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Title: The Evolution of Modern Orchestration
Author: Coerne, Louis Adolphe
Language: English
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The Evolution
OF
Modern Orchestration
BY
LOUIS ADOLPHE COERNE, PH.D.
[Illustration]
New York
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1908
_All rights reserved_
COPYRIGHT, 1908,
BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
Set up and electrotyped. Published September 1908
Stanhope Press
F.H. GILSON COMPANY
BOSTON, U.S.A.
CONTENTS
PART I.--PRELIMINARIES.
PAGE
PREFACE v
INTRODUCTORY NOTE vii
CHAPTER I. THE CRADLE OF INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC.
(HISTORICAL REVIEW.) 1
" II. THE DAWN OF INDEPENDENT INSTRUMENTATION 5
" III. EVOLUTION OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 8
" IV. BEGINNINGS OF ORCHESTRATION 16
SUMMARY OF PART I 26
PART II.--THE CLASSIC ERA.
CHAPTER V. BACH, HÄNDEL, AND THEIR CONTEMPORARIES 28
" VI. GLUCK AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES 38
" VII. HAYDN, MOZART, AND BEETHOVEN 47
" VIII. THE CONTEMPORARIES OF BEETHOVEN 58
SUMMARY OF PART II 68
PART III.--ROMANTICISM.
CHAPTER IX. THE ROMANTIC SCHOOL 70
" X. THE CLASSICAL ROMANTICISTS 81
" XI. THE NEW MOVEMENT 89
" XII. FRANCE AND ITALY 125
" XIII. HUNGARY AND BOHEMIA 145
" " SCANDINAVIA AND RUSSIA 148
" " ENGLAND AND AMERICA 157
SUMMARY OF PART III 175
CONCLUSION 183
APPENDIX OF MUSICAL ILLUSTRATIONS 189
INDEX 277
PREFACE
It is not the purpose of this work to write a treatise on
instrumentation or to prepare a pedagogical analysis of orchestration
only, but rather to trace the evolution of the orchestra and of
orchestration in connection with the history of music proper. Special
emphasis will be laid upon what may be termed the IMPELLING FORCES to
which the development of orchestration is due. This necessitates a
considerable repetition of familiar facts that do not lend themselves
to further original treatment. The restatement of such facts,
however, would seem to form an indispensable background for the main
theme, which is thereby exposed with all its attending phases of
logical evolution.
In addition to extended studies of orchestral scores themselves,
the standard works of Berlioz, Gevaërt, Riemann, Parry, and others
have, as a matter of course, been referred to. The subject under
discussion has already been admirably handled by Lavoix in his
voluminous work entitled "Histoire de L'Instrumentation," but it was
unquestionably done through French glasses, and the scores of not one
German romanticist are submitted to careful analysis beyond those of
Weber and Wagner. "Parsifal" had not been produced at the time when
Lavoix's book went to press, nor had such representative composers
as Brahms, Saint-Saëns, Tschaikowsky, Dvo[vr]ák then won their full
meed of recognition. It is obvious, therefore, that the orchestration
especially of the nineteenth century offers a fertile field for
further profitable research. Again, the present writer is not aware
of the existence of any comprehensive work in the English language
upon the _history_ of the orchestra and of orchestration.
Throughout these pages the achievements of the more prominent
composers are set forth in such manner as to indicate not only
the distinctive features of their orchestration but of their
general creative ability as well. In each case, the general
style of composition and its significance as a contribution to
musical literature are first enlarged upon. This is followed by an
examination of the differentiated treatment of the strings, the wood,
the brass, presented in logical sequence. A final analysis is then
made of the individual method of orchestration as a whole, together
with its relative value in the evolution of orchestration.
In the Appendix to this book will be found a few musical
illustrations selected from representative orchestral scores.
LOUIS ADOLPHE COERNE.
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U.S.A.
_April_ 30, 1905.
INTRODUCTORY NOTE
It was inevitable that in an age marked like the present by
specialization in all the arts and in all branches of learning as
well, the need would one day be felt of a history of orchestration.
In attempting to supply it with this book Dr. Coerne has filled a
want in English musical literature. Of treatises devoted to the
art of writing for the orchestra there is no lack. Berlioz, the
greatest master of the art before Wagner, wrote such a treatise,
which while it was still looked upon as in many respects a model, was
revised and brought down to date by Richard Strauss; but invaluable
as this treatise is and as are the more voluminous treatises of
the Belgian Gevaërt, the German Hofmann and the Englishman Prout,
they are after all study-books for the creative musician, and only
by laborious comparison of their illustrative examples, or the
scores of composers, can the historical inquirer learn aught of the
evolution of the art to which they are devoted. Even then his view
is restricted, practically, to the music composed since the closing
decades of the eighteenth century. The explanation of this fact is
that while the art of music is always spoken of as young in the
handbooks, that of orchestration is much younger. The student of
orchestration, say the teachers, can derive little benefit from a
study of scores older than those of Haydn and Mozart because some of
the instruments of their predecessors are obsolete and so is their
manner of writing for the instruments still in use. This, however,
brings small comfort to the historical investigator who is quite
as desirous to know what the orchestra was like prior to Haydn and
Mozart, and the Mannheim symphonists, as he is to learn the steps
by which it reached its present marvellous efficiency. It is the
help which it extends in this direction which makes the "Histoire de
L'Instrumentation" of M. Lavoix, to which our author acknowledges
indebtedness, valuable; but that work is accessible only to students
who have knowledge of the French language.
Moreover, there are interesting signs of a return to some of the
orchestral instruments which had fallen into disuse when the modern
art of orchestration came into existence. It is not only a pious
regard and reverence for Bach and Händel, especially the former,
which is prompting conductors when performing their works to restore
instruments to the orchestra which were considered hopelessly
obsolete only a few decades ago, but also a growing appreciation of
the fact that modern substitutes for them have largely failed of
their mission. Two facts of large importance confront the careful
observer of musical phenomena to-day: the art of composition has
reached that degree of technical perfection, or high virtuoso-ship
which in the history of all the arts introduces a decay of true
creativeness. We have, therefore, on the one hand excessive
admiration for technique _per se_, and on the other a growing
reaction towards old ideals. Of this latter fact I thought I saw
significant evidences in 1900 when as a member of the International
Jury at the Paris Exposition new specimens of a considerable number
of archaic musical instruments came into my hands for examination,
among them a bass flute for the return of which Mr. Frederick Corder
expresses an ardent longing in his admirable essay on Instrumentation
in the new edition of Grove's "Dictionary of Music and Musicians."
Since then, too, we have heard the harpsichord in our concert-rooms,
seen the oboe d'amore adopted by Richard Strauss, the alto flute
by Felix Weingartner, and observed the establishment in America as
well as Europe of orchestral and chamber concerts in which music of
the seventeenth and earlier centuries is played upon instruments
for which it was written. We shall in all likelihood some day
have to extend our treatises on orchestration to include some of
the instruments now considered obsolete, and be grateful for all
references to them in historical works like the present one.
Dr. Coerne, the author of this book, is an American composer born in
Newark, N.J., who has achieved the distinction of having an opera
of his writing performed in a European opera-house. His "Zenobia"
was brought forward in Bremen on December 1, 1905. It was the first
instance of the performance in Europe of a grand opera composed
by a native of the United States. The score of this opera and the
subject-matter of this book were accepted as a thesis by Harvard
University which conferred the degree of Ph.D. on the author in June,
1905. It was the first time that the university bestowed the degree
for special work in music.
H.E. KREHBIEL.
NEW YORK, _April_, 1908.
THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN ORCHESTRATION
PART I.--PRELIMINARIES.
CHAPTER I.
THE CRADLE OF INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC. (HISTORICAL REVIEW.)
I.
Primitive men were no doubt impelled to give utterance to their
feelings by a desire for awakening sympathetic response in their
fellow beings. Vocal manifestation of feeling developed into
incipient melody, hence rudimentary scales. Gestures of dancing
suggested rhythm. A fusion of both melody and rhythm led to contrast,
and contrast implies symmetry of design. To emphasize rhythm combined
with euphony, musical instruments were needed. Relics of certain
species of these instruments are analogous to subsequent species of
civilized nations.
Another source whence music can be traced is in the religious rites
of the pagans.
Ancient history reveals diversified and wide-spread musical activity.
The oldest representations of musicians are to be found on Egyptian
monuments. Through contact with Oriental nations, Egypt possibly
founded her system of intellectual music on extraneous principles.
On the other hand, she probably influenced the music of the
Hebrews, certainly that of the Greeks. Exemplification of Oriental
instrumentalists is seen on Assyrian bas reliefs. One of these, in
the possession of the British Museum, represents performers on a
drum, a double-pipe, a primitive species of the dulcimer, and seven
harps. The preponderance of stringed instruments suggests sensitive
appreciation for modulated quality of tone. Constant reference to
Hebrew music is, of course, to be found in the Scriptures. The
classification of singers for temple worship during the reign of
Solomon and of David, and the especial importance attached to song
with instrumental accompaniment will at once recur to the mind.
Greece during her ascendency elevated music to a plane of importance
only secondary to that of her sister art, poetry, whose handmaiden
she became. Indeed, though both vocal and purely instrumental music
were practised independently, prominence was bestowed upon the
welding together of poetry and music as embodied in the Athenian
tragedies. The Greeks possessed but a theoretical knowledge of
harmony. Instrumental accompaniment probably duplicated the vocal
melody in unison or octave, and may have added some simple harmonic
intervals such as the fourth or fifth.
With the disorganization of Greece, music was transplanted to Rome,
and, being no longer looked upon as an art, sank into degeneracy.
Nevertheless, the fundamental principles governing the science of
music as promulgated by the Greek theoreticians were rescued from
oblivion by early Roman writers. And these principles, leavened
by fragments of melancholy and contemplative strains of Hebraic
melody, devolved from the early Christian neophytes, were destined to
constitute the rock upon which all subsequent Western ecclesiastical
music, even to the present day, has been built.
Review thus far tends to show that the objective of prehistoric and
ante-Christian musical thought was primarily the emotional expression
of human feeling. The growth of musical art was, moreover, amazingly
dilatory as compared with that of the other fine arts.
II.
The next step to record is that of incipient harmonic effects,
musical notation, the principles of design. And for centuries the
art was now developed exclusively under the beneficent patronage of
the Roman Church--persistently along vocal lines. For the Church
adolescent discountenanced anything suggestive of pagan worship,
or traceable to depraved Roman orgies. Consequently instrumental
evolution lay quiescent. This was the age of dreary speculation, of
highly ingenious and elaborately scientific artifice. Yet the results
were but puerile. For even such rudiments of modern musical grammar
as are readily mastered in our day by a mere child, were far beyond
the perspective of the early scholastic monks, who arrived at a few
tangible results only by the most circuitous methods. Nevertheless
progress, though sluggish, is to be traced in logical sequence.
Beginning with the establishment of singing-schools by Pope
Sylvester, and the Antiphons and Hymns of Ambrosius in the fourth
century, it is but necessary to recall the documents of Boëtius and
of Isadore in the sixth century, the reforms of the Gregories in
the seventh and eighth, the _sequentiae_ of Notker in the ninth.
More specific were the crude attempts at harmony in the ninth and
tenth centuries as typified by Hucbald's organum; Guido d'Arezzo's
notation in the eleventh; finally the adoption of mensural writing as
attributed to Franco de Cologne, thirteenth, and Johannes de Muris,
fourteenth century.
Thus under the guardianship of the Church, and upon a basis of
what has ever been known as the Gregorian Chant, a decade of
centuries had been consumed in learning to perceive and to apply
the fundamentals of melody and of harmony, to discover an adequate
interpreter, notation, and an accurate though flexible regulator,
rhythm.
III.
Meanwhile the Folk-song, already mentioned in its primogenial
character, reasserted itself as the annotator of lyric poetry,
through the activity of the troubadours from the eleventh to the
fourteenth centuries. Of these, the name of Adam de la Hale is, of
course, best known. Just as combined Oriental and Greek traditions
formed the substructure of the early ecclesiastical modes, so a
fusion of the Gregorian Chant and the Folk-song resulted in the
establishment of a second, and in this case more distinctly accretive
nucleus. This was of incalculable service, primarily to subsequent
secular music as a whole, eventually to instrumentation as a side
issue. For the soul of the Folk-song finds expression in the melodic.
And this natural mode of expressing natural emotion, amplified not
alone by the peoples of the Romance nations and of the Teutonic
races, but also quite especially by such as were of Celtic origin,
infused life, color, and variety into the stiff and formal church
style then in vogue. Again, _la gaie science_ required the art of
accompaniment; consequently this long-neglected acquirement began
to awake from its lethargy. So we find the troubadours accompanying
their songs with a variety of instruments such as the crwth, the
rebec, the lute, the harp, the viol.
The Folk-song has in the end proved to be the most enduring mode of
expressing feeling, representing, as it does, the natural growth of a
nation. Influenced by local temperament, climate, history, on every
hand its distinctly indigenous characteristics have stood out in
peaceful contrast to the eclectic polyphony of coexisting scientific
attempts. And, as we know, although the Folk-song was eclipsed for
a time by other forms, it was destined to play an important rôle.
For its loftiest mission was realized not only in connection with
the German Singspiel of the eighteenth century, but also through
its application by the great classicists of the same period as
contrasting theme for the Sonata-piece.
IV.
Continuing our chronological review, we trace the propagandism of
Italian theoretical principles through France into the Netherlands.
Here, during the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, polyphonic
vocal music was reared on the exalted pedestals of noble Gothic
architecture. From Dufay--the connecting link between the French and
Flemish Schools--through Ockeghem, Josquin des Près, Willaert, to
Lasso, the supremacy of musical composition was conceded to the Low
Countries, although simultaneous musical activity in Italy was by no
means retrogressional. As for the labors of such men as Dunstable in
England and Isaak in Germany, the former was not in the direct line
either of technical or of æsthetic evolution, whereas the latter was
trained in Italy and wrote in the Flemish style.
The concentrated results of this era consisted of the consecutive
development of the technicalities of counterpoint, growing regard for
euphony and expressive verbal interpretation, finally, the ascendency
of objective emotionalism. Lasso, embodying in his works the highest
ideals of polyphonic writing, transplanted them into Germany.
Simultaneously, Palestrina, the greatest purist of Italian vocal
writing, was at the zenith of his glory. France had produced Goudimel
and Claude le Jeune. The music of England was prominently connected
with such names as Merbecke, Tallys, Byrd, Morley. The Reformation
was exercising a powerful influence upon the art of music in the
development of the Chorale.
And thus in the second half of the sixteenth century, this wonderful
array of coexisting phases of choral art stood prepared for
something greater. Pure choral music had been perfected. The era of
instrumental music was at hand. For in spite of the rare æsthetic
beauty, the intricate yet lucid voice-leading, the admirable handling
of human voices _en masse_ that signalize the works of Palestrina
and Lasso, two essential elements, indispensable for further
creative expansion, were lacking--rhythm and form. To attain these,
new means and methods were necessary. Two possibilities presented
themselves: solo singing, and instrumental music. Although both of
these combined had been subjected to quasi-scientific experiment
since time immemorial, the style of writing for them possessed as yet
but little individuality. There was indeed much to be done before a
permanent basis for modern tonality and modern instrumentation could
be secured. The old modal system was still at the root of both sacred
and secular music. Harmony was but the adventitious corollary of
counterpoint. Only simple diatonic intervals were in use. Incipient
harmony could not inspire men to think rhythmically. Pure church
music was monotonous and vague. True, secular music in erudite form
was influenced by the Folk-song, and showed some progress in rhythmic
and simple harmonic effects. These in turn reacted favorably upon the
sacred forms. Nevertheless, any attempt at developing motives as the
synthetic germs of a composition was not to be thought of until the
following century in connection with instrumental forms.
The pith of the conditions prevalent at the close of the era has
been happily stated by Parry when he says: "It is as though the art
was still in too nebulous a state for the essential elements to have
crystallized into separate and definite entities."
(Summary on page 26.)
CHAPTER II.
THE DAWN OF INDEPENDENT INSTRUMENTATION.
I.
The awakening interest for instrumental music received its incentive
from two distinctive sources--the organ, and accompaniment to solo
singing. As a natural corollary to centuries of ecclesiastical
supremacy in musical composition, the organ had taken first rank
among instruments and was, comparatively speaking, the most advanced,
both as to mechanical construction and correlative technique of its
performers. Hence the organ was destined to become a spontaneous yet
covert connecting link between pure choral and pure instrumental
music.
The initiative in this progression is due to the direct heirs of
the Flemish School--the Venetian organists. Both Andreas Gabrieli
(1510), pupil of Willaert, and Merulo (1533) had begun to add
ornamental embellishments to their accompaniments, and although
coherence was lacking, the step once taken led to extended
experiments. Thus the treatment of further instruments employed in
religious worship instinctively received more careful attention.
Little by little composers awoke to the realization that the
servile imitation of _a capella_ polyphonic choral writing hitherto
employed, was unsuited to the characteristics of differentiated
individual instruments or combinations of instruments. True, the
artistic value of these early attempts was but small, and would
almost appear as an incompatibility, taking into consideration
the fact that their authors were erudite in the subtleties of
canonical device. Nevertheless, several tangible results are to be
noted. As has been said, instrumental writing acquired a certain
amount of individuality. Through search for balance of tone there
was inaugurated a selective process as to the permanent value of
each specific _genre_ of an instrument. Instrumental adaptation of
choral imitation led to contrast. Expansibility of musical thought
was quickened. Thus Flemish influence was kept alive in that the
incipient forms of their Venetian disciples, inherited by the
subsequent violinist-composers, matured into the cyclic sonata.
Conspicuous are the organ works of Frescobaldi (1583-1644), the great
predecessor of Bach. His labors also directly influenced subsequent
clavier music as developed by Kuhnau in the following century.
Credit is due to Giovanni Gabrieli (1587) for systematic attempts
at orchestration and a distinctive style of writing for the violin.
This latter, however, had to wait for the development of technique,
which, as we shall see, was concurrent with the progress of solo
singing. And thus the year 1600, epoch-making in the rehabilitation
of the drama, can be likewise referred to as a general starting point
for independent instrumentation.
II.
The second and more powerful incentive that instrumentation
received was from monody, in connection with which its function as
accompaniment in simplified form was demonstrated. The _fons et
origo_ of declamatory recitative are, of course, to be traced to the
attempted reforms of the Florentine camerata. Monody was the cradle
of opera and oratorio, and became in turn the foster child of her
progeny. Now these histrionic roots were diversified and far reaching.
In the first place, during the two centuries preceding the era under
discussion, the miracle plays and representations of similar purport
had had recourse to musical support, though of a nature disjointed
and irrelevant.
Secondly, the efforts of the troubadours, minstrels, and minnesingers
embodied solo-singing to instrumental accompaniment, and contained
elements of the dramatic.
Lastly, a newly awakened veneration for everything pertaining to
classic Greece revealed the nobility of her drama. This was the
_causa vera_ to be espoused! And the evolution of this renaissance,
which reached a climax in 1600, must be traced to the history of the
Medici.
Toward the close of the fifteenth century, when three generations
of that family had brought Florence to the height of her glory, art
had received a new impulse under the fostering care of Lorenzo.
Moreover, science had acquired the doctrines of the Greek scholars
fleeing from Turkish oppression. And the brief interim of asceticism
under the sway of the Dominican monk, Savanarola, was followed by
the restoration to power of the Medici. A non-clerical influence in
all matters pertaining to art made itself felt, and the founding of
the Platonic Academy by Cosimo the Great added fuel to the already
existing predilection for the drama as exploited by the Ancients.
Hence the aim of the amateur poet and composer, Bardi, and his
coterie was to produce a drama which should faithfully conform to the
purity and idealism of classic models. And they sought diligently for
a clue to original renditions of Attic tragedy, the Dorian choral
lyrics, the song-lyrics of Anacreon, Sappho. But their conception
thereof was based on a fallacy, so that were one to judge the fruits
of their labors solely for their intrinsic value, the verdict would
be disappointing.
On the other hand, the step they took was a gigantic one forward
in its revolutionary after-results. For the quintessence of
recitative and lyrical solo was contained in Galilei's and Caccini's
declamatory recitatives with accompaniment of lute or viol; in Peri's
and Caccini's "Dafne" and "Euridice"--the first genuine music dramas
in the monodic style; in Cavalieri's allegory or incipient oratorio
"L'Anima e Corpo." All these attempts were infinitely more expressive
and effective than the sombre selections with which A. Gabrieli and
Merulo had been wont to enliven festive secular occasions. Bardi and
Corsi, in the face of conservatism and skepticism, had sought to
reinstate the principles founded upon the Greek Dithyramb. Inspired
by the enthusiasm of these two amateurs, the professionals, Peri
and Cavalieri, succeeded simultaneously in discovering two rational
operatic designs, capable of sequent dramatic treatment.
Finally, the very nature of the monodic principle was inseparable
from instrumental accompaniment, and the primary causes that led to
monody, namely, expression and dramatic effect, would in themselves
insist upon a keener appreciation for instrumental combination as to
selection, distribution of parts, dynamics, color-scheme. This is
borne out to a limited extent in the later works of both Peri and
Cavalieri, whose instrumentation, though crude, paved the way for
their greater contemporary and eventual successor, Monteverde. Even
though the bulk of the figured bass accompaniment was assigned to
the harpsichord, "Euridice" called into requisition one viol, three
flutes, and a triplet of instruments of the lute variety. Cavalieri
made use of practically the same combination, and even recommended
that a violin should duplicate the vocal melody throughout.
In contradistinction to these essays at dramatic scoring should be
mentioned the instrumentation of Striggio (1535), whose _intermezzi_
or comedies interspersed with music were written in the madrigal
style. Nor should the _concertante_ sacred song of Viadana (1564)
or the instrumental effects of Gibbons (1583) be overlooked. But
Striggio, some thirty odd years before "Euridice" was produced, had
not only forestalled but surpassed his immediate successors by the
employment of an orchestra of which more than half were stringed
instruments; again, seven of these were played with a bow. So that,
considering the primitive methods then in use, the constitution of
Striggio's orchestra was unique. It consisted of six lutes, seven
viols, two gravicembali, six flutes, eight cornetti and tromboni, all
of variated types and sizes.
The above enumeration brings to mind the pre-existence of a rather
heterogeneous assortment of now partially obsolete instruments with
which we are more or less familiar. Therefore, before proceeding from
the subject of instrumentation to that of orchestration proper as
inaugurated by Monteverde, a review of the structural and mechanical
evolution of instruments themselves would seem in place.
(Summary on page 26.)
CHAPTER III.
EVOLUTION OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.
The first serious attention bestowed upon the mechanism of
instruments and the selection of those whose qualities should justify
permanent retention occurred during the sixteenth century, and, as
we have seen, the causes that led up to this were extraneous. In
glancing over the names and descriptions of the many varieties of
instruments already in existence before this development began, the
mind becomes easily confused. Many species of stringed instruments
such as lutes, viols, clavichords, harpsichords, not to mention brass
instruments, the schalmei, cromornes, abounded on every hand; but the
deeper the student of instrumental evolution delves into comparative
research, the more he finds authorities at variance. However, the
lineage of the three great representatives of stringed instruments
as are in use to-day--instruments played with a bow, the harp, the
pianoforte, may fairly be traced simultaneously.
I.
Prehistoric origin of stringed instruments, in spite of extant
relics, is a matter of conjecture. History, on the other hand,
suggests various sources in various ages. Of greatest recorded
antiquity are the Egyptian lute and harp, which were struck with a
plectrum or plucked by the fingers. These migrated through Arabia
into Spain, thence to Southern Italy, and became diffused over
all Europe. The Greek lyra or kithara, having originally but four
strings, was also played with a plectrum, and became the heirloom of
the Romans. But to discover the origin of instruments played with a
bow is a more difficult matter. A number of theories are plausible.
Like all other instruments they were probably invented simultaneously
by many isolated barbaric races. The bow and arrow were undoubtedly
suggestive, and it is to be presumed that primitive types of the lyre
family whose strings were originally plucked, were fitted to uncouth
sounding-boards and played upon with a bow. The Hindoos possessed
such instruments, and it is possible that their admission into Europe
was concurrent with that of the lute and harp. In defence of this
supposition, one might point to the dance of the women attending
the Jongleurs. Now the dance is no uncertain revealer of racial
characteristics. But not only the dance itself, but also certain
features of the accompaniment, as well as the types of instruments
peculiar to the Jongleurs bear the impress of Orientalism. As far
as is known, neither the Greeks nor the Romans possessed instruments
played with a bow.
From the Middle Ages on, the study of instrumental evolution is, of
course, based upon authentic history. The most direct line of descent
for bowed-instruments is probably from either the Celtic crwth or the
Oriental rebab to the vielle or viola of the Middle Ages (Spanish
vihuela, Latin fidula), of which the last representative was the
gamba; and the viola da gamba was the predecessor of the violoncello.
The early viols were of manifold types, there being, for instance,
as many as seven viole da braccia and six viole da gambe. The violin
owes its existence to a gradual metamorphosic development of the
early tenor viola, during the latter part of the fifteenth and early
sixteenth centuries. Skill in the manufacture of these instruments
was of an advanced order in the Netherlands prior to the advent
of the great Italian violin makers, whose efforts were eventually
crowned by the immutable sovereignty of the Cremonese creations
at the commencement of the eighteenth century. The introduction
of the contrabasso was likewise of slow growth. For as late as
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries there still existed bass
instruments of the lute family, such as the double-necked theorbo
and the largest bass lute, the chitarrone, which were struck with a
plectrum. But growing appreciation for the wonderful possibilities
concealed in the infant violin proper, of technique, tone, color,
delicacy, and variety of shading, reacted upon the secondary
bowed-instruments, and they in turn were rapidly perfected. Hence,
by a judicious selection of the superior and a suppression of the
inferior types of viols were the violas and violoncellos evolved;
and the theorbo and chitarrone were permanently supplanted by the
double-bass, constructed on the same general principles as the violin.
Although the ideal balance of tone and expressive powers as embodied
in the modern string orchestra justifies the perspicuity of this
selective process in every way, it would seem to be a matter
for regret that a certain species of viols, the viola d'amore,
should have become practically obsolete. Its seven strings were
supplemented by seven concealed under strings, designed to vibrate
sympathetically. One might say that this principle has been
incorporated in the modern grand pianoforte by means of the "una
corda" pedal. But since Meyerbeer resuscitated the viola d'amore in
"Les Huguenots" in 1836, the only living composer who has assigned
to it a conspicuous rôle is, to the present writer's knowledge, Mr.
C.M. Loeffler in his symphonic poem "La Mort de Tintagiles," after
Maeterlinck, indeed the original score contained parts for _two_ solo
viole d'amore though one part has since been rewritten for a violin.
II.
The evolution of the harp is obvious, whereas that of the pianoforte
is more complex. The prototype of the modern pianoforte in its
embryonic state traces its ancestry to all the various types of
stringed instruments taken collectively. Specifically, the primitive
acoustic monochord of Pythagoras might be looked upon as a plausible
starting point. Add to this a keyboard and its attendant devices as
applied to church organs in the earlier centuries of the Christian
era, and the prototype is complete. Be that as it may, there was
developed during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries a family of
widely known instruments embodying advanced qualities of mechanism,
styled "Hackbrett," synonym for cembalo, tympanon, although it is
best known as the dulcimer. According to Dr. Riemann, it originated
apparently in Germany, since for a time it was called in Italy by
the name of Salterio tedesco. The instrument consisted of a flat
trapezium-shaped sounding-board on which steel strings were set,
and was played upon by two hammers held one in each hand of the
performer. In improved form, it is still extant in the hands of
the gypsies. But already at the beginning of the sixteenth century
was the clavichord established as its successor. The clavichord,
according to Hipkins, was derived from the polychord with four
strings, which in turn was developed from the monochord "to
facilitate the melodic division of the Gregorian tones." Directly
appeared still another instrument styled clavicembalo or harpsichord,
of which the psaltery, a triangular harp, was undoubtedly the
ancestor. The spinet and virginal differed from the harpsichord
only as to shape; and in England, virginal was the general term for
spinet and harpsichord. The cardinal point of dissimilarity between
the mechanical construction of the clavichord and the harpsichord
was that the strings of the former were caused to sound by means of
metal tangents, which struck against the strings and then pressed
them up, whereas the strings of the latter were plucked by hard
quills set in wooden jacks. But of far greater importance was the
difference of tone-quality. The tone of the clavichord was delicate,
subdued,--incapable of energetic utterance, but so expressive that
it was a favorite with great musicians; that of the harpsichord was
crisp, short, uniform. A radical readjustment of mechanism was found
necessary in order to combine in one instrument euphony and variation
of dynamic force. Therefore in the beginning of the eighteenth
century hammer-action was invented, and the pianoforte, derived
from the dulcimer, came into existence. Despite this fact, both the
clavichord and the harpsichord continued to hold their own beyond the
boundaries of that century. And so we see that the perfected modern
pianoforte, being but the outcome of a variety of instruments already
in existence three hundred years ago, was unable to supersede them
until the nineteenth century.
* * * * *
Turning our attention again to instruments belonging to the orchestra
proper, we find an inexhaustible subject in the evolution of the
two other great families, the wood and the brass. Most of the
above-advanced hypotheses in respect to origin and migration of
strings are equally pertinent to the wind. But the inference that
the genesis of these latter instruments antedates that of the lyre
and lute is surely justified in that conch shells and the horns
of animals must have offered the most natural means for producing
artificial musical tones. Again, the construction of stringed
instruments suggests a more advanced stage of intellectuality.
Finally, there have been preserved to us from antiquity a far more
numerous and varied array of comparatively natural instruments such
as the Egyptian mem and sebi,--respectively vertical and horizontal
flutes, of which the former was more common and still exists in the
guise of the modern Arab flute. One of the most simple species of
horn was the "Schofar" or ram's-horn, used in the temple worship
of the Hebrews. The Assyrians as well as the Egyptians possessed
trumpets, probably of brass. The war trumpets of the Romans were of
bronze. The deep-toned trumpet or tuba was straight; the high-toned
lituus was bent; and the buccina, large trumpet or trombone, was
curved.
III.
The principle of both single and double reeds was understood by the
Greeks. As a result of the researches of Professor A.A. Howard,
an accurate description of their representative instruments, the
auloi, Latin tibiae, is to be found in "Harvard Studies in Classical
Philology," Vol. 4. His article presents strong arguments in favor
of the belief that instrumental polyphony was actually practised by
the Greeks. Performers upon the auloi played almost invariably upon
two pipes at once. The instruments were supplied with finger-holes,
were capable of producing both the diatonic and chromatic scales, and
may be divided into three classes corresponding, in a general way,
to the three types of wood-winds as are in use to-day. All of them
had a tube of cylindrical bore, but most of them were supplied with a
double mouthpiece like the modern oboe, so that these species of the
auloi can be regarded as the prototype of the preferred double-reeds
that prevailed during the Middle Ages when they went under the name
of schalmei. This nomenclature is confusing; in explanation it should
be said that not until after the original schalmei had developed into
the pommer, thence to the oboe, was the single-reeded predecessor of
the clarinet known by this name. Colloquialism refers to the schalmei
in its later application.
Another double-reed that came into temporary existence during the
Middle Ages was the variety of cromornes. They differed from the
schalmei principally as to form--Krummhorn.
The successors of the original schalmei are described in detail by
Praetorius, who wrote in the first decade of the seventeenth century.
Of the six varieties of pommer mentioned by him, the treble pommer
became transformed into the hautbois (high wood); the alto pommer
into the cor Anglais (cor anglé, bent horn),--known during the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries as the oboe da caccia; and out
of the bass pommer, likewise styled bombarde, emanated the fagotto
(bundle of fagots). As a commentary to the above enumeration one
should take note of a quite remarkable tendency which was, indeed,
already in vogue during the Hellenic age. Namely, that from each
parent instrument whether string, wood, or brass, there germinated
a complete family representing the four ranges of the human voice.
And again from these the process of tribal expansion was carried
yet further. Moreover it must be remembered that before the Middle
Ages, the art of combining human voices in polyphony was but in
a nascent state, and probably existed in classic Greece not at
all. Therefore families of instrumental species cannot have been
constructed for the purpose of obtaining homogeneous _harmonic_
effects. An extensive _range_ of con-natural tone-color was then the
objective. It will be found that this tendency was uniform throughout
the history of instrumental evolution. Of course when we reach the
sixteenth century, we find that the advantage of distributing the
components of harmony among the members of assimilated instruments
began to be appreciated. It is possibly due to this natural evolution
that innovators in orchestration at first accustomed themselves
to the use of pure tone-color rather than of mixed tints. Thus in
the sixteenth century, the flûte à bec, predecessor of the modern
flute, was employed in groups of four. Praetorius makes mention of
no less than eight different kinds as prevalent in his day. Our
chief representative of the single reed, the clarinet, which was not
invented until the end of the seventeenth century, owes its origin
to a primitive form of instrument with clarinet mouthpiece:--the
mediæval chalemiax or chalumeau, whence the phonetic rendition,
schalmei. The now obsolete basset-horn belongs properly to this
genealogy. It was frequently used during the time of its development
by the composers of the latter eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries. From it were devolved the short-lived alto and tenor
clarinets, and the better qualities of all three are now embodied
in the subsequently perfected bass-clarinet. Mention is also due to
the saxophone, invented by Sax in 1840. It should be classed under
the heading of wood instruments rather than of brass, since its
tone-quality partakes somewhat of the nature of the clarinet. It has
a single-reed mouthpiece, and the fingering is akin to that of the
clarinet; but the over-blowing produces the octave as in the flute
and oboe, whereas in the clarinet the twelfth is produced. Sax made
seven different sized saxophones, of which four are commonly in use,
and that particularly in French and American military bands.
IV.
The history of brass instruments is extensive; at the same time their
development is easy to trace. But it must be remembered that only
those instruments possess pedigree from which upper harmonics are
produced, _i.e._ those constructed with long tube and narrow bore.
Even this statement must be qualified in that the French horn is
of modern extraction. Only trumpets and trombones, therefore, are
directly descended from the early Roman instruments with cup-shaped
mouthpieces, such as the lituus and buccina. And in the Middle Ages
there existed side by side two such families,--the Zinken, and the
trombe and tromboni. The Zink or cornetto had a wooden tube pierced
by sounding holes, and was constructed in different sizes. The larger
species was, at the close of the sixteenth century, transformed into
the Serpent, which had a bell of brass. This instrument is still in
use in some Italian military bands. The Zinken were extant in the
hands of the "town musicians" even into the eighteenth century. Akin
to them are the simple Alpine Horn and the Lur of Norway.
In the Middle Ages the trumpet was generally made of brass, and the
tube was at first unbent. The principle of sliding tubes for the
purpose of procuring additional tones to the natural ones of an
instrument was of ancient origin. It was applied to trumpets as well
as to trombones, a practice still in force in England. The obvious
advantage of this device was that a complete chromatic scale could be
obtained, impossible for all other brass instruments at a time when
crooks and valves were unknown. The earlier name for the trombone,
_i.e._ bass trumpet, was sackbut, but the original appellation,
buccina, has been perpetuated in the German Bosaun, now Posaune.
In the sixteenth century, the tromba, synonym for clarino, trummet,
together with the three _genres_ of trombones as used by the
subsequent great classicists, was already perfected as a sliding-tube
instrument. Or one might include both instruments under one heading
by speaking of the tromba as a treble trombone. However, in order to
obtain more efficient high brass instruments, constant experiments
were made. The earlier improvements had obviated the clumsy length of
brass instruments by bending and rebending their tubes. Then followed
the application to the brass of the finger-hole system of the wooden
Zinken. Finally, in the eighteenth century, the introduction of
removable crooks improved the trombe as far as quality of tone is
concerned. But the highest point of evolution was arrived at early in
the nineteenth century, when the perfection of the chromatic valve
principle revolutionized not only the mechanism but also the manner
of writing for trumpets as well as for horns and bugles.
As has been intimated above, the history of the French horn is short.
There is but a slight analogy between it and the _cor de chasse_
of the Middle Ages, an instrument that possessed but few tones.
The genuine French horn made its appearance in the first half of
the seventeenth century, and the stages of its development may be
regarded as centennial. In the eighteenth century was added the crook
principle, in the nineteenth, the valve system. These improvements
were attendant upon those made upon trumpets. Like the trumpet, the
"natural" horn was conducive to purity of tone, the chromatic horn to
greater practicability without material loss of purity.
The family of bugles belong more properly to the subject of military
bands, but a word is due to their evolution on account of the
orchestral importance of one of their members--the bass tuba. The
bugle-horn, also known as the sax-horn, is constructed on acoustic
principles diametrically opposed to those of the trombe family in
that the bore is wider and the tube shorter, whereby the principle of
obtaining harmonics is reversed.
The date of Beethoven's birth signalized the first application of key
mechanism to wood instruments. Simultaneously, experiments were made
upon the now obsolete brass Zinken. The new instrument was called
_bugle à clefs_, and was the forerunner of a group of different sized
opheicleides, of which the lowest supplanted the sixteenth century
Serpent. Subsequently the opheicleide itself was superseded by the
bass tuba, a more noble instrument of the same general family.
V.
The evolution of instruments of percussion requires but brief
mention. Sound-producing apparatus devoid of definite pitch belongs
to the initial attempts of primitive men to assist vocal expression
of emotional feeling, to accompany religious orgies, or to encourage
their warriors on the march. The modern orchestra includes the best
of these primitive species, transformed into perfected types of
genuine artistic value, and has also drawn into requisition various
instruments originating in countries that are far apart. Most
commonly used are the bass-drum, the cymbals, and the triangle. The
family of drums further includes the long side-drum and the small
military drum. With the cymbals and triangle belong the tam-tam or
Chinese gong, the Oriental and Spanish tambourine, the Spanish and
Neapolitan castanets, and the Turkish crescent or bell-rattle. The
use of all such instruments is, of course, the exception rather than
the rule. Their mission is primarily to suggest "local" coloring or
to emphasize rhythm for dancing.
Instruments of percussion possessing definite and variable pitch
are represented primarily by the kettle-drums, which are constant
and indispensable members of the orchestra. The early Hackbrett
or dulcimer might also be classed under this heading, which
further includes the various sets of bells, such as the carillon or
Glockenspiel of Chinese origin, together with the Stahlspiel or Lyra,
and the Xylophone.
* * * * *
This sketch demonstrates the fact that the early evolution of
instruments went hand in hand with that of music in general and is
subject to identical hypotheses. With the dawn of secular music, the
development of instrumental construction and mechanism is focused
upon the sixteenth century, with emphasis upon the anterior practice
of employing complete homogeneous groups.
In order to cover the entire ground, this survey of the development
of musical instruments has necessarily transgressed the bounds of the
sixteenth century perspective. And since we are about to recontinue a
critical review of the orchestra as inherited by Monteverde, it will
be well to remember that in his day the only orchestral instruments
in the modern sense of the word were violins and viols, harps,
flutes, pommers, cornetti, trumpets, trombones. In combination with
these, lutes, guitars, organs, the clavichord and the harpsichord
were still employed.
(Summary on page 26.)
CHAPTER IV.
BEGINNINGS OF ORCHESTRATION.
I.
CLAUDIO MONTEVERDE[1] (1567-1643) is justly styled the
founder of the modern orchestra; but although modern orchestral
organization owes its substratum of solidity and balance of tone to
him, only indirectly was he led to attain this end, for his paramount
objective was artistic expression. Naturally, the employment of
artistically grouped instruments appealed to him as the most
flexible conveyance for expressive thought. Again, Monteverde was
instinctively a dramatic writer, so that as a matter of course the
histrionic efforts of the Florentine experimentalists attracted him.
Finally, when Monteverde entered upon his dramatic career after
having already become celebrated as a writer of madrigals and of
other vocal forms, pure choral music as perfected by Palestrina and
Lasso was at its zenith, and instrumentation in its elementary state
was inseparable from the drama,--it being understood that the early
attempts at oratorio in the _stilo rappresentativo_ were built on the
same general principles as the early operas, without differentiation
in musical or instrumental treatment. Nor were the incipient efforts
at orchestral accompaniment to religious worship of sufficient
importance to be taken into consideration. Therefore, _Monteverde's_
contribution to the chain of æsthetic and practical musical
development consists of his successful search after expressive and
dramatic effects and his reconstruction of the orchestra. He also
broke away from the Church Modes, employed a system of harmony nearer
akin to our own, made free use of the Chord of the Dominant Seventh,
and introduced bolder harmonies and unprepared dissonances. These
harmonic innovations were already noticeable in his earlier vocal
compositions.
[Footnote 1: See Appendix of Musical Illustrations, Examples 1 to 5.]
As we have seen, Peri contributed much to his successors from a
dramatic standpoint, but as for expression, the Florentine _pseudo_
music dramas consisted of a monotonous and long-spun succession of
primitive and dreary _recitativi_ with but little support other than
a _basso continuo_ and meagre chords, whereas Monteverde, absorbed
in the discovery of means by which he might emphasize expression,
developed true creative talent in a diversity of ways. For although
his chord successions were still crude and his perspective for
design but slightly evolved, his realization of the importance of
stage effects led him to intensify the dramatic action, to vary
the tone-color, to extend the functions of the accompaniment to the
voice, and to relieve the monotony of constant _recitativo_ by a more
liberal and artistic use of the _arioso_.
These innovations were destined to wield far-reaching influence.
Though admiration for the earlier pure choral style was soon
rekindled in Italy, it was not long before the two styles, the
old and the new, were combined, as embodied in the oratorios of
Carissimi; and Schütz, who had been taught by Giovanni Gabrieli of
Venice, transplanted these Italian methods into Germany. But the
direct line of development from Monteverde's dramatic theories is to
be traced through Cavalli, and from him through Lulli, into France,
thenceforth the permanent home for histrionic displays; for Italy
turned to a more careful consideration of melodic beauty and taste
for design, whereas the disciples of Schütz, though cultivating the
new principles especially in oratorio, still retained their German
characteristics.
Turning to Monteverde's labors in the field of instrumentation, we
find, in place of the very rudimentary and heterogeneous combinations
heretofore employed, a well-defined and fairly logical assortment
of instruments, the nuclei of which were strings, and it is the
establishment of this nucleus that is epoch making. True, his first
dramatic attempt, "Orfeo," was scored for organs, harpsichords,
lutes, harps, guitars, trombones, trumpets, flutes, and various
members of the viol family, including so-called little French
violins,[2] constituting an orchestra of thirty-six men, of whom
nearly one third were performers upon brass instruments. On the
other hand, it is necessary to take several contingencies into
consideration. In the first place, this orchestra, like Cavalieri's,
was concealed behind the scenes, instructive in its suggestion for
the modern sunken orchestra at Bayreuth. Again, it has been supposed
that the loud-voiced trumpets were muted, a device sometimes employed
for special effects in modern scoring. (As to this supposition,
however, the present writer is of the opinion that the instruments
actually employed were the _cornetti muti_ or soft-speaking trumpets
of wood, and that in translation, the word "muted" has been
erroneously applied.) Finally, although Monteverde was not, like
Peri and Cavalieri, content to depend entirely upon the performers
to supply the necessary chords and embellishments, nevertheless
in the art of instrumentation he was but a pioneer, and most of
his accompaniments were light and of a primitive nature. The very
simplicity of his rudimentary method of scoring is proof that neither
he nor his contemporaries could have realized the resonant powers
of so formidable an aggregation of brass when properly handled; and
just this non-realization was propitious for the early development of
the orchestra, in that, by negative means, noisy trivialities were
excluded from the scores of the early masters. But in antithesis to
this undue preponderance of metallic tone-quality, the employment of
no less than seventeen instruments played with a bow was an immense
stride forward, especially when we consider the fact that within the
same decade lutes and the harpsichord had constituted the body of
embryo orchestras.
[Footnote 2: Ex. 2.]
At the close of the sixteenth century there were still many varieties
of the viol family, but the value of the erroneously styled "little
French violin" is said to have been first appreciated by Monteverde,
who introduced it into his orchestra where its inestimable value
was at once recognized. Profiting by this felicitous innovation, he
continued to emphasize the importance of the string band, enlarged
it, and, by a judicious suppression of the weaker members of the
viol family, established a body of strings that conforms, at least
approximately, to the violins, violas, 'cellos, and basses of the
present day.
Having once for all instituted a rational and permanent foundation
for obtaining solidity of tone combined with facility of execution,
it was a matter of course that the brass should ultimately
appear in more logical proportion to the strings. The progress
of the wood-wind was of slower growth, largely due to technical
imperfections and mechanical difficulties of performance. But,
considering the means at his disposal, a commendable appreciation
for contrasted groups of instruments is embodied in the pages of
his later works,--indeed, already in "Orfeo" can be traced this
tendency to enhance the dramatic situation by means of judicious
tone-coloring. Oft-quoted illustrations are the accompaniment of
Pluto's songs by four trombones, the lament of Orpheus by bass viols,
the chorus of spirits by _organi di legno_. And in his riper works,
intelligent instrumentation and characteristic orchestration progress
simultaneously. The introduction of the _tremolo_, _pizzicato_, and
other dramatic and expressive devices is attributed to him. He showed
some system of scoring, which included more specific instructions
for the performers than had hitherto been the custom.[3] And the
fact that he distinguished between vocal and instrumental effects is
of historic value in that it paved the way for the advent of purely
orchestral composition.[4]
[Footnote 3: Ex. 1.]
[Footnote 4: Monteverde's admitted position at the dawn of
orchestration constitutes so vast a point of departure in scientific
method, that the unprejudiced writer of to-day must, toward
Monteverde rather than toward anyone else, weigh and sift opinions
as to his intention, however much these opinions combat each other.
The statements of the present writer that Monteverde was the first to
suggest instrumental characterization in his music--the same being
evidenced in the scores that have come down to us--are supported
by the majority of investigators. There are, however, others who
have followed the same trail and whose conclusions are as worthy of
future credence. These declare that it is only a fantastic conceit,
which grew out of the circumstance that in the list of characters
and instruments in the prefatory matter of the score of Monteverde's
"Orfeo," there is a chance association like Pluto's name standing
opposite the trombones, etc., which, falsely reasoned, has placed
Monteverde in an epoch-making niche where he should not be.]
II.
It is remarkable that the direct successors of Monteverde should have
been more or less blind to the latent powers of this newly vitalized
organism,--this prototype of the modern orchestra. Even Carissimi
(1604) cannot be included among the progressive writers for the
orchestra, indeed, his art of scoring stands lower than Monteverde's.
Of course, in the development of oratorio, his dramatic influence was
of great importance. He caused the monodic style to advance rapidly,
by infusing into _recitativo_ and the _aria_ more spontaneity, into
instrumental accompaniment greater interest. Though inferior to
Monteverde in originality, Carissimi evinced a keener appreciation
for plastic and tonal effects. His eminent pupil, Cesti (1620), is
likewise to be remembered less for his instrumentation than for
his further development of _recitativo_ and the _da capo aria_ in
connection with the operatic stage.
On the other hand, Cavalli (1600), apart from the fortuitous
influence his sojourn at the court of Louis XIV had upon Lulli,
inherited a more decided talent for orchestration from Monteverde,
whose pupil he was. His interesting experiments in writing
accompaniments for two violins and a bass established a precedent
that survived the test of many years. Like Monteverde, his instincts
were strongly dramatic, but perhaps his connection with St. Mark's
Church modified his style of writing for the orchestra. For more
especially his _a capella_ sacred works are imbued with considerable
warmth of expression, and show sentient regard for melody, rhythm,
and form. And thus, even as Carissimi displayed but little feeling
for purely instrumental effects, though holding a unique position
as a composer of oratorio, so Cavalli must be regarded as primarily
a dramatic writer,--indeed, among the immediate successors of
Monteverde, he alone succeeded in substantially furthering dramatic
development in Italy, that is to say, the development of dramatic
ideals as had been attempted by the Florentine neophytes of Greek
tragedy. For as Langhans expresses it: "After him Italian opera
gradually diverges from the path originally taken, and sacrifices the
antique simplicity aimed at by its founders to the ever increasing
demand for sensuous charm. The alliance of poetry and music,
dissolved in the Middle Ages and renewed but a few decades before, is
again broken off, and the equilibrium that had just been acquired is
sacrificed anew to the claims of music."
III.
But while the nature of Italian music after Cavalli's time was
subject to variable influences, France took up the cause of drama
with enthusiasm, and in this field LULLI (1633-1687) looms
up as the sole dictator of his age. Favored by the extravagant
demands for display and spectacular effects prevalent at the court
of Louis XIV, Lulli proceeded to develop dance forms as had been
inaugurated by his predecessor, Cambert, whose position he usurped.
The _ballet de cour_, already in vogue in France, consisted of
dances, dialogues set to music, combined with dramatic episodes.
Out of this native form of entertainment, modern French opera was
destined to germinate. Having found this a suitable prototype as
a basis for his operas, Lulli proceeded to imbue it with exotic
principles. Like Monteverde, he discarded the ecclesiastical modes.
Again, he adhered strictly to the requirements of his text, and
developed declamatory recitative as promulgated by Cavalli. And to
the reactive influence of the Italian monodic theorem upon French
literature during this brilliant period of Corneille, Molière,
Racine, does France owe the excellence of her declamation.
But, considering the versatility of the man, once again a
disappointing analogy to the peculiarly prominent deficiency of
Carissimi and Cavalli confronts us. For Lulli's orchestration was,
like that of Meyerbeer two hundred years later, sensational rather
than of enduring worth. By no means is Lulli's universal genius
as organizer, composer and orchestrator to be undervalued, nor is
the importance of his influence upon subsequent French music to
be lost sight of. But it is evident that the direct evolution of
really stable instrumentation was benefited, during this period,
more by the crowning achievements of Scarlatti, and by the labors
of the secondary Italian composers, who devoted themselves more
especially to purely instrumental music, and thereby sowed the seed
for subsequent purely orchestral music in Germany. It is true that
credit is due to Lulli for having introduced into his orchestra a
large variety of instruments, which he used with considerable skill,
although all of them were not suitable for permanent retention; but
it would appear to the present writer that Lavoix, in his "Histoire
de L'Instrumentation," page 216, is, perhaps, somewhat extravagant
in his eulogy of Lulli's orchestration, especially since he
previously makes but passing reference to that of Scarlatti. Again,
similar use of solo effects and of contrasted groups of instruments
as cited by Lavoix is also to be found in the scores of Lulli's
predecessors and contemporaries in Italy. Indeed one might say that
in general the efforts of these early composers to obtain genuinely
characteristic tone-color are apt to be overestimated, for, as Lavoix
himself subsequently acknowledges in regard to Lulli:--"[French:
Il faut l'avouer, c'était encore au violon qu'il avait confié ses
scènes symphoniques les plus délicates et les plus expressives.]"
