650-1722).        |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |WILLIAM III. (prince|
  |      |                    |                    |of Orange), king of |
  |      |                    |                    |Great Britain,      |
  |      |                    |                    |stadtholder of the  |
  |      |                    |                    |Netherlands (1650-  |
  |      |                    |                    |1702).              |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Christina, queen of |
  |      |                    |                    |Sweden (1626-1689). |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Marten Harpertzoon  |
  |      |                    |                    |van Tromp, Dutch    |
  |      |                    |                    |admiral (1597-1653).|
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Vicomte Henri de la |
  |      |                    |                    |Tour d’Auvergne de  |
  |      |                    |                    |Turenne, marshal of |
  |      |                    |                    |France (1611-1672). |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |William Penn, En-   |
  |      |                    |                    |glish Quaker, found-|
  |      |                    |                    |er of Pennsylvania  |
  |      |                    |                    |(1644-1718).        |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Cardinal Jules, or  |
  |      |                    |                    |Giulio, Mazarin,    |
  |      |                    |                    |prime minister of   |
  |      |                    |                    |Louis XIV. (1602-   |
  |      |                    |                    |1661).              |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Louis II., Prince de|
  |      |                    |                    |Conde, French gener-|
  |      |                    |                    |al (1621-1686).     |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS,  |
  |      |                    |                    |king of Sweden      |
  |      |                    |                    |(1594-1632).        |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |LOUIS XIV. the      |
  |      |                    |                    |Great, king of      |
  |      |                    |                    |France (1638-1715). |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _18th|JOHN WESLEY, English|GEORG FRIEDRICH     |PETER I.            |
  | Cent.|founder of Methodism|HANDEL, German      |(Alexeievitch), the |
  |A. D._|(1703-1791).        |musical composer    |Great, czar of      |
  |      |                    |(1685-1759).        |Russia (1672-1725). |
  | =1700|JONATHAN EDWARDS,   |                    |                    |
  | A. D.|American theologian,|PHILIP VAN DYCK,    |Charles XII., king  |
  |  to  |metaphysician (1703-|Dutch painter (1680-|of Sweden and Norway|
  | 1800 |1758).              |1752).              |(1682-1718).        |
  |A. D.=|                    |                    |                    |
  |      |George Whitefield,  |JOHANN SEBASTIAN    |PRINCE EUGENE OF    |
  |      |evangelist and one  |BACH German composer|SAVOY, Austrian     |
  |      |of the founders of  |and musician (1685- |general (1663-1736).|
  |      |Methodism (1714-    |1750).              |                    |
  |      |1770).              |                    |GEORGE WASHINGTON,  |
  |      |                    |JOHANN CHRYSOSTONUS |general and first   |
  |      |                    |WOLFGANG AMADEUS    |president of the    |
  |      |                    |MOZART, German      |United States (1732-|
  |      |                    |musical composer    |1799).              |
  |      |                    |(1756-1791).        |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |William Pitt, first |
  |      |                    |Joseph Haydn, German|Earl of Chatham,    |
  |      |                    |musical composer    |English statesman   |
  |      |                    |(1732-1809).        |(1708-1778).        |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Sir Joshua Reynolds,|THOMAS JEFFERSON,   |
  |      |                    |English portrait    |third president of  |
  |      |                    |painter (1723-1792).|the United States   |
  |      |                    |                    |(1743-1826).        |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |FREDERICK II., the  |
  |      |                    |                    |Great, Prussian     |
  |      |                    |                    |general and emperor |
  |      |                    |                    |(1712-1786).        |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |ALEXANDER HAMILTON, |
  |      |                    |                    |American lawyer and |
  |      |                    |                    |statesman (1757-    |
  |      |                    |                    |1804).              |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Robert Clive, first |
  |      |                    |                    |Lord, British gener-|
  |      |                    |                    |al and statesman    |
  |      |                    |                    |(1725-1774).        |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |ADAM SMITH, Scottish|
  |      |                    |                    |political economist |
  |      |                    |                    |(1723-1790).        |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Anne, queen of En-  |
  |      |                    |                    |gland (1664-1714).  |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |CATHERINE II.,      |
  |      |                    |                    |empress of Russia   |
  |      |                    |                    |(1729-1796).        |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |George Jacques      |
  |      |                    |                    |Danton, French      |
  |      |                    |                    |revolutionist (1759-|
  |      |                    |                    |1794).              |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |MARQUIS MARIE JEAN  |
  |      |                    |                    |PAUL ROCH YVES      |
  |      |                    |                    |GILBERT MOTIER DE   |
  |      |                    |                    |LAFAYETTE, or LA    |
  |      |                    |                    |FAYETTE, French     |
  |      |                    |                    |general and patriot |
  |      |                    |                    |(1757-1834).        |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Jean Paul Marat,    |
  |      |                    |                    |French revolutionist|
  |      |                    |                    |(1744-1793).        |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Maximilien Joseph   |
  |      |                    |                    |Marie Isidore de    |
  |      |                    |                    |Robespierre, French |
  |      |                    |                    |revolutionist (1758-|
  |      |                    |                    |1794).              |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Thaddeus (Tadeusz)  |
  |      |                    |                    |Kosciusko, Polish   |
  |      |                    |                    |patriot (1746?-     |
  |      |                    |                    |1817).              |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Francis I., emperor |
  |      |                    |                    |of Germany (1708-   |
  |      |                    |                    |1765).              |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Lord Horatio Nelson,|
  |      |                    |                    |English admiral     |
  |      |                    |                    |(1758-1805).        |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Maria Theresa,      |
  |      |                    |                    |empress of Austria  |
  |      |                    |                    |(1717-1780).        |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Charles James Fox,  |
  |      |                    |                    |English statesman   |
  |      |                    |                    |and orator (1749-   |
  |      |                    |                    |1806).              |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _19th|WILLIAM ELLERY      |LUDWIG VAN          |JOHN MARSHALL,      |
  | Cent.|CHANNING, American  |BEETHOVEN, German   |American jurist and |
  |A. D._|divine and author   |musical composer    |statesman (1755-    |
  |      |(1780-1842).        |(1770-1827).        |1835).              |
  | =1800|                    |                    |                    |
  | A. D.|James Martineau,    |FRANZ SCHUBERT, Ger-|ANDREW JACKSON,     |
  |  to  |Unitarian divine and|man composer (1797- |general and seventh |
  | 1900 |author (1807-1878). |1828).              |president of the    |
  |A. D.=|                    |                    |United States (1767-|
  |      |Theodore Parker,    |ANTONIO CANOVA,     |1845).              |
  |      |American theologian |Italian sculptor    |                    |
  |      |and scholar (1810-  |(1757-1822).        |Henry Clay, American|
  |      |1860).              |                    |statesman and orator|
  |      |                    |JEAN BAPTISTE       |(1777-1852).        |
  |      |Henry Ward Beecher, |CAMILLE COROT,      |                    |
  |      |American preacher,  |French landscape    |Arthur Wellesley    |
  |      |writer and orator   |painter (1796-1875).|Wellington, first   |
  |      |(1813-1887).        |                    |Duke of, British    |
  |      |                    |BERTEL THORWALDSEN, |general and states- |
  |      |Charles Grandison   |Danish sculptor     |man (1769-1852).    |
  |      |Finney, evangelist  |(1770-1844).        |                    |
  |      |and theologian      |                    |JOHN CALDWELL       |
  |      |(1792-1875).        |Jean Dominique      |CALHOUN, American   |
  |      |                    |Auguste Ingres,     |statesman (1782-    |
  |      |Dwight Lyman Moody, |French painter      |1850).              |
  |      |evangelist (1837-   |(1781-1867).        |                    |
  |      |1899).              |                    |PRINCE CLEMENS      |
  |      |                    |FREDERIC FRANÇOIS   |WENZEL NEPOMUK      |
  |      |Charles Haddon      |CHOPIN, Polish pia- |LOTHAR VON          |
  |      |Spurgeon, English   |nist and musical    |METTERNICH, Austrian|
  |      |pulpit-orator (1834-|composer (1810-     |statesman (1773-    |
  |      |1892).              |1849).              |1859).              |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |Clara Barton,       |JAMES ABBOTT M’NEILL|CHARLES MAURICE DE  |
  |      |promoter American   |WHISTLER, American- |TALLEYRAND-PERIGORD,|
  |      |Red Cross (1830-    |English painter     |Prince of Benevento,|
  |      |1912).              |(1834-1903).        |French diplomatist  |
  |      |                    |                    |(1754-1838).        |
  |      |Frances Elizabeth   |ROBERT SCHUMANN,    |                    |
  |      |Willard, temperance |German musical com- |COUNT CAMILLO BENSO |
  |      |reformer (1839-     |poser (1815-1856).  |DI CAVOUR, Italian  |
  |      |1898).              |                    |statesman (1810-    |
  |      |                    |RICHARD WAGNER, Ger-|1861).              |
  |      |Mary Baker Glover   |man musical composer|                    |
  |      |Eddy, founder of    |(1813-1883).        |ABRAHAM LINCOLN,    |
  |      |Christian Science   |                    |sixteenth president |
  |      |(1821-1910).        |JOHANNES BRAHMS,    |of the United States|
  |      |                    |German composer     |(1809-1865).        |
  |      |Brigham Young,      |(1833-1897).        |                    |
  |      |American Mormon     |                    |David Glascoe       |
  |      |leader (1801-1877). |GIUSEPPE VERDI,     |Farragut, American  |
  |      |                    |Italian musical com-|admiral (1801-1870).|
  |      |Joseph Smith,       |poser (1814-1901).  |                    |
  |      |founder of the sect |                    |ROBERT EDWARD LEE,  |
  |      |of Mormons (1805-   |Théodore Rousseau,  |American Confederate|
  |      |1844).              |French painter      |general (1807-1870).|
  |      |                    |(1812-1867).        |                    |
  |      |John Henry Newman,  |                    |Napoleon III.       |
  |      |English theologian  |Hector Berlioz,     |(Charles Louis      |
  |      |and author (1801-   |French musical com- |Napoléon Bonaparte),|
  |      |1890).              |poser (1803-1869).  |emperor of the      |
  |      |                    |                    |French (1808-1873). |
  |      |Phillips Brooks,    |Louise Marie Elisa- |                    |
  |      |American pulpit     |beth Lebrun (born   |Benjamin Disraeli,  |
  |      |orator (1835-1893). |Vigée), French      |earl of Beacons-    |
  |      |                    |painter (1755-1842).|field, English      |
  |      |                    |                    |statesman and nov-  |
  |      |                    |Felix Mendelssohn-  |elist (1804-1880).  |
  |      |                    |Bartholdy, German   |                    |
  |      |                    |composer (1809-     |ULYSSES SIMPSON     |
  |      |                    |1847).              |GRANT, general and  |
  |      |                    |                    |eighteenth president|
  |      |                    |Mariano Fortuny,    |of the United States|
  |      |                    |Spanish painter     |(1822-1885).        |
  |      |                    |(1839-1874).        |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Charles Stewart     |
  |      |                    |Anton Rubenstein,   |Parnell, Irish par- |
  |      |                    |Russian composer and|liamentarian (1846- |
  |      |                    |pianist (1829-1894).|1891).              |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Franz Liszt, Hungar-|WILLIAM EWART       |
  |      |                    |ian pianist and com-|GLADSTONE, English  |
  |      |                    |poser (1811-1886).  |statesman (1820-    |
  |      |                    |                    |1898).              |
  |      |                    |PETER ILYITCH       |                    |
  |      |                    |TSCHAIKOWSKY, Rus-  |PRINCE OTTO EDUARD  |
  |      |                    |sian musical com-   |LEOPOLD BISMARCK,   |
  |      |                    |poser (1840-1893).  |German statesman    |
  |      |                    |                    |(1814-1898).        |
  |      |                    |Charles François    |                    |
  |      |                    |Daubigny, French    |Richard Cobden, En- |
  |      |                    |painter (1817-1878).|glish statesman and |
  |      |                    |                    |economist (1804-    |
  |      |                    |John Constable, En- |1865).              |
  |      |                    |glish landscape     |                    |
  |      |                    |painter (1776-1837).|Giuseppe Mazzini,   |
  |      |                    |                    |Italian patriot and |
  |      |                    |Eugéne Emmanuel     |revolutionist (1805-|
  |      |                    |Viollet-le-Duc,     |1872).              |
  |      |                    |French architect    |                    |
  |      |                    |(1814-1879).        |Giuseppe Garibaldi, |
  |      |                    |                    |Italian patriot     |
  |      |                    |Karl Begas, German  |(1807-1882).        |
  |      |                    |painter (1794-1854).|                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Léon Gambetta,      |
  |      |                    |Rosalie Bonheur,    |French statesman    |
  |      |                    |French painter      |(1838-1882).        |
  |      |                    |(1822-1899).        |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |John Bright, English|
  |      |                    |Thomas Ustick       |orator and statesman|
  |      |                    |Walter, American    |(1811-1889).        |
  |      |                    |architect (1804-    |                    |
  |      |                    |1887).              |Louis Kossuth, Hun- |
  |      |                    |                    |garian orator and   |
  |      |                    |Jean François       |statesman (1802-    |
  |      |                    |Millet, painter     |1894).              |
  |      |                    |(1814-1875).        |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Cecil John Rhodes,  |
  |      |                    |Antoine Louis Barye,|British statesman   |
  |      |                    |French sculptor     |(1853-1902).        |
  |      |                    |(1795-1875).        |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Victoria (Victoria  |
  |      |                    |Karl Theodore       |Alexandrina), queen |
  |      |                    |Francis Bitter,     |of Great Britain and|
  |      |                    |Austro-American     |Ireland and empress |
  |      |                    |sculptor (1867-     |of India (1819-     |
  |      |                    |1916).              |1901).              |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Johann Gottfried    |Jefferson Davis,    |
  |      |                    |Schadow, German     |American statesman  |
  |      |                    |sculptor (1764-     |and president of the|
  |      |                    |1850).              |Confederacy (1808-  |
  |      |                    |                    |1889).              |
  |      |                    |Sir Edwin Henry     |                    |
  |      |                    |Landseer, animal    |Sir John Alexander  |
  |      |                    |painter (1802-1873).|Macdonald, Canadian |
  |      |                    |                    |statesman (1815-    |
  |      |                    |Sir Charles Barry,  |1891).              |
  |      |                    |British architect   |                    |
  |      |                    |(1795-1860).        |Francis Joseph,     |
  |      |                    |                    |emperor of Austria  |
  |      |                    |Pierre Etienne      |(1830-1916).        |
  |      |                    |Rousseau, French    |                    |
  |      |                    |painter (1812-1867).|Karl Marx, German   |
  |      |                    |                    |socialist and publi-|
  |      |                    |Christian Daniel    |cist (1818-1883).   |
  |      |                    |Rauch, German       |                    |
  |      |                    |sculptor (1777-     |H. von Treitschke,  |
  |      |                    |1857).              |German publicist    |
  |      |                    |                    |(1834-1896).        |
  |      |                    |Pierre Puvis de     |                    |
  |      |                    |Chavannes, French   |George Dewey, Ameri-|
  |      |                    |painter (1824-1898).|can Admiral (1837-  |
  |      |                    |                    |1917).              |
  |      |                    |Jacques Louis David,|                    |
  |      |                    |French historical   |                    |
  |      |                    |painter (1748-1825).|                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Robert Adam, Scot-  |                    |
  |      |                    |tish architect      |                    |
  |      |                    |(1728-1792).        |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Hans Makart, Aus-   |                    |
  |      |                    |trian painter (1840-|                    |
  |      |                    |1884).              |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Joseph Mallord      |                    |
  |      |                    |William Turner,     |                    |
  |      |                    |English painter     |                    |
  |      |                    |(1775-1851).        |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Sir George Gilbert  |                    |
  |      |                    |Scott, English ar-  |                    |
  |      |                    |chitect (1811-1878).|                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Sir John Everett    |                    |
  |      |                    |Millais, English    |                    |
  |      |                    |painter (1829-1896).|                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Karl Friedrich      |                    |
  |      |                    |Schinkel, German ar-|                    |
  |      |                    |chitect (1781-1841).|                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |John Quincy Adams   |                    |
  |      |                    |Ward, American      |                    |
  |      |                    |sculptor (1830-     |                    |
  |      |                    |1910).              |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Frédéric Auguste    |                    |
  |      |                    |Bartholdi, French   |                    |
  |      |                    |sculptor (1834-     |                    |
  |      |                    |1904).              |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Jean Léon Gérôme,   |                    |
  |      |                    |French historical   |                    |
  |      |                    |painter (1824-1904).|                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Edwin Austin Abbey, |                    |
  |      |                    |American artist     |                    |
  |      |                    |(1852-1916).        |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |J. E. F. Massenet,  |                    |
  |      |                    |French composer     |                    |
  |      |                    |(1842-1912).        |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Antonin Dvorák,     |                    |
  |      |                    |Austro-American com-|                    |
  |      |                    |poser (1842-1904).  |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Vassili             |                    |
  |      |                    |Verestchagin, Rus-  |                    |
  |      |                    |sian painter (1842- |                    |
  |      |                    |1904).              |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |F. von Lenbach, Ger-|                    |
  |      |                    |man painter (1836-  |                    |
  |      |                    |1904).              |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Edvard Grieg, Nor-  |                    |
  |      |                    |wegian composer     |                    |
  |      |                    |(1843-1897).        |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Augustus Saint-     |                    |
  |      |                    |Gaudens, American   |                    |
  |      |                    |sculptor (1848-     |                    |
  |      |                    |1907).              |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _20th|Pope Benedict XV.,  |Camille Saint-Saëns,|Theodore Roosevelt, |
  | Cent.|Giacomo Della Chiesa|French composer     |American author,    |
  |A. D._|(1854- ----).       |(1835- ----).       |publicist and       |
  |      |                    |                    |twenty-sixth presi- |
  | =1900|Cardinal James      |Claude Debussy,     |dent of the United  |
  | A. D.|Gibbons, American   |(1862- ----).       |States (1858- ----).|
  |  to  |Roman Catholic prel-|                    |                    |
  | 2000 |ate (1834- ----).   |Giacomo Puccini,    |Arthur James        |
  |A. D.=|                    |Italian composer    |Balfour, British    |
  |      |Cardinal William    |(1858- ----).       |statesman, philo-   |
  |      |Henry O’Connell,    |                    |sophical writer     |
  |      |American Roman Cath-|Auguste Rodin,      |(1848- ----).       |
  |      |olic prelate (1859- |French sculptor     |                    |
  |      |----).              |(1840- ----).       |William II., third  |
  |      |                    |                    |German emperor      |
  |      |Cardinal John Murphy|Sir E. W. Elgar,    |(1859- ----).       |
  |      |Farley, American    |English composer    |                    |
  |      |Roman Catholic prel-|(1857- ----).       |David Lloyd George, |
  |      |ate (1842- ----).   |                    |British statesman   |
  |      |                    |Piero Mascagni,     |(1863- ----).       |
  |      |William Ashley      |Italian operatic    |                    |
  |      |Sunday, American    |composer (1863-     |Sir Wilfrid Laurier,|
  |      |evangelist (1863-   |----).              |Canadian statesman  |
  |      |----).              |                    |(1841- ----).       |
  |      |                    |J. S. Sargent, Amer-|                    |
  |      |                    |ican painter (1856- |Robert Laird Borden,|
  |      |                    |----).              |prime minister of   |
  |      |                    |                    |Canada (1854- ----).|
  |      |                    |Lorado Taft, Ameri- |                    |
  |      |                    |can sculptor (1860- |Viscount Horatio    |
  |      |                    |----).              |Herbert Kitchener,  |
  |      |                    |                    |British general     |
  |      |                    |Philip Martiny,     |(1850-1916).        |
  |      |                    |American sculptor   |                    |
  |      |                    |(1858- ----).       |Wilhelmina, queen of|
  |      |                    |                    |Holland (1880-      |
  |      |                    |William Hamo        |----).              |
  |      |                    |Thornycroft, English|                    |
  |      |                    |sculptor (1850-     |Theodore von        |
  |      |                    |----).              |Bethmann-Hollweg,   |
  |      |                    |                    |German statesman and|
  |      |                    |George Grey Barnard,|Imperial Chancellor |
  |      |                    |American sculptor   |(1856- ----).       |
  |      |                    |(1863- ----).       |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Alfonso XIII., king |
  |      |                    |Daniel Chester      |of Spain (1886-     |
  |      |                    |French, American    |----).              |
  |      |                    |sculptor (1850-     |                    |
  |      |                    |----).              |Woodrow Wilson,     |
  |      |                    |                    |American publicist, |
  |      |                    |Richard Strauss,    |twenty-eighth presi-|
  |      |                    |German musical com- |dent of the United  |
  |      |                    |poser (1864- ----). |States (1856- ----).|
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |J. F. L. Bonnat,    |Edward Douglass     |
  |      |                    |French painter      |White, American     |
  |      |                    |(1833- ----).       |jurist (1845- ----).|
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Gutzon Borglum (John|Elihu Root, publi-  |
  |      |                    |Gutzon de la Mothe),|cist, ex-secretary  |
  |      |                    |American sculptor   |of state (1845-     |
  |      |                    |(1867- ----).       |----).              |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Frederick (William) |William Jennings    |
  |      |                    |MacMonnies, American|Bryan, American     |
  |      |                    |sculptor (1863-     |publicist, ex-secre-|
  |      |                    |----).              |tary of state (1860-|
  |      |                    |                    |----).              |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Henry Cabot Lodge,  |
  |      |                    |                    |historian, publicist|
  |      |                    |                    |(1850- ----).       |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Robert Marion       |
  |      |                    |                    |LaFollette, American|
  |      |                    |                    |political reformer, |
  |      |                    |                    |publicist (1855-    |
  |      |                    |                    |----).              |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Field Marshall von  |
  |      |                    |                    |Hindenburg, German  |
  |      |                    |                    |general (1847-      |
  |      |                    |                    |----).              |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Field Marshal       |
  |      |                    |                    |Joffre, French      |
  |      |                    |                    |general (1853-      |
  |      |                    |                    |----).              |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+

  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | =Cen-|    =Literature=    |   =Philosophy and  |      =Science=     |
  |  tu- |                    |     Education=     |                    |
  | ries=|                    |                    |                    |
  |      | Poets, Dramatists, |    Philosophers,   |Discoverers, Natura-|
  |      |Historians, Orators,|     Educators,     | lists, Physicists, |
  |      |Essayists, Novelists|   Psychologists,   |   Mathematicians,  |
  |      |                    |Moralists, Logicians|      Chemists,     |
  |      |                    |                    |     Physicians,    |
  |      |                    |                    |     Biologists     |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _14th|GEOFFREY CHAUCER,   |...                 |...                 |
  | Cent.|English poet (1340?-|                    |                    |
  |A. D._|1400).              |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  | =1300|John de Wycliffe,   |                    |                    |
  | A. D.|English reformer;   |                    |                    |
  |  to  |translator of the   |                    |                    |
  | 1400 |Scriptures (1324?-  |                    |                    |
  |A. D.=|1384).              |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |Francesco Petrarch  |                    |                    |
  |      |(Petrarca), Italian |                    |                    |
  |      |writer of sonnets   |                    |                    |
  |      |(1304-1374).        |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |Giovanni Boccaccio, |                    |                    |
  |      |Italian novelist    |                    |                    |
  |      |(1313-1375).        |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |Mohammed Shems ed-  |                    |                    |
  |      |Din Hafiz, Persian  |                    |                    |
  |      |poet (1300?-1390).  |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _15th|Lorenzo I. de’      |...                 |...                 |
  | Cent.|Medici, prince of   |                    |                    |
  |A. D._|Florence, poet,     |                    |                    |
  |      |scholar, and patron |                    |                    |
  | =1400|of art and litera-  |                    |                    |
  | A. D.|ture (1448-1492).   |                    |                    |
  |  to  |                    |                    |                    |
  | 1500 |                    |                    |                    |
  |A. D.=|                    |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _16th|LUDOVICO ARIOSTO,   |Sir Thomas More,    |NIKOLAUS COPERNICUS,|
  | Cent.|Italian poet (1474- |English poet, phil- |German astronomer   |
  |A. D._|1533).              |osopher (1480-1535).|(1473-1543).        |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  | =1500|DESIDERIUS ERASMUS, |FRANCIS BACON, Baron|TYCHO BRAHE, Danish |
  | A. D.|Dutch scholar (1467-|Verulam, Viscount   |astronomer (1546-   |
  |  to  |1536).              |St. Albans, English |1601).              |
  | 1600 |                    |philosopher and es- |                    |
  |A. D.=|WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE,|sayist (1561-1626). |                    |
  |      |the greatest English|                    |                    |
  |      |dramatist (1564-    |                    |                    |
  |      |1616).              |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |MICHEL EYQUEM DE    |                    |                    |
  |      |MONTAIGNE, Seigneur,|                    |                    |
  |      |French essayist     |                    |                    |
  |      |(1533-1592).        |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |MIGUEL DE CERVANTES |                    |                    |
  |      |SAAVEDRA, Spanish   |                    |                    |
  |      |novelist (1547-     |                    |                    |
  |      |1616).              |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |EDMUND SPENSER,     |                    |                    |
  |      |English poet (1553?-|                    |                    |
  |      |1599).              |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |Giordano Bruno,     |                    |                    |
  |      |Italian anti-Chris- |                    |                    |
  |      |tian writer (1550-  |                    |                    |
  |      |1600).              |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |Luis Camoëns,       |                    |                    |
  |      |Portuguese poet     |                    |                    |
  |      |(1524-1597).        |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |TORQUATO TASSO,     |                    |                    |
  |      |Italian poet (1544- |                    |                    |
  |      |1595).              |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |Ben Jonson, English |                    |                    |
  |      |dramatist (1573 or  |                    |                    |
  |      |1574-1637).         |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _17th|FELIX LOPE DE VEGA  |RENÉ DESCARTES,     |JOHANN KEPLER,      |
  | Cent.|CARPIO, Spanish poet|French philosopher, |German astronomer   |
  |A. D._|and dramatist (1562-|mathematician (1596-|(1571-1630).        |
  |      |1635).              |1650).              |                    |
  | =1600|                    |                    |WILLIAM HARVEY,     |
  | A. D.|Joseph Addison,     |GOTTFRIED WILHELM   |English anatomist   |
  |  to  |English poet and    |LEIBNITZ, German    |and physician (1578-|
  | 1700 |essayist (1672-     |philosopher, mathe- |1657).              |
  |A. D.=|1719).              |matician (1646-     |                    |
  |      |                    |1716).              |Galileo Galilei,    |
  |      |John Dryden, English|                    |Italian astronomer  |
  |      |poet (1631-1700).   |JOHN LOCKE, English |(1564-1642).        |
  |      |                    |philosopher and     |                    |
  |      |John Bunyan, English|theologian (1632-   |EVANGELISTA         |
  |      |preacher and writer |1704).              |TORRICELLI, Italian |
  |      |(1628-1688).        |                    |physicist (1608-    |
  |      |                    |BARUCH (Benedict)   |1647).              |
  |      |JOHN MILTON, English|SPINOZA, Dutch-     |                    |
  |      |poet (1608-1674).   |Jewish philosopher  |Marcello Malpighi,  |
  |      |                    |(1632-1677).        |Italian anatomist   |
  |      |Pedro Calderon de la|                    |(1628-1694).        |
  |      |Barca, Spanish      |Thomas Hobbes,      |                    |
  |      |dramatist (1600-    |English philosopher |Jacques, or James,  |
  |      |1681).              |(1588-1679).        |Bernoulli, Swiss    |
  |      |                    |                    |mathematician (1654-|
  |      |MOLIÉRE, real name  |Blaise Pascal,      |1705).              |
  |      |Jean Baptiste       |French philosopher  |                    |
  |      |Poquelin, French    |and mathematician   |SIR ISAAC NEWTON,   |
  |      |dramatist (1622-    |(1623-1662).        |English philosopher |
  |      |1673).              |                    |and mathematician   |
  |      |                    |                    |(1642-1727).        |
  |      |Blaise Pascal,      |                    |                    |
  |      |French author,      |                    |Robert Boyle, Irish |
  |      |mathematician (1623-|                    |chemist and philos- |
  |      |1662).              |                    |opher (1626-1692).  |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |Nicolas Boileau-    |                    |                    |
  |      |Despréaux French    |                    |                    |
  |      |poet, satirist and  |                    |                    |
  |      |critic (1636-1711). |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |JEAN RACINE, French |                    |                    |
  |      |dramatic poet (1639-|                    |                    |
  |      |1699).              |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |FRANÇOIS DE SALIGNAC|                    |                    |
  |      |DE LA MOTHE FÉNELON,|                    |                    |
  |      |archbishop of       |                    |                    |
  |      |Cambray, French     |                    |                    |
  |      |prelate and author  |                    |                    |
  |      |(1651-1715).        |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _18th|Jonathan Swift,     |Emanuel Swedenborg, |LINNÆUS (Karl von   |
  | Cent.|Irish divine and    |Swedish philosopher,|Linné), Swedish     |
  |A. D._|satirist (1667-     |theosophist (1688-  |naturalist (1707-   |
  |      |1745).              |1772).              |1778).              |
  | =1700|                    |                    |                    |
  | A. D.|BARON CHARLES DE    |George Berkeley,    |ANTOINE LAURENT     |
  |  to  |SECONDAT DE         |Irish metaphysician |LAVOISIER, French   |
  | 1800 |MONTESQUIEU, French |(1684-1753).        |chemist (1743-1794).|
  |A. D.=|jurist and writer   |                    |                    |
  |      |(1689-1755).        |IMMANUEL KANT,      |MARIE FRANÇOIS      |
  |      |                    |German metaphysician|XAVIER BICHAT,      |
  |      |ALEXANDER POPE,     |(1724-1804).        |French physiologist |
  |      |English poet (1688- |                    |and anatomist (1771-|
  |      |1744).              |William Paley,      |1802).              |
  |      |                    |English theologian, |                    |
  |      |FRANÇOIS MARIE      |philosopher (1743-  |JOSEPH PRIESTLEY,   |
  |      |AROUET DE VOLTAIRE, |1805).              |English physicist,  |
  |      |French author, poet,|                    |chemist, philospher,|
  |      |wit, dramatist, his-|Johann Gottlieb     |theologian (1733-   |
  |      |torian, philosopher |Fichte, German meta-|1804).              |
  |      |and skeptic (1694-  |physician (1762-    |                    |
  |      |1778).              |1814).              |Jean le Rond        |
  |      |                    |                    |d’Alembert, French  |
  |      |Edmund Burke, En-   |Johann Heinrich     |mathematician (1717-|
  |      |glish statesman and |Pestalozzi, Swiss   |1783).              |
  |      |orator (1729 or     |educationist (1745- |                    |
  |      |1730-1797).         |1827).              |Carl Wilhelm        |
  |      |                    |                    |Scheele, Swedish    |
  |      |Comte Gabriel Honoré|Auguste Comte,      |chemist (1742-1786).|
  |      |Riquetti de         |French philosopher  |                    |
  |      |Mirabeau, French    |(1798-1857).        |                    |
  |      |orator and revolu-  |                    |                    |
  |      |tionist (1749-1791).|Sir William         |                    |
  |      |                    |Hamilton, Scottish  |                    |
  |      |ROBERT BURNS, Scotch|metaphysician (1788-|                    |
  |      |poet (1759-1796).   |1856).              |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |DAVID HUME, Scotch  |Jean Jacques        |                    |
  |      |historian and phi-  |Rousseau, French    |                    |
  |      |losopher (1711-     |philosopher, (1712- |                    |
  |      |1776).              |1778).              |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |EDWARD GIBBON, En-  |                    |                    |
  |      |glish historian     |                    |                    |
  |      |(1737-1794).        |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |Denis Diderot,      |                    |                    |
  |      |French philosopher  |                    |                    |
  |      |and writer (1713-   |                    |                    |
  |      |1784).              |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |JOHANN WOLFGANG     |                    |                    |
  |      |GOETHE, German      |                    |                    |
  |      |author (1749-1832). |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |JOHANN CHRISTOPH    |                    |                    |
  |      |FRIEDRICH VON       |                    |                    |
  |      |SCHILLER, German    |                    |                    |
  |      |poet (1759-1805).   |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |GOTTHOLD EPHRAIM    |                    |                    |
  |      |LESSING, German     |                    |                    |
  |      |author (1729-1781). |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |JEAN JACQUES        |                    |                    |
  |      |ROUSSEAU, French    |                    |                    |
  |      |philosopher and     |                    |                    |
  |      |writer (1712-1778). |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |BENJAMIN FRANKLIN,  |                    |                    |
  |      |American philos-    |                    |                    |
  |      |opher, statesman    |                    |                    |
  |      |(1706-1790).        |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |HONORÉ DE BALZAC,   |                    |                    |
  |      |French novelist     |                    |                    |
  |      |(1799-1850).        |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |Baroness Anne Louise|                    |                    |
  |      |Germaine de Staël   |                    |                    |
  |      |(Staël-Holstein),   |                    |                    |
  |      |French authoress    |                    |                    |
  |      |(1766-1817).        |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |William Cowper, En- |                    |                    |
  |      |glish poet (1731-   |                    |                    |
  |      |1800).              |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |Oliver Goldsmith,   |                    |                    |
  |      |Irish poet, histori-|                    |                    |
  |      |an and novelist     |                    |                    |
  |      |(1728-1774).        |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |Thomas Gray, English|                    |                    |
  |      |poet (1716-1771).   |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |SAMUEL JOHNSON, En- |                    |                    |
  |      |glish lexicographer |                    |                    |
  |      |and miscellaneous   |                    |                    |
  |      |writer (1709-1784). |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _19th|DANIEL WEBSTER,     |GEORG WILHELM       |GEORGES LÉOPOLD     |
  | Cent.|American statesman  |FRIEDRICH HEGEL,    |CHRÉTIEN FRÉDERIC   |
  |A. D._|and orator (1782-   |German philosopher, |DAGOBERT CUVIER,    |
  |      |1852).              |metaphysician and   |French naturalist   |
  | =1800|                    |pantheist (1770-    |(1769-1832).        |
  | A. D.|Percy Bysshe        |1831).              |                    |
  |  to  |Shelley, English    |                    |Thomas Young, En-   |
  | 1900 |poet (1792-1822).   |Friedrich Froebel,  |glish physicist     |
  |A. D.=|                    |German educationist |(1773-1829).        |
  |      |John Keats, English |(1782-1852).        |                    |
  |      |poet (1796?-1821).  |                    |ELESSANDRO VOLTA,   |
  |      |                    |Arthur Schopenhauer,|Italian physicist   |
  |      |LORD GEORGE GORDON  |German philosopher  |(1745-1827).        |
  |      |BYRON, English poet |(1788-1860).        |                    |
  |      |(1788-1824).        |                    |MARQUIS PIERRE SIMON|
  |      |                    |John Stuart Mill,   |DE LAPLACE, French  |
  |      |SIR WALTER SCOTT,   |English philosopher |astronomer and      |
  |      |Scotch novelist and |and and political   |mathematician (1749-|
  |      |poet (1771-1832).   |economist (1806-    |1827).              |
  |      |                    |1873).              |                    |
  |      |WILLIAM WORDSWORTH, |                    |Jean Baptiste Pierre|
  |      |English poet (1770- |Rudolf Hermann      |Antoine de Monet de |
  |      |1850).              |Lotze, German philo-|Lamarck, French     |
  |      |                    |sopher (1817-1881). |naturalist (1744-   |
  |      |THOMAS CARLYLE,     |                    |1829).              |
  |      |British essayist and|HERBERT SPENCER,    |                    |
  |      |historian (1795-    |English philosopher |Michael Faraday,    |
  |      |1881).              |(1820-1903).        |English physicist   |
  |      |                    |                    |(1791-1867).        |
  |      |LEOPOLD VON RANKE,  |Frederick Wilhelm   |                    |
  |      |German historian    |Nietzsche, German   |Antoine Laurent de  |
  |      |(1795-1886).        |moralist (1844-     |Jussieu, French     |
  |      |                    |1900).              |botanist (1748-     |
  |      |Samuel Taylor       |                    |1836).              |
  |      |Coleridge, English  |William James, Amer-|                    |
  |      |metaphysician and   |ican psychologist   |Augustin Pyramus de |
  |      |poet (1772-1834).   |and philosopher     |Candolle, Swiss     |
  |      |                    |(1842-1910).        |botanist (1778-     |
  |      |Viscount François   |                    |1841).              |
  |      |Auguste de          |Hugo Münsterberg,   |                    |
  |      |Chateaubriand,      |German psychologist |John James Audubon, |
  |      |French author (1768-|(1863-1917).        |American ornitholo- |
  |      |1848).              |                    |gist (1780-1851).   |
  |      |                    |James Burrill       |                    |
  |      |JAMES FENIMORE      |Angell, American    |Baron Friedrich     |
  |      |COOPER, American    |educator and diplo- |Heinrich Alexander  |
  |      |novelist (1779-     |mat (1829-1916).    |von Humboldt, German|
  |      |1851).              |                    |naturalist (1769-   |
  |      |                    |Victor Cousin,      |1859).              |
  |      |William Cullen      |French philosopher  |                    |
  |      |Bryant, American    |(1792-1867).        |Sir Humphrey Davy,  |
  |      |poet and journalist |                    |English chemist     |
  |      |(1794-1878).        |George Holmes       |(1778-1829).        |
  |      |                    |Howison, American   |                    |
  |      |FRANÇOIS PIERRE     |philosopher (1834-  |Matthew Fontaine    |
  |      |GUILLAUME GUIZOT,   |1917).              |Maury, American     |
  |      |French historian and|                    |hydrographer (1806- |
  |      |statesman (1787-    |Josiah Royce (1855- |1873).              |
  |      |1874).              |1917).              |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Asa Gray, American  |
  |      |WASHINGTON IRVING,  |                    |botanist (1810-     |
  |      |American author     |                    |1888).              |
  |      |(1783-1859).        |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Louis Agassiz, natu-|
  |      |BARTHOLD GEORG      |                    |ralist (1807-1873). |
  |      |NIEBUHR, German his-|                    |                    |
  |      |torian and philolo- |                    |August Weismann,    |
  |      |gist (1776-1831).   |                    |German naturalist   |
  |      |                    |                    |(1834- ----).       |
  |      |ESAIAS TEGNÉR,      |                    |                    |
  |      |Swedish poet (1782- |                    |Maria Mitchell,     |
  |      |1846).              |                    |American astronomer |
  |      |                    |                    |(1818-1889).        |
  |      |HEINRICH HEINE, Ger-|                    |                    |
  |      |man poet and miscel-|                    |Ernst Heinrich      |
  |      |laneous writer      |                    |Haeckel, German nat-|
  |      |(1800?-1856).       |                    |uralist (1834-      |
  |      |                    |                    |----).              |
  |      |THOMAS BABINGTON    |                    |                    |
  |      |MACAULAY, English   |                    |HERMANN LUDWIG      |
  |      |historian, essayist,|                    |FERDINAND HELMHOLTZ,|
  |      |poet and statesman  |                    |German physicist,   |
  |      |(1800-1859).        |                    |anatomist and physi-|
  |      |                    |                    |ologist (1821-1894).|
  |      |ELIZABETH BARRETT   |                    |                    |
  |      |BROWNING, wife of   |                    |Thomas Henry Huxley,|
  |      |Robert Browning, En-|                    |English naturalist  |
  |      |glish poetess,      |                    |(1825-1895).        |
  |      |(1809-1861).        |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |LORD KELVIN (William|
  |      |ROBERT BROWNING, En-|                    |Thompson), British  |
  |      |glish poet (1812-   |                    |physicist (1824-    |
  |      |1889).              |                    |1907).              |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |WILLIAM MAKEPEACE   |                    |James Prescott      |
  |      |THACKERAY, English  |                    |Joule, English      |
  |      |novelist (1811-     |                    |physicist (1818-    |
  |      |1863).              |                    |1889).              |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |EDGAR ALLEN POE,    |                    |Gustav Theodor      |
  |      |American poet (1809-|                    |Fechner, German     |
  |      |1849).              |                    |physicist, philos-  |
  |      |                    |                    |opher, writer (1801-|
  |      |NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE,|                    |1887).              |
  |      |American author     |                    |                    |
  |      |(1804-1864).        |                    |John Tyndall,       |
  |      |                    |                    |British physicist   |
  |      |CHARLES DICKENS, En-|                    |(1820-1893).        |
  |      |glish novelist      |                    |                    |
  |      |(1812-1870).        |                    |LOUIS PASTEUR,      |
  |      |                    |                    |French chemist      |
  |      |GEORGE ELIOT (Marian|                    |(1822-1895).        |
  |      |Evans), English nov-|                    |                    |
  |      |elist (1820?-1880). |                    |CHARLES ROBERT      |
  |      |                    |                    |DARWIN, English     |
  |      |RALPH WALDO EMERSON,|                    |naturalist (1809-   |
  |      |American essayist   |                    |1882).              |
  |      |and philosopher     |                    |                    |
  |      |(1803-1882).        |                    |Baron Justus von    |
  |      |                    |                    |Liebig, German      |
  |      |HENRY WADSWORTH     |                    |chemist (1803-1873).|
  |      |LONGFELLOW, American|                    |Cesare Lombroso,    |
  |      |poet (1807-1882).   |                    |Italian criminalo-  |
  |      |                    |                    |gist, (1836-1909).  |
  |      |ALFRED TENNYSON,    |                    |                    |
  |      |English poet (1809- |                    |Martin Lister, En-  |
  |      |1892).              |                    |glish naturalist and|
  |      |                    |                    |physician (1827-    |
  |      |VICOMTE VICTOR MARIE|                    |1912).              |
  |      |HUGO, French poet   |                    |                    |
  |      |and romance writer  |                    |Caroline Lucretia   |
  |      |(1802-1885).        |                    |Herschel, Anglo-    |
  |      |                    |                    |German astronomer   |
  |      |James Russell       |                    |(1750-1848).        |
  |      |Lowell, American    |                    |                    |
  |      |poet and critic     |                    |Pierre Charles      |
  |      |(1819-1891).        |                    |L’Enfant, French    |
  |      |                    |                    |military engineer   |
  |      |HENRIK IBSEN, Norwe-|                    |(1755-1825).        |
  |      |gian dramatist      |                    |                    |
  |      |(1828-1906).        |                    |Johannes Müller,    |
  |      |                    |                    |German physiologist |
  |      |Francis Parkman,    |                    |(1801-1858).        |
  |      |American author     |                    |                    |
  |      |(1823-1893).        |                    |Friedrich Wöhler,   |
  |      |                    |                    |German chemist      |
  |      |Hippolyte Adolphe   |                    |(1800-1882).        |
  |      |Taine, French author|                    |                    |
  |      |and critic (1828-   |                    |Henry Augustus      |
  |      |1893).              |                    |Rowland, American   |
  |      |                    |                    |physicist (1848-    |
  |      |COUNT LYOF N.       |                    |1901).              |
  |      |TOLSTOI, Russian    |                    |                    |
  |      |novelist (1828-     |                    |Nathaniel Southgate |
  |      |1910).              |                    |Shaler, American    |
  |      |                    |                    |geologist (1841-    |
  |      |Charles Augustin    |                    |1906).              |
  |      |Sainte-Beuve, French|                    |                    |
  |      |literary critic     |                    |Simon Newcomb, Amer-|
  |      |(1804-1869).        |                    |ican astronomer     |
  |      |                    |                    |(1835-1909).        |
  |      |BJÖRNSTJERNE        |                    |                    |
  |      |BJÖRNSON, Norwegian |                    |Wilhelm Max Wundt,  |
  |      |author (1832-1910). |                    |German physiologist |
  |      |                    |                    |(1832-1916).        |
  |      |JOSEPH ERNEST RENAN,|                    |                    |
  |      |French orientalist, |                    |D. I. Mendeleeff,   |
  |      |author and critic   |                    |Russian chemist     |
  |      |(1823-1892).        |                    |(1834-1907).        |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |John Ruskin, English|                    |J. H. van ’t Hoff,  |
  |      |writer on art, espe-|                    |Dutch chemist (1852-|
  |      |cially painting     |                    |1911).              |
  |      |(1819-1900).        |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Elie Metchnikoff,   |
  |      |Henry D. Thoreau,   |                    |Russian bacteriolo- |
  |      |American author     |                    |gist (1845-1916).   |
  |      |(1817-1862).        |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |Robert Koch, German |
  |      |Alexandre Dumas,    |                    |physician (1843-    |
  |      |French novelist and |                    |1910).              |
  |      |dramatist (1803-    |                    |                    |
  |      |1870).              |                    |Francis Galton,     |
  |      |                    |                    |British anthropolo- |
  |      |Théophile Gautier,  |                    |gist (1822-1911).   |
  |      |French poet, nov-   |                    |                    |
  |      |elist and critic    |                    |Julius von Sachs,   |
  |      |(1811-1872).        |                    |German botanist     |
  |      |                    |                    |(1832-1897).        |
  |      |G. Sand (Mme.       |                    |                    |
  |      |Dudevant), French   |                    |Sir Michael Foster, |
  |      |novelist (1804-     |                    |British physiologist|
  |      |1876).              |                    |(1834-1907).        |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |Fedor Dostoyevski,  |                    |S(ilas) Weir        |
  |      |Russian novelist    |                    |Mitchell, American  |
  |      |(1821-1881).        |                    |neurologist (1829-  |
  |      |                    |                    |1914).              |
  |      |Dante Gabriel       |                    |                    |
  |      |Rossetti, English   |                    |                    |
  |      |artist, poet (1828- |                    |                    |
  |      |1882).              |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |Ivan Turgeneff, Rus-|                    |                    |
  |      |sian novelist (1818-|                    |                    |
  |      |1883).              |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |Walt Whitman, Ameri-|                    |                    |
  |      |can poet (1819-     |                    |                    |
  |      |1892).              |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |Christian Matthias  |                    |                    |
  |      |Theodor Mommsen,    |                    |                    |
  |      |German historian    |                    |                    |
  |      |(1817-1892).        |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |John Greenleaf      |                    |                    |
  |      |Whittier, American  |                    |                    |
  |      |poet (1807-1892).   |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |Oliver Wendell      |                    |                    |
  |      |Holmes, American    |                    |                    |
  |      |physician, poet and |                    |                    |
  |      |essayist (1809-     |                    |                    |
  |      |1894).              |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |Alphonse Daudet,    |                    |                    |
  |      |French novelist     |                    |                    |
  |      |(1840-1897).        |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |Samuel Langhorne    |                    |                    |
  |      |Clemens (Mark       |                    |                    |
  |      |Twain), American    |                    |                    |
  |      |humorist (1835-     |                    |                    |
  |      |1910).              |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |Henry James, Ameri- |                    |                    |
  |      |can novelist (1843- |                    |                    |
  |      |1916).              |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |Emile Zola, French  |                    |                    |
  |      |novelist (1840-     |                    |                    |
  |      |1902).              |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |Johan August        |                    |                    |
  |      |Strindberg (1849-   |                    |                    |
  |      |1912).              |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |                    |                    |
  |      |James Whitcomb      |                    |                    |
  |      |Riley, American poet|                    |                    |
  |      |(1853-1916).        |                    |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+
  | _20th|Theodore Roosevelt, |Gabriele d’Annunzio,|Charles William     |
  | Cent.|American author,    |Italian poet and    |Eliot, American     |
  |A. D._|publicist and       |dramatist (1864-    |educator (1834-     |
  |      |twenty-sixth presi- |----).              |----).              |
  | =1900|dent of the United  |                    |                    |
  | A. D.|States (1858- ----).|Hermann Sudermann,  |Rudolf Eucken,      |
  |  to  |                    |German dramatist    |German philosopher  |
  | 2000 |Arthur James        |(1857- ----).       |(1846- ----).       |
  |A. D.=|Balfour, British    |                    |                    |
  |      |statesman, philo-   |Edmond Rostand,     |George Herbert      |
  |      |sophical writer     |French dramatist    |Palmer, American    |
  |      |(1848- ----).       |(1864- ----).       |moralist (1842-     |
  |      |                    |                    |----).              |
  |      |William II., third  |Maurice Maeterlinck,|                    |
  |      |German emperor      |Belgian novelist and|William DeWitt Hyde,|
  |      |(1859- ----).       |dramatist (1862-    |educator and philos-|
  |      |                    |----).              |opher (1858- ----). |
  |      |David Lloyd George, |                    |                    |
  |      |British statesman   |Gerhard Hauptmann,  |John Dewey, American|
  |      |(1863- ----).       |German dramatist    |educational psychol-|
  |      |                    |(1862- ----).       |ogist (1859- ----). |
  |      |Sir Wilfrid Laurier,|                    |                    |
  |      |Canadian statesman  |Perez Galdos,       |George Trumbull     |
  |      |(1841- ----).       |Spanish poet (1845- |Ladd, American psy- |
  |      |                    |----).              |chologist (1842-    |
  |      |Robert Laird Borden,|                    |----).              |
  |      |prime minister of   |Pierre Loti (L.     |                    |
  |      |Canada (1854- ----).|Viaud), French      |                    |
  |      |                    |traveler and writer |                    |
  |      |Viscount Horatio    |(1850- ----).       |                    |
  |      |Herbert Kitchener,  |                    |                    |
  |      |British general     |Anatole France,     |                    |
  |      |(1850-1916).        |French novelist     |                    |
  |      |                    |(1844- ----).       |                    |
  |      |Wilhelmina, queen of|                    |                    |
  |      |Holland (1880-      |Mrs. Humphry Ward,  |                    |
  |      |----).              |English novelist    |                    |
  |      |                    |(1851- ----).       |                    |
  |      |Theodore von        |                    |                    |
  |      |Bethmann-Hollweg,   |T. Hall Caine, En-  |                    |
  |      |German statesman and|glish novelist      |                    |
  |      |Imperial Chancellor |(1853- ----).       |                    |
  |      |(1856- ----).       |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |John Galsworthy,    |                    |
  |      |Alfonso XIII., king |British poet (1867- |                    |
  |      |of Spain (1886-     |----).              |                    |
  |      |----).              |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Rudyard Kipling,    |                    |
  |      |Woodrow Wilson,     |British poet and    |                    |
  |      |American publicist, |novelist (1865-     |                    |
  |      |twenty-eighth presi-|----).              |                    |
  |      |dent of the United  |                    |                    |
  |      |States (1856- ----).|Anthony Hope        |                    |
  |      |                    |Hawkins, British    |                    |
  |      |Edward Douglass     |novelist (1863-     |                    |
  |      |White, American     |----).              |                    |
  |      |jurist (1845- ----).|                    |                    |
  |      |                    |George Bernard Shaw,|                    |
  |      |Elihu Root, publi-  |British dramatist   |                    |
  |      |cist, ex-secretary  |and writer (1856-   |                    |
  |      |of state (1845-     |----).              |                    |
  |      |----).              |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |J. M. Barrie, Scot- |                    |
  |      |William Jennings    |tish novelist and   |                    |
  |      |Bryan, American     |dramatist (1860-    |                    |
  |      |publicist, ex-secre-|----).              |                    |
  |      |tary of state (1860-|                    |                    |
  |      |----).              |James Bryce, British|                    |
  |      |                    |historian and       |                    |
  |      |Henry Cabot Lodge,  |diplomat (1838-     |                    |
  |      |historian, publicist|----).              |                    |
  |      |(1850- ----).       |                    |                    |
  |      |                    |Thomas Hardy,       |                    |
  |      |Robert Marion       |British novelist    |                    |
  |      |LaFollette, American|(1840- ----).       |                    |
  |      |political reformer, |                    |                    |
  |      |publicist (1855-    |Frederic Harrison,  |                    |
  |      |----).              |English essayist    |                    |
  |      |                    |(1841- ----).       |                    |
  |      |Field Marshall von  |                    |                    |
  |      |Hindenburg, German  |William Dean        |                    |
  |      |general (1847-      |Howells, American   |                    |
  |      |----).              |novelist (1837-     |                    |
  |      |                    |----).              |                    |
  |      |Field Marshal       |                    |                    |
  |      |Joffre, French      |Rabindranath Tagore,|                    |
  |      |general (1853-      |Indian poet (1861-  |                    |
  |      |----).              |----).              |                    |
  +------+--------------------+--------------------+--------------------+

  +------+--------------------+
  | =Cen-|     =Industry=     |
  |  tu- |                    |
  | ries=|Inventors, Engineers|
  +------+--------------------+
  | _14th|...                 |
  | Cent.|                    |
  |A. D._|                    |
  |      |                    |
  | =1300|                    |
  | A. D.|                    |
  |  to  |                    |
  | 1400 |                    |
  |A. D.=|                    |
  +------+--------------------+
  | _15th|JOHANN GUTENBERG,   |
  | Cent.|German inventor of  |
  |A. D._|printing (1400-     |
  |      |1468).              |
  | =1400|                    |
  | A. D.|Vasco da Gama,      |
  |  to  |Portuguese navigator|
  | 1500 |(1450?-1525).       |
  |A. D.=|                    |
  |      |CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS|
  |      |(Italian Cristoforo |
  |      |Colombo; Spanish    |
  |      |Cristoval Colon),   |
  |      |Genoese discoverer  |
  |      |of America (1436?-  |
  |      |1506).              |
  |      |                    |
  |      |Fernando Magellan,  |
  |      |Portuguese navigator|
  |      |(1470?-1521).       |
  |      |                    |
  |      |William Caxton,     |
  |      |English printer     |
  |      |(1412?-1491).       |
  +------+--------------------+
  | _16th|BERNARD PALISSY     |
  | Cent.|French potter (1510-|
  |A. D._|1589).              |
  |      |                    |
  | =1500|Sir Walter Raleigh, |
  | A. D.|English navigator,  |
  |  to  |statesman and       |
  | 1600 |courtier (1552-     |
  |A. D.=|1618).              |
  |      |                    |
  |      |Sir Francis Drake,  |
  |      |English navigator   |
  |      |(1539-1595).        |
  +------+--------------------+
  | _17th|Marquis Sébastien   |
  | Cent.|Leprestre de Vauban,|
  |A. D._|French military     |
  |      |engineer and marshal|
  | =1600|(1633-1707).        |
  | A. D.|                    |
  |  to  |                    |
  | 1700 |                    |
  |A. D.=|                    |
  +------+--------------------+
  | _18th|SIR RICHARD         |
  | Cent.|ARKWRIGHT, inventor |
  |A. D._|of spinning-jenny   |
  |      |(1732-1792).        |
  | =1700|                    |
  | A. D.|John Howard, English|
  |  to  |philanthropist      |
  | 1800 |(1726-1790).        |
  |A. D.=|                    |
  |      |JAMES WATT, per-    |
  |      |fecter of the steam |
  |      |engine (1736-1819). |
  |      |                    |
  |      |ROBERT FULTON,      |
  |      |American engineer   |
  |      |and inventor of the |
  |      |steamboat (1765-    |
  |      |1815).              |
  |      |                    |
  |      |John Fitch, American|
  |      |inventor (1743-     |
  |      |1798).              |
  |      |                    |
  |      |Aloisio, or Luigi,  |
  |      |Galvani, Italian    |
  |      |discoverer of       |
  |      |galvanism (1737-    |
  |      |1788).              |
  +------+--------------------+
  | _19th|ELI WHITNEY, Ameri- |
  | Cent.|can inventor of the |
  |A. D._|cotton gin (1765-   |
  |      |1825).              |
  | =1800|                    |
  | A. D.|SAMUEL FINLEY BREESE|
  |  to  |MORSE, American     |
  | 1900 |artist and inventor |
  |A. D.=|(1791-1872).        |
  |      |                    |
  |      |GEORGE STEPHENSON,  |
  |      |English perfecter of|
  |      |the locomotive en-  |
  |      |gine (1781-1848).   |
  |      |                    |
  |      |Alfred Krupp, German|
  |      |manufacturer of iron|
  |      |and steel (1810-    |
  |      |1887).              |
  |      |                    |
  |      |Henry Bessemer, En- |
  |      |glish engineer and  |
  |      |inventor (1813-     |
  |      |1898).              |
  |      |                    |
  |      |George H. Corliss,  |
  |      |American machinist  |
  |      |and inventor (1820- |
  |      |1888).              |
  |      |                    |
  |      |Elias Howe, American|
  |      |inventor of the     |
  |      |sewing-machine      |
  |      |(1819-1867).        |
  |      |                    |
  |      |Ernst Werner        |
  |      |Siemens, German     |
  |      |physicist, inventor,|
  |      |manufacturer (1816- |
  |      |1892).              |
  |      |                    |
  |      |Robert Stephenson,  |
  |      |English engineer    |
  |      |(1803-1859).        |
  |      |                    |
  |      |Viscount Ferdinand  |
  |      |de Lesseps, French  |
  |      |engineer of the Suez|
  |      |Canal (1805-1894).  |
  |      |                    |
  |      |Alfred Bernard      |
  |      |Nobel, Swedish phys-|
  |      |icist and chemist   |
  |      |(1833-1896).        |
  |      |                    |
  |      |Cyrus Hall          |
  |      |McCormick, American |
  |      |inventor and manu-  |
  |      |facturer of harvest-|
  |      |ers (1809-1884).    |
  |      |                    |
  |      |James M. Smithson,  |
  |      |English philanthro- |
  |      |pist (1765-1829).   |
  |      |                    |
  |      |Stephen Girard,     |
  |      |American merchant   |
  |      |and philanthropist  |
  |      |(1750-1831).        |
  |      |                    |
  |      |Ezra Cornell, Ameri-|
  |      |can capitalist and  |
  |      |philanthropist      |
  |      |(1807-1874).        |
  |      |                    |
  |      |George Peabody,     |
  |      |American merchant   |
  |      |and philanthropist  |
  |      |(1795-1869).        |
  |      |                    |
  |      |William Wilson      |
  |      |Corcoran, American  |
  |      |philanthropist      |
  |      |(1798-1888).        |
  |      |                    |
  |      |James Lick, American|
  |      |philanthropist      |
  |      |(1796-1876).        |
  |      |                    |
  |      |Johns Hopkins, Amer-|
  |      |ican capitalist and |
  |      |philanthropist      |
  |      |(1795-1873).        |
  |      |                    |
  |      |Cornelius           |
  |      |Vanderbilt, American|
  |      |capitalist and phi- |
  |      |lanthropist (1794-  |
  |      |1877).              |
  |      |                    |
  |      |Paul Tulane, Ameri- |
  |      |can philanthropist  |
  |      |(1801-1887).        |
  |      |                    |
  |      |Philip Danforth     |
  |      |Armour, American    |
  |      |philanthropist      |
  |      |(1832-1901).        |
  |      |                    |
  |      |Leland Stanford,    |
  |      |railroad construc-  |
  |      |tor, senator and    |
  |      |philanthropist      |
  |      |(1824-1893).        |
  |      |                    |
  |      |Lord Donald         |
  |      |Alexander Smith     |
  |      |Strathcona and Mount|
  |      |Royal, Canadian     |
  |      |capitalist and phi- |
  |      |lanthropist (1820-  |
  |      |1914).              |
  |      |                    |
  |      |John Pierpont       |
  |      |Morgan, American    |
  |      |financier (1837-    |
  |      |1913).              |
  |      |                    |
  |      |Marshall Field,     |
  |      |American merchant   |
  |      |and philanthropist  |
  |      |(1835-1906).        |
  |      |                    |
  |      |James J(erome) Hill,|
  |      |American railway    |
  |      |president (1838-    |
  |      |1916).              |
  |      |                    |
  |      |Robert Falcon Scott,|
  |      |English Antarctic   |
  |      |explorer (1868-     |
  |      |1912).              |
  |      |                    |
  |      |Wilbur Wright, Amer-|
  |      |ican inventor and   |
  |      |aeronaut (1867-     |
  |      |1912).              |
  +------+--------------------+
  | _20th|Alexander Graham    |
  | Cent.|Bell, inventor of   |
  |A. D._|the speaking tele-  |
  |      |phone (1847- ----). |
  | =1900|                    |
  | A. D.|Thomas Alva Edison, |
  |  to  |American inventor   |
  | 2000 |(1847- ----).       |
  |A. D.=|                    |
  |      |G. Marconi, Italian |
  |      |inventor of wireless|
  |      |telegraph (1875-    |
  |      |----).              |
  |      |                    |
  |      |K. W. Röntgen (1845-|
  |      |----).              |
  |      |                    |
  |      |Andrew Carnegie,    |
  |      |American capitalist |
  |      |and philanthropist  |
  |      |(1835- ----).       |
  |      |                    |
  |      |Emile Berliner,     |
  |      |German-American in- |
  |      |ventor (1851- ----).|
  |      |                    |
  |      |Henry Ford, American|
  |      |automobile manufac- |
  |      |turer (1863- ----). |
  |      |                    |
  |      |William Randolph    |
  |      |Hearst, publicist   |
  |      |and newspaper pub-  |
  |      |lisher (1863- ----).|
  |      |                    |
  |      |First Baron Alfred  |
  |      |Charles William     |
  |      |Harmsworth          |
  |      |Northcliffe, English|
  |      |newspaper proprietor|
  |      |(1865- ----).       |
  |      |                    |
  |      |Orville Wright,     |
  |      |American inventor   |
  |      |and aeronaut (1871- |
  |      |----).              |
  |      |                    |
  |      |Captain Roald       |
  |      |Amundsen, Norwegian |
  |      |explorer and naviga-|
  |      |tor (1872- ----).   |
  |      |                    |
  |      |Robert Edwin Peary, |
  |      |American arctic ex- |
  |      |plorer and officer  |
  |      |U. S. N. (1856-     |
  |      |----).              |
  |      |                    |
  |      |Phebe Apperson      |
  |      |Hearst (née         |
  |      |Apperson), American |
  |      |philanthropist      |
  |      |(1842- ----).       |
  +------+--------------------+

[Illustration: =THE WOMAN WHO FOUNDED THE RED CROSS=

The above picture shows Florence Nightingale at the ancient town of
Scutari, opposite Constantinople, during the Crimean war. It was here
and in the Crimea that this gentle Englishwoman laid the foundation for
the systematic relief of the intense suffering that is a necessary part
of war, and which later led to organized army hospitals and the
associated work of the Red Cross. A highly educated and brilliantly
accomplished woman, she early equipped herself as a trained nurse, and
devoted her life to the alleviation of suffering and distress.]



BOOK OF THE CHILD WORLD


  PHYSICAL LIFE OF CHILDREN: WORK AND PLAY

  THE CHILD, THE PARENTS AND THE SCHOOL

  THE MENTAL LIFE OF THE CHILD: STORY-LAND, NATURE-LAND,
  SCHOOL-LAND

  SIMPLE LESSONS: WORDS, READING, WRITING, NUMBERS, ETC.

  THE MORAL LIFE OF THE CHILD: CONDUCT, MANNERS AND
  ETIQUETTE, ADOLESCENCE, HABITS, CULTIVATION OF IDEALS, ETC.

  MANHOOD, WOMANHOOD, PARENTHOOD

(Abridged in Single Volume Edition.)

[Illustration: =THE MOTHER AS TEACHER=--_Sculptured by E. Delaplanche_

In the above masterpiece we have a vivid and sympathetic portrayal in
eternal marble of the universal mother-instinct to instruct and educate
her children. This she does in accordance with the measure of her own
mental equipment, her previous advantages, and a mother love which
frequently means patience, sacrifice and anxiety. But the instinct is
always present and must continue while the human race lasts--ever
_onward_ and upward.]


THE CHILD WORLD

  THE GROWING BODY -- WORK AND STUDY -- FOOD -- THE NERVOUS SYSTEM --
  PUBERTY -- REST AND SLEEP -- THE EYE -- THE EAR -- OTHER SENSES

[Illustration]


THE HEALTH OF CHILDREN DURING SCHOOL LIFE

Children begin school life at an age which is, unfortunately, one of the
greatest importance in their physical development. It is a truism that
no mechanism, whether animate or inanimate, can do two things at once
and get as good results as when all its efforts are being directed
toward one object. So it is obvious that any vital energy used in
developing a young child’s brain must be taken away from the amount that
had hitherto been entirely devoted to physical growth. Too often this
fact is lost sight of both by energetic teachers and ambitious parents.

Instead of being delighted with the rapid development of the child’s
mind, parents should receive any evidences of abnormal advancement with
some suspicion of its true worth.


WHEN THE CHILD FIRST GOES TO SCHOOL

At the age of six, when the average child first goes to school,
practically everything he sees is new and interesting, and worthy of
deep consideration. His brain gets no rest from the time he wakes until
he goes to sleep at night.

To do its work, the brain needs a full and active blood supply, and this
it will take often at the expense of leaving an inadequate amount for
the demands of the rest of the body.

Curiously enough, excessive mental activity seems to have no stunting
effect on the growth in the way of height. It is in breadth and
thickness that the body suffers. Everyone is familiar with the tall,
lanky boy or girl in the early teens who is said not to care much for
games and exercise, and is, unfortunately, “rather delicate.” This
youngster is almost certain to be pointed out by the proud parents as
being extremely well up in his studies.

Short of encouraging laziness or indolence at school, it really makes
very little difference to the ordinary man or woman, so far as their
adult mental attainments go, whether they were ranked as fairly good
scholars or fairly poor ones when they were young children. On the other
hand, the effort necessary to be made by a sensitive, not over-brilliant
child to keep a good place among its fellows may have a serious physical
effect that will hamper him or her throughout life.

[Illustration: =WHAT NATURE’S DOCTORS PRESCRIBE FOR CHILDREN=

D^R SUNLIGHT

D^R FRESH-AIR

D^R WALK

D^R PLAY

D^R REST

D^R OPEN-WINDOW

D^R WORK

D^R SLEEP

D^R STAND-UP

D^R BREATHE-THROUGH-THE-NOSE

D^R BATHE

D^R MASTICATE]

The effort should be made when a child is first sent to school to
determine just how much work he can do comfortably and happily. If an
attempt is made to force him to do more than this, he will become
depressed and worried. With children, any mental worry will shortly
produce unmistakable signs on the physique. It is a bad plan to attempt
to get as much as possible out of a child; there should always be a
certain amount of vital energy left for emergencies.


IMPORTANT CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE CHILD’S LESSONS

With young children, no lesson should last for more than half an hour,
and if possible, a short interval between each lesson should be spent in
the open air. If the young scholar is notably in advance with his school
work, discourage this; or, at any rate, carefully consider whether his
health will allow such active development. If backward and seemingly
lazy, the cause of the indolence should be sought first in the physical
condition before the character is assailed.

Above all, no child under fifteen should have to do any routine night
study to keep up in his lessons. Young eyes are easily strained, and
young bodies are easily tired. Watch a tired child who has to study at
night; he will get his body in the most comfortable position he can
manage, and will take no thought of the direction from which the light
falls on his page. Nor has he the energy to hold his book so that the
plane of the lines is always parallel to that of his eyes.

His mind may accumulate a little extra book knowledge by such work, but
only at the risk of strained eyes and possible spinal defects. Lateral
curvature of the spine, in a great majority of cases, may be traced back
to habitual faulty postures used by children when at school work. A fair
rule to make about night work is to allow a child to study at home only
so long as he will comfortably sit upright and hold his book at a
correct angle.

In children, the physical state is a very good guide to the mental
condition. If the body is tired, the mind is in no fit state to absorb
knowledge. The thin, narrow-chested, delicate youth, perhaps with
strained eyes and nearly always with a good school record, is nine times
out of ten a preventable mistake.

If, when first he showed signs of more than average scholarship, his
parents had noted that this superiority was due principally to work done
when physically tired, and to neglect of outdoor games and general
“play,” a little sense of the comparative worth of health and youthful
scholarship would have given him a greater chance of developing into a
valuable citizen.


THE PROPER TIME FOR WORK

A child’s brain, and its body as well, are in the prime of their vigor
during the morning hours. From nine till noon, therefore, should be the
period of the hardest mental or physical work he undergoes. Evening
preparation of lessons is harmful, not only because it tends to bring
into a state of high activity the brain, which shortly should be quiet
and ready to sink into slumber, but also because it throws hard work on
an already fatigued organ. Much of the nervousness, debility, and
insomnia so common among school children can be traced to evening
preparation.


NECESSITY OF ABUNDANT FOOD

The more actively growing the tissues, the greater the need for abundant
nourishment. The growing child, therefore, requires more food in
relation to his size and weight than does the grown person who has
passed the stage of rapid development.

No fixed rule can be laid down as to how much a child should eat.
Generally speaking, the country-bred child, living an outdoor life, may
rely on his own appetite as a guide. On the other hand, the city child,
living a more indoor artificial life, may have little appetite, and as a
result, if not watched, may lapse into a condition of malnutrition
simply through underfeeding. The best guide, perhaps, is the child’s
weight. If he is continually below weight, this fact may in all cases be
taken as proof either that the child’s food is unsuitable to its age and
digestive powers, or else deficient in amount.


EFFECT OF THE SEASONS ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The effect of the change in seasons is much more marked in children than
in grown people. In the Spring in particular the watchful mother should
keep a careful eye on the health of her little ones. “There come with
the Spring in many children,” writes a noted physician, “a restlessness
and excitability, a perversity and irascibility of temper, or a
listlessness, and indisposition for exertion that are not displayed at
other times; and there come then, also, more plentifully than at other
seasons, physical indications of debility and the scrofulous habit, such
as enlarged glands and tonsils, dyspepsia and loss of appetite, strumous
ophthalmia, discharges from the ear, and enlargements of joints.”

The moral is that since the body is growing fastest (and therefore has
the greatest need of husbanding its vitality) in the Spring time, any
extra pressure on the nervous system as from prolonged school hours, or
any undue exertion, should be strenuously avoided. Unfortunately with
the “final” examinations in the early summer, our school systems demand
that the hardest and most strenuous work of preparation falls in the
Spring time, the season at which the body is least fitted to withstand
abnormal stress.

When a child or growing boy or girl becomes more nervous in the Spring
time than is his usual habit, or becomes depressed in mind, or
constantly complains of being tired, the only common-sense treatment is
to put an end at once to all schooling for the time being, and to turn
the child out-of-doors every day for all the hours of sunlight.


THE PERIOD OF PUBERTY AND ITS SPECIAL PROBLEMS

Parents should ever be watchful regarding the education of their young
children when they approach the age of puberty, that is, the period when
the child begins to develop into the man or woman.