Finally, even though strings formed the basis of his orchestra,
augmented by wind instruments both wood and brass, the irrepressible
harpsichord, solicitous for the welfare of her flock, and fearful
lest emancipation from her protectorate should result in chaos,
still closely followed the harmonic delineations of the legitimate
orchestral instruments, supporting them, as it were, in concentual
leading-strings! Had Lulli and his contemporaries understood the
art of judiciously distributing the notes of a chord throughout the
orchestra, not to mention the proper choice in number and species
of instrument, this custom would have soon fallen into disuse; and,
as we know, not until this did take place one hundred years later,
was it possible to obtain ideal solidity, balance of tone, contrast,
and variety. By a coincidence, the year of Beethoven's birth sounded
the death-knell of the orchestral harpsichord, for in the opera
"Mitridate," written in that year, Mozart was the last of the great
composers to employ it as a regular component of the orchestra.
To Lulli, therefore, orchestration was but a secondary issue, in
spite of the importance he attached to it. Form, on the other hand,
was permanently benefited by his labors, whereas, in musical history,
he occupies the second of the four pedestals sustaining the arch that
spans the realm of pure music drama, and retires into the mythical
haze of Hellenic tragedy.
IV.
As intimated above, further survey of the field of instrumentation
in Italy discovers commendable activity, such as was displayed by
Legrenzi; by Steffani and Clari; by the violinists Torelli, Vivaldi,
and especially Corelli; finally, by the greatest musician both active
and creative of the seventeenth century, Scarlatti.
The labors of Legrenzi (1625) are worthy of consideration on account
of his logical development of the constituency of the orchestra.
As Maestro at San Marco, Venice, he increased the number of
instrumentalists at that church to over thirty. It is noteworthy that
he employed almost exclusively violins and viols, supported in the
bass by four theorbos (_i.e._ bass instruments of the lute family).
The wood-wind was represented by a solitary bassoon, whereas two
cornets and three trombones replaced Monteverde's earlier assortment
of brass. And thus, already in the seventeenth century was found a
man whose perspicuity in the choice of a modest band of loud-voiced
instruments commended itself for some of the mightiest climaxes of
Beethoven's immortal works.
The significance of chamber music as fostered by Steffani (1655) and
Clari (1669) is, of course, well known in musical history. And the
wonderful impetus given to the art of violin-making, by stimulating
a development of executive technique, brought forth fruit that
culminated in the regency of a number of famous violinist-composers.
Among these, Torelli (died 1708), for the creation of the _concerto
grosso_, Vivaldi (died 1743), for the development of harmonic
design and figuration characteristic of his instrument, and Corelli
(1653-1713), for combining principles of harmony with contrapuntal
devices, rendered invaluable service to the nascent architecture
of modern string writing. For by exploring the possibilities of the
violin, by establishing its superiority as a solo instrument, by
demonstrating not only its potentiality but also its limitations in
relation to other instruments, there arose, in consequence, a more
delicate perception as to the necessary constitution of an evenly
balanced string band. This acquirement was accompanied by improved
methods of writing for the strings.
No composer of his time combined these requirements more successfully
than Corelli, for the types of composition which occupied his
attention were the precursors of the classic sonata, and his
contributions thereto mark the starting point of genuinely artistic
instrumental music. Corelli's relation to chamber music and the
concerto is as that of Monteverde to the orchestra. Neither of
them was a radical reformer; they both proceeded along the more
conservative lines of evolution, selection, elaboration. The
scaffolding of their respective spheres of activity had already
been reared by that countless throng of forgotten and unappreciated
workers, whose mission it is to make smooth the path for the greater
lights, that appropriate and mould into collectaneous form the puny
though individual originality of the lesser. But whereas nothing
more than a pious interest in an historic heirloom has preserved
Monteverde's efforts from falling into oblivion, those of Corelli
have been perpetuated by reason of their intrinsic merit.
V.
The highest development of productive musical art during the
seventeenth century culminated in SCARLATTI[5] (1659-1725).
And orchestration was aided by him to no small degree. Of course,
his name is primarily coupled with the Neapolitan operatic
principles,--principles that ultimately led to baneful results,
in spite of having enriched the world with sensuous and beautiful
melody. Only a cursory review of Scarlatti's expansive activity is
permissible as being mostly irrelevant to our subject. Reared in the
characteristic atmosphere of Carissimi's cantatas and oratorios,
impelled by poetic instinct and fondness for melodic design, he
enlarged upon the _da capo aria_, the _recitativo accompagnato_,
and in general paid careful attention to the external structure of
the separate numbers in his operas. Above all, Scarlatti became the
knight errant though eventually the thrall of _il bel canto_.[6] Now
highly developed vocal phraseology demands judicious accompaniment,
and good orchestral accompaniment requires a nice adjustment of
dynamic force combined with skill in writing. It was fortunate,
therefore, that Scarlatti possessed both these attributes; and
through the channels of this important branch of orchestration,
independent orchestration received permanent form. Let us see how
this metamorphosis took place.
[Footnote 5: See Appendix of Musical Illustrations, Examples 6 to 9.]
[Footnote 6: Ex. 7.]
Retrospection shows us that Peri, initiating a rudimentary dramatic
style in place of Flemish polyphony, contributed but slightly to the
advancement of instrumental accompaniment. He and his collaborators
wrote little more than a figured bass for the harpsichord, and at
performance they evoked the aid of the adventitious efforts of
a motley aggregation of instrumentalists. The printed scores of
Schütz are equally primitive. In France, the lyrical stage piece
of Perrin and Cambert, "La Pastorale" (produced in 1659--the year
of Scarlatti's birth) showed some slight improvement in the art of
scoring; but it has been said that even Lulli composed his operas at
the spinet, and at times delegated various details of instrumentation
to his secretary. Monteverde established a nucleus of strings.
Cavalli developed three-part writing for two violins and a bass.
Legrenzi regulated the "distribution" of instruments. Corelli and
his contemporaries advanced technique of performance and cultivated
instrumentation in the miniature.
The task allotted to Scarlatti was, therefore, not difficult. He
accepted the already established supremacy of strings, but soon
realized that three-part writing did not produce even balance of
tone. Consequently, he adopted a manner of writing which comprised a
division of the violins into firsts and seconds. He added, moreover,
an individual part for the violas, and thereby established a canon of
phonetics that has been accepted by all erudite composers since his
time. It is true that these characteristics of orchestration cannot
be said to have originated with him, but his persistent use thereof
established a precedent of permanent value. In three-part writing,
not only the violoncellos and basses progressed simultaneously in
unison or octaves, but also the viola, if present, reënforced the
bass in slavish delineation. It is obvious that this practice was
the result either of sophism or of indifference and ignorance. And
the fact that as late as the eighteenth century no less a composer
than Haydn and even Mozart should have continued to frequently employ
three-part writing for the strings is certainly a paradox, and tends
to prove how circuitous the process of evolution is. However, Haydn
and Mozart had such perfect command of florid counterpoint, that no
matter what the distribution of string parts might be, the results
were invariably effective.
Four instead of three notes of a chord being now properly dispersed
among the strings,[7] Scarlatti proceeded to enrich his orchestra by
a logical employment of wind instruments in pairs. The harpsichord,
of course, continued to hold its own, but the Händelian principle
of long held notes in the wind against more agile string passages
is already to be found in his scores, a principle of which Lulli
was also cognizant. But Scarlatti's orchestra was more plastic than
Lulli's, and his overtures more purely instrumental.
[Footnote 7: Ex. 6.]
As has been stated, Italian culture of the violin and the increasing
regard in which that instrument was held, led to the development of
execution as well as to an appropriate style of writing for it on
a well defined harmonic basis. These improvements were, moreover,
further reflected by a more earnest attention to the progress of
other instruments, both as to mechanism and technique. As a result,
musical performances improved rapidly, and the isolated, purely
instrumental numbers of the opera, heretofore utterly disregarded
by the public, began to excite comment. Whereupon Scarlatti, keen
to perceive any nascent inclination on the part of his audience,
turned to a more careful consideration of the overture. His motives
for doing so may not have been of the highest, but the results
were directly beneficial in that by eliciting warm approval, these
overtures were eventually performed as concert numbers apart from
the opera. Though short in form, they consisted of three or four
distinct, well-rounded movements, and were destined to become the
prototype of the classic symphony.
In specifically instrumental music, Scarlatti paved the way for Bach
and Händel by writing for two violins and a violoncello, treated as
soli instruments to an accompaniment of a string orchestra.
Finally, the components of his orchestra--represented in his most
felicitous scoring by violins, violas, 'cellos, double-basses, two
oboes, two bassoons, two horns--were practically identical with those
of the early classicists.
So we see that the orchestra as bequeathed by Scarlatti was based
upon a well organized body of strings, supported by a modest array
of wood and brass instruments. Differentiated style of choral and
instrumental writing was accentuated, and although polyphonic
mannerism was still prevalent in orchestration, a tendency for
individualistic instrumentation was at least apparent. On the other
hand, the latent passion of the violoncello, when emancipated
from the double-bass, was as yet unknown; and the harpsichord, by
reënforcing the inner harmonies, covered the deficiencies of the wind
instruments. That the mechanism of the latter should have remained in
so immature a condition at a time when the delicate organism of the
ideal string quartet had already been perfected, is but the result of
natural causes. For when the supremacy of the viols was once for all
established, it was of primary importance that _their_ efficiency,
above all others, should be enhanced; and thus subsidiary instruments
were for the time subjected to at least comparative neglect.
The varied labors of Purcell (1658) were without the zone of eclectic
progression. Although he adapted the cyclic style of Corelli, and
kept in touch with the music of Lulli, whom, it is claimed, he even
excelled in instrumentation, he remained true to the traditions of
the English Church and English drama.
VI.
While examining the progress of orchestration, the parallel growth
of organ and clavier music should not be forgotten. A comprehensive
glance at the series of important writers in these branches will
suffice to refresh the memory.
A distinctive style, initiated by the earlier Italian composers,
Merulo, Andreas and Giovanni Gabrieli, was first exploited by
Frescobaldi (1583). He promulgated a novel style of organ playing
and contributed to the development of the fugue. After him,
organ composition became the prerogative of the Germans, and
the seventeenth century is represented by Scheidt, Froberger,
Kerl, Reincken, Buxtehude, finally Pachelbel (1653). In Germany,
Italy, and France, the subsequent chief exponents of clavier
music were respectively Kuhnau, Domenico Scarlatti, and Couperin.
Coincidentally, all three were born in the same decade as Bach.
By thus comparing the prodigious activity displayed in every branch
of music, we find, as the ultimata of this epoch, that homogeneity
in general had given place to a system of related tonalities,
vitalized rhythm, diversified figuration, and a rational mode of
expression. Moreover there were two distinct elements to build
upon,--polyphony, as embodied in the contrapuntal _sonata da chiesa_,
and the popular dance, the pivot of the _sonata da camera_. These two
styles were capable either of further unassociated development or of
reconciliation. By still further adding to such an amalgamation the
principle of reiteration and thematic development of a single thought
as the motive for a composition, we have as a resultant the cyclic
form--first the Suite, earliest of complex forms, then the Sonata.
Musical art was now ready for a master hand who should weld its
component parts firmly together. And that master was Bach.
(Summary on page 27.)
SUMMARY OF PART I
CHAPTER I. THE CRADLE OF INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC.
I. Two impelling forces: emotional expression of human feeling
and pagan religious rites, account for musical development among
primitive men.
Authentic history traces higher development through Egypt and the
Orient to the Hellenic races, when poetry and music became conjoined.
II. Under the protectorate of the Roman Church, melody acquired
plastic form, and systems of harmony, notation, and measure were
established.
III. The lyrics of the troubadours revived a cult for individual
emotionalism--the inherent characteristic of the Folk-song, which now
influenced, and finally dominated the Gregorian Chant.
IV. Polyphonic choral art of the Netherland School developed
consecutively contrapuntal technique, euphony, objective
emotionalism, and culminated in the works of Lasso, when it was
rivalled if not eclipsed by the creations of Palestrina. But the
style of this era lacked rhythm and form. These essentials, together
with tonality and a distinctive secular style, were subsequently
to be developed in connection with solo singing and independent
instrumental music.
CHAPTER II. THE DAWN OF INDEPENDENT INSTRUMENTATION.
I. A desire for increased vitality and florid figuration led to
embellished organ accompaniment. This process devolved to other
instruments. Hence instrumentation acquired individuality, contrast,
expansibility.
II. Search for intensified expression and dramatic effects led to
attempts at monody. The principles of monody are to be traced to the
Miracle Plays, the Troubadours, the Greek tragedies. A semblance
of these tragedies as transfused into Florentine monody led to
recitative and lyric solo. These contained the germ of opera and
oratorio, for which accompaniment was a requisite. In consequence,
selective acumen for species, balance, quality, variety, developed
orchestration.
CHAPTER III. EVOLUTION OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.
From primitive stringed instruments played with a bow, such as the
Celtic crwth and the Oriental rebab, devolved the vielle, thence the
subsequent varieties of viols proper, finally, at the end of the
sixteenth century, the modern string quartet.
The pianoforte owes its origin to the monochord and psaltery
with keyboard attachment, as developed from the dulcimer of the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the clavichord and harpsichord
of the sixteenth to the Hammerklavier of the eighteenth century.
The clavichord was derived from the monochord, the harpsichord from
the psaltery, the pianoforte from the dulcimer. The strings of the
dulcimer were played upon by hammers held in the hand; the clavichord
strings were mechanically pressed up; those of the harpsichord
were plucked by quills; whereas the pianoforte is supplied with
hammer-action.
The invention of wind instruments probably antedates that of strings.
Emanating from the ancient Egyptian vertical flute, the flûte à bec
of the Middle Ages matured into the modern horizontal flute. Akin to
the single-reed species of the Greek aulos, Latin tibia, were the
popularized schalmei, predecessors of the pommer and oboe families.
The single-reeded modern clarinet, that came into existence the end
of the seventeenth century, was an outgrowth of the chalemiax of
mediævalism.
From the Roman lituus and buccina devolved side by side the trombe
and Zinken of the Middle Ages. Experimental development through
the stages of bent tubes, slide mechanism, finger holes, removable
crooks, chromatic valves, perfected the valve-trumpet, the
bugle-horn, the slide-trombone.
Instruments of percussion are the parents of all other instruments.
Certain species subsequently became distinctly characteristic of
certain distinct races; those most effective are now incorporated in
the modern orchestra. Of significant importance are the kettle-drums
by reason of their unalloyed artistic value.
CHAPTER IV. BEGINNINGS OF ORCHESTRATION.
MONTEVERDE'S creative genius led to three tangible
results:--(1) Dramatic expression; (2) the founding of a serviceable
orchestra based on bowed instruments; (3) diversity of style between
vocal and instrumental composition.
(1) In writing for the stage, he aimed at an intensification of
dramatic effects, variety in tone-color, a freer accompaniment,
and relief from the monotony of recitative by the employment of a
primitive arioso form. The fruits of these dramatic efforts were
reaped by Carissimi in Italy, Schütz in Germany, Lulli in France.
(2) The founding of a serviceable orchestra was the result of his
expressive and dramatic instinct fostered by the attempts of the
Florentine experimentalists,--orchestral music and the drama being,
moreover, at that time practically inseparable. His orchestration
emphasized the value of strings, readjusted the balance of the wind,
and suggested contrasted choirs of instruments.
(3) Diversity of style between vocal and instrumental music pointed
the way to independent orchestral composition.
* * * * *
It was not the greatest of his successors that directly furthered
the cause of orchestration. Carissimi in oratorio, Lulli in opera,
only incidentally enriched instrumental accompaniment as a means
to an end. Of greater stability were the orchestral efforts of
the secondary composers of this era, of whom Cavalli, Legrenzi,
Corelli are the most important. Cavalli established the precedent
of three-part string writing, Legrenzi of equilibrium and a fairly
adequate supply of strings, whereas their superior, Corelli, by
developing violin technique, made possible a style of writing that
ultimately matured into the classic sonata. Further originality
was displayed in the chamber music of Steffani and Clari, in the
_concerto grosso_ of Torelli, in the combined harmonic and rhythmic
effects of Vivaldi.
* * * * *
In direct lineage from Monteverde, SCARLATTI stands as the
second great orchestral innovator. His three principal achievements
were:--(1) Balance of tone in the strings by the judicious
distribution of the four notes of a chord; (2) numerical suppression
of overpowering wind-instruments, and a logical usage of the same in
pairs; (3) enlargement of the exterior and thematic development of
the interior construction of his overtures. Incidentally, through
readjustment of dynamic force, the viola gained individuality, and
the strings were enabled to stand out in relief against the wind.
* * * * *
The general tendency of the era was one of universal musical
progress in specialized instrumental writing. Homogeneity yielded to
systematic harmonic progressions and well defined rhythm. Upon this
basis, a unification of the dance movement, polyphony, and thematic
treatment was effected in the following century.
PART II.--THE CLASSIC ERA.
CHAPTER V.
BACH, HÄNDEL, AND THEIR CONTEMPORARIES.
An attempt to portray in a felicitous manner the progress of
orchestration during the classic era is apt to carry one between
Scylla and Charybdis. On the one hand lies the temptation to enlarge
upon the biography and extraneous achievements of the great masters,
on the other, the danger of superficiality. Minuteness of detail as
aimed at in the previous chapter when the beginnings of orchestration
rested in the hands of a comparatively small number of men is here
incompatible, in view of the desire for conciseness. Moreover,
extended panegyrics would of necessity consist of but a flatulent
plagiarism upon the voluminous and admirably written works already
in existence. The safe course to pursue is therefore to survey the
era as a whole in its relation to the orchestra, merely touching upon
a very few of the distinctive characteristics peculiar to the most
celebrated exponents.
Naturally one turns to that unbroken chain of Teutonic peers, beside
whom all contemporary efforts were puny. Of these six,--Bach, Händel,
Gluck, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, it might be said that only the last
three were direct evolutionists of the symphonic orchestra; for
Gluck was absorbed in exploring the _dramatic_ characteristics of
instrumentation, and as to Bach and Händel, in spite of their titanic
contributions to music itself, neither of them can be regarded as an
orchestral innovator, though this statement savors of heresy.[8]
[Footnote 8: It should be borne in mind that the "heresy" of the
present writer is chargeable only when consideration of Bach's music
comes before or takes the place of what Bach did in the development
of _orchestration_, which is the first consideration of this book.
Of course, it is beyond question that in his instrumentation as
distinct from orchestration, Bach added to the possibilities of
the instruments existing at that time,--notably as shown by the
obbligato wind parts, the gamba and 'cello solos, etc., in the
Masses, the Passions and the Church Cantatas. These prove a much
larger appreciation of orchestral color than was known in music for
three-quarters of a century after him. Nevertheless it must not be
forgotten that for many years Bach's music obtained for itself only
restricted recognition, which therefore justifies the above made
statement that Bach was not a direct evolutionist of the symphonic
orchestra.]
I.
BACH (1685-1750), comparatively a recluse, was but little
known to his contemporaries. His mode of life, however, was only
partially responsible for this neglect, for the fact that a German
imitation of Neapolitan methods was in predominance at that time,
is of especial significance. Thus Haydn and Mozart, who might have
reaped incalculable benefit from his experience, were unfamiliar
with the greater portion of his works. This fact alone is sufficient
to disconnect his name from the direct lineal chain of orchestral
evolution. However, in view of the stupendous posterior influence his
music was destined to wield, one cannot thus summarily pass over his
contributions to orchestration.
Tersely stated, the ideal of this polyphonic giant revealed itself
in subtle expression as concealed in his filigree of mercurial
counterpoint, in the portrayal of inner feeling, and in profound
religious fervor. A Teuton to the core, he stands as the symbolic
exponent of organ and Protestant Church music. His arias are imbued
with dramatic intensity and lyric pathos, and if at times portions
of them seem archaic, one must remember that his art had assimilated
the earlier church style and was but the corollary of it. His Passion
Music not only still exists, but retains its full vitality. His
church style is that of the organ, and the organ was for him the
intermediary to orchestration.
Although Bach's instrumentation was by no means equal to the
substance of his wonderful conceptions intended for orchestration,
he did not neglect to study the prevalent Italian style of scoring,
and was, to say the least, a progressive orchestrator, even if not an
innovator. In his great organ works, the employment of chromatic and
enharmonic modulation, the perfection of the fugue, the development
of earlier strict forms eventually caused vocal music to yield
precedence to instrumental. And Bach transplanted this polyphonic
style into the orchestra with the result that the treatment of each
individual instrument was distinctly melodic. Now this interwoven
texture of austere polyphony, though resulting in a complete
negation of analyzed tone-color, contained the essence of effective
orchestral solo writing, as typified in his _concerti grossi_.
Bach frequently employed the organ as the centre of his orchestra,
though the instrument was never aggressive. Around it were clustered
differentiated groups of the usual variety, whose mission it was to
add specific unities of color rather than volume of sound.
But when Bach had occasion to introduce episodes of simplicity
by way of contrast to his usual polyphony, his scoring for
wood-wind was not so felicitous, and in loud passages, even when
adequately represented, they were prone to be eclipsed by the
strings. It is true that he was frequently hampered by a paucity of
instrumentalists, but subsequent renditions of his orchestral works
tend to prove that he failed to extract the best results from the
wind. In uniting choral writing with the organ, Bach must evidently
have been aware of the acoustic phenomenon that a literal redoubling
of vocal and organ parts results in the complete absorption of the
latter. For in his choral masterpieces, where the organ and orchestra
are simultaneously used, we find, as a means of insuring contrast,
passages wherein entire chords in the orchestra are employed as
passing notes against held chords in the chorus and organ.
Bach's orchestration, therefore, stands for polyphony; melodic
treatment in the voice-leading of each and every part both inner and
outer; contrasted choirs of affiliated instruments for giving variety
to the various sequent movements in relation to each other, rather
than for episodic contrast or variety in the separate movements by
themselves.
A striking contrast to Bach's secluded and uneventful career is to be
found in that of his illustrious contemporary.
II.
HÄNDEL (1685-1759), the man of the world, represents
the realistic, and the æsthetics of melodic form. As suzerain of
oratorio, he handled the orchestra primarily as subsidiary to the
voices. Unlike Bach, his influence upon organ and clavier music
was small. And the value of his forty insipid Italian operas lies
only in the experience it gave him in manipulation of vocal forces,
and the benefits derived from keeping in touch with a cosmopolitan
public. His oratorios are the composite of the orthodox style of
the church, the traits of the Neapolitan School deprived of their
meretricious tendencies, and a precocious expressive and dramatic
instinct, the birthright of his own genius. Ultimately was added to
this composite the inspiration offered by the English anthem and
the talent of Purcell. Indeed, although the centripetal ideal that
guided him was spontaneous and original, it must be acknowledged
that in the setting of his brilliants is to be found an extraneous
aggrandizement, resulting, not from eclecticism, but from plagiarism.
Thus unvarnished phrases of Corelli and Alessandro Scarlatti were
boldly transfused into the works of Händel when his own Muse failed
him. This Italian influence betrays itself in the comparative
simplicity of his modulations, and in his but moderate use of
striking dissonances. The skeleton of his harmonic structures was
reared on a simpler basis than Bach's; on the other hand, the massed
effects of his choral polyphony have never been surpassed.
His instrumental forms were likewise Italian, and his orchestration,
though masterly, was not so conspicuously original as that of his
immediate great successors. Strings as the nuclei were supported by
a large number of reeds. In orchestras which included twenty-five
strings, frequently no less than five oboes and five bassoons would
be employed. Even our modern mighty aggregation of from fifty to
sixty strings would hardly bear the adjunct of ten reeds,--indeed,
three oboes, one English horn, three bassoons, one contra-bassoon
(eight in all) would represent the maximum if tonal equilibrium were
to be preserved. However, two extenuating circumstances for this
Händelian custom should not be overlooked. His method of writing for
the wood did not embody those characteristics subsequently discovered
by Haydn and Mozart; again, the instruments themselves lacked power.
The criterion of Händel's orchestration rests almost exclusively
in his oratorios. Here the mission of instrumental accompaniment
was to support, strengthen, intertwine; for Händel was in quest of
solidity, sonority, vitality,--terms which in this connection might
be considered the synonym for the above three.
His usual method for full scoring was to double the violin parts
with oboes, and the basses with bassoons. Clarinets had as yet no
status; flutes added ornamentation; the brass was fully represented
in logical proportion, though it was then the custom to write high
trumpet parts. Next to the violins, the oboe was Händel's as well
as Bach's favorite solo instrument. The organ played an important
rôle in his oratorios, and he employed the harp freely for historic
representations. Together with Bach, he was practically the last to
make use of the theorbos. At least passing reference is due to his
trios, which constitute so important a contribution to the literature
of chamber music. His contrapuntal overtures and interludes, where
the wood-wind are allowed greater freedom, display considerable
variety. Finally, at this period the harpsichord was fortunately
losing its fallacious value as a musical component of the orchestra,
being retained rather as a means for conducting.
But as already stated, Händel learned to regard the orchestra not as
an unenthralled entity, but rather as the chief ally of oratorio,
for which the corner stone was Italian melody, the foundations
comparatively simple harmonic progressions, and the superstructure
the human voice, surrounded by an orchestral trellis. And the
resultant was a massive tonal edifice.
THE CONTEMPORARIES OF BACH AND HÄNDEL.
Before proceeding to a survey of Gluck's revolutionary
accomplishments, it would seem in place to analyze the artistic
progress of the lesser lights of this period. And since the crisis
of Gluck's life was not reached until a century after the birth of
those two giants, Bach and Händel, even though they were his direct
predecessors and eventual contemporaries, chronological dates must
needs give place to the logic of evolution.
III.
=Italy.= In the previous chapter, the progress of orchestration
in relation to its beneficent guardian, the drama, was traced from
the improvements initiated by Monteverde through those of Scarlatti.
These new doctrines were, of course, assiduously seized upon by
the latter's contemporaries and immediate successors. But indeed
it was not until the advent of Spontini as late as the first part
of the nineteenth century that Italian orchestration was again
represented by an exponent of more than secondary importance,
taking into consideration the achievements of Rameau in France,
not to mention the great German masters. For Pergolesi excelled
particularly in string writing, whereas Cherubini's scoring shows
German influence rather than Italian. Nevertheless, Neapolitan
propagandism exerted world-wide influence, and was directly fostered
by such men as Buononcini, Durante, Porpora, Leo, Logroscino, all of
whom were born in the last quarter of the seventeenth century; to
the same chronological period belongs also Lotti (1667), a worthy
representative of the Venetian School, who, although primarily a
composer of sacred music of marked individuality, wrote a number
of operas for Venice as well as several for Dresden and Vienna.
Having resided for two years in Dresden, he aided the diffusion
throughout Germany of operatic and orchestral principles that were
conspicuously Italian even if not specifically those of Naples. Like
him, Durante devoted himself almost exclusively to sacred writing.
Leo, though producing many dramatic works as well as oratorios and
chamber music, aided the advance of Italian art more as the teacher
of Jomelli and Piccini than by his creations. Both G. Buononcini and
the singing teacher, Porpora, were through the irony of fate led to
aid artistic evolution by negative means, so to speak, since the
trend of their ambitions brought them face to face with the genius of
Händel, upon whom their machinations acted but as a stimulus. For,
as will be remembered, Buononcini's defeat in London was followed
fifteen years later by a second unsuccessful rivalry instigated by
Porpora's faction. Logroscino is to be remembered for his development
of opera-buffa and of the Finale as subsequently applied by Piccini.
But it is clearly evident that none of these representative Italian
composers contributed materially to orchestration with the exception
that their instrumental accompaniments acquired greater freedom.
The brief career of Pergolesi (1710-1736) was consummated during the
interim dating approximately from Gluck's birth to Haydn's. His fame
is confined not alone to his sacred works, such as the Stabat Mater,
but to his dramatic productions as well, of which the finest example
is, of course, "La serva padrona," of opera-buffa propinquities.
His proclivity for employing an orchestra of strings alone, as
exemplified in the above mentioned representative works, was
fortunate in that thereby he was able to concentrate his thoughts
upon finish and detail, such as served as a valuable model for the
period in which he was living, when string writing was as yet at an
immature stage.
IV.
=Germany.= In Germany itself Italian influences predominated,
and interest was centered chiefly upon the opera, in connection
with which Scarlatti's tenets of writing for the orchestra were
diligently copied. German dramatic activity paved the way to the
establishment in 1678 of a permanent opera house in Hamburg, which
enjoyed uninterrupted existence for sixty years. Most prominent
among the composers for and directors of this enterprise were Theile
(1646), Keiser (1674), Mattheson (1681), and Telemann (likewise
1681). Of these, Keiser accrued the greatest temporary popularity by
reason of his prolific and sensational though shallow versatility.
His orchestration, which was of the lightest kind, included various
alternating groups of instruments. Fétis states that Keiser employed
in his opera "Frédegonde" sometimes the strings alone, or the
clavichord together with plucked stringed instruments and a bass.
Again, the voice was accompanied by a single violin, an oboe and a
bass, oboes alone, or a flute and viols. These combinations present
nothing new; they were but in accordance with the customs of the
times. Telemann also was possessed of a reputation sufficient to
overshadow in his day that of Bach. Though the importance of his
activity has since been reduced to insignificance, credit is at least
due to him, not alone for his dramatic writings, but also for his
contribution to concert and chamber music, which frequently revealed
strong German tendencies, all too rare in the midst of Neapolitan
sovereignty. So-called symphonies, overtures, concertos, quartets and
the like are included in Telemann's exhaustless list of compositions,
and in view of his intimacy with Bach, these works must have wielded
at least transitory influence upon the experimental stage of that
master's instrumentation and orchestral form. Händel likewise for
three years devoted his energies to writing operas for the Hamburg
stage; but this was in his youthful days, and, as has been already
intimated, these attempts were but puerile and can have no possible
bearing upon the art of orchestration.
Emanuel Bach (1714-1788) was also unquestionably attracted by the
doctrines of this histrionic circle, although he was never directly
associated with it. (Incidentally, therefore, it should be noted
that he was not the successor of Telemann as director in operatic
lines, a statement erroneously set forth by one historian of repute;
he did succeed him as church musical director but not until later
in life. In support of this correction it is but necessary to call
attention to the fact that in 1738, the very year in which the
degeneracy of the Hamburg operatic experiments culminated in the
relinquishment of the enterprise, Emanuel Bach, being but twenty-four
years old, went to Berlin, where two years later he became chamber
cembalist to Frederick the Great.) The results of his efforts are of
value to posterity in that he was instrumental in causing musical
composition to be established on a more decidedly harmonic rather
than contrapuntal basis. For although he honestly endeavored to
fathom the profundity of his illustrious father, the subtle influence
of his courtly surroundings and the effervescent superficiality of
Neapolitanism could not but have its effect upon his art. Again,
his early training was such as to foster a regard for what has been
called the "gallant" style, and, as Dr. Riemann states it: "to this
very tendency he owes his greatness, for by it he became the father
of modern instrumental music, the precursor of Haydn, Mozart, and
Beethoven in the department of the sonata, symphony, etc., which he
clothed in more pleasing modern dress;" and thus "the son of the last
master of the old school became the founder of the new school."
Passing reference is due to three further German contemporaries
of Händel who were slaves to Italian principles. These were Hasse
(1699), Graun (1701), Naumann (1741). After the downfall of the
Hamburg stage, two distinct efforts were made to establish Italian
opera at Dresden. Now the Dresden orchestra is over three hundred
and fifty years old, and the interest attached to the name of Hasse
is due to his prominent connection with that organization and the
constitution of the same under his management. This band had been
noted for its excellence already in the earlier stages of its
existence, and even at the time of Monteverde it enrolled no less
than thirteen strings and ninety-three instruments of wood, brass,
and percussion. These dimensions were of gigantic proportions for
those days, indeed, they compare favorably with the present size of
the Dresden orchestra. That of Hasse was but half as large, but the
distribution of parts was, of course, infinitely superior, and an
orchestra of even fifty instruments, of which only half were strings,
could readily have overpowered singers of Italian opera, had it not
been for the subservience of the accompaniment to "il bel canto,"
the meagre quality of tone of the wood-wind, and the "thin" scoring
then in vogue. It consisted of twenty-five strings in judicious
apportionment, two flutes, five oboes, five bassoons, two horns,
besides trumpets, trombones, kettle-drums and two clavichords. The
prominence of reed quality and the incorporation of two clavichords,
from one of which Hasse conducted, was in accord with the usages
which Händel accepted. Hasse stands as the most successful native
exponent of extraneous ideas, and, like his method of conducting
which originated in Italy, his harmonic progressions as well as
his instrumentation are of the simplest kind and disclose the same
influence.
Graun achieved renown first as an opera singer, next as an opera
composer; but of more enduring worth are his sacred compositions.
Nevertheless he and Hasse were for a time the only _maestri_ who
wrote for the Berlin Opera, and the orchestral scores of Graun
are considered by some to suggest a transition from the earlier
symphonies to those of Haydn. One of his cantatas is scored for three
flutes, three oboes, two violins, one viola, a bassoon, and a chorus
in six parts. To this series of composers belongs properly the name
of Naumann, even though he was born in the following generation; he
displayed a fatal facility in expressing himself in conventional
formulas, and his career was interrupted only by the ascendency of
Gluck and Mozart.
V.
=France.= French musical art owes the stability of her early
dramatic growth to three eminent composers: Lulli, Rameau, Gluck; and
the first and the last of these were foreigners. Moreover into their
hands was entrusted the moulding of French orchestration, for French
orchestral music was not destined to disengage itself from bondage to
the drama and assert itself as a clearly defined indigenous product
until the nineteenth century. A sharp line of demarcation must be
drawn between each respective career of these three pillars of the
nascent stage. For Lulli had appropriated to himself all the glory
attendant upon the Royal Opera, not alone as the director but as
composer as well. Not until after his death did it become possible
for others to reap the benefits of experience in hearing their own
works produced, in consequence of which, latent talent had had
no chance to expand. And the interim between Lulli and Rameau is
signalized as a period of reaction during which the efforts of even
the most prominent writers were but a pale reflection of those of
their illustrious master.
Three composers, born in the second half of the seventeenth century,
namely Campra, Destouches, Mouret, were the immediate successors
of Lulli, and dedicated their services, such as they were, to the
conservation of his ideals. Of these three men, Campra is popularly
called the link between Lulli and Rameau. Campra possessed genuinely
dramatic instincts, exercised his talents along sacred lines as
well as secular, and revealed certain traits of independence and
originality in that he dared to depart from Lulli's somewhat austere
style by emphasizing the necessity for augmenting rhythmic effects,
which was distinctly beneficial in the development of orchestration.
It is interesting to note that he was the first Frenchman to employ
the _cor de chasse_ in opera, although Lulli introduced it into
some of his ballets. The contributions of Destouches were of small
intrinsic value other than the fact that the chivalrous surroundings
of his earlier career as an officer had nurtured his natural
temperament for the graceful and refined. And so with this æsthetic
touch of a composer otherwise lacking in musical education, he added
his mite to the development of daintiness in instrumentation, such as
the use of two piccolo flutes in thirds in one of his ballets, and
other minor though interesting details. Of Mouret's operas little
can be said; but he deserves honorable mention for his labors as a
conductor of the "Concerts spirituels," which, as the name implies,
had been founded in 1725 to occupy the _interregna_ whenever the
opera houses were closed for religious reasons. Consequently, his
name is rightfully connected with the evolution of the concert
orchestra, for the "Concerts spirituels" exercised a discriminating
influence at a critical time in French musical history, especially
since subsequently, about the date of Beethoven's birth, it was
reorganized by Gossec, with the result that it sprang into prominence
equal to that of some of the foremost orchestras of Europe.
With the advent of RAMEAU (1683-1764), who was born two
years before Bach, the _Opéra_ was again lifted out of the lethargy
into which it had fallen. Rameau, first to offer to the world a
theoretical explanation of harmonic relationship built upon a
logically scientific basis, was exactly fifty years old when he
made his début as an operatic writer, indeed, he did not reach
the summit of his success until about the time of Mozart's birth.
And since Gluck's Parisian career dates from the decade in which
Beethoven was born, the chronological relationship in the labors of
Rameau and Gluck can the more readily be compared. Rameau's handling
of dramatic resources was superior to that of Lulli, in fact, his
methods were of sufficient merit to be subsequently absorbed by Gluck
himself. The three cardinal points of departure from traditional
usage that have caused the name of Rameau, first of the genuinely
French masters, to be so highly respected are his daring harmonic
innovations, the important rôle assigned by him to the dramatic
chorus, and what is more, the importance attached to orchestral
accompaniment, together with increased independence and prominence
for the orchestra itself, as well as enriched instrumentation in
detail. Since most of his operas are published in condensed form,
which, with the exception of the _ritornelli_, contain but the vocal,
violin, and bass parts, facilities for a satisfactory examination
of his instrumentation are usually lacking. This is a matter for
regret, since many of his detached instrumental numbers are veritable
little gems of descriptive writing in the miniature, not dissimilar
in style to those written by his contemporary, François Couperin, who
was mentioned in the previous chapter as one of the three earliest
exponents of characteristic clavier music.
Though Rameau made but few changes in the constituency of the
orchestra, there was assigned to each instrument an individual
and appropriate rôle, and the tone-colors cross and intermingle.
He extended the range of the violins, aided the independency of
accompaniment by the frequent use of arpeggios in the strings, and
was the first to use _pizzicato_ chord effects in the entire body of
strings at once. Although he did not employ the harp, he imitated its
characteristics by means of _pizzicati_ strings. Two horns and even
two clarinets are frequently to be found in his scores, and lighter
touches, such as the accompaniment of the voice by two flutes and a
violin, or three oboes and a bassoon, are also to be met with.
As has been already intimated, the triumphs of Rameau were followed
by a second interim that lasted for nearly twenty years. But
in the case of this second interim, France was not destined to
remain so comparatively unproductive as during the first. For
the same period that heralds the crowning point of Rameau's fame
ushers in the beginnings of French comic opera, for which date
Mozart's birth is again a convenient reminder. As a result of
partisanship for the Italian "bouffons," the philosopher, Jean
Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), wrote both the words and music of
a little French pastoral in the style of the prevailing Italian
_intermezzi_, and thereby excited the interest more especially
of the younger composers. Duni, Philidor, and Monsigny, who were
born in approximately the same quarter century as Rousseau, were
particularly happy in their efforts to evolve from this germ a
lighter and more popular style, and are therefore to be regarded
as the founders of _opéra comique_, which, in the next generation,
was to be moulded into plasmic form by Grétry. And no style could
have been more beneficial for extricating orchestral writing out
of the stiff and prosaic confines within which serious opera was
prone to restrict it. On the other hand, Italian orchestration was
leaning more and more toward pernicious conventionalism and tawdry
superficiality. Here again the early _opéra comique_ appeared as
a felicitous counterbalance, and infused into the orchestra that
sparkle and piquancy for which French instrumentation has ever since
been famed. True, none of these minor composers contributed signally
to the advancement of orchestration, but each helped in little ways,
and their instrumentation was more correct and finished than that
of their prominent successor, Grétry. Their orchestras were still
somewhat massive, but showed progress in vigor and sonority, variety
and lightness of instrumentation.
And so when Gluck arrived in Paris there existed already four
distinct schools for orchestral writing--the rising classic purity of
his own native land; the Neapolitan traditions, fast deteriorating
into triviality; the legacies of Lulli, revivified and improved upon
by Rameau; and the virginal essays at phosphorescent scoring in
lighter vein.
(Summary on page 68.)
CHAPTER VI.
GLUCK AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES.
I.
GLUCK (1714-1787), the third of the great drama reformers,
and predecessor of Wagner in the establishment of dramatic
continuity, did not appear as the champion of revivified Hellenic
ideals until advanced in years. Though he had long harbored an
intense antagonism to the paltry conventionalities of the existing
lyric drama, his tenets awoke no sympathetic chord in his native
land. And thus it came about that the arena of Lulli's scintillating
pageantry witnessed the rehabilitation of genuine, legitimate, and
unaffected histrionic art. This was attained by a return to a severe
and truthful mode of musical declamation, by clothing the several
stage characters with distinctive individuality, and by instilling
into his music-dramas in their entirety, reflection, simplicity,
sincerity, pathos, nobility. The chorus was raised to importance, the
function of accompaniment rendered more virile, and the orchestra
was made to enhance the dramatic situations. Three defects are
noticeable. Gluck made no attempt to break down the barriers of
stereotyped operatic forms, his melody is at times stilted, and his
music is guilty of frequent grammatical errors. Despite these facts,
his choruses are worthy examples of dramatic effect, and the formal
structure of his overtures is more rounded than those of even Bach
or Händel. But it cannot be said that his genius was conspicuously
original; he was essentially a reformer, not an innovator. For as Mr.
Edward Dickinson expresses it in general terms: "Gluck's success was
not due to his melodic invention or mastery of musical science, for
in neither of these particulars can he be ranked among the greatest
composers. His ability consisted rather of producing great effects
with simple means; the severe grandeur of his style was especially
suited to the antique subjects which he chose, and this style was in
conformity to the peculiar genius of Greek tragedy."
To independent orchestration Gluck contributed but little,
but, considering the age in which he lived, none have excelled
him as an interpreter, by means of the orchestra, of pathetic
expression, or in the use of appropriate instrumentation, varied
and rich tone-coloring. To quote from Parry's "The Art of Music,"
page 220: "Moreover, the expressive qualities of his admirable
recitatives are very much enhanced by his way of dealing with the
accompaniment. He neglected no opportunity to make use of the
qualities of his orchestral instruments--as far as in him lay--to
enforce and accentuate the situations, and even to intensify the
passing moment of feeling implied by the dialogue. Composers were
successfully developing the sense of the functions and resources
of instrumentation. Even Gluck's rival, Piccini, made some very
appropriate effects by using his instruments consistently with
the spirit of the situations. But Gluck applied himself to the
matter with far more intensity, and far more genuine perception of
the characters of the instruments. Indeed it would be hardly an
exaggeration to say, that he was the first composer in the world
who had any genuine understanding of this very modern phase of the
art. Mozart was the first to show real natural gift and genuine
feeling for beautiful disposition of tone, but Gluck anticipated
modern procedure in adapting his colors exactly to the mood of the
situation. A good deal had been attempted already in a sort of
half-hearted and formal manner, but he was the first to seize firmly
on the right principles and to carry out his objects with any mastery
of resources." On the other hand, "his orchestration has none of
the roundness or balance or maturity of Mozart's. It is unequal and
uncertain, and requires humoring in performance to make it produce
the effect which is intended."
Gluck relied to an excessive degree upon the string band, and his
orchestral writing lacked that balance which the contemporary
and sequent classicists regarded as the fundamental requirement.
Notwithstanding, his instrumentation exhibits many original insignia
that are worthy of record. Thus he demonstrated the dramatic power
of low-written viola parts, made varied and characteristic use of
the tremolo, was the first to introduce mutes into the orchestra in
his "Armide," and caused the trombones to emerge from their hitherto
menial subservience, and stand forth in all their dignity and tragic
power of portraying peace, sorrow, fear, religion, majesty. And by
proving the superior effectiveness in employing a group of three
trombones, he established a precedent that has been endorsed by all
subsequent composers.
But it must be confessed that in turning over page after page of his
scores, one discovers the fact that in deploying his wood-wind Gluck
usually laid but modest demands upon them. Their duties were more
commonly restricted to the lending of comparatively simple tone-color
for heightening dramatic action, or for relieving the monotony of
prolonged use of strings alone. Of weird and tragic effect is his
concentration of all high wood-wind _unisono_. But many of his other
orchestral characteristics bear the impress of conventionalism then
in vogue, which soon becomes monotonous; and his manner of writing
for the deeper instruments causes much of his orchestration to sound
heavy.
All things considered, the same must be said of Gluck as of his
vancourier, Lulli, and of the great oratorio composers, Carissimi
and Händel--neither he nor they were attracted by the kaleidoscopic
potentiality of the orchestra when isolated from its kindred rivals,
the opera and the oratorio. And although his name is to be revered
for having opened up the resources of the orchestra, the attention he
bestowed upon it was but a reflection of the greater glories that he
offered up to the shrine of dramatic lustration.
THE CONTEMPORARIES OF GLUCK.
For two hundred years dramatic writing had now dominated musical
art, therefore orchestration as well. The best fruits of these two
centuries of experiments having culminated in the reforms of Gluck,
his music dramas, with their continuity of action and dignity of
subject-matter, were to be surpassed only by Mozart's splendid
attainments, by reason of the latter's perfect melody, pure form and
admirably adjusted orchestration.
A final glance at the dramatic situation of Europe with the date
of Beethoven's birth as a consistently convenient landmark will
be necessary in order to comprehend the significance of Mozart's
operatic constellation as it appeared on the horizon. For the decade
beginning with 1770 was replete with big events, preordained, as it
were, to do homage to the future master--Beethoven. Of the generation
born between 1714 and 1756, further mention has yet to be made of the
Frenchman, Grétry, of the Germans, J.A. Hiller and Dittersdorf, and
of the conservators of declining Italian dogmas, Jomelli, Piccini,
Sacchini, Paesiello, Cimarosa, Salieri.
II.
=France.= After the defeat of the kindly Piccini,--who deserves
more credit than is usually awarded him, not alone for his graceful
melody, clear and sonorous orchestration, but especially for his
judicious application of the orchestral instruments to the demands
of a situation,--the stage of the French capital, now monopolized by
foreign composers, patronized for a brief period the productions of
the Neapolitan Sacchini, and of Salieri. The former was also a fair
composer of chamber music, whereas the latter is signally notorious
for his intrigues against Mozart. Both of them were pupils of Gluck,
and their instrumentation was but an imitation of his. But meanwhile,
after GRÉTRY (1741-1813) had fairly launched his graceful
conceptions, the public soon recognized in him a worthy successor to
Rameau, even though the _genre_ of his offerings was of a different
mould. Interest in imported art waned, and the career of the second
great French composer began.
Grétry, though founding a permanent and powerful national school
that was distinctly the opposite of tragedy, was an ardent disciple
of Gluck's doctrines, being himself even more of a radical in his
indifference for actual singing as a mode of dramatic interpretation.
But in spite of his sensitive perception not alone for truthful
interpretation, but as well for melodic design and novel scenic
effects, his comparative neglect of the orchestra is unique in the
annals of musical history. His strings were generally written in
three parts, with frequent gaps between the bass and the two upper
voices. His harmonies were usually too thin, and his orchestration
as a whole was conventional and uninteresting. Fortunately his
delicate musical thought did not require elaborate instrumentation
as a means for expression, and so he rarely drew upon the resources
of the orchestra for more than was absolutely necessary in simple
accompaniment to the voice. Grétry is cited as having declared that
the accompaniment to solo singing should be as the pedestal to the
statue; but unfortunately his own orchestral accompaniments do not
conform to this pretty saying, for his pedestals were feeble and
lacked the essentials of ornamentation. And although Grétry towers
above his contemporaries as the first great representative of _opéra
comique_, he contributed practically nothing new to orchestration
other than the introduction, in a few isolated cases, of some unusual
instruments of percussion and other minor details of instrumentation.
III.
=Italy.= In 1770, Jomelli, who for fifteen years had occupied
the post of Hofkapellmeister in Stuttgart, had just returned to
Italy, where he found Paesiello in high favor, and Cimarosa about
to begin his operatic career. Both Paesiello and Cimarosa were soon
to pose as rivals to Piccini as well as to each other, but of the
two, Paesiello was possessed of more scholarly attributes which
found outlet in numerous independent instrumental works, including
twelve symphonies and six quartets, whereas Cimarosa displayed
simpler though more spontaneous fertility, and his works are better
known to posterity with whom he ranks as one of the greatest
Italian composers of his day. Nevertheless, the instrumentation of
both Paesiello and Cimarosa was weak and non-progressive. The most
prominent contemporary exponent of chamber music was Boccherini,
who is credited with the authorship of no less than three hundred
and sixty trios, quartets, quintets and the like, besides twenty
symphonies. In antithesis to the transportation into Germany of
exotic ideas, Jomelli and other Italians living in Germany showed
the influence of their new surroundings by improved orchestration,
though unfortunately this had but little immediate effect on their
compatriots at home. For the Italians still held tenaciously to
their traditions, and handled the orchestra principally as a means
of support for and contrast to the human voice. Fearful lest the
singer should be overpowered, they were overcautious; as a result,
their scoring was thin, and decidedly weak in the bass. Jomelli's
efforts are therefore especially praiseworthy. In his operas, the
orchestra acquired greater importance, and, like Sammartini, he
awakened also a keener interest for purely instrumental music. He was
one of the first to make really effective use of the _crescendo_,
increased the efficiency of the violins by adding richer and more
varied ornamentation, and showed a tendency to make proper use of
tone-color. In a word, his instrumentation, together with that of
Pergolesi, ushered in a new epoch in Italy.
IV.
=Germany.= The seed of the new movement in France soon bore
fruit in Germany in the form of the Singspiel, which, however,
sturdily maintained its indigenous characteristics, since not the
form but the spirit only of the French comic opera with spoken
dialogue had been accepted. J.A. Hiller, as the prime mover in
thus establishing a national form of operetta, was emulated by
Dittersdorf, who learned much from the French composers, though
more from Haydn, as is evidenced by the form and instrumentation
of his symphonies. The climax of German operatic enterprise in
the eighteenth century was reached when in 1778 the "Deutsches
Nationalspiel" was founded in Vienna, bringing to that city lasting
prominence in dramatic affairs. For the liberal spirit that was shown
in throwing open its doors to all worthy applicants, irrespective
of nationality or style of writing, attracted such composers
as Gluck, Dittersdorf, Salieri, Mozart. And the eclecticism in
objective, in form, in orchestration, that consequently pervaded the
artistic atmosphere which Beethoven was soon to breathe, must have
unconsciously struck a sympathetic chord in the insatiable longings
of Beethoven's soul to find food for his selective and synthetical
methods of procedure.
V.
=The Concert Orchestra.= Meanwhile the concert orchestra
was rapidly winning wider recognition, since Haydn and his
contemporaries, Sammartini, Gossec, Grétry, had already excited
marked attention. In 1770 the "Concerts des Amateurs" were founded
by Gossec, followed shortly by his reorganization of the "Concerts
spirituels." And but a few years later the Leipzig Gewandhaus, of
which Hiller was the first conductor, was placed on a permanent
basis, being largely due to his untiring efforts in behalf of
orchestral concerts.
Although the permanent bulwark of modern instrumentation was reared
by Haydn, important experiments were successfully developed by
the Milanese, Sammartini, and the Bohemian, Stamitz, both of whom
were born at the same period with Gluck; further by the German,
Cannabich, and the Belgian, Gossec, both born in the same decade
as Haydn; finally, by the Frenchman, Grétry. Thus representatives
of five nationalities were simultaneously engaged in carrying
on the same work, their fields of activity being, moreover,
widely dispersed. Sammartini, also noted as the teacher of Gluck,
remained loyal to his own city; Gossec and Grétry were occupied in
Paris; Stamitz and Cannabich, conductors rather than composers,
were successively settled as directors of the Electoral band at
Mannheim.[9]
[Footnote 9: To this list might properly be added the name of the
Italian, dall'Abaco, since his scores, being now also available for
study, reveal many interesting traits pointing toward originality and
progress. He is to be classed among the earlier composers of this
period, for he was prominently associated with the musical life of
Munich during the first part of the eighteenth century.]