Profound and rapid changes take place at this period in mind, brain, the
nervous system, the glandular system, and, one may indeed say, in the
body generally. The nerve centers temporarily lose some of their normal
stability, and such conditions as insanity, hysteria, and epilepsy,
rare in childhood, now become common. Even though no actual nervous
disease develop, there is quite commonly during this change from
childhood to adult life a period of nervous excitability and exhaustion
accompanied by physical weakness, which to a great extent unfits the
young person for close pursuit of his or her studies. Particularly in
young girls is there the greatest necessity for curtailing any tendency
to overwork at school during this period.


CONDITIONS OF BONES AND MUSCLES AT THE PERIOD OF PUBERTY

At this time there is also rapid growth and development of the bones
which lengthen rapidly, and are still soft and cartilaginous in places.
It is all-important at this period, therefore, that the muscles on the
two sides of the body receive roughly the same amount of use, otherwise
there is grave danger of some deformity, such as lateral curvature of
the spine, developing.

While the bones are in this condition of rapid development, all
muscle-straining attitudes, such as sitting upright at a desk,
practicing at the piano, writing, painting, etc., should be kept within
such limits as never to entail real fatigue. Young girls at this period,
even more than boys, require all their strength and vitality to support
them in their rapid growth. This does not mean, however, that all
muscular exercises must be forbidden during the period of puberty, which
may be reckoned as from twelve to sixteen in girls, and from thirteen to
sixteen in boys. The point is that violent, really fatiguing exercise,
such as hockey, hunting, cycling tours, mountain climbing, etc., as well
as all occupations which entail the holding of the muscles tense and
fixed in one position for a long period, should be indulged in very
sparingly, if at all. The young girl can obtain all the exercise
necessary for health in less strenuous outdoor pursuits such as golf,
croquet, a little not too strenuous tennis, walking, etc.


GENEROUS HOURS OF SLEEP SHOULD BE ALLOWED

While moderate mental work does not in the healthy grown person
necessitate an increase in the amount of sleep, the child at school,
constantly using his brain in the accumulation of new ideas, needs an
even more generous proportion of sleep than if his brain were not so
occupied. Again, if the child shows any signs of nervousness, he ought
to be allowed to sleep a little longer than the more stolid
non-temperamental child. The following is the average duration of sleep
required at different ages:

   4 years of age  12     hours
   7 years of age  11     hours
   9 years of age  10-1/2 hours
  14 years of age  10     hours
  17 years of age   9     hours

Up to the approach of puberty (the change from childhood to adult life)
a child may well be allowed to sleep a little later in the morning in
the winter than in summer. Again, if as is frequently the case, he
should suddenly commence to grow in height very rapidly an extra hour or
half-hour in bed may be of the greatest service in weathering the strain
of the rapid growth.


PRECAUTIONS TO PREVENT SLEEPLESSNESS

Insomnia is sometimes very troublesome in young children, demanding most
painstaking treatment. Most important in encouraging the habit of going
to sleep immediately on being put to bed is regularity in the hour of
bedtime. Unless the child is put into bed at a certain fixed hour with
clock-like regularity, the habit of getting sleepy (which is such an
important factor in going to sleep) cannot be normally developed.

Sometimes a subdued, shaded light will sooth a nervous child’s excited
brain and so induce sleep. A child who wakes in terror in a pitchdark
room may for years be nervous about going to bed in the dark. Any
attempt to stamp out this tendency to nervousness by refusing a
comforting glimmer of light in the room may bring on a habit of
sleeplessness on first going to bed which may be difficult to eradicate.
Sometimes a softly-ticking clock, by affording a sense of
companionship, encourages the child to drop off to sleep.


MENTAL QUIETUDE AND GOOD VENTILATION

Another factor in encouraging sleep is a quiet mental state, which is
best brought about by the strict avoidance of all exciting games or
other mental activities for at least an hour before bedtime. School
lessons prepared in the evening are a fertile source of insomnia in
children. The brain, keyed up to working at full pitch, cannot quiet
down at its owner’s wish, and its unwonted activity may banish sleep for
an hour or more.

While free ventilation is essential in the child’s sleeping-room, it
should never be forgotten that the young are more susceptible to cold
than are grown people, and have not the same power of generating extra
body heat to replace any undue loss of warmth from exposure to outside
cold. The temperature of the child’s bedroom, therefore, should be kept
between 55° and 60° F. If below this, a general feeling of chilliness,
and in particular of cold feet, may be the cause of sleeplessness.

Apart from the discomfort and misery caused by the feelings of
chilliness, cold feet lead to the adoption of postures in bed which are
anything but conducive to health.


BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF THE BATH

In nervous children who sleep badly, a hot bath or a hot mustard foot
bath often acts like a charm, the child falling into deep sleep almost
as soon as it has been tucked in bed. The warmth, by dilating the
blood-vessels, on the surface of the body in the case of the full bath,
or of the feet in the case of the mustard foot-bath, draws blood away
from the brain and so, reducing its activity, allows it to quiet down
into sleep.

[Illustration]

    Where did you come from, baby dear?
                        Out of the Everywhere into here.
    Where did you get those eyes so blue?
                       Out of the sky as I came through.
    What makes the light in them sparkle and spin?
                     Some of the starry twinkle left in.
    Where did you get that little tear?
                     I found it waiting when I got here.
    What makes your forehead so smooth and high?
                    A soft hand stroked it as I went by.
    What makes your cheek like a warm white rose?
               I saw something better than anyone knows.
    Whence that three-cornered smile of bliss?
                    Three angels gave me at once a kiss.
    Where did you get this pearly ear?
                     God spoke, and it came out to hear.
    Where did you get those arms and hands?
                  Love made itself into bonds and bands.
    Feet, whence did you come, you darling things?
                From the same box as the cherubs’ wings.
    How did they all just come to be you?
                    God thought about me, and so I grew.
    But how did you come to us, you dear?
                God thought about you, and so I am here.

  (The above poem was written by George MacDonald, Scottish novelist
  and poet; born 1824, died 1905. He wrote a long list of novels,
  stories and poems. His children’s poems and stories are deservedly
  popular, and contain numerous passages of singular beauty, lighted
  up with fine fancy and descriptive power.)

[Illustration: =HOW THE DUTCH DOLLS PLAY THE GAME “ALPHABET”=]

[Illustration]


HOW TO TEACH A CHILD TO READ AT HOME

  Aa     Ee    Ii     Ll     Pp     Ss    Ww

  Bb     Ff           Mm            Tt    Xx
               Jj            Qq
  Cc     Gg           Nn            Uu    Yy

  Dd     Hh    Kk     Oo     Rr     Vv    Zz

_Above are the big and little letters of the Alphabet._

_Below is a story with all these letters in words._

    I saw the big ox when I went to the Zoo last week.
    It was in a den by the cave and stood near the bars.
    I thought it looked quite fierce when it stared at me.
    It made me jump when it put its nose out of the bars.
    A man fed the ox with some hay that he got from a box.
    It then lay down on the hard floor and had a nap.
    I should not like to be in the den with the ox.

It is not a proper test of a child’s advance that he should be able to
read very early. Neither do we now make the teaching of reading the
chief object in first lessons. Rather does the child learn first to
master the difficult art of connecting spoken sounds with written signs
somehow, on the happy road from babyhood to schooldays, while his
mother still holds him by the hand.

The training of your boy’s ear in detecting the sounds that go to make
up the words he uses is of the very first importance. You encourage him
in the use of language by getting him to talk freely about what you do
together, describing in his own pretty way the flowers, birds, toys,
pictures that he loves. All the time you are gently insisting on perfect
pronunciation, clear, pleasant modulation of his speaking voice, quiet
breathing through the nose. Presently, when you see he is quite ready
for it, you lay stress on the sounds made at the beginning and end of
such words as cat, dog, puss, pig. He will soon copy quite accurately
the sounds of the various consonants, and find other words beginning or
ending with similar sounds to those in the examples you give.

Later will come the vowel sounds, and patient work will be needed to
make him see the difference in the various sounds of a, o, and so on. At
this stage it will amuse him to have a looking-glass before him to see
how the shape of his mouth alters when speaking. Let him practice
working the muscles round his lip and moving his tongue freely. It will
also help if he sings the vowels, thus--take deep breath, sing _a_ (as
in father) as long as the breath lasts; take breath, sing _a_ (as in
fate), in same way; and so on with all the vowel sounds.

You will, of course, make a table of all the sounds you teach him for
your own use, with lists of suitable words, and something has really
been accomplished in the numberless five-minute sound-lessons when the
child can break up the words he uses into the sounds that go to make
them--b-u-n, bun; f-i-g, fig.

So much for the first training in recognizing and reproducing the
sounds.

And now we come face to face with the much-discussed question--when and
how is a child to learn the letters (the printed signs of sounds) and
the names given to these letters? Some children settle this question for
themselves by “picking up” these letters and their names from
picture-books and blocks with little outside help, but they will find it
useful later on to know the _names_ of the letters and the _order_ of
the alphabet. See to it that your boy learns to call the letters by
their sounds, not their names, and help him to realize that the letters
are the _signs of the sounds_, used to tell us what sounds we are to
utter.

You have a sand-tray? Let the fat little finger practice making a round
_o_ in it, while the rosy lips form the long _o_, as in n_o_ and l_o_rd,
the short sound, as in n_o_t; or tracing crooked _s_ while he hisses
like the geese on the common, or says “puss,” “sat,” and so on.

If you have a box of good, plain letters, let him pick out the _m_ in
_m_ouse, the _t_ in table and in ra_t_. Your small blackboard will come
in handy, for he will be most happy to print on it in chalks the letters
as he learns them. Let him model their shapes in clay, draw and paint
them in colors, make them out of slips and curves of colored cardboard,
varying the practice as much as possible; and see to it that he is never
bored. He will soon greatly enjoy identifying and cutting out large and
small letters as he learns them from advertisements in big type, and
pasting them in a “letter” scrapbook, made by fastening together a few
sheets of brown paper. Guide him to class together _v_ and _f_, _r_ and
_l_, _s_ and _z_, _b_ and _p_, _m_ and _n_, _t_ and _d_, and the vowels
in their order, with a whole page to themselves--this with a view to the
time when he begins to study seriously.

But that is looking far ahead. We have now brought him to the point of
being ready for his first reading lesson. But do not hurry; give his
eyes plenty of distance work, plenty of training in reading Nature’s
wide-open book, before you put printed books into his hands. He is to be
a keen lover of books, so make him want to read, and see to it that he
is interested and happy every moment of the time given to his reading
lesson.

Here is the method:

Buy three copies of some well-printed simple stories; put one copy
aside, and cut up the other two, pasting the sheets on drawing-paper,
alternate pages face down, so that you get one complete copy out of the
two books.

Now cut up, line by line, and then word by word, the first little story,
and put the words in a small tray or box. Perhaps it is, “Thank you,
pretty cow.” So now print on your blackboard two or three of the
words--_cow_, _milk_, _pretty_, the child earnestly watching and
listening while you say the words very distinctly, giving the component
sounds as clearly as you possibly can.

Then hand him the tray, and let him pick out the words and name them as
you have done. Proceed in the same way with a few more words of the
story, printing them as you go in a column on the board, and when he
knows them up and down, in and out, the great moment has arrived. Your
heart will beat as you put the little book--the copy that was not cut
up--into his hands. He can read, so much at any rate, quite readily.

Note that there must be no spelling; it is “look and say.” Next day you
take word-building with the box of letters, and a fine game you have,
based on the words learned the day before. Add letters and syllables in
every way you can think of, always giving sounds, not names; let the boy
read, copy, take from dictation these new words for a happy twenty
minutes. He is now learning to spell, that he may be able to write with
the sound signs. Go on like this, reading one day, word-building the
next, till several sets of little books have been used up.

Let him dramatize the little stories and poems whenever you can; take
parts with him, thus laying the foundation of real, live reading aloud,
without any disfiguring mannerisms or self-consciousness. His stock of
words grows apace--ten a day will give over three thousand in a
year--and little by little, as opportunity offers, the more complex
sounds in our language and its puzzling irregularities are unfolded and
made familiar. Thus reading, elocution, spelling, writing, all advance
together.

[Illustration: The study of Nature should go hand in hand with the study
of books. Children love the outdoors--the trees, the flowers, the
grass,--all living things. Nature trains the special senses, awakens the
powers of observation, and creates a love of both the beautiful and the
useful.]

[Illustration: =THE CHILD’S PICTURE GRAMMAR--NOUNS AND VERBS=

A NOUN IS THE NAME OF ANY THING--A VERB TELLS WHAT A NOUN DOES OR IS
DONE TO

THE HORSE STOPS

THE FISH SWIMS

THE BOY HOPS

THE BIRD SKIMS

THE RAIN FALLS

THE BABE CRIES

THE MAN HAULS

THE BEE FLIES

BALLOONS RISE

ACORNS DROP

THE WOMAN BUYS

AIRGUNS POP

THE CART IS DRAWN

THE HOOP IS ROLLED

THE SHEEP IS SHORN

THE LAWN IS ROLLED

THE DOG IS LED

THE PIG IS DRIVEN

THE LION IS FED

THE PRIZE IS GIVEN

THE FIRE BURNS

THE WATER FLOWS

THE BOAT TURNS

THE TRAIN GOES]

[Illustration: =WHAT OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS GIVE US=

THE USEFUL THINGS OBTAINED FROM THE COW, HORSE, SHEEP, GOAT, PIG, FOWL,
AND DEER

MILK

BUTTER

CHEESE

BEEF

LEATHER

KNIFE-HANDLES

COMBS

BUTTONS

SOAP

JELLY

GLUE

CHAIR-COVERS

HAIR FOR STUFFING SOFAS

PLUMES

CATGUT

SOCKS

MUTTON

WOOLLEN GOODS

RUGS

BOOK COVERS

CARPETS

MILK

PERSIAN SHAWLS

WIGS

SHOE-LACES

GLOVES

KNIFE-HANDLES

BOOK COVERS

WATER SKINS

PORK

BACON

LEATHER GOODS

BRISTLES

LARD

BLADDERS

GLYCERINE

EGGS

FLESH

FEATHERS FOR BEDS AND PILLOWS

FEATHERS FOR HATS

KNIFE-HANDLES

GLOVES

HAIR FOR STUFFING SADDLES

VENISON]

[Illustration: THE CHILDREN OF THE ANIMALS

A YOUNG DEER IS CALLED A FAWN

A YOUNG HORSE IS CALLED A COLT

A YOUNG COW IS CALLED A CALF

A YOUNG SWAN IS A CYGNET

A YOUNG EAGLE IS AN EAGLET

A YOUNG HEN IS A CHICKEN

A YOUNG DUCK IS A DUCKLING

A YOUNG GOOSE IS A GOSLING

A YOUNG FROG IS A TADPOLE

A YOUNG HARE IS A LEVERET

A YOUNG OWL IS AN OWLET

A YOUNG FOX IS A CUB

A YOUNG GOAT IS A KID

A YOUNG SHEEP IS A LAMB

A YOUNG TROUT IS AN ALEVIN

A YOUNG SALMON IS A GRILSE

A YOUNG DOG IS A PUPPY

A YOUNG CAT IS A KITTEN

The young of some animals have special names, and with many of these we
are familiar. But there are other young creatures whose particular names
are not so well known. In the pictures on this page we see the young of
eighteen different creatures with their mothers, and the special names
of these are given.]


THE STORY OF THE SPIDER AND THE BUTTERFLY

On the garden wall a brown [Illustration: Spider] was spinning her
[Illustration: Web]. Backwards and forwards she went, making hundreds of
little threads at once, twisting them into white ropes, arranging them
with her feet and the little hooks on her jaws, and gluing them together
where they crossed.

The [Illustration: Butterfly] stood on a [Illustration: Leaf] and
watched.

“Is that to put your eggs in?” she asked at last. “Or do you put them on
a cabbage?”

“On a cabbage! No, indeed!” said the [Illustration: Spider], staring
with all her eight eyes at once. “I make a soft nest of silken threads
to put them in.”

“That would not do for _my_ babies.” And the [Illustration: Butterfly]
nodded her head and looked very wise. “They would get their wings fast
in the threads.”

“Their what?” gasped the [Illustration: Spider], standing suddenly still
in the middle of her [Illustration: Web].

“Their wings,” repeated the innocent [Illustration: Butterfly]. “I don’t
think I dare let my children come to play with yours if you always hang
[Illustration: Nets] about.”

“But your children won’t have wings!” gasped the [Illustration: Spider]
again. “They won’t be baby [Illustration: Butterflies]!”

The [Illustration: Butterfly] laughed gaily.

“What a funny idea!” she said. “Your eggs hatch into baby [Illustration:
Spiders], don’t they? and they don’t have wings. And the hen’s
[Illustration: Eggs] hatch into little baby [Illustration: Chickens],
and they do have wings, like the hen. I saw them this morning running
after her, with all their wings stretched out. I suppose they are not
old enough to fly yet. When my babies can fly, I shall go back to the
flower garden.”

She flew away, leaving the astonished [Illustration: Spider] still
sitting in the middle of her [Illustration: Web] trying to understand it
all.

“Well!” she exclaimed to herself at last. “That’s what comes of having
no mother! I always did say that the family arrangements of the
[Illustration: Butterflies] are the most foolish I ever heard of.”

The [Illustration: Butterfly] was very busy, gumming her eggs safely
underneath a cabbage leaf. Each little jar hung by its narrow end, as
close to the next as could be.

“What a funny old [Illustration: Spider]!” she thought at last, when she
had finished. “I wonder if she has finished that [Illustration: Web].”

“Have you found a cabbage to please you?” called the [Illustration:
Spider].

“Well, I suppose it’s all right,” answered the [Illustration: Butterfly]
a little doubtfully. “I don’t seem to be able to think of a better place
to put my eggs, and I suppose the flowers will grow on the cabbage very
soon. My baby [Illustration: Butterflies] will not be able to fly far at
first to find honey.”

“You mean your creepy, crawly [Illustration: Caterpillars]!”

“Don’t you mean [Illustration: Spiders]?” asked the [Illustration:
Butterfly], trying to be sarcastic.

“Nothing so sensible! If you want to see----”

“Hush! hush! Don’t quarrel!” said the Breeze, shaking the [Illustration:
Spider]’s [Illustration: Web] and puffing at the [Illustration:
Butterfly]’s wings.

“She says that my babies will be creepy, crawly----”

“Come away! come away! Come and find some honey!” said the Breeze.

He shook the [Illustration: Leaf] and the [Illustration: Butterfly] fell
off. Then the Breeze so hurried her across the garden that when they
reached the flowers she was out of breath with laughing.

“I suppose that old [Illustration: Spider] is jealous because her
children will not be so pretty as my baby [Illustration: Butterflies]”
she said.


LADY GRAY AND THE NUTS

One summer Robert and his father and mother lived in a little
[Illustration: House] in the woods.

They saw a [Illustration: Squirrel] running about in the [Illustration:
Trees].

Robert put some [Illustration: Nuts] on the ground, and hid behind a
[Illustration: Tree]. Soon the [Illustration: Squirrel] came and carried
them away.

The next day he put the [Illustration: Nuts] nearer the [Illustration:
House]. The [Illustration: Squirrel] came again and carried them away.

So it went on for some time. Each day Robert put the [Illustration:
Nuts] nearer the [Illustration: House].

They named the [Illustration: Squirrel] Lady Gray.

One day Robert’s mother sat down on a [Illustration: Chair] in the
porch. She put some [Illustration: Nuts] on the floor and kept very
still.

After a while Lady Gray came up on the porch. She looked at Robert’s
mother, then she took a [Illustration: Nut] and ran off as fast as she
could.

By-and-by Lady Gray became so gentle that she would hunt for
[Illustration: Nuts] in their pockets.

One morning father put a [Illustration: Nut] on his shoulder. Lady Gray
jumped on father’s shoulder and ate the [Illustration: Nut]. How they
all laughed!


CUNNING NANCY AND HER KITTENS

Three little [Illustration: Kittens] were born in a [Illustration:
House] where there were two lively [Illustration: Children] The
[Illustration: Kittens] were at once named Tom, Dick, and Harry.

As soon as they were big enough to handle, the [Illustration: Children]
began to carry them round, indoors and out. Nancy, the mamma
[Illustration: Cat], did not like her [Illustration: Kittens] to be
handled so much, for she knew it was not good for them. She mewed, but
the children did not notice her distress.

Dick, a lovely grey, seemed to be her pet. She took the best care of
him, and seemed most worried when the children picked him up.

One day little Dick could not be found. The [Illustration: Children]
hunted for him, but in vain. They noticed that Nancy did not seem
anxious, nor did she go looking for her lost [Illustration: Kitten].

They did not notice, however, that she would often go up the
[Illustration: Stairs], and stay away awhile from Tom and Harry.

When washing day came, they found out all about it. In a low, dark
[Illustration: Cupboard] upstairs, where the soiled clothes were kept,
Nancy and Dick were found. Dick was snugly wrapped in the clothes, and
purred contentedly. Mamma Nancy lay beside him. She had taken her
favorite [Illustration: Kitten] and hidden him, so that the children
should not play with him.


THE GOOD LITTLE STARS

Once upon a time a great many little [Illustration: Stars] lived up in
the sky.

Their father was the [Illustration: Sun], and their mother was the
[Illustration: Moon].

Usually these [Illustration: Stars] were good little [Illustration:
Children]. They liked to help brighten the sky and so make the
[Illustration: Earth] brighter.

But one night when their mother called to them to come and light up the
sky, they came very slowly. They looked very cross. They did not shine
when she told them to do so.

Mother [Illustration: Moon] felt sad. She called up from the
[Illustration: Earth] some good little [Illustration: Stars]. They were
only [Illustration: Flowers] on [Illustration: Earth], but Mother
[Illustration: Moon] changed them into [Illustration: Stars] in the sky.

The naughty [Illustration: Stars] felt themselves falling. Faster and
faster they fell, until they sank down into the [Illustration: Earth].

They cried and cried until they fell asleep for they were very sorry for
what they had done.

In the morning Father [Illustration: Sun] shone out so brightly that
everything, even the baby [Illustration: Stars] under the grass,
wakened. They began to cry again.

Their father felt sorry for them. He told them they might shine on the
[Illustration: Earth].

So now the stars shine in the sky at night, and in the morning, when
Father [Illustration: Sun] shines for them, the [Illustration: Flowers]
open their eyes and shine in the grass all day.


[Illustration: =NATURE AS THE FIRST INVENTOR AND CRAFTSMAN=

=THE LANTERN FLY OF TROPICAL AMERICA LIGHT WITHOUT HEAT=

=ONE OF THE FIRST BOXES, A RECEPTACLE FOR BRAZIL NUTS=

=THE FIRST BALL-AND-SOCKET JOINT--A HUMAN SHOULDER=

=THE FIRST PUMP--A HEART=

=THE FIRST SPINNERS--A MOTH WHOSE CATERPILLAR SPINS THE COCOON=

=THE FIRST BALLOON--THE “SWELLFISH,” WHICH INFLATES ITSELF=

=THE FIRST HINGE--THE THORNY OYSTER OF THE PACIFIC=

=A LOBSTER’S CLAW--THE ORIGINAL OF A GAS FITTER’S PINCERS=

=THE TAILOR BIRD, WHICH STITCHES THE LEAVES OF HER NEST TOGETHER=]

[Illustration]


THE PANIC IN THE FOREST

A timid hare was resting one day in a grove of palm-trees, and a strange
thought came into his head.

“What should I do if an earthquake occurred?”

At that moment a gust of wind shook the palm-trees, and some ripe fruit
pattered down.

“An earthquake is beginning!” cried the timorous hare. And, starting up,
he fled without daring to look behind him. A deer met him as he was
racing along.

“What is the matter?” said the deer, catching up with him and running by
his side.

“An earthquake is destroying the forest!” the hare gasped out.

The terrible news quickly spread among the hares, deer and rabbits, and
they scampered away in wild terror. As they went on, they were joined by
elks, buffaloes, elephants, tigers, and rhinoceroses.

“What is the matter?” said each animal in turn, as he joined the
fugitives.

“An earthquake is destroying the forest!” they panted, rushing on, and
never stopping to see if it were so. At last the line of frightened
animals extended across the country for a full mile. All the smaller
beasts standing in the path of the army of fugitives were unable to ask
any question; they had to race ahead to avoid being trampled down. But
as the maddened host was sweeping blindly down to the bank of a great
river, which looked like being choked up with dead bodies, a lion came
up, and stopped the frightened beasts with a terrible roar.

“What is the matter?” he said to the tigers.

“The buffaloes told us that an earthquake is coming,” said the tigers.

“Who saw it coming?” said the lion.

“We don’t know,” said the tigers. “The elephants know.”

“The rhinoceroses told us,” said the elephants.

“And we heard it from the buffaloes,” said the rhinoceroses, panting for
breath.

The buffaloes heard it from the elks; the elks heard it from the deer;
and at last it got down to the timid hare.

“Do you mean to tell me,” roared the lion, “that you have all been
frightened to death by a timid little hare? Let us go to the grove of
palm-trees, and witness this terrible earthquake.”

When they arrived there, the fruit was still pattering to the ground.

“Now, you see,” said the lion, “what comes of following the lead of the
most timorous creature on earth. He has made you all more cowardly than
he is himself. You ran away without even hearing the noise that
frightened him. Henceforward avoid the gossip of the crowd, and trust to
your own judgment.”


THE JOURNEY FROM THE CLOUDS TO THE SEA

When the little drop of rain fell, he didn’t know in the least what was
going to happen. For a minute or two he felt quite frightened. Then he
suddenly found himself rolling down a hill. He had just begun to think
it great fun, when he noticed a lot of other drops beside him, all
laughing together and all rolling down the hill.

One of them came close to him and touched him, and he found himself
growing bigger. Then more and more came up, and presently he saw that he
was quite a big fellow. He felt very proud of himself. “I’m getting
bigger and bigger every minute,” he said.

Half-way down the hill he looked back, and saw himself stretched out
like a line of silver, glittering and shining between the trees and
stones and bushes.

“I’m a stream now,” he murmured proudly as he hurried over sand and
gravel and clay, “and I’m getting bigger and bigger still.”

Suddenly he found himself falling over a big black rock. Down, down he
fell, thirty feet or more. But he was so big and strong now that he
didn’t care a bit.

At the bottom of the hill there were a great many rocks and stones right
in front of him. “Get out of my way!” he roared. “I’m a river now! Get
out of my way!” And he dashed and splashed and flew right over them.

A little farther on he came to a lovely meadow, with beautiful trees
hanging down, and birds singing, and great sleepy red cattle standing
knee-deep in the long, sweet grass, and the big blue sky shimmering
overhead. It was so very, very pretty that he thought he would stay here
a while. So he twisted and wound round and round, just to get another
look at the trees, and to watch the birds flying from branch and bush.

He laughed merrily to a little boy who was standing on the bank with a
fishing-rod in his hand, and hurried on again.

As he turned a corner quickly he saw a great blue plain stretching for
miles and miles, with ships and boats and birds dotted here and there on
its broad, heaving, shining surface.

“Hello! There is the sea at last!” he cried joyfully, and rushed forward
eagerly to meet it. And as he joined the great ocean he shouted out as
if he meant that all the world should hear, “Here I am; I’m a sea now!”
(See full page illustration on page 68.)


THE SPIDER AND THE FLY

The spider was in a rare temper as she hurried back to the dark corner
where she had her home.

“Upon my word,” she muttered, “it is too bad! This is the third time
that wretched housemaid has swept my web away. The ignorant creature
calls me an insect. I am not an insect. My body is in two parts instead
of three; my head is part of my chest; and I have eight legs instead of
six.”

The spider sat in her dark corner thinking very hard. Presently a
buzzing sound caught her ears, which happened to be placed at the end of
her feet. Her six pairs of eyes glistened with anger.

“There’s that old bluebottle again,” she murmured. “His noise makes my
head ache. If I make haste and spin another web, perhaps I can catch him
before the maid comes with her broom.”

Having made up her mind, the spider began. On the underpart of her body
were four tiny tubes, each with about a thousand still tinier holes.
From each tube came a thousand delicate threads made of a gummy fluid.
The spider’s hind feet combed and twisted them into one fine thread.

The thread gradually increased in length until a draught caught it and
carried it to the edge of the window-curtain, to which it clung.

Several other threads were then stretched from point to point.

“Now,” said the spider, “I can go on building my web.”

Line after line appeared as if by magic. The lines crossed and
recrossed, and at every point where they touched a tiny drop of sticky
fluid held them firmly together.

The spider viewed her work with satisfaction.

Lastly, she ran a more delicate thread round and round in spiral
fashion. At the end of an hour the web was complete.

“Now I will test it,” said the spider; and she tried her work here and
there, and found it quite good.

Only a short time passed before the big fly buzzed into the elastic
strands. The more he struggled, the more he became entangled.

The spider was hungry and very impatient. She darted from her lair and
seized the fly with her terrible claws.

At the end of the feelers were tubes from which she poured poison into
the body of her prisoner, while with her fore feet she entangled still
further the fly’s legs and wings.

In a few moments the bluebottle was quite still. Securely bound up in
the sticky strands, bitten and poisoned, it was clear that he would
never again buzz about in the sunshine. Then the spider enjoyed a better
meal than she had had for a long time.

An hour later the housemaid came along, and, catching sight of the web,
she flicked it with her duster.

“That miserable insect has been at its tricks again,” she said.

The spider was just settling down to a quiet nap after her hearty meal.
She did not like being disturbed, but it did not matter so much now. She
simply smiled to herself. (See articles on Spiders; Flies and Insects in
general in Book of the Animal Kingdom.)


THE STORY OF PETER PAN

Every child in the world grows up to be a woman or a man. The only one
who doesn’t grow up, and won’t, is Peter Pan. He always stays a little
boy, which is very jolly indeed, and he’s friends with all little boys
and girls,--as you’ll understand if you read.

The Darlings,--Wendy, John, and Michael,--lived with their father and
mother. They were rather poor, but it didn’t matter, they were all so
fond of each other. They’d a little maid called ’Liza, and, because they
hadn’t the money for a proper nurse, they’d a dog instead, named
Nana,--wasn’t it funny?

Peter Pan came every night; the window blew open wide, and in he hopped,
without a sound, and hurried to Wendy’s side. And a curious little
dancing light came in with Peter as well; this was a fairy lady, and her
name was Tinker Bell. Peter was dressed in skeleton leaves; he had pipes
on which he played--a delightful person. Wendy was not the least little
bit afraid. He talked to her of the Never-Land, where she’d always
wanted to go. And he said, “If I only teach you to fly, you can get
there now, you know!” So John and Michael were taught to fly, and Wendy
too, and they found it’s as easy, when you get used to it, as walking on
the ground. And at last, when both their father and mother were out, one
Friday night, the Darling children and Peter Pan and Tinker Bell took
flight. Away in their little nightgowns they flew, as fast as they could
go, till they came to the island, the Never-Land, where all the
adventures grow.

Now in this island, I must tell you, were wonderful things to find:
unknown birds, and curious beasts, and Redskins, fierce but kind.
Fairies were there, and Mermaids, and Wolves,--some wild, some tame; and
a Crocodile that had swallowed a clock, and ticked wherever it came.
But--hush, let us whisper!--the “Jolly Roger,” a rascally pirate craft,
with raking masts, and swelling sails, and guns both fore and aft, was
anchored there, and the hideous crew were lying in wait, each man, and
the captain, Hook, in particular, to kill little Peter Pan. Hook was not
his real name; Peter, some while ago, in open fight, had cut off his
hand, so now he’d a hook, you know. And as, with a stern and gloomy air,
he paced, on his quarterdeck, he was thinking all the time, “I’d like to
wring that Peter’s neck!” And the rest of the horrible band of Pirates
were always prowling about, to see if they couldn’t capture Peter, and
kill him, without a doubt. They crept along, singing “Yeo-ho-ho”--as
stealthily as could be, they, and the bo’sum, who, indeed, was the best
of them--one Smee. But the Redskins, with the tomahawks, were on the
Pirates’ track, and followed them quite noiselessly,--not a single
rustle or crack. For they thought the world of Peter Pan; in fact, they
all were rather inclined to kneel at his little feet. And they called
him “Great White Father.”

[Illustration: =PETER PAN, WHO COULD NEVER GROW UP TO BE A MAN=]

Upon the island there were also some boys--well, counting rightly, there
were six: Nibs, Tootles, Curly, and the Twins (no names), and Slightly.
And Tootles, by a silly mistake, when he saw the Darlings near, hastily
aimed his swiftest arrow, and drew his bow to his ear, and shot poor
Wendy. Just at first she was thought to be dead, by her friends. But,
finding she wasn’t, they built her a house, in the hope of making
amends. They built it right, round her, with branches, leaves, and moss,
and lovely make-believe roses clambering quite across. And when it was
completed (and it looked remarkably fine), “Oh, Wendy, do be our
mother!” they cried, and they hadn’t to ask her twice. “Come in at once,
you naughty children!” Wendy delightedly cried; and they all squeezed
in, except Peter Pan, who stayed upon guard outside.

There was also a beautiful house under-ground, where elegant mushrooms
grew, and a Never-tree also (but every morning they sawed the trunk
right through). You entered the house by hollow trees, going up and down
quite fast, which was hard at first, but the children did it exceedingly
well at last. And here, in the charming underground house, the eight
boys slept alone in a great big bed,--for Wendy lived in that dear
little house of her own. But every evening she told them stories, and
when the stories were done, they’d have a dance in their night-clothes,
and a pillow fight,--Oh, such fun! Peter Pan wasn’t always there,
because, as you understand, he was busy strolling about the island, or
watching with sword in hand. But in the day-time he would come, and take
them, not very far, to the blue lagoon, where the weedy rocks and the
hundreds of Mermaids are.

And here, one day, both Peter and Wendy received a bit of a shock; for
Hook pursued them, and so they climbed on a rock--the Marooners’ Rock.
Wendy fainted, and so did Peter. A Mermaid came to see whoever those two
little dripping folks on the slippery rock could be. Then Peter
perceived the tide was rising, and he tied up Wendy tight to the tail of
a kite which was drifting near, and sent her away with the kite. And
there he stayed on the rock alone, and he thought he’d be drowned each
minute. But the Never-Bird, in her floating nest, came up, and Peter got
in it, while the Never-Bird took to a Pirate’s hat, which was luckily
close at hand. So Peter went gaily sailing off, and arrived quite safe
at land.

Now every night the Redskins were camped above the underground house.
And every night the Pirates were creeping, each as still as a mouse
(with the terrible Crocodile after them, showing its crunching teeth),
while Wendy was cheerfully telling tales to the children down beneath.
But, oh dear me! there came a night when that treacherous pirate Hook
contrived to surprise the Redskins, and the children; and he took the
whole nine children prisoners, exceedingly sad to tell. The only ones
who made their escape were Peter and Tinker Bell. And while the unhappy
children were roughly carried on board, Peter was off to rescue them,
with his trusty dagger and sword. And, just in the nick of time, he
arrived. He armed the boys, and they slew, after a most tremendous
fight, fifteen of the Pirate crew. And after a thrilling duel, which
lasted a very short while, between Hook and Peter, the wicked Hook was
thrown to the Crocodile.