It is a peculiar coincidence that Italy, which has never yet produced
a great symphonic writer, should be able to point to Giovanni
Sammartini as the earliest exponent of this form in the modern sense.
For already in 1734 his first orchestral symphony was produced in
Milan where he was conductor. At that date Haydn was but two years
old. Of course Sammartini obtained no such results as did his great
German successor, but he at least suggested the proper course by
which clearer form and healthier orchestration might be secured,
and his instrumentation abounds in new and interesting traits. In
addition to having written a host of symphonies, of which twenty-four
were published, his labors in other branches of composition were
prodigious. Incidentally, his experience as a writer of string
quartets taught him the value of the viola, in consequence of which,
independent parts for that instrument as advocated by Scarlatti are
likewise to be found in his orchestral scores.
The value of Gossec's persistent energy in both building up the
standard of already existing orchestral organizations and in
establishing a new one is twofold. For not only was the French
public educated to encourage home talent to seek expression in
independent orchestral language, but also by affording these same
French aspirants frequent opportunity for hearing the masterpieces
of foreign contemporaries was the French style of writing for the
orchestra immensely strengthened and broadened. Considering the close
affinity that bound Gossec's birthplace to France, he may well be
regarded as a representative of the country which he had adopted as
his own. As the founder of the first genuine symphonic orchestra
in France, he himself set the example as a diligent composer of
symphonies and string quartets, although, unfortunately, the former
were at first not favorably received. Nevertheless, his perseverance
eventually won the day, especially after he had been crowned with new
laurels as an operatic composer; and at the time of the Gluck-Piccini
controversy, some of his later symphonies finally obtained for him
that recognition to which he had aspired. Lavoix avers that Gossec
was the first French writer to make use of the clarinet. Again, its
introduction into the Opéra in 1772--just in time to be of service
to Gluck--is apparently authenticated by Francoeur. Since, however,
the clarinet was already embodied in Rameau's scoring, the present
writer desires to call attention to these obvious discrepancies. At
all events, we know that the resources of the clarinet were developed
by both Gossec and Gluck, even though at that time only an incomplete
scale in the keys of C and F could be obtained from the instrument.
Gossec was not conspicuously original either in instrumental form or
in orchestration, even though his Requiem, for example, does contain
instances of interesting scoring. Neither does the fact that his
first symphony preceded Haydn's by five years credit him with being
an epoch-making orchestral composer. For his productions, like those
of Sammartini, are now but of historic interest, whereas Haydn's
still find ready listeners. And so his place in history is distinctly
that of pioneer and promoter of independent orchestral performance,
and with the organization of the "Concerts des Amateurs" his programs
included the works of such foreign composers as the Belgian, van
Malder, the Bohemian, Wanhal, likewise Stamitz, eventually Haydn.
His career is certainly unique, since in view of the fact that he
was born two years after Haydn's birth and died two years after
Beethoven's death, the complete panorama of the classic era was
unfolded before his eyes, and during the course of his ninety-five
years it was his privilege to witness the ascendency in turn of
Gluck, Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven together with their co-workers.
During his lifetime, moreover, there sprang into existence also
the Romantic Movement which, emerging out of the later works of
Beethoven, was seized upon and elaborated by Spohr and Weber with
their followers.
A striking illustration of the extent to which at this period
the concert stage was already exerting its power is afforded by
the biography of Grétry, who in spite of his restless dramatic
disposition found time, in the enthusiasm of his productiveness, to
write no less than six symphonies, not to mention a number of minor
works in the form of chamber music--and this in the face of the fact
that he did not know how to write for the orchestra! His saving grace
in this field was his fund of humor, tuneful melody and sound musical
judgment.
Notwithstanding all that has just been said, these signs of activity
in France cannot be compared with contemporary achievements in
Germany, henceforth to be the permanent home and supreme arbiter
of cyclic form and stable instrumentation. And not the least of
the inceptive stimuli leading to the discovery of the proper
constituency of a perfectly balanced orchestra must be accredited to
the Mannheim orchestra, which became celebrated under Stamitz and
Cannabich. At the time of Mozart's birth, that organization embraced
a string band of ten first violins, ten seconds, four violas, four
'cellos and four double-basses. It will be seen at a glance that
excepting a paucity of violas, the value of plentiful strings and
their numerical relation one to the other was keenly appreciated.
The wood-wind was likewise logically represented by two flutes, two
oboes, two bassoons, to which clarinets were added some ten years
later. There were also four horns, twelve trumpets and trombones,
kettle-drums, an organ, and a chorus of twenty-four voices. Why so
many instruments of brass should have been considered necessary is
open to question. Independent parts for not more than two horns and
two trumpets was the rule among the early symphonic writers, and not
one of Haydn's symphonies contains parts for more than two horns,
neither did his simple demands require more than two trumpets. True,
Mozart occasionally called for four horns in his earlier works, but
like Haydn, he used trumpets but sparingly. It is hardly conceivable
that competent conductors of so noble an organization could have
been guilty of such inartistic procedure as to allow the brass,
comparatively unimportant as their functions were at that time, to
be reënforced by reduplication. These supernumerary instruments must
have remained silent at concert performances, being reserved rather
for dramatic representations or sacred renditions for which they
could be of more legitimate service.[10]
[Footnote 10: Another plausible explanation is that the extra
trumpeters and trombonists should be accredited to the "Hof Musik,"
which may have been only an adjunct to the "Hof Kapelle." Their
principal duty may have been to announce the arrival of the Elector
by a fanfare, and to give other signals at the many public functions
of the Court. It has been pointed out to the present writer that this
theory seems confirmed by an illustration in a book covering this
period where is shown a boxful of trumpeters at a Court performance
of opera at Dresden.]
Interesting are the comparisons between the constituency of the
Dresden orchestra in 1732 and that of Mannheim in 1756. It will be
remembered that when referring to Hasse, the Dresden Opera was cited
as harboring twenty-five strings, wood-wind instruments to the number
of twelve, two horns, a number of trumpets and trombones, besides
kettle-drums and two clavichords--in all some fifty instrumental
performers. And, as already enumerated, the orchestra at Mannheim
was comprised of thirty-two strings, six wood and sixteen brass
instruments, as well as kettle-drums and organ, making a total of
about sixty. All in all, the venerable operatic orchestras during
the eighteenth century were the fuller and richer in resources, and
were in possession of a larger numerical disposition of wood and
brass even if inadequately supplied with strings. But the tendency
to correct this deficiency in the constitution of concert orchestras
resulted in the acquirement of greater elasticity and transparency,
which was of all importance for the interpretation of the works
of the great classicists whose servitor the orchestra was soon to
become. And subsequently in writing for specific orchestras for
which a sufficient number of strings had not yet been supplied, it
may be that these masters intuitively presaged that this much needed
metamorphosis of internal organization would gradually take place
as the direct reflex of their own exalted demands for improved
instrumentation and artistic rendition. Fortunately, sentient
appreciation for careful rehearsal leading to a high standard of
rendition had already found a champion in Emanuel Bach, and this
objective was jealously fostered by Gossec, Stamitz and Cannabich,
all of whom devoted themselves assiduously to the obtainment of
purity of tone, equality of dynamic force, precision and coöperation,
elasticity, phraseology, _nuance_. Naturally, the violin, by virtue
of artistic merit and paramount importance, received their most
careful attention, in consequence of which the standard of the
strings as a whole was elevated to that proficiency which made it
possible for the classicists to employ them with such freedom as had
never before been essayed.
The aim of this comparative survey of orchestras and orchestration
as related with the complex phases of musical progression during the
careers of Bach, Händel and Gluck has been to elucidate the artistic
situation as found by the three succeeding masters.
(Summary on page 68.)
CHAPTER VII.
HAYDN, MOZART, AND BEETHOVEN.
I.
It is almost superfluous to say that HAYDN[11] (1732-1809),
the true father of the modern symphony and string quartet, was, after
Monteverde and Scarlatti, the most potent factor in establishing a
perfectly balanced orchestra as a whole. Indeed, one might modify
the eulogy previously bestowed upon Monteverde, and say that whereas
_he_ may be looked upon as the father of modern instrumentation,
_Haydn_ was the father of modern orchestration. Like Monteverde,
he was constantly experimenting, being, moreover, aided by his
exceptionally favorable position at the court of Prince Esterhazy.
To such an extent are his achievements known to all, that it is
permissible to but touch upon the vital landmarks which constitute
the distinguishable features of his quasi-created cyclic forms. This
term is used advisedly, for although he accepted the erudite forms
of his predecessors and contemporaries, and, like them, devolved the
symphony from the earlier _concerto_ for several instruments, he
improved upon these forms to such a degree, that they emerged from
their archaic chrysalis in rejuvenated attire.
[Footnote 11: See Appendix of Musical Illustrations, Examples 10 to
17.]
Lack of space forbids more than a passing reference to the
coevolution of the string quartet, that momentous vehicle for the
sonata form, whose growth was concurrent with that of the symphony.
But in both these branches of art Haydn left his indelible stamp upon
the creations of Mozart and Beethoven, indeed Mozart, though more
emotional and impressive, did not enlarge upon Haydn's form, and even
Beethoven, the tone-poet, remained to the last true to its substance.
Parenthetically it should be remembered that on the other hand
Haydn's quartets and symphonies were in turn influenced by Mozart,
from whom, moreover, both he and Beethoven acquired a more subtle
insight into the skilful handling of the wood-wind. The symphonies of
Haydn and Beethoven have been felicitously compared by styling those
of the former, comedies, those of the latter, tragedies. Finally, the
extent to which the reputation of Haydn's symphonies travelled is
discovered in the already mentioned performances thereof in Paris (at
the "Concerts des Amateurs," founded by the Belgian Gossec, for which
organization Haydn specifically composed several symphonies), not to
speak of his triumphs in London as well as in the musical centres of
his native land.
These rather extended references to the rise of symphonic music are
surely justifiable in that from it dates the dynasty of monarchical
orchestration.[12]
[Footnote 12: It is not intended to belittle the original and
valuable efforts of the Mannheim composer, Stamitz, and of the
several other representatives of various nations as referred to
on pages 42 and 43, even though preëminence in the development of
orchestration and form is accorded to Haydn and Mozart.]
Haydn's development of his formal architecture can be summed up by
saying that he knit together and enlarged the cycle of complex forms,
extended the separate movements individually, imparted to them order,
clearness, variety, and developed free thematic treatment.
As has just been stated, the orchestra in Haydn's plasmic hands
improved as a unit. He introduced no new instruments excepting later
on the clarinet, indeed, his scores betray on the whole a greater
reticence in the employment of numeric varieties of instruments than
do those of Bach and Händel. Haydn's genius matured slowly; his
earlier scoring does not exhibit any advanced degree of originality,
and not until after Mozart had in turn become the greater did Haydn
stand forth in the true strength of _his_ greatness. The antennae
of that long-lived crustacean, the Neapolitan School, had touched
even Haydn as they had Händel before him, and the influence was
directly beneficial, since it modified the Teutonic tendencies
inoculated by his predilection for the style of Emmanuel Bach, and
fostered a regard for melody. Though he used no new material, Haydn
instituted a freer method of employing each instrument according to
its peculiarities and powers. Despite the fact that he was addicted
to the custom of three-part string writing as established by Cavalli
long before, he developed the art of welding the component parts
firmly together, and thereby secured vitality and elasticity.
The strings were now one complete and compact body.[13] Careful
attention was bestowed both upon the manner of writing for them and
upon a judicious numerical selection of each species to the end that
they might not only balance, but also assist and show off to the best
advantage the characteristic qualities of every part, one against
the other. Only the violoncello was as yet subservient, and the
harpsichord was still retained.
[Footnote 13: Ex. 16, 17.]
In the distribution of the parts for the wood-wind, he at first
imitated Händel's usual methods of merely reënforcing the string
parts in unison. But having benefited by repeated practical
experience, and especially after the appearance of Mozart upon the
arena, Haydn's writing for the wood became freer.[14] The oboe, whose
functions are now largely supplanted by the more feminine and soulful
clarinet, was much used as a solo instrument. And when at last the
great classicists came upon the discovery that by supporting a solo
instrument with held chords in the wind,[15] they could attain a more
pliant mode of expression than had been possible in the earlier
stiff and formal polyphonic style,--from that time on a new and
poetic pathway was opened up, and the modern style of writing for the
wood-wind may be said to have fairly begun.
[Footnote 14: Ex. 11, 14, 15.]
[Footnote 15: Ex. 13.]
In the use of the brass Haydn was conservative. Trombones were absent
from his symphonic scheme, and the province of trumpets, if they
were used at all, was exceedingly primitive, so that only the horns
gained greater freedom of treatment. Thus, for example, the valuable
and eventually common custom of strengthening the bass by sustained
tonic and dominant horn parts was employed by Haydn in his symphony
in D, No. 2 (Breitkopf & Haertel). But more than two real parts for
horns are not to be found in any of his works, and the demand for
four horns in the Hunting Chorus in his "Seasons" will, at a glance,
be recognized as having for its purpose the reduplication of two-part
writing, so as to obtain a clearer melodic delineation. And although
prominence of metallic quality was thus acquired, the rich chord
effect of later times is conspicuous for its absence.
When Haydn wrote his first symphony at the time when Mozart was in
his infancy, he employed, in addition to strings, only two oboes and
two horns. By the end of the eighteenth century, the normal symphonic
orchestra had been increased so as to include strings, two flutes,
two oboes, two bassoons, two horns, two trumpets and kettle-drums. To
these were quite occasionally added two clarinets. The rôle of the
trumpets as well as of kettle-drums was to augment the effectiveness
of climaxes, to emphasize rhythm, to add virility, or to suggest
martial portraiture. But the harp shared the fortunes of the
trombones in that it was as yet denied admittance to the symphonic
phalanx.
Of incidental interest is the characteristic deployment of bassoons
in the slow movement of the symphony in D already referred to; and
the introduction into the orchestra of massed short chords struck
simultaneously by all the strings must also be attributed to Haydn.
Finally, his "Creation" embodies successful expedients for
descriptive writing. In this masterpiece, the strings, together with
a full complement of wind instruments in pairs, are further augmented
by the usual kettle-drums, a double-bassoon, and three trombones,--an
aggregation which, apart from the manner of using it for the purpose
of tone-painting, is typical of Beethoven's enlarged orchestra as
employed in his crowning graphic movements. However, this demand for
so huge an apparatus as the assistant to Haydn's mightiest choral and
embryo-romantic composition was exceptional, and as the corollary
of his orchestration, when reviewed as a whole, one might say that
he worked with simple means, and although his pages do not present
delicate combinations, he obtained vigorous and fresh results.[16]
[Footnote 16: Ex. 10, 12, 17.]
II.
MOZART[17] (1756-1791), universal conqueror, peerless
melodist, unrivalled purist, contributed equally to the development
of orchestration as to all other branches of musical art. Opera,
symphony, chamber and church music alike blossomed and ripened at
his magic touch; and the tonal tints of his scoring assumed a mellow
guise foreign to the lighter shading of Haydn's orchestration. Mozart
was a cosmopolitan in so far as that he moulded his polyphony, formal
structure and orchestration in accordance with the classicism of
Teutonic lineage, imbibed the limpid suavity of Italian melody, and
adapted the tragic energy and emotional interpretation of the text as
initiated by Gluck in France. This vivid emotionalism is plainly to
be seen in the dramatic scenes of "Idomeneo" and "Don Giovanni." His
perfect command of contrapuntal subtleties, thematic development, and
vocal composition, combined with the most precocious creative genius,
enabled him not only to build upon the heirloom of Bach's church
music and Haydn's symphonies and quartets, but to establish a basis
for subsequent genuinely German opera. For it is beyond question
that specifically the "Zauberflöte" contains the germ of Weber's
romanticism.
[Footnote 17: See Appendix of Musical Illustrations, Examples 18 to
23.]
For the form of his independent instrumental works, Mozart followed
the precepts of Haydn, but he enlarged them, and imbued their
contents with a certain strategic power for evoking more serious
contemplation and enduring impressiveness. Adherence to tonality, not
only in each individually complete movement, but also in successive
and related complex forms, was one of the fundamental canons of
Mozart's creed. This tonal consistency is to be found even in his
operas, whether employed as the connecting link between the more
gentle sections--suggestive of a delicate string of pearls, or as
a mode of obtaining subtle continuity of thought and action in the
dramatic portions.
In orchestration, Mozart combined the best characteristics of
both Gluck and Haydn, and in his hands it gained counterpoise and
vitality. As a natural outcome, the harpsichord was banished from the
orchestra, but incidentally it should be remembered that by no means
did Mozart undervalue this instrument in its proper sphere, for to
him is due the ascendency of the pianoforte concerto, which he left
as a direct bequest to Beethoven, who not only seized upon it with
avidity, but even caused it to immortalize some of his most sublime
conceptions. Mozart's writing for the orchestra is distinguishable
for amalgamating as well as for contrasting the earlier polyphonic
methods with the monophonic style that was being cultivated by his
contemporaries. The last movement of the "Jupiter" symphony will at
once be recalled as an admirable illustration of advanced orchestral
polyphony.[18] As has just been said, Mozart followed and elaborated
Haydn's symphonic instrumentation, but he added greater freedom
to the strings,[19] more variety and contrast to the wood,[20]
developed the art of combining wind accompaniment and instrumental
solo effects,[21] and in general illustrated the capabilities
and ideal functions of each specific instrument. Furthermore,
constant application to operatic writing stimulated a desire for
varied rhythm, and this attainment is reflected in his symphonic
compositions. Finally, it should be said with emphasis that sensitive
regard for individualistic tonal tints in instrumentation was one
of the most conspicuous attributes of Mozart's genius, and despite
the fact that already the masters of his epoch had had recourse
to the application of variated tone-color, nevertheless Mozart is
universally considered as having been the first to do so in a really
successful manner. By relegating the harpsichord, it became necessary
to write for the strings in such a manner as to insure independent
solidity and coherence. Or, to put it the other way, Mozart's scoring
for the string band made further employment of the harpsichord
superfluous. This he accomplished in the face of frequent three-part
writing. The danger of incurring caesuras in harmonic structure or
lack in volume of sound was obviated by the skilful artifice of
contrapuntal motion which, so to speak, generates warmth of tonal
color--heat and motion being an equivalent one for the other, and, as
Gevaërt suggests, this theorem is applicable to music. But Mozart by
no means neglected four-part writing,[22] and both the violoncello
and the hitherto much neglected viola were advanced to a position
more in keeping with their worth.
[Footnote 18: Ex. 20.]
[Footnote 19: Ex. 19, 20.]
[Footnote 20: Ex. 18, 22, 23.]
[Footnote 21: Ex. 21.]
[Footnote 22: Ex. 19.]
Mozart's employment of the symphonic orchestra was one of
conservatism in regard to compass, as illustrated by the G minor
symphony, from which even trumpets and kettle-drums are debarred.
Peculiar to the scoring of his greatest symphonies is the consistent
use of but one flute, whereas the remaining wind is represented in
pairs. Delicacy was the key-note for the wood-wind. For example, he
delighted in embellishing a melody by the combination of violins
redoubled in the octave by a flute and in the sub-octave by a
bassoon. Another distinguishable trait of his was the substituting
of an oboe for the violins in the above combination. These are
but passing exemplifications of countless dainty conceptions that
the most casual perusal of his pages will divulge; and they offer
an unwearying source of delectation in consequence of their naïve
and guileless character. It is true that for _Tuttis_, Mozart was
satisfied with certain conventional methods, such as an exaggerated
use of wood-wind passages in thirds and sixths. But this practice
was common likewise to Beethoven, and not until after the advent of
the Romanticists did it fall into disuse, indeed, no less a modern
conservative than Brahms was content to adapt classical mannerisms
of this nature. But only subsequent to Mozart's visit to Mannheim
when he was twenty-one years of age, and not until after he had
convinced himself of the indispensability of the clarinet--that
sympathetic medium between high and low wood-wind--was it possible
to give adequate variety of color and effect to this hitherto
rather homogeneous secondary choir. And thus, concurrent with the
emancipation of the wood-wind from many stereotyped formulas, was the
recognition that clarinets began to command in Mozart's orchestral
scheme. And although they were originally included only in the
symphony in E flat,[23] he eventually added them to the one in G
minor; and in the "Zauberflöte" the instrument received effective
and original treatment. Again, although Mozart's sunny nature would
not naturally conceive such morbid and sentimental effects as
elicited by Weber from the lower tones of the clarinet, he at any
rate appreciated a certain value of such tones by employing them
in the course of flowing passages[24] as in the first Finale of
"Don Giovanni." Mention is due, at this juncture, of the prominent
appearance in the "Zauberflöte" of the obsolete basset-horn, since,
as will be recalled, it belongs to the genealogy of clarinets
and is now superseded by its descendant, the bass-clarinet. The
classic literature of chamber music presents no more favorable
examples for profitable study than do Mozart's _divertissements_,
in which various combinations of wind instruments alone are treated
with rare delicacy and effectiveness. Not being subjected, as in
orchestral compositions, to comparison with the greater agility
and more sensitive attributes of the strings, they are enabled to
assert themselves, and to display in full measure their individual
characteristics and expressive powers.
[Footnote 23: Ex. 22, 23.]
[Footnote 24: Ex. 23.]
Mozart's requirements of the brass show but a slight improvement
upon those of Haydn,[25] excepting that his style of writing for it
betrays better judgment. A demand for more than two horns was rare,
and occurs, strange to say, in his earlier works, for some of which
he employed four. Later on he again exceptionally used this number
in "Idomeneo." But of his representative creations, the G minor
symphony is scored for but two horns, the E flat and C for two horns
and two trumpets. Consistent with the usage of his predecessors, it
was only in church music for redoubling the voices and in operatic
works for dramatic effects that Mozart drew upon the trombones, at
first sparingly, eventually, as in the "Zauberflöte," more freely;
and Gluck's precedent of employing them in three-part harmony was
sustained.
[Footnote 25: Ex. 20.]
In so brief an outline, it is not possible to more than indicate
the cardinal points of evolutionary advancement as contributed to
orchestration by Mozart. But one prominent feature of his preëminent
versatility reveals itself in the fact that whereas the long line of
his illustrious predecessors had, with the one exception of Haydn,
developed the art of writing for the orchestra more as a secondary
means to some one particular and all-absorbing primary end, Mozart's
genius devoted itself with impartiality and parallel success just as
much to instrumentation and orchestration as to the formal structures
of his instrumental works or to the contents of his operas and
masses. And the laurels that crown the herculean achievements of his
brief life are symbolic of the æsthetic, the chaste, the ideal.
III.
Three prominent characteristics are associated with the name of
BEETHOVEN[26] (1770-1827), the greatest universal master
in the chronicles of musical history. To him must be attributed the
ideal culmination of classic purity, both as to structural design
and thematic development. Through him, form became subordinated to
human expression. From him the Romantic Movement drew its direct
inspiration. In other words, Beethoven forged the connecting link
between the classicists and the romanticists, between absolute and
programmatic, objective and subjective music, between the primarily
formal and the essentially soulful. In the general principles of
form and technical procedure, Beethoven accepted the precedents
established by his immediate predecessors, and his earlier works
show the influence of both Haydn and Mozart. But the impelling force
of his independent and assertive genius, nurtured by the rugged
characteristics peculiar to the tendencies of his Dutch and German
descent, urged him to further bold and unhesitating innovations
whenever novel effects could thereby be attained.
[Footnote 26: See Appendix of Musical Illustrations, Examples 24 to
35.]
In connection with distinctively formal treatment, the most prominent
feature of this amplification lies in the development even to
minuteness of inner details, the unification of thematic material,
the increase of proportion, and the acquisition of breadth of style
and nobility of subject-matter.
But of far more momentous purport are the fruits of his spirituality
and profound religiousness. Beethoven was a tone-poet to the core,
and his search for emotional expression caused him to disregard
fixed design whenever it interfered with freedom of thought. Thus
in adapting the cyclic sonata form, he enhanced it by means of
perfected monody based on the higher Folk-song, by means of richer
harmonies, freer modulations, varied rhythm, greater license in
the juxtaposition of tonalities, and elasticity in the application
of traditional forms--Beethoven's quest for beauty of form being,
moreover, only secondary in importance to its own reactionary fitness
for beauty of expression. Thus Beethoven became the master of form
and expression combined, reconciled, unified.
Mozart and Beethoven share the same unique and unparalleled
characteristics in that the genius of both of them was so universal
in nature as to make the question of deciding in what particular
branch of composition they excelled a difficult one. So Beethoven,
greatest of symphonic exponents, enriched the world with string
quartets and chamber music that are perfection exemplified,
produced a mighty series of pianoforte concertos and sonatas that
are unexcelled, and dedicated a host of his loftiest inspirations
to the glorification of the Church. He wrote but one opera--it has
become immortal; but one oratorio--the sincerity and depth of its
pathos awaken sympathetic response at each renewed hearing; but
one violin concerto--it is still the ideal, likewise the despair
of every violin virtuoso. And upon riveting the attention solely
upon the instrumentation of his orchestral pages, one finds that
every bar of the score bears the impress of a master's touch, and of
such a master as the world had never before produced. He discovered
the utmost capabilities of each instrument, introduced innovations
in the method of handling them, both as solo interpreters and in
combination, and illustrated that even without the aid of a so-called
modern orchestra, picture-painting can be attained. That is to say,
impressions of the mind of insufficient distinctness to call forth
verbal utterance, are nevertheless capable of tonal exposition.
Hence arises the expression "musical language," and quite especially
in connection with instrumentation one says that the orchestra
"possesses the faculty of language." The Pastoral Symphony is a
graphic exemplification of this truth.
Beethoven's instrumentation bears the unmistakable impress of his
own personal individuality, and purely sensuous tone-effect is ever
subordinated to the inceptive æsthetic scheme and clearness of
thematic delineation. The employment of specific tonal quality of
the various instruments capable of variated coloring, effectiveness,
and scope, was absolutely faithful to the momentary requirements of
the orchestral situation. And thus, while his predecessors had been
absorbed in the contemplation and exposition of abstract musical
thought, and, on the other hand, the sequent composers of the
nineteenth century laid undue stress upon the portrayal of their
conceptions in gorgeous orchestral raiment, Beethoven's masterpieces
embody the temperate assimilation of fervent feeling, architectural
structure, contrast of the various choirs, and intermixing of
instrumental coloring, simultaneously and harmoniously developed,
without apparent effort, all-satisfying, inseparable.
One feature of Beethoven's greatness is emphasized by the
self-restraint he exercised in usually making demands for but a
modest apparatus as the interpreter of his orchestral conceptions.
Thus, in spite of being tremendously progressive, and betraying at
every step the inclination to enlarge the scope of his creations
in every way, he was content to employ Mozart's scoring for all of
his symphonies excepting the Fifth, Sixth, and Ninth,--that is to
say, strings, the four usual wood-instruments in pairs, two horns,
two trumpets, and kettle-drums, were practically sufficient for his
needs. This numerical distribution of parts differed but slightly
in all but the above three excepted symphonies. Comparing this
aggregation with those in Mozart's three representative symphonies,
we find, as the only difference, that Beethoven's wood-wind includes
two flutes in all but the Fourth Symphony, and that clarinets were
now enrolled as a permanent adjunct to the orchestra. Two horns
sufficed for them all excepting for the Third, "Eroica," where three
are to be found, this being, moreover, the first time that more than
two had been employed in symphonic writing by Beethoven.
The orchestral canvas of the Fifth, C minor, presents the coöperation
of a piccolo flute, a contra-bassoon, and three trombones; all of
these, however, remain silent until the victorious entrance of the
Finale. To the Sixth--the Pastoral--are added a piccolo flute and
two trombones instead of three, whereas in the Ninth, the usual
symphonic cohort is supplemented by a piccolo, a double-bassoon, four
horns, three trombones, and human voices. It is worthy of note that
this new departure of employing a second couplet of horns in the
symphonic scheme concludes the evolution of the classical orchestra.
For the incorporation into the concert orchestra of the oboe da
caccia, resuscitated in the form of the English horn, of the modern
bass-clarinet, of the opheicleide and the usurper of its functions,
the bass-tuba, was an outgrowth of the Romantic Movement. Likewise
the harp, in spite of its venerable origin and perennial usage, was,
during the eighteenth century, an adjunct to the operatic orchestra
only, for histrionic effects and historic representations.
The scores of no other composer can be more profitably studied than
those of Beethoven, and a high percentage of the examples set forth
in all standard treatises on instrumentation are drawn from his
works. Apart from the fact that his orchestration not only embodied
but improved upon and matured the orthodox style of writing as
bequeathed to him by Haydn and Mozart, his pages abound in daring
innovations, bold and startling; in subtle combinations, delicate and
pathetic; a kaleidoscope of sequent effects now contemplative and
restful, now tender and languishing, impetuous and fiery, at times
even jocose, weird, bizarre. And throughout is manifested the depth
of his nature, the nobility of his purpose.
In writing for the strings, Beethoven attained a degree of excellence
that has never been surpassed. He fulfilled every requirement,
whether of solidity, sonority, flexibility, or delicacy.[27] With
bold and vigorous strokes, he infused warmth and increased vitality
into the inner and lower voices, and the quartet being thereby more
closely knit together, the resultant effect was that of breadth and
power. He was the first to carry the orchestral violins into the
ethereal domain of their highest range in the overture to "Egmont."
Incomparable is the boisterous string passage toward the close of the
"Leonora" Overture, No. 3, as well as the fughetta in the Scherzo
of the Fifth Symphony, where the double-basses are for the first
time allowed unfettered license.[28] Finally, Beethoven elevated the
violoncello once for all to its proper sphere as an emotional and
heroic interpreter, of which the C minor Symphony affords a favorite
example in that the 'cellos, assisted by the violas, usher in the
opening theme of the slow movement.[29] The violas likewise gained in
individuality, and in the last movement of the Ninth Symphony even
divided viola parts are to be found.
[Footnote 27: Ex. 30, 31, 33.]
[Footnote 28: Ex. 27.]
[Footnote 29: Ex. 24.]
Beethoven was especially happy in discovering the ideal
potentialities of the wood-wind, and from him originated the practice
of reuniting the higher species both in contrasting and amalgamating
choirs.[30] No better model for successful flute writing can be cited
than that in the Allegro of the "Leonora" Overture, No. 3; and the
genial attributes of the oboe which, though latent, had never before
been exposed, are fittingly treated in the scherzos of the Pastoral
and Choral symphonies. The clarinet was now a regularly constituted
member of the orchestra, and specimens of characteristic writing for
it are to be found in the slow movements of the symphonies in B flat
and A, and also in the Finale of the "Eroica," where a judicious
introduction of clarinet arpeggios lends warmth and color to the
Melos.
[Footnote 30: Ex. 25, 28, 34.]
Perhaps no other orchestral instrument received more careful
consideration from Beethoven than the bassoon, and his partiality for
it resulted in detaching it from its former subservient position as
bass for the wood and horns, and elevating it to the dignity of an
equal associate to the remaining wood-wind, with especial regard for
the quality of its tenor range.[31] Thus Beethoven evinced a peculiar
predilection for redoubling a melody, assigned either to violins
or to an instrument of wood, with a bassoon in the sub-octave.
Again, he recognized its sustaining powers as independent bass,
provided the balance of the instruments to be sustained were nicely
adjusted. Gevaërt calls attention to just such a combination in
"Egmont," where one bassoon acts as bass to the strings while the
'cellos and double-basses occasionally assist. And, as he further
remarks, the choice was admirable, for no other instrument, as,
for instance, the horn, would have been suitable. Consistent with
his sentient appreciation for the bassoon, Beethoven rescued the
double-bassoon[32] from comparative obscurity, and although he
employed it invariably as a reduplication of the 'cellos and basses,
it was awarded a more conspicuous rôle in "Fidelio" than in the C
minor Symphony.
[Footnote 31: Ex. 26, 31.]
[Footnote 32: Ex. 30.]
Classic conservatism in the use of the brass found no exception
even when consigned to Beethoven's inspired pen other than the
previously mentioned augmentation of horn parts and the more
frequent requisition for trombones. His horn writing[33] followed
that of Mozart, but his style was freer, bolder, and the results
more resonant, especially in such passages as the familiar jubilant
fanfare in the Scherzo of the "Eroica" and again in the Scherzo of
the "Pastoral." On the other hand, the decidedly primitive functions
of the trumpets[34] were in no wise ameliorated, an incident that
is largely to be accounted for by the mechanical limitations of the
instrument which still existed at that day. As for the trombones,
to have drawn upon them merely for increase of volume, would have
been contrary to the ethics of Beethoven's artistic creed. The fact
that they did add sonority was therefore but a subsidiary issue, and
in climaxes such as the Finale of the Fifth Symphony, their mission
was primarily that of lending grandeur and richness to the final
scintillating tableau.[35]
[Footnote 33: Ex. 30, 32, 35.]
[Footnote 34: Ex. 30.]
[Footnote 35: Ex. 30.]
In conclusion, the kettle-drums must receive especial mention.
It will be noticed that as yet but passing reference to them has
been made in these pages, for it was left to Beethoven to discover
their genuinely tragic resources. He not only enlarged the scope
of the instruments by having them tuned to intervals other than
the conventional and stereotyped fourth and fifth, but gave
them expressive powers such as had never been attained before.
Consequently there was added to the orchestra a practically new
member, since he caused the tympani to respond to his dictates, as
it were, with warm and throbbing pulse-beats, at times permeating,
dominating, subduing the entire orchestral color-scheme. Striking
illustrations of this latent power are to be found in the third
movement of the C minor Symphony[36] and the Finale of the Pianoforte
Concerto in E flat; likewise in the Finale of the Eighth and the
Scherzo of the Ninth symphonies, in both of which they are tuned in
octaves; and in the introduction to the second act of "Fidelio,"
where they are tuned to the interval of the diminished fifth. Further
specimens of specifically solo writing will be recalled in the Adagio
of the B flat Symphony, the beginning of the Violin Concerto, and the
introduction to the "Mount of Olives."
[Footnote 36: Ex. 29.]
A discussion of Beethoven's titanic achievements, even if confined to
his orchestral writings, is prone to lead the student into so deep
a maze of absorbing illustrations of his genius, that it becomes
necessary to find an arbitrary stopping place. Therefore this review
may be tersely summed up by saying that the culmination of classic
purity, the subordination to human feeling of purely formal structure
and sensuous tone-effect, and a systematic development of descriptive
music, are the essentials of Beethoven's creations. His orchestration
stands as a model for all time. He is the connecting link between the
classicists and the romanticists. And in a word, the consummation of
his artistic striving was freedom and spirituality.
(Summary on page 68.)
CHAPTER VIII.
THE CONTEMPORARIES OF BEETHOVEN.
I.
The career of Beethoven, extending well into the nineteenth century,
overlaps the rise and growth of the Romantic Movement,--a movement
that embodied tendencies with which his later works show sympathetic
accord. The authors of this new departure were instigated by poetic
aspirations closely allied to those of Beethoven; and since his
creative horizon was constantly expanding, the idealistic texture
of his productions and theirs was harmoniously interwoven. But
while the scope of German art was being assimilated into channels
of which the objective was natural emotion so expressed as to be
portrayed in tangible form, Rossini's seductive charm had hypnotized
all Europe, with the result that the progress even of Beethoven
was momentarily hampered and his immediate reputation eclipsed.
Therefore before proceeding to a further analysis of orchestration
as advanced by the exponents of the Romantic Movement with which
all prominent German composers after Beethoven are to be more or
less conspicuously identified, a final bird's-eye view of musical
activity in other countries will properly conclude the history of the
so-called classic era. To do this it will be necessary to take up
again the thread of dramatic development which we have already traced
as far as Grétry, in whom the first period of _opéra comique_ may be
said to have culminated. Moreover for the sake of continuity, this
discussion may well include such of the nineteenth century composers
as were not noticeably affected by the magnetism of the romanticists
or of the sequent "New Movement." And the preferential arena for
the reproduction of both French and Italian works was still the
Parisian stage, in which was vested the dangerous power of passing
conclusive judgment upon the offerings of her votaries. Consequently,
the characteristics of such luminaries as were deemed worthy of her
benisons can be briefly summed up without regard to nationality; and
these meteor-like apparitions captivated in turn the entire musical
world, to the neglect of the worthier creations of Gluck and Mozart.
The lyric _genre_ as bequeathed by Grétry was ardently cultivated by
a series of sturdy exponents including his contemporary of evanescent
fame d'Alayrac, followed by Boieldieu, Isouard, a native of Malta,
the long-lived Auber, Hérold, Halévy, Adam. All but the last of
these were born in the last quarter of the eighteenth century,
being, together with the domiciliated Isouard, typical Frenchmen,
devoted to national tradition, style of writing, and methods of
instrumentation. And conspicuously through the collective efforts
of Boieldieu, Auber and Hérold was the standard of _opéra comique_
elevated to high dignity. This exclusive aggrandizement of the
lyric stage by native composers affords a striking contrast to the
history of opera in serious vein. For in reference to the latter, the
attitude of the public was marked by illogical preferentiation, in
consequence of which their vacillating plaudits were bestowed with
but scant discrimination. True, French composers at first tenaciously
held their own, as exemplified by the sterling achievements of
Méhul (1763) and by the fleeting triumphs of his contemporaries,
Lesueur, Berton, Catel. Nor did subsequently the more important
representatives of the lyric style such as Boieldieu, Auber and
Halévy allow undisputed sway to foreign interlopers in the field of
grand opera. And the so-called "historic school" of grand opera,
first introduced by the Italian, Spontini (1774), and eventually
abused by the German, Meyerbeer (1791), was admirably exploited by
Auber's "La Muette di Portici," which was produced the year after
Beethoven's death. This work directly paved the way for "Guillaume
Tell," the crowning achievement of Rossini (1797), as well as for
Meyerbeer's initiatory embodiment of French romanticism, "Robert le
Diable." Sequent to the baneful revival by Rossini of more or less
retrogressional Italian opera appeared the mellifluous fabrications
of Donizetti (1797) and of Bellini (1802), with which undramatic
productions must be classed also the earlier works of Verdi (1813) in
consequence of their voluptuous melodic exuberance.
In Germany, meanwhile, the standard of opera in lighter vein
was upheld by Konradin Kreutzer (1780), the heir of Hiller and
Dittersdorf. In England, the pianist, Field (1782), was initiating a
new style of writing for the pianoforte that was to serve as a model
for Chopin.
II.
It is proper that the compositions of CHERUBINI (1760-1842)
be treated apart from those of his contemporaries, for they are in
many respects distinct by themselves. The fact that he was born in
Italy bears little relation to the style of his productions, for only
in his earlier works are Italian methods particularly noticeable.
The name of Cherubini has become immortal chiefly on account of his
church music, of which he is the first truly great modern master.
Nor must his permanent influence upon the form of French opera
be underestimated, notwithstanding the fact that his own operas
were only moderately successful. For the Gluck-Piccini controversy
impressed him deeply; moreover, Mozart's operas were at that time
already exciting world-wide admiration. As a result of these powerful
influences, Cherubini was led to combine both the German and the
French styles, as exemplified in "Lodoiska"; and henceforth the drama
of France may be said to have acquired permanent and definite form.
The chief characteristics of his church music consist of a fusion of
the elevated style of the sixteenth century, a severe yet masterly
contrapuntal treatment, and withal a remarkable clearness in form
and details. These models of sacred writing which belong, perhaps,
more particularly to the French school, are convincing proof that
so-called antiquated principles can be assimilated into modern
methods. Lavoix calls attention to the criticism that whereas
Cherubini's operas were not sufficiently dramatic, his church music
was too much so. This may be true; but the purity and nobility of
subject-matter, the warmth and breadth in instrumentation, counteract
any possible theatrical tendencies.
The orchestra is much used in Cherubini's sacred works. The
orchestration is flexible and vivid; each instrument is treated
judiciously, and the tonal color is ever sonorous and varied. Prout
refers to the Requiem in C minor as being a splendid piece of sombre
tone-painting, and masterful in its appropriateness. The opening
chorus is remarkable for its pathos, being scored for divided
violas and 'cellos, double-basses, two bassoons, two horns and
muffled kettle-drums. In the introduction to the "Chant sur la Mort
de Joseph Haydn," an extended passage for four violoncellos _con
sordini_ proves that Rossini was not the first to discover the value
of their independent employment. In the same work, one of Wagner's
procedures in the use of the bass-tuba is anticipated in that the
opheicleide is detached from its usual alliance to the trombones, and
is employed alone as a reduplication of the double-basses. Cherubini
was conservative in the use of the brass, although in isolated cases,
where special effects were needed, larger choirs of loud-voiced
instruments are, of course, to be found. As an example, the mass in
A calls for four horns, three trombones, and an opheicleide. On the
other hand, the instrumentation of Cherubini's operas shows greater
reserve, and in one or two cases, entire acts are effectively scored
without once drawing upon either trumpets or kettle-drums. It might
be added that an interesting example for English horn is to be found
in "Anacréon"; that the instrument was as yet but rarely heard in
France is demonstrated by the fact that Cherubini felt it necessary
to write "clarinet _ad libitum_" under the English horn part.
III.
MÉHUL (1763-1817) ranks among the greatest evolutionists of
French instrumentation. His talents developed at an early age; his
career was one of steady progress, and culminated in "Joseph," one of
the loftiest dramatic works France possesses. Following in Gluck's
footsteps, he emphasized the value of declamation and made much use
of melodrama. The operatic overtures also were carefully developed.
Although his orchestration was somewhat heavy, and embodied the
frequent repetition of certain stereotyped formulas, he proved
himself a worthy successor to Gluck in the successful portrayal of
dramatic personages by means of instrumental expression. Much of
his music is decidedly picturesque even though his instrumentation
is lacking in daintiness. The distinctive features of Méhul's
orchestration are sonority, novel combinations, and at times a
certain melancholy coloring. The earliest use of low string effects
is attributed to him, and especial prominence was given to the viola.
As is well known, his opera "Uthal" is unique in that violins are
absent throughout the entire work. The harp is an important factor in
both "Uthal" and "Joseph." Méhul showed considerable partiality for
the brass, and more than once, four horn parts are to be found in his
scores.
LESUEUR (1763) has been called the predecessor of Berlioz
as an exponent of "program" music. He was fond of grand and majestic
combinations, but was artistically more successful in writing for
the church than for the drama. He was fortunate in having under his
control a large orchestra at the Notre Dame, and his contributions
to French instrumentation in detail are important. He frequently
multiplied the violin parts into four, and even divided the violas.
Again, the violins were at times omitted, although he did not go to
the extent of leaving them out through an entire work as Méhul did in
his opera "Uthal." Lesueur may have indirectly influenced Wagner's
scoring of the tetralogy in that twelve harps, divided into two
sections, are required for a faithful rendition of "Les Bardes," and
in a footnote he specifically exacts a predominance of harp quality
of tone. Like many of his subsequent compatriots, he frequently made
requisition for curious instruments of percussion.
IV.
In turning to the works of BOIELDIEU (1775-1834), we find
therein a refreshing example of naïveté, spontaneous originality,
and flowing melody. Italian tendencies are noticeable, but the style
remains pure and distinctly French. Though "La Dame Blanche" does
not contain the attributes of profound scholarship, it satisfies in
full the requirements of refined and poetic French comedy. Schumann
regarded some of Boieldieu's creations as the representative comic
operas of the world. His orchestra is not large and it is rarely used
in its entire strength. The key-note is dainty scoring; the singing
can always be distinctly heard, and although few novel effects of
instrumentation are to be noted, variety and contrast of tone are
constantly to be met with. The accompaniment is ever appropriate,
and especially the clarinet and horns receive characteristic
treatment. Moderation in the use of the brass was carried to such an
extent that trombones are frequently omitted altogether, and even
in "La Dame Blanche" only one was employed. In one opera not even
trumpets and kettle-drums are to be found.
The founder of the lyric drama in the modern sense was AUBER
(1782-1871). The pillars of modern lyric drama are genuine dramatic
expression, varied resources, and extensive proportions. Add to these
charming melody, sparkling instrumentation and piquant coloring, and
we have the sum total of Auber's creations. He was, perhaps, the most
typically French composer that ever lived, and yet his orchestration
is not that of an innovator. He accepted the already existing French
and Italian characteristics of instrumentation, but adapted them to
the needs of his poetic instincts. The functions of his orchestra
are essentially those of accompaniment, and the dramatic situations
are lightly sketched rather than elaborately portrayed. And this
lightness of touch, together with grace and elegance, is already to
be found in "La Muette de Portici," as well as in the more popular
"Fra Diavolo."
In spite of the fact that Auber's orchestra presents nothing actually
new, the charm of his instrumentation has exerted great influence
upon that art in France. When the full orchestra is employed, the
effect is sonorous without being noisy, ever clear yet scintillating.
For more subdued effects, Auber was especially happy in the choice
of mixed tonal tints, such as the reduplication, by a piccolo flute
in the octave, of a melody given to one of the wood-instruments.
Moreover, he was the first to employ the piccolo in piano passages.
And whether reference be made to his use of soft chords for the
trombones, or to his dainty triangle effects,--these are but a
suggestion of the many characteristic insignia that distinguished his
sterling achievements.
The operas of HÉROLD (1791) contain strong expressive
and dramatic attributes. His form and instrumentation show German
rather than Italian influence, modified withal by unquestionable
French coloring. The impress of "Don Juan" and of "Freischütz" is
especially noticeable in the overture to "Zampa," his representative
work; three principal themes from the opera itself are more or less
scientifically developed, and the manner of writing for certain wind
instruments like the clarinet in some ways resembles that of Weber.
Although Hérold's orchestration does not embody that transparency
and that grace which characterize the scores of Auber, it is more
compact, and his accompaniments conform to the demands of the
dramatic situation. He occupied himself also with chamber music and
concert overtures, which are superior in form to many similar efforts
of prominent contemporary French writers, even though they are
insignificant in comparison with German models.
The works of HALÉVY (1799) present a perplexing composite of
genuine art and sensational trivialities. Frequently carried away
by desire for pomp and effervescent personal glory, he nevertheless
gave the art of dramatic scoring a powerful impetus toward modern
methods. His instrumentation is often like Meyerbeer's, and Rossinian
tendencies are apparent as well. Nevertheless, his pages are imbued
with his own individuality. Each instrument received characteristic
treatment when not used in massed harmonic combinations. The strings
were employed with much skill and variety, as exemplified, for
instance, by phrases for violins alone in four parts, or for solo
'cellos in five parts. The former idea bears the germ of Wagner's
subsequent ethereal string passages, whereas the latter corresponds
to Rossini's familiar 'cello scoring in "Guillaume Tell." The
wood-wind played an important part as dramatic interpreter, with
especial attention to the expressive characteristics of the English
horn and the clarinet. Above all, Halévy was an untiring advocate in
behalf of improving and supplementing both the variety and functions
of the brass, and was strongly in support of the newly invented
instruments of Sax. As components of the orchestra proper, they were
not used aggressively, although, of course, when they appeared as
an independent cohort upon the stage itself, their united efforts
inclined toward the bombastic. Halévy was among the first to employ
a second couplet of valve horns in addition to the customary natural
horns, and the manner of writing for them displays a marked departure
from previous usage. Besides absorbing into the orchestra proper
different varieties of sax-horns and especially the sax-tuba, he
employed at times as many as eight trumpets. A part for a soprano
trombone is likewise to be found in one of his scores. "La Juive"
is the embodiment of Halévy's higher ideals and novel orchestral
combinations, and among other interesting details of instrumentation,
the employment of two English horns, the trombone solo in the fourth
act, and the semi-military band on the stage will readily be recalled.
V.
Brief mention is due to the "historic school" which found its first
exponent in SPONTINI (1774-1851). The tenets of this school
were in sympathetic accord with the general desire for pomp attendant
upon the ascendency of Napoleonic imperialism. And Spontini's
masterpiece "La Vestale" entirely satisfied these demands. For in
spite of many glaring defects, it is a worthy example of superb
dramatic power. In this work, a new style of orchestration was
inaugurated, one that has been more or less imitated by all French
writers since his time. Spontini transplanted into serious opera a
principle with which already Piccini and Paesiello had experimented
in their lighter operas, in that, for the description of certain
picturesque episodes, the orchestra appears as chief exponent, the
voice as secondary.
Entirely new was the amalgamation of the whole orchestra into one
mighty organism by means of doubling and redoubling each part,
similar to the practice of adding the four- and two-foot stops in
organ playing. Each of the three choirs is harmonically complete by
itself; being absorbed into the general Melos, it is, of course,
impossible for the ear to analyze the combined tone-color. Such
massive tonal edifices are the embodiment of unity and sonority, but
there is danger of monotony, and, as Gevaërt remarks, this method of
orchestration was subsequently abused by Rossini. Spontini's style
embodies much that is German, and his mastery of brilliant effects is
unrivalled. And although he frequently lowered the standard of his
works by a craving for ostentation, the details are carefully worked
out and the orchestration is rich and manly.
With the advent of ROSSINI (1792-1868), the triumph of
Italian _aria_ was resumed. His operas are the embodiment of Italian
emotionalism. But although much of his music must be condemned as
entirely irrelevant to the demands of the dramatic situation or of
the sentiment to be expressed, his orchestration was certainly an
advance upon antecedent Italian methods. On the other hand, there
are but few new features in his instrumentation; this consisted of
certain restricted and oft-repeated formulas, of which, however,
Rossini had perfect command. His crowning achievement was, of course,
"Guillaume Tell." Here the orchestration plainly betrays a happy
fusion of Italian and French styles. The string writing is full of
life; due regard is shown to the wind instruments, and effective
solos are assigned more particularly to the English horn and the
French horns. The improvements that Rossini made in horn writing
were probably due to the fact that his father was a horn player.
Parenthetically, the same statement might be made in reference to
Richard Strauss. It is also interesting to note in passing that
Rossini used two batons in conducting,--a short one for _arias_ and a
long one for _ensemble_.
VI.
At this point it is fitting that we examine the dazzling
orchestration of MEYERBEER (1791-1861), for his career is,
of course, inseparably allied with the evolution of French opera. As
the most famous representative of French romantic and historic grand
opera, Meyerbeer would appear, at first sight, to have embraced in
his operas every conceivable meretricious device for the sensational
and the spectacular. He was above all an eclectic, modelling his
works largely after those of Spontini, being likewise strongly
influenced by Weber, combining German harmony, Italian melody,
and French rhythm. His was a marked departure from the school of
Gluck--so much so, that he has been accused of "playing with dynamic
effects" and writing "hollow" music that cannot withstand æsthetic
analysis. In a large measure such censure is merited, but it is
manifestly an error in judgment to declare as one writer does that
his productions are comprised of but "dazzling effects, glaring
contrasts, and clever instrumental devices." True, the contents of
his operas are certainly an alternating mixture of the grandiose
and the paltry, but as for orchestration, none have surpassed him
in judicious distribution of sonorous masses, in forceful dramatic
effects, richness of details, and successful application of the
individual characteristics of each instrument. Again, the consistent
recurrence of a specific tone-color as the annotator to a dramatic
personage contains the germ of the _Leit-motiv_. And for ever varying
resource of instrumentation few can excel him! And no composer before
him was his peer as a dramatic painter.