So Peter took command of the ship, and they all sailed home, and then,
how glad their father and mother were, to have them back again! They all
were dressed in the Pirates’ clothes (cut short), and exceedingly grand;
and oh, what tales they had to tell of the wonderful Never-Land! Peter,
who didn’t like houses at all,--brick ones, and that sort of thing,
returned to the Never-Land by himself. But he comes back every spring,
and fetches Wendy to help him do spring-cleaning, and Wendy stops and
tidies up the little house, which is now in the high tree-tops. As for
the boys, they’ve all grown up, so the Pirates’ clothes won’t fit. And
as for the great adventures they had, they’ve forgotten them every bit.
Only Wendy and Peter Pan can still do just as they please. How happy
they are, as they talk up there in the dear little house in the trees!


COUNTING AND NUMBERS

In numbers, as in other primary subjects, a child should be _taught_ and
_permitted_ to do things himself. Rousseau said, “What the child _does_,
it easily remembers”; and we shall soon find that time spent in this way
is far from being wasted.

Children who have been taught numbers gradually, in this easy,
interesting fashion, develop an astonishing aptitude for dealing with
figures as they grow older.


COUNTING

Learning to count 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., parrotlike, does very little good.
Rather let the child count _objects_ and point out 5 marbles, 6 blocks,
etc., in order that you may determine if he knows exactly what 5 or 6 of
anything means.

Take a number of blocks or marbles and ask the child to take 3, 5, 7, or
any number of them.

Hold up 3, 5, or 6 of them and ask him to tell how many you have. When
you are told the _number_ you have, write the _figure_ which tells the
number on paper, or the blackboard. Have the child copy the figure,
making a large character.

Then reverse the work by writing a _figure_ on paper and asking the
child to take the _number of blocks_ the writing asks for.

Spend a few minutes every day in asking him to show you 2 pins, 3
houses, 5 stripes, etc.

Teach the child to count 50 as soon as he has started in his number work
at school and later on to 100. _Objects_ should be counted at first and
then counters substituted, such as pennies, marbles, blocks, beads, etc.

RECOGNITION OF NUMBERS.--The purpose of _counting objects_ is to give
the children a clear idea of _number_. They should be able to recognize
2, 3, 4 and 5, _i.e._, be able to tell four objects when they see four,
without counting them, also 3, 5, etc. Stories and games with objects
should be repeated again and again, until the children can do this
easily.

ANALYSIS OF NUMBERS.--When the numbers can be recognized without
difficulty, the children should be encouraged to analyze them, _i.e._,
tell what they are made up of, but objects should be put in front of the
class to represent the numbers until they can do this readily.

Suppose the number _five_ to be the lesson, each child would take five
shells out of its box, and lay them on the desk, thus:--[.....] or
[.....] or [.....] etc. The child should always be able to _describe_
what it has done: thus, the first child would say--_four shells_ and
_one shell_ are _five_; the second, _three shells_ and _two shells_ are
_five_, and so on.

_Higher Numbers._--The analysis of six, seven, eight and nine may be
taught in the same way, each number being taken separately and
thoroughly mastered, before proceeding to the next. The children should
learn all the different combinations of numbers that make six--_three_
and _three_, _five_ and _one_, _four_ and _two_, _three twos_, etc.--but
always with the objects, and when they have seen the number analyzed by
the Teacher, they should do it for themselves with shells, bricks or
other objects.

_Number Ten._--This is the most important number of all, and it should
be thoroughly well taught. The Teacher should show on the table the
different analyses that can be made of ten, and the children should lay
these with shells or other objects again and again. It is necessary to
learn these perfectly, for however well any or all of the numbers may be
learned, they are comparatively useless without ten.

FIGURES.--When the figures are introduced they should invariably be
shown with the concrete numbers which each figure represents. They say,
“Here are four balls” : : “I will show you a figure that means those
four balls, =4=, and I will put the four balls beside it, thus:”--4 : :.

NUMBER ON PAPER OR SLATES.--If the children have learned how to use a
pencil, they may transfer the number-pictures made with shells to their
slates, using dots for “shells,” thus:--: : :.

Then another “picture” may be made with the shells : : : and this be
copied on the paper at some distance from the other. Then another is
made and copied, and so on until the child sees on his paper all the
combinations of numbers that go to make six. He should be able to read
them all out, and because a child remembers what he has done himself,
it will be found that numbers taught in this way are seldom forgotten.

As the children become more proficient, the two signs + and = may be
taught, + means _and_, = means _are_. Then they may put on their slates
: + : = : : and use these signs in the analysis of other numbers.


MONEY TAUGHT AS NUMBERS

When the children know numbers up to ten, they might play little
“shopping” games with coins. Show them actual coins in teaching money.
Lessons on money should be given frequently after the first year of
school life.

Begin by teaching the value of the _cent_ and the _nickel_, then the
_dime_, then the _quarter_, then the _half-dollar_, and then the
_dollar_.

Make little problems involving change. Develop the ability to make
change rapidly. The child may have some money of his own and he should
be taught the comparative values of the coins.

SIMPLE TABLE OF MONEY

  10 cents make 1 dime.

  2 five-cent pieces make 1 dime.

  100 cents make 1 dollar.

  A quarter of a dollar = 25 cents.

  A half-dollar = 50 cents.

  $ means dollars and c means cents.

  A 5-cent piece is called a nickel, because it is made of nickel.

  A cent piece is made of copper.

  The other coins named are made of silver.

  (See United States Money for more advanced instruction.)


COMBINATIONS OF NUMBERS

We now come to the method of teaching the combinations in Addition and
Subtraction.

We can count books, tables, and houses and say that we have counted so
many _things_ but we do not _add_ books, tables, and houses. We _add_
books and books, tables and tables, houses and houses.

We count by _ones_. When we add three beads and two beads we are
counting by ones, for it means that we are adding three ones of beads
and two ones of beads, making five beads in all.

From =1= to =9= we use only one figure to tell how many we mean. When we
wish to say in writing that we have ten of anything we write a =0= after
the =1= and have =10=, ten.

  1. Add 1 to every number up to 10; later to 20.

  2. Subtract 1 from every number up to 10; later to 20.

  3. Add:

   2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10
  +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9 +10

  Here the addends are equal and easily added. The figures should be
  placed as above and not 2 + 2, 3 + 3, etc., because the vertical
  form is the natural one which the child will use all through life.
  It does not look so formal and represents better what he really does
  with the objects.

  4. Add:

   1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8   9
  +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7 +8 +9 +10

  Here one addend exceeds the other by 1.

  5. Subtract:

   2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10
  -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9

  Here the minuend is one greater in each case.

  6. Teach the parts of 10.

   5  2  3  4  9
  +5 +8 +7 +6 +1

  7. In adding 9 to numbers have the child think of 9 as 10,

  thus 9   10      9   10
      +6 = +5 and +8 = +7

  8. Teach the corresponding subtractions.

  9. Add 8 to each number up to 10.

  10. Teach the corresponding subtractions.

  11. Add 7, 6, and 5 to each number up to 10.

  12. Teach the corresponding subtractions.

  13. Review and give combinations not taught above.

Objects should be grouped by tens and units, in showing numbers above
_ten_. Ten should be the basis of all our reckoning, and if the children
know ten, and the numbers which precede it, they can soon be taught the
rest. Little children should not have “sums” given them to do on their
slates, for “sums” are made up of _abstract_ figures, and children of
tender years cannot grasp the abstract.

NUMBER TO ONE HUNDRED.--When the children are conversant with numbers up
to ten, it is very easy to teach them one hundred.


PRIMARY IDEAS OF DIVISION

In teaching the two ideas of division--division by _measurement_
(division proper) and the _fractional_ idea of division
(partition)--proceed very slowly and see that each step is thoroughly
understood.

The following suggestions may be useful:--


DIVISION BY MEASUREMENT

  Use blocks or any other counters in illustrating the process.

  EXAMPLE:

  4 | 12
  --+

  The teacher should ask the child, “How would you count this story?”

  _Facts Given by Child_

  12 = whole number of blocks.
   4 = number in each part.

  We want to know the number of parts.

  We place the blocks so, 4 in each part:--

  □□□□   □□□□   □□□□

  There are 3 parts.


DIVISION BY PARTITION

  Make use of blocks or substitutes to show the process here.

  EXAMPLE: 1/4 of 12 = 3.

  The teacher should ask the child, “How would you count this story?”

  _Facts Given by Child_

  12 = whole number of blocks.
   4 = number of parts.

  We want to know the number in each part.

  We place the blocks so, as we know there are 4 parts:--

  □  □  □  □

  We have put one in each part.

  Now we will put one in each part until the 12 blocks are gone:--

  □□□  □□□  □□□  □□□

  There are 3 in each part.


NUMBERS IN MULTIPLICATION

  Example:

  3 × 4 = --

  _Facts Given by Child_

  3 × 4 means 3 4’s.

  I count my blocks by fours--I take 1 four, another, another.

  I find that 3 4’s are 12.

  3 × 4 = 12.

  _To the Teacher_:

  Now the child is ready to give a number story about 3 × 4.


PRIMARY MEASURES FOR CHILDREN

The child has been taught to count. Now while he is telling you _how
many_ objects he is dealing with, teach him to tell _how much_ he is
dealing with.

In other words, have the child _measure and compare_ as well as count.

Ideas of larger and smaller, longer and shorter, and the like, should be
made important. The need at the outset, is to learn, in a simple way,
the basis of all arithmetic--the _comparison_ of _quantity_,--in as many
of its forms as possible.


MEASURES OF LENGTH

Teach the child to estimate distances and then to verify every estimate
by actual measurement.

Teach half inches as well as inches.

_Long measure is used to measure length._

  12 inches make 1 foot.
   3 feet make 1 yard.
  in. means inch or inches.
  ft. means foot or feet.

_For the Child to Do_:

  1. Cut a strip of paper 12 inches long and 1 inch wide.

  2. Mark the inches on it.

  3. How many inches long is it?

  4. What do you call a measure 12 inches long?

  5. Draw a line 2 inches long, as near as you can, without using a
  ruler.

  6. Measure it with a ruler. Did you guess nearly right? Try again.

  7. Measure this page. How long is it? How wide?

  8. Draw a line on the ground 1 yard long.

  9. 1/2 of a foot is how many inches?

  10. 1 yard is how many inches? What is measured by the yard?

  11. Ask your mother how many yards of cloth she needs for a dress.

  12. What is measured by the foot?

  13. How tall are you?


TELLING THE TIME

_First_--Teach him to tell the hour hand from the minute hand.

_Next_--Teach him when he first looks at the dial, to find the hour hand
and then notice which Roman Numeral it is nearest. _This will tell about
what time it is._

_Then_--Find the minute hand. _The minute hand will tell exactly what
time it is._

[Illustration]

  TO ILLUSTRATE: Take this clock. The hour hand is near the Roman
  Numeral II., which stands for 2. Tell the child it is somewhere near
  two o’clock.

  The minute hand will tell how near.

[Illustration: =What time is it?=]

  It must always point to the XII. before it is exactly the hour. If
  it is one numeral away from the XII., toward the left, it is 5
  minutes of two. If it is two numerals away to the left it is 10
  minutes of two, etc. If it is one numeral away to the right, it is 5
  minutes after two, etc. Proceed in this way and keep at it.


THE DAY

A new day begins at midnight and lasts until the next midnight.

Midnight is the middle of the night; that is, 12 o’clock at night.

Noon is the middle of the day, that is, 12 o’clock in day time.

One hour after noon is 1 o’clock, 2 hours after is 2 o’clock, etc.

If a person says he was at a certain place at 2 o’clock, he must say
forenoon or afternoon, so we will know which half of the day he means.
If it was 2 o’clock in the morning he would write 2 A.M., and if 2
o’clock in the afternoon, 2 P.M.

  _Things for the Child to Do:_

  1. Name the days of the week and the months of the year.

  2. What day of the week does Christmas fall on this year?

  3. Is 22 days longer than 3 weeks?

  4. Is 5 weeks longer than a month? How much?

  5. How many days in 3 weeks?

  6. On what day of the week will your next birthday be, etc.

  _Remember:_

  The days of the week in their order.

  The months of the year in their order.

  Procure a calendar for the child to own.

  A good way to make him familiar with the use of the days of the week
  and month, as found on a calendar, is to ask him to look up and tell
  on what day of the week the next Fourth of July will fall;
  Christmas; New Year; his birthday.

  Have him distinguish between the day of the week and the day of the
  month.

  7 days make 1 week.
  30 days make 1 month.

DAYS OF THE WEEK

  Sunday
  Monday
  Tuesday
  Wednesday
  Thursday
  Friday
  Saturday

MONTHS OF THE YEAR

  January
  February
  March
  April
  May
  June
  July
  August
  September
  October
  November
  December


THE CALENDAR

  +-------------------------------------------------------+
  |     _1903_             _July_              _1903_     |
  +=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+
  |_Sun._ |_Mon._ |_Tues._|_Wed._ |_Thur._|_Fri._ |_Sat._ |
  +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
  | First | Full  | Last  |       |       |       |       |
  | Quar. | Moon  | Quar. |   1   |   2   |   3   |   4   |
  |  1st  |  9th  | 17th  |       |       |       |       |
  |  30th |       |       |       |       |       |       |
  +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
  |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
  |   5   |   6   |   7   |   8   |   9   |  10   |  11   |
  |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
  +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
  |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
  |  12   |  13   |  14   |  15   |  16   |  17   |  18   |
  |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
  +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
  |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
  |  19   |  20   |  21   |  22   |  23   |  24   |  25   |
  |       |       |       |       |       |       |       |
  +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
  |       |       |       |       |       |       |  New  |
  |  26   |  27   |  28   |  29   |  30   |  31   | Moon  |
  |       |       |       |       |       |       |  23d  |
  +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+


FORM AND COLOR

In many schools a lesson is given on Form and Color at least once a
week. The different forms should be kept in a box, in which there should
be also squares of cardboard, showing the various colors. This apparatus
should, however, be amply extended. Pieces of silk or colored paper
should be kept in another box, and colored wools wound on pieces of
cardboard show the colors nicely.

THE OBJECT OF THE LESSON.--The object of the lesson is not simply to
teach the shape or color of one particular piece of wood, or cardboard,
but to enable the child to distinguish the same shape or color whenever
it sees an example of it. Thus the child is helped to observe and
compare, and its interest in life is strengthened as it learns with joy
to find out things for itself.


FORM

_The Circle_, or round, is the first form to be taught, and it should be
illustrated by numerous examples, such as a plate, a round cake, coins,
etc.; all these things should be shown to the children.

Then the circle may be compared with the ball, and the children are
asked: “What things are round like the ball?” “Orange, apple, etc.” “And
what things are round like a circle?” “A penny, a shilling, etc.” “What
has the circle that the ball has not?” “The circle has two flat faces,
and the ball has only one round face.”

_The Square_ is somewhat familiar to the child, who has noticed the
shape of his books, and the table. It has four sides all the same
length; this fact may be taught thus:

Take a long stick or ruler. Teacher says: “I will measure the sides of
the square. Johnnie shall hold it for me” (measure the top edge, and cut
off a piece of stick just the length). Show it to the children, and say:
“This stick is just as long as the top edge of the square. I will give
it to Mary to hold. Now we will measure the bottom edge” (again cut the
length). “This is the length of it” (holding up the stick).

The right and left sides are measured in the same way, and the child now
holds four sticks. Let the children count how many sticks there are, and
notice also that all four measure exactly the same, and then they will
see that the square has four sides all the same length. Then ask for
objects of this shape.

_The Oblong_ is measured in the same way as the square, and the sticks
are cut the lengths of its sides. The children then see that the sticks
cut to represent the sides of the oblong are not all of the same length,
but that two are short, and two longer, so the oblong must have two long
sides and two short sides. Let a child point to the two long sides, and
another to the short ones.

Then the children are asked to name all the things they can see that are
oblong in shape, such as the table, door, window. They may also name
objects at home--dresser, piano, bed, and many other things.

_The Oval_ is frequently taught after the circle, but as the difference
between square and oblong is more marked than the difference between
circle and oval, the former comparison if taken first may help the child
to understand the latter.

Take a square and draw a circle on it, then take the oblong and draw an
oval shape upon it. Ask the children, “How is this shape different from
the round shape on the square?” “It is longer.” “Why?” “Because the
oblong is longer.”

Now show the oval with the round or circle. “How is the oval different
from the round?” “It is longer.” “What things do you know that are
shaped like the oval?” “An egg, a basket, a bathtub, a dish, etc.”

_The Sphere_, _Cylinder_, _Cube_, _Cone and Pyramid_ are solid figures.
The cylinder can be explained from the sphere, the cone from the
cylinder and the pyramid from the cube.

    The pyramid points upward, so,
    But it is square and flat below:
    The cone is pointed, too, and round;
    A sugar loaf like it is found.

The children soon learn the difference between the Cone and Pyramid, and
if they are allowed to make all these solid figures in clay they will
remember them more easily.

    1. The oval shape is like an egg,
       The circle’s round as all can tell,
       The sphere is round, just like a ball,
       The cylinder you know quite well;

    2. We roll it gently on the ground,
       For it is very smooth and round;
       It has two faces flat, you see,
       And stands, as well as rolls for me.

    3. The cube has six square faces, flat,
       And corners eight, just think of that!
       And edges twelve, three fours you know,
       Which round the faces always go.

The Pentagon, Hexagon, Octagon and other similar forms should be learned
by drawing them on checkered slates or paper. These figures introduce
the obtuse angle, and before the children learn the shapes, they should
understand clearly the difference between the right, acute, and obtuse
angles. The hexagon and octagon can be combined so as to make pretty
designs which may be used for perforating and embroidery.

The “Forms” may be further impressed on the mind of the child by means
of a Story; see the one given after “Color,” at end of this chapter.


COLOR

Color should be taught if possible from objects and pictures. The six
colors can be illustrated by fruits, as an orange, a rosy apple, a
purple plum, a red cherry. The children’s dresses, their eyes and hair,
can all be brought into a lesson on color. In spring and summer flowers
make charming illustrations, _e.g._, different colors seen in roses, and
the autumn-tinted leaves can be used likewise.

Then there are colors in pictures, trees, besides colored wools, beads,
tablets, etc.

Ask for flowers and fruits of certain colors, _e.g._, what flower is
yellow? What fruit is red?, etc. Also colors of birds and animals, and
let the children say what colors look nice together. In summer this may
be shown by arranging a number of flowers in a bouquet.

In the flowers themselves colors always harmonize, _e.g._, forget-me-not
is blue, and has a yellow center, because blue and yellow look pretty
together.

Spring flowers are mostly yellow, and have pale green leaves, for green
and yellow look pretty together.

The red poppy and blue cornflower look pretty among the yellow corn, and
there are yellow flowers among the corn also.

Harmony of color may be further illustrated by the dressing of a doll,
or a story of a little girl who was taken to the shop by her mamma. The
little girl was to have a new dress, cloak, and hood; what colors would
her mamma choose?

_Secondary Colors._--Teach that _red_, _blue_ and _yellow_ are the first
or _primary_ colors, from which other colors may be made. A child’s box
of paints and six small tumblers are required for the following
illustration.

Pour a little water into each tumbler, and mix a little red paint in
one, a little blue in the next, and a little yellow in the third. These
are the primary colors.

Let us see what can be made by mixing _two_ of them together. Take an
empty tumbler. Pour in a little blue water and a little yellow. Mix
together and the children will see that _green_ is produced. Now take
another tumbler and mix blue and red in it; this makes _purple_.

In another tumbler show that red and yellow make _orange_. “What
beautiful thing have you seen in the sky showing all these colors?” “A
Rainbow.”

This is a most interesting lesson, and if the tumblers, etc., are not
obtainable, the same experiment may be shown on a piece of white
cardboard. Paint the colors in stripes on the cardboard, first the three
primary, which should be allowed to stand; then the secondary are
produced by rubbing one color over another, _e.g._, paint over the red
with blue, and purple is produced. Over the blue stripe paint a little
yellow, and we have green. Over the yellow stripe paint red, and orange
is seen.

    The primary colors are Red, Yellow, Blue,
    The Red and Blue mixed will show Purple to you;
    Mix Yellow and Blue if you wish to make Green,
    Mix Yellow and Red, then bright Orange is seen.


COLOR STORY

After the forms and colors have been learned, they may be woven into an
interesting story, thus:

“A man had a large piece of land to make into a garden; he gave a piece
to each of his children, and said they might make small beds of any
shape that they liked.

“So Johnnie made a _round_ bed” (draw shape on board, and let children
copy on slate), “and Willie had a _square_ bed; Mary said her bed should
be _oblong_, and Nellie made hers _oval_” (draw each on board, and let
the children copy). “Then Gerty wanted hers to be the shape of a
_semicircle_, and Harry said his should be very pretty, for he would
make it _crescent_ shape, like the moon.”

When the blackboard is full of shapes the teacher might say: “Now you
would like to know what these children had growing in their beds.
Johnnie had a _pink_ rose-bush in the middle of his bed.

“Willie sowed red Poppy seeds in rows in his square bed, and Mary had a
yellow Iris in the center of hers, with blue Forget-me-nots all round.
You remember that blue and yellow look pretty together.”

Whenever possible, pin the flower named on the shape representing the
flower bed.

The story should be continued until all the “beds” have flowers in them.
The children may be allowed to suggest names of flowers and should be
encouraged to choose colors that will harmonize.


STORIES

Stories are the “spice” of childhood. The eager delight with which
children beg for a story, and listen while it is told, is in itself a
plea for stories, and the routine of lessons should be broken up by
setting apart five or ten minutes between them for this pleasant
exercise.

USE OF STORIES.--In the first place, story-telling may be made the means
of helping the children to acquire familiarity with good English. We all
know how limited is the child’s vocabulary, and how difficult it is for
a child to express his thoughts. Sometimes when a fact is perfectly well
known, the language is wanting in which he can express it.

_Second_, the child’s sympathy may be cultivated and developed by means
of stories. He becomes intensely interested in the subject of the story,
and for the time being almost lives the incident over again in his own
little life.

A very little child was one day listening to a story about “A lazy boy
who missed a school picnic because he was so slow in getting ready. The
school children were all on board the steamer, the bell rang, the
moorings were loosed, and away went the boat just as the late little boy
came running down to the pier.”

The little listener followed the story intently up to this point, and
then burst out, “Oh! Auntie, couldn’t they get a little row-boat and
take him out to the steamer? I don’t like him to be left behind.”

Stories, then, enlist the sympathy of the child.

_Third._--Story-telling strengthens the child’s power of imagination.
But, be careful to develop the imagination in a right direction, and not
to feed it with anything coarse or cruel.

_Fourth._--The stories offer opportunity for inculcating moral truths
and sometimes it is possible to teach by stories truths that would be
difficult to teach in any other way.

KINDS OF STORIES.--(_a_) _Stories of Real Life_--of events which have
actually happened, or would be likely to happen. It is in this kind of
story that moral truths can be illustrated most frequently.

(_b_) _Fairy Tales._--Some people object to fairy tales, but innocent
fairy tales feed the imagination, and often point a moral. Stories of
horror and cruelty should never be recounted. Children soon learn to
take delight in this class of story, and as a consequence, their moral
tone deteriorates. Such stories as “Bluebeard” have this effect, but
“Cinderella,” “Sleeping Beauty,” and many others, show that right is
victorious in the end, and cannot have any bad effect on the children.

(_c_) _Stories of Nature._--Flowers, rocks, trees, and other objects in
nature may be made the subject of pleasant stories, interesting as a
fairy tale, and many important truths may be taught in this way. A story
of the kind is given as an example.

(_d_) _Stories for Very Little Ones._--These should be exceedingly
simple. A dog, a kitten, a bird, anything that comes into the life of a
little child, he is delighted to hear about. Many such stories are given
in the chapters on Numbers and Reading, and others will suggest
themselves to the teacher. They should all be told in baby language,
_i.e._, in language that the child can comprehend. Pictures often
suggest a story, which is all the more interesting for being thus
illustrated.

The children should sometimes be encouraged to tell what they can
remember of the story. In this way they learn to express themselves.

THE STORY-TELLER. (_a_) We have said before that the language should be
simple and easy to understand.

(_b_) The voice should be modulated, and the story-telling is much more
effective when gesticulations are used. The flying of birds, the
rustling of leaves, etc., should be accompanied by hand movements on the
part of the Teacher.

(_c_) The story-teller should be in sympathy with the subject of the
story, and also with the listeners, otherwise the interest will be lost.

(_d_) Just as pictures add interest to a story, so do illustrations on
the blackboard and these should be frequently given. Sometimes the
children may be allowed to draw for themselves objects which have been
mentioned in the story.

THE AFTER-EFFECT OF STORIES.--It is well to remember that the child’s
taste for reading is largely influenced by the class of stories told to
him in early life, and in these days of plentiful, cheap literature, how
important it is that the youthful mind should be trained to appreciate
that which is good.

If a child has learned to gloat over horrible stories, he will gratify
this morbid taste by reading ghastly tales as he grows older, and if, on
the other hand, he has learned to love stories that are simple and pure,
he will choose reading that is good and elevating.



INDEX


  The intelligent use of an _index_ requires careful thought and
  practice upon the part of the reader or consulter. Many books are
  _over_-indexed, and trifling _allusions_, or even _words_, made to
  swell the index. It is obvious, therefore, that a book of moderate
  compass should use only sufficient space to reveal the _important
  general_ subjects treated. Besides the general index, the following
  _self-indexing_ dictionaries and departments should be consulted:

                                                          PAGE
  Scientific Terms Used in Astronomy                        37
  Dictionary of Important Mineral Products                 103
  Scientific Terms Used in the Earth Sciences              117
  Dictionary of Historical Race Groups                     278
  Tables of States and Territories                         588
  Table of State and Territorial Government                650
  Colonial Divisions of the World                          690
  Great American and Foreign Battles                       700
  Right and Wrong Use of Words                             718
  Abbreviations, Contractions and Degrees                  725
  Words and Phrases from Modern Foreign Languages      742-754
  Words and Phrases from Classic Languages                 755
  Pronouncing Dictionary of Literary Allusions             782
  Pronouncing Dictionary of Mythology                      821


    =A=
                                                          PAGE
  Abbreviations                                        725-731
  Abu-Simbel                                          342, 349
  Abydos                                                   349
  Accent, Marks of                                         713
    Of Words                                               713
  Accounts, Laws Concerning                                875
  Achæan League                                            382
  Acropolis, of Athens                                     378
  Adjutant Bird                                            216
  Africa, Countries of                                     443
    Lakes of                                                80
    Mountains of                                            76
  Age of Pericles                                          377
  Agra, Description of City                                687
    Taj Mahal                                              687
  Air, Currents of                                          92
  Alamo, The                                          617, 618
  Alaric, in Athens                                        384
  Albanians                                                278
  Albatross                                                218
  Alder                                                    160
  Alewife                                                  225
  Alexander the Great:
    Conquest of Egypt                                      347
    Empire of                                              380
    His Death and Successors                               381
    Invades Northern India                                 381
    Invades Persia                                         380
    Second Invasion of Persia                              381
    Settles in Babylon                                     381
    Syrian and Egyptian Campaigns                          380
  Alexander II., Russia                                546-547
  Alexandria                                               349
    Schools of                                             347
  Alfalfa                                                  124
  Allegory                                                 733
  Alligators                                               221
  Alliteration                                             734
  Allusions, Literary                            782 _et seq._
  Almond                                                   136
  Alpaca                                               245-246
  Alphabet, Formed by Phœnicians                           368
  Alps, Outlying Spurs                                     445
  Alsace-Lorraine                                          504
  Altdorf                                                  570
  Alum                                                     103
  Aluminum                                                 103
  Amber                                                    108
  American Literature:
    Colonial Period                                        775
    First National Period                              776-777
    Second National Period                             777-778
    Summary of                                             778
  American Revolution:
    Campaigns and Battles                                  636
    Commanders of Armies                                   636
    Forces Engaged                                         636
  Amœba                                                    244
  Amphibole                                                104
  Anemones, Sea                                            243
  Anglo-Saxon Kings of England                             472
  Animalcules                                              244
  Animal Kingdom:
    Classification by Groups                               191
    Scientific Classification of                 189, 190, 191
    Why and How Animals are Classified                     189
  Animal Life:
    In Cold Zones                                          122
    In Temperate Zones                                     121
  Animals:
    Amphibious                                             223
    Animalcules                                            244
    Ant-bear                                               204
    Ant-eater                                              204
    Antelope                                               199
    Ants                                               238-239
    Armadillo                                              204
    Bees                                               238-240
    Birds                                                  208
    Bison                                                  200
    Buffalo                                                200
    Butterflies and Moths                                  236
    Chamois                                                200
    Ciliates                                               244
    Coral-polyps                                           243
    Deer                                                   200
    Domesticated                                           245
    Elephant                                               203
    Fishes                                                 225
    Flagellates                                            244
    Fleas                                                  240
    Flies                                                  240
    Flying                                                 205
    Frog                                               223-224
    Gayal                                                  201
    Gazelle                                                201
    Giraffe                                                201
    Gnats                                                  240
    Gnawing, or Rodents                                    198
    Gnu                                                    201
    Hippopotamus                                           203
    Hoofed                                                 199
    Ibex                                                   202
    Jelly-fish                                             243
    Joint-limbed                                           230
    Kangaroo                                               204
    Koala                                                  204
    Leeches                                            242-243
    Lemmings                                               199
    Mammals                                                191
    Map Showing Distribution of Animal Life                188
    Markhor                                                202
    Marmot                                                 199
    Mice                                                   199
    Molluscs                                               229
    Monkey Tribe                                           191
    Mosquitoes                                             240
    Musk-Ox                                                202
    Newts                                                  224
    Okapi                                                  202
    Opossum                                                205
    Original Home of                                       122
    Pachyderms                                             203
    Pangolin                                               204
    Porcupine                                              199
    Pouched                                                204
    Prairie Dog                                            199
    Rabbit                                                 199
    Rats                                                   199
    Ray Animalcules                                        244
    Reptiles                                               220
    Results of Domestication                               246
    Rhinoceros                                             203
    Salamander                                             224
    Sambur                                                 202
    Sea Anemones                                           243
    Sea Cucumbers                                          242
    Sea Lilies                                             242
    Sea Lion                                               246
    Sea-Urchins                                        241-242
    Seals                                                  205
    Simplest Forms of                                      244
    Sloth                                                  204
    Sponges, Group of                                      243
    Squirrel                                               199
    Starfishes                                             241
    Tahr                                                   202
    Tapir                                                  204
    That Interest Me at the Zoo                            193
    Toad                                                   224
    Toothless                                              204
    Tropical                                               121
    Vicuna                                                 202
    Walrus                                                 205
    Wasps                                              238-240
    Whales                                                 207
    Where First Domesticated                               245
    Wild Goats                                             202
    Wild Pig                                               204
    Worms                                                  242
    Zebra                                                  203
  Animals, Domesticated:
    Alpaca                                                 246
    Ass                                                    246
    Camel                                                  246
    Canary                                                 257
    Carp                                                   256
    Cat                                                247-248
    Cattle                                                 248
    Chickens                                               257
    Dog                                                251-252
    Domesticated Insects                                   261
    Duck                                                   258
    Elephant                                               252
    Gayal                                                  252
    Goat                                                   252
    Goldfish                                               256
    Guinea-pig                                             252
    Horse                                              252-253
    Llama                                                  254
    Pig                                                    255
    Rabbits                                                254
    Reindeer                                               254
    Sheep                                                  254
    Swine                                              255-256
    Yak                                                    245
    Zebu                                                   256
  Animals, Flying                                          205
    Fox                                                    206
    Frog                                                   206
  Animals of Prey:
    Badger                                                 194
    Brown Bear                                             194
    Caracal                                                194
    Coyote                                                 198
    Fox                                                    194
    Hedgehog                                               195
    Hyena                                                  195
    Ichneumon                                              195
    Jackal                                                 195
    Jaguar                                                 195
    Leopard                                                195
    Lion                                                   195
    Lynx                                                   196
    Martin                                                 196
    Mink                                                   196
    Mole                                                   196
    Mongoose                                               197
    Ocelot                                                 197
    Otter                                                  197
    Polar Bear                                             194
    Puma, or Cougar                                        197
    Raccoon                                                197
    Sable                                                  197
    Shrew                                                  197
    Tiger                                                  197
    Wolf                                                   197
  Annotto                                                  166
  Antarctic Ocean                                           85
  Ant-bear                                                 204
  Anteater                                                 204
  Antelope                                                 199
  Antimony                                                 108
  Antiochus the Great                                      382
  Antithesis                                               734
  Antony, Mark                                             398
  Apennines, The                                           511
  Apostrophe                                               733
  Apothecaries’ Liquid Measure                             860
  Apothecaries’ Weight                                     863
  Appian Way                                               389
  Apple                                                    136
  Apricot                                                  136
  Arabian Nights, Pictures of Arabian Life                 407
  Arabians                                                 278
  Architecture:
    Assyrian                                               357
    Babylonian                                             357
    Egyptian                                               349
    Persian                                                371
  Arctic Ocean                                              84
  Argentina:
    Buenos Aires                                           673
    Cities                                                 673
    Climate                                                673
    Government                                             673
    History                                                673
    People                                                 673
    Physical Features                                      672
    Production and Industry                                673
    Rivers                                                 672
  Argonaut                                                 229
  Argument                                                 739
  Arithmetic                                     850 _et seq._
    Decimal Fractions                                      854
    Denominate Numbers                                     856
    Fractions, Common                                      851
  Arlington Cemetery, National Military                    626
  Armadillo                                                204
  Armenians                                                278
  Arminius, Defeats Legions of Varus                       240
  Army and Navy of Germany                                 497
  Arnold, Benedict                                         637
  Arsenic                                                  108
  Artaxerxes                                               370
  Artichoke                                                129
  Asbestos                                                 113
  Ash                                                      160
  Asia:
    China                                                  677
    Countries of                                           443
    Famous Mountains of                                  75-76
    India                                                  684
    Japan                                                  687
    Lakes of                                                77
  Asparagus                                                128
  Aspen, or Trembling Poplar                               160
  Asphaltum                                                108
  Ass                                                      246
  Assiout, Dam and Barrage at                              345
  Assuan                                                   350
    Irrigation Dam at                                      345
  Assyria                                                  353
    Cities                                                 355
    Civilization of                                        357
    Dynasties of                                       355-356
    Empire of                                              355
    Extent of Empire                                       356
    Fall of Empire                                         356
    History of                                             355
    Inscriptions                                           355
    Nineveh                                                355
    Period of Greatest Splendor                            356
    Reign of Sargon                                        356
    Religion                                               357
  Assyrian Empire (Map)                                    298
  Assyrians                                            278-297
  Asterisk                                                 733
  Asterism                                                 733
  Astronomy                                       12 _et seq._
    Scientific Terms Used in                                37
  Athens                                                   555
    Acropolis                                              378
    Alaric in                                              384
    Downfall of                                            379
    Early History                                          375
    Under Cimon                                            377
    Under Pericles                                         377
    Under a Pure Democracy                                 376
  Atlanta, Description of                                  591
  Atlantic Ocean                                            84
  Atmosphere:
    Composition of                                          89
    Forms of Vapor                                          94
    Height of                                               89
    How Weighed and Measured                                89
    Winds and Currents                                      92
  Atmospheric Vapor                                         94
  Atoms, Radioactive                                       848
  Augustus Cæsar                                           399
  Augustus, Death of                                       401
  Aurora-Borealis                                      101-102
  Austria:
    Historical Outlines                          419 _et seq._
    Salzburg                                               532
    Salzkammergut                                          533
  Austro-Hungary                                           527
  Austria-Hungary:
    Austria and the French Revolution                      535
    Austro-Prussian War                                    536
    Budapest                                               529
    Cities and Towns                                       529
    Climate and Landscape                                  528
    Congress of Vienna, Period of Metternich               535
    Conquest of Hungary                                    536
    Division of Empire                                     534
    Ferdinand II. and Thirty Years’ War                    534
    Francis Joseph, Emperor                            535-536
    Hapsburg Power through Marriage                        534
    Hapsburg-Lorraine Line of Rulers                       535
    History of                                             534
    Historical Outlines                          435 _et seq._
    Industries and National Resources                      528
    Lakes of                                               528
    Leopold I. and the War of the Spanish Succession       535
    Location and Extent                                    527
    Loss of Italian Possessions                            536
    Peoples and Races                                      528
    Period of Reforms                                      536
    Prague                                                 531
    Racial Difficulties Bearing upon the European War  536-537
    Religion and Education                                 528
    Revolution of 1848                                     535
    Rivers and Lakes                                   527-528
    Sovereigns of                                          537
    Struggle between Austria and Prussia                   536
    Surface Features                                       527
    Under Charles V. of Germany                            534
    Union of Austria and Hungary                           536
    Vienna                                                 529
    War of the Austrian Succession                         535
  Austro-Prussian War                                      697
  Austro-Swiss War                                         695
  Avoirdupois Weight                                       860
  Ayr                                                      464