Meyerbeer of course relied primarily upon the strings as the basis
of his orchestra, but they are frequently replaced by independent
combinations of wind instruments. In this connection, it is worthy
of especial note that complete groups of kindred instruments are
employed alone, and almost invariably in complete four part harmony.
Meyerbeer's scoring for full orchestra was practically identical
with Spontini's; each group is again complete in four part harmony,
doubled and redoubled in the octave. Though his accompaniments are
heavy, it will be found that the voice is usually supported by a solo
instrument. He developed great variety in string writing. The violins
and violoncellos are frequently subdivided into numerous parts. The
characteristics of high violins and again of low double-basses _soli_
are brought into prominence. Passages are to be found in which parts
of the strings are muted while the remainder are simultaneously
employed without mutes. The viola d'amore is carefully treated, as,
for instance, in Raoul's Romance in the first act of "Les Huguenots."
The harp is used extensively, both in arpeggios and in broad chords.
The English horn and bass-clarinet are constantly used as regular
constituents of the secondary group, and the latent dramatic powers
of the clarinet are intensified; again, every one is familiar with
the earliest of bass-clarinet solos in "Les Huguenots." Apart from
more common methods of employing the wood-wind group by itself,
Meyerbeer was fond of peculiar combinations such as piccolo flute
and English horn, or bass-clarinet and trumpet an octave apart.
Further entirely novel combinations are the assignment of a melody
to the English horn and bass-clarinet in unison, or the redoubling
of the violoncellos by a flute two octaves above. Great variety
in mixed tints is to be found. The most common is the combination
in solo passages of violoncello and bassoon; more complex is the
union of violins, _tremolo_, together with three flutes, all in the
high range, while an English horn or a bass-clarinet produces the
melody below. Or two clarinets and two bass-clarinets are united
to violoncellos in three-part writing. One of Meyerbeer's chief
contributions to instrumentation lay in his methods of scoring for
the brass. In "Les Huguenots" a veritable military band is introduced
upon the stage; the band includes both reeds and brass--likewise
piccolo flutes. And the newly invented sax-horns were drawn into
requisition for "Le Prophète." The kettle-drums acquired greater
freedom than even Beethoven had allowed them, and "Robert le Diable"
contains actual solos for the instruments. In different works, as
many as three and four kettle-drums were employed. In conclusion, it
is not necessary to dwell upon the realistic impression provoked by
the sounding of a gong in connection with the Resurrection of the
Nuns in "Robert le Diable"; nor need the reader be reminded of the
deep-toned bell used for the Massacre of St. Bartholomew in "Les
Huguenots." All in all, though Meyerbeer's scoring is frequently
brutal, it is intensely dramatic and original.
VII.
We have now traced the wonderful growth of orchestration through
the entire eighteenth century and well into the nineteenth. And the
contributions thereto by the great Italian and French masters are
by no means to be underestimated even though the German classicists
tower above them. A final summing up of their general methods of
instrumentation will properly conclude this chapter.
The classic symphony realizes its principal effects from the dialogue
of instruments rather than from their collective forces. The primary
object was clearness of polyphonic design, and since clearness of
detail does not admit of great force, the first and second orchestral
groups were rarely united other than in _forte_ passages.
When examining the scores of the classics, it is important to keep
in mind that in their day the numerical distribution of the string
band was limited. Therefore force and volume of tone could only be
obtained by keeping the intermediate and lower parts constantly in
motion. Particularly the violas were inadequately represented, and it
will be found that any important viola melody was almost invariably
doubled by some other instrument.
The classic use of the flute for _tuttis_ was generally like that of
a four-foot organ stop. Many of the earlier functions of the oboe
gradually passed to the more responsive clarinet. But the frequent
employment of divided violas as auxiliary to the wind was due to the
former absence of adequate contralto wind instruments.
The larger symphonic orchestra of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven added
two trumpets to the third group, acquiring thereby a feminine
metallic diapason capable of masculine energy. In the exposition of
their symphonies, the classicists usually gave the first theme to the
strings, the second to the wood. The brass was reserved for climaxes,
and the trumpets entered last. But the limitation of the "natural"
trumpet was detrimental for employing it with invariable symmetry in
the recurrence of thematic design. In employing the full orchestra,
held chords were assigned to the second group as a support to the
strings, whereas the third group added short rhythmic chords.
Operatic effects are obtained by contrast of collective forces rather
than by detail of polyphony. The earlier Italian composers made
frequent use of loud-voiced instruments. Their successors, however,
learned to rely more and more upon the strings, so that not until the
advent of Spontini and Rossini were the proper functions of the brass
or even of the wood again sufficiently recognized in Italy.
From Philidor to Boieldieu, French orchestration was still somewhat
heavy, though of dramatic effectiveness. The scoring of Méhul and
Lesueur was powerful and dignified, that of Boieldieu, Berton,
Grétry, supple and dramatic. Finally, in the first part of the
nineteenth century French orchestration became still more varied and
rich.
It is now time to turn our attention to the rise of the Romantic
Movement, and with this subject the next chapter properly begins.
(Summary on page 69.)
SUMMARY OF PART II.
CHAPTER V.
BACH'S orchestration was essentially polyphonic. He
contrasted his differentiated groups of instruments _en masse_, and
laid the foundation for effective orchestral solo writing.
HÄNDEL represents solidity and sonority, and obtained the
best results when employing the orchestra for massed effects in
conjunction with the chorus.
Bach's contemporaries in Italy were engaged in composing church music
and in writing operas that should satisfy the existing demands for
vocal virtuosity. With few exceptions, they did little to advance the
standard of instrumentation, although Pergolesi's writing for string
orchestra was progressive.
In Germany, regard for Italian opera was fostered by establishing a
permanent home for it at Hamburg; but the evolution of orchestration
was but little benefited thereby. Em. Bach did good service for the
cause of independent instrumental music. Credit is due to Hasse for
his efforts in behalf of the Dresden orchestra, and Graun added his
mite to the development of symphonic form.
After Lulli, and before the advent of Gluck, Rameau stands as the
exponent of French opera, from which French orchestration was then
inseparable. Rameau's reputation rests upon his harmonic innovations,
the enhanced effectiveness of his chorus, and his improved
orchestration. Impelled by the enthusiasm of the philosopher,
Rousseau, a number of composers paved the way for Grétry by departing
from tradition and inaugurating a lighter style, since known as the
_opéra comique_.
CHAPTER VI.
GLUCK, engrossed in resuscitating and furthering the
principles promulgated by Peri and Lulli, used the orchestra
primarily as a dramatic interpreter, and his scoring is conspicuous
for the use of suitable instrumentation, and for the portrayal of
genuine pathos.
At about the time that Gluck captured the Parisian stage, native
French music received a powerful impulse from Grétry, who established
_opéra comique_ upon a permanent basis. In spite of this achievement,
his contributions to orchestration are not important. Meanwhile,
Italy remained true to her traditions, both as to form and contents
of opera, as well as instrumentation. An exception is to be found in
the scores of Jomelli. An adaptation of the _opéra comique_ in the
garb of the Singspiel soon sprang up in Germany.
The growth of independent orchestral music was aided by such
composers and directors as Sammartini, Gossec, Grétry, Stamitz, and
Cannabich, being, moreover, fostered by such organizations as the
"Concerts des Amateurs," the "Concerts spirituels," the Electoral
band at Mannheim, the Leipzig Gewandhaus, and the Dresden orchestra.
CHAPTER VII.
HAYDN was the third great orchestral innovator in historic
evolution, and from him date the beginnings of modern orchestration,
just as Bach represents organ and Protestant Church music, Händel the
oratorio, and Gluck the drama. Monteverde established the precedent
of a nucleus of strings, Scarlatti adjusted their tonal balance, but
Haydn readjusted the equilibrium of the suppletory segments of the
orchestra as a concrete entity. His symphonies were the outcome of
the earlier _concerto grosso_, and thus, having remained true to the
traditions of his great predecessors, he became in turn the pioneer
for Mozart and Beethoven. In his scoring, the wood-wind acquired
freedom and individuality as solo instruments, and, together with
the brass, were led also to sustain and knit together the harmonic
progressions, rather than merely to support the resonance of the
strings. He emphasized the consistent use of wind instruments in
pairs. Again, by exploring further their caloric capabilities, he
discovered effective means for descriptive music, and his oratorios
bear the seed of programmatic writing.
MOZART explored the resources of the orchestra as opened
up by Gluck and Haydn. He combined and interchanged polyphonic and
monophonic style of writing to a most felicitous degree. He wrote
for the strings in such a manner as to insure absolute independence
and stability. The wood-wind gained in freedom of solo expression,
and acquired that individuality of treatment which was its own by
right. Especially the clarinet owes its absorption into the orchestra
to Mozart, and from him dates the genuine origin of varied and
contrasted tone-coloring.
The universal genius of BEETHOVEN, prompted by the depth of
his nature and the nobility of his purpose, led him to combine the
legacy of his predecessors with a more sensitive regard for inner
details, thematic unity, emotional expression, and greater freedom
and subordination of form, leading to expansion and programmatic
music. Greatest of classic orchestral masters, he brought the
symphonic orchestra to its highest development, discovered the utmost
capabilities of each and every instrument, increased the efficiency
of both strings and wood-wind, and incidentally discerned the genuine
worth of the violoncellos, bassoons, and kettle-drums. The functions
of the horns likewise acquired wider significance, and the trombones
were reserved for the portrayal of noble dignity and ornamentation.
CHAPTER VIII.
During the development of Beethoven's mighty conquests, Paris
continued to attract aspirants to fame in operatic lines, whereas
modern church music found a worthy representative in Cherubini; his
orchestration is sonorous, flexible, varied and vivid. Two native
composers of opera in serious vein, Méhul and Lesueur, contributed
essentially to the development of French instrumentation. That
of Méhul was still somewhat heavy, but embodied sonority, novel
combinations, and at times a certain melancholy coloring. Lesueur was
one of the pioneers in the use of grand and majestic combinations.
The most prominent followers of Grétry in the lyric _genre_ were
Boieldieu, whose instrumentation is conspicuous for its daintiness,
variety and contrast; Auber, master of clear yet effervescent
scoring; Hérold, whose orchestra is compact and well balanced;
finally, Halévy, an exponent of both varied and massed effects.
Italian instrumentation was advanced especially by Spontini and to
a certain extent by Rossini; the former inaugurated the practice of
doubling and redoubling the harmonies in massed combination. French
opera was also greatly influenced by Meyerbeer, who imparted to the
orchestra massed effects, novel and rich detail, characteristic
individuality.
Credit for the development and perfection of symphonic form and
orchestration is due to the great German classicists alone; but the
evolution of the genuinely dramatic resources of the orchestra rests
largely in the hands of the French composers preceding the ascendency
of the Romantic Movement.
PART III.--ROMANTICISM.
CHAPTER IX.
THE ROMANTIC SCHOOL.
A convenient classification of the great German composers of the
nineteenth century is to be found in "Famous Composers and their
Works," a classification which will be followed in these chapters.
It consists of three general groups: "The Romantic School," "The
Classical Romanticists," and "The New Movement." As has been already
stated, the basis of the Romantic School was simply a further
development of Beethoven's descriptive writing, which created a
powerful impression upon the so-called founders of the school, Spohr
and Weber; they in turn were followed by Schubert, Mendelssohn,
Schumann, and their disciples. The Classical Romanticists accepted
the substance of romanticism in music, but remained more or less true
to classical form. Raff stands at the head of this classification,
Brahms as its chief exponent. The New Movement dates from the
tumultuous upheavals in the musical world caused by the innovations
of Berlioz in France, Liszt and Wagner in Germany. The evolution of
these three movements will now be reviewed in logical sequence; but
it should be borne in mind that this evolution had already begun
during the later development of French and Italian opera as discussed
in the previous chapter.
I.
SPOHR (1784-1859). The fruits of Spohr's activity as a
composer present a rather peculiar mixture of progressive zeal and
conventional mannerism. He was not alive to the true greatness
of Beethoven's genius, neither can he be compared with Weber as
a dramatic writer. On the other hand, Spohr was instrumental in
awakening a keener interest for the supernatural, and he aimed to
illustrate certain definite ideas by means of musical expression.
This trait is especially conspicuous in his symphonies; and these
entitle him to be regarded as one of the founders of programmatic
orchestral music. Again, Spohr was one of the greatest violinists
of his day, and as the natural result, his writing for strings was
highly effective. Consequently his double string quartets, his
octets, nonets, etc., are especially valued in musical literature.
Spohr contributed to the evolution of orchestration proper but
little that was actually new. But here again the development of
violin technique stimulated at least a freer and more elaborate
manner of employing the strings. Prout suggests that his
orchestration resembles to some extent that of Mendelssohn, in that
the equilibrium is admirably adjusted; and the general color-scheme
is further enriched by frequent use of soft harmonies for the brass.
In minor details of instrumentation, Spohr made some interesting
experiments similar to those of Berlioz, such as the introduction of
a number of kettle-drums into the orchestra. Prout also refers to
the earthquake chorus in "Calvary" where six drums are played upon
by two performers, and rolls in seconds, thirds, and fifths for two
drums together are to be found. But as a whole, his reputation is due
chiefly to his great achievements as a violinist and to the incentive
he gave to romanticism in music.
II.
WEBER[37] (1786-1826). Spohr's efforts in behalf of
programmatic music are by no means to be undervalued; at the same
time it must be borne in mind that even his finest works are eclipsed
by those of Weber by virtue of the latter's marvellous imagination,
unerring judgment in the choice of appropriate means of expression,
and huge technique in orchestration. Weber began his career during
what might be called the transition period in modern art. It would be
here out of place to enlarge upon the general conditions attendant
upon the awakening of the so-called "storm and stress" agitation in
Germany. Weber's artistic development was, however, so inseparably
allied with this movement that at least a brief review thereof would
appear indispensable before proceeding to an examination of his
orchestral works.
[Footnote 37: See Appendix of Musical Illustrations, Examples 36 to
47.]
Langhans sums up the mental and emotional conditions of this
transition period by saying that "in place of the general
subject-matter with which the lyric poetry of the preceding century
had been satisfied, the subjective feelings of the poet now came to
the front, and the essential nature of lyric poetry, a boundless
submersion into the innermost life of the soul, could under these
circumstances attain full prominence." Germany was at this time
greatly interested in the writings of Byron and of Jean Paul Richter.
Romantic poetry in turn began to influence both dramatic and lyric
music. Indications of departure from the elevated and reflective
style of the great classical composers were apparent. Time-honored
rules and traditions began to be neglected. Individualism asserted
itself. The general tendency of the epoch embodied a certain mystical
element--a return to the chivalrous atmosphere of mediæval romance.
And this tendency was in harmony with the very nature of Weber's
imaginative trend. In turn, this unfettered realm of imagination,
peopled with sylphs, nymphs, fairies, contained latent and most
propitious possibilities for progressive orchestration. Weber's
instrumentation was founded upon that of Beethoven, but it was none
the less distinctive and original. It was above all dramatic. His
true greatness lay in the power of orchestral portrayal in the more
vivid scenes of his operas, and in his operatic overtures. His two
symphonies are comparatively weak. Though deficient in artistic
education, Weber's romantic disposition and rare appreciation for
instrumental effects enabled him to become one of the greatest
modern orchestral writers, and his scoring is a model for all later
composers. He stands at the head of modern instrumentation, for with
him a new period began. Moreover, he was the creator of modern German
romantic opera. As Kapellmeister at Dresden he was instrumental in
counteracting the influence of Italian music which was still in vogue
at the Court, and he helped to mould the tastes of the public in
favor of native dramatic and orchestral music. "Der Freischütz" is
the representative of ideal national opera. Here the orchestration is
admirably adapted to depict and intensify the scenes and situations.
It abounds in striking contrasts that are ever consistent with the
demands of what has been called the "local" coloring. Episodes
requiring sombre and mysterious tonal tints are again offset by
the purest of lyrics and by powerful dramatic climaxes. "Oberon,"
on the other hand, abounds in more peaceful melodic and harmonic
fancies, poetic revery, and dainty scoring. Though the effectiveness
of "Euryanthe" is marred by reason of its insipid libretto, it is
nevertheless the most important of Weber's operas, considered from
a musical standpoint. Its continuous music and the interweaving
of recitative and melody directly point the way to Wagner. Weber
displayed superb power in the development of his overtures. In the
second volume of his "Music and Musicians," Wagner declared that
Weber might be said to have originated a novel form of overture or
"dramatic fantasy," of which Wagner considered the "Oberon" overture
to be the best example.
In turning to the details of Weber's instrumentation it is found that
no new instruments were introduced. Beauty and novelty were attained
rather by inherent regard for suitable application of tonal color and
by the discovery of new combinations. Although Weber, like Spohr, did
not venerate Beethoven as he should have done, it was not possible
for him to improve upon the great master's string writing. Of course
certain novel effects are to be found, such as the subdivision of
the violins _soli_ into numerous parts, the viola accompaniment to
Annette's ballad,[38] and the use of the same instrument as bass to
"Leise, leise"[39] in "Der Freischütz."
[Footnote 38: Ex. 47.]
[Footnote 39: Ex. 43.]
But perhaps no other composer contributed more to the independence of
the wood-wind.[40] Weber was exceedingly modern in the use of small
combinations. In order to obtain a rare and fairy-like effect in
"Oberon," the first flute and first clarinet give out the melody; the
second flute plays arpeggios as does likewise the second clarinet,
though in contrary motion; a solo horn is employed as bass. The
opening bars of Annette's song in "Der Freischütz" may be cited as
containing a good example for the oboe as does also the accompaniment
to Kilian's song for the bassoon. But it was quite particularly the
clarinet for which Weber showed especial predilection. Beautiful
phrases for the clarinet are to be found in the Allegro of the
overture to "Der Freischütz"[41] as well as in the overture to
"Oberon"; and the characteristics of the instrument in its entire
range are effectively displayed in the introduction to Adolar's
aria in the second act of "Euryanthe." Moreover, he was the first
to discover the tragic possibilities of the chalumeau range,[42] as
exemplified by the held notes in the lowest part of the instrument
accompanying the entries of Zamiel in "Der Freischütz."
[Footnote 40: Ex. 39, 41.]
[Footnote 41: Ex. 37.]
[Footnote 42: Ex. 40, 44, 46.]
Next to the clarinet, the horns[43] received especial consideration
from Weber, and acquired greater freedom and individuality, being
brought into requisition not alone for mellow _cantilene_ and
sustained harmonies, but also as the exponents of jubilant outbursts
or of gloomy whisperings. Many admirable illustrations will
readily be recalled, such as the passages for horns _soli_ in the
introduction of the "Freischütz" overture,[44] the trio for horns
in the Romance in "Preciosa," and the horn accompaniment to the
Mermaid's Song in "Oberon." With Weber, the use of four horns and
three trombones became the rule, whereas with Beethoven it had been
the exception.
[Footnote 43: Ex. 42, 45.]
[Footnote 44: Ex. 36.]
All things considered, it is evident that modern opera and modern
orchestration are immensely indebted to Weber, and his influence has
made itself more or less felt upon the writings of all subsequent
dramatic and orchestral composers.
III.
Two contemporaries of Weber who followed in his footsteps as
composers of romantic opera were Konradin Kreutzer (1780) and
Marschner (1795). Kreutzer's "Nachtlager von Granada" has become
widely known, but of the two men, Marschner is by far the more
important. He is popularly known as the heir of Weber, and has
been called the connecting link between Weber and Wagner. Himself
stimulated and influenced by his friend, Weber, he in turn helped to
mould the earlier works of Wagner. His masterpiece, "Hans Heiling,"
abounds in natural melodic expression, truthful interpretation and
dramatic energy. Neither Kreutzer nor Marschner can be cited as
having contributed anything substantially new to instrumentation,
but they at least helped to strengthen the foundations of modern
orchestration as initiated by Weber.
IV.
The two greatest representatives of the early Romantic School were
Weber and SCHUBERT (1797-1828), indeed, the latter is to
be regarded as the ideal exponent of the romantic poets. He was the
first to raise the Lied from comparative obscurity to such prominence
as to bring the lyric element on a par with that of the dramatic and
epic. His nature was contemplative rather than dramatic. Nevertheless
some of his greatest masterpieces, such as the "Erlkönig," embody not
only dramatic but epic characterization as well. He was above all the
master of exquisite melody, and both his songs and his instrumental
works are further conspicuous for their daring harmonies, animated
and varied rhythm. He opened up a new pathway in the field of
accompaniment which acquired not only greater importance in
intensifying emotional expression, but came also to be the faithful
ally of the vocal part as interpreter of the poem. The use of little
motives in the accompaniment to his songs might be looked upon as an
anticipation in the miniature of Wagner's thematic treatment of his
"Leit-motiven."
Schubert's mode of life was in some respects similar to that of
Beethoven in that he lived apart from the public. Spurred on by
the example of Beethoven, he added to his series of youthful
symphonies two masterpieces which are next in importance to those
of his illustrious model. Both the C major and the unfinished B
minor symphonies display rare skill in the handling of orchestral
instruments, whether in solo passages or in combination. An intimate
acquaintance with their respective characteristics was afforded him
during his early training, and every bar reveals the hand of a master
who without hesitation knew what effects he desired and how to obtain
them. Although his orchestral works lack that depth of conception
that only Beethoven possessed, Schubert nevertheless supplied the
deficiency by means of beautiful melody, tender expression, forceful
harmonic progressions, and, as just intimated, a perfect command
of orchestral resources. Schubert enlarged the scope of practical
instrumentation by discovering two exceedingly valuable and effective
modes of expression that were entirely new so far as manner of
treatment is concerned. No composer before him had elicited from the
trombones such impressive utterance as is to be found, for instance,
in the first movement of the symphony in C where the trombones
_pianissimo_ intone the melody. The first innovation consisted,
therefore, of employing the trombones freely as solo instruments, or
again as independent factors in three-part harmony, _pianissimo_, or
in unison, _forte_. The second innovation was the felicitous manner
in which he contrasted solo instruments of the wood-wind group, or
what Prout calls "a kind of dialogue between them." As an admirable
illustration well-known to all, he calls attention to the charming
dialogue between the flute, oboe, and clarinet in the two Ballet airs
and in the Entr'-act in B flat of the music to "Rosamunde." Many
other interesting details of instrumentation could be cited such as
the effective use of the trumpet in the slow movement of the symphony
in G; his chamber music, also, furnishes admirable examples of string
writing. Among the most prominent are the trio in E flat, the quartet
in D minor, and the quintet in C.
Only in recent years has the influence of Schubert's orchestral
works made itself prominently felt, for until the middle of the
last century most of them had remained in manuscript. Moreover as
recently as fifty odd years ago one of his symphonies was considered
excessively difficult by the principal orchestra of Vienna. Grove
says that "though the whole work was announced, such had been the
difficulties at rehearsal that only the first two movements were
given, and they were carried off by an interpolation of an air from
'Lucia' between them."
V.
MENDELSSOHN[45] (1809-1847). Concurrent with the advent of
Mendelssohn and Schumann, the fascination that Rossini had exercised
in Germany lost its hold, and the public learned to appreciate
more and more the sterling qualities of its own native music. But
not only did the efforts of the German composers of the nineteenth
century begin to win due recognition, but also there was rekindled a
veneration for the creations of the great classicists. This was in
a large manner due to Mendelssohn's untiring efforts. Possessed of
broad culture, wealth, and attractive personality, he combined the
spirit of romanticism with the structural forms of classicism; this
conservatism helped to balance the restless tendencies that were at
that time dominating music and poetry. His compositions are imbued
with beauty and sweetness of melody, with varied harmonies, buoyant
orchestration; his choral writing is the most fluent since Bach's
and surpasses in this respect that of Händel. Melody is emphasized;
tragic depth is lacking. He excelled as a writer of "representative"
music, but even here his refined sense for euphony never deserted
him. He was successful in all forms excepting opera. "St. Paul" and
"Elijah" are the most important oratorios since those of Haydn;
his violin concerto comes next to Beethoven's as a favorite; his
symphonies are characteristic, romantic, and abound in "local"
coloring. His style may be divided into two distinct classes: the
lyric, as typified in the "Songs without Words," and the fantastic
and imaginative as exposed in the Scherzo of the "Midsummer Night's
Dream."
[Footnote 45: See Appendix of Musical Illustrations, Examples 58 to
66.]
Mendelssohn's contributions to the details of instrumentation were
both original and varied. Already in "Midsummer Night's Dream," of
which the Overture was written when he was but seventeen years old,
are to be found marvellous effects that are indeed fairy-like in
their daintiness.[46] In fact it might be justly claimed that this
is Mendelssohn's best orchestral work, taking into consideration its
polished form, transparent and perfectly balanced instrumentation.
Noteworthy for their novelty are the rapid staccato passages for
the wood-wind in the Scherzo.[47] In none other of his works has
the flute been treated in a more charming manner.[48] Familiar to
all is the romantic and extended employment of the horns in the
Notturno,[49] as well as the ludicrous utterances of the opheicleide
in the Overture.
[Footnote 46: Ex. 58, 62.]
[Footnote 47: Ex. 59.]
[Footnote 48: Ex. 60, 66.]
[Footnote 49: Ex. 65.]
As a composer of oratorio, Mendelssohn's choruses, recitatives and
German chorale melodies plainly show the influence of Bach's "Passion
Music." This is particularly noticeable in "St. Paul." Mendelssohn's
mightiest creation is undoubtedly "Elijah." It satisfies every demand
by reason of its expressive recitative, its dramatic and descriptive
choruses, its beauty of lyric episodes and the appropriateness of
its structural form. The orchestral score of "Elijah" is one of
Mendelssohn's best. Among minor details, the violas are brought
into prominence as in the accompaniment to "Lord God of Abraham"
where they are given the highest part. A well-known phrase is the
'cello accompaniment in thirds to the baritone solo. The brass is
again reënforced by an opheicleide. The opening of the chorus, "O
be gracious, ye immortals," in "St. Paul" is accompanied by divided
violas and 'cellos, and parts for the serpent are to be found in the
same work.
Both the subject-matter and the orchestration of Mendelssohn's
symphonies show exceptional originality, and the "Scotch," No. 2
in A minor, as well as the "Italian," No. 3 in A major, are worthy
companions to the "Midsummer Night's Dream." His symphonies are full
of freshness and vigor. Though classic purity of form is strictly
adhered to, Beethoven's polyphony and Weber's picturesque portrayal
are skilfully combined. Like Beethoven, he embodied in his symphonies
certain dramatic characteristics. Rapid passages for the wood-wind,
similar to those in the "Midsummer Night's Dream," are again to be
met with in the Scherzo of the "Scotch" symphony. Mendelssohn was
conservative in employing the brass; of all the early romanticists
he remained the most faithful to traditional usage of the third
group, although trombones were now incorporated as habitual members
thereof. Among other novel combinations, divided violas, reënforced
by clarinets, intone the second subject in the first movement of
the "Lobgesang" symphony. In connection with Mendelssohn it is
interesting to recall the fact that as late as 1829 the pianoforte
was still sometimes employed as a means for conducting, since in
that year he directed his C minor symphony in that way in London.
Mendelssohn's overtures are more pronounced in their modern romantic
tendencies than his symphonies. They are distinctly programmatic,
even though in structure they are moulded on classic forms. From
them dates the development of the modern romantic concert overture.
Mendelssohn's merits and defects have led to much violent discussion,
but the suavity of his melody, the purity of his form and the
delicacy of his orchestration have been excelled by none.
VI.
The most prominent associates and disciples of Mendelssohn were F.
Hiller, Rietz, the Englishman, Bennett, and the Dane, Gade.
Ferdinand Hiller (1811) was a celebrated and prolific composer,
being in his day considered the most notable musician in West
Germany. It was his rare privilege to be personally acquainted with
no less than seven of the greatest composers the world has ever
produced--Cherubini, Beethoven, Meyerbeer, Rossini, Berlioz, Chopin
and Liszt. He was, moreover, a fine pianist and conductor, and was
particularly happy as an interpreter of Beethoven. His compositions
are pleasing and well-rounded in form; but they were modelled
after those of Mendelssohn and are now comparatively forgotten in
consequence of their lack of individuality.
Julius Rietz (1812) was closely associated with Mendelssohn whom he
eventually succeeded as conductor of the Gewandhaus Concerts. He is
primarily to be remembered for having edited Beethoven's symphonies
as well as the entire works of Mendelssohn.
Sterndale Bennett (1816) was one of England's greatest composers,
the most gifted, in fact, after Purcell. He was a friend both of
Mendelssohn and of Schumann, and their enthusiasm encouraged and
stimulated him to further develop his own talents. Although the
influence more particularly of Mendelssohn is plainly to be found
in his works, he retained his individuality and displayed numerous
traits that are undeniably original. His most important works are
an oratorio "The Woman of Samaria"; a cantata "The May Queen"; a
symphony in G minor; four overtures, and four pianoforte concertos.
He has been called the founder of a new "English School."
Since the substance of Gade's music is nominally Scandinavian in
character, it will again be referred to later on in connection with
the Northern countries.
VII.
SCHUMANN (1810-1856). In spite of the depth of thought and
feeling, the brilliancy of ideas, and the programmatic tendencies
that signalize Schumann's monumental productions, he unfortunately
holds the unique position of being one of the few great masters who
did not excel in orchestration. Nevertheless, such is the importance
of his orchestral works that they have won for themselves an exalted
and permanent place in musical literature. Schumann's relation to
the Romantic Movement may be tersely stated as in one of Dickinson's
condensed reviews: "The romantic ideal attains self-consciousness in
Schumann. Weber and Schubert never called themselves romanticists
and were not wholly aware of the tendencies of their work. Schumann,
a critical thinker and self-analyst, not only moulded and colored
his music in accord with certain definite poetic conceptions imbibed
from the romantic writers, but also became the literary champion of
romanticism in music, and aimed directly at fixed radical principles
in the critical and creative thought of his time. He, therefore, not
only marks the beginning of a new era in musical art, but is also
the type of the modern liberally cultured and reflective musician."
With Schumann, the subject-matter and treatment of design are of all
importance. His compositions contain the quintessence of the poetic
and romantic. Every little melody is a miniature poem in tones,
tinged by a certain melancholy and even gloomy coloring. He was, like
Mendelssohn, an ardent disciple of Bach, but his harmonies are freer
and bolder than Mendelssohn's, and his pianoforte compositions show
the influence more especially of Chopin. The chief characteristics
of these works are _cantabile_ expression, intricacy, and the
predominance of harmony and rhythm over melody. A multitude of ideas
are frequently crowded into the space of a few bars. As a song writer
Schumann rivalled and perhaps even excelled Schubert. The songs of
these two peers, together with those of Franz (1815), represent
the highest ideal of the German Lied, for the exquisite taste and
sentiment of Franz appeal strongly to the cultivated musician.
Although Schubert's influence upon Schumann's songs is plainly to
be seen, Schumann enhanced the functions of the accompaniment and
frequently assigned but a secondary rôle to the vocal part. Novelty
of form and style characterize his works for soli, chorus and
orchestra; portions of "Scenes from Faust," "Paradise and the Peri,"
"Manfred," represent his highest attainment and contain also some
effective scoring. The instrumentation of his chamber music betrays
more regard for sonority than for classic counterpoint. Of surpassing
beauty are the quartets in A and in A minor, and the greatest of all,
the quintet in E flat.
Schumann's four symphonies rank next in importance to those of
Beethoven and Schubert, and in depth of sentiment and emotional
power he proved himself a worthy successor to Beethoven. His
symphonies are stamped with distinctive individuality, traditional
form being subjected to certain modifications that were in keeping
with the progressive tendencies of his nature. Thus the D minor
symphony is intended to be played entire without a pause, and
subject-matter from one movement reasserts itself in another. It
would be a waste of time to analyze Schumann's instrumentation
too closely. He followed but could not equal that of Mendelssohn.
Artistic feeling for orchestral effects and occasional good scoring
are to be found, but much of the latter is thick and heavy. He was
apt to follow Rossini's more or less trivial methods of employing
the third enlarged orchestral group. Even Schubert was not entirely
exempt from this mannerism. Such incongruities as the employment of
a bassoon as a bass to trombones could also be cited. Of material
advantage, however, was his introduction into German orchestras of
valve-horns and valve-trumpets. But in a word, it is the substantial
worth of the music itself, not the instrumentation, that has made
Schumann's orchestral works immortal.
VIII.
Among the prominent associates and disciples of Schumann should be
mentioned Volkmann, Reinecke, Bargiel, and Jensen.
The compositions of Volkmann (1815) show affinity to Schumann's.
His pianoforte works bear fanciful titles, and his symphonies and
quartets are massive and musicianly. But like most satellites, he
was not possessed of sufficient spontaneity to acquire wide-spread
or enduring recognition. The compositions of Carl Reinecke (1824),
who held the honorable position of director of the Gewandhaus
Concerts from 1860 until 1895, show the influence more especially
of Schumann, although that of Mendelssohn as well as of Wagner and
Brahms is also apparent. He owes his reputation as a composer largely
to his smaller works, in which the tastes of a refined pianist are
much in evidence. Few could be compared with him as an interpreter
of Mozart, and his activity not alone as a composer of merit but
also as a prominent pianist and distinguished conductor has won him
universal fame. Bargiel (1828) was one of the foremost disciples of
Schumann whose principles he zealously disseminated, both in his
capacity as a fine teacher and as composer. His symphonies, chamber
music and quite especially his psalms for chorus and orchestra show
considerable originality and fine musicianship. Likewise Jensen
(1837) took Schumann unreservedly as his model in spite of being in
sympathetic accord with Gade. His songs and pianoforte pieces in the
lyric _genre_ are imbued with true feeling and rare sensuous charm.
IX.
In a general sense, all modern composers belong to the Romantic
School, but for the sake of consistency in this general
classification, Lachner, Jadassohn and Moszkowski should be mentioned
as direct followers of both Mendelssohn and Schumann.
Franz Lachner (1803) was prominently connected with the musical
life of Munich prior to the rise of Wagner worship in 1865. In
spite of his untiring activity as a conductor, he was one of the
most prolific and at the same time most popular composers of South
Germany. His style betrays the mind of a learned man. The harmonies
are modern, but his works are none the less imbued with a certain
tinge of classicism. Lachner wrote several operas and oratorios,
eight symphonies, and much chamber and church music; but of greatest
importance are the suites for grand orchestra of which he wrote
eight. They are magnificent specimens of contrapuntal knowledge. Some
condemn his writings as being "Kapellmeistermusik" and as containing
nothing truly original or great. Riemann's views are radically
different:--"Lachner is at his best in his orchestral suites, which,
as a kind of modern continuation of Bach-Händel orchestral movements,
occupy a distinctive place in musical literature. Sovereign command
of contrapuntal devices combined with nobility of invention will
secure for them in the future greater appreciation than is accorded
them at the present day."
Jadassohn (1831) holds an important position in the history of
instrumentation, not so much, perhaps, as a result of his own
composition as for the excellence of his teaching and of his
theoretical works, which include the valuable "Lehrbuch der
Instrumentation." A prominent feature of many of his works is the
facility with which canonic writing is applied. Among the best-known
and most popular of his orchestral compositions is the Serenade, opus
35.
Moszkowski (1854) is one of the younger composers whose writings are
imbued with the spirit of Mendelssohn and Schumann rather than with
the local coloring of Poland as might have been expected since his
father was a native of that country. The most popular of his works
are the "Spanische Tänze" for pianoforte, whereas the most important
in orchestral form is the symphonic poem "Jeanne d'Arc." The style is
dignified and musicianly, but lacks the true greatness of originality.
The list of faithful adherents to the pure romanticism of the early
school is herewith properly concluded. Only an imaginary line,
however, separates Spohr and Weber from Raff and Brahms; so the
following chapter is nothing more than a continuation of the present
discussion.
(Summary on page 175.)
CHAPTER X.
THE CLASSICAL ROMANTICISTS.
The representatives of classical romanticism are Raff, Rubinstein,
Goldmark, Brahms, Bruch, Rheinberger. The influence that Raff and
Brahms had upon orchestration requires especial consideration.
Rubinstein will be referred to again in connection with Russian
composers. And a brief analysis will be sufficient to discover the
respective characteristics that distinguish Goldmark's highly colored
orchestration, that of Bruch in accompaniment to noble choral works,
and Rheinberger's conservative yet finished instrumentation for
sacred composition.
I.
RAFF (1822-1882). To begin with Raff, it is by no means easy
to determine the precise value of his compositions. Masterpieces
must be arraigned side by side with works of decided inferiority. He
adapted Beethoven's calorific polyphony together with the charmingly
picturesque style of Weber, but did not approach his eminent
contemporary, Brahms, either in depth of thought or in originality
of ideas. He was, however, superior to Brahms as an orchestral
colorist. Encouraged by the sympathy and practical help of such men
as Mendelssohn, Liszt, von Bülow, he became in his younger days a
sturdy advocate of the modern German tendencies, and even wrote a
pamphlet entitled "Die Wagnerfrage"; but in spite of his affiliation
with the Weimar coterie, Raff eventually developed into a composer
more especially of chamber music and symphonies. "Im Walde" and
"Lenore" are the best known of the orchestral works,--indeed, the
first named is without doubt his most important production. Raff
was essentially a romanticist; what is more, he went so far as to
write descriptive program music. Nevertheless, his style bears but
little relation to that of Wagner or Liszt; it displays, in fact, a
decided reserve in that he employed traditional forms and Beethoven's
symphonic orchestra. Notwithstanding Raff's descriptive faculties,
his works betray unquestionable lyric tendencies. Occasional approach
to the _salon_ style is also in evidence, nor do the larger works
reveal that breadth of style and invariable loftiness of purpose that
signalize those of Beethoven and Brahms. He possessed great facility,
but this very attribute endangered the quality of his conceptions
and was conducive to carelessness and loss of fine feeling.
Striking insignia of absolutely original scoring are not conspicuous,
although the entire character of the orchestration gives evidence
of fertile imagination and sound judgment. Some of Wagner's full
and rich effects found their way also into Raff's symphonic pages.
The latter was particularly happy in the use of horns, wrote almost
exclusively for valve-horns and valve-trumpets, and established a
precedent by selecting those in F for regular practice.
In view of the fact that Raff's style is a compound of classicism
and romanticism, together with yet more advanced tendencies so far
as the "program" element is concerned, his title as pioneer of the
classical-romanticists has been applied with good judgment. The
succeeding luminaries of this school revealed similar tendencies.
Rubinstein, Goldmark and Bruch are all to a more or less degree
exponents of the programmatic idea. Even so conservative a composer
as Rheinberger, whom some are tempted to call even a reactionist,
was at times subjugated by its fascination. This is borne out by
his "Wallenstein" symphony. Brahms stands forth in his solitary
grandeur as the one exception to the rule. Towering above his fellow
classical-romanticists, he attained the exaltation of his fame by a
path they could not tread. It is to him that we now must turn.
II.
BRAHMS (1833-1897). In the April number, 1895, of the
magazine entitled "Music" are to be found the following remarkable
assertions in an otherwise admirable article by Mr. W.S.B.
Matthews:--"Händel is antiquated; Bach still lives, but we can enjoy
his works only as exceptions to our current diet; Haydn symphonies
sound like string quartets played a trifle large and seasoned with
a few notes of trumpets and wood-wind. Mozart in feminine phrase is
'too sweet for any use,' and Mendelssohn has departed to the place
where good boys go. We have left to us the over-worked immortal nine
of Beethoven (now rather shrunk to five) and two of Schubert; we
tolerate Schumann for the sake of his ideas. We hear Tschaikowsky
because he is a master in his way. But the greatest of tone-poets now
living, and the greatest since Beethoven, appears to be Brahms."
These broad assertions may be looked upon as revealing in all good
faith the convictions of the author himself; again, Mr. Matthews may
have aimed to be facetious; or else these assertions were intended
merely to expose the tenets of the ultra-enthusiasts for one of the
latest phases of art. It would appear to the present writer that,
irrespective of motives, _such_ comparisons are entirely superfluous.
Brahms occupies an isolated and lofty pinnacle by himself. Calm and
self-contained in the midst of the restless and feverish impetuosity
that characterizes the "Sturm und Drang" period, he preferred the
seclusion and intellectuality of a reflective student's life, and
moulded his creations in accordance therewith. The only comparison
that would appear at all relevant is the unshaken faith in an ideal
that he shared with Wagner. Beyond this their views diverged when it
came to the question of what this ideal should be or how it should
be attained. Brahms was a strenuous opponent of the "New German
School." The intellectual and tragic aspect of modern absolute music
was _his_ ideal. The leading theme was the germ for synthetical
treatment. Orchestral coloring or dramatic effect was of secondary
consideration. Brahms accepted as his model Bach's austerely
noble methods and strict logical process of thematic development,
whereas the exterior forms of Beethoven and Schumann were virtually
sufficient for his needs. Nevertheless, it cannot be said that
his conservative formal structure was but a slavish imitation of
theirs. Many of his works, such as the Rhapsodies and Klavierstücke,
are certainly not in strict sonata form, nor are they lacking in
distinctive individuality. Brahms is the ideal exponent of purity,
strength, profundity, nobility, greatness of expression and novelty
of treatment. His aims differed from those of the earlier classicists
in that his subject-matter embodies beauty of thought rather than
external beauty in music. The prevalence in many of his works of a
certain heaviness of spirit and the reflex even of asceticism have
been pointed out by more than one of his biographers.
It is not surprising to find that in the terms in which Rheinberger
once expressed himself to the present writer, the background
of Brahms' orchestral canvas is of a grayish hue. Nor can his
scoring be cited as a model for felicitous instrumentation or
glowing orchestral colors. In listening to his symphonies, one is
occasionally disturbed by a certain heaviness or what can be better
expressed as "muddiness." This defect is primarily due to the low
distribution of parts for violas as well as for basses. Vagueness of
detail in melodic delineation of inner voices is the more conspicuous
since Brahms attached great importance to the functions of the
viola, in addition to which he frequently divided them. Certain
conventionalities in writing for the wood-wind are also apparent.
Passages in thirds and sixths are analogous to those in Beethoven's
earlier works; other passages recall certain ones of Schubert. But we
can verily afford to overlook such minor details. Let us rather turn
to a consideration of those essentials of Brahms' symphonic and other
orchestral writings that have caused him to be justly regarded as the
worthy apostle of Beethoven and direct successor to Schumann.
The most striking feature of his symphonies is their colossal
structure. They are evolved without apparent effort. There is no
retrogression, no episodic mediocrity. Brahms had no theories to
promulgate, no gorgeous tableaux to portray. Nevertheless, his
orchestration, though conservative, bears the impress of distinctive
individuality, is replete with variety and characteristic tone-color,
and abounds in peculiar and interesting combinations. A few examples,
drawn from four distinctive types of composition, will be sufficient
to illustrate the fertility of his imagination. Prout calls special
attention in one of his articles on the orchestra to the second
Serenade in A, the Symphony in D, and the "Deutsches Requiem."
We will add to these the "Variations on a theme by Haydn." The
Serenade, opus 16, is one of the earlier works. It is scored for
the usual wood-wind in pairs, besides horns and strings, but there
are no violins throughout the entire piece. It presents a phase
of instrumentation foreign to the usually heavy style of Brahms,
and abounds in variated shades of coloring. The symphony embodies
the highest attainment of orchestral development and "solid"
instrumentation. The nine variations suggest novel aspects in the
field of independent orchestral music. But on the whole, perhaps the
finest orchestral effects are to be found in the "Deutsches Requiem,"
and it is possible that some of the tonal tints employed therein were
suggested by Cherubini's Requiem in C minor. The reader may recall
the citation on page 60 of Cherubini's choice of instruments for the
purpose of accompanying the opening chorus. There the required sombre
tone-color is obtained by employing divided violas and violoncellos
with double-basses, bassoons, horns, and muffled kettle-drums. The
solemn and appropriate color that pervades the opening chorus of
the German Requiem--"Blessed are they that mourn"--is due to the
expressive powers of the string band without violins. The violas and
violoncellos are again divided, and the general subdued effect is
further enhanced by means of sustained notes for the horns. It is not
intended to convey the idea that these two requiems could in any way
be suggestive one of the other beyond a certain similarity of tonal
color in the opening choruses of both. In all other respects they are
radically different. The treatment of musical subject-matter proper
as well as the exposition of sacred words show diametrically opposed
points of view. The funeral march which ushers in the following
chorus "For all flesh is as grass" affords another proof of Brahms'
versatility when searching for further religious effects that shall
nevertheless embody sufficient contrast so as to avoid monotony
in two consecutive movements. The violins and violas are not only
divided into six parts, but are muted as well. The string parts are
redoubled by the wood-wind, while the kettle-drums lend distinctive
character to the passage by means of a prominent though subdued
rhythmic figure.
The question may well be asked why Brahms should not be regarded
as the seventh of the great classicists rather than as a
classical-romanticist. The answer is not hard to find. His treatment
of form and instrumentation is distinctly classic. His method of
harmonization contains modern characteristics. The complex rhythms
that are conspicuous in many of his earlier works together with their
rather obtrusive syncopations and cross accents are suggestive of
Schumann; but whereas Schumann adhered to some marked rhythm that
was consistently carried out in order to acquire variety and to
knit together the organic structure as a whole, Brahms gradually
branched out into broader fields, so that eventually the relegation
of rhythm to a comparatively subordinate relationship to the general
architectural scheme reverts once more to Beethoven's methods of
procedure. Thus Brahms displayed a progressive spirit when employing
doctrines of the classic school, which was tempered withal by extreme
caution in the acceptance of modern tendencies. The amalgamation is
felicitous to a high degree, and has had a most salutary effect upon
the ever increasing inclination of the ultra-modern school to enslave
music in the throes of what has been called "a thrice-intensified
_Weltschmerz_." Even as Wagner stands supreme as the representative
dramatic and orchestral writer of the nineteenth century, so Brahms
may be regarded as a peer without rival in the art of thematic
development, as the noblest exponent since Beethoven of large
proportions and great breadth, and as the most prominent symphonic
writer since Schumann, whose superior he was in the technics of
orchestration.
III.
The fact that GOLDMARK (1830) was born in Hungary does not
entitle him to recognition as a composer of decisively indigenous
characteristics,--indeed, the scenes of three of his most important
works are all laid in the Far East. Neither can it be said that
his strength lies in spontaneity of musical thought or freedom of
thematic treatment. He owes his reputation primarily to his gifts
as an orchestral writer. Like Berlioz, he lacks the geniality of
musical inspiration, but atones for this by vivid orchestral color
and mastery of material effects. The fortunes of divers Oriental
queens have evidently aroused Goldmark's most lively sympathy! But
this peculiar circumstance is felicitous to a high degree, for what
a wealth of glowing color surrounds his dramatization of the queen
of Sheba, how picturesque is the presentation of the Amazon queen in
the overture "Penthesilea," what power of imagination is revealed in
the unfolding of Kalidasa's poetic love story! Goldmark could have
found no finer opportunity for rare contrasts and telling effects
than in this portrayal of Dushyanta, the Rajah--chivalrous, though
unfaithful, of ['S]akuntalá--tender and guileless, yet queenly.
Goldmark succeeded admirably, and this world-renowned overture is, by
virtue of its orchestration, a faithful interpretation of Dushyanta's
wooing, the secret marriage, his forgetfulness of ['S]akuntalá
and her womanly fortitude during the years of unrecognition, her
solicitous watchfulness over the welfare of Sarva-Damana, their
child, and the final touching reunion and retribution. Although "Die
Königin von Saba" has won wide-spread popularity, Goldmark is, on
the whole, at his best in purely instrumental forms. The opening up
of his career is largely due to "['S]akuntalá" and to a Scherzo for
orchestra, opus 19, both of which precede the above-named opera.
His pleasing symphony "Die ländliche Hochzeit" may not embody the
warmth and passion that characterize the Oriental subjects, but
it is orchestrated with rare skill, contains some daring harmonic
progressions, and reveals sentient appreciation for rich and
glowing colors. But this symphony and that in E flat again prove
that Goldmark holds the attention of his audience not so much by
originality of themes and elaborate development as by the sterling
qualities of his instrumentation.
IV.
Antithetical to Goldmark's dependency upon the orchestra for effect
is the euphonious choral style of BRUCH (1838). Here are
to be found naturalness of invention, graceful and flowing melody,
simplicity, and above all beauty of harmonic structure. Bruch
exhibits extraordinary power in handling large vocal forces, and
displays, moreover, marked predilection for Greek and Scandinavian
subjects. The cantatas "Odysseus" and "Arminius," for soli, mixed
chorus and orchestra, are counted among his most important works and
embody the most favorable phase of his orchestration. "Salamis,"
a cantata for male chorus, is an inspiring song of victory, and
"Frithjof," likewise written for men's voices, is an intensely
dramatic exposition of six scenes chosen from the Frithjof Saga of
Tegner. Best known is perhaps the "Lied von der Glocke," whereas the
grave and earnest accents of the Hebraic "Kol Nidrei," together with
the tragic intensity and passionate nature of the violin concerto
in G minor, opus 26, show what Bruch could do when employing the
orchestra to throw a solo instrument into relief. His independent
orchestral works are not sufficiently spontaneous, whereas his
accompaniments embody perfect taste, genuine expression and an
abundance of energetic force. The very nature of his themes is such
as to require either vocal forces or a solo stringed instrument to
present them in the most favorable light. Bruch possesses supreme
mastery of modern orchestral resources, but is at his best in the art
of accompaniment.
V.
No composer has ever taken his art more to heart than
RHEINBERGER (1839). Composition was for him a serious,
even sacred avocation. It was not to be approached in a spirit of
levity, nor could it assume for him so humble a mission as merely
to amuse and entertain. This loftiness of purpose is visible even
in his rather infrequent efforts in lighter vein. Although he was,
to a degree, unconsciously swept along on the irresistible tidal
wave of the epoch, nevertheless his conceptions found utterance in
a but mild form of romanticism, and his works are seasoned with a
certain spice of classic severity. It may be fearlessly asserted
that Rheinberger is the greatest of all composers for the organ
after Bach and Mendelssohn. His organ works are rich in color and
of masterful effect. They combine free harmonic treatment, freely
developed counterpoint and freedom of form. These attributes are
particularly noticeable in the first organ concerto. His genius
further reveals itself in the religious fervor that pervades his
mighty series of sacred works. These two forms of composition--organ
and church music, together with part-songs of rare beauty, are the
most notable accomplishments of this versatile master. On the other
hand, neither his operas nor his orchestral works can be regarded in
the light of important contributions to musical literature. Strange,
therefore, that Rheinberger should have first won general recognition
through his "Symphonische Tongemälde Wallenstein." What is more, this
is the work for which its author was led to essay the programmatic
style of writing. Had he continued to develop his talents along
similar lines, the world might have been impoverished to the extent
of divers organ and sacred works, but Rheinberger himself must
have risen to far greater eminence. It is to be admitted that his
subsequent Florentine symphony, as also the oratorio "Christoforus"
and the opera "Thürmers Töchterlein," are none of them equal to the
Wallenstein symphony, but according to Rheinberger's own confession
he became disheartened by neglect at the time when Wagner stormed the
portals of the Munich Opera House. Thenceforth he turned for relief
to other fields of composition and became, as he grew older, more and
more conservative--one is almost obliged to say bigoted.
The instrumentation of his purely orchestral works is pointedly
restricted to Beethovian procedure and reverts even to that of Mozart
in the use of trumpets and kettle-drums. Its general effect is one of
great refinement; it is marvellously smooth and perfectly rounded in
every detail; but the essential elements of individuality and novelty
do not enter into the orchestral scheme to any appreciable extent.
Rheinberger's last years were saddened by family affliction and
embittered by physical suffering. He displayed an heroic fortitude,
but his assumed cheerfulness concealed the loneliness, the sadness,
the melancholy even to morbidness that were constantly preying upon
his soul. His life became more and more that of a recluse and an
ascetic. Meanwhile his compositions continued even to the end to
reflect unswerving faith, serenity, loyalty of heart and nobility
of mind. The greater his honor for thus excluding the "ego" from
his final offerings to the world! A certain melancholy coloring
does assert itself in his unfinished mass in A minor, but unaffected
simplicity and touching pathos were wonderfully appropriate for what
proved to be his "Schwanengesang."[50]
[Footnote 50: The present writer has developed and edited this mass
as a posthumous work, opus 147, in the hope of presenting it in a
form suitable for performance.]
It is now time to leave the peaceful haven of the
classical-romanticists, and embark upon the restless seas of advanced
thought as set forth in the next chapter.
(Summary on page 175.)
CHAPTER XI.
THE NEW MOVEMENT.
Three countries, France, Hungary and Germany, share the honors in
having brought forth three of the greatest orchestral composers,
Berlioz, Liszt and Wagner, who together founded the so-called "New
Movement."
I.
BERLIOZ[51] (1803-1869). The contributions of Berlioz
to the development of "program" music and to modern science of
orchestration loom up in gigantic proportions. He was practically
the first representative of the New Movement, but contrary to the
natural course of evolution, he was not only its founder but at once
its most radical exponent as well. Liszt in his younger days heard
some of Berlioz's compositions in Paris, and it was thus that the new
seed was transplanted into Germany where it was cultivated in concert
music by Liszt himself, who thereby in turn influenced Wagner's music
dramas. The difference in objective between the principles laid down
by Schumann and Berlioz was that the former aimed to portray a single
independent thought or image, whereas Berlioz's music was connected
with a series of events or ideas. His objective was to make the music
symbolic of images and conceptions that should be capable of being
expressed in words, and his pseudo-symphonies were accompanied by an
elaborate word exposition as a running commentary on the music. As
the result of his activity, the dawn of a new era in concert music
appeared in France. As the chief representative of her romantic
musical art, he combined dramatic and symphonic effects. As an opera
composer he was not successful, but he seized upon the orchestral
experiments of the contemporary operatic composers, and endeavored to
express theatrical ideas by means of the orchestra alone. Henceforth
the power of description was to be entrusted to music itself and not
to the accessories of the stage.
[Footnote 51: See Appendix of Musical Illustrations, Examples 48 to
57.]
Berlioz represents the ultra-realistic school of instrumental
music. His works are the reflection of his own temperament and
individuality. His somewhat eccentric genius displayed itself
in grandiose, weird and picturesque effects, in exaggeration,
morbidness, vivid portrayal, and in extravagant orchestral demands.
The primary object was tone-color in its own right, an object that
was foreign to the more æsthetic ideals of the classicists. He was
the most daring orchestral writer that has ever lived, but his
originality was confined to the scoring rather than to the musical
substance of his works. When transcribed for pianoforte they lose
their fascination. He was a veritable poet in sound, and he sought in
every possible way to intensify characteristic expression.
To enlarge upon the details of Berlioz's instrumentation would be
futile, for his standard treatise is a familiar book of reference to
all music lovers. It is therefore permissible to make mention of only
the most important of his innovations. Moreover, in order to realize
the magnitude of Berlioz's achievements, one should keep clearly in
mind the exact extent to which orchestral evolution had advanced
before his day; for many effects that were then strikingly new are
now the property of all and excite no comment. The distinctive
features of his orchestration are power of musical description;
new combinations, new effects, new treatment; insight into the
characteristics of the instruments whereby their possibilities both
individual and collective are demonstrated; excessive polyphony and
complicated rhythm. He removed many prejudices even though many of
his experiments are impracticable.
The "Symphonie fantastique--An Episode in the Life of an Artist"
offers the best illustrations for studying his programmatic
methods. The dimensions of the orchestra are kept within bounds,
being augmented by but a few additional instruments such as two
opheicleides and two pair of kettle-drums.[52] No more poetic duet
or instrumental dialogue can be found than that between the oboe and
English horn in the third movement--"In the Fields"[53]--where they
represent two lovers in the guise of a shepherd and shepherdess. The
March to Execution,[54] and the Witches' Revel are fine examples
of dramatic intensity and accentuated volume of sound. "Lélio," a
symphonic poem with vocal music, which was intended as a sequel to
the "Symphonie fantastique," contains parts for four clarinets.
This was consistent with Berlioz's tendency to employ homogeneous
tone-color in full four-part harmony. The pianoforte is also
introduced into the Finale of the same work. The huge dimensions
of the Requiem or "Messe des Morts" are exceptional and should not
be cited as being typical of Berlioz's usual methods of scoring.
Tremendous combinations are brought into use for the Sanctus,
the Tuba mirum, and the Agnus Dei. They include twelve horns,
sixteen trombones, and eight pair of kettle-drums. Of uttermost
impressiveness is the Tuba mirum with its four separate orchestras of
brass instruments stationed at the four corners of the stage or of
the auditorium itself. The various types of instruments of percussion
received the most careful consideration even to minuteness of detail.
The Requiem presents one of the earliest examples of employing three
flutes. Berlioz selected the viola as the central figure for his
symphony "Harold en Italie."[55] Its functions are to impersonate
Childe Harold himself, to portray his impressions and emotions, to
supply the rôle, so to speak, of a vocal interpreter. The ravishing
effects elicited from the harmonics of divided violins combined
with those of the harp will be recalled in the Queen Mab scherzo of
"Roméo et Juliette." The score of the Biblical trilogy "L'Enfance du
Christ" contains some curious passages of interwoven viola and 'cello
parts. The charming ballet is performed by three flutes and a harp.
Berlioz's greatest work is unquestionably the dramatic legend "La
Damnation de Faust." Nothing can be daintier than the Dance of the
Sylphs; nothing sadder than the portrayal of Marguerite's remorse by
an English horn; nothing more brutal than the Chorus of Students,
accompanied by viola, double-bass, bassoon, horn and tuba--all in
unison.
[Footnote 52: Ex. 51.]
[Footnote 53: Ex. 49.]
[Footnote 54: Ex. 52, 53, 54.]
[Footnote 55: Ex. 56, 57.]
In conclusion, Berlioz must be accredited with having anticipated
many effects that were subsequently elaborated upon by Wagner.
Unfortunately the potency of Berlioz's music depends almost entirely
upon orchestral tone-color; on the other hand, the unadorned
substance of Wagner's music will withstand the closest scrutiny.
Berlioz frequently assigned to the orchestra and specially to the
strings a large number of independent parts which were further
enhanced by simultaneously contrasted rhythm. This contrast was,
moreover, applied to instruments of the same group, such as first
and second violins. The violins are divided at times into as many as
six and eight parts, the 'cellos into four, whereas in "Cinq mai" he
wrote five actual parts for the double-basses. He appreciated the
true value of the viola, and was the first to introduce the harp
into the symphonic orchestra. The wind-instruments are often split
up into what might be called separate little orchestras. Families of
affiliated tone-color are represented by three and frequently four
members. It was Berlioz that discovered the richness of pianissimo
brass effects, and the substitution of the tuba for the opheicleide
is due largely to him. He made divers experiments with many varieties
of instruments of percussion apart from those with kettle-drums. In
the Te Deum for three choirs, orchestra and organ, no less than five
pair of cymbals are required. His occasional demands for an enormous
apparatus were certainly extravagant; nevertheless he rarely used the
full force of their combined strength excepting in isolated cases.
II.
LISZT (1811-1886). It is not proposed to analyze Liszt's
rich and heavy orchestration, for the importance of his orchestral
works consists rather of the bearing they have upon the unfettered
form, the freedom of tonality and the novelty of treatment that
characterize the New German School. The scoring of his symphonic
poems is masterful, highly colored and ingenious. But although
it bears the unmistakable stamp of his own personality, the
orchestration embodies nothing conspicuously new. Beethoven and the
early romanticists, Berlioz, and above all Wagner were his models
in instrumentation. Favored by the opportunities afforded him in
consequence of his precocious genius when but a mere child, Liszt's
impressionable temperament seized upon the progressive tendencies of
the times, thereby strengthening the already half-formed conviction
that music should be descriptive, representative, reproductive,
realistic. After hearing Berlioz's "Episode de la vie d'un artiste"
he proceeded to develop his own talent along similar though
individual lines, and thus became the champion of German "program"
music. As has been previously stated, these doctrines of Berlioz
and of Liszt were destined to be reflected in Wagner's works, for
though the latter at first condemned such doctrines in no uncertain
terms, his opinions subsequently underwent a radical change. In his
monograph on Liszt's symphonic poems he says:--"Program-music does
not aim to override speech or the plastic arts and represent things
accessible to them only, but rather forms a special kind of union of
two independent factors: poetry and music."
Now although Beethoven's "Pastoral" symphony, Mendelssohn's "Fingal's
Cave" and Raff's "Lenore" were all in the direct evolutionary line
of descriptive music, Liszt soon perceived that classic forms were
indeed the ideal vehicle for abstract and purely æsthetic music, but
could not be successfully applied to portray a series of emotions,
events or ideas. This discovery led him to modify the cyclic form
of the symphony which became transformed into the symphonic poem
with its continuity of music, monothematic principle and absence of
conventional formulas. He retained all the symphonic expedients of
thematic development, but form was now subjective to the program. His
methods were simpler and can be more readily grasped than those of
Berlioz. The range of subject was cosmopolitan, and the introduction
of national traits, such as the Hungarian element, resulted in what
Dickinson calls "shaping and coloring the work through imagined
correspondences." Liszt's symphonic poem "Les Préludes" affords the
best illustration of his aims and ideals. "Eine Faust Symphonie"
embodies the suggestion of personal qualities by means of music. The
oratorios "Christus" and "Die Legende der heiligen Elizabeth" display
novel treatment as well as a departure from traditional forms.
III.
WAGNER[56] (1813-1883). The recorder of the history of music
and of orchestration can find no more inexhaustive topic than when he
approaches that of Richard Wagner's epoch-making innovations. What is
more, the literature in connection therewith is so voluminous, that
opportunity for even the slightest original deduction is denied him.
No alternative is left him other than to restate in condensed form
what the cardinal features of Wagner's ideals and reforms were. Such
a review is indeed indispensable if these pages are to be complete.
[Footnote 56: See Appendix of Musical Illustrations, Examples 67 to
75.]
At the time that Wagner entered upon his career, German dramatic
art was largely under the subjection of Meyerbeer, for Weber had
not yet won universal popularity. The singer still reigned supreme;
dramatic orchestration was primarily realistic and bombastic. Wagner
himself betrayed in his earlier works how tempting and insidious the
influence of Meyerbeer's dazzling mannerisms and idiosyncrasies could
be. Moreover, in order to realize the full significance of Wagner's
artistic growth, one should not lose sight of his youthful enthusiasm
for Italian melody, even though his subsequent creations proved him
to be a Teuton through and through, both in sentiment and in art.
The highest ideals of German opera culminated in the music dramas of
Wagner. As musician, poet, dramatist, and master of scenic effects
and theatrical requirements, he grew to be the champion of national
art, a self-appointed reformer not alone of opera as an end to
itself, but as a means whereby the conditions of social life might
be inspired and uplifted. And the remarkable concentration of his
musical thought, his rare gifts as a poet, and his noble histrionic
conceptions proved him worthy of the task. The philosophical aspect
of this attainment embodies intimate connection between drama and
music; merging of voice and orchestra; intensification and completion
of the singer's thought by means of the orchestra; finally,
dramatic illusion whereby conditions of mind rather than dramatic
situations are portrayed. By developing the so-called _Leit-motiv_,
Wagner discovered a most potent factor for recalling past events,
for emphasizing those present, and for anticipating those of the
future. The _Leit-motiv_ was, moreover, particularly well adapted
to reveal the true conceptions of the composer himself. Vividness
of portrayal was enhanced by means of intricate combinations of
melodies and figures, free chromatic harmony, unfettered modulation,
and elaborately conceived dramatic as well as thematic development
toward some supreme climax. The application of the _Leit-motiv_
theorem was conducive to greater license in the treatment of vocal
interpretation. A fusion of _parlante_ and the _arioso_ was
the result, and in later works the comparatively unintelligible
enunciation of combined vocal forces was obviated by discarding the
chorus almost altogether.
Retrospection shows us that there were originally three distinct
divisions in opera: the _recitativo_, the _aria_, and the
_ritornello_. At first the _ritornello_ was but the repetition of the
cadence, but developed subsequently into a transitory period intended
to complete an unfinished vocal phrase or to describe the action on
the stage. Later, a union of these three distinct divisions resulted
in the _arioso_, or fragmentary _cantilena_ joined to _recitativo_.
The _parlante_ or musical declamation over a melodic phrase in the
orchestra originated in opera-buffa as developed by Piccini and
Paesiello; subsequently Spontini transplanted it into serious opera.
It is equivalent in spoken drama to melodramatic recitation. Wagner's
style is therefore nothing more than an additional link in the chain
of natural evolution.
The pith of Wagner's ideals may be summed up by saying that he
aimed to substitute a noble form of art in the place of mere
pleasure-giving and sensational fabrications. Music, poetic ideas,
action and stage setting were all to be worthy of the subject
intended for presentation. His choice of subject for dramatization
was restricted to such as could embody characters capable of being
treated morally and intellectually as well as æsthetically. Wagner
above all others defined the true mission of German national art and
guided her to a tangible realization of that mission.
IV.
Wagner's operas and music dramas may be divided into either of two
general classifications. The first treats of the musical contents
and structural form of his dramas, and of the evolution of his
philosophical ideas. The second relates solely to differentiated
style of orchestration and numerical distribution of instruments.
The first classification embodies three distinct groups. The first
of these groups contains all of Wagner's earlier attempts including
"Rienzi," which is modelled according to the French and Italian
"historic" school. With the exception of "Eine Faust Ouvertüre" which
belongs also to this category, only occasional indications of marked
genius are to be found in these works. The second group includes "Der
Fliegende Holländer," "Tannhäuser" and "Lohengrin." These display a
radical change in style, form and treatment, pronounced originality,
continuity of music and a fusion of recitative and aria. The topics
chosen for dramatization treat of German myths, mediæval legends, and
chivalrous ideals. Indications of the _Leit-motiv_ principle, though
used in an unobtrusive manner, are in evidence. The musical forms
are not yet influenced by the profundity of thought and reflection
that characterizes the works belonging to the third group. The third
and last group includes "Tristan und Isolde," "Die Meistersinger von
Nürnberg," "Der Ring des Nibelungen," and "Parsifal." The complete
fulfilment of Wagner's philosophical theories are here exposed.
Wealth of harmony, characteristic rhythm and intensity of expression
are combined with poetic reasoning, depth of thought and vivid
dramatization. The centre of gravity, so to speak, is transferred
to the orchestra. _Sprech-singen_ is emphasized, whereas the
_Leit-motiv_ principle reaches its full development.
V.
The second classification, relating to differentiated style of
orchestration, is popularly divided into three groups, but a
division into four groups would seem more appropriate to the present
writer. Wagner's earliest orchestral attempts need not be taken into
consideration, and so the first group may include only "Rienzi," "Der
Fliegende Holländer" and "Tannhäuser." The scores of these works do
not display radical departure from contemporary methods excepting in
polyphonic treatment and individualistic coloring. The instruments
of wood are as yet represented only in pairs, although already a cor
anglais and a bass-clarinet are regularly employed. The addition of
a second piccolo flute, a second English horn and a third bassoon
is but exceptional. The numerical distribution of strings and the
constituency of the brass are normal. Entirely new tendencies are
discovered in "Lohengrin" and "Tristan und Isolde" which comprise
the second group, since each wood-wind family is now represented
by three instruments. The number of strings are augmented so as
to balance the wood-wind, as well as in consequence of their own
frequent subdivision; but the brass is the same as in Group I. The
magnitude of the Nibelungen Tetralogy gave rise to the adaptation of
the exceptional third group. The augmentation affects both the wood
and the brass. The wood-winds are divided into families of four each,
and the same principle is applied to the brass. Strings, harps and
battery are augmented in proportion. The reason for regarding "Die
Meistersinger" and "Parsifal" as representatives of a separate fourth
group is that in the former, Wagner reverted to the orchestra of
Groups I and II, whereas the number of instruments used in "Parsifal"
correspond to those in "Tristan." Notwithstanding, the orchestration
and the treatment of instruments for both "Die Meistersinger" and
"Parsifal" embody a composite style that frequently suggests certain
traits peculiar to the Tetralogy. They may, therefore, be rightfully
regarded as belonging to a distinct group by themselves.
We need not here concern ourselves again with the first mentioned
philosophical and æsthetic classification. On the other hand, the
purpose of these pages certainly demands some further analysis of the
second orchestral classification.
GROUP I. RIENZI; DER FLIEGENDE HOLLÄNDER; TANNHÄUSER.
Strings; 1 or 2 harps.
1 piccolo flute (sometimes 2); 2 flutes; 2 oboes; 1 English
horn (rarely 2); 2 clarinets; 1 bass-clarinet; 2 bassoons
(sometimes 3 bassoons or an additional contra-bassoon).
4 horns (of which at least 2 are chromatic); 2 chromatic
trumpets (often 3); 3 trombones (2 tenor, 1 bass); 1
bass-tuba.
2 kettle-drums (sometimes 3); further instruments of
percussion.
"Rienzi" was first given at Dresden in 1842. Of its orchestration
little need be said. Being influenced by Meyerbeer and the French
dramatic traditions, the scoring embodies much that is extravagant
and bombastic, though many instrumental passages of surprising beauty
are by no means absent. What might be called the composite of rich,
velvet tone-color peculiar to Wagner's orchestral palette is already
noticeable--a coloring that was not attained even by Spontini,
Meyerbeer or Halévy. "Der Fliegende Holländer" (Dresden, 1843)
revolutionized at one stroke the dramatic functions of orchestration
as well as the treatment of instruments, even if the combinations
themselves are not radically different from contemporary procedure.
In this transition work Wagner revealed the future path he was
destined to pursue. The innovation of continuity and alliance of
music, poetry, scenes and action proved that his latent powers had
already begun to unfold themselves. "Der Fliegende Holländer" is
the direct successor to Weber's romantic operas, and in detail and
color it resembles Marschner's "Hans Heiling." For the first time
he made use of the German myth. He drew freely upon a naturalistic
use of chromatics and of astounding brass effects for portraying the
tempest, called into requisition the most characteristic accents of
the wood-wind to depict the gloomy atmosphere of the Northern seas,
and elaborated upon Weber's use of the horns for romantic episodes.
His subsequent predilection for divided strings is already to be
found in a modified form. In a word, the entire work is imbued with
virile force and truthful expression. Its successor, "Tannhäuser"
(Dresden, 1845--Paris, 1861), follows along similar lines but
displays greater advance both in the handling of the mediæval legend
itself and in style of orchestration. Of decidedly modern effect
is the condensed declamatory style of Tannhäuser in the last act,
as well as the powerful sweep of the violins in the Overture, the
passage for 4-part violas in the March, and the important rôle
assigned to the harp throughout the opera. An admirable illustration
of writing for unsupported wood-wind accompanies the exit of
Elizabeth in the third act. Her grief and resignation could have
found no more faithful interpreter than that solo for bass-clarinet
beneath syncopated chords of gentle and tender-voiced flutes. The 12
horns on the stage in the first act, and the 12 trumpets for the
March in the second act are treated in a novel and interesting manner
that bears but slight resemblance to the previous experiments of the
"historic" school.
In thus briefly analyzing the general characteristics of this first
group, it is seen that in relation to practical instrumentation, only
the brass was especially affected. The incorporation of regularly
employed chromatic horns and trumpets afforded completeness and
freedom. The use of three trumpets, which is also to be found in the
scores of Mendelssohn and Schumann, balanced the trombones; and the
substitution of the tuba for the opheicleide yielded greater sonority
as well as a closer affinity in tone-color to that of the trombones
themselves.
GROUP II. LOHENGRIN; TRISTAN UND ISOLDE.
Strings; 1 or 2 harps (frequently 2 individual parts).
1 or 2 piccolo flutes; 3 flutes; 2 oboes and 1 English
horn (or 3 oboes); 2 clarinets and 1 bass-clarinet (or 3
clarinets); 3 bassoons.
4 chromatic horns; 3 trumpets; 3 trombones; 1 bass-tuba.
2 or 3 kettle-drums; instruments of percussion.
"Lohengrin" was first performed at Weimar in 1850 under the direction
of Liszt. It bears a striking relation to Weber's "Euryanthe," but
exhibits, nevertheless, entirely new tendencies. It breathes the
very atmosphere of chivalrous splendor, embodies ideal purity of
sentiment and expression, and supplants traditional form by means
of continuous and absolutely flexible melody. Conspicuous is the
reconstruction of the orchestra in that the strings are much divided,
and the wood-winds are represented by families of three instead of
two instruments. Both Meyerbeer and Berlioz had made use of such
triplets of uniform tone-color, but Wagner was the first to do so
consistently. Not only were the resources for obtaining variety of
individual and also of combined tonal effect thereby increased, but
the _ensemble_ of the full orchestra acquired greater firmness and
sonority as well. Striking and entirely new effects confront us on
every hand. The string writing is of surpassing beauty, whether
illustrated by the division of violins in their ethereal range, or
by passages assigned to divided violas and 'cellos combined with
the harp. It is, however, primarily the wood-wind that is treated
in a particularly novel manner. Familiar examples containing rare
tonal tints and intense depth of sentiment are those associated
with Elsa's first entry, or with the dramatic situation in the
earlier part of the second act, where the English horn, clarinet,
bass-clarinet, bassoons and 'cellos are most effectively combined.
The cathedral scene in the second act presents another complete
exposition of unsupported wood-wind. Not until 1859 was the score
of "Tristan und Isolde" completed, for Wagner was simultaneously at
work on the "Meistersinger" and the "Ring"; moreover, after the first
performance of "Lohengrin," fifteen dreary years elapsed before
"Tristan" was first presented, which finally took place in Munich in
1865. The exposition of this Keltic legend is marked by splendor of
color and musical intricacy. Although it ushers in the beginning of
Wagner's third creative period whereby the logical unfolding of his
ideas of reform is carried out, the work is properly included in the
second group of the "orchestral" classification, since the numerical
distribution of instrumental parts is practically identical with
that in "Lohengrin." However, the scoring is of a far higher degree
of intensity. It abounds in every conceivable shade of composite
tone-color, of striking contrasts, of inspiring outbursts. One of
the most magnetic features is the impassioned yet melancholy tint
that envelops the entire work as it were in its veiled embrace. The
attainment of this objective colors much of the orchestration, as
exemplified, for instance, by the predominance of violoncellos in
four parts as well as by the combination of oboe, English horn, horn
and bassoon _soli_ in the Vorspiel. Again, a subdued yet intense
impression is caused by the union of English horn, bassoon and
trombones in the first act during the scene between Tristan and
Isolde. Astounding skill is displayed in the development of thematic
treatment leading to ever alternating climaxes, anticlimaxes, and
monumental finales.
In the above second group, the orchestra is enlarged chiefly by the
introduction of triplets of wood-wind instruments. The English horn
and the bass-clarinet are employed as components of their respective
families rather than as solo interpreters. They are replaced by a
third oboe and a third clarinet in concerted _forte_ numbers of
extended length. No further purely practical innovations are to
be noted other than a logical augmentation of the string band and
progressive treatment of the brass.
(If the topics of this review were subject to despotic chronological
sequence, it would be necessary, at this point, to touch upon the
characteristics of "Die Meistersinger," for that work was first
performed at Munich in 1868, three years after "Tristan" and one year
before "Das Rheingold." As already suggested, however, the scoring of
"Die Meistersinger" is such as to make it advisable to include it in
a separate fourth group together with "Parsifal.")
GROUP III. DER RING DES NIBELUNGEN.
16 first violins; 16 seconds; 12 violas; 12 violoncellos; 8
double-basses.
6 harps (exceptionally in 6 individual parts).
1 or 2 piccolo flutes; 3 flutes; 3 oboes; 1 English horn; 3
clarinets (at times a small clarinet); 1 bass-clarinet; 3
bassoons; 1 contra-bassoon.
4 horns (often 8); 3 trumpets; 1 bass-trumpet; 3 trombones;
1 contrabass-trombone; 4 tubas (tenor and bass); 1
contrabass-tuba.
2 pair of kettle-drums; instruments of percussion.
The Tetralogy presents not only the culmination of Wagner's poetic
ideas and philosophical aspirations, but the final transformation in
orchestral resources as well. The première of "Das Rheingold" took
place in 1869 in Munich, followed in 1876 by the first performance
of the entire "Ring" at Bayreuth. The music of the "Ring" is so
inseparably welded to the drama that, apart from certain striking
exceptions, much of it loses its significance when performed as
"absolute music" away from the stage. At first sight the requisition
made for so mighty an aggregation of instruments must have been
indeed terrifying to a "Herrn Kapellmeister" of the old operatic
school, but closer inspection of the orchestration reveals the fact
that the glories of this noble tableau are obtained by masterful
contrasts of detached little groups of uniform tone-color, rather
than by cumulative tone quality and quantity. Space forbids more
than a cursory glance at a very few of these novel characteristics
in details of instrumentation. "Das Rheingold" shows, on the whole,
great reserve in the simultaneous employment of large forces. For
instance, the scene of the Rhine maidens is accompanied by the most
transparent orchestration. Many variations in the use of unmixed
tone-color could be cited, such as three oboes and English horn by
themselves; English horn with three bassoons; horns alone, or with
bassoons, or with bass-tuba. One of the most striking examples is
to be found in the fourth scene where the chord of the diminished
seventh is assigned to the lower notes of three clarinets and a
bass-clarinet. The same consistent use of homogeneous quartets marks
the deployment of the brass. The tubas appear entirely alone, as
do also the four trumpets in combination with the four trombones.
The final scene presents one of the exceptional instances of six
independent parts for harps. The first act of "Die Walküre" is, in
the opinion of the present writer, the most perfect specimen of
dramatic writing in the literature of music.[57] Here again, the
avoidance of massive scoring is particularly to be noted throughout
almost the entire act. And what other instruments could have
attained that maximum intensity of expression that characterizes the
deployment of five solo violoncellos[58] as interpreters of tender
longing and suppressed emotion? Some of the most impressive effects
are obtained by means of such comparatively simple combinations as
one solo oboe supported by two flutes, a clarinet and a bassoon,
further assisted by a second fragmentary melodic theme in the
'cellos. Instances of independent phrases for three clarinets and
bass-clarinet are again to be found, and in the third act, the
horns are employed in six real parts. A large majority of effects
and combinations that are conspicuous in "Das Rheingold" and "Die
Walküre" naturally reappear in "Siegfried" and "Götterdämmerung."
Further distinctive traits in "Siegfried" are the manifold division
of violins and violoncellos, the extensive arpeggio passages for
violas, the employment of viola harmonics, the important rôle
assigned to the double-basses, the composite tonal tint resulting
from a reunion of the clarinet quartet and four solo 'cellos, and
the use of bass- and double-bass tubas for impersonating the dragon.
Another prominent illustration of sonorous yet transparent scoring is
seen in the scintillating Forest Music in the second act and again
in "Götterdämmerung," to which a striking contrast is subsequently
afforded by the solemn and massive harmonies of the tubas in
Siegfried's Funeral March. Nor should the prominent function of
kettle-drums throughout the entire Tetralogy be overlooked.
[Footnote 57: Ex. 67 to 75.]
[Footnote 58: Ex. 67.]
In comparing the distribution of parts in the first, second, and
third groups, we have seen that in the first of these the orchestra
is normal, though the balance of the brass is improved. The
augmentation of the second group is effected by employing three
instruments in each family of the wood-wind. The third group,
however, embodies a readjustment of both wood and brass into families
of four. This requires a strong body of strings; incidentally,
more harps are employed, whereas both the number and variety of
instruments of percussion are increased. In addition to four trumpets
and four trombones there are as many as eight horns and five tubas.
Not only are these massed instruments never used simultaneously, but
their latent powers are further intended to be modified by Wagner's
plan for a partially concealed orchestra as at Bayreuth. To the brass
is primarily entrusted the important function of contrasting three
fundamental conceptions in the Tetralogy. Horns are symbolic of the
poetic, of distant visions, of reminiscences, of imagination, of
conscience. Trumpets and trombones represent a world of light midst
the gods and heroes. Tubas portray material force, human suffering,
fate.
GROUP IV. DIE MEISTERSINGER VON NÜRNBERG; PARSIFAL.
To classify these two works under one heading might at first sight
appear incongruous, for apart from the fact that some dozen years
separate the respective periods of their creation, the difference
between them in style and objective is as that of the antipodes.
The comic features and satirical purpose of the one bear absolutely
no relation to the mystical and devotional tone of the other. In
two respects, however, they have some points of affinity. The
orchestration of both is more like that of "Tristan" than of the
"Ring," and the harmonies are, to a certain extent, the adventitious
corollary of intricate polyphonic voice-leading. This is, of course,
particularly pronounced in "Parsifal," but it is in evidence in
"Die Meistersinger" as well. Both works prove that the exceptional
orchestral forces required for "Der Ring des Nibelungen" are by no
means necessary to obtain sonority, richness, exhaustless variety
and supreme dramatic intensity. Again, none of Wagner's dramas can
rival "Die Meistersinger" in musical power, whereas "Parsifal," as
the exponent of Wagner's religious views and his attitude toward
Christianity, is unsurpassed for nobility of subject and dignity of
treatment. With the performance of "Parsifal" at Bayreuth in 1882,
Wagner ended his stupendous lifework. His death followed barely seven
months later, but he had lived long enough to witness the attainment
of his ambitions and ideals.
VI.
It is needless to enlarge upon the hostile criticism evoked by
Wagner's theories, for his titanic achievements have remained
unscathed in the very face of even such violent attacks as were
hurled forth by Nordau and Nietzsche. Nevertheless, the present
writer cannot refrain from referring to the petty antagonism
Wagner had to endure as a consequence of the narrow-mindedness
and non-progressive spirit of many of his most distinguished
contemporaries. Even Rheinberger was not exempt from this defect,
and his attitude toward Wagner must be regarded as being the more
unaccountable since the memory of the Munich master is to be revered
not alone for the profound knowledge, the depth of feeling, and the
refinement that revealed themselves in his teaching and composition,
but for the nobility of his soul and the loftiness of his purpose
as well. And the close of Lobe's otherwise unprejudiced treatise on
instrumentation displays a glaring inconsistency in its strictures
upon Wagner's so-called overloaded orchestration. In his anxiety to
decry overzealous Wagner worship, Lobe made laborious efforts to
select examples that should support his adverse criticisms. This he
openly acknowledges, although he admits that not all of Wagner's
"Kraftbilder" are scored in so unfelicitous a manner. One of the
two such illustrations cited by him embodies the episodic climax in
"Lohengrin" where Elsa's ecstasy is portrayed in
[Music: Fänd ich Jubelweisen]
Lobe claims that the initial tones of Elsa's outburst are overpowered
and that further, her succeeding phrases are marred rather than
supported by reduplication of oboe and clarinet! No author can
convince his readers with such biased and absurd arguments.
To deliberately confine one's-self to such trivial points in
demonstration of Wagner's scoring is not in keeping with the dignity
of what is still a standard treatise. Even though it was published as
early as 1864, that was the very year in which Wagner was called to
Munich by King Ludwig II. By that time his works had already received
sufficient recognition to command the most careful consideration
even from pedants. Lobe's entire paragraph will bear repeating in
consequence of its very incongruity:--
"In diesem Beispiel _sehen_ wir als Hauptzeichnung die Melodie
Elsa's. Ihr Entzücken ist herrlich deklamirt, aber für wen? Kann
irgend ein Zuhörer von dem Eintritt _dieser Singstimme_, und
sie ist die wesentliche oder sollte es doch sein, auch nur eine
Ahnung bekommen? _Drei_ Flöten, _drei_ Oboen, _drei_ Klarinetten,
_vier_ Hörner, _drei_ Fagotte, _drei_ Trompeten, _drei_ Posaunen,
_Tuba_, _Pauke_, das Streichquartett, der König und der ganze
Frauen- und Männerchor schreien _fortissimo_ gegen die einzelne
Stimme des zarten Wesens Elsa! Dieser Riesenaccent aller vereinten
Orchester- und Chorstimmen verstummt nun zwar und die Folge der
Singmelodie Elsa's wird _etwas_ hörbar, aber von einem rein und
deutlich hervorglänzenden _Gesang_ kann nicht die Rede sein;
den die Mitsprache der ersten Oboe und ersten Klarinette im
Einklang--beiläufig bemerkt eine der fatalsten Verbindungen dieser
beiden Instrumente--sowie der andern Blasinstrumente verwischen und
verzehren den Klang der Singstimme und lassen gleichsam nur einen
Schatten derselben vernehmen."
VII.
In summing up the chief characteristics of Wagner's perfect
orchestration it is seen that although he was at first susceptible
to tone-color as an end to itself, he learned to subordinate it to
the demands of the musical and poetic ideas of the immediate dramatic
situation. Greatest of masters for the orchestra, Wagner brought
that organization to its highest point of evolution. Even though
the scores of "Lohengrin" and "Tristan" contain, with the exception
of bass-clarinet and bass-tuba, no instruments that had not been
employed by Haydn and Mozart, it was Wagner that emphasized solidity,
that made the orchestra firm and supple, that increased its melodic
as well as harmonic force, and used it for two definite purposes: to
render emotion and to portray action and situations. He was fortunate
in being aided by the rapid improvements that were taking place in
his day in the mechanism of instruments, as well as in the advance
in musical education and technical skill of orchestral performers.
His orchestration does not deviate from well-established and
approved traditions, but the grouping and treatment of instruments
are entirely new. The use of deep, sonorous basses never interferes
with harmonic clearness or with the outline of melodic and rhythmic
movement. The modern extreme development of unsupported wood-wind[59]
is entirely due to Wagner. When his predecessors had had occasion
to employ an English horn or a bass-clarinet, one of the oboe or
clarinet players usually undertook the part, thus depriving the
orchestra of possible effects for two oboes and English horn, or two
clarinets and bass-clarinet. This defect was remedied by both Berlioz
and Wagner in augmenting the wood-wind for the purpose of obtaining
harmonies of uniform tone-color. The addition of horns as regular
constituents of the second orchestral group[60] lent smoothness and
cohesion to the former somewhat thin and uneven quality of the
combined wood-wind. Some of the most mournful accents in Wagner's
orchestra are those obtained from the velvet harmonies of three
flutes in their lowest range. He regarded the clarinet[61] as the
most expressive solo wind instrument in the orchestra, and recognized
the latent efficiency of the bassoons whether as solo interpreters
or in independent harmonies, whether as bass to the wood-wind or
together with the horns alone.[62] The most radical changes are those
affecting the brass. Nevertheless, the principle of using three
or four instruments of the same family is in reality based upon
Gluck's and Mozart's euphonious distribution of three-part harmony
for trombones. Of incalculable value was the permanent employment
of valve-horns and valve-trumpets, the immense development in horn
writing, and the discarding of opheicleides. A world of majestic
light, as exposed by the homogeneity of trumpets and trombones, is
made to stand out in strong relief against the tubas' luxuriant
wealth of harmony, or the veiled yet picturesque tonal tints of
horns. The introduction of a complete group of tubas was certainly
an entirely new idea. Much of Wagner's warm and rich orchestration
is due to a substratum of soft brass harmonies that are apparently
not audible at all. No composer knew better than he how to obtain
the best effects from instruments of percussion without overstepping
the bounds of artistic refinement. His use of kettle-drums was more
practical than that of Berlioz; but it should not be forgotten
that when Meyerbeer or Berlioz needed a numerical variety of tones
or rapid changes in pitch, it was necessary to employ a number of
drums and several performers, whereas Wagner was able in later
years to attain the same object with fewer drums, in consequence
of the perfecting of the "machine-drum" which allows of almost
instantaneous change of pitch. The art of conducting received also
a powerful impetus from Wagner, and his untiring efforts to raise
the standard of the dramatic and concert stage were ably seconded by
Liszt and subsequently by von Bülow. When exercising the functions
of a conductor, one of Wagner's strong principles of interpretation
consisted in modifying a tempo in accordance with the momentary
character of the dominating melodic themes.
[Footnote 59: Ex. 70, 71.]
[Footnote 60: Ex. 71.]
[Footnote 61: Ex. 73.]
[Footnote 62: Ex. 69, 72.]
The bitterness of conflict over Wagner's works has expended itself;
hostile criticism is now exceptional. To-day Wagner stands forth
as the accepted champion of dramatic reforms, as the most eminent
composer of the nineteenth century, and as the greatest master of
orchestration in the annals of the world.
VIII.
In these days the "New Movement" is no longer new, for the trend of
modern music is ever progressive. For convenience, however, this
classification may include Cornelius, Bruckner, Lassen, A. Ritter,
Draeseke, Weingartner, Nicodé, finally Richard Strauss.
Cornelius (1824) would appear to be thus far the only writer for the
German stage since Wagner who has had something decidedly original
and lasting to say.[63] Being a protégé of Liszt, he became an
ardent partisan for Wagnerism. The cool reception of his "Barbier
von Bagdad" when first performed at Weimar in 1858 was the immediate
reason for causing Liszt to withdraw from that city in disgust.
This lack of appreciation is the more unaccountable in that but
eight years had elapsed since the residents of Weimar had welcomed
Wagner's "Lohengrin" with enthusiasm. "Der Barbier" was a worthy
successor to "Lohengrin"; not that the styles of these two operas
have even the remotest affinity to each other, but rather the very
originality of the "Barbier" should have commanded unquestionable
approval. However, the succeeding generation of theatre-goers has
been pleased to commend the work after a fashion, though it is to
be regretted that this appreciation has not become whole-souled and
universal. Not only is the music itself charming and vivacious,
and the plot highly ingenious, but the orchestration is brimming
over with mirth and good humor, portrays in the most subtle manner
the amorous as well as the sentimental situations, and brings into
requisition some very ludicrous traits of instrumentation. Moreover
the Finale, "Salamaleikum," is a most magnificent piece of _ensemble_
writing. Cornelius followed Wagner in writing all of his texts
himself. "Der Cid" is less spontaneous than its predecessor, but the
orchestration is that of a master, being imbued with genuine local
coloring together with profound melancholy, suppressed emotion and
heroic outbursts. It is interesting to conjecture what the outcome of
Cornelius' setting of "Gunlöd" would have been, for he left behind
him an unfinished text based upon the elder Scandinavian Edda.
[Footnote 63: See footnote on page 118 in reference to the sensation
recently created by Richard Strauss' opera "Salome."]
Anton Bruckner (1824) is commonly identified with the New
Movement, but he might with equal propriety be rated as a
classical-romanticist. Although he possesses many warm admirers,
the permanent value of his writings is open to question. His formal
structure, contrapuntal treatment, and thematic development bear the
impress of a scholarly touch, but in spite of certain leanings toward
Wagnerian principles, his heavy style and rather precise music have
a chilling effect upon the majority of listeners. The melodies are
not flowing, the rhythm is monotonous, and the orchestration, though
clever, lacks buoyancy and warmth.
The next four composers of this somewhat arbitrary list can be
summarily disposed of, since they have advanced the evolution of
orchestration to no perceptible degree. This statement is by no means
intended to belittle the sterling qualities of their musicianship.
All of them have won renown in their respective fields of activity,
and their creative efforts disclose broad culture, wide experience,
and a facile pen. Their instrumentation is invariably effective.
Eduard Lassen (1830) and Felix Draeseke (1835) took a prominent part
in propagating the tenets of Liszt and Wagner. Draeseke frankly
declared himself for Wagner, and assisted him by means of his
literary skill. Lassen succeeded Liszt as Generalmusikdirector of
the Weimar Opera. Similar to that of many another talented though
at first obscure aspirant, the success of his operas was due to the
enterprise of Liszt himself. During his later years Lassen devoted
himself almost exclusively to song-writing. As recently as two years
before his death, which occurred in 1903, he remarked to the present
writer that after having studied and conducted Wagner's works as
far back as forty odd years ago, he had come to the conclusion that
he himself had no further message to give to the dramatic world;
consequently he withdrew from the arduous contest. Alexander Ritter
(1833) was an able and painstaking composer, and wrote for the opera
as well as for the orchestra alone. His scoring was consistent with
his scholarship, but the substance of his productions embodies little
that is new. Weingartner (1853) is best known as a concert conductor.
His directing exercises a peculiarly magnetic fascination, and that
quite especially upon the ladies! His movements are wonderfully
graceful, and suggest, at times, a subtle hypnotic power flavoring of
Orientalism.
In turning to the magnum opus of Nicodé (1853), we find ourselves
face to face with one of the most interesting specimens of modern
orchestration--which is saying a great deal in this age when the
art of scoring has reached such stupendous virtuosity. "Das Meer,"
symphonic ode for solo voices, male chorus, orchestra, and organ,
may not reveal striking originality of subject-matter, but it is a
magnificent exposition of realism and discloses the author's keen
appreciation for the imaginative, the descriptive, the picturesque.
One could readily suppose that Nicodé might have been more or less
influenced by Rubinstein's "Ocean Symphony," but this is not at
all the case. Nicodé's primary aim was the acquisition of superb
and startling effects by means of tone-color pure and simple. His
technique is enormous. One of his strongest points is the ability to
procure scintillating tints by means of multiple division of strings
alone. By piling up a large number of independent and seemingly
irreconcilable melodic themes one on top of the other, a marvellous
effervescent polyphony is procured. The best example of pure tone
effect is revealed in the movement entitled "Phosphorescent Lights."
The modern symphonic orchestra is, of course, employed, being further
augmented by an additional harp, and two tenor-tubas with the usual
bass-tuba. The battery assumes gigantic proportions in that demand is
made for two pair of kettle-drums, one pair of cymbals, a bass-drum,
a triangle, a gong, and a set of bells. Even these additions do not
satisfy the composer, for behind the stage is concealed a brass band
of three trumpets, seven trombones and a bass-tuba.
IX.
RICHARD STRAUSS[64] (1864). It is universally conceded
that the greatest master of orchestration after Richard Wagner is
Richard Strauss. The latter's career thus far bears some affinity
to that of Mendelssohn as regards early artistic surroundings,
scholarly training in branches other than music, and exemption from
monetary anxiety. But whereas Mendelssohn's affluent circumstances
and prosperous career were undoubtedly detrimental to the development
of profound pathos and tragic intensity, Strauss has made the
demonstration that worldly cares and petty professional obstacles are
not the essential stimuli for herculean artistic growth embodying the
portrayal of experiences not personally experienced.
[Footnote 64: See Appendix of Musical Illustrations, Examples 97 to
103.]
(=Biography.=) Strauss was reared in a schooling so orthodox
that not even his severest critics can venture to deny his mastery of
traditional usages,--indeed, in his earlier works Strauss has given
tangible proof of his ability to compose in conservative forms. He
is the son of a French-horn player of rare genius, whose memorable
performance of his son's horn concerto first taught the present
writer the latent possibilities of that instrument. Strauss is said
to have produced a polka at the age of six, whereas already during
his boyhood days he devoted his spare moments to writing orchestral
overtures, choruses, sonatas, and the like. Although enrolled as
a student at the Gymnasium and for one year at the University of
Munich, he was simultaneously given opportunity to develop his
musical talents along the prescribed lines of practical training.
His public career as a composer may be said to have begun when two
of his choruses were given at a school concert. In 1880 he succeeded
in having three of his songs sung at a public concert. He was then
only sixteen years old. These minor achievements, however, fall into
insignificance in comparison with the recognition awarded him in the
following year, when Benno Walther, concertmeister of the Munich
Opera, produced the string quartet, op. 2, in the course of the
annual series of chamber concerts. Walther's quartet was at that time
highly authoritative in musical circles. In the same year Hermann
Levi performed the symphony in D minor. Strauss next drew attention
to himself with a serenade, op. 7, for thirteen instruments, and
thereby interested no less a person than Hans von Bülow. This was
destined to influence Strauss' entire career, for in 1885 he was
engaged as musical director at Meiningen in a subordinate though
honorable position to von Bülow himself. It was von Bülow, therefore,
that gave Strauss his initial training as an orchestral conductor,
a branch of art in which he has now attained proficiency only
secondary to his powers as a composer. At Meiningen he was enabled to
assimilate not only von Bülow's magnetic technique and authoritative
interpretation, but was also led to grasp Wagner's ideals of
conducting. In addition he also appeared occasionally as a concert
pianist, and meanwhile completed his more or less conservative
symphonic phantasy "Aus Italien." Here, too, he came in contact with
the Wagnerian enthusiast, Alexander Ritter, an intimacy that had
much to do with the subsequent moulding of his first distinctively
original works, "Macbeth" and "Don Juan." Toward the close of 1885 he
succeeded von Bülow as conductor of the Meiningen Orchestra, retained
the post for one season, and then accepted a subordinate position in
his native city under Levi and Fischer at the Munich Royal Opera.
Like most prophets in their own country, he had to overcome the
prejudice of some of the older gentlemen of the orchestra who had
been colleagues of his father and had seen the son grow up. For
three years he was now occupied with the rather thankless task of
conducting lesser operatic performances, but devoted himself none the
less with untiring effort to the development of his creative talents,
which bore fruit in "Macbeth," "Don Juan" and "Tod und Verklärung."
In 1889 he was called to the Weimar Opera, first as subordinate to
Lassen, eventually as full-empowered potentate. He there married one
of the operatic singers, Pauline de Ahne, daughter of a Bavarian
general. While at Weimar he wrote his first opera, "Guntram." In 1894
Strauss returned to the Munich Opera in a capacity more responsible
than formerly. His services as a conductor of unusual ability were
by this time much in demand for special concert performances in
European musical centres. The atmosphere of his native city must
have been particularly inspiring to his creative Muse, for from
1894 to 1899 no less than four mighty orchestral works emanated
from his pen--"Till Eulenspiegel," "Also sprach Zarathustra," "Don
Quixote," "Ein Heldenleben." In 1899 he was called to the Berlin
Opera as an associate with Muck. It is here that he at present wields
the baton with unflagging zeal, in spite of his restless activity
as a composer. Thus far his most important contributions to the
twentieth century have been the opera "Feuersnoth" and the "Symphonia
Domestica."[65]
[Footnote 65: See footnote on page 118 in reference to "Salome."]
Such are the biographical outlines of an epoch-making composer, an
eminent conductor, and a well-trained pianist who has but entered
upon the fifth decade of his lifetime. Before proceeding to an
examination of the aims and ideals that are at the root of Strauss'
huge orchestral conceptions, some comparisons between him and his
predecessors as suggested by Richard Aldrich will bear citation:--
"At forty Strauss is the most commanding figure in the musical world
of to-day. It will be an interesting disclosure for future years to
make as to how much of his lifework he has already accomplished,
and whether the salient characteristics are already fixed and
contained in what he has done, or whether this is but a preparation.
We may be reminded that on their fortieth birthdays Mozart and
Schubert had put the final seal upon their work, Mozart five years
before, Schubert nine. Beethoven had given to the world his first
six symphonies, his 'Fidelio,' and the 'Leonore' overtures, the
'Coriolanus' overture, the 'Egmont' music, the five piano concertos
and the violin concerto, nine string quartets, including those
dedicated to Count Rasoumoffsky; the 'Kreutzer' and the earlier
violin sonatas, the 'Waldstein' and the earlier piano sonatas.
Wagner had written 'Rienzi,' 'The Flying Dutchman,' 'Tannhäuser,'
'Lohengrin,' 'Eine Faust Ouvertüre,' and had conceived and partly
executed 'The Ring of the Nibelung.' And yet these two had not
given the finest fruitage of their genius. What Strauss has done
in his younger manhood will not, perhaps, be counted of greater
worth. Whether, like these two at his age, he will go on to further
development may also be curiously questioned, and whether he will
turn aside from the path in which he has already started. On that
path he seems already to have reached the furthest confines of the
territory he has traversed."
X.
(=Classification of Compositions.=) Similar to the works of
most composers who have a genuinely original message to give to
the world, those of Strauss may be divided into distinct groups
of differentiated creative periods. He has progressed step by
step through various stages of development. Conforming at first
to the conservative romanticism founded upon traditional forms of
Mendelssohn and Schumann, he soon came to admire and emulate the
doctrines of Brahms--an influence that has never been effaced from
his subsequent writings even though his associations with von Bülow
and Ritter caused him to lean more and more upon Wagner and Liszt for
the dominating thought of his conceptions. With one stroke, however,
"Macbeth" and "Don Juan" went far beyond the tenets of the Weimar
coterie, though the succeeding productions "Tod und Verklärung" and
"Guntram" suggest what has been called a _reaction_ toward Liszt and
Wagner. But with "Till Eulenspiegel" and "Also sprach Zarathustra"
Strauss inaugurated a permanent and ever advancing method of
procedure distinctively individualistic and unprecedented, that has
so far culminated in the vast realistic tableaux of "Don Quixote" and
"Ein Heldenleben."
(_1st Period._) Reference has already been made to his youthful
efforts. After the small choruses, the songs, the string quartet,
op. 2, and the symphony in D minor, there appeared some interesting
experiments in various fields of composition. The list includes a
pianoforte sonata, op. 5; a sonata for violoncello and pianoforte,
op. 6; the serenade, op. 7, for wind-instruments, patronized by von
Bülow; a violin concerto, op. 8; "Stimmungsbilder" for pianoforte,
op. 9; the French-horn concerto, op. 11, already referred to; a
symphony in F minor, op. 12; a pianoforte quartet, op. 13; and
"Wanderers Sturmlied," for six-part mixed chorus and orchestra,
op. 14. This choral work has been called "a broadly flowing stream
of polyphonic vocal harmony against an elaborate and independent
orchestral accompaniment that was something quite unprecedented."