    =B=

  Babel, Tower of                                          354
  Baboon                                                   192
  Babylon, City of                                         354
    Taken  by Alexander the Great                          381
    Under Belshazzar                                       357
  Babylonia                                                353
    Architecture                                           357
    Art of                                                 357
    Civilization of                                   353, 357
    Conquered by Assyria                                   354
    Famous Cities of                                       353
    Historical Outlines                          312 _et seq._
    History of                                             354
    Land of                                                353
    Later Empire                                           356
    Period of Hammurabi                                    354
    Reign of Nebuchadnezzar                                356
    Religion                                               357
  Babylonian Captivity of the Jews                         360
  Babylonians                                         278, 297
  Baden, Cities of                                         504
  Badger                                                   194
  Bagdad, Capital of Eastern Saracens                      407
    Railroad                                               577
  Balkans, The, Historical Outlines              437 _et seq._
  Balkan War                                               698
  Baltic Sea                                                86
  Baltimore:
    Buildings, Divisions, Institutions, Parks, Streets,
    etc.                                                   591
    Description of                                         591
    Johns Hopkins University                               591
  Bamboo                                                   166
  Banana                                                   142
  Banana Plant                                             143
  Banting                                                  246
  Barbarian Invasions of Roman Empire                      694
  Barbizon                                                 486
  Barium                                                   108
  Barley                                                   124
  Barnacle                                                 231
  Basques                                                  280
  Bass                                                 225-226
  Bats                                                     205
  Battles:
    American Civil War                                634, 644
    American Revolution                                    636
    Mexican War                                            641
    War of 1812                                            638
    Great, Historical Outlines                   312 _et seq._
    Great American and Foreign                         700-710
    Contesting Nations or Parties                      700-710
    Name, Location and Date                            700-710
    Results                                            700-710
  Bauxite                                                  103
  Bavaria, Cities of                                       503
  Beans                                                    128
  Bear, Brown                                              194
  Beaver                                                   198
  Beech                                                    160
  Bees:
    Bumble                                                 240
    Honey                                         238-240, 261
    How the Honey-comb is Made                             262
    Organization of Hive                                   261
    Structure of                                           262
    What Swarming Means                                    262
    Where the Honey Comes from                             262
    Wonderful Mouth and Legs of                            262
    Workers and Drones                                261, 262
  Beetles:
    Bombardier                                             232
    Cantharis                                              232
    Colorado                                               234
    Stag                                                   234
    Water                                                  234
  Begonia                                                  148
  Belgium                                                  548
    Cities                                                 549
    Climate and Landscape                                  548
    Government                                             549
    History of                                             550
    People                                                 548
    Products and Industries                                549
    Religion and Education                                 549
    Rivers                                                 548
    Surface                                                548
  Belisarius, Conquests of                                 404
  Belshazzar, Reign of                                     357
  Benares                                                  686
  Berbers                                                  280
  Berkeley, California                                     620
  Berlin                                                   499
    Bourse or Exchange                                     501
    Business Quarter                                       499
    Cathedral                                              502
    Culture and Education                                  501
    Dramatic Theater                                       500
    German Cathedral                                       500
    Industries of                                          501
    Opera Platz                                            500
    Panorama of                                            498
    Parliament Buildings                                   505
    Royal Library                                          500
    Royal Museum                                           500
    St. Hedwig’s Church                                    501
    Suburbs of                                             501
    Tempelhofn Feld                                        500
    Unter den Linden                                       499
  Berne                                                    571
    Cathedral                                              571
    Clock Tower                                            572
  Betel-nut                                                166
  Bethlehem                                                364
    Market Place in                                        365
  Big Trees, California                                    585
  Bingen                                                   452
  Biography, Historical Outlines                 312 _et seq._
    Styles of Composition                                  738
  Birch                                                    160
  Birds:
    Adjutant                                               216
    Albatross                                              218
    Bittern                                                216
    Blackbird                                              212
    Bobolink                                               213
    Bobwhite                                               219
    Canary                                                 213
    Cassowary                                              219
    Catbird                                                213
    Chickadee                                              213
    Chicken                                                219
    Climbing                                               211
    Condor                                                 209
    Crane                                                  217
    Crossbills                                             213
    Cuckoo                                             211-212
    Eagle                                                  209
    Egrets                                                 208
    Emu                                                    219
    Falcon                                                 209
    Finch                                                  213
    Flamingo                                               218
    Game                                                   219
    Grebes                                                 218
    Grouse                                             219-220
    Grosbeaks                                              214
    Guinea                                                 220
    Gulls                                                  218
    Hawks                                                  209
    Heron                                                  217
    Ibis                                                   217
    Jays                                                   214
    Lark                                                   214
    Mockingbird                                            214
    Nightingale                                            214
    Of Paradise                                            212
    Of Prey                                                209
    Orioles                                                215
    Osprey                                                 210
    Ostrich                                           210, 219
    Owls                                                   210
    Parrots                                                212
    Partridges                                             220
    Peacock                                           211, 220
    Pelican                                                219
    Penguin                                                219
    Pheasants                                              220
    Plovers                                                217
    Ptarmigan                                              220
    Quail                                                  220
    Rhea                                                   219
    Robin                                                  215
    Running                                                219
    Singing                                                212
    Sparrows                                               215
    Stork                                              217-218
    Swallows                                               215
    Swans                                                  219
    Swimming                                               218
    Thrasher                                               216
    Thrush                                                 216
    Toucan                                                 212
    Turkey                                                 220
    Vultures                                               211
    Wading                                                 216
    Warblers                                               216
    Woodcock                                               218
    Woodpecker                                             212
    Wrens                                                  216
  Bismarck, Otto von                                       508
  Bison                                                    200
  Bittern                                                  621
  Blackbird                                                212
  Black Hellebore                                          168
  Black Mica                                               104
  Bluefish                                                 226
  Blue-grass                                               124
  Blue Grotto                                               87
  Bobolink                                                 213
  Bobwhite                                                 219
  Boer War                                            470, 698
  Bohemia, Historical Outlines                   415 _et seq._
  Bombay                                                   686
  Books, Famous                                  782 _et seq._
  Borax                                                    115
  Bosphorus, Panorama of                                   573
  Boston                                                   592
    Boston Common                                          593
    Bunker Hill Monument                                   593
    Chief Industries of                                    595
    Custom House                                           592
    First Church of Christ, Scientist                      592
    Notable Buildings and Parks                        594-595
    Notable Churches                                       595
    Parks and Squares                                      595
    Public Library                                         593
    Roman Catholic Cathedral                               592
    Simmons College for Women                              594
    State House                                            593
    Tremont Street                                         593
    Trinity Church                                         592
  Boston College                                           594
  Boston University                                        594
  Botany, Classification of Plants                     182-186
    Vegetable Kingdom                                  119-186
  Bourbon, House of                                        494
  Bourbon Line                                             490
  Bourbons, Restoration of                                 494
  Brace                                                    733
  Brackets                                                 732
  Bramaputra                                               685
  Brazil:
    Cities                                                 675
    Climate                                                674
    Government                                             675
    History                                                675
    People                                                 674
    Production and Industry                                674
    Rivers                                                 674
    Surface                                                674
  Bread-fruit                                              138
  Bridal Veil Falls                                         83
  Bristle-worms                                            242
  British Empire:
    Constitution                                           652
    Executive Departments of                               654
    Government                                         652-662
    Judicial Departments                                   660
    Meaning of                                             454
    Parliament of                                          656
    Sovereigns of                                          652
  British Isles, Mountains of                               75
  British North America                                    579
  Broadway, New York                                       609
    Viewed at Night                                        609
  Brome-grass                                              124
  Brussels                                                 550
    Column of the Congress                                 551
    Palace of Justice                                      549
    Town Hall                                              550
  Brussels Sprouts                                         130
  Bucharest                                                562
  Buckwheat                                                125
  Budapest                                        529, 532-533
  Buenos Aires                                             673
  Buffalo                                                  200
  Building Stones                                          108
  Bulgaria                                                 551
    Cities                                                 552
    Government                                             551
    History                                                552
    People                                                 551
    Productions                                            551
    Sofia                                             351, 552
  Bulgarians                                               280
  Bullhead                                                 226
  Bunker Hill, Battle of                                   636
  Burr Artichoke                                           129
  Butterfly                                                235
  Butternut                                                138
  Buttonwood                                               160
  Byzantine Empire                                         404
    Conquered by Turks                                     404
    Conquests of  Belisarius                               404
    Historical Outlines                          411 _et seq._
    Overrun by Greeks and Persians                         404
    Reign of Justinian                                     404

    =C=

  Cabbage                                                  130
  Cacao                                                    138
    Fruit or Pods                                          136
  Cactus                                         173, 174, 175
  Cæsar:
    And Cleopatra                                          397
    Antony’s Oration                                       298
    Assassination of                                       397
    Conspiracy against                                     397
    Dictator of Rome                                       396
    Rivalry with Pompey                                    396
    Struggle with Pompey                                   396
    Triumphal Return to Rome                               397
  Cairo                                                    350
  Calcutta                                                 686
  Calendar                                                 866
    Perpetual                                              867
  California Darlingtonia                                  171
  Caliphate, in Spain                                      407
  Caliphs                                                  406
    Of Bagdad                                              407
  Calomel                                                  114
  Cambridge                                                595
    Andover Theological Seminary                           595
    Educational Institutions                               595
    Harvard University                                     595
    Historical and Literary Interests                      595
    Industrial Establishments of                           595
    University of                                          466
    Washington Elm                                         595
  Cambyses                                                 369
  Camel                                                    246
  Campaigns:
    American Civil War                                 643-644
    American Revolution                                    636
    War of 1812                                            638
  Camphor Tree                                             158
  Canaan, Land of                                          359
  Cana, of Galilee                                         364
  Canada:
    Area and Population                                    666
    Cities                                                 668
    Climate                                                666
    Colleges and Universities                              667
    Government                                             668
    History                                                669
    Lakes and Rivers                                       666
    Parliament Buildings                                   668
    People                                                 667
    Physical Features                                      666
    Products and Industries                                666
    Religion and Education                                 667
  Canary                                              213, 257
  Capacity, Measures of                                    860
  Capet, House of                                          493
  Capetians                                                488
  Capital Letters:
    Rules for                                          724-725
    Use of                                                 724
  Capitals:
    Of Countries of the World                              443
    Of States                                          588-590
  Capri, Blue Grotto of                                     87
  Caracal                                                  194
  Carlovingians                                        488-493
  Carnation                                                148
  Carp                                                 226-256
  Carpeting                                                858
  Carrots                                                  130
  Carthage:
    Character of State and People                          390
    Defeat of Hannibal at Zama                             391
    Destroyed by the Romans                                391
    Founded by Phœnicians                                  367
    Hamilcar in Spain                                      390
    Punic Wars                                             389
    Struggles with Rome                                    389
  Carthaginians                                            280
  Caspian Sea                                               77
  Cassava                                                  143
  Cassowary                                                219
  Castle, Windsor                                      464-466
  Castles, of the Rhine                                    447
  Cat                                                  247-248
    Characteristics and Habits                             248
    Intelligence of                                        248
    Superstitions Regarding                                248
    Varieties of                                           247
  Catbird                                                  213
  Catiline, Conspiracy against Rome                        395
  Cattelya                                                 148
  Cattle:
    As a Form of Industry                                  250
    Economic Value of the Cow                              251
    Experiment in Values of                                250
    General Types of                                       248
    Representative Breeds                                  248
  Caucasus                                                 446
  Cauliflower                                              130
  Caxton, Influence on English Literature                  764
  Cedar                                                    160
  Celery                                                   130
  Celts or Kelts                                           280
  Central Park, New York                                   611
  Century Plant                                            174
  Cephalotus                                               171
  Cereals                                                  123
  Chaldeans                                                281
  Chameleons                                               222
  Chamois                                                  200
  Champlain, Lake of                                        76
  Charlemagne:
    Contributions to Civilization                          409
    Crowned Emperor at Rome                            408-409
    Emperor of Germany                                     505
    Germanic Empire of                                     407
    Relation  to  the Church of Rome                   408-409
    Subdues Saxons and Bavarians                           408
  Charles the Great (Charlemagne)                          407
  Charles V., Emperor of Germany                       490-507
  Charles VII., King of France                             489
  Charles Martel, Defeats Saracens at Tours                406
  Charts:
    Comparative Classification of Races and Peoples        293
    Development of Man                                     273
    Diagram of Solar System                                 12
    Greek and Roman Mythology                          846-847
    Historical Maps of World           298, 300, 302, 306, 308
  Charybdis                                                 87
  Chaucer, Place in English Literature                     763
  Chayote                                                  129
  Cheops, King                                             346
  Cherry                                                   138
  Chestnut                                                 160
  Chicago                                                  596
    Building Architecture of                               596
    Business Thoroughfares                                 596
    Center of Railroad Industry                            598
    Chief Manufactures of                                  598
    Educational Institutions                               598
    Famous Union Stockyards                                598
    Lake Shore Drive, and Boulevards                       596
    Loop District, or Principal Business Section of the
    City                                                   596
    Nationality of Inhabitants                             596
    Parks and Special Attractions                          597
    Public Library                                         596
    Tunnel System                                          598
    University of Chicago                                  597
  Chickadee                                                213
  Chickens                                            219, 257
    Leading Breeds of Poultry                              257
  Children:
    Education and Care of                                  961
    Health of                                              961
    School Life of                                         961
  Chile:
    Cities                                                 676
    Climate                                                676
    Government                                             676
    History                                                677
    Physical Features                                      676
    Production and Industry                                676
  Chimpanzee                                               192
  China:
    Area and Population                                    677
    Bridges                                                678
    Canals                                                 679
    Cities                                                 682
    Climate                                                680
    Government                                             682
    Great Chinese Wall                                     679
    Historical Outlines                           41 _et seq._
    History                                                683
    Pagodas                                                680
    Peking                                                 682
    People, Religion and Education                         681
    Production and Industry                                680
    Rock-hewn Temples at Lungmen                           681
    Seas, Rivers and Canals                                678
    Surface                                                677
  Chinchilla                                               198
  Chinese                                                  281
  Chinese Wall                                             679
  Chinese-Japanese War                                     698
  Christ, Birth of                                         400
  Christian Era, Beginning of                              400
  Christians                                               559
  Christianity under Constantine                           403
  Chrome                                                   109
  Church:
    Historical Events                            411 _et seq._
    Historical Outlines                          411 _et seq._
  Ciliates                                                 244
  Cimon, Adorns Athens                                     377
  Cinchona                                                 166
  Cincinnati                                           598-599
    As a Center of Music and Art                           599
    Chief Places of Public Interest                        599
    Educational Institutions                               599
    Notable Buildings of                                   599
    Parks and Museums                                      599
    Principal Streets, Shopping and Residential            599
    Rivers and Famous Bridges of                       598-599
    University of Cincinnati                               599
  Cinnamon                                                 138
  Circular Measures                                        864
  Cities:
    (See under various countries and states, and
    individually.)
  Civilization:
    Assyrian                                               357
    Babylonian                                             357
    Contributions of Charlemagne                           409
    Egyptian                                           343-348
    Great Periods in                             312 _et seq._
    Oriental                                               299
    Saracenic                                              407
    Where It Began                                         299
  Civil War, American:
    Campaigns and Battles                              642-644
    Causes and Results                                     643
    Commanders                                             643
    Killed and Wounded                                643, 644
  Civil War in England                                     696
  Civil Wars of Roman Empire                               694
  Classic Tales and Stories                            820-847
  Classic Words and Phrases                                755
  Clay                                                     103
  Cleopatra and Cæsar                                      397
    Ruler of Egypt                                         347
    Suicide of                                             398
  Cleveland                                            599-600
    Bridges and Viaducts                                   599
    Chief Buildings of                                 599-600
    Chief Business Streets                                 599
    Chief Industries                                       600
    Euclid Avenue                                          599
    Parks and Public Squares                               599
    Public Library of                                      599
    Water Front                                            599
  Climate                                                   89
    Affected by Winds and Ocean Currents                    99
    Atmospheric Vapor                                       94
    Desert Regions                                          99
    Dew                                                     94
    Distribution of Temperature                             90
    Effect of Earth’s Motions                               90
    Effect of Rainfall                                      99
    Effect of Unequal Days and Nights                       92
    Equinox                                                 90
    Figures Illustrating                                    91
    Glaciers                                                97
    Heat of Sun                                             90
    How Affected by Land and Water                          97
    Icebergs                                                97
    Influence of Elevations                                 99
    Mists and Fogs                                          94
    Nature’s Wonders of                                    101
    Seasons                                                 91
    Snow                                                    94
    Supreme Influence of the Sun                            97
  Climax                                                   734
  Clouds                                                 94-95
    Colors of                                              102
    Forms of                                             93-94
  Clove                                                    138
  Clover                                                   125
  Coal                                                     109
  Cobalt                                                   109
  Coblence (Koblenz)                                       450
  Cocoa Beans, Drying and Roasting of                      137
  Cocoa-nut                                                138
  Cod                                                      226
  Coffee, Production and Treatment of the Berry        139-140
  Coffee Tree                                              138
  Colleges and Universities, see individual names.
  Cologne                                                  448
  Colon                                                    731
  Colonial History of the United States:
    Colonial and Indian Wars                           628-633
    English Explorers                                      629
    Foreign Rulers and Events                          628-633
    French Explorers                                       628
    Oppression under British Rule                          635
    Portuguese Explorers                                   628
    Progress and Population                           631, 633
    Spanish Explorers                                      628
  Colonies of Countries of the World                       690
  Colonies:
    Area and Population                                    690
    Governing Country                                      690
    In Africa                                              690
    In Asia                                                690
    In Europe                                              691
    In North America                                       691
    In Oceania                                             692
    In South America                                       691
    Of France                                              493
    Of Germany                                             504
    Tables of                                              690
  Colorado River:
    Description                                            582
    Grand Cañon                                            582
  Colugo                                                   205
  Comma                                                    731
  Commerce, Phœnician                                      368
  Commercial Law                                           870
  Como, Lake                                                76
  Comparative Government                               652-662
  Condor                                                   209
  Congress, American Continental                           635
  Consonants                                               713
    Tables of Sounds                                       713
  Consulate of France                                      494
  Constantine the Great                                    403
    Favors Christianity                                    403
    Makes Byzantium His Capital                            403
  Constantinople                                           574
    Dolma-Bagtche Palace                                   576
    Egyptian Obelisk                                       576
    Mosque of St. Sophia                                   574
    Palaces and Mosques                                    575
    Panorama of                                            575
    Situation and Description of                           574
    Yildiz Palace                                          577
  Constellations                                            24
    (See also Stars.)
    Mythology of                                            36
    Visible Each Month                                      30
  Continents                                             51-52
    Area and Population                                    442
    Average Height of                                       52
  Contractions                                         725-731
  Copenhagen                                               554
    Frederick’s Church                                     554
  Copper                                               104-109
  Coral Islands                                             58
  Coral-polyps                                             243
  Cork Oak                                                 162
  Corn                                                     125
    Costliest Ears in the World                            125
  Coronas                                             101, 102
  Correct English                                          712
  Corundum                                            103, 104
  Cotton                                                   166
  Cougar                                                   197
  Countries:
      (See also individual names.)
      (See Book of Nations, 297 _et seq._)
    Area                                                   443
    Capitals of                                            443
    Colonies of                                            690
    Comparative History of Nations               312 _et seq._
    Forms of Government                                    442
    Independent Countries of the World                     443
    Population                                             443
    Salary of Ruler or Head                                443
    Statistics of                                          443
    Wealth of                                              443
  Coyote                                                   198
  Crabs                                               230, 231
  Cranberry                                                143
  Crane                                                    217
  Crayfish                                                 231
  Crickets                                                 237
  Crimean War                                         469, 597
  Crocodiles                                               221
  Crossbills                                               213
  Crusades, Wars of                                        695
  Cryolite                                                 103
  Cryptogams                                               158
  Cubic Measure, Applications of                      859, 860
  Cuckoo                                               211-212
  Cucumber                                                 130
  Currant                                                  143
  Currents:
    Air                                                     92
    Gulf Stream                                             88
    Ocean                                                   88
    Polar                                                   88
  Cuttlefish                                               229
  Cyaxares, the Mede                                       369
  Cypress                                                  162
  Cyrus the Great, Founds Persian Empire                   369
  Czars, of Russia                                         548

    =D=

  Dacian War                                               694
  Dagger                                                   733
  Dahlia                                                   148
  Damascus                                                 364
  Danish America                                           579
  Danish Kings of England                             472, 473
  Danish War                                               697
  Danish West Indies                                       579
  Danube, The                                              453
    Chief Towns of                                         454
    Description of                                         453
    Historic Importance                                    454
  Dardanelles, Allied Campaign against                     577
  Darius the Great                                         370
  Darius III., Last of the Persian Emperors                371
  Dark Ages                                                403
  Darnell                                                  168
  Dash                                                     732
  Date, Date-Palm                                          138
  David                                                    359
  Day, Where It Begins                                     867
  Day and Night, How Caused                                 91
    Law of Variation                                        92
  Days, Names of                                           868
  Days and Nights, Table of Unequal                         92
  Dead Sea                                        77, 362, 363
  Deadly Nightshade                                        168
  Decimal Fractions                                        854
  Deer                                                     200
  Degrees                                              725-731
  Delhi, Description of                                    686
  Deltas                                                    71
  Democracy, Established in Rome                           388
  Demosthenes, Inveighs against Philip of Macedon          380
  Denmark                                                  553
    Cities                                                 554
    Climate                                                553
    Copenhagen                                             554
    Government                                             554
    Historical Outlines                          411 _et seq._
    History                                                554
    People                                                 553
    Production and Industry                                553
    Surface                                                553
  Denominate numbers                                       856
    Reduction of                                       856-857
  Denver                                                   600
    Chief Sources  of Wealth                               601
    Climate                                                601
    Educational Institutions                               601
    Main Business Streets                                  600
    Notable Buildings of                                   600
    Principal Features of                                  600
    Surrounding Mountains                                  600
  Description, Forms of Written                            739
  Desert of Gobi                                            99
  Deserts and Desert Regions                                99
  Deserts, of Egypt                                        344
  Des Moines                                               600
    Des Moines College                                     600
    Drake University                                       600
    Manufacturing  and Commercial Importance               600
  Detroit                                                  601
    Center of Commercial and Industrial Activity           601
    Parks                                                  601
    Principal Business Streets                             601
    Prominent Buildings                                    601
    Public Library                                         601
  Dew                                                       94
  Diagrams:
    Earth’s Strata                                          40
    Famous Mountains                                    72, 73
    Famous Rivers                                       72, 73
    Showing Average Height of the Continents                52
  Diamond                                              109-110
  Diamonds, Celebrated, of the World                  111, 112
  Dictionaries:
    Classic Words and Phrases                              755
    French Words and Phrases                               742
    Gems or Precious Stones                 109, 110, 111, 112
    German Words and Phrases                               742
    Historical Race Groups                             278-292
    Italian Words and Phrases                              742
    Literary Allusions                           782 _et seq._
    Minerals                                               103
    Modern Foreign Languages                               742
    Of Mythology                                       820-847
    Scientific Terms Concerning Animals                263-264
    Scientific Terms Used in Astronomy                      37
    Scientific Terms Used in Botany,
                             176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182
    Scientific Terms Used in the Earth Sciences       117, 118
    Spanish Words and Phrases                              742
  Didactic Poetry                                          740
  Dog                                                  251-252
    Different Breeds of                                    251
  Dogwood                                                  162
  Dolphin                                                  207
  Domesticated Animals                                 258-262
  Dorian Invasion                                          373
  Dorians                                                  374
  Dormouse                                                 198
  Douc                                                     192
  Draco, Laws of                                           375
  Dragon, Flying                                           222
  Drama:
    Dramatic Poetry                                        740
    How to Write                                           738
  Dresden                                                  503
    The Zwinger                                            503
  Dry Measure                                              860
  Duck                                                     248
    Chief Breeds                                           258

    =E=

  Eads Bridge                                              622
  Eagle                                                    209
  Ear                                                      933
    Middle                                                 935
    Physiology and Structure                               933
    Plate of Internal                                      934
  Earth:
    Animal and Plant Life in Strata of                      40
    Area and Population by Continents                      442
    Characteristic Rocks                                48, 49
    Cross-section Showing Interior                          41
    Distribution of Plants and Animals                     121
    Effect of Motions on Climate                            90
    Electricity of                                         101
    Geological Growth of                                48, 49
    Heat of                                                 41
    Hemispheres and Continents                             443
    Land Forms                                          51, 52
    Languages of                                           442
    Life Ages of                                        48, 49
    Life upon                                              121
    Minerals of                                    48, 49, 103
    Races and Populations                                  442
    Revolutions of                                          91
    Rotation of                                             91
    Structure and Surface                                   41
    Tropical Life                                          121
    Vegetable Kingdom                            119 _et seq._
  Earthquakes                                               65
    Causes and Motions of                                   65
    Notably Destructive Ones of History                 66, 67
  Earth Sciences, Glossary of Scientific Terms        117, 118
  Earthworms                                               242
  Earwigs                                                  237
  Eastern or Byzantine Empire                              404
    Historical Outlines                          411 _et seq._
  Ebony                                                    162
  Ecbatana                                                 371
  Eclipses                                              34, 35
  Edinburgh                                                462
  Editorials                                               739
  Education, of Children                                   961
  Eel                                                      226
  Egg-plant                                                130
  Egrets, American                                         208
  Egypt:
    Ancient Population                                     344
    Architecture                                           349
    Assuan Dam                                             345
    Cheops or Khufu                                        346
    Cities                                                 349
    Civilization of                                        348
    Cleopatra                                              347
    Climate                                                344
    Conquered by Alexander                                 347
    Conquered by Persia                                    347
    Deserts of                                             344
    Doctrine of Future Life                                349
    Embalming                                              349
    Exodus of Israelites                                   359
    Extent of                                              343
    Fall of                                                398
    Government of                                          348
    Greek Rulers of                                        347
    Heliopolis                                             351
    Hieroglyphics                                          346
    Historical Out                               312 _et seq._
    History of, Sculptured in Eternal Rocks                342
    How We Know Its History                                346
    Irrigation                                             345
    Israelites in                                          359
    Kings                                                  348
    Lakes of                                               344
    Land of                                                343
    Nile                                                   343
    Nile Valley                                       343, 344
    Oases of                                               344
    Oldest Civilization in                                 343
    Painting                                               349
    Pawn of Turkey, France and England                     348
    Priests                                                348
    Psametik                                               347
    Ptolemies                                              347
    Pyramids                                     342, 350, 351
    Pyramid Builders                                       346
    Rameses                                                347
    Religion                                               348
    Roman Province                                         347
    Rosetta Stone                                          346
    Sculpture                                              349
    Shepherd-kings                                         342
    Social Castes                                          348
    Soldiers and Warriors                                  348
    Sphinx                                            342, 351
    Suez Canal                                             352
    Temple at Abu-Simbel                                   342
    Thebes                                            347, 352
    Under Mohammedans                                      348
  Egyptians                                           281, 297
  Ehrenbreitstein                                          450
  Eiffel Tower                                             483
  Elder                                                    144
  Electricity, in Nature                                   101
  Elephant                                            203, 252
  Elizabeth, Elizabethan Period in English Literature,
                                             770, 771, 764-765
  Elizabethan Period                                       468
  Ellipsis                                                 733
  Elm                                                      162
  Embalming, Egyptian                                      349
  Emerald                                                  110
  Emery                                                    103
  Emperors of Rome                                         401
  Emphasis, or Inversion                                   734
  Empire of Charlemagne:
    Division of                                            409
    Extent of                                              407
    First Union of Germans under One Head                  408
    Northern Italy United to It                            408
    Plan of                                                407
  Empire, of France                                        494
  Empire, Second, of France                                494
  Emu                                                      219
  England:
    (See also British Empire, British Isles and Great
    Britain.)
    Government                                         652-662
    Money and Coins                                        869
    Table of Sovereigns                          472 _et seq._
  English, How to Speak Correct                            712
    Spoken                                                 712
  English Civil War                                        696
  English, Correct                                         713
    Abbreviations, Contractions and Degrees            725-731
    Accent of Words                                        713
    Capital Letters                                        724
    Choice and Use of Words                                717
    Common Errors in Pronunciation                         715
    Expression                                             716
    Figures of Speech                                      733
    Forms of Written English                               734
    Fundamental Rules                                      712
    Grammatical Connections                                716
    Inflection of Voice                                    716
    Organ of Speech                                        712
    Punctuation                                        731-733
    Rhetoric                                               733
    Right and Wrong Use of Words                       718-724
    Rules of Pronunciation                                 714
    Rules Relating to Style                                717
    Vowels                                                 712
    Written English                                        716
  English History                                          466
    Anglo-Saxon Period                                     466
    Creation of  England and Scotland                      466
    Norman Conquest                                        466
    Periods of                                   466 _et seq._
    Roman Period                                           466
  English Lake District                                    457
  English Literature:
    Anglo-Saxon Period                           762, 763, 769
    Beginning of English Comedy and Tragedy                765
    Chaucer                                                763
    Elizabethan and Puritan Periods               770, 764-765
    Elizabethan  Prose Writers                         765-766
    English Period to the Time of Elizabeth                770
    Influence of Caxton                                    764
    Norman-French Period                          763, 769-770
    Pre-Elizabethan Period                                 770
    Puritan Period                                         766
    Restoration to the Rise of the Novel               766-771
    Rise of the Novel and Period of Romanticism        767-772
    Romanticism and the Early Nineteenth Century           768
    Shakespeare                                            765
    Summary of Writers                                     769
    Tennyson and Other Poets                               769
    Victorian Period to the Present                    768-775
  English Money                                            869
  English, Written                                         716
    Argument                                               739
    Biography                                              738
    Description                                            739
    Editorials                                             739
    Essay                                                  739
    Exposition                                             739
    Fiction and Drama                                      738
    Forms of                                               734
    Forms of Poetry                                   734, 739
    Letter Writing                                         734
    Narration                                              738
    News and the “Story”                                   738
    Poetics                                                739
    Prose                                                  734
  Epic Poetry                                              739
  Epigram,                                                 734
  Equatorial Currents                                       88
  Equinox, Autumnal                                         90
    Vernal                                                  90
  Escurial                                                 566
  Essay, The                                               739
  Estuaries                                                 71
  Eton College                                             466
  Etruscans                                                282
  Eucalyptus                                               162
  Euphemism                                                734
  Euphrates                                                353
    Region around                                          299
  Europe:
    Alpine Region                                          445
    Continent of                                           444
    Countries of                                           443
    Danube                                                 453
    Famous Mountains of                                 74, 75
    Great Powers of                                        454
    Grouping of Nations                                    454
    Gulfs and Inlets                                       444
    Highlands of France                                    445
    Lake Region of                                         454
    Lakes of                                                77
    Lowlands of                                            445
    Mediterranean and Its Arms                             444
    Mountains and Highlands                                445
    Mountains of Italy and Balkans                         446
    Nations of                                   454 _et seq._
    Outline and Extent                                     444
    Peninsulas of                                          444
    Pyrenees and Spanish Peninsula                         446
    Rhine                                                  447
    Rivers and Lakes                                       447
    Surface Characteristics                                444
    Surface of Islands                                     446
  European War of 1914-1917                            698-699
  Events, Great Historical                       312 _et seq._
  Exclamation Point                                        731
  Exemption Laws                                           875
  Exodus of Israelites                                     359
  Explorers:
    English Explorers of United States                     629
    French Explorers of United States                      628
    Portuguese Explorers of United States                  628
    Spanish Explorers of United States                     628
    World’s Greatest                                   310-311
  Exposition, Forms of English                             739
  Expression                                               716
    Inflection of Voice                                    716
  Eye:
    How Color is Determined                                937
    How We See                                             937
    Retina                                                 938
    Rods and Cones                                         938
    Sense of Sight                                         938
    Structure and Marvels                                  936