The above compositions comprise what might be termed the first of
Strauss' creative periods, having all been written before he was
twenty. They present a conventional though rapid development of and
graduation from the dominating influences of Mendelssohn, Schumann,
Brahms, as suggested above, and gradually point more and more toward
Berlioz, Liszt, and Wagner.
(_2d Period._) The symphony in F minor, written in 1883, may be
looked upon not only as the culmination of these earliest attempts,
but also as the first of Strauss' really significant orchestral
compositions. Its maiden performance took place not in Germany but in
this country, when, in 1884, Theodore Thomas produced it in New York
with the Philharmonic Society.
Several years now elapsed before Strauss was ready to offer to
the world the first of his great symphonic tone-poems: "Aus
Italien"--sinfonische Phantasie, G-dur (op. 16, 1886). This was a
marked advance upon the previous symphony, but though it reveals the
subsequent path Strauss was to pursue, and embodies complex polyphony
and increased command over the technics of orchestration, it is
still dominated by Mendelssohn's and Schumann's subjective idea of
program-music.
(_3d Period._) Not until von Bülow and Ritter had fathomed the true
depth of their young associate's latent powers did he proceed to
evolve his conceptions in a language that has startled the entire
musical world.
"Macbeth"--Tondichtung nach Shakespeare's Drama (op. 23, 1887), is
the first of these vast color-pictures. Although "Don Juan" is to be
recorded as opus 20, Friedrich Rösch, the authoritative reviewer of
"Ein Heldenleben," places it after "Macbeth," although classifying
it also as opus 20. He gives the date of its completion as 1888.
Dr. Riemann's Dictionary of Music, which is the most accurate book
of its kind in existence, seems for once to be at fault in stating
the various dates at which Strauss penned his creations. "Macbeth,"
like its successors, at once displays a wealth of melodic utterance
in all the principal orchestral voices, a prolific number of themes
and sub-themes, and the most intimate acquaintance with the specific
characteristics of the various instruments as well as with orchestral
combinations and the resultant mixture of tonal tints thereby to be
obtained. Like Berlioz, Strauss secures dramatic effects by means
of vivid orchestration. The themes are arrayed in a kaleidoscopic
sequence of instrumental color rather than being subjected to
elaborate thematic treatment, and climaxes are reached by means of
dynamic effects instead of by melodic evolution. An elaborately
conceived program justifies the requisition for vast orchestral
resources. There is further evidence of genuine inspiration, of a
true gift for thematic development forming a marvellous filigree
of contrapuntally interwoven leading motives, of intellectual
power, philosophical reflection, poetic revery, and naïve humor.
The following themes from "Macbeth" demonstrate the wide range of
thematic conception Strauss possesses:
[Music: No. 1.[66]]
[Music: No. 2.]
[Music: No. 3.]
[Footnote 66: Most of these examples have been selected from the
transcriptions in skeleton form of Friedrich Rösch. Nos. 16 and 19
were suggested by Richard Aldrich. Nos. 34, 35, 36, 37 were prepared
by Strauss himself.]
The first consists of a flowing cantilena evolved on broad and
dignified lines. The second is a striking example of freely used
chromatic intervals. The third follows Wagner's precedent in
deploying instruments of brass in forceful and incisive utterance.
"Don Juan"--Tondichtung nach Lenau (op. 20, 1888), belongs to the
same creative period as "Macbeth" and follows the same general
outlines of philosophical, structural, and orchestral procedure.
The following four representative themes are suggestive not only
of "local" coloring but reveal the highest attribute of a genuine
composer in that their very nature suggests the general type of
instrument to be employed. Proof is thus to be had that Strauss
simultaneously conceives his subject-matter and the orchestral
garment in which it is to be attired.
[Music: No. 4.]
[Music: No. 5.]
[Music: No. 6.]
[Music: No. 7.]
(_4th Period._) "Tod und Verklärung"--Tondichtung (op. 24, 1889),
is classified with the opera "Guntram" for embodying a certain
reactionary trend on the part of the author. There is no lack of
intricate polyphony, daring harmonic combinations, complex rhythm,
startling contrasts, monumental climaxes, and clever orchestral
devices; but in these works Strauss has exercised more restraint
than in the preceding "Macbeth" and "Don Juan," whereas the acme
of his extreme realism was not reached until after he began his
following and mightiest series of symphonic poems beginning with
"Till Eulenspiegel." To quote the refined language of Herman Klein:
"In 'Tod und Verklärung' is depicted the death struggle of a man
before whose mental vision there passes the panorama of a wasted life
followed by the man's transfiguration, as his redeemed soul passes
out of earthly existence into a higher state." Of the three themes
from "Tod und Verklärung" appended below, it is interesting to note
that the first of these (No. 8) was subsequently interwoven into the
introductory theme of "Ein Heldenleben," and appears as the third
phrase of the _Motiv_ representing "Der Held." (See page 113, example
22, bars 6 and 7.)
[Music: No. 8.]
[Music: No. 9.]
[Music: No. 10.]
Strauss has not been so conspicuously successful with his operas
as with his orchestral works,[67] but the following themes from
"Guntram" disclose the general nature of his operatic conceptions.
[Footnote 67: See footnote on page 118 in reference to Strauss'
latest dramatic production.]
[Music: No. 11.]
[Music: No. 12.]
[Music: No. 13.]
[Music: No. 14.]
(_5th Period._) The most radical exposition of modern orchestration
is discovered in the fifth period of symphonic creations beginning
with "Till Eulenspiegel's lustige Streiche"--nach alter Schelmenweise
in Rondo-Form (op. 28, 1895)[68] and culminating thus far in "Ein
Heldenleben." Of the following two themes from "Till Eulenspiegel,"
No. 16, representing the titular character, is a brilliant specimen
of horn-writing, as embodied in the Rondo.
[Footnote 68: Appendix, Ex. 102, 103.]
[Music: No. 15.]
[Music: No. 16.]
Flowing cantilena, perverted rhythmic effects and still another
illustration of virile horn-writing are presented in the following
examples from the musical exposition of Zarathustra's philosophy
under the title of "Also sprach Zarathustra"--Tondichtung frei nach
Nietzsche (op. 30, 1896).[69]
[Footnote 69: Appendix, Ex. 97 to 101.]
[Music: No. 17.]
[Music: No. 18.]
[Music: No. 19. Credo in unum Deum]
Among the most characteristic of Richard Strauss' pictorial themes
are the following two from his portrayal of Cervantes' rueful hero:
"Don Quixote"--phantastische Variationen über ein Thema ritterlichen
Characters (op. 35, 1897):
[Music: No. 20.]
[Music: No. 21.]
XI.
(=Æsthetics.=) Similar to the orchestral works of Wagner, those
of Strauss are worthy of exhaustive critical analysis. To carefully
examine them all, however, would require an entire volume by itself.
It is therefore proposed to select as typical only a few of the most
characteristic points from one of the most characteristic of Strauss'
orchestral works: "Ein Heldenleben"--Tondichtung (op. 40, 1898).
In order to appreciate the magnitude of his undertakings, let us
first see how he maps out and elaborates upon the programmatic theme
chosen for musical setting. The nuclear thought of "Ein Heldenleben"
is the simultaneous portrayal of a combined mortal and mental hero
belonging to both a worldly and a spiritual realm, or as Friedrich
Rösch expresses it: "Eine harmonisch gesteigerte Zusammenfassung
eines Volks- und Kriegshelden und eines von künstlerischer
Schaffensfreude beseelten Übermenschen aus dem Reiche der Phantasie."
The "program" of "Ein Heldenleben" contains six general divisions:
I. DER HELD.
II. DES HELDEN WIDERSACHER.
III. DES HELDEN GEFÄHRTIN.
IV. DES HELDEN WALSTATT.
V. DES HELDEN FRIEDENSWERKE.
VI. DES HELDEN WELTFLUCHT UND VOLLENDUNG.
No. I is comprised of two general groups of thematic material. The
first group is in reality one single and broadly constructed main
theme,--the synthesis of five distinctive motives. The second group
is made up of four contrapuntally interwoven and super-imposed
secondary themes. After these nine themes have been duly presented,
they are subjected to recapitulation and development. A tenth figure,
based upon previous material, is also introduced.
The first group of themes, given out by low stringed-instruments,
horns, etc., begins as follows:
[Music: No. 22.[70]]
[Footnote 70: See Ex. 8.]
The first theme of the second group is assigned to divided first
violins, beneath which wind-instruments intone the second theme.
[Music: No. 23.]
No. II contains five sharply contrasted and interwoven themes.
(No. 24.) The piercing accents of the wood-wind in their shrillest
and most blatant range are here drawn into requisition, and are
legitimately suggestive of Wagner's "Beckmesser" orchestration. The
section subsequently embodies five modified expositions from the
first leading theme of No. I.
[Music: No. 24.]
No. III is ushered in by a tender theme for solo violin:
[Music: No. 25.]
This is followed by an exposition of five themes of intentional
similarity, which depict the varying moods of the hero's courtship.
These themes are further enhanced by characteristic and contrasted
orchestral tone-color.
[Music: No. 26.]
The section further embodies some six motives that are either
reminiscences from former or anticipations of subsequent thematic
material. Rösch calls attention to an interesting passage at the
close of this section, a passage that cannot be justified by any
rules of harmony. He suggests that in modern orchestration many
seemingly irreconcilable harmonic combinations become perfectly
logical if the auditor train himself to follow the harmonic corollary
of complex counterpoint "horizontally" instead of "vertically." The
passage in question consists of a protracted chord, G flat major,
sustained by muted strings, while various instruments of wood
super-impose a number of independent themes whose concentrated effect
forms chords entirely foreign to the underlying key of G major. The
present writer, however, is inclined to regard this hazy film of
string-tone as nothing more than a tonic and dominant organ-point
with the third of the triad unobtrusively added.
The "program" of No. IV is symbolic of martial strife, the depictment
of which, subdivided into three parts together with an introduction,
extends almost to the end of the movement, when a coda in two short
divisions portrays victory and embodies a hymn of praise. From a
musical standpoint, No. IV may be looked upon as that section of the
entire symphonic poem in which the leading themes are subjected to
systematic and elaborate musical development. In addition, one finds
some ten new themes, such as a striking fanfare for trumpets behind
the scenes (No. 27) and other warlike strains, of which Nos. 28 and
29 represent the missiles of the enemy.
This fanfare (No. 27) exhibits one of the most remarkable mixtures of
three simultaneously combined keys that has ever emanated from the
mind of man:
[Music: No. 27.]
By examining the first trumpet part by itself:
[Music]
one discovers a perfectly harmless figure in the key of B flat major.
The second trumpet, however, holds tenaciously to the key of G flat
major:
[Music]
The third trumpet is unquestionably in the key of B flat minor, or,
at a pinch, in its relative major--D flat:
[Music]
The resultant cross-relation caused by such an amalgamation of
otherwise unoriginal figures excites a most remarkable impression.
The next two examples embody characteristic employment of wood-wind
instruments:
[Music: No. 28.]
[Music: No. 29.]
No. V is primarily noteworthy for the poetic fancy that impelled
Strauss to embody no less than twenty-four motives from his
preceding symphonic poems, as well as from "Guntram" and from
"Traum durch die Dämmerung." These themes are, of course, not
presented in a row, but are joined together or subtly interwoven
or contrapuntally super-imposed one over the other, and one might
again suggest that they must be listened to horizontally and not
vertically. Incidentally it might be added that this Division V of
"Ein Heldenleben" draws into requisition every single example given
above from No. 1 to No. 21 inclusive, with the exception Nos. 16 and
19. Wagner pointed the way for such a procedure by introducing the
opening bars from "Tristan und Isolde" into the "Meistersinger."
Strauss, however, went much further, and in the course of _Des Helden
Friedenswerke_ he has drawn freely upon "Macbeth," "Don Juan," "Tod
und Verklärung," "Till Eulenspiegel," "Zarathustra," and "Don
Quixote." He further elaborates upon two practically new themes (Nos.
30 and 31), although an anticipation of the second of these themes is
already to be found in Division III.
[Music: No. 30.]
[Music: No. 31.]
No. VI brings this noble creation to a fitting end. With the
exception of an episodic anti-climax, the movement is dominated by
calm and majestic peace, as exemplified by themes No. 32 (evolved
from No. 31) and No. 33.
[Music: No. 32.]
[Music: No. 33.]
Such are the vast dimensions of Richard Strauss' orchestral
tableaux! His other works are evolved on similarly broad lines. "Ein
Heldenleben," with its six well-defined divisions, includes no less
than seventy themes. The score makes demand for one hundred and five
instrumentalists:--
16 first violins; 16 seconds; 12 violas; 12 violoncellos; 8
double-basses.
2 harps.
1 piccolo flute; 3 flutes; 3 oboes; 1 English horn (also
as 4th oboe); 1 E flat clarinet; 2 B flat clarinets; 1
bass-clarinet; 3 bassoons; 1 contra-bassoon.
8 horns; 5 trumpets; 3 trombones; 1 tenor-tuba; 1 bass-tuba.
Kettle-drums; bass-drum; side-drum; military drum; cymbals.
XII.
Since composing what might be called the Tetralogy of mighty
productions that have been classified together as belonging to the
_5th Period_, Strauss has written two further important works: the
opera "Feuersnoth" and the "Symphonia Domestica." The latter is still
in manuscript,[71] and but recently had a hearing in this country
under the composer's personal direction. It is as yet too early to
suggest a sixth period in Strauss' style of writing.[72] What is
more, the two recent offerings have too little in common to justify
classifying them together. "Feuersnoth" has shared the fate of its
predecessor, "Guntram," in that it has been granted no more than a
respectful hearing, and is not to be compared as a work of art with
Strauss' symphonic undertakings. As to the "Symphonia Domestica,"
the very topic chosen for exposition gives rise to some misgivings
as to whether it justifies the expenditure of so much vital creative
energy. The subject and the elaborate means employed to depict it
would appear somewhat incongruous. The sub-title of this paradoxical
essay reads: "Ein Tag aus meinem Familienleben," and the orchestra is
required to expound upon the charmingly naïve topics of Papa, Mama,
and Bébé. Incidentally, one passage introduces the worthy aunts as
exclaiming in chorus, "Just like his father"; the uncles, "Just like
his mother." The "Symphonia Domestica" is further paradoxical in that
the score includes no definite programmatic commentary, and Strauss
himself has been quoted as saying emphatically, "This time I wish
my music to be listened to purely as music." The work is therefore
intended to be accepted not as a symphonic poem but as a symphony
"In einem Satz" like Mendelssohn's "Scotch" or Schumann's D minor
symphony. In the face of all this we find a program, and a positive
one at that, at the root of the matter! In reality, its only claim to
the title of "symphony" rests upon the general outlines of its formal
structure, which is comprised of three main divisions preceded by an
elaborate introduction. But it is assuredly not "absolute" music.
On the other hand, its thematic continuity is far more closely knit
together than that of the above-mentioned symphonies of Mendelssohn
and Schumann.
[Footnote 71: Since published.]
[Footnote 72: Since the above lines were written, a sixth period
was assuredly entered upon with the opera "Salome," first performed
at Dresden in the fall of 1905 under the magnetic baton of Schuch,
director of the Royal Opera. The work, which has since been given
throughout Europe and in New York, has universally created a
sensation to which nothing in the annals of the musical stage
furnishes a parallel unless it be the initial performances of
"Tristan und Isolde" in Munich in 1865. "Salome," by reason of its
overwhelming dramatic force, the sureness of Strauss' marvellous use
of representative themes, together with an orchestral color-scheme
beyond anything he has used before, not only marks an epoch in
the career of this still young composer and an epoch also in his
orchestration, but becomes a landmark in the form of opera as evolved
from and built upon the Tetralogy of Wagner.]
In the "Symphonia Domestica" we recognize the personal element
that asserted itself, though in an unobtrusive manner, in "Ein
Heldenleben." Humorous inclinations, characteristic of "Don Quixote,"
are also in evidence.
The Introduction is an exposition of the three principal themes. The
theme for the father is comprised of three contrasted sections (No.
34, a, b, c). The mother is characterized by a lively and perhaps
slightly undignified theme (No. 35). For the child's theme (No. 36)
Strauss makes use of an oboe d'amore. The tone of this practically
obsolete member of the wood-wind is veiled and tender, and the
instrument found favor with Bach who assigned to it an important
rôle in his mass in B minor,--in fact two oboi d'amore are employed
for accompanying the bass solo "Et in Spiritum Sanctum."
[Music: No. 34, a.]
[Music: No. 34, b.]
[Music: No. 34, c.]
[Music: No. 35.]
[Music: No. 36.]
The following sportive Scherzo or first main division proper presents
a sprightly development of the three primary themes and especially
of the child's theme. The movement is finally brought to a restful
ending.
The succeeding Adagio enlarges upon the father's theme and pictures
him alone as if in a revery. The music is reflective and dreamy, at
times restless and impassioned as well.
The Finale embodies a lively double-fugue (No. 37, a and b), of which
the principal theme consists of a diminution of the child's theme
(No. 36). The close of the work is calm and peaceful.
[Music: No. 37, a.]
[Music: No. 37, b.]
By thus analyzing the programmatic foundation of two of Strauss'
latest orchestral conceptions one can obtain at least a superficial
idea of the somewhat eccentric though intensely original range of his
imagination. The philosophical aspect of the "Symphonia Domestica"
is, of course, far simpler than that of "Ein Heldenleben" and its
companions, nor would it seem to possess the same scope or exert
the same fascination that his nobler and more serious works do. The
orchestration, however, leaves nothing to be desired. There is no
retrogression in the deployment of the instruments whether as solo or
in combination. Strauss is in command of an orchestral technique so
deep-rooted that it can never fail him. One would have supposed that
his works prior to the "Symphonia Domestica" had made requisition for
practically every legitimately available instrument in existence, but
the addition of an oboe d'amore together with four saxophones proves
that Strauss has an insatiable craving for ever novel tonal tints,
and whereas "Ein Heldenleben" requires 105 instrumentalists, the
symphony demands 108.
Before proceeding to sum up the cardinal features of Strauss'
orchestration, it is desired to call attention to his highly
commendable foresight in evolving his songs with pianoforte
accompaniment on comparatively simple lines, thereby greatly
enhancing their effectiveness for vocal utterance as well as their
adaptability for extensive rendition. It is a rare attribute of
genius to possess the faculty of colossal orchestral language and at
the same time of simple and pathetic song-speech.
XIII.
(=Instrumentation.=) The marvellous subtleties of Strauss'
instrumentation and the irresistible sweep and large contour of his
orchestration have already been so thoroughly aired by prominent
critics the world over, that there is little further to say beyond
epitomizing in a few brief sentences the general consensus of
opinion. Founding his art of scoring upon that of Berlioz and
Wagner, Strauss evidently has also made a careful study of the
means and methods of his eminent contemporary, Saint-Saëns, for the
performances of "Samson et Dalila" at the Berlin Royal Opera, when
controlled by Strauss' magnetic force, are a source of artistic
delectation. The fundamental reason that makes his scoring so
effective is his intimate acquaintance with the characteristics of
each individual instrument even to the minutest detail of mechanical
limitation or latent potentiality. Therefore his instrumentation pure
and simple as distinct from orchestration _en masse_ is unhesitating
and authoritative. In thus appreciating the imperative necessity
for an exhaustive study of the instruments themselves, Strauss has
done no more than to follow the precepts of his illustrious model,
Wagner. Strauss would be entitled to but little credit had he not
advanced beyond his master, for proportionately, Wagner established a
far greater number of unalterable precedents than Strauss has since
been able to add to. The criticism has been advanced that Strauss'
demands upon the technique of the performers are excessive, and that
he is given to force the instruments, and especially those of brass,
into unnatural registers. Such points, however, would appear to be
for the gentlemen of the orchestra to decide, and the enthusiasm and
grim determination with which they overcome seemingly insurmountable
difficulties at rehearsal, and the suavity and verve with which the
performances of his works by first-class orchestras are carried
through, may be looked upon as tangible proof that Strauss knows
what he is about. The performers may complain of the demands made
upon them, but they realize that the page before them bears the
impress of a master of instrumentation whose music is written with
special regard for the very instrument they are playing,--can and
must therefore be played. And they accordingly respect the author of
their arduous though fascinating task. Finally, if the now childlike
simplicity of Schubert's orchestration proved a stumbling block to
the Viennese orchestra only fifty odd years ago (as stated on page
75), and furthermore Wagner's "Tristan und Isolde" shared the same
fate at a still more recent date, it will not be difficult to realize
that Strauss fifteen years ago taxed the virtuosity of the performers
with passages that are already no longer dreaded. As to the details
of instrumentation, he has strengthened and elaborated upon the
methods of his predecessors, assimilated the procedures of his
contemporaries, besides resuscitating various obsolete instruments
and initiating numerous novelties of his own.
The flexibility of execution that formerly was expected only of a
first violinist is now imposed upon all five sections of the string
band, and each member finds before him the pages of what looks like
a concerto.[73] To the wood-wind are assigned passages that Wagner
would have hesitated to write.[74] What Strauss demands from them,
Beethoven might have demanded from the strings. Most prominent of
all is the attention bestowed upon the deployment of the brass as
initiated by Wagner.[75] The trumpets are treated with unprecedented
freedom, and are expected to perform passages either of flowing
melody or of rhythmic intricacy in the fastest of tempos. The horns
are taught to display the agility of violoncellos. In four-part
writing, the fourth horn is much used as a deep bass-instrument
absolutely apart from the three upper horns. The trombones are
employed as much for unallied melodic utterance as for combined
harmonic effects, and the intricacy of their parts constantly
necessitates the use of three staves in the partitur. Incidental
mention might also be made of such devices for acquiring weird tonal
tints as obtained from muted trombones. Similar to Wagner's procedure
in the "Meistersinger" Vorspiel, the tubas--and particularly
the tenor tuba--are constantly detached from their conventional
association with the trombones, for the purpose of giving expression
to flowing cantilena. Novelty in the use of instruments of percussion
is restricted to rhythmic peculiarities and original combinations
with other instruments of more variable pitch; for Wagner's general
methods of handling the battery cannot be improved upon.
[Footnote 73: Appendix, Ex. 100.]
[Footnote 74: Ap. Ex. 102.]
[Footnote 75: Ap. Ex. 103.]
In a word, the three choirs of the orchestra have respectively
advanced one step higher. The string band are graduated to the plane
of so many virtuoso soloists. The wood-wind replace the strings and
are themselves replaced by the brass. The battery acquire prominence
such as the classicists formerly allowed to the trumpets and
trombones.
(=Orchestration.=) The numerical distribution of Strauss'
orchestra is, of course, consistent with the modern custom of
employing quartets of uniform tone-color. But he advances yet further
by making permanent Wagner's occasional incorporation into the
orchestra of a second harp, an E flat clarinet, a double quartet of
horns, five instead of four trumpets, and a tenor-tuba in addition to
the bass-tuba. The occasional addition of unusual instruments such as
an oboe d'amore and saxophones has already been referred to.
The sum total of Strauss' orchestration as a whole consists of what
has been termed its "exposed" quality, resulting in a "vast piece of
chamber music."[76] The extensive range of his imagination reveals
itself in constantly novel combinations and kaleidoscopic variety of
effects that are unprecedented. His command of dynamics is superb.
His synthesis of thematic counterpoint in all the voices of the
different choirs is at times so reckless that the euphony of its
harmonic corollary is endangered and the resultant effect presents
a chaos of cacophony unless the auditor accustom himself to follow
the Melos not vertically but horizontally. The orchestration is the
most vivid in existence. Realism is accentuated. The tonal tints are
scintillating and glowing. Every single instrument in the orchestra
has an indispensable rôle assigned to it. The scores abound in clever
orchestral devices, in startling contrasts, powerful crescendos and
exciting climaxes, and disclose the mind of a master possessed of
poetic fancy, natural humor, artistic culture, strong individuality,
philosophical insight and intellectual power.
[Footnote 76: Appendix, Ex. 97.]
The titanic achievements of Richard Strauss have caused him to appear
as the most conspicuous living musician, and in the arrangement of
a modern program, his works are at present the accepted companions
to those of his models in rich and massive orchestration, Wagner and
Liszt; to those of Brahms, conservator of classic models and loftiest
ideals; to Saint-Saëns' scintillating and unrivalled tableaux; to
Tschaikowsky's sombre tone-pictures, to Dvo[vr]ák's brilliant and
vivacious portrayals, to Grieg's poetic and popular conceptions.
XIV.
It is high time to bring this fascinating subject of modern German
progressiveness to a close; otherwise there is no knowing whither
this history might lead us. In these days even a secondary composer
is supposed to be thoroughly conversant with every subtlety in
the art of orchestration. Germany still leads the van; the number
of her eminent masters of modern instrumentation is legion. The
ambition of the ultra-modern school is to out-Wagner Wagner. It will
suffice to make mention of Max Schillings' "Ingwelde" or of Cyrill
Kistler's "Kunihild und der Brautritt auf Kynast" with its poem in
alliterative verse in strictly Wagnerian lines by Graf Sporck. The
same exaggerated sense of morbidness and pessimism has found its
way as well into other fields of German composition as discovered
in certain ones of Hugo Wolf's intensely modern and magnificent
songs, or in Max Reger's organ works of questionable worth with
their atrocious harmonic mixture, their intricacy of contrapuntal
treatment, and their extreme difficulty of execution.[77] These
restless signs of evolution are perfectly logical and eminently
proper. In many instances the results have been highly successful,
but again they have not. On the other hand, a number of living
German composers could still be cited who are possessed of
sufficient poise to accept the spirit of modern progression without
allowing their convictions to carry them to extremes. One of the
most successful of these is Humperdinck, whose "Hänsel und Gretel"
acquires its effectiveness primarily by means of the orchestra. The
exceedingly simple vocal parts are founded entirely on Volksmelodien;
_Leit-motiven_ add coherence to the opera as a whole, whereas the
scoring is amazingly complicated and elaborate though ever lucid and
euphonious.[78] Ludwig Thuille[79] has earned deserved success with
his charming "Lobetanz," and Kienzl has captivated the masses with
"Der Evangelimann," a work that is both dignified and uplifting in
spite of its eclectic appropriations from Meyerbeer, Wagner, Gounod,
and even Mascagni. Georg Schumann, also, is to be commended for the
"healthy" tendencies of his orchestral works, of which both the
symphonic chorale variations and the "Liebesfrühling" overture have
been heard in America.[80]
[Footnote 77: At the present moment Max Reger is exciting increased
comment by reason of his continued revolutionary ideas expressed
through the medium of the orchestra.]
[Footnote 78: Engelbert Humperdinck directed by invitation his opera
"Hänsel und Gretel" at the Metropolitan Opera House, New York, during
the season 1905-1906.]
[Footnote 79: Ludwig Thuille died since the above lines were written.]
[Footnote 80: Gustav Mahler, from 1897 to 1907 director of the
Opera at Vienna, has of late invited comment throughout the musical
world because of the colossal form and daring orchestration of his
symphonies. His present activity in New York should give American
critics an excellent opportunity to estimate the importance of his
contributions to musical art. Leo Blech is commanding favorable
criticism particularly by his opera "Das war ich," while d'Albert's
highly effective operas "Die Abreise" and "Flauto solo" are being
performed on nearly every operatic stage in Germany. "Flauto solo"
is winning popularity only secondary, perhaps, to that of Lehár's
internationally favored operetta "Die lustige Witwe," which is at
present going the rounds of the United States under its Anglicized
title of "The Merry Widow."]
XV.
The reader will pardon the appendage of a few final remarks relating
to the progress of lighter German music during the nineteenth
century, for otherwise these records would not be complete. By
retracing a few of our steps we find that the more important
successors of Kreutzer (who was mentioned on page 73 of Chapter IX,
and lived from 1780 until 1849) were Lortzing, Nicolai, Flotow,
Suppé, and Johann Strauss junior. For charming originality and for
naturalness of expression Lortzing (1801) stands head and shoulders
above the remaining composers of this list. His works show the
unmistakable influence of Weber, and just this romantic tendency
accounts for the universal popularity of his "Czar und Zimmermann,"
this tendency being, moreover, still more marked in his best work:
"Die beiden Schützen." Nicolai (1810) wrote in the conventional
Italian style. "The Merry Wives of Windsor" is still one of the
popular comic operas of the day. Flotow (1812) earned notoriety
through "Stradella" and "Martha." His aims are not high, neither is
his music on a par with that of Lortzing; he displays, none the less,
a happy faculty for instilling warmth of sentiment into his works.
Suppé (1820) has acquired the nomenclature of "The German Offenbach"
by reason of his pleasing operettas and vaudeville. Johann Strauss
junior (1825) owes a world reputation to his sprightly "Fledermaus."
These are the men who have been instrumental in transplanting
the daintiness and refinement of modern light French opera into
indigenous German productions. The results have been directly
beneficial. Not only has this transplantation of exotic principles
tempered the general taste of the German public for an all too heavy
and sedate form of melodic and structural treatment, but quite
especially has German orchestration reacquired thereby much of that
lightness of touch it apparently had lost after the culmination of
Mozart's career. French instrumentation, in spite of certain of its
superficial tendencies, is assuredly a very important factor in the
evolution of orchestral music, and its continued development during
the second half of the nineteenth century affords a fruitful topic
for discussion as outlined in the next few pages.
(Summary on page 176.)
CHAPTER XII.
FRANCE AND ITALY.
I.
=France.= It will be recalled that Chapter VIII treats of the
flourishing conditions of musical art in France at the time when
it was undergoing a series of metamorphoses that embodied nascent
modern tendencies. The standard of sacred music was being elevated
by Cherubini; French opera in serious vein as well as French
instrumentation had acquired distinctly indigenous characteristics
through the efforts of two native composers, Méhul and Lesueur; the
development of the lighter lyric style as bequeathed by Grétry lay in
the hands of the Frenchmen Boieldieu, Auber, Hérold, Halévy; finally,
a renewed interest for grand opera was awakened by the so-called
historic school of Spontini, which was followed by the enthusiastic
reception of Rossini's melodious and emotional productions, and of
Meyerbeer's sensational and spectacular presentations. Of momentous
purport was the influence that these three foreigners, Spontini,
Rossini, and Meyerbeer exerted upon French orchestration. Meanwhile
an absolutely novel aspect of musical activity was being developed
by Berlioz, who, as one of the founders of the "New Movement," has
already been treated in Chapter XI in connection with Liszt and
Wagner. In resuming and concluding the topic now under discussion,
it would be well to keep the above brief review clearly in mind, in
order that the simultaneous evolution of musical art in France and
Germany may the better be compared.
With the exception of Berlioz, Félicien David and Gounod, few French
writers have, until recently, applied themselves to independent
orchestral music as one of the primary objects of their ambition. In
France, the operatic stage ever has been and still is the centre of
attraction. Even the most recent of her composers can with difficulty
be separated into distinct groups that shall represent exclusive
devotion to dramatic writing only or to sacred music or to concert
works. Nevertheless, the present writer, having attempted to bring
order out of the rather heterogeneous array of nineteenth century
French composers, has classified them according to that particular
branch in which they have been conspicuously successful.
II.
Prominent contributors to instrumental and orchestral music are
Onslow, Reber, David, Franck, Lalo, Reyer, Godard, d'Indy.
Onslow (1784) enjoyed an honorable reputation during his lifetime as
an exponent of classic models. He was a prolific writer of chamber
music, but his style, though correct, was cold, and his three
comic operas are of small importance. Reber (1807) may be regarded
as the successor of Onslow in that he also restricted himself to
traditional forms. He was an excellent contrapuntist as well as one
of the most cultured musicians France has produced; as a result, his
compositions reflect the refinement of his character. Moreover, his
conservative and careful style was modelled after that of the German
classicists, and the constitution of his orchestra is like Mozart's.
Practically all modern instruments, all instruments of percussion
excepting kettle-drums, and even trombones are excluded from most of
his orchestral works. He wrote four symphonies, one overture and one
suite, besides chamber and salon music in various forms.
Although Félicien David (1810) is best known to the general public
on account of his opera "Lalla Rookh," he was at his best as an
exponent of graceful and buoyant instrumentation. Not that his
orchestration can be regarded as epoch-making when compared with
that of his contemporary, Berlioz, for of the two, David was the
more faithful to French traditions, and his scoring is more like
that of Haydn than any other French composer. On the other hand,
David, like Berlioz, introduced certain scenic qualities into his
orchestration, which is ever poetic, supple, and varied. Berlioz's
aim was to re-echo the thoughts of the grand romantic poets, whereas
David was _par excellence_ a dreamer in the realm of picturesque
imagination, of tender love, of ardent passion. In consequence of his
extensive journey through the East as an apostle and missionary of
Saint-Simonism, David acquired an insight and knowledge of Oriental
melodies that caused him to be the first to introduce genuinely
Eastern characteristics into Western music, as strikingly displayed
in "Lalla Rookh." The effectiveness of this opera is largely due to
its fine orchestration, for though the musical contents are clear
and simple, the ideas themselves occasionally lack force, whereas
the harmonies are somewhat meagre. However, David possessed, in
addition to the characteristic feature of _clearness_, a highly
developed talent for artistic disposition of his plans, for poetic
picture-painting, and for rich and descriptive orchestral color.
Of especial significance is his aptitude for accompanying a solo
voice with daintily embroidered counterpoint. David contributed
substantially to the development in France of independent orchestral
music, and displayed, among other things, a commendable appreciation
for well-marked rhythmic effects. His list of instrumental works
includes a symphony in F, twenty-four string quintets, and two
nonets for wind instruments.
César Franck (1822) might be compared in two respects with Cherubini.
Both of them, though foreigners, are rated as French composers, and
the dignity and solidity of their respective styles isolate them
both from the more usual methods of their respective eras. Franck
differs from his French contemporaries by reason of what might be
termed the masculine severity of his inspiration, together with
monumental mastery of polyphonic design and exhaustless command of
orchestral resources. These attributes have earned him the title of
"The French Bach." The opera "Hulda" is a forceful exposition of the
gloomy Viking subject, but Franck rose to the height of his creative
power in his chamber music, and in the symphonic poem with chorus:
"Les béatitudes." That he was influenced by Liszt and Wagner is
undeniable. Not only do his productions give evidence of a reserved
use of guiding themes, but also his orchestration has affinity to
that of "Tristan" so far as intricacy is concerned.
This mention of Wagnerian influence suggests an interesting
comparison between the styles of César Franck and of Lalo (1823). The
latter was a professed admirer of Wagner, and applied such of his
theories as are restricted to "Tannhäuser" and "Lohengrin." This is
particularly noticeable in the opera: "Le Roi d'Ys." In antithesis
to Franck's severe and somewhat solemn style of writing, that of
Lalo betrays a fund of spontaneous invention, curious rhythmic
effects, charming and sprightly instrumentation, and great aptitude
for imbuing his works with the necessary local coloring. Both the
violin concerto styled "Symphonie éspagnole" and the "Rhapsodie
norvégienne" for orchestra are distinctively characteristic. His
chamber music is likewise written with sentient regard for euphonious
effects and artistic requirements, but it is conspicuously in the art
of orchestration that Lalo displays his individuality to the best
advantage.
Reyer (1823) belongs more properly under the heading of operatic
composers, since he devoted himself primarily to that branch
of musical art. He is nevertheless mentioned at this point in
consequence of the interest attached to his ode-symphony "Le Selam,"
which, though not an imitation of David's "Le Désert," is intended
as a sequel to it. He is ranked as a conspicuous representative of
the young French romantic school. Reyer's reputation is generally
confined to France, whereas Reber's eminent pupil, Godard (1849),
has become widely known as a prolific writer possessing marked
individuality. This foreign recognition is due to his works in
smaller form, being a _genre_ of composition in which he excels.
In France, however, Godard has occupied a conspicuous position on
the programs of orchestral concert music. His activity in this
direction has been indeed prodigious, and the results should command
a more extensive acquaintance by virtue of their charming musical
ideas and graceful instrumentation. These orchestral works bring
to light the varied range of his imagination, and for this very
reason some of the most characteristic titles will bear citation. In
addition to a pianoforte concerto and a "Concerto romantique" for
violin, Godard has written an orchestral suite: "Scènes poétiques,"
a "Symphonie-ballet," an "Ouverture dramatique," a "Symphonie
gothique," a "Symphonie orientale," a "Symphonie légendaire," the
lyric scena: "Diane et Actéon," and the dramatic poem for soli,
chorus and orchestra: "Le Tasse." The last named is considered to
be his best work. His chamber music also merits just commendation.
It is evident, therefore, that Godard's already extensive foreign
reputation is overshadowed only by the broader recognition awarded
him in France.
An examination of the works of Vincent d'Indy (1852) reintroduces the
subject of contemporary musical art in one of its extreme phases. In
earnest endeavor and in faithful adherence to high ideals d'Indy has
proved himself a worthy successor to his teacher, César Franck, whom
he copies in exceedingly complicated development of subject-matter.
Not content with incorporating in his works the most advanced tenets
of Wagner, he further has explored the pathway opened up by Brahms.
Wagnerian tendencies have crept into all modern French music, whereas
Brahms has as yet found few imitators among the composers of the
Romance nations. Like each and every French writer, d'Indy has tried
his hand in operatic lines; his chamber music, too, is surprisingly
clever and effective. Nevertheless, he is essentially a symphonist;
"Wallenstein" is evolved on broad and dignified lines, and displays
a masterful deployment of orchestral resources. "Le Chant de la
Cloche," dramatic legend adapted from Schiller, is perhaps the most
remarkable of d'Indy's works; it shows marked resemblance to Wagner's
later style by reason of its elaboration of detail and intricacy of
orchestration.
Before turning from this series of composers, it is again desired to
emphasize the peculiar fact that all French writers both past and
present have been consistent in first experimenting in the dramatic
field before settling down to the exacting requirements of equally
arduous and perhaps intellectually higher orchestral and chamber
music. That the authorship of a more or less important opera has been
conceded to every one of the above-mentioned composers need therefore
excite no further comment.
III.
A little coterie of Frenchmen have distinguished themselves by
almost exclusive devotion to the lightest of operatic forms. Just
as Lortzing and his contemporaries rendered incalculable service to
German musical art by clothing their vivacious productions in dainty
orchestral raiment, so has France been the gainer through the efforts
of Adam, Maillart and Delibes.
Adolphe Adam (1803) was a most productive writer. The distinctive
features of his talent are opulence of melody and rhythmic grace. The
best known of his works is, of course, the "Postillon de Longjumeau."
Maillart (1817), pupil of Halévy, winner of the Prix de Rome, and
author of six operas, was, strange to say, most successful in
composing a work that appeals especially to the German mind. "Das
Glöckchen des Eremiten" still retains its place in the standard
repertories of Germany. Delibes (1836), composer of the sprightly
comic operas: "Le Roi l'a dit" and "Lakmé," and of the charming
ballets: "Sylvia" and "Coppélia," enriched the world with a far
higher type of composition than either Adam or Maillart. His music,
by virtue of its grace and refinement, is of such intrinsic value
as to entitle Delibes to be ranked among the foremost composers of
the nineteenth century. Application to lighter forms only by no
means excludes sterling musicianship. Delibes' music is typically
French, and by its very naïveté, descriptive powers and clever
instrumentation overcomes the impediment of a frequently faulty
libretto.
IV.
It is proposed to classify under one distinctive and decidedly
exclusive heading the names of six truly eminent composers, who, as
worthy contemporaries and successors of Berlioz, may, with him, be
regarded as the foremost French representatives of the nineteenth
century. These are Thomas, Gounod, Saint-Saëns, Bizet, Chabrier,
and Massenet. All these men have become famous as dramatic writers,
but the scope of their genius is such as to entitle them to almost
equally high rank as composers of orchestral and chamber music. It
is further proposed to single out Saint-Saëns as being undoubtedly
the greatest French orchestrator since Berlioz, although the present
writer is inclined to believe that Chabrier would have equalled
him, had not his career been abruptly ended.[81] At all events,
Saint-Saëns and Richard Strauss are at present the undisputed living
masters of orchestration.[82]
[Footnote 81: Another interesting and rather bold point of view in
reference to the significance of Chabrier's undertakings is to the
effect that "Chabrier was an inspired experimenter, but would never
have become a master; nevertheless, his experiments are more valuable
to art than the mastery of Saint-Saëns."]
[Footnote 82: See footnotes on pages 137 and 161 in reference to the
masterly orchestration of Debussy and of Elgar.]
In order to discover to what extent Saint-Saëns has been aided by
his immediate compatriots, one must turn to the sound methods and
sterling achievements of AMBROSE THOMAS (1811-1896). A worthy
exponent of lyric opera, Thomas possessed like Gounod a high
degree of musical intelligence. His music contains the essence of
polish and refinement, but its very elegance is at times detrimental
to emphatic utterance, to dramatic strength, to intensity of passion.
Certain Italian formulae are in evidence. German influence is also
apparent. Neither of these characteristics, however, predominates
over Thomas' personal individuality and French methods of artistic
development. "Mignon" is veiled in a filmy haze of poesy, owing to
the delicacy of its orchestration. "Hamlet," which is in reality a
grand lyric tragedy, represents an extreme phase of French grand
opera. Wagnerian principles are here frankly espoused, whereas the
solidity and vigor of the orchestration display an advance upon
the scoring of "Mignon" and "Françoise de Rimini." Thomas never
overloaded his scores. The orchestration is clear in _ensemble_,
ingenious in detail, always interesting, appropriate, varied.
Characteristic tone-color and poetically conceived combinations
reveal the skilful hand of a competent master.
GOUNOD (1818-1893) stands as the most illustrious recent
representative of lyric opera. Like Thomas, he was strongly
influenced by contemporaneous German progression, but in some ways
Gounod exhibits greater conservatism and again greater license than
Thomas. This composite style of writing is undoubtedly due to the
fact that Gounod diligently studied the works of two composers of
differentiated views--Berlioz and Schumann, allowed himself further
to be influenced by Weber and Wagner, and yet accepted in a measure
the prevailing Gallic conventionalities of his day as well as the
traditions inherited from Meyerbeer. Compared with Meyerbeer,
however, Gounod possessed a far keener insight into those essentials
that lead to the construction of a genuine music drama. Not that
Gounod's operas embody such essentials to a degree sufficient to
dignify them with the title of music dramas, for they lack structural
continuity, contain an over-abundance of set arias, are frequently
guilty of harboring superficially composed accompaniments, and
betray carelessly developed inner details. On the other hand, Gounod
displays a rare gift for melody and euphony, his feeling for genuine
expression and characterization is sincere, the tone-colors are
admirably adapted to the requirements of the situation, and his
thematic development toward some ultimate climax is often superb. In
a word, Gounod stands midway between the classical and the popular.
His music is not quite pure, being tainted by a suggestion of the
sentimental and of the chanson style. In the art of orchestration,
however, Gounod exhibits the unusual attribute of attaining excellent
results without apparent effort. His scoring may not disclose
material increase of orchestral resources, since it follows the
general path indicated by Auber and Meyerbeer; but it further shows
that he possessed a considerable knowledge of the German science of
instrumentation which he used to good advantage. The lyric operas
"Faust," "La Reine de Saba," "Roméo et Juliette," as well as the
oratorios "Mors et Vita" and "The Redemption" abound in interesting
instrumental details and clever orchestral devices. Not only are the
vocal parts admirably supported and characterized, but the orchestra
also frequently reveals hidden emotions and passions of the stage
characters by means of subtle thematic reminiscences from earlier
scenes. This suggestive trait is pointedly illustrated in "Faust"
when the muted violins break in upon Marguerite's vain attempt to
pray, with the dainty waltz theme of her former joyous days. Another
striking feature of Gounod's orchestration is its refinement, and as
already intimated, few have excelled him in ability to procure rich
effects with comparatively simple means. Thus the "Redemption" is
scored for but eight instruments of wood, four horns, two trumpets,
three trombones, kettle-drums, bass-drum, cymbals, together with
strings and organ. Even when the organ is silent, the results are
remarkably full and sonorous in spite of the absence of triplets of
wood instruments, of English horn, of bass-clarinet, of bass-tuba,
and of the harp. In all of Gounod's works it will be found that
particularly the brasses are made to yield soft harmonies of limpid
purity, whereas the instruments of percussion are reserved to
reproduce novel and picturesque effects. Incidental mention must
further be made of his free use of the harp, as illustrated, for
example, by the slow scale for that instrument in the middle of the
introduction to "Faust."
SAINT-SAËNS[83] (1835), greatest of living French composers
and mightiest of her orchestral exponents after Berlioz, is
assuredly a modern composer in the full sense of that expression.
Yet the background of his principles differs but slightly from
those of Thomas and Gounod. Plainly in evidence are the outlines
of Meyerbeer's operatic forms, in spite of Saint-Saëns' obvious
desire to break away from recognized models. On the other hand, the
suppression of detached numbers and the adherence to representative
and guiding themes disclose his involuntary leanings toward the
doctrines of the Bayreuth master, notwithstanding his openly
avowed avoidance of such intentions beyond the willingness to
accept the advanced spirit of the age. But as to this, it has
even been claimed that Saint-Saëns was the first French master to
apply Wagnerian principles, even though doing so with discretion.
Finally, this peerless contemporary seems to have appropriated
to himself all the virtues of eclectic orchestration without one
mitigating vice, and crowns this achievement with the indelible
impress of his own intensely original individuality to an extent
that is verily epoch-making in the history of orchestral evolution.
The dual aspect of his symphonic works presents a unique contrast,
displaying, as it does, their author's versatility. Saint-Saëns has
expressed himself both in symphonies and in symphonic poems. There
are four of each on record. Of the former, that in C minor may be
looked upon as the most interesting. It contains no programmatic
idea, and at first sight would appear to embody a departure from
classic form in that it is laid out in two grand divisions. Closer
scrutiny, however, reveals a faithful adherence to accepted usage,
for the first division contains an introduction, an allegro, and
an adagio, whereas the formal structure of the second division
can be analyzed into what are in reality a scherzo and a finale.
Reminiscent themes and episodes from the first division reoccur in
the second, in order to give coherence and organic unity to the
work as a whole. Another interesting feature of this symphony is
the adaptation of Wagner's "Lohengrin" methods for the wood-wind.
The score also includes parts for organ as well as for pianoforte.
The four symphonic poems are none of them of the same magnitude and
significance as those of Liszt; but just as Liszt's form is simpler
and more readily to be grasped than that of Berlioz, so Saint-Saëns'
formal structure may be regarded as advancing yet further, if
clearness and compactness be the desired objective. "Phaéton"[84]
and "Le rouet d'Omphale"[85] display marvellous skill in scoring;
"La jeunesse d'Hercule"[86] is the most elaborate, whereas the
"Danse Macabre"[87] is the most characteristic as well as the most
popular. Saint-Saëns' chamber music affords an interesting study in
diversity of style between it and that of his eminent contemporary,
Brahms. Both styles display a master's touch, but Saint-Saëns'
chamber music is conspicuous for its simplicity of treatment and
admirable clearness. He has given still further proof of versatility
in a series of memorable concertos. Had Saint-Saëns been content
to write nothing beyond such sterling instrumental works as just
referred to, his reputation would not have suffered. But the full
strength of his greatness reveals itself in attainments of still
wider significance. In addition to several oratorios, including the
so-called Biblical opera "Le Déluge," no less than nine operas must
be accredited to his pen, and of these, "Samson et Dalila" looms up
as the ideal embodiment of Saint-Saëns' highest creative genius.
Lofty imagination, naturalness of expression and dramatic intensity
join in making this opera his greatest masterpiece. Unique is the
opening chorus for the captive Hebrews in oratorio style, whereas
the ballet in the last act presents an effective adaptation of the
peculiar Eastern scale. The orchestration is elaborate, rich and
varied,--intricate without being obtuse. Saint-Saëns wields his
large orchestral forces with unerring judgment; the score abounds
in effects now scintillating or impassioned, now melancholy or
heroic. The addition to the usual couplets of wood-wind of a third
flute, an English horn, a bass-clarinet and a contra-bassoon again
demonstrates the indispensability of triplets of related instruments.
Opportunity for obtaining pure tone-color in independent harmony
from each family of the brass is effected by employing four horns,
by the union of two trumpets and two cornets, by adding to the
three trombones a bass-tuba, and by making further requisition for
two opheicleides, which together with the bass-tuba are capable of
independent deployment. The strings are reënforced by two harps. The
array of instruments of percussion would appear rather formidable;
nevertheless, they are never used aggressively. This group includes
three kettle-drums, a bass-drum, cymbals, tam-tam, a triangle, a
Glockenspiel, a tambour de basque, and _crotales_ or castagnettes
made of wood and iron. May Saint-Saëns live to enthrall the world a
second time with a work that shall rival if not surpass in beauty the
rare seductive charm of "Samson et Dalila"!
[Footnote 83: See Appendix of Musical Illustrations, Examples 76 to
82.]
[Footnote 84: Ex. 79.]
[Footnote 85: Ex. 76, 77, 78.]
[Footnote 86: Ex. 82.]
[Footnote 87: Ex. 80, 81.]
No opera has won greater universal popularity than that which has
immortalized the name of its author, BIZET (1838-1875).
What is more, this unreserved approval is merited and will endure.
An elaborate discussion of his style would be futile; every
professional, every amateur is thoroughly familiar with it. The
prevalent custom of French composers to build upon French traditions,
but to allow German truthfulness of expression and interpretation
to dominate their works was consistently followed by Bizet. The
complaint has been made that the traditional disconnected forms of
"Carmen" hamper the dramatic action of an otherwise perfect creation.
Continuity of music might, perhaps, enhance its already unexcelled
effectiveness, but such questionable criticisms are indeed paltry
in the face of such melodic and harmonic originality, such dramatic
intensity, such orchestral color! Bizet's skill in discovering
novel traits of instrumentation was little short of marvellous. The
orchestra prepares, accompanies, and moralizes upon the action. There
is a wealth of rhythm and color; absolutely truthful characterization
and the finest of feeling for artistic details are revealed on
every page. It is to be regretted that "L'Arlésienne" has not been
considered worthy of more frequent performance. Though its libretto
cannot be compared with that of "Carmen," Bizet's setting of
"L'Arlésienne" is in some respects more artistic than that of his
masterpiece. Its orchestration is practically inseparable from the
drama itself, whereas a considerable portion of "Carmen" can be given
on the concert stage with good effect. Parenthetically it might be
added that the former work contains in its prelude a highly ingenious
solo for the rarely heard saxophone.