    =F=

  Fables                                               820-847
  Fairmount Park                                           615
  Falcons                                                  209
  Famous Books                                   782 _et seq._
  Famous Mountains                          72, 73, 74, 75, 76
    Name and Location of                            74, 75, 76
    Of Africa                                               76
    Of Asia                                             75, 76
    Of British Isles                                        75
    Of Europe                                               74
    Of North America                                        74
    Of Oceania                                          75, 76
    Of Pacific Islands                                  75, 76
    Of South America                                        76
  Famous Waterfalls of the World                            80
    Height of                                               80
    Location of                                             80
  Famous Writers                                 782 _et seq._
  Feldspar                                                 103
  Fiction, How to Write                                    738
  Fifth Avenue, New York                         611 _et seq._
  Figs                                                     141
  Figures of Speech                                        733
  Finch                                                    213
  Fir                                                      162
  Firefly                                                  232
  Fishes, Classification and Description of            225-229
    (See also under separate Names)
  Flagellates                                              244
  Flamingo                                                 218
  Flax                                                     167
  Fleas                                                    240
  Flies                                                    240
  Flowering Shrubs, Description of                    155, 156
  Flowerless Plants                                        158
  Flowers:
    Best Annual                                       150, 151
    Best Perennials                         151, 152, 153, 154
    Classifications of                                147, 148
    Cultivation of                                    150, 151
    Description of Annuals                            150, 151
    Description of Best Perennials          151, 152, 153, 154
    Guide for Selection                               150, 151
    Wild                                                   157
  Flying Animals                                           205
    Bats                                                   205
    Colugo                                                 205
    Fish                                                   226
    Fox                                                    206
    Frog                                                   206
    Phalanger                                              205
    Squirrel                                               205
  Fog                                                       94
  Folklore                                             820-847
  Fontainebleau                                            486
  Fool’s Parsley                                           168
  Forage Plants                                            123
  Forest Trees                                             160
  Fossils                                                   46
  Fox                                                      194
    Flying                                                 206
  Fractions, Common                                        851
    Decimal                                                854
  France:
    Amiens Cathedral                                       487
    Barbizon                                               486
    Beginning of                                           409
    Bourbon Line                                           490
    Capetians                                              488
    Carlovingians                                     488, 493
    Charles VII. and Joan of Arc                           489
    Chief Magistrate and His Powers                        653
    Cities and Towns                                       478
    Climate and Soil                                       477
    Colonies and Dependencies                              493
    Consulate                                         491, 494
    Divisions of                                           476
    Empire of                                              494
    Empire, Second                                491-492, 494
    Executive, Departments of                              655
    Government of                                      653-662
    Fontainebleau                                          486
    Franco-Prussian War                                    492
    Highlands of                                           445
    History of                                             487
    House of Bourbon                                       494
    House of Capet                                         493
    House of Orleans                                  491, 494
    House of Valois                                        494
    House of Valois and the Hundred Years’ War             489
    Industrial Centers                                     486
    Industries and Trade                                   477
    Judicial Department                                    661
    Legislative Department of                              657
    Location and Extent                                    476
    Louis IX.                                              488
    Louis XIV.                                             490
    Merovingians                                      487, 493
    Money and Coins                                   869, 870
    Napoleon and the Directory                             491
    Naval and Military Centers                             486
    Paris                                                  478
    People                                                 478
    Petit Trianon, Versailles                              486
    Products of Soil                                       477
    Religion and Education                                 478
    Republic, First                                        494
    Republic, Second                                       494
    Republic, Third                                   492, 494
    Restoration                                            491
    Restoration of the Bourbons                            494
    Revolution                                         490-491
    Revolution of 1848                                     491
    Roman Rule of                                          487
    St. Denis                                              483
    Sovereigns and Presidents                              493
    Surface and Mountains                                  477
    Teutonic Invaders                                      487
    Under the Romans                                       487
    Versailles                                             483
    Wars of Francis I., and Charles V. of Germany          490
  Francis I., King of France                               490
  Franco-Prussian War                                 492, 698
  Frederik the Great                                       508
  French, Influence on English Literature         763, 769-770
    Revolution                                             696
    Words and Phrases                                      742
    (See also France.)
  Freshwater Lakes:
    Area of                                             79, 80
    Elevation of                                        79, 80
    Location                                            79, 80
  Frog, Flying                                             206

    =G=

  Galago                                                   192
  Gallic War                                               694
  Ganges                                                   685
  Garden of the Gods                                       584
  Garnet                                                   110
  Gauls:
    Invasion of Italy                                      693
    Of Northern Italian Peninsula                          386
  Gayal                                               201, 252
  Gazelle                                                  201
  Gecko                                                    222
  Gems                                                     109
  Geography:
    Distribution of Races                             275, 276
    Historical                                   299 _et seq._
    Literary                                     782 _et seq._
    What It Is                                             299
  Geography and Discovery                        299 _et seq._
  Geology, View of the Growth of the Earth               48-49
  Geranium                                                 148
  German Empire                                            495
    Division of                                            495
    Executive Departments of                               655
    Government and Constitution of                     653-662
    Judicial Department of                                 661
    Kaiser and His Powers under the Constitution           653
    Legislative Department of                              657
  German Words and Phrases                                 742
  Germans:
    First Defeat of Romans                                 400
    (See also Germany, German Empire, Holy Roman Empire.)
    Empire of Charlemagne                                  407
  Germany:
    (See also German Empire.)
    Accession of William II.                               509
    Army and Navy                                          497
    Baden, Cities of                                       504
    Beginning of                                           409
    Berlin                                                 499
    Bismarck’s Domination                                  508
    Cities of Bavaria                                      503
    Charlemagne, King                                      505
    Charles V.                                             507
    Chief Cities                                           498
    Climate of                                             496
    Colonies of                                            504
    Commercial and Colonial Expansion                      509
    Confederation                                          508
    Contest between Prussia and Austria                    508
    Defense of                                             497
    Divisions of the Empire                                495
    Dresden                                                503
    Educative and General Culture                          497
    Elsass-Lothringen                                      504
    Feudal System                                          505
    Frederick the Great and the Seven Years’ War           508
    Government                                         653-662
    Hapsburg Line                                          507
    Henry I.                                               506
    Historical Outlines                                    410
    History of                                             505
    Hohenstaufen Line                                      506
    House of Luxembourg                                    507
    Independence of Austria and Union of Germany       508-509
    Internal Communications                                496
    Interregnum                                            507
    Leipzig                                                503
    Money and Coins                                        870
    Otto the Great                                         506
    People and Language                                    497
    Potsdam                                                501
    Productions and Industries                             496
    Prussian Cities                                        502
    Reformation                                            507
    Religion of                                            497
    Restoration of German Empire                           509
    Rise of Prussia to Power                               508
    Rivers of                                          495-496
    Romans, First Contact with                             505
    Smaller States, Cities of                              504
    Struggle with the Papacy                               506
    Surface Characteristics                                495
    Thirty Years’ War                                      507
    Under the House of Franconia                           506
    Württemberg                                            503
  Gethsemane                                               364
  Geysers                                                   67
    Of Iceland, and New Zealand                             67
    Of Yellowstone Region                                   67
  Giant’s Causeway                                         456
  Giraffe                                                  201
  Gizeh                                                    350
  Glaciers                                                  97
    Famous Regions of                                       97
  Gladiatorial War                                         694
  Glow-worms                                               234
  Gloxinia                                                 148
  Gnats                                                    240
  Gnawing Animals                                          198
    Beaver                                                 198
    Chinchilla                                             198
    Dormouse                                               198
    Hare                                                   198
  Gnu                                                      201
  Goat                                                     252
    Wild                                                   202
  Goddesses                                            820-847
  Gods                                                 820-847
  Gold                                                112, 104
  Golden Gate Park                                         620
  Goldfish                                            226, 236
  Goose                                                    258
    Chief Breeds                                           258
  Gooseberry                                               144
  Gorilla                                                  192
  Government                                               549
    Of Argentina                                           673
    Of Brazil                                              675
    Of British Empire                                  652-662
    Of Canada                                              668
    Of Carthage                                            390
    Of China                                               682
    Egyptian                                               348
    Forms Adopted by Various Nations                       442
    France                                             653-662
    Germany                                            653-662
    Greece                                                 555
    India                                                  686
    Japan                                                  688
    Mexico                                                 670
    Norway                                                 559
    Portugal                                               561
    Roman                                                  389
    Roman Provincial                                       391
    Rome under the Empire                                  399
    Roumania                                               562
    Servia                                                 563
    Spain                                                  565
    Sweden                                                 567
    Switzerland                                            571
    Turkey                                                 574
    United States                                      652-662
    United States, British Empire, Germany and France
    Compared                                           652-662
  Gracchi, The                                             394
  Grammar, Errors of                                   716-717
  Grammatical Connections                                  716
  Grampus                                                  207
  Grand Cañon                                              582
  Grant’s Tomb, New York City                         612, 613
  Grape                                                    144
  Grape-fruit                                              141
  Graphite                                            104, 113
  Grasses                                                  123
    Ornamental Lawn                                        156
  Grasshopper                                              237
  Great Battles, Historical Outlines             312 _et seq._
  Great Britain:
    Ayr                                                    464
    British Lakes                                          457
    Cambridge                                              466
    Chief Cities                                           458
    Climate                                                458
    Commercial and Industrial Centers, England and Wales,
                                                       461-462
    Edinburgh                                              462
    Educational, Historical and Literary Centers           462
    English History                                        466
    English Lake District                                  457
    Geographical Features                                  455
    Government                                         652-662
    Historical Outlines                                    410
    Ireland, Commercial and Industrial                     462
    Irish Rivers and Lakes                                 457
    Islands and Divisions                                  455
    London                                             458-459
    Melrose, and Memorials of Sir Walter Scott             464
    Mountains and Lowlands                                 455
    Mountains of                                            75
    Oxford                                                 463
    People of                                              458
    Religions of                                           458
    Rivers                                                 456
    Scotch Lakes                                           457
    Scotland, Commercial and Industrial                    462
    Sovereigns of                                472 _et seq._
    Stratford-on-Avon                                      463
    Surface of                                             455
    Thames                                                 456
    What It Comprises                                      454
    Windsor                                            464-466
    Windsor Castle                                     464-466
  Great Events of History                        312 _et seq._
  Great Lakes                                              583
  Great Men, Historical Outlines                 312 _et seq._
  Great Rivers:
    Area of Drainage                                        71
    Deltas and Estuaries                                    71
    Diagram of                                          72, 73
    Length of                                               71
    Where They Empty                                        71
  Great Salt Lake                                      77, 583
  Grebes                                                   218
  Greece                                              372, 555
    (See also Greeks.)
    Accusation and Death of Socrates                       379
    Achæan League                                          382
    Age of Pericles                                        377
    Alexander’s Invasion of Persia                         380
    Ancient Divisions of                                   372
    Athens                                            375, 555
    Battle of Marathon                                     376
    Battle of Salamis                                      377
    Battle of Thermopylæ                                   377
    Cities                                                 355
    Dorian Invasion                                        373
    Downfall of Athens                                     379
    Early Greek Colonization                               372
    Famous Islands of                                      372
    Famous Laws of Lycurgus                                374
    Gallic Invasion of                                     382
    Government                                             555
    Greatest Period of Orators                             380
    Greek Colonies                                         374
    Greek Kingdoms in Asia                                 381
    Greek Thought in Asia                                  381
    Hellenes                                               372
    Historical Outlines                          433 _et seq._
    History of                                             373
    History of Modern                                      555
    Land of                                                372
    Laws and Reforms of Solon                              375
    Laws of Draco                                          375
    Legendary History of                                   373
    Macedonian Period                                      380
    Minoan Age, The                                        373
    Mycenean Age                                           373
    Mythology                                          820-847
    Mythology, Chart                                  846, 847
    Olympiads                                              375
    Peloponnesian War                                      377
    People                                                 555
    Period of Migration                                    374
    Period of Persian Wars                                 376
    Pre-historic Period                                    373
    Production and Industry                                555
    Pyrrhus                                                382
    Retreat of 10,000 Greeks                               379
    Rivers                                                 555
    Roman Province                                         383
    Sacred Wars                                            380
    Sparta                                                 374
    Surface                                                555
    Under Byzantine Empire                                 383
    Under Foreign Rule until 1832                          383
    Under Turkish Rule                                     383
    Usurpations of Pisistratus                             375
  Greek Words and Phrases                                  755
  Greeks                                         282, 299, 372
    (See Also Greece.)
    Alexander’s Successors                                 381
    Conquest of Egypt                                      347
    Empire of Alexander the Great                          380
    Great Period of Oratory                                380
    Greek Culture Carried to Rome                          393
    Historical Outlines                          312 _et seq._
    History of                                             373
    History of Macedonia                                   382
    Ionians and Dorians                                    374
    Macedonian Period                                      380
    Philip of Macedon                                      379
    Retreat of the 10,000 Greeks                           370
    Rise of Macedonia                                      379
    War with Persians                                      370
  Grosbeaks                                                214
  Grouse                                               219-220
  Guava                                                    167
  Guinea                                              220, 259
  Guinea-pig                                               252
  Gulf of Mexico                                            85
  Gulf Stream                                               88
  Gulls                                                    218
  Gum                                                      162
  Gypsies                                                  282
  Gypsum                                                   104

    =H=

  Haddock                                                  226
  Hague, The                                               557
    National Monument of Holland                           557
    Palace in the Wood                                     557
  Halibut                                                  227
  Halos                                               101, 102
  Hamilcar                                                 390
  Hammurabi, Great Period of                               354
  Hannibal, Causes of His Defeat                           390
    Defeated by Scipio                                     391
    Final Fate of                                          391
    Hero of the Second Punic War                           390
  Hapsburg, Line of                                        507
  Hare                                                     198
  Haroun-al-Raschid, Famous Caliph of Bagdad               407
  Harvard University                                   594-595
  Hartford                                             601-602
    Architecture of                                    601-602
    Capital                                            601-602
    Industry of                                            602
    Manufactories and Other Industries                     602
    Parks and Public Bridges                               602
    Trinity College                                        602
  Hawks                                                    209
  Health                                                   961
  Heat of Sun, How Distributed                              90
  Heavens, Book of                                13 _et seq._
  Hebron                                                   364
  Hebrews                                        282, 297, 358
    David                                                  359
    Division of Monarchy                                   360
    History of                                             359
    Maccabees                                              360
    Monarchy of                                            359
    Period of the Judges                                   359
    Saul                                                   359
    Solomon                                                359
  Hedgehog                                                 195
  Hedge Plants, Description of                        155, 156
  Hegira                                                   405
  Height of Mountains                       72, 73, 74, 75, 76
  Heliopolis                                               351
  Hellebore                                                168
  Hellenes                                                 372
  Hell Gate                                                 87
  Hematite                                                 104
  Hemispheres and Continents                               443
  Hemlock                                                  162
  Hemp                                                     167
  Henbane                                                  168
  Henry I., Emperor of Germany                             506
  Heptarchic Wars                                          694
  Herb Paris                                               169
  Heron                                                    217
  Herring                                                  226
  Hickory                                                  162
  Hieroglyphics                                            346
  Hindus, or Hindoos                                  283, 297
  Hippopotamus                                             203
  Historical Geography                                 296-309
    Maps                     296, 298, 300, 302, 304, 306, 308
    Known World, B.C. 3800 to B.C. 450      296, 297, 298, 299
    About B.C. 450                                         301
    About B.C. 325                                         301
    About  300 A.D.                                        301
    About  500 A.D.                                    302-303
    About  800 A.D.                                    302-303
    About 1000 A.D.                                    302-303
    About 1300 A.D.                                    302-303
    About 1500 A.D.                                    304-305
    About 1600 A.D.                                    304-305
    About 1700 A.D.                                    306-307
    About 1800 A.D.                                    306-307
    About 1915 A.D.                                    308-309
  Historical Outlines:
    (See also under names of individual countries.)
    Austria                                      419 _et seq._
    Austria-Hungary                              435 _et seq._
    Babylonia                                    312 _et seq._
    Balkans                                      437 _et seq._
    Belgium                                      429 _et seq._
    Bohemia                                      415 _et seq._
    China                                        411 _et seq._
    Denmark                                      411 _et seq._
    Eastern or Byzantine Empire                  411 _et seq._
    Egypt                                        312 _et seq._
    Germany                                      410 _et seq._
    Great Battles                                312 _et seq._
    Great Britain                                410 _et seq._
    Great Men                                    312 _et seq._
    Great Periods in Civilization                312 _et seq._
    Great Wars                                   312 _et seq._
    Greece, Modern                               433 _et seq._
    Greeks                                       312 _et seq._
    Holland                                      418 _et seq._
    Holy Roman Empire                            414 _et seq._
    Hungary                                      415 _et seq._
    India                                        411 _et seq._
    Italy                                        410 _et seq._
    Japan                                        411 _et seq._
    Norway                                       411 _et seq._
    Ottoman Empire                               419 _et seq._
    Persia                                       419 _et seq._
    Poland                                       415 _et seq._
    Portugal                                     414 _et seq._
    Prussia                                      427 _et seq._
    Russia                                       415 _et seq._
    Saracens                                     411 _et seq._
    Scandinavia                                  411 _et seq._
    Slavs                                        411 _et seq._
    Spain                                        410 _et seq._
    Sweden                                       411 _et seq._
    Switzerland                                  415 _et seq._
    United States                                422 _et seq._
  History:
    Comparative Outlines                         312 _et seq._
    Great Events                                 312 _et seq._
    Of Argentina                                           673
    Of Austria-Hungary                                     534
    Of Babylonia                                           354
    Of Belgium                                        550, 552
    Of Brazil                                              675
    Of Canada                                              669
    Of Chile                                               677
    Of Denmark                                             554
    Of Egypt                                               346
    Of England                                             466
    Of France                                              487
    Of Germany                                             505
    Of Greece                                              373
    Of Greece, Modern                                      555
    Of Holland                                             557
    Of India                                               687
    Of Italy                                               524
    Of Japan                                               689
    Of Mexico                                              671
    Of Norway                                              559
    Of Palestine                                           359
    Of Phœnicia                                            367
    Of Poland                                              560
    Of Portugal                                            561
    Of Roumania                                            563
    Of Russia                                          545-546
    Of Servia                                              564
    Of Spain                                               566
    Of Sweden                                              568
    Of Switzerland                                         572
    Of Turkey                                              576
    Of United States                             634 _et seq._
    Outlines of Nations                          312 _et seq._
    What It Is                                             299
  History of England:
    Boer War                                               470
    Crimean War                                            469
    Elizabethan Period                                     498
    Final Absorption of India                              469
    House of Hanover                                       469
    House of Lancaster                                     467
    House of Saxe-Coburg                                   470
    House of Stuart                                        468
    Indian Mutiny                                          469
    Magna Charta                                           467
    Period of Commonwealth                                 468
    Plantagenets                                           467
    Restoration                                            468
    Sovereigns of                                472 _et seq._
    Tudors                                                 467
    Victorian Period                                       469
  Hohenstaufen Line                                        506
  Holland                                                  556
    Cities                                                 557
    Climate                                                556
    Historical Outlines                          418 _et seq._
    History                                                557
    People                                                 556
    Production and Industry                                556
    Rivers and Canals                                      556
    Surface                                                556
    The Hague                                              557
  Holy Land                                                358
    Bethlehem                                              364
    Geography                                              361
    Jerusalem                                         363, 364
    Nazareth                                               365
  Hoofed Animals                                           199
  Hops                                                     167
  Horse                                                252-253
    Breeds of                                              253
    Characteristics of Draft Horses                        253
    Chief Breeds of Draft Horses                           253
    Noble Character of                                     253
    Original Home of                                       252
    Saddle and Driving                                     254
  Horse-chestnut                                           162
  House of:
    Hanover                                           469, 475
    Lancaster                                         467, 474
    Orleans                                                491
    Romanoff                                               548
    Saxe-Coburg                                            470
    Stuart                                            468, 475
    Tudor                                             474, 475
    Valois                                                 489
    York                                                   474
  Howling Monkey                                           192
  Huckleberry                                              145
  Hudson River, Description of                             582
  Human Body                                     925 _et seq._
    Ear                                                    933
    Eye                                                    936
    How We Are Able to Taste, Smell and Feel               939
  Hundred Years’ War                                       695
  Hungary:
    Budapest                                           532-533
    Historical Outlines                          415 _et seq._
  Hurricane                                                 93
  Hussite War                                              695
  Hyena                                                    195
  Hyperbole                                                733
  Hyphen                                                   732
  Hyrcanus, John, Revolt of                                361

    =I=

  Ibex                                                     202
  Ibis                                                     217
  Icebergs                                                  97
  Ichneumon                                                195
  Iguana                                                   222
  Iguazu, Cataracts of                                      82
  Independence Hall                                        614
  Index, Sign of                                           733
  India:
    Absorbed by Great Britain                              469
    Agra                                                   687
    Area and Surface                                       684
    Benares                                                686
    Bombay                                                 686
    Calcutta                                               686
    Cities                                                 686
    Climate                                                685
    Delhi                                                  686
    Government                                             686
    Historical Outlines                          411 _et seq._
    History                                                687
    Languages                                              685
    Peoples                                                685
    Production and Industry                                685
    Religions                                              686
    Rivers                                                 684
    Simla                                                  686
  Indianapolis                                             602
    Architecture of                                        602
    Education and Industry                                 602
    Noteworthy Parks                                       602
  Indian Ocean                                          84, 85
  Indians                                                  283
  Indus                                                    684
  Insects:
    Beetles                                                232
    Straight-winged                                        236
  Interest, Legal Rates of                                 870
  Interrogation Point                                      731
  Ionians                                                  374
  Iran, or Ancient Persia                                  299
  Ireland:
    Coast of                                               456
    Giant’s Causeway                                       456
    Rivers and Lakes                                       457
  Iron                                                     113
  Irony                                                    734
  Irrigation:
    Assiout Dam                                            345
    Dam at Assiout                                         345
    Of the Nile                                            344
    Rise of                                                344
  Islands:
    Coral                                               58, 59
    Famous Italian                                         511
    Map Showing Comparative Size                            62
    Noted, of Eastern Hemisphere                            62
    Noted, of Western Hemisphere                            62
    Of North America                                       578
    Volcanic                                                58
  Islands of the World                                      58
  Israelites                                               282
    (See also Hebrews, Jews.)
    Captivity of                                           360
    Enter Land of Canaan                                   359
    Exodus under Moses                                     359
    In Egypt                                               359
  Italian Peninsula:
    Important Early Divisions                              385
    Mountains and Rivers                                   385
  Italian Words and Phrases                                742
  Italy                                                    511
    (See also Italian.)
    Agriculture and Stock-raising                          513
    Apennines                                              511
    Chief Cities                                           513
    Climatic and Landscape Features                        512
    Conquests of Lombards                                  404
    Conquest of Papal States                               525
    Difficulties of Consolidation                      525-527
    Education                                              513
    Florence                                               519
    Genoa                                                  520
    Historical Outlines                                    410
    History of                                             524
    Influence of Napoleon                                  525
    Islands and Their Surface                              511
    Kingdom of                                             511
    Lake Como                                              512
    Lake Garda                                             512
    Lake of Lugano                                         512
    Lake of Maggiore                                       512
    Lakes of                                               512
    Lombards                                               524
    Manufactories of                                       513
    Mediæval                                               525
    Milan                                                  520
    Minerals of                                            513
    Mountains and General Configuration                    511
    Naples                                             520-521
    Palermo                                                522
    People and Language                                    513
    Pompeii, Ruins of                                      521
    Port of the Holy Roman Empire                          524
    Present Kingdom Established                            525
    Products and Industries                                513
    Religion                                               513
    Rise of Papal Power                                    524
    Rivers and Coast Waters                                511
    Riviera                                            512-513
    Rome                                                   513
    Seaports of                                            524
    Sorrento                                               522
    Struggle for Independent Nationality                   525
    Turin                                                  522
    Venice                                                 523

    =J=

  Jackal                                                   195
  Jade                                                     110
  Jaffa                                                    367
  Jaguar                                                   195
  Japan                                                    687
    Area and Population                                    687
    Cities                                                 689
    Climate                                                688
    Government                                             688
    Historical Outlines                          411 _et seq._
    History                                                689
    Lakes and Rivers                                       688
    People                                                 688
    Production and Industry                                688
    Surface                                                688
    Tokio                                                  689
    Yokohama                                               689
  Japanese                                                 285
  Jasper                                                   110
  Jays                                                     214
  Jericho                                                  365
  Jerusalem                                           358, 363
    Captured by Pompey                                     361
    Destroyed by Titus                                     361
    Historic Features                                      364
    Streets and Quarters of                                364
    Wall of                                                364
    Way of the Cross                                       364
  Jewish War                                               694
  Jews                                                     282
  Joan of Arc                                              489
  Johns Hopkins University                                 591
  Johnson Grass                                            126
  Jordan, River of                                     77, 362
  Juanacatlan, Falls of                                     82
  Judas Tree                                               162
  Judgments                                                875
  Jugurthine War                                           693
  Jungfrau                                                  56
  Juniper Tree                                             164
  Justinian, Notable Reign and Service of                  404
    Wars of                                                694
  Jute                                                     167

    =K=

  Kale                                                     130
  Kaolin                                                   103
  Kangaroo                                                 204
  Katydid                                                  237
  Khufu, King of Egypt                                     346
  Kieff, Russia                                            545
  Kingdoms of Nature, Vegetable Kingdom          119 _et seq._
  Koala                                                    204
  Koblenz (Coblence)                                       450
  Koran, The                                               405

    =L=

  Ladybug                                                  234
  Lake:
    Champlain                                          76, 584
    Como                                               76, 512
    Erie                                                   583
    Garda                                                  512
    George                                                  76
    Huron                                                  583
    Lucerne                                                 76
    Lugano                                         76, 77, 512
    Maggiore                                           76, 512
    Merom                                                  362
    Michigan                                               583
    Ontario                                                583
    Superior                                               583
  Lakes:
    Distribution of                                         77
    Famous Italian                                         512
    Famous Salt                                             77
    Fresh-water, of the World                       76, 79, 80
    In Plains                                               77
    Mountain                                                76
    Of Africa                                               80
    Of Asia                                                 77
    Of Egypt                                               344
    Of Europe                                               77
    Of Japan                                               688
    Of North America                                        77
    Of United States                                       583
    Relative Size                                       78, 79
    Salt                                                76, 78
    Salt, Area of                                           75
    Salt, Location of                                       78
  Land Measure                                             858
  Language and Literature                        712 _et seq._
  Languages:
    (See also under Countries.)
    Ancient                                                755
    French Words and Phrases                               742
    German Words and Phrases                               742
    Greek Words and Phrases                                755
    Italian Words and Phrases                              742
    Latin Words and Phrases                                755
    Modern Foreign                                         742
    Number Spoken                                          442
    Of India                                               685
    Principal of World                                     442
    Spanish Words and Phrases                              742
  Lapis-lazuli                                             110
  Larch                                                    164
  Lark                                                     214
  Latin Words and Phrases                                  755
  Latins or Romans                                         287
  Lawn Grasses                                        156, 157
  Laws:
    Commercial                                             875
    Concerning Notes and  Accounts                         875
    Exemption                                              875
    Interest                                               875
    Legal Interest                                         875
    Statutes of Limitation                                 875
    Usury                                                  875
  Lead                                                104, 113
  Leaders                                                  733
  Leap Year                                                865
  Leeches                                              242-243
  Leipzig                                                  503
  Leland Stanford, Jr., University                         620
  Lemmings                                                 199
  Lemon                                                    141
  Length, Measures of                                      857
  Lentils                                                  130
  Leopard                                                  195
  Letter Writing                                           734
    Acceptance                                             736
    Ceremonial Letters and Notes                           736
    Divisions of a Letter                                  734
    Invitations                                            736
    Official and Titled Salutations                        737
    Official or Business Letters                           735
    Personal and Social Letters                            735
    Style of Letters                                       735
    Writing Materials                                      736
  Lettuce                                                  130
  Lick Observatory                                         620
  Licorice                                                 167
  Lighting                                                 101
  Lily                                                     148
  Limes                                                    141
  Lime Tree                                                164
  Lincoln, Abraham                                         642
    Assassination of                                       644
  Linden or Lime                                           164
  Lion                                                     195
  Liquid Measures                                          860
  Lisbon                                                   561
  Literary Allusions                             782 _et seq._
  Literature                                               761
    American Literature                                    775
    Books as Liberal Educators                             762
    Brain of Humanity                                  761-762
    Characters in                                782 _et seq._
    English                                                762
    Famous Book                                  782 _et seq._
    Famous Poems and Dramas                      782 _et seq._
    How It Has Created New Worlds and People               761
    How It Helps Us Interpret Life                         761
    Literary Allusions                           782 _et seq._
    Literary Geography                           782 _et seq._
    Pen Names of Famous Writers                  782 _et seq._
    Plots and Scenes                             782 _et seq._
    References to                                782 _et seq._
    Rise of Roman                                          393
    Soubriquets and Nicknames                    782 _et seq._
    Vast Range of                                          761
    Why We Study Literature                                761
  Lithium                                                  113
  Lizards                                                  221
  Llama                                                    254
  Lobster                                                  231
  Locust Tree                                              164
  Locusts                                                  237
  Lombards in Italy                                        404
  London                                              458, 459
    Art Galleries and Museums                              461
    Famous Churches                                        460
    Famous Streets and Bridges                             459
    General Features                                  458, 459
    Monuments and Public Buildings                         460
    Parks and Squares                                      460
    Places of Amusement                                    461
    Population of                                          461
    Westminster Abbey                                      460
  Long Measure                                             856
  Longitude and Time                                       864
  Lorelei (Lurlie)                                         451
  Los Angeles                                          602-603
    Buildings of Note                                      603
    Climate                                                603
    Industries of                                          603
    Parks  and  Public Places of Importance                603
    People of                                              603
    Public Library                                         603
    Streets and Business Thoroughfares                602, 603
    University of Southern California                      603
  Louis IX., King of France                                488
  Louis XIV., King of France                               490
  Louisville                                               603
    Chief Buildings of Note                                603
    Educational and Industrial                             603
    Public Parks                                           603
  Lucerne, Lake                                             76
  Lugano, Lake                                              76
  Lung-Fishes                                          228-229
  Luxemburg, House of                                      507
  Lycurgus, Laws of                                        374
  Lydia                                                    369
  Lyric Poetry                                             740

    =M=

  Maccabees                                                360
  Macedon:
    Later History of                                       382
    Rise of                                                379
    Under Philip                                           379
  Macedonian Wars                                          693
  Mackerel                                                 226
  Madrid                                                   565
    Royal Palace                                           565
  Maelstrom                                                 87
  Maggiore, Lake                                            76
  Magi, The                                                371
  Magna Charta                                             467
  Magnesium                                                113
  Magnetite                                                104
  Mahogany                                                 164
  Mainz                                                    452
  Malays                                                   287
  Mammals                                                  191
  Mammoth Cave                                             584
  Man:
    Ape-man of Java                                        269
    Cro-magnon Man                                         269
    Development through the Ages                           273
    First Migrations of                                    268
    In the Stone Age                                       270
    Neanderthal Man                                        269
    Piltdown Man                                           269
    Prehistoric                                        267-275
    Primeval Home of                                       268
  Man and the Human Family                                 267
  Mango                                                    141
  Manhattan Island                                         607
  Maple                                                    164
  Maps:
    Distribution of Animal Life                            188
    Distribution of Plant Life                             120
    Panama Canal and Connections                           649
  Marathon, Battle of                                      376
  Marius and Sulla, Civil War between                      394
  Markhor                                                  202
  Marmoset                                                 192
  Marmot                                                   199
  Marten                                                   196
  Marsh Crow’s Foot                                        169
  Marsian or Social War                                    693
  Martynias                                           170, 171
  Massachusetts Institute of Technology                594-595
  Mate or Paraguay Tea                                     141
  Matterhorn                                                56
  Mayence (Mainz)                                          452
  Meadow Saffron                                           169
  Measures--See Weights and Measures.
  Mecca                                                    405
  Medes                                               297, 368
    Cyaxares                                               369
    Origin and Character                                   369
  Media:
    Founded by Cyaxares                                    369
  Medical Signs and Abbreviations                          864
  Medina                                                   405
  Mediterranean and Its Arms                               444
  Mediterranean Regions (Map)                              298
  Mediterranean Sea                                         85
  Medo-Persian Empire                                      368
  Meerschaum                                               113
  Melon                                                    130
  Melrose                                                  464
  Memphis, Egypt                                           352
  Mercury                                                  113
  Merovingians                                        487, 493
  Mesquite                                                 164
  Messenian Wars                                           692
  Metaphor                                                 733
  Metonymy                                                 734
  Metre, In Poetry                                         740
  Metropolitan Museum                                      612
  Mexican War                                         640, 641
    Causes and Results of                                  641
    Commanders                                             641
    Principal Battles                                      641
    Troops Engaged                                         641
  Mexico                                                   669
    Cities                                                 671
    Climate and Landscape                                  669
    Government                                             670
    Gulf of                                                 85
    History                                                671
    Mexico City                                            671
    People                                                 670
    Production and Industry                                670
    Rivers and Lakes                                       669
    Surface                                                669
  Mexico City                                              671
    Cathedral                                              671
    Description of                                         671
  Mica                                                106, 114
  Mice                                                     199
  Middle Ages                                              403
    Nature of Period                                       404
  Milky Way                                                 32
  Millet                                                   126
  Milwaukee                                           603, 604
    Business District                                      604
    Chief Buildings                                        604
    Industries and Manufacturing                           604
    Public Places of Interest                              604
    Streets of                                             604
  Minerals:
    Crystallization of                                     103
    Dictionary of                                          103
    Rare Metals                                            115
    Scale of Hardness                                      103
    Table for Identification of             104, 105, 106, 107
    Useful, of the Earth                                   102
  Mink                                                     196
  Minneapolis                                              604
    Chief Products                                         605
    Chief Streets--Business and Residential                604
    Notable Institutions of                                604
    University of Minnesota                                604
  Minoan Age, The                                          373
  Mirage                                                   102
  Mistletoe                                                174
  Mists                                                     94
  Mithridates, Designs against Rome                        394
  Mithridatic Wars                                         693
  Mockingbird                                              214
  Modern Languages                                         742
  Mohammed                                                 405
  Mohammedanism:
    Characteristics of                                     405
    Rise of                                                405
  Mohammedans, Conquest of Egypt                           348
  Mole                                                     196
  Molluscs                                                 229
  Money:
    English or Sterling                                    869
    French                                            869, 870
    Of Germany                                             870
    Of United States                                       869
  Mongolians                                               288
  Mongoose                                                 197
  Monkey Tribe                                         191-194
  Monk’s-hood                                              169
  Monte Rosa                                                56
  Months, Names of                                         868
  Moon:
    Effect upon the Tides                                   86
    Phases of                                               19
    Surface of                                              29
  Moonstone                                                110
  Moors                                                    288
  Mormon Temple and Tabernacle                             617
  Moscow                                               544-545
    Burned in 1812                                         294
    Noted Buildings and Monuments                          545
  Moses, In Egypt                                          359
  Moslems                                                  405
  Mosquito                                                 240
  Moths                                                    236
  Mount Ararat                                              57
  Mount Assiniboine                                         57
  Mount Blanc                                               56
  Mount Elburz                                              56
  Mount Everest                                             56
  Mount Nebo                                               361
  Mount of Olives                                          364
  Mount Popocatepetl                                        57
  Mount Ranier                                              57
  Mount Robson                                              57
  Mount St. Elias                                           57
  Mount Salcantay                                           57
  Mount Sinai                                     56, 361, 362
  Mount Tabor                                              361
  Mount Vernon, Home of George Washington                  627
  Mount Zion                                               364
  Mountain Lion                                            197
  Mountains:
    Alpine Region                                          445
    Celebrated Peaks                                    56, 57
    Famous                                              72, 73
    Height of                               72, 73, 74, 75, 76
    Name and Location of                            74, 75, 76
    Of British Isles                                        75
    Of Europe                                              445
    Of France                                         445, 447
    Of Great Britain                                       445
    Of Italy                                          446, 511
    Scandinavian                                           446
    The Caucasus                                           446
  Mountains and Plains:
    Of United States                                       580
    The Urals                                              446
  Mouse Tower                                              452
  Mulberry                                                 141
  Mushroom                                                 130
  Musk-ox                                                  202
  Mycenean Age                                             373
  Mythology:
    Assyrian Gods                                          357
    Babylonian Gods                                        357
    Charts of                                         846, 847
    Dictionary of                                      820-847
    Egyptian Gods                                          348
    Greek and Roman                                    820-847
    Legendary History of Greece                            373
    Of Constellations                                       36
    Oriental                                           820-847
    Phœnician Gods                                         368
    Scandinavian                                       820-847