In the repertoire of a few progressive European stages is to be found
a work of exceptional genius entitled "Gwendoline" by EMMANUEL
CHABRIER (1841-1894). So highly imaginative and poetical are
its attributes as to warrant the assertion that "Gwendoline" is
the best recent French opera, if not the most advanced exposition
of existing Franco-German music dramas. No less an authority than
Reyer, was, in spite of his usually conservative views, moved to
criticise this masterpiece in the following favorable terms: "Je me
trouve en présence d'une oeuvre extrêmement intérressante, renfermant
des pages superbes et qui dans ses parties les moins saillantes,
porte quand même la griffe puissante d'un compositeur admirablement
doné." Chabrier did not devote himself seriously to music until he
was nearly forty years of age. Shortly before deciding to become
a professional, he had been quite successful with an opéra-bouffe
called "L'Étoile." "Gwendoline," however, developed at one stroke
his dormant creative powers in a manner truly remarkable. (Charming
though inconsistent is the adaptation of an Irish melody in one of
the most picturesque scenes.) An enthusiast for Wagner, Chabrier
nevertheless branched out into a style that is distinctly his own.
The libretto of "Gwendoline" may, perhaps, bear some resemblance to
"Der Fliegende Holländer" and to "Lohengrin." Gwendoline's recital
of her dream in the first act is suggestive of Senta's, whereas in
the second act, the love scene after the pagan marriage ceremony
recalls the similar episode between Elsa and Lohengrin. Not so with
the music. Striking originality, daring harmonic innovations, and
above all marvellous skill in orchestral treatment constitute the
distinctive features of Chabrier's individuality. The present writer
has had opportunity for studying the manuscript score of "Gwendoline"
after its revision by the eminent Bayreuth and Munich director,
Hermann Levi. Judging from previously heard performances, there
had been pictured a monumental accumulation of black notes and an
intricate web of interwoven polyphony. These expectations were not
justified. Needless to say that the instrumentation is not that of a
Mozart, nor are the usual complicated and massive resources of modern
orchestration lacking at the necessary moment. On the other hand, the
reticence displayed during most of the accompanying polyphony to the
vocal parts rivals that of Wagner's highest attainment as embodied in
the first act of "Die Walküre." Effects that suggest to the listener
the union of peculiar composites of tone-color, resolve themselves on
paper to perhaps a few simple chords for flutes in their low range,
extending across the entire page; or again to the gentle undulations
of muted strings deployed in keys of many signatures, whereby subdued
and grayish tints are procured. Chabrier's orchestration suggests a
progressive yet peculiar phase of Wagnerism enveloped by a tinge of
melancholy and softened by the delicate touch characteristic of the
French. Masculine scoring as embraced in the rather brutal overture
is the exception rather than the rule. The first act of a second
unfinished music drama entitled "Brisëis" was edited a few years ago
by Levi, but in spite of its undeniable originality, it proved a
disappointment to the present writer. Chabrier further wrote a comic
opera: "Le Roi malgré Lui," which, though daintily scored, is also
inferior to his masterpiece. The orchestral rhapsody "España" with
its wonderful exhibition of skilful instrumentation constitutes his
only really popular work, but it is to be hoped that the time may not
be far distant when the musical world shall awake to the significance
of "Gwendoline."
In marked contrast to the limited appreciation shown for
Chabrier's eminent accomplishments is the universal fame enjoyed
by MASSENET (1842) during his lifetime. Essentially a dramatic
writer, the latter has tried his hand at both comic and grand
opera. Of the former, "Manon" is a general favorite; of the
latter, wide-spread interest has been excited by "Hérodiade," "Le
Cid," and "Werther." The music to De Lisle's "Les Erinnyes" deserves
notice if for no other reason than the peculiar antique coloring that
permeates the orchestration. Massenet possesses above all a highly
developed feeling for sensuous charm. His style is distinctly poetic
and presents no exception to the prevailing custom of embodying both
the guiding theme idea as well as the more general philosophical
and orchestral principles of Wagner. Unreserved acceptance of such
theorems in their extreme phase reveals itself in the recently
presented "Werther." Much of Massenet's harmonic treatment displays
undeniable traits of originality, and his scoring is rich and
variated. His activity also as a composer for the concert stage has
been untiring, but he is at his best as an operatic writer, nor do
his orchestral works approach those of Saint-Saëns. As to this,
however, neither has any other modern French composer as yet equalled
Saint-Saëns, even though several younger writers, and notably
Debussy, are successfully demonstrating possibilities quite beyond
the scope of Saint-Saëns' achievements. Of Massenet's orchestral
works, the most important to be recorded are the two suites, the
"Hungarian" and the "Scènes pittoresques," besides the overture to
Racine's "Phèdre." This last is undeniably Massenet's representative
concert piece, embodying as it does virile force, impassioned
sentiment and exceptional orchestration.
V.
As in Germany so in France has the array of sterling composers
belonging to the nineteenth century assumed such extensive
proportions that the historian's well-meant intentions to be
concise are in danger of being frustrated. Only with regret can
the temptation to search for further indications of orchestral
innovations be set aside. On the other hand, one is obliged to
concede that the recent progress of French instrumentation is
entirely due to the series of eminent composers with which we have
just been occupied, nor has the art of orchestration advanced as
yet beyond that of Saint-Saëns and of Chabrier, unless we accept
the efforts of Debussy as rich in promise as well as in interest.
Omitting, therefore, the names of a host of other worthy aspirants,
there remains only the seemingly indispensable mention of two
secondary composers of recognized merit: Dubois and Paladhile;--of
the eminent expounders on orchestration: Gevaërt and Lavoix;--of
the literary writers and champions of the new school of thought:
Vidal, Benoit and Joncières;--of the organist-composers: Guilmant and
Widor;--of the representatives of the fair sex: Augusta Holmès and
Cécile Chaminade, together with one of the most recent comets on the
dramatic horizon: Gustave Charpentier.
The works of Dubois (1837) bear the stamp of exceptional ability and
versatility. In addition to a successful grand opera entitled "Aben
Hamet," the list includes an oratorio "Paradise Lost," a ballet "La
Farandole," a concert overture "Frithjof," a pianoforte concerto, and
several orchestral suites. Paladhile (1844), a pupil of Halévy, has
made himself popular with "Mandolinata," besides winning the respect
of the professional world in the cosmopolitan field of grand and
comic opera, symphonies, masses, and minor works.
By a strange coincidence the three standard expositions of practical
instrumentation and æsthetic orchestration are conceived in the
French language,--the authors of these works being, of course,
Berlioz, Gevaërt and Lavoix. Gevaërt (1828) merits the reputation
not only of a musical savant but of a prolific composer as well.
His "Nouveau Traité de L'Instrumentation" is not only a worthy
sequel to Berlioz's, but has to a great extent actually displaced
it. Of an entirely different stamp but equally indispensable to the
student of orchestral evolution is the comprehensive "Histoire de
L'Instrumentation" by Lavoix (1846). Further eulogistic comments upon
these world-renowned treatises would seem superfluous.
The literary writer, Vidal (1820), must also be mentioned as
an authority in one branch of instrumentation by virtue of his
voluminous work entitled "Les Instruments à archet." It contains an
admirable account of stringed instruments as well as of their makers,
their performers, their composers. Benoit (1834) is identified with
the advancement of musical art in Flanders, and the nature of his
teachings emphasizes his strong Germanic convictions. He set to
music several Flemish melodramas, but is especially to be commended
for an essay on "L'École de Musique Flamande et son Avenir." The
unflinching attitude of Joncières (1839) in favor of the Bayreuth
master contributed materially in overcoming both dogmatic and racial
prejudice. His literary writings reveal the mind of a keen musical
critic, but his compositions lack significance in spite of being
extremely modern.
The ascendency of modern French organ playing has been brought about
by Guilmant, Widor, and their associates. But this is not their only
claim to recognition, for their creative efforts bear directly upon
the art of orchestration. Guilmant (1837) has displaced the classical
organ concerto with string accompaniment by creating a more pliable
form under the heading of "symphony for organ and orchestra." Widor
(1845) has likewise shown a progressive spirit in his various organ,
chamber, and orchestral works, which are notable for their artistic
skill and for their display of poetic imagination.
To be looked upon as the first of the gentler sex to hold a
conspicuous position among modern French composers is no small honor.
This privilege has been granted to both Augusta Holmès and Cécile
Chaminade. What is more, their achievements entitle them to a footing
equal in rank to many of their most eminent masculine rivals. Not
content to restrict themselves only to smaller forms of composition,
both of these women have aspired to higher flights in the realm
even of symphony and opera. Nor have their efforts been futile,
for they both have written masterpieces of enduring worth. Augusta
Holmès, also known under the nom de plume of Hermann Zenta, was a
pupil of César Franck. In consequence, her style and orchestration
have acquired a certain solidity and dignity that act as an admirable
counterpoise to the lightness of touch and dainty scoring that are
to be expected from a woman. The opera "Héro et Léandre" and the
symphonic poems "Irlande" and "Pologne" may be looked upon in the
light of her most representative works. Better known in America is
her sister-composer, Chaminade, whose charming songs and pianoforte
pieces appeal to both professional and amateur. The fact of her being
Moszkowski's sister-in-law has its significance in the plausible
assumption that his example and guidance may have aided the full
development of her creative powers. The most characteristic phase of
her individuality finds expression in a pianoforte concerto and in
the symphonie-ballet "Callirhoé." Both these works present much that
is interesting, and are, moreover, effectively orchestrated.
It is yet too early to judge whether the fame of Gustave Charpentier
(1860) is destined to be effervescent or enduring. At the present
moment both the opera "Louise" and his orchestral efforts have most
assuredly excited more than passing comment. Other contemporary
Frenchmen, however, such as Fauré, Chausson, Bruneau, Debussy, have
in turn also attracted attention, but with the exception of Claude
Debussy (1862), none of them prove worthy of retaining more than
the respectful esteem of the public.[88] Charpentier's "Louise" is
conspicuous for its incidental episodes that are full of action, and
the work in its entirety presents an attractive series of contrasted
tableaux. The opera embodies an interesting experiment in that the
lines of the libretto are of a decidedly colloquial _genre_. The
music is modern in the extreme and suggests Wagnerian influence as
pronounced as that of any other French composer with the possible
exception of Chabrier. The latter, however, appropriated to himself
little more than Wagner's fundamental distribution of orchestral
forces, whereas Charpentier has unquestionably permitted the
distinctive atmosphere of "Die Meistersinger" to permeate portions
of his opera. The vocal parts are designedly declamatory rather
than melodic, unvocal, and excessively difficult. The regisseur
of the Munich Opera, Anton Fuchs,[89] declares that in all his
experience at Bayreuth he never found a more knotty problem to solve
than in teaching the singers the correct intonation of some of
Charpentier's vocal cues. "Louise" is scored with the same due regard
for proper effect that in these days is required of all meritorious
composers. Although the orchestration may at times be somewhat noisy
and overburdened, it reveals numerous insignia of characteristic
individuality. Charpentier's orchestral music which M. Colonne has
recently been presenting to the American public is on the whole
analogous to that of "Louise," and the instrumentation is imbued with
delicacy and refinement.
[Footnote 88: During the past two years particularly, Debussy's
orchestral compositions have awakened much interest in France and
in the United States, while his opera "Pelléas et Mélisande" to-day
shares critical favor in Paris with Charpentier's "Louise." Both
these operas are being performed in New York during the present
season of 1907-1908.
The orchestration of "Pelléas et Mélisande" strengthens the
previously formed conviction that Debussy is proving a worthy
elaborator upon Saint-Saëns' lucid and refined methods. The key-note
is transparency combined with an all-sufficient sonority. In a word,
the cardinal feature of Debussy's scoring is the indispensability
of each note, each phrase, each melody, even when assigned to the
so-called secondary instruments of the orchestra--and this is by
no means invariably the case in the scores of even such masters as
Wagner, Elgar, Richard Strauss!]
[Footnote 89: It is but justice to accord Anton Fuchs a large measure
of credit for the recent successful series of performances of
Wagner's "Parsifal" in New York at the Metropolitan Opera House.]
VI.
The attitude of the French public toward orchestral concert music has
undergone a radical change during the last fifty years. Habeneck's
efforts during the first half of the nineteenth century were indeed
praiseworthy and productive, but to the modern conductors, Pasdeloup,
Lamoureux, and Colonne belongs the honor of having placed concert
music in France on a par with that of the drama. The story of their
unprecedented activity has been frequently recorded but will bear
repetition in consequence of its wide significance. The peculiar
fact that until recent times practically all French composers won
distinction in operatic lines before attempting orchestral works has
already been sufficiently emphasized. It will be remembered, however,
that even in the eighteenth century determined efforts had been made
to establish orchestral concerts on a permanent footing, though
they could not then hope to rival the allectations afforded by the
dramatic stage. Retrospection shows us that in 1725 a brother of the
composer, François Philidor, founded the "Concerts spirituels," which
were subsequently fostered by Mouret and other worthy conductors.
In 1770 the "Concerts des Amateurs" as established by Gossec proved
such a success that he followed up the enterprise by reorganizing the
venerable "Concerts spirituels." With the advent of Cherubini, French
concert music received a still more powerful impetus, and through his
resistless energy "La Société des Concerts du Conservatoire" sprang
into existence.
This is the organization that gave Habeneck (1781-1849) an
opportunity to distinguish himself. He repaid the debt with interest,
for these concerts owe their subsequent world-wide fame primarily
to him. Dating approximately from the year of Beethoven's death,
new life was infused into this reorganized institution by reason
of Habeneck's contagious enthusiasm, and it was he who initiated
the French people into the inner mysteries of Beethoven's immortal
creations.
In 1851, two years after the death of Habeneck, there was founded
a second concert organization that was destined to bring both
inspiration and recognition to many a young composer of the modern
French School. It was founded by Pasdeloup (1819-1887) and went
under the name of "Société des jeunes artistes du Conservatoire." It
is not to be confounded with the "Concerts du Conservatoire" which
continued to exist in connection with the conservatory proper. Out
of this "Société des jeunes artistes" emanated in 1861 the "Concerts
populaires de musique classique," which, as the name implies, was a
further progressive step in affording the general public opportunity
for hearing good music at popular prices. Pasdeloup's undertakings
had for their original object the rendition of the best classical
works. But the productions of contemporaneous composers both native
and foreign were by no means excluded, and so such men as Lalo,
Bizet, Saint-Saëns and Massenet were not slow to be the gainers
thereby. That Pasdeloup was eventually forced into the background
by Lamoureux and Colonne is but another proof of the fickleness and
gross ingratitude of the general public. In vain did Pasdeloup in
1886 duplicate Godard's previous attempt to revive the "Concerts
populaires," and this signal defeat undoubtedly hastened his end
which took place one year later.
The career of the violinist and conductor, Lamoureux (1834), has
been triumphant from the time when in association with Colonne he
established a society for the performance of chamber music up to the
time of his retirement in 1897. In 1873 he established an oratorio
society which went under the name of the "Société de Musique sacrée."
Subsequently he became conductor at the Grand Opéra as well as of the
Conservatoire concerts. His crowning achievement was the founding
in 1881 of the "Nouveaux Concerts," better known as the "Concerts
Lamoureux."
Colonne (1838), greatest of all exponents of Berlioz and a zealous
interpreter of Wagner, instituted in 1874 a series of performances
under the name of the "Concerts du Chatêlet" that have since made
his name famous. At the present day he still ranks as the most
eminent contemporary French conductor. His activity shows no signs
of abatement, for season after season finds him and his orchestra
furthering the cause of French music in the musical centres of Europe
as well as in America.
Neither the orchestras of Lamoureux nor of Colonne can be excelled
in smooth and velvet-toned string playing, or in the purity, the
sympathy, and at times the pathos that distinguish the quality of the
wood-wind instruments. In French orchestras, however, the brass does
not always possess that solidity and richness found in representative
German orchestras. This defect may be due to the retention of at
least one alto trombone, whereas the Germans now use either three
tenor trombones, or two tenor and one bass. The bass-tubas also are
frequently too light and small. Particularly in some renditions of
Wagnerian works is the undue prominence of inadequately balanced
brass occasionally noticeable. Finally, the metallic quality of the
kettle-drums, which effects the coloring of the entire orchestra,
sounds foreign to ears accustomed to instruments of less pronounced
incisiveness. These criticisms are equally pertinent to Italian
orchestras, but do not appear to be objectionable to the composers
of either France or Italy. In a word, therefore, the performance of
French orchestras displays a marvel of refinement and finish even to
the minutest of details, but lacks ideal balance and fulness in loud
_ensemble_ passages.
Such is the story of French musical progression during the nineteenth
century! Though she inaugurated no such reforms as those that
signalize the "Sturm und Drang" period in Germany, France has a
record to show that is indeed an enviable one. Formerly surpassed
by the parent of Romance nations--Italy, France has in recent years
left that country far behind in matters both artistic and musical.
For half a century Italy has now been represented by but one luminary
of the first magnitude. Conspicuous in his solitary grandeur, this
versatile hero has captivated in turn the hearts of all peoples,
whether Latin, Germanic, or Anglo-Saxon. In every clime is the name
chosen for our following discourse a familiar household word,--the
name of that wonderful melodist, Verdi.
ITALY.
VII.
The last extended reference to Italian music is to be found in
Chapter VIII, which treats of the contemporaries of Beethoven. Those
pages call attention to Spontini's historic grand opera, to Rossini's
seductive charm, and to the "mellifluous fabrications of Donizetti
and Bellini with which undramatic productions must be classed also
the earlier works of Verdi in consequence of their voluptuous melodic
exuberance."
VERDI (1813-1901) exhibits in the development of his
creative power a series of progressive stages that are in some
respects analogous to Wagner's evolutionary periods. Just as Wagner's
operas and music dramas can be separated into three general groups,
so may Verdi's productions be subjected to similar analytical
treatment. It will be remembered, however, that the orchestration
of Wagner necessitated a second independent classification which
partially ignores the æsthetic and philosophical aspect of
subject-matter. With Verdi, on the other hand, dramatic style,
musical treatment and orchestration matured simultaneously and
gradually.
There is no call to refer to works anteceding "Nabucco," which
launched Verdi on his unprecedented career. The first group may
therefore include such operas as "Nabucco," "I Lombardi," and
"Ernani." The sole claim to merit that these works can offer is in
their wealth of melody, further enhanced by considerable rhythmic
variety. Displaying closer resemblance to Meyerbeer's style than
to _il bel canto_ of Rossini, they further embody reminiscences of
Bellini, and their favorable reception may have been aided by these
very reminiscences. From an artistic standpoint they contain little
worthy of commendation. They lack depth of feeling, whereas both form
and instrumentation are conventional and commonplace. Orchestral
color depends largely upon violent and frequently illogical dynamic
contrasts.
Typical of the second group are "Rigoletto," "La Traviata," and "Il
Trovatore." A further division might have been made in consequence
of the superiority of "Il Trovatore" over "Rigoletto." Such exact
distinctions, however, do not seem necessary in this discussion.
These works show more earnest search for truthful and impressive
expression, greater harmonic variety, and freer treatment of the
inner and lower parts. The dramatic effects are of an intensity
rarely surpassed. The music is, however, not only passionate but
violent, and the tonal effects often suggest unnecessary noise rather
than satisfying sonority. As Ferris expresses it: "Verdi storms
the ear and captivates the senses, but does not subdue the soul."
"Rigoletto" shows increased regard for judicious orchestration and
that particularly in the deployment of the wood-wind. The scoring of
"La Traviata" is picturesque and consistent. "Il Trovatore" presents
passionate outbursts of feeling, a certain striving after effects,
whereas the instrumentation reflects in its not infrequent coarseness
the brutal tendencies of the subject-matter itself. As a whole,
however, the orchestration possesses more independence and richer
tonal variety than that of Verdi's preceding works.
The third and last group is comprised of the "Manzoni Requiem," the
operas "Aïda," "Othello," and the lyric drama "Falstaff." The last
named might almost be classified by itself, representing as it does
the extreme phase of Verdi's involuntary adaptation of Teutonic
dogmas both ancient and modern. In spite of his obvious intention
to make this his masterpiece, it presents a line of departure not
suited to his most felicitous style of writing. However, this _dramma
lirico_ has borne fruit in so far as to be a source of inspiration to
Puccini, Mascagni and Leoncavallo, although _their_ effusions take
the form of "tragic operettas." In spite of the display of virile
power in "Falstaff," Verdi reached his highest development in the
orchestration of the Requiem, in the musical contents of "Aïda," and
in the dramatic continuity of "Othello." In all these later works one
finds unquestionable evidence of Wagnerian influence, at the least
in respect to externals. Notwithstanding Verdi's repudiation of any
such intentions, no composer surrounded by the spirit of the times
could do other than progress. The most noticeable improvements in
the third group consist of freer use of the dissonant element, better
declamation, higher regard for faithful interpretation, painstaking
finish of minor details, and above all an extreme advance in the art
of instrumentation. The functions of the orchestra become more and
more important, and the tonal colors acquire a richer and warmer hue.
The scoring of the Requiem is dignified, religious, yet emotional.
That of "Aïda" breathes the very atmosphere of its Egyptian
setting. In "Othello," the orchestration is essentially dramatic
and impassioned. "Falstaff" accepts the fundamental principles of
Gluck, and the orchestra is raised to prominence equal to that of
the voices. As a result of this concession, Verdi found Wagner's
orchestral resources indispensable to his needs, and the resultant
modern effects are a pleasant surprise. The vocal parts and the
orchestra are here logically balanced, though Verdi's marvellous gift
as a writer of pure and limpid melody continues in evidence.
With the evolution of this third period was instituted one of the
mightiest transformations in the history of Italian opera. That
country has as yet been unable to replace him. The efforts of
Ponchielli, Gomez, Boïto, Sgambati, Buonamici, Puccini, are certainly
praiseworthy, but sink into insignificance when compared with the
splendid attainments of their venerable and venerated model. As to
the rocket-like ascent and descent of Mascagni together with the
present notoriety of Leoncavallo, time alone will decide whether the
path they have chosen be meritorious or meretricious.
VIII.
It will take but a few words to conclude the record of musical
activity displayed by the recent representatives of the Latin races.
They have done practically nothing for the cause of orchestration
other than to branch off into infrequented by-ways that have
necessitated corresponding orchestral treatment. These final remarks
must therefore deal not with the subject of instrumentation proper,
but rather with the æsthetic and philosophical aspect of modern
Italian music, the influence it has exerted, and the direction it is
taking.
Ponchielli (1834) owes a foreign reputation to his opera "Gioconda,"
but endeared himself to his countrymen not alone as a dramatic writer
but also as the author of the "Garibaldi Hymn," written in 1882,
four years before his death. He enjoyed the reputation of being the
greatest modern composer of Italian opera after Verdi. Since the
Brazilian, Gomez (1839), practically adopted Italy as his home, he
is mentioned in this connection. He was a painstaking composer,
but his music frequently reminds one of Verdi's, whose ardent
admirer he was. Boïto (1842) possesses not only the talents of an
excellent composer, but of a highly gifted poet as well. He was the
first prominent Italian to accept without reserve the fundamental
principles governing the Germanic music drama, and thus became the
head of the Wagnerian party in his own country. His "Mefistofele"
did not succeed without a struggle, but it is now accepted as a
standard opera of universal fame. The orchestral efforts of Sgambati
(1843) are analogous to Boïto's adaptation of exotic principles
bearing on operatic forms. To Sgambati belongs the honor of being
the first Italian composer of the nineteenth century devoted to
purely instrumental music and large orchestral forms. Already in
his youth he attracted attention in consequence of an interesting
pianoforte quartet. His structural form, moulded on classic lines,
is logical and well proportioned, nor is it devoid of distinctive
characteristics. His music embodies clear melodic delineation and
free harmonization. The orchestration is, however, its best feature.
It displays sound judgment, sentient appreciation for variety,
contrast, and tone-color; these results are, moreover, attained by
means of a comparatively small orchestra. Concert overtures, chamber
music and the like are comprised in the works of Buonamici (1846)
who was a pupil of both von Bülow and Rheinberger. His chief claim
to recognition, however, like that of Puccini, depends upon his
dramatic effects, which have attracted considerable attention. At the
present moment Puccini is generally regarded by his countrymen as
the foremost living Italian composer. His orchestration is rich and
full, but his music, in spite of its pleasing melody and impassioned
utterance, betrays the influence of Ponchielli who in turn drew
inspiration from Verdi.
What shall be said about Mascagni and Leoncavallo? What have they
done even indirectly for the cause of orchestration? Chronologically,
Leoncavallo (1858) precedes Mascagni (1863), but without "Cavalleria
rusticana" to establish a precedent, "I Pagliacci" might never have
created the furor that it has. A discussion as to the relative merits
and defects of their notorious productions would be here out of
place. As to their relative orchestration, that of Mascagni shows, on
the whole, a lack of genuine musicianly training. Although it must
be conceded that he elicits highly dramatic and intensely passionate
accents from the orchestra, the substance of his orchestration has,
on the whole, a false ring to it and is of a hoarse quality of tone.
It lacks balance, lacks taste, lacks judgment, and is at times coarse
even to brutality. That of Leoncavallo is decidedly more refined
and original. Here again the key-note is a striving after unnatural
effects; but the orchestra is at least full of life, impassioned,
descriptive.
The earlier achievements of Ponchielli, Boïto and Sgambati are
assuredly of more enduring worth. These three representative men may
be regarded as the only noteworthy Italian composers born after Verdi
and before 1850.[90] Such is the present meagre record of a country
that can boast of an illustrious throng of preceding prodigies![91]
[Footnote 90: Although Giacomo Puccini (1858) has long since been
held by his countrymen at his true valuation, it is only during the
past few years that the world at large has come to realize that
his productions are more significant than those of Mascagni and
Leoncavallo who, until 1896, had won an international reputation
that temporarily overshadowed that of Puccini. Even though Puccini
lays himself open to criticism as to the æsthetic value of his
choice of librettos in which ultra-sensationalism frequently plays
so conspicuous a rôle, there is no longer any doubt that his operas
"La Bohème" and "Tosca" have now been permanently admitted to the
standard repertoires of the dramatic stage, and, together with his
recent success, "Madam Butterfly," have caused the entire musical
world to put their stamp of approval upon the earlier verdict of
Puccini's countrymen in regarding him as a worthy successor to Verdi
and as the most gifted living representative of Italian operatic art.]
[Footnote 91: Wolf-Ferrari (1876) is probably the youngest
living composer to whom already more than fleeting recognition
has been accorded. It is not an easy matter to decide under what
classification he should be placed. With a German father, his mother
an Italian, and married to an American, his instincts are Italian,
though he owes the stability of his musical training to Rheinberger
at Munich. His melodic form is conspicuously Italian, while his
harmonic substructure is more or less Teutonic. His orchestration is
eclectic; on the other hand, its cardinal characteristic consists
of a happy appropriation of Mozart's naïve touch. In a word, one
might go yet farther and say that it is precisely this naïveté, not
alone in orchestration but in musical substance as well, that makes
Wolf-Ferrari's music so refreshing. He owes the opening up of his
career to the opera "Die neugierigen Frauen," which has enjoyed a
notable and wide-spread popularity in Germany, whereas he has already
demonstrated his ability to handle large vocal and orchestral forces
for concert performance by his setting of Dante's "La vita nuova,"
which has also excited favorable comment in Germany and has just been
performed in New York with success.]
(Summary on page 178.)
CHAPTER XIII.
HUNGARY AND BOHEMIA; SCANDINAVIA AND RUSSIA; ENGLAND AND AMERICA.
I.
=Hungary.= The music of Hungary with specific relation to
orchestration calls for but brief comment beyond what has already
been said in connection with Liszt on page 92 and with Goldmark on
page 85. It will be remembered, however, that Liszt's Hungarian
origin revealed itself not so much in an indigenous style of
composition as in the propagation of those musical characteristics
peculiar to his race. This adaptation and development of native
dance tunes received plastic form in his "Hungarian Rhapsodies."
Goldmark, on the other hand, cannot properly be regarded as an
Hungarian composer at all. His music is German rather than Magyar,
eclectic rather than local. He revels in the insidious atmosphere
of the Far East. These two men are, however, the only composers of
unusual eminence Hungary has produced. A small group of men may have
remained more faithful to Magyar traditions than Liszt and Goldmark,
but the results of their efforts are not significant. What these
secondary composers did accomplish can be embraced in a few words.
Before doing so, however, it might be well to settle upon the exact
definition of "Hungarian" music. A quotation from Parry's "Art of
Music" would appear to answer this question to the best advantage:
"The original Hungarian music is extraordinarily characteristic in
rhythm and vigorous in melody, but devoid of ornament. The recognized
musicians of Hungary are gypsies, who are of Oriental descent, and
are well known for their taste for finery and ornamentation all the
world over; and in their hands Hungarian music has become the most
ornamental thing of its kind that Europeans are acquainted with. The
ornaments are perfectly meaningless, except as implying singular
dexterity of manipulation and an extraordinary aptitude for purely
superficial invention in the decorative direction. Hungarian music
belongs to the illustration of making a special rise to the highest
point in the middle or early in the latter part of a tune. With
the Hungarians both the dance tunes and local tunes are so full of
energetic intervals and rhythms that even when there are no crises
the impression produced is often emotional."
Representative adherents to Magyar characteristics are Franz Erkel
(1810), Mosonyi (1814), Albert Doppler (1821), his brother, Karl
Doppler (1826), and Czibulka (1842). By admitting the cosmopolitans,
Liszt (1811) and Goldmark (1830), this list of Hungarian composers is
sufficiently complete for all present purposes. Erkel and the elder
Doppler are looked upon as the leading national opera composers. Of
the two, Erkel displayed the greater originality. Author of no less
than nine operas, he reached his highest attainments in "Bank Bán"
and "Hunyadi Laszlò." The latter combines native traits with German
and Italian operatic and orchestral traditions. Albert Doppler's
foreign reputation is primarily due to his extensive concert tours
as a flute virtuoso. His additional activity as a composer, however,
gave him high standing in his own country. The present writer recalls
an interesting conversation with his brother, Karl Doppler--late
Kapellmeister at Stuttgart--in reference to the opera "Erzébeth"
written jointly by Erkel and the two Dopplers. He described the work
as "Gelegenheitsmusik"; such was the haste demanded by the attending
circumstances, that the first act was put into rehearsal before the
last act was completed, whereas Karl Doppler himself was still busy
scoring (in Italian style) on the very day appointed for performance.
Erkel's contemporary, Mosonyi or Michael Brandt, displayed
considerable versatility in forms both small and large, whereas
Czibulka represents a later generation of Hungarian composers. His
position as bandmaster at Vienna gave him opportunity to cultivate
his native attributes in the guise of dance music, in addition to
which he wrote an operetta entitled "Pfingsten in Florenz."
It cannot be said that the collective efforts of these composers
have developed a national style of orchestration. There is plenty of
color and variety in their scoring, but the latent charm of their
works is the result of melodic and rhythmic novelty, and not of
instrumentation.
II.
=Bohemia.= In marked contrast to the above-mentioned limitation
is the evolution of Bohemian orchestration, especially when one
considers the fact that the pioneer, Smetana, was content to build
upon Mozart's system of scoring, whereas already in the next
generation his illustrious pupil, Dvo[vr]ák, developed that art to
a point excelled by none. To mention these two men is synonymous
for both the birth and the maturity of a native Bohemian school
of composition. They both relied upon the Folk-song as a basis
for operation, but Dvo[vr]ák advanced far beyond his master. A
worthy successor to these two men has not yet appeared upon the
horizon, even though Dvo[vr]ák's pupil, Joseph Suk, reveals latent
possibilities for future prominence.[92]
[Footnote 92: Joseph Suk (1874) continues to command critical
favor, as evidenced, for example, by his successful appearance on
the concert stage of Berlin in the fall of 1906. Particularly his
"Scherzo fantastique" is widely known and well received.]
SMETANA (1824-1884) is a typical Czechish composer. Though
he studied for a short time under Liszt and showed himself an
enthusiastic follower of the "New Movement," his melody and rhythm
are thoroughly Bohemian; moreover, his music, like his orchestration,
occasionally reveals a certain naïve touch of Mozart. Smetana wrote
as many as eight operas, but the very first of these, "Die verkaufte
Braut," not only gave him his foreign reputation, but has proved
the best and most enduring of them all. The overture of this work,
with its magnificent fughetta, forms an admirable concert number by
itself. It might be incidentally added that this overture contains
horn attacks of such difficulty as to have proved a stumbling block
at public performance to no less an orchestra than the Royal band in
Munich under Levi's magnetic baton some fifteen years ago. Smetana's
affiliations with Liszt bore fruit in a worthy series of symphonic
poems, whereas his native inheritance is emphasized in his national
dances for pianoforte.
III.
DVO[VR]ÁK[93] (1841-1904) shares with Saint-Saëns,
Tschaikowsky and Richard Strauss the distinction of having done more
for the advancement of modern orchestration than any other composer
since Wagner. For his conservation of classic symphonic forms he
might be ranked as an extreme classical-romanticist, but he has gone
far beyond Brahms or Rheinberger in that his harmonic progressions
are novel and daring, his orchestration varied and rich. Moreover,
his music is conspicuously national in character and embodies the
very essence of Bohemian melody and rhythm. But though Dvo[vr]ák's
form may be orthodox, it is nevertheless subjected to differentiated
transformations according to the particular branch of composition
that is being treated. In this he resembles Saint-Saëns, and some
interesting comparisons might be made between the latter's symphony
in C minor and Dvo[vr]ák's "From the New World." It will be recalled
that this successful experiment of Saint-Saëns allows of but two
grand structural divisions, which, however, reveal the outlines
of the traditional four movements. Organic unity is obtained by
reintroducing important subject-matter from the first part of the
work into the second. Neither Saint-Saëns nor Dvo[vr]ák make use
of a dramatic scheme like Berlioz's "Symphonie fantastique" with
its _l'idée fixe_, but as Krehbiel, the eminent New York critic,
states it: "Dvo[vr]ák in his symphony entitled "From the New World,"
in which he has striven to give expression to the American spirit,
quotes the first period of his principal subject in all subsequent
movements, and then sententiously recapitulates the principal themes
of the first, second and third movements in the finale; and this
without a sign of the dramatic purpose confessed by Berlioz."
[Footnote 93: See Appendix of Musical Illustrations, Examples 90 to
96.]
Dvo[vr]ák's chamber music presents still another phase of the subtle
manner in which he retains and yet remodels the outlines of classic
form. In regard to musical contents, the essence of national melody
and rhythm is ever in evidence, but whereas in their original
shape these folk-tunes are frequently commonplace and even vulgar,
Dvo[vr]ák's brilliant imagination transforms them into worthy
conceptions that are both dignified and noble. These he adorns with
vivacious yet refined orchestration.
Yet another illustration of Dvo[vr]ák's versatility is displayed in
the "Spectre's Bride," which embraces in a felicitous manner the
supernatural element peculiar to the works of Spohr and Weber.
As has been already intimated, the paramount accomplishment of this
modern luminary was his colossal development of orchestral resources.
One can point to his symphonies as models for brilliant scoring. The
"Spectre's Bride," the Stabat Mater, the Requiem abound in beautiful
combinations. The orchestration is warm and rich[94] without being
overburdened, interesting and varied, yet appropriate and consistent.
Minor details receive careful attention. The string writing is clear
and bright,[95] whereas in the handling of the wood-wind instruments
Dvo[vr]ák shares with Brahms the tendency to fall back upon
Schubert's methods.[96]
[Footnote 94: Ex. 93, 96.]
[Footnote 95: Ex. 91.]
[Footnote 96: Ex. 90.]
One by one our great contemporary masters are passing away. Be it
hoped that at a not far distant day Bohemia may again send forth a
missionary to our climes worthy of rank with Dvo[vr]ák!
SCANDINAVIA AND RUSSIA.
IV.
=Scandinavia.= Analogous to the development during the
nineteenth century of Hungarian and Bohemian folk-tunes is that of
the Scandinavian countries. Just as Germany can point to her _Lied_
and France to her _chanson_ as the basis for scientific secular
music on the Continent, so is the recognition of the younger musical
countries dependent upon the distinctive features of their native
melodies. America presents a unique exception to this rule. For
variety and expression, Norwegian and Swedish folk-tunes compare
favorably with those of Russia. A conspicuous characteristic of early
Scandinavian folk-tunes is the progression to the minor seventh of
the scale through its fifth.
[Music]
Again, many peculiarities popularly regarded as Grieg's exclusive
property constitute in reality the fundamental characteristics of the
original source from which he has drawn his inspiration. The national
music of all three countries, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, embodies
shortness of theme, reiteration of the same interval, shifting
tonality, alliance of binary and ternary rhythm, and the plaintive
fall of the leading tone to the dominant. To Denmark belongs the
honor of having produced the pioneer exponent of native melodies
and native characteristics--Gade. His achievements have since been
eclipsed by Norway's sturdy representative--Grieg. In the earlier
part of the century several Swedish composers made a creditable
showing, but in recent years Norway seems to have established her
ascendency. After Gade, the only Danish composer who has attracted
especial attention beyond the boundaries of his own lands is Enna.
Few modern Swedish composers have risen conspicuously above their
predecessors, Lindblad, Hallström and Södermann. Norway, on the other
hand, possesses not only Grieg, but Svendsen and Sinding as well. The
racial affinity disclosed by the music of all these composers makes
possible a collective review of their achievements in chronological
order.
V.
Already in the initial Swedish productions are national tendencies to
be found. Subject-matter, coloring, harmonic and rhythmic structure
all reveal the same general source. Lindblad (1801) became known as
the teacher of Jenny Lind and also as a composer of songs. His melody
and harmony are original and characteristic. His more ambitious works
include a violin sonata and a symphony; the latter was performed at a
Gewandhaus concert. Hallström (1826), in addition to national songs,
wrote seven operas as well as a memorable Idyl for soli, chorus and
orchestra entitled "Die Blumen." Less widely known is the name of
Södermann (1832); nevertheless his efforts are ambitious and comprise
an operetta, a mass, an overture for orchestra, and incidental
music to the "Jungfrau von Orleans." He owes his German reputation
largely to a composition for four female voices, called "Bröllop,"
which went the rounds of that country and was popular in its day. At
least passing reference is at this point due to Normann (1831) in
consequence of the important services he rendered to his country as
an orchestral conductor.
Though GADE (1817-1890) stands as the pioneer of
Scandinavian composers and as chief representative of Denmark, his
works do not present unadulterated indigenous characteristics.
The influence of Mendelssohn as well as of Schumann is plainly in
evidence; consequently he is classified on page 77 among the direct
followers of romanticism. The substance of Gade's music suggests
Northern coloring and surroundings, but the presence of native
melody, harmony and rhythm is less conspicuous. He adhered to the
symmetry of sonata form, though his thematic development is free and
his musical treatment unfettered. Gade first became known through
the overture "Nachklänge aus Ossian" and the first symphony in C
minor. The "Crusaders" still belongs to the standard cantatas of the
present day. He had early been a careful student of representative
scores, and developed high efficiency in the art of orchestration.
Appreciation of the possibilities as well as of the limitations of
each instrument, successful application of "local coloring," and a
ready pen stamp the pages of his numerous symphonies and orchestrally
accompanied choral works.
Turning to the representatives of Norway belonging to a later
generation than Gade's, one naturally recalls the name of Grieg.
Nevertheless Svendsen (1840) was born three years before Grieg, and
holds a position of eminence only secondary to that of his Danish
predecessor or of his Norwegian contemporary. A violinist as well as
a composer, he possesses a gift for spontaneous and flowing melody.
His music rests on a sound harmonic basis, is cleverly developed and
skilfully orchestrated. It reveals national coloring though not to
excess, and reflects the mind of a cosmopolitan musician. Svendsen's
sphere of creative activity embraces various orchestral works,
besides chamber music and smaller pieces. Prominent among these are
the four Norwegian rhapsodies, and he has been particularly happy in
arranging many Norwegian, Swedish and Icelandic melodies for small
orchestra.
GRIEG (1843) represents one of the few recent composers who
have not been conspicuously influenced by ultra-modern tendencies
beyond appreciation for the necessary alliance of poetry and music.
The exact value of his attainments is not easy to define. D.G. Mason
has been rather hard on him in his thoughtful essay entitled "From
Grieg to Brahms," and in Germany there is also a disposition to
regard much of his music as superficial. None the less, Grieg's style
has a charm about it that is irresistible, and this charm goes far to
silence the grumblings of critics more scientifically and profoundly
trained than he. But it is precisely this naïve spontaneity, this
guileless yet poetic touch, this flow of fancy emanating straight
from the heart that endears his music to the more appreciative and
emotional amateur. Though a pupil of the Leipzig Conservatory, Grieg
early took a firm stand against the lukewarm Scandinavianism of
Gade, and bestirred himself in a search for musical utterance that
should present the indigenous characteristics of his own people in
the most favorable light. His solution of this problem brought into
existence a distinct Northern school of composition. As previously
suggested, many peculiarities of his music are but the adaptation of
time-honored Scandinavian characteristics. But though the strength
of his works rests upon the development of Danish, Norwegian and
Swedish Volkslieder, he has imbued these with an element of poetic
coloring, of tender melancholy, of mystery, of quaint humor, of
grotesqueness even to eccentricity that are all his own. Grieg's
style is frequently lacking in breadth, nor does he possess the
powers of a great orchestral composer. Nevertheless, his writing for
strings alone is of surpassing beauty, with its multiple division of
parts, its polyphonic voice-leading, and its impassioned deployment
of violas and violoncellos. When at his best, Grieg handles his
larger orchestral forces with similar rare skill. The orchestration
of Björnsen's unfinished drama "Olaf Trygvason" and that of the music
to Ibsen's "Peer Gynt," conceived as a melodramatic scene-painting,
is tender, fervent, weird, brilliant, stormy, popular, effective.
Notwithstanding all that has been said, Grieg stands as one of the
most original and healthy composers of the nineteenth century.[97]
[Footnote 97: Edvard Hagerup Grieg died in Bergen, Norway, on
September 4, 1907.]
Of the younger Norwegian composers, Sinding (1856) has given evidence
of a fertile imagination that finds expression in some pleasing
chamber music and other works in small form. To judge from his
popular "Frühlingsrauschen," he must be counted among the admirers
of Wagner. His Danish contemporary, August Enna (1860), has devoted
himself to a more ambitious form of composition. His opera "Heksen"
was brought out at Copenhagen in 1892, and at Berlin in the ensuing
year. Two further operas of recognized merit have emanated from his
pen--"Cleopatra" and "Aucassin og Nicolette."[98] The Scandinavians
are not conspicuously dramatic, but Enna's grandfather was an
Italian, which may account for the grandson's histrionic talent.
There are other names worthy of mention,[99] such as Tor Aulin and
Wilhelm Stennhammer[100] of Sweden; up to the present moment,
however, none have proved worthy to be ranked with the greatest of
Scandinavian composers--Grieg.
[Footnote 98: Enna's recently composed opera "Aglaia" has yet to
await the favorable verdict of the general public. Taking into
consideration the kindly and patriotic disposition of his own
countrymen toward all serious artistic efforts on the part of their
native composers, it is reasonable to predict that "Aglaia" will
eventually receive the same cordial reception as its predecessors,
at least in so far as the Danish audience is concerned. (During the
past year the present writer has had repeated opportunity to note
the attentive attitude of the public in the Danish capital toward
aspiring home talent,--a national trait of such exceptional virtue
that it cannot be sufficiently commented upon.)]
[Footnote 99: This would appear to be a fitting place for mention of
the Finnish composer, Sibelius (1865), who has, during the immediate
past few years, added a new name to the list of modern Northern
writers for the orchestra, besides being distinctly the first
composer of Finland to acquire international reputation.]
[Footnote 100: In the fall of 1905, Stennhammer's opera "Das Fest
auf Solhaug" was heard for the first time at the Royal Opera House
in Berlin. A condensed version of Ibsen's drama constitutes the
libretto. From the very beginning of the introduction to the final
note of the last act the listener is primarily impressed by and
almost solely interested in the limpid pureness and delicacy, the
masterly finish of detail both inner and outer, and the sensitive
appreciation for the suppression of dynamic excess as revealed in its
_orchestration_. But the immaturity in the literary form and style of
this earlier conception of Ibsen precludes the possibility of more
than momentary interest for Stennhammer's opera, unless, perhaps,
within the confines of Scandinavian shores.]
VI.
=Russia.= Among the phenomena of the nineteenth century must be
reckoned the wonderful artistic evolutions in Russia and in America.
Of the two countries, Russia has thus far forged ahead by reason of
her indigenous melodic wealth, whereas America has no similar source
to draw from. Again, the melancholy and semi-barbaric coloring of
Russian folk-tunes appeals more readily to the world at large than
do the assuredly more healthy though somewhat eclectic offerings of
the young American school. None the less, the artistic future of the
latter country is to be regarded in the most optimistic light, and
this certainly will be subsequently enlarged upon under its proper
heading.
Russian folk-songs embody certain characteristics that are likewise
at the root of Scandinavian folk-songs. In their natural and
unadorned state they suggest the rhythmic freedom of Scandinavia,
and their dance forms are similarly wild and irresistible. Further
characteristics that are more distinctly Russian consist of odd
modulations, of plaintive minor cadences, of harmonies resolving
abruptly into the unison, and of the frequent recurrence of a
principal theme alternating with various reiterated phrases. A
possible reminiscence of the Lydian and Dorian modes of ancient
Greece might also be suggested. This is the basis upon which an
epoch-making school of highly-seasoned dramatic and orchestral music
has been reared.
Cultivated Russian music may be properly divided into three
distinctive groups. First came the old lyric-school of Glinka,
Dargomizski and Seroff, followed by the neo-Russian school which
includes Dargomizski in his maturity, together with Borodin, Cesar
Cui, Balakireff, Mussorgski, Rimski-Korsakoff, and their associates.
A third classification is required for Rubinstein and Tschaikowsky
in consequence of their less national than cosmopolitan attributes.
It is by no means intended to convey the idea that Tschaikowsky was
not intensely Russian, but his broad education and his intellectual
classicism distinguish him from his compatriots. Rubinstein, on the
other hand, was more a Teutonic classical-romanticist than a Slavonic
composer. This exposition will therefore first treat of the typically
native composers, leaving Rubinstein and the unrivalled Tschaikowsky
for the end.
VII.
GLINKA (1803-1857) accomplished for his country what Smetana
and Gade did for theirs. A further unique comparison can be made in
that the labors of these three men in each case paved the way for
subsequent herculean development in the hands of one conspicuous
successor of even greater talent--respectively Dvo[vr]ák, Grieg,
Tschaikowsky. Although Glinka, like Gade, devoted himself to the
propagation of national melodies, it is the local coloring rather
than subject-matter that gives his music a character of its own. In
this he again resembles Gade. His very first opera "Life for the
Czar" proved a triumphant success, and, together with its successor
"Ruslan and Ludmilla," gave Glinka the right to be called the first
great opera composer of Russia. His music may not be especially
dramatic, but is significant for having elevated and perpetuated
popular airs, which are clothed in rich harmonies and surrounded by a
distinctly Russian atmosphere. The orchestration calls for but little
comment excepting that it is clever and at times even brilliant.
Glinka's position in musical history has been accurately described
by Riemann when he says: "Glinka is the Berlioz of the Russians,
the man who attempted something new with definite meaning; but to
his countrymen he is still more, namely, the creator of a national
musical tendency striving toward independence."
Dargomizski (1813), second representative of the old lyric-school
and eventually a convert to the new Russian movement, stands as
a noteworthy example for gradual artistic expansion. Clinging at
first to the forms prevalent in France and in Italy, he gradually
came to attach greater importance to _recitative_, and finally went
even too far. This extreme as to absence of melody as well as of
structural form reached its culmination in his posthumous opera "The
Marble Guest," which has since been most effectively orchestrated by
Rimski-Korsakoff. The work is advanced both in thought and treatment,
and may be regarded as the initiatory modern Russian opera. Two
of Dargomizski's minor orchestral compositions, the "Finnish
Fantasia" and the "Cossack Dance," acquired considerable popularity.
Dargomizski is particularly to be commended for his attitude as
a patron of the young Russian enthusiasts whose tendencies were
inclined toward Berlioz, Schumann, Liszt and Wagner.
Serow (1820)--usually spelt Seroff in the English language--belongs
properly to the earlier school, although he was a zealous disciple of
Wagner, and, like him, prepared his own librettos. The style of his
music is such as to carry us almost imperceptibly across the short
bridge joining the first and second groups of Russian composers.
VIII.
As just stated, the second group of young composers found a champion
in their senior, Dargomizski. The tenets of the "New Russian
Movement" are closely allied to those of the "New German Movement."
The programmatic and philosophical theories of Berlioz and Liszt
applied to the dramatic orchestra, and the unreserved adaptation
of Wagner's speech-singing and instrumentation form the basis for
their creed. On the other hand, they demand that all "program-music"
shall be of such intrinsic merit as to withstand the test of being
deprived of its program. Prominent among these innovators was
Borodin (1834). His originality displayed itself conspicuously in
independent orchestral music as exemplified by his two symphonies.
The style is attractive and polished, whereas a wealth of orchestral
effects and instrumental tone-color is at his command. Further
proof of his fertility is revealed in the opera "Fürst Igor," in
the symphonic poem "Mittelasien," and in his chamber music. Cesar
Cui (1835) holds a position of prominence only secondary to that
of Rubinstein and Tschaikowsky. He was an ardent literary advocate
for Berlioz, Schumann and Liszt, whereas his vocal writing is in
reality the exposition of a style akin to the requirements of French
prosody. Balakireff (1836) and Mussorgski (1839) also belong to this
second group of Russian composers. The former has been called the
direct successor of Glinka. The compositions of the latter display
daring originality and a gift for charming melody, although the
harmonization is not always skilful. Nevertheless, both these men
are outranked by Rimski-Korsakoff (1844), whose eminence is fully
equal to that of Borodin and Cesar Cui. His works include several
remarkable symphonies, three operas, chamber music and salon pieces.
Special attention should be called to the program-symphony "Antar"
and to a legend for orchestra, "Sadko." One of the youngest exponents
of combined melodic and declamatory styles is Arensky (1862), and
the interest recently excited by the third symphony in C minor of
Glazounoff (1865) entitles him also to recognition under this heading.
This discussion may evoke the criticism that thus far too little
has been said about orchestration proper and nothing whatever about
the details of instrumentation. As to this, however, it must be
remembered that modern Russian orchestration owes its fundamental
characteristics to only one man--Tschaikowsky; consequently, the
examination of these characteristics has been reserved for discussion
in connection with _his_ titanic achievements. All contemporary and
sequent orchestral treatment in the hands of his countrymen is but
the reflection of Tschaikowsky's style combined with the further
progressive methods of German and French orchestration. It is the
indirect influence these other composers have exercised upon the art
of orchestration rather than their actual instrumentation that has
needed elucidation.
IX.
For convenience, Rubinstein and Tschaikowsky have been classed
together as representing a third group of Russian composers.
Theoretically they possess nothing in common other than their
cosmopolitan proclivities.