    =N=

  Names of Days                                            868
    Of Months                                              868
  Napoleon Bonaparte                                       491
  Napoleon at the Burning of Moscow                        294
  Napoleonic Wars                                          697
  Narration                                                738
  Narwhal                                                  207
  Nashville                                                605
    Educational Center                                     605
    Manufactures                                           605
    Prominent Buildings                                    605
    Vanderbilt University                                  605
  Nasturtium                                               149
  National Military Cemetery (Arlington)                   626
  Nations of the World                           442 _et seq._
    (See also Countries.)
  Nations:
    Ancient Extinct                                   297, 299
    Comparative History                          312 _et seq._
    Extinct Nations of the Past                  295 _et seq._
    Forms of Government                                    442
      (See also under Individual Countries.)
    Great Historic Periods of                    312 _et seq._
    Living Nations of Today                      295 _et seq._
    Wealth of                                              443
  Natural Bridge of Virginia                               586
  Nazareth                                                 365
  Nebuchadnezzar, Famous Reign of                          356
  Negroes                                             288, 289
  Nepenthes                                                171
  Nerves:
    Of Hearing                                             934
    Of Sight                                               938
    Of Taste, Smell and Touch                              939
  Netherlands--See Holland                                 556
  Netherlands or Holland, Historical Outlines    418 _et seq._
    War of Liberation                                      696
  New England Conservatory of Music                        594
  New Haven                                                605
    Description of                                         605
    History of                                        605, 606
    Industries                                             605
    Location and Surroundings                          605-606
    Parks and Squares                                      605
    Yale University                                    605-606
  New Orleans:
    Chief Buildings                                        606
    Description of                                         606
    French Quarter                                         606
    History                                                607
    Public Statues                                         606
    Streets and Parks                                      606
    Trade and Industries                              606, 607
  Newport, R. I.:
    Chief Attractions                                      607
    Description of                                         607
    History of                                             607
  New York City:
    Bridges                                                608
    Broadway                                           608-611
    Cathedral of St. John the Divine                       612
    Central Park                                           611
    City Hall                                              610
    Colleges and Other Institutions              608 _et seq._
    Columbia University                                    612
    Court House                                            610
    Districts and Streets                                  608
    Fifth Avenue                                 611 _et seq._
    Grant’s Tomb                                      612, 613
    History of                                        612, 613
    Location and Environs                                  607
    Manhattan                                              607
    Metropolitan Museum                                    612
    Parks and Squares                                      608
    Public Architecture                608, 609, 610, 611, 612
    Public Library                               608 _et seq._
    Public Statues and Fountains                 608 _et seq._
    Riverside Drive                                        612
    St. Patrick’s Cathedral                                611
    Systems of Communication                               608
  New York Harbor                                          607
  News, How to Write                                       738
  Newts                                                    224
  Niagara Falls                                80, 81, 82, 585
    In Winter                                               81
  Nickel                                                   114
  Nightingale                                              214
  Nile, The                                                343
    Annual Overflow                                        344
    Assuan Dam                                             345
    Cataracts of                                            80
    Dam at Assiout                                         345
    Irrigation System of                                   344
    Valley of                                         343, 344
  Ninevah                                                  355
  Norman Conquest                                     466, 594
  Norman Kings of England                                  473
  Normans, Period of Norman-French Literature    763, 769, 770
  North America:
    Canada                                                 666
    Climate                                                579
    Coast-line                                             578
    Countries of                                           443
    Famous Mountains of                                     74
    Islands of                                             578
    Lakes of                                                77
    Mexico                                                 669
    Political Divisions                                    579
    Position and Extent                                    578
    Rivers and Lakes                                       578
    Surface                                                578
    United States                                          579
  North Sea                                                 86
  Northern War                                             696
  Northmen, Invasions of                                   694
  Norway                                                   558
    Christiania                                            559
    Cities                                                 559
    Government of                                          559
    Historical Outlines                          411 _et seq._
    History                                                559
    People                                                 558
    Production and Industry                                558
    Rivers                                                 558
  Notes, Commercial                                        870
  Novel, Rise of, in English Literature                    766
  Numa, King of Rome                                       386
  Number Table                                             870
  Nutmeg                                                   141

    =O=

  Oak                                                      164
  Oats                                                     126
  Oases, of Egypt                                          344
  Oceania, Famous Mountains                              75-76
  Ocean:
    Baltic Sea                                              86
    Color of                                                86
    Currents of                                             88
    Depth of                                                85
    Floor of                                                85
    Gulf of Mexico                                          85
    Inland and Border Waters                                85
    Mediterranean Sea                                       85
    Oceans of the World                                     84
    Red Sea                                                 85
    System of Currents                                      88
    Temperature                                             86
    Tides                                                   86
    Waves                                                   88
  Ocelot                                                   197
  Octopus                                                  229
  Odontoglossum                                            149
  Okapi                                                    202
  Okra                                                     130
  Olive                                                    141
  Olympiads                                                375
  Onion                                                    131
  Onomatopœia                                              734
  Onyx                                                     110
  Opal                                                     110
  Opossum                                                  205
  Orange                                                   141
  Orang-outan                                              194
  Orchard Grass                                            126
  Organs, of Speech                                        712
  Oriental Mythology                                   820-847
  Orioles                                                  215
  Orleans, House of                                        494
  Osage Orange                                             164
  Osprey                                                   210
  Ostrich                                        210, 219, 259
  Ottawa, Description of City                              668
  Otter                                                    197
  Otto the Great                                           506
  Ottoman Empire--See Turkey                               572
    Historical Outlines                          419 _et seq._
  Ottomans                                                 292
  Owls                                                     210
  Oxford                                                   463
  Oyster                                                   229

    =P=

  Pachyderms                                               203
  Pacific Islands, Famous Mountains of                  75, 76
  Pacific Ocean                                             84
  Pagodas, of China                                        680
  Painting, Egyptian                                       349
  Palestine                                                358
    Babylonian Captivity                                   360
    Bethlehem                                              364
    Cana of Galilee                                        364
    Captivity of Israel                                    360
    Conquered by Rome                                      361
    David                                                  359
    Division of Hebrew Monarchy                            360
    Fall of Judah                                          360
    Geography of                                           361
    Hebrew Monarchy                                        359
    Hebron                                                 364
    History                                                359
    Jaffa                                                  367
    Jericho                                                365
    Jerusalem                                         363, 364
    Judah, or Judea, Subject to Persia                     360
    Judges                                                 359
    Maccabees                                              360
    Mountains                                              361
    Nazareth                                               365
    Philistines                                            359
    Return of Hebrews to Jerusalem                         360
    Saul                                                   359
    Situation and Importance                               358
    Solomon                                                359
    Towns of                                               363
  Palm Family                                              165
  Palms                                                    142
  Palmyra                                                  366
  Palo Alto                                                620
  Panama Canal, Map of                                     649
  Panama-Pacific Exposition                                619
  Pangolin                                                 204
  Paper Measure                                            870
  Papering                                                 858
  Paragraph, Sign of                                       733
  Parallels                                                733
  Parentheses                                              732
  Paris                                                    478
    Arch of Triumph                                        480
    Cathedrals and Churches                                481
    Center of Parisian Life                                479
    Eiffel Tower                                           483
    Environs and Fortifications                            479
    Grand Opera House                                      482
    Hotel des Invalides                                    482
    Industries of                                          482
    Latin Quarter and Its Institutions                     482
    Madeleine, Church of                                   479
    Palace of Justice                                      481
    Palaces and Public Buildings                           481
    Panorama of                                        484-485
    Pantheon                                               481
    Seine and Its Bridges                                  478
    Squares and Parks                                      479
    Stairway of Honor, Grand Opera House                   483
    Streets and Boulevards                                 479
    Theaters and Places of Amusement                       482
    Trocadero Palace                                       480
  Parrots                                             212, 259
  Parsnip                                                  131
  Parthenon                                                378
  Parthia                                                  396
  Partridges                                               220
  Patricians and Plebeians                                 387
  Pea                                                      131
  Peach                                                    142
  Peacock                                        211, 220, 259
  Pear                                                     142
  Pearl                                                    110
  Pecan                                                    142
  Peking:
    Description of                                         682
    Royal Observatory                                      682
  Pelican                                                  219
  Peloponnesian War                                   377, 692
  Penguin                                                  219
  Peoples: (See also Races and Peoples.)
    Of Argentina                                           673
    Of Brazil                                              674
    Of Canada                                              667
    Of Chile                                               676
    Of China                                               681
    Of Denmark                                             553
    Of Holland                                             556
    Of India                                               685
    Of Japan                                               688
    Of Mexico                                              670
    Of Norway                                              558
    Of Poland                                              559
    Of Portugal                                            561
    Of Roumania                                            512
    Of Servia                                              563
    Of Spain                                               564
    Of Sweden                                              567
    Of Switzerland                                         571
    Of Turkey                                              574
    Of United States                                       293
  Pepper Plant                                             145
  Peppers                                                  131
  Perch                                                    226
  Pericles:
    Age of                                                 377
    His Great Achievements                                 377
  Period, The                                              731
  Perpetual Calendar                                       867
  Persepolis                                               371
  Persia                                                   368
    (See also Persians.)
    Artaxerxes                                             370
    Arts and Sciences of                                   371
    Cambyses                                               369
    Cities of                                              371
    Conquest of Egypt                                      347
    Conquest of Judea                                      360
    Court Life in                                          371
    Darius III                                             371
    Great Reign of Darius                                  370
    Historical Outlines                          419 _et seq._
    Location and Extent                                    368
    Magi                                                   371
    Palaces and Tombs of                                   371
    Persian Life                                           371
    Religion                                               371
    Retreat of the 10,000 Greeks                           370
    War with the Greeks                                    370
    Xerxes                                                 370
  Persian Empire:
    (See Persia, Persians.)
    Founded by Cyrus                                       369
  Persian Wars                                        376, 692
  Persians                                            289, 297
    Origin and Character                                   369
    Relation to the Medes                                  369
  Persimmon                                                142
  Personification                                          733
  Peter the Great                                          546
  Petit Trianon                                            486
  Petra                                                    365
    Rock-hewn Temples                                      366
    Temples of                                             365
  Petrograd                                            541-542
    Famous Buildings and Monuments                     543-544
  Petroleum                                                114
  Petsai                                                   129
  Phalanger, Flying                                        205
  Pharsalia, Battle                                        397
  Pheasants                                                220
  Philadelphia                                             613
    City Hall                                              613
    Colleges and Other Institutions                        614
    Description of                                         613
    Fairmount Park                                         615
    History of                                             615
    Independence Hall                                      614
    Public Statues                               613 _et seq._
    Streets and Parks                            613 _et seq._
    University of Pennsylvania                             615
  Philip of Macedon                                        379
  Philippine Weights and Measures                          870
  Philistines                                              359
  Phillipi, Battle of                                      398
  Phœnicia                                                 367
    (See also Phœnicians.)
    Arts of                                                368
    Civilization of                                        368
    Government                                             367
    Great Cities of                                        367
    History of                                             367
    Sidon                                                  367
    Tyre                                                   367
    Vast Commerce of                                       368
  Phœnicians                                          297, 367
    (See also Phœnicia.)
    Found Carthage                                         367
    Origin of Alphabet                                     368
    Religion                                               368
  Physiology                                               871
  Pig (See also Swine.)                                    255
  Pig, Wild                                                204
  Pigeon                                                   259
  Pike, Bony                                               228
  Pike’s Peak                                               56
  Pine                                                     164
  Pine-apple                                               145
  Pisistratus, Usurpations of                              375
  Pistacia                                                 145
  Pitcher Plants                                 169, 170, 171
  Pittsburgh:
    Chief Streets and Parks                                615
    Description of                                         615
    History of                                             616
    Manufactures and Industries                            616
    Public Buildings and Institutions                      615
  Plane Tree                                               165
  Planets                                         13 _et seq._
  Plant Kingdom:
    Chief Divisions of                                     122
    Commercial Plants                                      166
    Cruel Plants                                           169
    Cryptogams or Flowerless Plants                        158
    Desirable Vines                                   154, 155
    Fiber Plants                                           166
    Flowering Shrubs                                  155, 156
    Flying Seeds                                           173
    Fruit-bearing Plants and Shrubs                        142
    Fruit Trees                                            136
    Hedge Plants                                      155, 156
    How Plants Defend Themselves                           174
    How Plants Protect Their Flowers                       173
    How Plants Travel                                      172
    Nature’s Aviators and Seed-sowers                      172
    Parasites                                              174
    Plant that Grows in the Snow                           174
    Plants that Entrap and Kill Animals                    170
    Poisonous Plants                                       168
    Some Wonders of                                        169
    Trees of the Forest                                    160
    Uses of Liquid Rubber                                  174
    Wild Flowers                                           157
  Plant Life:
    (See also Plant Kingdom.)
    In Cold Zones                                          122
    In Temperate Zones                                     121
    In the Tropics                                         121
    Map Showing Distribution                               120
  Plantagenet Kings of England                        473, 474
  Plants and Plant Life                          119 _et seq._
  Platinum                                                 114
  Plovers                                                  217
  Plum                                                     142
  Poems and Dramas                               782 _et seq._
  Poetics                                                  739
    Didactic Verse                                         740
    Dramatic                                               740
    Epic                                                   739
    Forms of                                               734
    Lyric                                                  740
    Metre                                                  740
    Poetic Feet                                            740
    Stanzas                                                741
    Verse                                                  740
  Poisonous Plants                                         168
  Poland                                                   559
    Cities                                                 560
    Historical Outlines                          415 _et seq._
    History                                                560
    People                                                 559
    Surface                                                559
    Warsaw                                                 560
  Polar Bear                                               194
  Pollack                                                  227
  Pomegranate                                              142
  Pompeii                                                  521
  Pompey                                                   395
    Death at Battle of Pharsalia                           397
    Military Expeditions of                                395
    Rivalry with Cæsar                                     396
    Struggle with Cæsar                                    396
  Poplar                                                   165
    Trembling                                              160
  Porcupine                                                199
  Porgy                                                    226
  Porpoise                                                 207
  Portugal                                                 560
    Cities                                                 561
    Government                                             561
    Historical Outlines                          414 _et seq._
    History                                                561
    Lisbon                                                 561
    People                                                 561
    Production and Industry                                561
    Surface and Climate                                    560
  Potato                                                   131
  Potsdam                                                  501
  Pouched Animals                                          204
  Powers of Europe                                         548
  Prague                                               531-532
  Prairie Dog                                              199
  Prairie Wolf                                             198
  Prawn                                                    231
  Precious Stones                                          109
  Presidents of France                                     493
  Presidents of the United States:
    (See also under United States Government.)
    Birth and Parentage                                    662
    Career after Leaving the Presidency                664-665
    Death and Place of Burial                              665
    Education, Profession, Religion and Politics           663
    Election to the Presidency                             664
    Marriage and Children                                  664
    Powers of                                              652
    Sobriquets of                                      664-665
    Term of Office                                         665
    Writings of                                        664-665
  Pronunciation:
    Common Errors in                                       715
    Rules of                                               714
  Prose Forms of                                           734
  Prussia, Historical Outlines                   427 _et seq._
  Psametik                                                 347
  Ptarmigan                                                220
  Ptolemies, The                                           347
  Puberty, Problems of                                     964
  Public Lands, of United States                           587
  Punctuation:
    Apostrophe                                             733
    Asterisk                                               733
    Asterism                                               733
    Brace                                                  733
    Brackets                                               732
    Colon                                                  731
    Comma                                                  731
    Dagger                                                 733
    Dash                                                   732
    Ellipsis                                               733
    Exclamation Point                                      731
    Hyphen                                                 732
    Index Sign                                             733
    Interrogation Point                                    731
    Leaders                                                733
    Parallels                                              733
    Parentheses                                            732
    Period                                                 731
    Section Mark                                           733
    Semicolon                                              731
    Sign of Paragraph                                      733
  Punic War, First                                         693
    Second                                                 693
    Third                                                  693
  Punic Wars                                               389
  Puritans:
    Influence on English Literature                        766
    Period in English Literature                       764-765
  Pyramid Builders                                         346
  Pyramids                                       342, 350, 351
    Sectional View of                                      351
  Pyrenees                                                 446
  Pyrites                                                  106
  Pyrrhus, King of Epirus                                  382
    War with Rome                                          388

    =Q=

  Quail                                                    220
  Quirinal Palace, Rome                                    516

    =R=

  Rabbit                                              199, 254
  Raccoon                                                  197
  Races and Peoples:
    Comparative Classification                             293
    Estimated Population of                                293
    Geographical Distribution of                      275, 276
    How Classified                                         274
    Man and the Human Family                               267
    Physical and Mental Characteristics of                 275
    Population of the Earth by                             442
    Represented in United States                           293
    Types of Womankind                                     266
  Radcliffe College                                        594
  Radioactivity                                            848
  Radish                                                   131
  Radium, Atoms of                                         848
  Rainbows                                            101, 102
  Rainfall                                                  99
  Rameses, Epoch of                                        347
  Ramie                                                    168
  Rape                                                     126
  Raphia                                                   168
  Rapids                                                    80
  Rare Metals                                              115
  Raspberry                                                147
  Rat                                                      199
  Rattan                                                   168
  Ray                                                      228
  Red Sea                                                   85
  Redtop                                                   126
  Redwood                                                  165
  Reichenbach, Falls of                                     83
  Reindeer                                                 254
  Religion:
    (See also under Countries of the World)
    Assyrian                                               357
    Babylonian                                             357
    Chief Religions of the World                           442
    Egyptian Doctrine of Future Life                       349
    Egyptian Gods                                          348
    Historical  Events  of Church                411 _et seq._
    Mohammedanism                                          405
    Of Egypt                                               348
    Persian                                                371
    Phœnician                                              368
    Religions of India                                     686
    Religious Population of the World                      442
    The Koran                                              405
  Religious Wars in France                                 696
  Reptiles                                                 220
    Alligators                                             221
    Chameleons                                             222
    Crocodiles                                             221
    Flying Dragon                                          222
    Gecko                                                  222
    Iguana                                                 222
    Lizards                                                221
    Snakes                                                 222
    Tortoises                                              220
    Turtles                                                220
  Restoration                                              491
    English Literature under                           766-771
  Revolution, American                                     635
  Revolution of the Earth                                   91
  Rhea                                                     219
  Rhetoric                                                 733
  Rhine, The                                               447
    Castles of                                             447
    Description of                               447 _et seq._
    Falls at Schaffhausen                                   81
    Panoramic View of                            448 _et seq._
  Rhinoceros                                               203
  Rice                                                     126
  Richmond, Va.                                            616
    Capitol                                                616
    Description of                                         616
    Historic Buildings                                     616
    Historic Cemeteries                                    616
    History of                                             616
    Public Statues                                         616
  Rivers and Lakes:
      (See also under Countries, Continents, and individual
      names.)
    Deltas of                                               71
    Estuaries of                                            71
    Euphrates                                              353
    Great, of World                                         71
    Heads of                                            72, 73
    Jordan                                                  77
    Nile                                                   343
    Of Argentina                                           672
    Of Brazil                                              674
    Of China                                               678
    Of Europe                                              447
    Of Germany                                         495-496
    Of Great Britain                                       456
    Of India                                               684
    Of Italy                                               511
    Of Mexico                                              669
    Of North America                                       378
    Of United States                                       581
    Picture Diagram of                                  72, 73
    Rhine                                                  447
    The Danube                                             453
    Tigris                                                 353
  Riverside Drive, New York                                612
  Riviera                                              512-513
  Roads:
    Appian Way                                             389
    Great Roman                                            389
  Robin                                                    215
  Rocks:
    How Found                                           44, 45
    Why They Contain Animal and Plant Fossils               46
  Rodents                                                  198
  Roman:
      (See also Romans and Rome.)
    Chronology and Facts about Emperors               401, 402
    Civil War                                         693, 694
    Forum                                                  400
    Government                                             389
    Law                                                    387
    Mythology                                          820-847
    Mythology Chart                                   846, 847
    War with Tarentum                                      693
  Romans                                              287, 299
    History of                                             386
  Romanoff, House of                                       348
  Romanticism:
    Early Nineteenth Century                               768
    Period in English Literature                 767, 771, 772
  Rome                                                     513
      (See also Roman, Romans.)
    Ancient  Roman Forum                                   400
    Appian Way                                             518
    Aqueducts of                                           400
    Arch of Constantine                                    515
    Arch of Septimius Severus                              515
    Architecture, Ancient and Modern                       515
    As a Literary Center under Augustus                    400
    As a Republic                                          389
    Assassination of Cæsar                                 397
    Battle of Pharsalia                                    397
    Battle of Philippi                                     398
    Cæsar Dictator                                         396
    Capital City of the Empire                             399
    Capitoline Museum                                      517
    City in the Time of Augustus                           399
    Coliseum                                               516
    Compared with Athens                                   400
    Conquest of Egypt 347                                  398
    Conquest of the East by Cæsar                          397
    Conquest of the Greek States                           391
    Conquest of Italy                                      388
    Conquest of Palestine                                  361
    Conquest of Sardinia, Corsica and Gaul                 390
    Conspiracy of Catiline                                 395
    Construction of the Great Roman Roads                  389
    Contributions to the World                             403
    Crossing of the Rubicon                                396
    Destruction of Carthage                                391
    Division of the Roman World                            398
    Early Inhabitants of Sicily                            385
    Epoch of the Civil Wars                                394
    Epoch of the Punic Wars                                389
    Establishment of Democracy                             388
    Fall of Western Empire                                 403
    Famous Churches                                    517-518
    Famous Struggles of the Factions                       395
    First Defeat by the Germans                            400
    First Great Code of Law                                387
    First Triumvirate                                      395
    Gracchi                                                394
    Grandeur After Her Foreign Conquests                   391
    Great Public Works of                                  393
    Growth of Political and Social Corruption              393
    History of Romans                                      386
    How Governed under the Empire                          399
    Influence of Greek Culture                             393
    King Numa and Other Legendary Kings                    386
    Marius and Sulla                                       394
    Mediæval                                               514
    Military Expeditions in Asia                           391
    Modern Features and Districts                          514
    Mountains and Rivers of Italy                          385
    Mythical Period                                        386
    New Rome Contrasted with the Old                       393
    Origin of Provincial Government                        391
    Palaces and Art Collections                            516
    Palaces of Emperors                                    516
    Panoramic View from St. Peter’s Cathedral              510
    Pantheon                                               517
    Period of Constantine                                  403
    Pompey, Cicero, Crassus, Cæsar and Catiline            395
    Punic Wars                                             391
    Quirinal Palace                                        516
    Reduces Greece to a Roman Province                     383
    Rise of Native Literature                              393
    Rise of Pompey                                         395
    Rivalry of Cæsar and Pompey                            396
    Roads, Famous                                          518
    Roman Forum                                            515
    Roman World Succeeded by the Germanic                  403
    Seven Hills                                            513
    Situation of Italian Peninsula                         385
    Splendors of a Festal Day                              392
    Struggle Between Patricians and Plebeians              387
    Subjugation of Macedon                                 391
    Summary of Roman Government                            389
    Table of Emperors                                      401
    Temple of Janus                                        400
    Under Augustus                                         399
    Vatican                                                516
    View of Monument to Victor Emmanuel II.                526
    Villa Medici                                           516
    Villa Umberto Primo                                    516
    War with Pyrrhus                                       388
  Rorqual                                                  207
  Rose Culture                                             149
  Roses                                                    149
    Desirable Varieties of                                 149
  Rosetta Stone                                            346
  Roumania                                                 562
    Bucharest                                              562
    Cities                                                 562
    Government                                             562
    History                                                562
    People                                                 562
    Production and Industry                                562
    Rivers                                                 562
    Surface                                                562
  Rubicon, Crossing of, by Cæsar                           396
  Ruby                                                     112
  Rumania                                                  562
    (See Roumania.)
  Rurik, House of                                          547
  Russia:
    Agriculture and Forests                                540
    Alexander II.                                          546
    Burning of Moscow in 1812                              294
    Cities and Towns                                       541
    Climate of                                             540
    Divisions of                                       537-539
    Duma                                                   547
    Early Traditions                                       545
    Education                                              541
    Eighteenth Century                                     546
    Historical Outlines                          415 _et seq._
    History of                                         545-546
    House of Romanoff Established                          546
    House of Rurik                                         547
    Ivan III. Expels the Tartars                           546
    Kieff, the First Historic Center                       545
    Lake District of                                       540
    Live Stock and Fisheries                               541
    Moscow                                             544-545
    Napoleonic Period                                      546
    Petrograd                                          541-542
    Products and Industries                                540
    Reactionary Reign of Alexander III.                    547
    Religion of                                            541
    Rise of Nihilism                                       547
    Rivers of                                              540
    Russo-Turkish War                                      547
    Seaboard and Islands                                   540
    Settlements in and about Moscow                        545
    Sovereigns of                                     547, 548
    Surface Features                                       539
    Tartar Invasion                                        545
    Turkish Wars                                           546
    Under Peter the Great                                  546
    Vladivostok                                            545
  Russian Empire                                           537
    (See also Russia.)
  Russo-Japanese War                                       698
  Russo-Turkish War                                        698
  Rye                                                      127

    =S=

  Sable                                                    197
  Sacred Wars of Greece                                    380
  Sahara                                                    99
  Saint Denis                                              483
  Saint Lawrence River, Description of                     582
  Saint Louis                                              621
    Eads Bridge                                            622
    History                                                622
    Public Buildings and Monuments                         621
    Situation and Description                    621 _et seq._
    Streets and Parks                                      621
    Trade and Industry                                     622
    Washington University                             621, 622
  Saint Patrick’s Cathedral                                611
  Saint Paul, Minn.                                        622
    Chief Buildings and Institutions                  622, 623
    History of                                             623
    Roman Catholic Cathedral                               622
    Situation and Description                              622
    Streets, Parks and Public Monuments               622, 623
    Trade and Manufactures                                 623
  Saint Sophia Mosque                                      574
  Salamander                                               224
  Salamis, Battle of                                       377
  Salaries of Rulers or Heads of Countries                 443
  Salmon                                                   227
  Salt                                                115, 116
  Salt Lake City:
    Location and Description                               617
    Mormon Tabernacle and Temple                           617
    Streets, Public Buildings, and Parks                   617
    Temple Block                                           617
    Trade and Industries                                   617
  Salzburg                                                 532
  Salzkammergut                                            533
  Sambur                                                   202
  Samnite Wars                                             693
  San Antonio                                              617
    History of                                             618
    Location and Description                               617
    Spanish Missions                                       617
    The Alamo                                              617
  Sandalwood                                               165
  San Francisco                                            618
    Chief Streets, Buildings and Parks           618 _et seq._
    Chinese Quarter                                        620
    Colleges and Other Institutions                        620
    Earthquake and Fire in 1906                            618
    Golden Gate Park                                       620
    History                                                620
    Location and Description                               618
    Nob Hill                                               619
    Panama-Pacific Exposition                              619
    Public Statues and Monuments                           619
    Trade and Industries                                   620
  Santiago                                                 676
  Sapphire                                                 112
  Saracen Empire                                           405
    (See also Saracens.)
    Conquests of                                           406
    Division of                                            406
    In Northern Africa                                     406
    Subjugation of Spain                                   406
  Saracenias                                               171
  Saracens                                                 405
    (See also Saracen Empire.)
    Caliphate at Bagdad                                    407
    Capital at Bagdad                                      407
    Contributions to Art and Learning                      407
    Defeated by Charles Martel                             406
    Historical Outlines                          411 _et seq._
  Saracen Wars                                             694
  Sardine                                                  227
  Sardis                                                   371
  Sargon, of Assyria                                       356
  Sassafras                                                165
  Saturn, Rings of                                          17
  Saul                                                     359
  Sawfish                                                  228
  Saxon Kings of England                                   473
  Scallop                                                  229
  Scandinavia, Historical Outlines               411 _et seq._
  Scandinavian Mythology                               820-847
  Scarabæus                                                234
  Schaffhausen, Falls at                                    81
  Schmalkaldic War                                         695
  Science                                                  850
    Arithmetic                                   850 _et seq._
    Basis of                                               850
    Books of the Earth                            40 _et seq._
    Book of the Heavens                                  12-38
    Geology of the Earth                                48, 49
    Methods of                                             850
    Scientific Terms Concerning Animals               263, 264
  Science and Invention                                    850
  Scientific Terms:
    Botanical Classification of Plants,
                                       182, 183, 184, 185, 186
    Concerning Animals                                263, 264
    Used in Botany           176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182
    Used in Earth Sciences                                 117
  Scipio Africanus                                         391
  Scorpions                                                231
  Scotch Lakes                                             457
  Sea:
    Aral                                                    77
    Caspian                                                 77
    Dead                                                    77
    Of Galilee                                        362, 363
    Of Tiberias                                            362
  Sea Cucumbers                                            242
  Sea Lilies                                               242
  Sea Lion                                                 206
  Seal                                                     205
  Seasons:
    Causes of                                               91
    In Different Latitudes                                  92
  Seattle                                                  620
    History of                                             621
    Situation and Description                              620
    Streets and Buildings                                  621
    Trade and Industry                                     621
    University of Washington                               621
  Sea Urchins                                              242
  Sea-water:
    Chemistry of                                            86
    Salt in                                                 86
  Section Mark                                              73
  Seleucidæ                                                381
  Semicolon                                                731
  Sepoy Mutiny                                             697
  Sequoia                                                  165
  Serbia--(See Servia)                                     563
  Servia                                                   563
    Cities                                                 563
    Government                                             563
    History                                                564
    People                                                 563
    Production and Industry                                563
    Surface                                                563
  Seven Years’ War                                         696
  Shad                                                     227
  Shaddock                                                 141
  Shakespeare, Place in English Literature                 765
  Sharks                                                   228
  Sheep                                               254, 255
  Shepherd Kings                                           346
  Shrew                                                    197
  Shrimps                                                  231
  Shrubs and Plants, Fruit-bearing                         142
  Sicily, Early Inhabitants of                             385
  Sidon                                                    367
  Silk-worm                                                262
    How It Grows and Feeds                                 262
  Silver                                                   115
  Simile                                                   733
  Simla                                                    686
  Simoon                                                    93
    In the Sahara                                          100
  Sirocco                                                   93
  Sisal                                                    168
  Skates                                                   228
  Sky, Colors of                                           102
  Slavery, Rise of Issue in United States                  640
  Slavs                                               289, 290
    Historical Outlines                          441 _et seq._
  Sloth                                                    204
  Smelt                                                    227
  Snails                                               229-230
  Snakes                                                   222
  Snow                                                      94
    Height of Snow Line                                     97
    Where Permanent Snow Exists                             96
  Snow-crystals                                         94, 96
  Socrates, Accusation and Death                           379
  Sodium                                                   115
  Sofia                                                    552
  Sorghum                                                  127
  Solar System                                    13 _et seq._
  Sole                                                     227
  Solomon                                             359, 360
  Solon, Reforms and Laws of                               375
  Solstice                                                  90
  South America                                            672
    Argentina                                              672
    Brazil                                                 674
    Chile                                                  676
    Countries of                                           443
    Mountains of                                            76
  Sovereigns of England, Important Facts about   472 _et seq._
    Table of                                     472 _et seq._
  Sovereigns of France                                     493
  Spain                                                    564
    Cities                                                 565
    Escurial                                               566
    Government                                             565
    Historical Outlines                                    410
    History                                                566
    Madrid                                                 565
    People                                                 564
    Production and Industry                                564
    Pyrenees and Spanish Peninsula                         446
    Surface                                                564
    Under the Saracens                                     406
  Spanish Words and Phrases                                742
  Sparrows                                                 215
  Sparta                                                   374
    Growth and Importance of                               376
    Supremacy of                                           379
    Training of Citizens                                   374
  Special Senses                                           933
  Speech, Organs of                                        712
  Spelt                                                    127
  Sphinx, The                                         342, 351
  Spiders                                                  231
  Sponges                                                  243
  Spotted Hemlock                                          169
  Springs                                                   69
  Spruce                                                   165
  Square Measure                                      857, 858
    Practical Applications of                              858
  Squid                                                    230
  Squirrel                                                 199
    Flying                                                 205
  Standard Time                                            865
  Stanzas                                                  741
  Starfish                                             241-242
  Stars:
    (See also Constellations.)
    Chart of Southern Constellations                        29
    Grouping of                                             24
    Magnitude of                                            24
    Milky Way                                               32
    Names of Important                                      34
    Varied Colors of                                        34
  State and Territorial Government                     650-651
    Governors                                          650-651
    Legislatures                                       650-651
    Members’ Terms                                     650-651
    Persons Excluded from Suffrage                     650-651
    Previous Residence Required                        650-651
    Requirements as to Citizenship                     650-651
  States and Territories of United States              588-590
  States:
    Admission of                                       588-590
    Area and Population                                588-590
    Capital and Population                             588-590
    Chief Productions                                  588-590
    Motto and Meaning                                  588-590
    Origin and Meaning of Name                         588-590
    Original Territory from Which Derived              588-590
    Popular Name of                                    650-651
    Where, When and by Whom Settled                    588-590
  Staubbach, Falls of                                       83
  Statutes of Limitation                                   875
  Stockholm                                                568
    Panorama of                                            568
    Royal Theater                                          569
  Stoke Pogis                                              466
  Stork                                                217-218
  Storms                                                    93
  Stratford-on-Avon                                    463-464
    View of                                                465
  Sturgeon                                                 228
  Suez                                                     352
  Suez Canal                                               352
  Sugar-cane                                               127
  Sulphur                                                  115
  Summer Solstice                                           90
  Sun:
    Distribution of Heat                                    90
    How It Sends out Its Rays                               98
    Life-giver of the Earth                                 98
    Supreme Influence of                                    97
  Sun-spots, Explanation of                                 17
  Surveyors’ Measure                                  857, 858
  Susa                                                     371
  Swallows                                                 215
  Swans                                               219, 260
  Sweden                                                   567
    Cities                                                 567
    Government of                                          567
    Historical Outlines                          401 _et seq._
    History                                                568
    People                                                 567
    Production and Industry                                567
    Stockholm                                              568
    Surface                                                567
    Upsala                                                 569
  Swine                                               255, 256
  Switzerland                                              570
    Altdorf                                                570
    Berne                                                  571
    Cities                                                 571
    Climate and Scenery                                    570
    Government                                             571
    Historical Outlines                          415 _et seq._
    History of                                             572
    People                                                 571
    Production and Industry                                571
    Rivers and Lakes                                       570
    Surface                                                570
  Sword-fish                                               227
  Sycamore                                                 165
  Synecdoche                                               734
  Syria                                                    381
    Antiochus the Great                                    382
    Damascus                                               364
    Palmyra                                                366
    Tadmor                                                 366
    The Seleucidæ                                          381
  Syrian Monarchy                                          381

    =T=

  Tables:
    American Literature                                778-779
    Campaigns and Battles of the American Revolution       636
    English Literature                                 769-770
    Identification of Minerals              104, 105, 106, 107
    Planting for Garden Vegetables     132, 133, 134, 135, 136
    Sounds of Consonants                                   713
    States and Territories                             588-590
    World’s Greatest Explorers                         310-311
  Tadmor                                                   366
  Tahr                                                     202
  Taj Mahal                                                687
  Talc                                                     106
  Tapir                                                    204
  Tariff, Rise of Policy                                   639
  Tea                                                      147
  Tea Plant, Its Cultivation                               146
  Tell, William, Statue of                                 570
  Temperate Zones:
    Animal Life of                                         121
    Plant Life of                                          121
  Temperature of Oceans                                     86
    (See also under Climate and Temperature.)
  Temples:
    Of Janus                                                40
    Of Petra                                          365, 366
    Of Philæ                                               345
  Tennyson, Place in English Literature                    769
  Terrapin                                                 221
  Teutons                                                  291
  Texas Land Measure                                       858
  Thames, The                                              456
    Description of                                    456, 457
  Thebes                                                   352
  Thebes, Greece:
    Destruction of                                         380
    Rise of                                                379
  Thermopylæ, Battle of                                    377
  Thirty Years’ War                                        696
  Thorn Apple                                              169
  Thrasher                                                 216
  Thrush                                                   216
  Tides                                                     86
    Effect of Moon on                                       86
    Height of                                               87
  Tiger                                                    197
  Tigris River                                             353
  Time:
    Calendar                                          866, 867
    Measures of                                            865
    On Shipboard                                           868
    Where the Day Begins                                   867
  Timothy                                                  127
  Tin                                                      115
  Titles, Official, Clerical, Royal and Noble          737-738
  Toad                                                     224
  Tobacco Plant                                            168
  Tokio                                                    689
  Tomato                                                   131
  Topaz                                                    112
  Tornadoes                                                 93
  Tortoises                                                220
  Toucan                                                   212
  Tours, Battle of                                         406
  Tower of Babel                                           354
    Model of                                               355
  Trade Winds                                               93
  Treaties, Historical Outlines                  411 _et seq._
  Trees of the Forest                                      160
  Trees:
    Bark, Cells, Heart, Sap and Rings                      163
    How They Grow                                          163
    How to Know Them                                       161
  Trojan War                                               692
  Tropical Life                                            121
  Tropics:
    Animal Life of                                         121
    Plant Life in                                          121
  Trout                                                    227
  Troy Weight                                              861
  Tudors, The                                              467
  Tulip                                                    149
  Turkey                                              220, 292
    (See also Turks, Ottomans.)
    Asiatic                                                572
    Bagdad Railroad                                        577
    Cities                                                 574
    Climate and Industry                                   573
    Commerce                                               574
    Constantinople                                         574
    Dardanelles Campaign                                   577
    European                                               573
    Government of                                          574
    History                                                576
    People                                                 574
    Physical Features                                      573
    Statistics about                                       572
  Turkeys                                                  260
    Breeds of                                              260
  Turks, or Ottomans                                       292
    Conquer Byzantine or Eastern Empire                    404
    Historical Outlines                          419 _et seq._
  Turnip                                                   131
  Turquoise                                                112
  Turtles                                                  220
    Sea                                                    221
    Snapping                                               221
  Tusk Shells                                              230
  Typhoons                                                  93
  Tyre                                                     367

    =U=

  Udo                                                      129
  United States                                            579
    Center of Population                                   587
    Cities                                                 590
    Climate and Irrigation                                 587
    Coast of                                               581
    Colorado River                                         582
    Congress of                                            656
    Executive Departments of                               654
    Government                                         652-662
    Great Central Plain                                    580
    Great Lakes                                            583
    Great Salt Lake                                        583
    Historical Outlines                          422 _et seq._
    Hudson River                                           582
    Islands                                                581
    Judicial Department of                                 660
    Lakes of                                               583
    Legal Weights per Bushel                     861, 862, 863
    Money and Coins                                   868, 869
    Mountains and Plains                                   580
    Natural Wonders of                                     584
    Outlines of Colonial History                       628-633
    Outlines of Period of Settlement        630, 631, 632, 633
    Political Divisions                                    587
    President, The                                         652
    Public Lands                                           587
    Races Represented in                                   293
    Rivers                                                 581
    St. Lawrence River                                     582
    Surface                                                579
    Tables of States and Territories                   558-590
    Tables of the Presidents                           662-665
  United States History:
    Adoption of Constitution                               637
    American Independence Declared                         636
    Articles of Confederation                              637
    Assassination of Lincoln                               644
    Assassination of McKinley and Succession of Roosevelt  647
    Campaigns and Battles of the American Revolution       636
    Civil War of 1861-1865                                 642
    Continental Congress                                   635
    Democrats Restored to Power under Leadership of
    Woodrow Wilson                                         647
    Early Troubles in Our System of Public Finance         639
    Effect of French and English Struggles upon United
    States                                                 637
    Election of Hayes Decided by an Electoral Commission   645
    Era of the Whigs                                       640
    Fall of the Federalists                                639
    How Europe First Divided the Colonies                  635
    Lincoln and Rise of Republican Party                   642
    Map of Panama Canal and Connections                    649
    McKinley and the Spanish-American War                  645
    Mexican War and Annexation of Texas               640, 641
    Norse Discoverers                                      634
    Oppression of the Colonies under British Rule          635
    Panama Canal                                           648
    Period of Discovery                                    634
    Period of Discovery and Exploration               628, 629
    Period of Industrial Expansion                         639
    Period of Settlement                               630-633
    Preliminary Struggle over Slavery                 640, 641
    Resumption of Specie Payments by the Government        645
    Revolution                                             635
    Rise of “Protected Tariff” Policy                      639
    Rise of Slavery Issue                                  640
    Secession of Southern States, and Formation of
    Confederacy                                            642
    Settlement at Jamestown                                634
    Settlement of Carolinas                            630-632
    Settlement of Connecticut                          630-632
    Settlement of Delaware                             631-633
    Settlement of Georgia                                  632
    Settlement of Maryland                             630-632
    Settlement of Massachusetts                        630-632
    Settlement of New Hampshire                        630-632
    Settlement of New Jersey                           631-633
    Settlement of New York                             631-633
    Settlement of Pennsylvania                             633
    Settlement of Rhode Island                         630-632
    Settlement of Virginia                             630-632
    Spanish-American War                                   646
    Struggle of England and France for America             635
    Taft and the Rise of the Progressives                  647
    War of 1812                                            638
    Wilson Re-elected and His Policies Approved            648
  Unter den Linden, Berlin                                 499
  Upas Tree                                                165
  Upsala                                                   569
    University of                                          569
  Urals                                                    446
  Usury, Penalty for                                       875
  Utah, Great Salt Lake                                     77

    =V=

  Valois, House of                                         494
  Vapor, Atmospheric                                        94
  Vatican Palace                                           516
  Vegetable Kingdom                              119 _et seq._
      (See also Plants and Plant Life.)
    Botanical Classification of Plants,
                                       182, 183, 184, 185, 186
    Chief Divisions of                                     122
    Cryptogams                                             158
    Fiber and Commercial Plants                            166
    Flowering Shrubs and Plants                       155, 156
    Flowers and Other Ornamental Plants                    147
    Forest Trees                                           160
    Fruit-bearing Shrubs and Plants                        142
    Fruit Trees                                            136
    Kitchen Vegetables                                     128
    Newest Grown Vegetables                                129
    Planting Tables                    132, 133, 134, 135, 136
    Poisonous Plants                                       168
    Scientific Terms in Botany                             176
    Wonders of Plant Life                                  169
  Venice                                               523-524
    Campanile and Palace                                   522
  Vernal Equinox                                            90
  Versailles                                               483
  Venus’ Fly-trap                                          169
  Victorian Era                                            469
  Victorian Period                                     768-775
  Vicuna                                                   202
  Vienna                                                   529
    Industries of                                          531
    Noted Buildings                                    530-531
  Vines:
    Description of Desirable Annuals                  154, 155
    Desirable Annuals                                 154, 155
  Vladivostok                                              545
  Voice, Inflection of                                     716
  Volcanoes                                       63 _et seq._
    Location and Height                                     65
    Most Noted                                              65
  Vowels                                                   712
  Vultures                                                 211

    =W=

  Walnut                                                   142
  Walrus                                                   205
  Wanderoo                                                 194
  War of the Austrian Succession                           696
  War of 1812                                              638
  War of Greek Independence                                697
  War of Italian Liberation                                697
  War of the Holy Roman Empire                             695
  War of the Spanish Succession                            696
  Warblers                                                 216
  Wars, Great, Historical Outlines               312 _et seq._
  Wars for Control of Italy                                695
  Wars of Alexander the Great                              693
  Wars of Constantine                                      694
  Wars of the English Barons                               695
  Wars of Justinian                                        694
  Wars of Louis XIV.                                       696
  Wars of the Roses                                        695
  Wars of Universal History                            692-699
  Warsaw                                                   560
  Washington, D. C.                                        623
    Arlington House                                        626
    Bureau of Engraving and Printing                       624
    Capitol                                                623
    Catholic University of America                         626
    Census Bureau                                          625
    Chief Shopping Streets                                 623
    Churches and Educational Institutions of               626
    Congressional Library                              623-624
    Continental Hall                                       625
    Corcoran Art Gallery                                   624
    Department of Agriculture                              624
    District or Municipal Building                         625
    Ford’s Theater                                         625
    George Washington University                           626
    Georgetown University                                  626
    Government Printing Office                             625
    History of                                             623
    Interior Department                                    625
    International Bureau of American Republics             625
    Judiciary Square and Pension Office                    625
    Mount Vernon                                           627
    National Military Cemetery (Arlington)                 626
    National Soldiers’ Home                                626
    New National Museum                                    624
    Notable Public Buildings                           624-625
    Notable Residence Streets                          623-624
    Parks, Squares and Circles                         623-624
    Post Office Department                                 625
    St. John’s Church                                  625-626
    Smithsonian Institution                                624
    State, War and Navy Departments                        625
    Treasury Department                                    624
    Trinity College for Women                              626
    Union Railway Station                                  623
    United States Naval Observatory                        626
    Views of Washington’s Home and Tomb, Mt. Vernon        627
    White House                                            625
  Wasps                                               238, 240
  Water:
    Composition and Forms of                                69
    How Distributed over the Earth                68 _et seq._
  Water Hemlock                                            169
  Waterfalls, Famous                                        80
    Bridal Veil                                             83
    Iguazu                                                  82
    Juanacatlan                                             82
    Niagara                                                 82
    Reichenbach                                             83
    Schaffhausen                                            81
    Staubbach                                               83
    Yellowstone                                             83
    Yosemite                                                83
  Watermelon                                               131
  Wealth, of Nations                                       443
  Weather                                                   89
  Weevil                                                   234
  Weights and Measures:
    Apothecaries’ Liquid Measure                           860
    Apothecaries’ Weight                                   863
    Avoirdupois Weight                                     860
    Calendar                                          866, 867
    Capacity                                               860
    Circular Measures                                      864
    Comparison of                                          864
    Cubic or Solid Measure                                 859
    Dry Measure                                            860
    Land Measure                                           858
    Legal Weights per Bushel                     861, 862, 863
    Length                                                 857
    Liquid Measures                                        860
    Long Measures                                          856
    Longitude and Time                                     864
    Of the Philippines                                     870
    Square Measure                                    857, 858
    Surface                                                857
    Surveyor’s Measure                                857, 858
    Texas Land Measure                                     858
    Time Measures                                          865
    Troy Weight                                            861
    United States Money                               868, 869
  Wellesley College                                        594
  Westminster Abbey                                        460
  Whales                                                   207
  Wheat                                                    128
  Whitefish                                                228
  Wild Flowers                                             157
  Wild Goat                                                202
  Willow                                                   165
  Winds                                                     92
    Hurricane                                               93
    Simoon                                                  93
    Sirocco                                                 93
    Storms                                                  93
    Tornadoes                                               93
    Trade Winds                                             93
    Typhoons                                                93
  Windsor                                             464, 466
  Winter Solstice                                           90
  Wire-worms                                               234
  Wolf                                                     197
    Prairie                                                198
  Wolf’s-bane                                              169
  Wonders, of Plant Life                                   169
  Woodcock                                                 218
  Woodpecker                                               212
  Words:
    Choice and Use of                                      717
    From Modern Foreign Languages                          742
    Right and Wrong Use of                            718, 724
  World:
    About B. C. 3800, to B. C.                    450, 296-301
    About B. C. 450                                        301
    About B. C. 325                                        301
    About 300 A. D.                                        301
    About 500 A. D.                                    302-303
    About 800 A. D.                                    302-303
    About 1000 A. D.                                   302-303
    About 1300 A. D.                                   302-303
    About 1500 A. D.                                   304-305
    About 1600 A. D.                                   304-305
    About 1700 A. D.                                   306-307
    About 1800 A. D.                                   306-307
    About 1915 A. D.                                   308-309
    Asia                                                   677
    Colonial Divisions of                                  690
    Greatest Explorers of                              310-311
    Independent, Countries of                              443
    North America                                          578
    Political Divisions of                                 443
    Principal Languages of                                 442
    Races and Population                                   442
    Religious Population                                   442
    South America                                          672
  Wrens                                                    216

    =X=

  Xerxes the Great                                         370

    =Y=

  Yak                                                      256
  Yale University                                      605-606
  Yam                                                      131
  Yellowstone Falls                                         83
  Yellowstone National Park                                586
  Yew Tree                                                 165
  Yokahama                                                 689
  Yosemite Falls                                            83
  Yosemite Valley                                          585

    =Z=

  Zama, Battle of                                          391
  Zebra                                                    203
  Zebu                                                     256
  Zinc                                                     115
  Zwinger, The, Dresden                                    503



SUPPLEMENTARY INDEX


    =A=

  Acids                                                891-892
  Aeroplanes                                               902
  Airship, Modern                                          903
    Zeppelins                                              903
  Alcohol                                                  892
  Alimentary Canal, Diagram of                             929
  Alkali                                                   892
  Aluminum                                                 883
  Antimony                                                 883
  Argon                                                    883
  Arithmetic:
    Bank Discount                                          873
    Chemical                                               882
    Exchange                                               874
    Interest                                               873
    Percentage and Its Business Applications               870
    Promissory Notes                                       872
    Square and Cube Root                                   878
    Taxes and Taxation                                     877
  Arsenic                                                  883
  Astronomy, Outlines for Grade Schools                    897
  Atomic Theory                                            881

    =B=

  Bank Discount                                            873
  Barium                                                   883
  Berthollet’s Law                                         882
  Biography                                      943 _et seq._
    Comparative and Chronological Tables               944-957
  Bismuth                                                  883
  Boron                                                    883
  Botany, Outlines for Grade Schools                       896
  Brain                                                    932
  Bromine                                                  884

    =C=

  Cadmium                                                  884
  Caesium                                                  884
  Calcium                                                  884
  Calomel                                                  894
  Carbon                                                   884
  Cerium                                                   884
  Chemical Elements:
    Compounds and Chief Uses                     883 _et seq._
    Important Data Concerning                    883 _et seq._
    Occurrence, Preparation and Properties                 883
    Table of                                     883 _et seq._
  Chemicals, Common Names of                               894
  Chemistry                                                880
    Atomic Theory                                          881
    Berthollet’s Law                                       882
    Chemical Arithmetic                                    882
    Chemical Notation                                      881
    Of Common Things                                       891
    Importance and Divisions                               880
    Laws of                                                881
    Molecular Weights                                      881
    Nomenclature                                           882
    Organic and Inorganic                                  880
    Outlines for Grade Schools                             897
    Physical                                               881
    Radicals                                               882
    Reactions                                              881
    Table of Chemical Elements                             883
    Theoretical                                            881
  Chest or Thorax                                          930
  Child World                                    959 _et seq._
    The Art of Story Telling                           987-988
    The Bath                                               965
    Bones and Muscles                                      964
    Children’s Gardens                                     970
    The Children of the Animals                            973
    The Child’s Food                                       963
    The Child’s Lessons                                    963
    Child’s Picture Grammar                                971
    Combinations of Numbers                                983
    Counting                                               982
    The Days and Months                                    985
    Dutch Dolls and the “Alphabet Game”                    967
    Effect of Seasons on the Nervous System                964
    Form and Color                                     985-987
    The Growing Body                                       961
    How to Teach a Child to Read at Home               968-970
    Money Taught as Numbers                                983
    The Mother as Teacher                                  960
    Nature as the First Craftsman                          976
    Nature’s Best Doctors                                  962
    Primary Measures for Children                          984
    Puberty and Its Problems                               964
    Rest and Sleep                                     964-965
    The School Age                                         961
    Stories, Illustrated                               974-981
    Telling the Time                                       984
    Time for Work                                          963
    Ventilation                                            965
    What Our Domestic Animals Give Us                      972
    “Where Did You Come From, Baby Dear?”                  966
  Chlorine                                                 884
  Chromium                                                 884
  Circulatory System                                       930
  Cobalt                                                   884
  Columbium                                                884
  Commercial Law, Promissory Notes                         872
  Commission                                               871
  Common Names of Chemicals                                894
  Compass, Mariner’s                                       912
  Copper                                                   885
  Cranium                                                  932
  Cube Root                                                878
  Customs Taxes                                            878

    =D=

  Dynamos and Motors                                       916
  Dysprosium                                               588

    =E=

  Earth, Magnetic Poles of                                 912
  Electric Cell, What Goes on Within                       915
  Electric Light                                           914
  Electric Machines                                        916
  Electric Telegraph, Principle of                         916
  Electric Traction                                        916
  Electricity                                          907-911
    Application of to Machines                             916
    Batteries                                          913-914
    Currents                                               909
    Dynamos and Motors                                     916
  Electron Theory                                      908-909
    How Produced                                           908
    Lightning                                              909
    Natural Exhibitions of                             909-911
    Theories About                                         907
    Wireless Telegraphy                                    918
  Electro-Magnetism                                        916
  Electrons                                                908
  Electrotyping                                            916
  Erbium                                                   885
  Ether                                                    892
  Europium                                                 885
  Exchange                                                 874
    Domestic                                               875
    Principles of                                          876

    =F=

  Fermentation                                             892
  Fluorine                                                 885

    =G=

  Gadolinium                                               885
  Gallium                                                  885
  Galvanic, or Voltaic Battery                        913, 914
  Galvanism                                                913
  Galvanometer                                             913
  Gas Meter, How to Read                                   895
  Gateways of Knowledge                                    933
  Geology, Outlines for Grade Schools                      897
  Germanium                                                885
  Glucinum                                                 885
  Gold                                                     885

    =H=

  Heart                                                    933
  Heart and Its Coverings                                  930
  Helium                                                   885
  Holmium                                                  886
  Human Body                                     925 _et seq._
    Alimentary Canal                                       929
    As a Machine                                           927
    Centers of Control                                     927
    Circulatory System                                     930
    Divisions of                                           927
    Framework and Muscles of                               926
    Health in Childhood                                    961
    Heart and Its Coverings                                930
    How It Is Built                                        927
    Nervous System                                         932
    Organs of Chest                                        928
    Puberty and Its Problems                               964
    Respiratory System                                     931
    Systems and Organs                           927 _et seq._
  Human Brain                                              933
  Hydrogen                                                 886

    =I=

  Indium                                                   886
  Interest                                                 873
    Common Methods                                         873
    Compound                                               874
    Table of Time                                          874
  Inventions, Great Mechanical                             898
  Iodine                                                   886
  Iridium                                                  886
  Iron                                                     886

    =K=

  Krypton                                                  886

    =L=

  Lanthanum                                                886
  Lead                                                     886
  Lightning, a Form of Electricity                         909
  Liquid Air                                               924
  Lithium                                                  886
  Loadstone                                            911-912
  Locomotive, Description and Types                    901-902
    Electric                                               902
    Skeleton and Parts of                                  900
  Lungs                                                    931
  Lutecium                                                 887

    =M=

  Magnesium                                                887
  Magnetism                                                911
    Magnetic Poles of the Earth                            912
    Relation to Electricity                      911, 912, 913
  Magnets                                             912, 913
  Manganese                                                887
  Mariner’s Compass                                        912
  Mercury                                                  887
  Meteorology, Outlines for Grade Schools                  897
  Mineralogy, Outlines for Grade Schools                   896
  Molybdenum                                               887

    =N=

  Neon                                                     887
  Neodymium                                                887
  Nervous System                                           932
  Nickel                                                   887
  Nightingale, Florence                                    958
  Nitrogen                                                 887
  Notes:
    Legal Rules Concerning                                 872
    Promissory                                             872

    =O=

  Osmium                                                   887
  Oxygen                                                   887

    =P=

  Palladium                                                888
  Percentage and Its Business Applications                 870
    Bank Discount                                          873
    Commission                                             871
    Exchange                                               874
    Profit and Loss                                        871
    Promissory Notes                                       872
    Stocks and Bonds                                       876
    Taxes and Taxation                                     877
    Trade Discount                                         871
  Pericardium                                              930
  Periscope, The                                           905
  Phosphorus                                               888
  Physics and Chemistry, Outlines for Grade Schools        897
  Physiology                                     925 _et seq._
  Platinum                                                 888
  Potassium                                                888
  Praseodymium                                             888
  Profit and Loss                                          871
  Promissory Notes                                         872
  Property and Its Problems                                964

    =R=

  Radium                                                   888
    Description of                                         894
    History and, Properties                            894-895
    Medical Uses of                                        895
  Red, Cross, Woman Founder                                958
  Respiratory System                                       931
  Rhodium                                                  888
  Röntgen, or X-rays                                   921-923
  Rubidium                                                 888
  Ruthenium                                                888

    =S=

  Samarium                                                 889
  Scandium                                                 889
  Science, Outline Course of Elementary                896-897
  Science, Outlines, for Schools                       896-897
  Selenium                                                 889
  Silicon                                                  889
  Silver                                                   889
  Sodium                                                   889
  Special Senses:
    Hearing                                            933-935
    Seeing                                             936-938
    Smelling                                           940-941
    Taste                                        939, 940, 941
    Touch                                              941-942
    Organs of:
      Ear                                              933-935
      Eye                                              936-938
      Hand                                             941-942
      Nose                                             940-941
      Tongue                                     939, 940, 941
  Spinal Cord                                              932
  Spinthariscope                                           895
  Square Root                                              878
  Starch                                                   891
  Steam Engines                                            898
  Stocks and Bonds                                         876
  Strontium                                                889
  Submarines                                               904
    How Equipped                                           906
    Marvelous Mechanism                                    904
    The Periscope                                          905
    Torpedo Tube                                           906
  Sulphur                                                  889
  Sympathetic System                                       932

    =T=

  Tables, Interest                                         874
  Tantalum                                                 890
  Taxes and Taxation                                       877
  Taxes:
    Customs                                                878
    Table of Tax Values                                    878
  Teeth and Their Names                                    933
  Teeth, Permanent                                         933
  Telegraph, Electric, Principle of                        916
  Tellurium                                                890
  Terbium                                                  890
  Thallium                                                 890
  Thorax                                                   930
  Thorium                                                  890
  Thullium                                                 890
  Tin                                                      890
  Titanium                                                 890
  Torpedoes, How Launched by a Submarine                   906
  Trade Discount                                           871
  Tungsten                                                 890
  Turbines, Steam                                          899

    =U=

  Uranium                                                  890

    =V=

  Vanadium                                                 890
  Vocal Cords                                              931
  Voice, Organ of                                          933

    =W=

  Wireless Telegraphy                            917, 918, 919
  Wireless Telephony                                       920

    =X=

  Xenon                                                    891
  X-rays                                               921-923

    =Y=

  Yeast                                                    892
  Ytterbium                                                891
  Yttrium                                                  891

    =Z=

  Zeppelins                                                903
  Zinc                                                     891
  Zirconium                                                891
  Zoology, Outlines for Grade Schools                      896



Transcriber’s Notes:


General Notes

  The different sections of the book were written by different
  authors; inconsistent spelling, lay-out, capitalisation, phonetics,
  use of ligatures and diacritics, spacing of abbreviations,
  transcription, punctuation, etc. have therefore been retained (incl.
  canon/canyon/cañon; Spencer/Spenser; i.e./i. e., A.D./A. D., etc.)
  except as mentioned below. The same applies to textual and factual
  inconsistencies and contradictions.

  The order of entries in alphabetical lists is not always truly
  alphabetical; this has not been changed.

  Indented paragraphs in this text indicate a different lay-out in the
  printed work, such as larger or smaller font size, different margins
  or indentation, etc. Not all of these differences have been
  indicated in this text.

  The use of section headings in the printed work was not always
  unambiguous, nor was their hierarchy. Section headings (indicated by
  two blank lines in this transcription) in this text are therefore
  based on the printed book’s typography and on apparent logic, and
  may not reflect the authors’ intentions. Some sections have no
  section headings as such.

  Several subjects mentioned in the various lists of contents are not
  present in the original work; similarly, several internal references
  do not exist.

  In some of the larger tables, the relation between table elements
  has had to be surmised; the tables as presented here may therefore
  not fully reflect the authors’ intent.

  For this text version, the larger tables have had to be split and/or
  re-arranged. For the comparison tables in particular, this means
  that some of the comparative information has been lost.


Specific Notes

  Page 104-107, Table Identification of Minerals, See Plate I: there
  is no Plate I with figures of minerals in the original work.

  Page 158, Flowers of the Wooded Pastures: the referenced Fig. 13 is
  not present in the original book.

  Page 267, Book of Races and Peoples: various district names is
  probably an error for various distinct names.

  Page 293, table Comparative Classification of Races and Peoples:
  Fellaheen, 5,000,000 ( ): the reason for the brackets is not clear.

  Page 360, Fall of Judah and Babylonian Captivity: The history of the
  Jews during the Babylonish captivity: this was printed as a regular
  paragraph in the original book, but could have been intended as a
  heading for a section that was not included in the book.

  Page 413, Table IX.: St. Francis of Assisi should probably have been
  printed in the columns Italy and Church.

  Page 423, Table XI., column Ottoman Empire and Persia, War with
  Austria 1682-1699: possibly this should read 1593-1669 (the 1682 war
  is mentioned on page 425, Table XII.).

  Page 442, table Principal Languages Spoken: The data for English and
  French are identical, which is probably an error. The totals and
  proportions are not in agreement with the tabulated data; since it
  is not clear which data are wrong, this has not been changed.

  Page 448-452, Panoramic View of the River Rhine: texts inside the
  illustration have been copied outside the illustration.

  Page 472-476, Table of the Sovereigns of England: There are some
  discrepancies between dates of birth and ages; not changed.

  Page 474, Table of the Sovereigns of England: Edward VI., “Of a
  consumption”: as printed in original book.

  Page 495, GERMANY: ... on a subsequent page: the table is given on
  the same page.

  Page 497, Defense: reference to Armies and Navies of the World: not
  present in the original book.

  Page 546, Under Peter the Great: reference to Peter the Great:
  unclear to which part of the text this refers, as there is no
  separate section on Peter the Great apart from this one.

  Page 546, Napoleonic Period: reference to Alexander I. and Napoleon:
  unclear to which part of the text this refers, as there are no
  separate sections on Alexander I. and Napoleon.

  Page 572, Turkey, or Ottoman Empire (table): population numbers do
  not add up to the total given (possibly the total should read
  20,180,000); the meaning of the sentence directly underneath the
  table is not clear.

  Page 573, Physical Features: reference to Asia Minor: there is no
  section on Asia Minor in the book.

  Page 648, Democrats Restored ... Woodrow Wilson: there are two
  footnote anchors on this page in the printed book (before Farm Loan
  Banks and before From the very beginning of the European War), but
  no footnotes. The anchors have been deleted.

  Page 714, Accent of Words: In the Book of Language and Literature
  primary and secondary accents are represented by =´= and ´,
  respectively. The print quality of the original work was not always
  sufficient to distinguish between the two variants.

  Page 733, Asterism: the printed book shows two asterisms; possibly
  one of those was intended to be an inverted asterism.

  Page 744, à rivederci: as printed in original work; not changed.

  Page 745, carnichons: error for cornichons; not changed.

  Page 753, recherche: possibly error for recherché; not changed.

  Page 771, 18th century (Pepys): probably error for 17th century;
  not changed.

  Page 783, Aldine Press: reference to Manutius: there is no other
  occurrence of Manutius in the book.

  Page 788, Chriemhild or Kriemhild: reference to Kriemhild: this
  entry seems to reference itself.

  Page 796, Folk: reference to Fairies: there is no entry Fairies (or
  Fairy) in the book.

  Page 821-845, Pronouncing Dictionary of Myhtology: this section
  contains several references to entries that are not present in the
  work.

  Page 856, Find the cost of 3230 bushels of wheat, at 72c per bushel:
  the calculation given is for 3230 pounds (with 60 pounds per
  bushel).

  Page 857, Long or Linear Measure: reference to Metric System: not
  present in the book.

  Page 878, Tax Table, Explanation of Table: the entry for $10,000 is
  not present in the table.

  Page 894, Describe radium and its special properties: the printed
  book uses subscripts as exponents; not changed.

  Page 763-764, Norman-French Period and Elizabethan and Puritan
  Period: there is no description of the period between these two
  (1400-1559) in the original work.


Changes and corrections made

  Obvious minor punctuation and typographical errors have been
  corrected silently.

  Regularly printed scientific names have been italicised for
  consistency.

  Some diacritical symbols on French and German words have been
  corrected or added for consistency.

  Some phonetics have been corrected or completed where this was
  important for their pronunciation, this has not been done for
  consistency.

  Illustrations and tables have been moved out of the text when they
  were printed inside paragraphs; footnotes have been moved to
  directly underneath the paragraph or table to which they belong.

  Various pages: Pharoah has been changed to Pharaoh.

  Comparative History of Nations: several entries have been moved to
  maintain the given chronological order.

  Indicator letters have been added to some pronouncing dictionaries
  for consistency.

  Page  iv  PD.D. changed to PH.D. (Susan Chase)
  Page  ix  Mother-Play Sons changed to Mother-Play Songs
  Page  10  Vanderwolker changed to Vanderwalker
  Page  15  diagrams Keppler’s Laws: right and left in caption
            changed to bottom and top, respectively; moves round the
            run changed to moves round the sun
  Page  27  Pullox changed to Pollux
  Page  37  Pullox changed to Pollux
  Page  49  Age Fishes changed to Age of Fishes
  Page  62  Cypress changed to Cyprus
  Page  67  severally shaken changed to severely shaken
  Page  75  Pebblshire changed to Peeblesshire; Chevoit changed to
            Cheviot
  Page  85  internal changed to interval
  Page 106  row Orthoclase, 2nd column: repeated mention of Feldspar
            deleted
  Page 108  Ship dip changed to Sheep dip
  Page 150  Minulus luteus changed to Mimulus luteus; 4 inches changed
            to 4 weeks (Giant Spider Plant)
  Page 151  Colhicum changed to Colchicum
  Page 162  a common tree changed to is a common tree
  Page 182  Dicotoledons changed to Dicotyledons
  Page 195  does not effect changed to does not affect
  Page 250  Red Poles changed to Red Polls
  Page 252  recenants changed to revenants
  Page 255  Chevoit changed to Cheviot
  Page 256  large of “lard” changed to large or “lard”
  Page 258  botlong, changed to both long.; fois-gras changed to
            foie-gras
  Page 273  Early Iron Age: 100 to 500 B.C. changed to 1000 to 500 B.C.
  Page 312  Caucuses changed to Caucasus
  Page 316  Lake Mœ is changed to Lake Mœris
  Page 317  604-651 changed to 604-551
  Page 318  Perides changed to Pericles
  Page 322  Asdrubal changed to Hasdrubal for consistency
  Page 332  B. C. changed to A. D. (table header)
  Page 333  B. C. changed to A. D. (table header)
  Page 341  Crete lost the Arabs changed to Crete lost to the Arabs
  Page 342  See pages 000, 000 changed to See page 351 (description of
            the sphinx)
  Page 343  Header EXTINCT NATIONS OF THE PAST added as in tables of
            contents
  Page 349  the good Anubis changed to the god Anubis
  Page 382  LATER HISTORY OR changed to LATER HISTORY OF
  Page 397  At Alexander changed to At Alexandria
  Page 398  SEPIDUS changed to LEPIDUS
  Page 410  Entries for Danish Kings and Canute the Great placed in
            chronological order; Rhœtia changed to Rhætia
  Page 420  Frances defeated changed to Francis defeated
  Page 427  1756-1763 changed to 1754-1763; 1678 changed to 1768
  Page 428  Prussia and Austria, 1711 changed to Prussia and Austria,
            1781
  Page 438  Fallierès changed to Fallières
  Page 440  Poincarè changed to Poincaré
  Page 442  table Area and Population: 7.05 changed to 7.55, 48.02
            changed to 48.20, 29.9 changed to 28.2; table Religious
            Population: 36,000,000 changed to 36,600,000; 58,270,000
            changed to 158,270,000; 125,000,000 changed to 25,000,000
  Page 443  Poincare changed to Poincaré; Vagiravudn changed to
            Vagiravudh
  Page 446  Orœfa changed to Oræfa
  Page 463  Axon changed to Avon
  Page 464  Chantry changed to Chantrey
  Page 471  table (entry Mauritius): Executive and Councils changed to
            Executive and Legislative Councils
  Page 473  table (entry King John): 199 changed to 1199
  Page 492  Marsla-Tour changed to Mars-la-Tour
  Page 525  Placenza changed to Piacenza
  Page 562  are said to be abundance changed to are said to be abundant
  Page 571  Rhœto-Romanic changed to Rhæto-Romanic
  Page 662  One of more changed to One or more
  Page 669  Caspé changed to Gaspé
  Page 693  Decclea changed to Decelea
  Page 696  Jan van Olden, Barneveldt changed to Jan van Oldenbarneveldt
  Page 700  Chattanooga, Georgia changed to Chattanooga, Tennessee
  Page 701  (Bosworth Field): 1845 changed to 1485; (Siege of Calais):
            =English= vs. =French= changed to =English= vs. French
  Page 702  kon-stan-nō´pl changed to kon-stan-ti-nō´pl
  Page 703  zhe-mäk´ changed to zhe-mäp´; Hōchst changed to Höchst
  Page 705  nü´pö changed to ma´pö
  Page 709  Texel: † added
  Page 734  paragraph * Name-making ... moved up one paragraph
  Page 741  5th ◡ changed to ― (Iambic pentameter)
  Page 742  desprit changed to d’esprit
  Page 743  albuon changed to al buon
  Page 750  sono multi changed to sono muti (also in phonetics)
  Page 751  mennière changed to meunière (and moved to proper
            alphabetical place)
  Page 752  petits fois changed to petits pois (also in phonetics)
  Page 753  enchef changed to en chef
  Page 754  tâche sans tâche changed to tâche sans tache
  Page 770  Ecclestical changed to Ecclesiastical
  Page 775  Rosetti changed to Rossetti
  Page 778  effected changed to affected; Calvanism changed to Calvinism
  Page 780  Bigelow changed to Biglow
  Page 799  Whence these storied changed to Whence these stories
  Page 802  Kadr, Al changed to Kadir, Al
  Page 810  chantler changed to cantler
  Page 816  Altorf changed to Altdorf
  Page 847  Amphlon changed to Amphion
  Page 853  7/9 + 4 changed to 7/9 × 4; 1-11/27 changed to 1-11/24
  Page 854  .564 changed to 564 (in first multiplication)
  Page 855  $43.35 changed to $4.35 as in calculation
  Page 859  For, changed to For example,
  Page 882  (3) inserted before Metathetical
  Page 885  M. P. 272° changed to M. P. -272° (Helium)
  Page 886  ZuS changed to ZnS (zinc blende)
  Page 887  MgSO₄, 7N₂O changed to MgSO₄, 7H₂O
  Page 888  CaH₄(PO₄)₂ changed to CaH₂(PO₄)₂
  Page 891  B. P. 109° changed to B. P. -109° (Xenon)
  Page 894  N₄H.OH changed to NH₄OH
  Page 998  Petsal changed to Petsai





*** End of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "The Circle of Knowledge - A Classified, Simplified, Visualized Book of Answers" ***

Copyright 2023 LibraryBlog. All rights reserved.