RUBINSTEIN (1830-1894), regarded in the light of a
Russian composer, cannot be compared with Glinka as an operatic
writer or with Tschaikowsky as an orchestrator. Regarded as a
classical-romanticist, he must be included in the list of composers
following traditional forms. What is more, he was an extremist in
his antagonism to the innovations of the New German Movement. This
hostility exerted a baneful influence upon his instrumentation. His
intentions were high, but the results of uneven value. His music
reveals a search after fulness of contents, passionate strength, and
a certain predilection for the peculiar. Euphony and rounded form
are less pronounced, though occasional evidence of delicacy and even
of tenderness is not lacking. Rubinstein cannot be eulogized as a
dramatic writer, although "Feramors" is a pleasing lyric opera, and
the Biblical stage-play "Sulamith" presents a poetic idyl imbued
with Eastern color. Interesting is the embodiment of seven movements
in the "Ocean Symphony," a work that holds high rank in musical
literature. In string writing, Rubinstein revealed fine appreciation
of tone-color. The instruments are handled with rare skill and
that quite especially in his chamber music. But in spite of a not
infrequent display of superb power, his orchestration, on the whole,
was hampered by the narrow prejudice which limited his horizon.
The history of Slavonic music up to the present day will
be concluded with the following brief remarks concerning
TSCHAIKOWSKY[101] (1840-1893). Though he is mentioned last,
one must not forget that his activity covers the same period as that
of the originators of the neo-Russian school.
[Footnote 101: See Appendix of Musical Illustrations, Examples 83 to
89.]
The composite of his high-strung and intensely æsthetic nature may
be summed up by saying that at heart he was in sympathy with Liszt;
his structural form rests upon the intellectuality of classicism; his
conceptions emanated from Muscovite melodies but are stamped with the
insignia of genius all his own; his style is essentially lyrical,
and betrays the delicacy and refinement of a cultured Russian. What
is more, there are momentary suggestions even of coyness that are
again strikingly contrasted by a certain barbaric element worthy of a
barely-civilized Cossack.
The peculiar fascination exerted by his music may be traced first
and foremost to its dominating melancholy character, although this
plaintive strain is again set off by a certain vigor, which Henderson
calls "the outcome of a certain grim determination always present
in the Russian heart." It has also been described by Dannreuther as
"fiery exultation on a basis of languid melancholy." The means which
Tschaikowsky found to express himself in a language of profound
pathos embodied the free use of sombre chromatic harmony, of minor
modes, and above all of weird and gloomy orchestration.[102] The
general outlines of Tschaikowsky's music embrace melodic subtleties,
bold modulations, florid figuration, strongly marked rhythm and
cadences peculiar to his own land, huge dimensions, fantastic
portrayal, broad dignity of utterance, and magnificent orchestral
effects. The embodiment of native folk-music in no way interferes
with his own intense originality and genuine spontaneity.
[Footnote 102: Ex. 83, 86, 89.]
One of the most astounding features in Tschaikowsky's scoring is the
extreme modern effect secured from virtually the same orchestra of
moderate size that Beethoven employed. To the uninitiated auditor,
the wealth and variety of tone-color produced would appear to require
a mighty aggregation of instruments; but the "Symphonie pathétique,"
for example, makes requisition for no more instruments than those
used in Beethoven's grandest symphonies, excepting the addition of a
bass-tuba.[103] As for an increased number of strings, the increase
remains in force for modern performances of the classics as well.
In regard to obtaining what has been called "a gloomy eloquence of
instrumentation," this is effected by drawing upon the deeper accents
of the orchestra.[104] Tschaikowsky employed such combinations as
horns and bassoons alone; English horn, bassoons and violas; the
lower tones of flutes and clarinets also accompanied by violas; the
unison of English horn with low strings as in the _cantabile_ of the
overture-fantasy, "Hamlet,"--a combination to which Henderson calls
attention in his admirable little book on the orchestra. (This work,
by the way, is skilfully written for the delectation of cultivated
amateurs.) Other important contributors to Tschaikowsky's subdued
coloring are the clarinets in their lower range and the bassoons in
their upper range.[105] The best exemplification of orchestration
essentially mournful in character is discovered in his last great
work--the "Symphonie pathétique" already referred to. On the other
hand, a magnificent specimen of forceful writing is presented in the
final movement of particularly the C major symphony.
[Footnote 103: Ex. 85.]
[Footnote 104: Ex. 84, 88.]
[Footnote 105: Ex. 87.]
Recent development in Russia of orchestral resources is bearing
delectable fruit; but without Tschaikowsky to point the way, this
would not have been possible. He still reigns supreme as the
greatest interpreter of Slavonic ideals. Tschaikowsky in Greater
Russia, Grieg in Scandinavia, Dvo[vr]ák in Bohemia, Saint-Saëns in
France, Wagner and Richard Strauss in Germany,--these are the men
of the nineteenth century who have caused the art of orchestration
to acquire distinctively national characteristics suited to the
needs of differentiated national music. In return, composers of
all countries are seizing upon every possible device introduced by
these innovators, and the twentieth century gives promise of results
cosmopolitan in nature and superb beyond description.
ENGLAND AND AMERICA.
X.
=England.= Although the recent growth of Russian music is of
vast significance, neither have the Anglo-Saxons been idle. England
can also point to a long series of sterling composers belonging to
the nineteenth century. Among the representative musicians who have
helped to develop a native style of composition and orchestration
should be mentioned Balfe, Macfarren, Bennett, Barnby, Sullivan,
Bridge, Mackenzie, Parry, Cowen, Stanford.
At the head of this sturdy list stands Balfe (1808), whose continuous
application to operatic forms presents an exception to the more
varied labors of most English composers. Neither the substance-matter
nor the instrumentation of his works merits the distinction of
having furthered the cause of indigenous English music. The style
is essentially Italian. Balfe possessed fluency of expression and
displayed aptitude for pleasing melody. Depth and power were not
among his attributes.
An entirely different atmosphere pervades the numerous productions
of Sir George Macfarren (1813). This eminent pioneer of nineteenth
century English music had the honor of being born in the same
year with Wagner. The cosmopolitan range of his compositions is
noteworthy, and his tireless activity in the face of an affliction
that eventually ended in entire blindness entitles him to unstinted
praise. His works are among the most important contributions to the
literature of English music, covering as they do every branch of
music from opera, oratorio and cantata to symphony, chamber music and
sacred pieces.
The reader will remember that on page 77 of Chapter IX, particular
mention was made of Sterndale Bennett (1816), in view of his
association with Mendelssohn and Schumann. The pith of the remarks
embodied in that paragraph will, however, bear repetition, owing to
the significance attached to Bennett's influence upon modern English
music. The acknowledged heir of Purcell, he clothed his individuality
in the language promulgated by the early Romanticists; but though his
works bear the undeniable impress of Mendelssohnian characteristics,
they are none the less original and of enduring worth. His field
of activity as a composer was extensive. Outside of England, his
oratorio "The Woman of Samaria" is, perhaps, the best known of his
various choral works, symphonies and concertos. The high regard in
which he is held by his countrymen reveals itself in his title of
"Founder of a New English School."
To mention Barnby (1838) in these pages may appear somewhat out
of place. Sacred music is the line in which he particularly
distinguished himself. In addition to writing magnificent hymns and
anthems, he developed his best gifts in such works as his psalm
"The Lord is King." Nevertheless, it will be noticed that from a
chronological standpoint Barnby heads the list of the more recent
English exponents of progressive ideas, and his advanced convictions
entitle him to recognition in this discussion if for no other reason
than for his zeal and perseverance in having given in London two
concert performances of "Parsifal" as early as in 1884. The date of
this achievement is significant when one considers that the initial
dramatic performance of "Parsifal" at Bayreuth had taken place but
two years before.
The most widely known English composer of the nineteenth century is,
of course, Sullivan (1842). This renown has been won by virtue of a
unique talent for writing comic operas that are gems of the first
water. On the other hand, Sullivan has again and again revealed his
latent powers for composition in serious vein. Had he elected to
consecrate himself to the nobler form of art, he might have become
the greatest of all English composers. As it is, he has done much
for the cause of Anglicized music and especially of Anglicized
orchestration. The author of no less than fifteen operettas that are
famed in England, America, and to a lesser degree in Continental
Europe, he has clothed these works in charming orchestral garment.
The instrumental combinations at his command were small, but he was
never at loss how to use them to best advantage. It was his peculiar
custom to postpone the orchestral scoring until all modifications as
suggested by preliminary rehearsals had been decided upon. Taking the
"Mikado" as a favorable example, it is seen that the local coloring
demanded by the setting depends chiefly upon the orchestra. The
quaint opening chorus for men at the very beginning of the operetta
proves the truth of this statement. Sullivan based his methods of
instrumentation upon those of Mozart, but occasionally copied Gounod
and even Berlioz. When, however, Sullivan employs larger orchestral
forces, his musicianship, dramatic power and command of resource
seem to expand in proportion. Notable illustrations of original and
effective scoring are to be found in his representative oratorios and
above all in his grand opera "Ivanhoe."
John Bridge (1844) displays sound scholarship in a respectable list
of sacred music, cantatas and orchestral works, but his attainments
cannot be compared with those of Mackenzie (1847). The latter is
first and foremost an orchestral writer, in fact one might say that
his conceptions are wholly orchestral. His is the realm of realism
rather than of idealism. His style reveals no great depth or pathos.
There is a mixture of Mendelssohnian and Wagnerian externals.
His melody has been styled angular; his harmonic structure is
inefficient, and his rhythm monotonous. Mackenzie's orchestration,
however, is unusual. Its many excellences afford a striking contrast
to the mediocrity of subject-matter. It is powerful and effective,
allowing also commendable freedom to the wood-wind. Some interesting
passages for flute and oboe in combination with low clarinet arpeggio
effects are contained in the cantata "The Story of Sayid." Among
Mackenzie's most notable achievements should be mentioned two operas,
two Scotch rhapsodies, and his magnum opus, a dramatic oratorio
entitled "The Rose of Sharon."
There is a double interest in examining the musical compositions of
Charles Hubert Parry (1848) in consequence of his having enriched the
world with a scholarly and broad-minded work entitled "The Evolution
of the Art of Music." This standard book has been quoted from more
than once in the course of these pages. Parry has tried his hand at
all forms of composition, including chamber music, symphonies and
oratorios. There is a natural hesitation to pass individual judgment
on these works, so the criticism of two contemporary Englishmen
will be referred to instead. These two are Willeby and Stanford. In
general terms, Willeby speaks of Parry as a man of wide experience
and absolute sincerity, and as one "devoted to liberation." He
then goes on to say that Parry's works show traces of Beethoven,
especially of Brahms, somewhat of Händel and Mendelssohn, whereas his
earlier "Prometheus Unbound" is conceived in the "Tristan" style;
but the "human" element is lacking. The most complex methods are
employed to attain the desired results. The obvious avoidance of
natural cadences is carried to an extreme. The melodies are stately
and self-possessed but become monotonous. So much for Parry's style.
As to his orchestration, the opinion of Dr. Stanford is presumably
authoritative and is appended _verbatim_: "His orchestral sense is by
no means his most highly developed sense, for while there is no lack
of sonority in his scoring, there is not infrequently all too little
of 'fancy.' What leanings he has in this art are certainly more
toward Wagner than Berlioz, and sometimes the incongruity of Wagner
in the orchestra and Brahms in the music is by no means compensated
for by what there is of Parry in both."[106]
[Footnote 106: A. Goring Thomas (1851) should, chronologically, be
referred to at this point in view of the present continued popularity
and frequent performance in the United States of his cantata "The
Swan and the Skylark," even though the work is said to have been
orchestrated by Stanford. On the other hand, more pronounced
independence is evidenced in such of Thomas' representative works
as the opera "Esmeralda" and the choral ode "The Sun Worshippers."
The general substance of his compositions displays delicacy and
refinement in orchestration and the possession of a real melodic
gift.]
Cowen (1852) stands as one of the representative English exponents
of both absolute and programmatic symphonic writing. Of his five
characteristic symphonies, special reference is due to the
"Scandinavian," No. 3, the "Welsh," No. 4, and the one in F, No. 5.
The fact that this later symphony, No. 5, contains no programmatic
idea, leads to some conjecture as to what Cowen's motive was in
returning to the conservatism of pure and abstract music. This work
embodies considerable depth of sentiment, sombre orchestral coloring,
and a possible touch of Chopin. Cowen has written several operas, but
special significance is attached to his choral work "The Sleeping
Beauty," in that it incorporates Wagner's principle of representative
themes together with their skilful thematic development. The
orchestra plays an exceedingly important rôle, even to the occasional
detriment of the vocal parts.
Having listened to what Stanford had to say about Parry, let us
see what Stanford's music has to say for its author. Here again
one discovers the accomplished scholar rather than the artistic
dreamer. Stanford (1852) has proved himself an eminent conductor
and professor, but as composer, his emotional capacity is evidently
limited, and his music lacks the very essentials of ideal love and
impassioned sentiment so conspicuous, for example, in Félicien
David's ardent conceptions. Compare the glowing colors in David's
"Lalla Rookh" with those in Stanford's opera "The Veiled Prophet
of Khorassan." The latter does, indeed, suggest "local" color, but
there is no evidence of sensuous Eastern charm. Stanford's right
to share with Cowen the rank of representative English symphonist
is undisputed. His fertile pen has produced an honorable series
of orchestral works that include a festival overture and four
symphonies. Prominent among these is the "Irish Symphony," which
again reveals a striving after characteristic portrayal. Willeby
also makes reference to this in the following terms: "Here, for the
obtainment of local color, he has called to his aid all kinds of
melodies and 'modes.' The 'Aeolian' mode transposed, which consists
of the scale having its semitonic intervals between the second and
third, and fifth and sixth degrees, and the 'Mixolydian,' with
its semitones between the third and fourth, and sixth and seventh
degrees, are both extensively used."[107]
[Footnote 107: The favorable comment excited a few years ago by the
cantata "Hiawatha" by S. Coleridge-Taylor (1875) has proved to be of
more than passing endurance. Mention of his activity, which includes
also such works as an operetta, "Dream Lovers," is therefore in
place. Coleridge-Taylor is the first composer of African descent to
command serious recognition.]
* * * * *
During the last few years a new star has risen on the British
horizon, one that promises to become a permanency,--Edward Elgar
(1851). His talent is conspicuous, and he is fast winning his way
through sheer merit. Henderson goes so far as to write of him as
"the most promising of modern composers," though this is a matter of
opinion. At all events, Elgar stands out in marked contrast to his
more self-restrained countrymen in that he dares to break through the
barriers of British good form by employing a language of emotional
eloquence and dramatic intensity. His handling of vocal forces does
not by any means discard the time-honored doctrines of Bach and
Händel so tenaciously adhered to in England, but he combines classic
polyphony with modern expedients of unfettered chromatic harmony
and throbbing orchestration. His "Dream of Gerontius" and his "The
Apostles" should convince his compatriots that heretofore they have
been content to compose in a manner all too sedate and unemotional.
Bennett founded a "new school" of English music in the early part
of the nineteenth century. It may be that the time has now come
for a second "new school" which shall meet the requirements of the
twentieth century.[108]
[Footnote 108: Elgar's "The Apostles" is the general title of a cycle
of four works for voices and orchestra, of which Part II, named "The
Kingdom," was completed and performed since the above was written.
"The Kingdom" further discloses the remarkable individuality of
Elgar's style, which in turn bespeaks the exalted spiritual nature of
the man.
Each successive work that emanates from Elgar's pen emphasizes his
monumental command of polyphonic structure in its largest dimensions,
clothed meanwhile in the most realistic of orchestral garments. It
would be going too far to aver that Elgar approaches Richard Strauss
as an orchestrator; on the other hand, it will hardly be questioned
that there are three prominently conspicuous composers of the present
day who, having put themselves in close touch with the ideals of
Richard Wagner and agreeing to a more or less degree with the tenets
of Richard Strauss, stand forth as the recognized vancouriers in
their respective countries for the most advanced phase of orchestral
art:--Elgar, Debussy, MacDowell.]
AMERICA.
XI.
In undertaking to set forth the present conditions of American
musical art it is realized that little can be said beyond that
with which professional American musicians are already perfectly
familiar. But the future of indigenous American music gives
promise of a significance so wide that the reader will concede the
indispensability of embodying in this book at least a bird's-eye
view of an evolution that is destined to lead to glorious results.
Moreover, to refrain from repeating well-known facts for fear of
presenting trite material would indeed appear as an inexcusable and
glaring omission should these pages ever come into the hands of a
foreigner.
In order to cover the entire ground, it would be necessary to touch
upon the rather doubtful experiments of our forefathers during
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries:--to examine into the
tardy emancipation of religious music from the dogmatic fetters of
Puritanism, to follow the gradual development of American hymn-tunes,
and to ferret out the initial encroachments of beneficent Teutonic
influence. Such preliminaries may here be dispensed with. America
has no native folk-tunes. The experiments of our illustrious guest,
Dvo[vr]ák, to adapt so-called negro melodies as the basis for
future operation are certainly masterly,--nevertheless illogical.
MacDowell's poetic "Indian Suite" draws upon still another source
for the same purpose. Racial characteristics and local coloring
are indeed suggested,--but the desired objective is not attained.
Of similar purport are the exhaustive researches of Farwell. His
deductions are intensely interesting, frequently picturesque,--but
again prove that the primitive tunes of the American Indian do not
meet the requirements for a national form of melody. It is evident,
therefore, that American composers are obliged to rely upon their
own individual efforts. What is more, no marked individuality
displayed itself before the nineteenth century. Anyone desiring
detailed information pertaining to the infancy of American music may
be referred to Ritter's book on that subject as well as to Louis C.
Elson's "History of American Music." Furthermore, since the main
theme of this discussion is orchestration, it will not be possible
to more than touch upon the sterling achievements of the already
large list of nineteenth and twentieth century composers who are so
worthily furthering the artistic cause of their country. Detailed
biographies of these men are also to be found in Elson's work as well
as in Rupert Hughes' "Contemporary American Composers."
During the nineteenth century America produced no less than some
hundred native born composers, conductors, performers and pedagogues
who are worthy of unstinted praise and enduring recognition. It is,
however, an extremely difficult matter to single out those who may be
looked upon as America's representative writers for the orchestra.
At the present moment one might suggest the names of six men who
have been exceptionally fortunate in being granted the opportunity
of showing the world what they can do. These fortunate ones are
Paine, Buck, Foote, Chadwick, MacDowell, Parker, of whom no less
than four are claimed by New England. The word "fortunate" is used
advisedly, for without detracting in the least from the hard-earned
and well-merited laurels of these conspicuously successful composers,
many another American could be pointed to who even now is worthy
of being classed in the first rank and who would undoubtedly rise
to epoch-making greatness were the _opportunity_ but granted him.
Selecting a few names merely at random, the present writer has
had occasion to peruse the orchestral pages of such men as Father
Bonvin (a Jesuit priest of Canesius College, Buffalo, N.Y.) and
Professor Leo R. Lewis of Tufts College,--the breadth and power
of whose scoring would command wide-spread admiration were the
authors natives and residents of Continental Europe. Further proof
of native independence and strength is revealed in the deplorably
rare opportunities of listening to the orchestral works of our
younger aspirants such as F. Converse, H.H. Huss, H.K. Hadley, Rubin
Goldmark, not to mention the scholarly productions of the older
and reputed leaders of the country such as Gilchrist, F.G. Gleason,
Foerster, Beck, E.S. Kelley, Schoenefeld, Zeck.
No country in the world makes such unreasonable demands upon the
range of professional capacity as does America when begrudgingly
bestowing her patronage upon her musicians. To be an "all-round"
musician one is supposed to be a proficient organ and pianoforte
player, a vocal teacher, a trainer of boy choirs, of solo quartets,
of denominational church choir singing, and a choral as well as
an orchestral conductor; one is supposed to be familiar with all
matters pertaining to church services, to have some knowledge
of orchestral stringed instruments, to be versed in subtleties
theoretical and pedagogical, to have business executive ability,
and to be--incidentally--a composer! It is therefore not easy to
classify our contemporary musicians into distinctive branches of
activity. John Knowles Paine, for example, is first and foremost the
pioneer of America's great composers. On the other hand, were he to
be deprived of this tribute, there would still remain divers possible
classifications under the headings of organist, of pioneer educator,
of theorist, lecturer, and teacher. Consequently, the following group
must, like that of the French composers in Chapter XII, be accepted
with considerable reserve; for, as in that chapter, the different
composers are but arbitrarily classified under the particular
branch in which they would appear to have excelled. It is also to
be understood that where no statement to the contrary is made, the
composer under discussion is a native born American.
XII.
(1) =Pioneers and Promoters.= Prominent among our indefatigable
workers of the nineteenth century born prior to 1850 are: Lowell
Mason, Bristow, Dr. William Mason, Gottschalk, C.C. Converse, Dr. L.
Damrosch, Paine, B.J. Lang, Emery.
Lowell Mason (1792-1872) was for many years the president of the
Händel and Haydn Society of Boston, where he founded an academy of
music, and displayed untiring activity in initiating conferences of
music teachers and in the cause of American musical art in general.
Bristow (1825) deserves mention not only for his activity as a
pianist, teacher, and conductor, but also for his ambitions as a
composer in large forms. These works include two symphonies, two
oratorios "Daniel" and "St. John," and an opera "Rip van Winkle." Dr.
William Mason (1829) proved himself worthy of the heritage entrusted
to him by his father, Lowell Mason, and is looked upon as one of the
chief factors in the evolution of American music. His compositions,
though clever, are conservative and somewhat pedantic, but his
influence as an educator cannot be overestimated. Gottschalk (1829)
devoted his exceptional talents as a concert pianist largely to the
dissemination of his own salon music, which is brilliant though
sentimental, being, moreover, unquestionably dominated by Spanish
characteristics. Converse (1832) is recognized as a typical American
and has won esteem as the author of a large number of hymn-tunes. Dr.
Leopold Damrosch (1832) was among the earlier Germans who adopted
the United States as their home. He left his indelible impress upon
the artistic life of New York City and bequeathed the fruits of his
labors to his sons, Walter and Frank, who have piously preserved and
extended them. Paine and B.J. Lang are mentioned in this connection
by virtue of their indomitable perseverance in behalf of improved
musical conditions in the earlier period of their respective careers
when the general attitude of the American public toward true musical
art was even worse than it is at present. Emery (1841) owed his
reputation originally to his talents as a pianist, but his primer
of harmony has since made his name a familiar one in almost every
household.
This list may rightfully include the name of a more recent benefactor
of native composition--the pianist, Sherwood (1854), who was one of
the first to insist that the American public should become acquainted
with the slighted creative talents of her artistic sons. He put this
noble resolve to practical test by devoting large portions of his
programs to the compositions of his compatriots, and was able to
command the attention and respect of his audiences not alone by his
sterling technique and refined interpretation but by his charming
personality as well.
Many other names such as Carl Zerrahn and Theodore Thomas could be
added here. They have, however, been classified under their more
pronounced specialities.
(2) =Master of Orchestration.=
PAINE (1839). As Hughes fitly expresses it, Paine is the
venerable dean of America's truly great composers. Dr. Riemann also
is not far wrong when he declares that Paine's earlier works breathe
a classical, the latter ones a romantic spirit. This unwearying
composer is at his best in large forms--indeed, his supreme devotion
to large undertakings has left him little time for smaller works. His
artistic career displays a steady growth not unlike that of Wagner
or Verdi. Grounded in the conservative principles of sound Germanic
classicism, as revealed in his powerful and dramatic oratorio "St.
Peter," he has pressed onward through various stages of legitimate
program music, represented by such works as the "Spring Symphony,"
the symphonic poem "The Tempest," the overture to "As You Like It,"
the setting of Keats' "Realm of Fancy," Milton's "Nativity," and,
most important of all, the "Oedipus Tyrannos of Sophokles." Having
reached the height of his power in these lines, Paine advanced yet
further and concentrated his energies upon not only the music but
the libretto as well of a dramatic conception that should head the
list of a genuine American school of opera. The recent completion
of "Azara," with its dramatic continuity, irresistible climaxes,
dignity and beauty of musical contents, consistent and effective
orchestration, is of epoch-making significance. The exasperating
obstacles placed in the way of its performance both here and abroad
are, alas, too well known to require additional comment. Until a
production of this work shall have been an accomplished fact, our
country justly merits the existing condemnation of foreign musicians
who declare that America has not the slightest conception of her
duties either to her artistic development or to her native composers
who have sacrificed the best years of their lives in the hope of
stimulating that development. Not without justice do the Germans
declare that the American public at large possess no artistic
instincts whatever, since they force their native composers to turn
to foreign lands for encouragement.[109]
[Footnote 109: John Knowles Paine died in Cambridge, Massachusetts,
on April 25, 1906. He did not live to hear a complete performance of
his opera, although after his death a concert rendition of most of
the music was given as a memorial in Boston under the direction of
B.J. Lang.]
BUCK (1839) is conspicuously identified with the evolution
of American church music. As a composer he is at his best in
religious composition in smaller forms. On the other hand, his
important contributions to the branch of larger choral works with
orchestral accompaniment must not be overlooked. His scenes from
Longfellow's "Golden Legend" were deemed worthy of winning one of the
coveted prizes at Cincinnati. The cantata for male chorus "Columbus"
displays masterly command in the deployment of men's voices, whereas
the "Light of Asia" is one of the standard works of America. Buck
has rather neglected the field of purely orchestral music, but the
scoring of his choral compositions reveals the firm hand of a master.
FOOTE (1853). Turning to a younger generation who have
sturdily maintained the high standard set before them, one naturally
recalls the name of one who may perhaps be regarded as the most
satisfactory exponent of the efficiency of two American teachers,
Paine and Lang, the most significant representative of an exceptional
class of musician--the native trained composer, Arthur Foote. It
is generally conceded that Foote is possessed of unusual powers in
writing for men's voices. Widely known is his "Skeleton in Armor"
with its forceful utterance, as well as his poetic setting of "The
Farewell of Hiawatha." Again, in the field of song lyrics he has
endeared himself to the worthy army of singers by virtue of a notable
series of exceptional and widely contrasted productions. His true
strength would, however, appear to reveal itself in the noblest
vehicles of musical thought--the quartet and the orchestra. Foote
does not aim to produce sensational effects, in fact his orchestral
canvas has, on the whole, a grayish hue. The seriousness of his
purpose, the serenity of his ideals, and the unmistakable impress
of a cultured University training are faithfully reproduced in the
nobility, the breadth, and the sober though appropriate coloring of
his artistic conceptions. The present writer is inclined to regard
him as the Brahms of this country.
CHADWICK (1854). In contrast to Foote's domestic education,
Chadwick stands among the first of that memorable list of students
who served a rigorous apprenticeship under Rheinberger in Munich, and
thereby helped to perpetuate his name in America. A mighty throng
followed in Chadwick's footsteps, among whom were the composers
Parker, Huss, Bullard, Atherton; the educators Lewis and Spalding;
the organists and teachers John White, Howland, and Bertram Henry.
Not only did Chadwick with one stroke make his individuality felt
upon returning to his native land,--an individuality that has since
been strengthened rather than lessened,--but his appointment to the
directorship of the New England Conservatory of Music was a choice so
opportune that that institution has since been raised to a standard
of excellence it never before had enjoyed, and is becoming one of
the recognized arbiters in the musical affairs of the country. Like
Foote, Chadwick has tried his hand in divers fields of composition,
being particularly successful in writing part-songs as well as songs
with pianoforte accompaniment. Large choral works have, however,
also claimed his attention, and are represented by his cantata "The
Pilgrims," and again by "The Viking's Last Voyage" for barytone solo,
male chorus and orchestra. It appears to be the fortune of American
composers to become known primarily by their vocal compositions. This
is also true of Chadwick. Nevertheless, he has given expression to
his loftiest inspiration in a series of chamber and orchestral pieces
that stamp him as a keen judge of those essentials required for large
instrumental works. His form, though conservative, is well rounded.
His orchestration is chaste and refined rather than sensational and
glowing. His music is above all manly and energetic. Personally,
Chadwick may not regard his operetta "Tabasco" with all too favorable
eyes; yet the step taken was assuredly in the right direction. It is
to be regretted that our contemporary American composers seem unable
to take a firm stand in imperceptibly educating the public with a
light yet artistic _genre_ of music such as characterizes Chadwick's
"Tabasco" or the earlier operettas of Victor Herbert and de Koven.
MACDOWELL (1861). In venturing the assertion that MacDowell
stands apart on his exalted pinnacle of fame, there is not the
slightest danger of incurring disparaging comparisons between him
and his eminent contemporaries who have been classified under this
heading. Paine's monumental achievements are unassailable. Buck
occupies an honorable position as one of the foremost of our writers
of church music. Foote and Chadwick have each of them established
their respective individuality as composers of exceptional ability.
Parker holds undisputed sway in his particular domain. What separates
MacDowell from his colleagues is the difference between his
perspective and theirs. His conceptions betray certain tendencies
that are foreign to their Anglo-Saxon ruggedness with its Teutonic
substructure. MacDowell's Scotch ancestry, his intimacy with Raff,
his contact with the artistic life of Paris,--all these circumstances
helped to mould his exceptional genius into a form distinctly
original and unique. It is natural that the influence of his
teacher, Raff, should predominate. But whereas Raff's programmatic
expositions deal in the romance of enchantment, of the supernatural,
of the fantastic, MacDowell pins his faith to the romance of poetic
imagination symbolic of emotional realities. Lawrence Gilman, in a
persuasive essay on MacDowell, eulogizes, together with other works,
his symphonic poems "Hamlet and Ophelia," "Lancelot and Elaine," "The
Saracens" and "Lovely Alda" as "the works of a master of imaginative
expression, a penetrative psychologist, above all, an exquisite
poet." The same writer further remarks that "MacDowell has chosen
occasionally to employ, in the realization of his purposes, what
seems at first to be precisely the magical apparatus so necessary
to the older romanticism. Dryads and elves inhabit his world, and
he dwells at times under faery boughs and in enchanted woods; but
for him, as for the poets of the Celtic tradition, these things are
but the manifest images of an interior passion and delight. Seen in
the transfiguring mirror of his music, the moods and events of the
natural world and of the incessant drama of psychic life are vivified
into shapes and designs of irresistible beauty and appeal. Both in
theory and in practice, MacDowell stands uncompromisingly for music
that is, of intention, persistently pictorial and impressionistic....
It is as much in his choice of subjects as in the peculiar vividness
and felicity of his expression, that he is unique among tone-poets
of the external world." The above citations present a faithful
picture of MacDowell's philosophical reasonings. His chord formation,
harmonic progressions, thematic treatment and structural form are all
in accord with the psychological subtleties to be expressed.
It is particularly in orchestration that MacDowell discloses certain
French characteristics. Many of his pages might have been written
by Saint-Saëns himself, but the "solid" foundation inoculated by
the exacting requirements of his German training is never entirely
absent. As a result, MacDowell's scoring frequently surpasses even
that of his illustrious French contemporary. MacDowell proves
no exception to the rule in that his popularity is due not so
much to his more significant orchestral works as to his smaller
offerings such as his attractive and highly ingenious pieces for the
pianoforte. He has still many years before him, and gives promise of
ever increasing power and versatility. America may well be proud of
him![110]
[Footnote 110: The entire country mourns the premature death of
Edward Alexander MacDowell, which occurred in New York on January 23,
1908.]
PARKER (1863). In several respects Parker's orchestral and
choral style bears some affinity to that of both Foote and Chadwick.
His subject-matter, like theirs, is serious--at times even severe;
his formal structures are conservative; his command of vocal forces
is supreme. Again, his orchestral colors, like theirs, are accused
of being cold and gray,--devoid of scintillating tints and glowing
hues. This may be true to a certain extent. But when one considers
the _genre_ of choral composition to which these three composers
are addicted, it will be readily seen that a radical readjustment
of their orchestral pages in favor of warmer coloring would be
inconsistent with the nature of their oratorical settings. Among the
most conspicuous of Parker's productions are the overtures "Regulus"
and "Count Robert of Paris," the ballad for chorus and orchestra
"King Trojan," and, of course, his masterpiece "Hora Novissima."
Parker shares with MacDowell the good fortune of having already won
enduring recognition in foreign lands,--Parker in England, MacDowell
in France, Germany and Russia. Yale University was one of the first
institutions of this country to follow Harvard's lead in establishing
a chair of music, and showed sound judgment in selecting so eminent a
composer as Parker to occupy that chair.
* * * * *
As already intimated, the country is further represented by a
dignified array of American born composers for the orchestra, who
are working against fearful odds in behalf of improved conditions
for native art. Gilchrist (1846) was, like Arthur Foote, trained
in this country, and is identified with the city of Philadelphia.
His forte is choral and religious music, being, moreover, a
remarkably successful prize winner. His symphonic attempts show sound
scholarship, but are conservative and non-programmatic. The name
of F.G. Gleason (1848) is highly respected in Chicago. His works
display harmonic rather than melodic strength, and were frequently
performed by Theodore Thomas. In Pittsburgh, Adolph Foerster (1854)
has done fine work in both large and small forms. Of unusual interest
are the scores of J.H. Beck (1856) in consequence of their novel
effects and warm coloring. His early success in Germany justified the
hope that he would become widely known, but he seems to have so far
intentionally avoided the publishers. Arthur Bird (1856) cannot be
blamed for preferring to live in the midst of the generous artistic
encouragement of a European city. Of especial merit are his symphony
in A and the ballet "Rübezahl." The representative composer of San
Francisco is Edgar S. Kelley (1857). He was a pupil of Clarence Eddy,
but studied also in Stuttgart. He is essentially a programmatic
writer, possesses considerable originality and humor, orchestrates
with skill and daring, and has been especially successful with his
melodramatic music to "Macbeth." Henry Schoenefeld (1857) was a
pupil of both Reinecke and Lassen, and was identified with Chicago.
His undertakings are worthy of consideration in consequence of
his adaptation and idealization of negro melodies in his Suite for
string-orchestra, op. 15, before Dvo[vr]ák's experiments of similar
nature. Schoenefeld has since written an overture entitled "In the
Sunny South." San Francisco can boast of yet another orchestral
composer of repute--Frederick Zeck Jr., who has written, among other
things, several symphonies, a symphonic poem, and even a romantic
opera.
Frank van der Stucken (1858) cuts a large figure in the evolution
of American music. He is frequently though erroneously regarded as
a German, but he was born in Texas, and studied not only in Leipzig
but under Benoit in Antwerp as well. He first rose to prominence
as director of the Arion Male Chorus Society of New York. In 1885
he instituted a series of "Novelty Concerts" that opened up new
possibilities to America's neglected composers. Since undertaking the
directorship of the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra in 1895, van der
Stucken has made himself a national benefactor by encouraging and
repeatedly performing American productions. He is himself a composer
of no mean ability, possesses decidedly modern tendencies, and
orchestrates with unerring certainty. His compositions cover a wide
field and include an opera "Vlasda," a symphonic prologue "William
Ratcliff," and a Suite on Shakespeare's "Tempest."
Walter Damrosch (1862) has acquired the right to be ranked with
America's orchestral composers on account of his grand opera "The
Scarlet Letter," and Reginald de Koven (1859) knows how to enhance
the scores of his comic operas with a lightness of touch and some
clever devices. "Robin Hood" and "The Fencingmaster" are sprightly
and refined even though guilty of occasional plagiarism.
Mrs. Beach is rightfully looked upon as an eminent leader among the
women composers of America and is fully entitled to equal rank with
her fair contemporaries in France, Cécile Chaminade and Augusta
Holmès. Her "Gaelic Symphony" has been performed not only by the
Boston Symphony Orchestra and by Theodore Thomas, but has been
granted numerous performances by other representative organizations
as well. Mrs. Beach's scores are exceedingly elaborate--possibly
too much so. Nevertheless, her command of orchestral resources is
remarkable, and in her Mass in E flat, op. 5, she has obtained
impressive effects, rich colors and dramatic climaxes.
The scores of Bonvin and Lewis have already been referred to. The
former evolves his conceptions by means of the most intricate
polyphony and with an opulence of orchestral effects. Lewis has
branched out into lines distinctly his own. A Brahms background of
grayish orchestration is in evidence, but his rhythm is absolutely
unfettered, his harmonies are bold, and his mastery of thematic
treatment is unusual.
Of the younger composers born after 1860, much may be expected from
F.S. Converse of Harvard,[111] who is in close touch with the
ultra-modern school of composition with all its attending freedom
of form and emancipation from stereotyped pattern, for he has
already excited attention both in this country and in England.[112]
A promising pupil of Rheinberger is Henry Holden Huss, who is
essentially a dramatic and lyric composer. The healthy and above
all optimistic tendencies of Henry K. Hadley's compositions, as
exemplified by his symphony "Youth and Life," stand out in sharp
contrast against the morbidness and pessimism that have apparently
won the upper hand in musical art during the last fifteen years.
Rubin Goldmark was born in New York and is living at present in
that city. He is possessed of a thoroughly artistic nature and has
inherited much of his eminent uncle's originality and ability to
impart luscious tone-colors to his orchestral tableaux.
[Footnote 111: See footnote, page 173.]
[Footnote 112: "The Pipe of Desire," a romantic grand opera in
one act by F.S. Converse, was twice performed in Boston early in
1906, and reveals significant command of the modern technics of
orchestration.]
Before concluding this classification of orchestral composers it is
desired to remind the reader of the vast significance attached to
the labors of Dvo[vr]ák and X. Scharwenka during their sojourn in
the United States. Again, other foreigners who have cast in their
lot with us, such as Loeffler[113] and Victor Herbert, are now
practically regarded as loyal American composers. Both these men are
possessed of sovereign command of orchestration. The one uses his art
for portraying vivid realism, the other for the purpose of clothing
his pleasing conceptions as evolved in daintier vein.
[Footnote 113: The recently performed "Pagan Poem" (op. 14) of
Charles Martin Loeffler (1861) would indicate that a list of the
world's representative masters of modern orchestration made up five
years from now would include his name.]
There are undoubtedly a number of important American composers whose
names have been omitted from these pages. The present writer desires
to apologize for any such unintentional omission under the plea that
it has not been his good fortune to have his attention called either
directly or indirectly to their compositions in larger forms.
XIII.
(3) =Orchestral and Choral Conductors.= The progress of a
country's musical art rests largely in the hands of its orchestral
and choral conductors. America has been exceptionally fortunate in
this respect, for her history presents an army of luminaries who
are unexcelled the world over. The concert and operatic stage of
New York owes its very existence to such indefatigable workers as
Carl Bergmann (1821), Dr. Leopold Damrosch (1832), Theodore Thomas
(1835), Anton Seidl (1850), all four of whom were Germans. And at the
present day, there are a number of eminent conductors in New York.
To Theodore Thomas more than to anyone else is due the present high
standard of musical taste in America. At the head of an excellent
virtuoso orchestra, he traversed the country in his earlier years,
and revealed for the first time the value and meaning of the thoughts
of the great masters, while toward Wagner, Tschaikowsky, Dvo[vr]ák,
etc., he performed the same mission. These were the days when the
New York Philharmonic Society and the Harvard Musical Association in
Boston were the only permanent institutions devoted to orchestral
music. Theodore Thomas not only established a new standard of
interpretation in this country, but so catholic was his taste and
so far reaching his purpose that the debt to him can never be paid.
During his entire career, his attitude toward the American composer
was that of a helpful ally and friend. It was as conductor of the
Philharmonic Society of New York for a term of years and particularly
as conductor of the Cincinnati May Music Festivals and of the Chicago
Orchestra that Thomas' maturer and later years were passed; and it is
especially in these cities that his memory and influence will remain
ineradicable.
In Boston prior to the establishment of a permanent symphony
orchestra in 1881, Lowell Mason's initiative was zealously fostered
by the two foreigners, Carl Zerrahn (1826), Bernhard Listemann
(1839), and by B.J. Lang (1839), together with other tireless
enthusiasts. The Boston Symphony Orchestra has since attracted the
best the world can afford--Henschel, Gericke, Nikisch, Paur.[114]
Inland, public-spirited citizens have made it possible to establish
local symphony orchestras and have almost invariably been exceedingly
fortunate in their choice of conductors. Theodore Thomas migrated to
Chicago. Franz van der Stucken was called to Cincinnati, Frederic
Archer, Victor Herbert, Emil Paur to Pittsburgh, Fritz Scheel to
Philadelphia. Perhaps one of the greatest services to the education
of the country has been rendered by that vast brotherhood of German
Singing Societies which flourish from shore to shore. The high
standard of their performances has been constantly sustained by
men of splendid attainments such as, for instance, van der Stucken
while in New York, John Lund while in Buffalo, Franz Bellinger in
Indianapolis. In recent years American Choral Societies have forged
to the front. Chicago owes much to Tomlins. Frank Damrosch and
his colleagues are doing good work in New York; Mollenhauer, J.
Wallace Goodrich and others in Boston. Similar conditions prevail
in almost every large city in the Union. Neither may the beneficent
influence of our military bandmasters upon the masses be overlooked.
Considering the conditions that have existed in the past, no
one can censure them for catering to the demands of the public.
Nevertheless, they have little by little managed to interpolate
numerous transcriptions from works of recognized merit. Such men as
Gilmore, Sousa and Innes have done more for the cause of good music
than is popularly supposed.
[Footnote 114: Dr. Karl Muck was its conductor for the season of
1906-1907, and continues in the position for 1907-1908.]
(4) =Songs and Smaller Forms.= One of the most favorable
opportunities open to modern composers in their struggle for
recognition is found in the field of songs and salon music. This
is particularly the case in America. Consequently, all of our
representatives produce such offerings, and that with success. A
few composers, however, have made a special study of song writing
and pianoforte pieces in lighter _genre_. Conspicuous among these
are G. Templeton Strong, J.H. Rogers, Clayton Johns, Neidlinger,
Ethelbert Nevin, Margaret Ruthven Lang, Fred Field Bullard, and
Percy L. Atherton. Especial mention is due to Clayton Johns for the
charming lyric quality of his songs; to Nevin for the fascination of
his lighter pianoforte pieces, that nevertheless avoid triviality; to
Miss Lang for the fairy-like daintiness of many of her conceptions;
to Bullard, whose promising career was prematurely cut off at the
very moment when the rugged simplicity of his inspiring songs and
choruses had won the hearts of his countrymen; to Atherton, who is,
perhaps, the most talented of contemporary song writers in the realm
of subtle psychological reasoning.
(5) =Organists and Church Composers.= It may be boldly asserted
that America concedes the palm to none in the art of organ playing.
Such is the skill in registration demanded in these days that that
art is practically assuming the dignity of orchestration. This
demand has been largely brought about by the need of finding an
adequate substitute for concert orchestras. As a result, not only
the large cities but almost every town in the Union possesses one or
more modern organs presided over by executants of marked ability.
In most cases these men devote themselves to church composition
as well. Almost all the composers whose careers we have just been
reviewing count church playing and church composition among their
accomplishments. The only notable exception is MacDowell, who is,
instead, a virtuoso pianoforte player. This is not the place to
examine into the work of our many excellent church organists and
composers. One is confronted by notable names wherever one turns. In
Boston, Warren A. Locke has for many years held undisputed authority
in matters pertaining to church services and boy choirs. Whitney and
Whiting have done similar good work. Of the younger men, J. Wallace
Goodrich displays an astounding technique, unexcelled either in
this country or in France. The high standard of Episcopal church
music in New York is due to such men as Samuel P. Warren, Richard H.
Warren, Stubbs, Hall, etc. Among the prominent soloists are Eddy,
Archer,[115] and Gerrit Smith. Shelley (1858) is widely known for
his church compositions. He has also written large works such as the
oratorio "The Inheritance Divine," but owes his popularity primarily
to pleasing though rather conventional songs. Another prominent
church composer is Jules Jordan of Providence, whose interest is
centered chiefly in oratorio. N.H. Allen, Marston, Hanscom and Coombs
should also be mentioned under this heading.
[Footnote 115: Frederic Archer died since the above lines were
written.]
(6) =Teachers and Theorists.= Teachers and theorists have found
a fertile field in the United States, and in scientific educational
matters the native American easily takes the lead. Already a
dignified array of theoretical and pedagogical books have been added
to the literature of music by such authors as A.J. Goodrich, A.R.
Parsons, Goetschius, Wilson G. Smith, Matthews, Chadwick, Benjamin
Cutter, Spalding, Norris. American teachers have won recognition in
Europe as well. Goetschius found occupation in Stuttgart; Boise was
for years an authority in Berlin.
(7) =School and College.= Of late, increased attention has
been bestowed upon the study of music in the college curriculum.
Harvard's lead is being followed, and chairs of music have been
established on every hand. Harvard has been obliged to increase
its staff of musical instructors, so that Paine is now assisted by
Spalding and Converse.[116] Excellent work is being done by Parker
at Yale, Lewis at Tufts, Gow at Vassar, Macdougall at Wellesley,
Chadwick at the New England Conservatory, Pratt at the Hartford
Theological Seminary. At Columbia, MacDowell has been succeeded by
Rübner, who is ably seconded by McWhood. Smith College was one of
the pioneers in musical affairs, being represented until recently by
Blodgett, who was possessed of a peculiarly magnetic power. One of
his prominent lieutenants, who is still in active service at Smith,
is the pianoforte teacher and pedagogue, Edwin B. Story. He is one of
the most fluent accompanists in the country. The enterprise of these
college professors is making itself felt in the preparatory schools
of the country, whereby the entire artistic morale of the public at
large is being elevated. Credit is also due to the sound principles
inoculated into the teaching of music in the public schools by such
men as Frank Damrosch in New York or Tomlins in Chicago.
[Footnote 116: The retirement of Professor Paine not long before his
death, and the recent resignation of Assistant Professor Converse for
the purpose of devoting himself to composition, leaves the department
of music at Harvard in charge of Assistant Professor Spalding.]
* * * * *
The writer has intentionally overstepped the bounds of orchestral
composition for the purpose of emphasizing the prodigious activity
displayed by our professional brethren on every hand. Throughout
these pages there runs an undercurrent of discontent provoked by
the listless attitude of the American public taken as a whole. The
fickleness of their support seems to be at the root of our troubles.
Everything conceivable is being done for this public. Music in the
schools is encouraged. The colleges are alive to the needs of the
hour. Many of our composers are sacrificing their inner convictions
on the altar of patriotism with the determination to write simply.
Music lovers and philanthropists are enlisted in the cause. A high
musical standard for religious worship is maintained. Orchestral
performances can be listened to at moderate cost. Such renditions are
as good as, frequently better than, those in Europe. How is it, then,
that so many choral societies flourish for a few seasons, only to
eventually die a lingering death? Buffalo's Symphony Orchestra is no
more. Other cities have allowed similar mortifying conditions to come
to pass.
On the other hand, the singer or the instrumental virtuoso reaps
rewards that are out of all proportion to the tardy recognition and
modest remuneration awarded to their colleagues--the composers,
conductors, and organists--who are almost invariably possessed
of an artistic education far superior to that of the soloist. A
Rossinian era would appear to have reasserted itself! The larger
number of these soloists are themselves rarely patriotic, for only
with difficulty can they be persuaded to sing or perform even the
finest of American productions. Orchestral conductors who come
to our shores from abroad soon perceive that the public does not
support home talent in a whole-hearted manner, and adjust their
programs accordingly. With a few notable exceptions, they too are
disloyal. Again, the worthy efforts of our comparatively few eminent
newspaper critics in behalf of the American composer are constantly
counteracted by the superficial and bombastic criticisms of their
lesser brethren.
The American composer is to-day ready to enter the lists against the
entire world. His own countrymen are impeding him. It is high time
that the American public awake out of its lethargy!
(Summary on page 180.)
SUMMARY OF PART III.
CHAPTER IX. THE ROMANTIC SCHOOL.
The German composers of the nineteenth century are for convenience
classified in three general groups: "The Romantic School," "The
Classical Romanticists," "The New Movement." The so-called founders
of the Romantic School, Spohr and Weber, were followed by such
representative composers as Schubert, Mendelssohn and Schumann. The
evolution of orchestration was conspicuously advanced by Weber. He
stands at the head of modern instrumentation, for with him a new
period began.
SPOHR was instrumental in awakening a keener interest for
the supernatural, and he aimed to illustrate certain definite ideas
by means of musical expression. He contributed to the evolution
of orchestration proper but little that was actually new, but his
development of violin technique stimulated at least a freer and
more elaborate manner of employing the strings. The equilibrium of
his orchestra is admirably preserved and the general color-scheme
enriched by frequent use of soft harmonies for the brass.
WEBER'S true greatness lay in the power of orchestral
portrayal and in rare appreciation of instrumental effects. Few
composers contributed more than he to the independence of the
wood-wind. He showed particular predilection for the clarinet as
well as for horns, and was exceedingly modern in the use of small
combinations. Weber's scoring is above all dramatic, and serves as a
model for all later composers.
SCHUBERT displayed rare skill in the handling of orchestral
instruments, whether in solo passages or in combination. His was
the hand of a master who without hesitation knew what effects he
desired and how to obtain them. Novel was his manner of writing for
trombones, and the contrast of solo wood-instruments in dialogue.
MENDELSSOHN'S contributions to the details of
instrumentation are both original and varied. The suavity of his
melody, the purity of his form, and the delicacy of his scoring have
been excelled by none. His orchestration is buoyant, transparent, and
perfectly balanced.
SCHUMANN holds the unusual position of being one of the few
great masters who did not excel in orchestration.
CHAPTER X. THE CLASSICAL ROMANTICISTS.
The representatives of classical romanticism are Raff, Rubinstein,
Goldmark, Brahms, Bruch, Rheinberger. Although all of these men
displayed rare skill in the application of orchestral resources,
none of them can take rank with the more conspicuous exponents of
instrumentation.
RAFF. Striking insignia of absolutely original scoring are
not conspicuous in Raff's orchestration, but its entire character
gives evidence of fertile imagination and sound judgment.
RUBINSTEIN. The instrumentation of the Russian, Rubinstein,
is not of distinctive significance.
GOLDMARK, on the other hand, owes his reputation primarily
to his gifts as an orchestrator. He atones for a certain lack of
musical inspiration by mastery of material effects and power of vivid
portrayal.
BRAHMS considered glowing orchestral color and sensational
dramatic effect of secondary importance. In spite of his otherwise
comprehensive and titanic achievements, one cannot point to him as a
model for invariably felicitous instrumentation.
BRUCH possesses supreme command of modern orchestral
resources, but is at his best in the art of accompaniment, which
displays perfect taste, genuine expression and an abundance of
energetic force.
RHEINBERGER'S orchestral works cannot be regarded in
the light of important contributions to musical literature. The
instrumentation is thoroughly refined, marvellously smooth, and
perfectly rounded in every detail; but the essential elements of
individuality and novelty do not enter into the orchestral scheme to
any appreciable extent.
CHAPTER XI. THE NEW MOVEMENT.
The "New Movement" dates from the innovations simultaneously
introduced by Berlioz in France and by Liszt and Wagner in Germany.
BERLIOZ was practically the first representative of the New
Movement, but contrary to the natural course of evolution, he was
not only its founder but at once its most radical exponent as well.
The laying out of his musical scheme was inseparably connected with
a _series_ of events or ideas. As the chief French representative of
romantic musical art, he combined dramatic and symphonic effects. His
contributions to the development of "program" music and to modern
science of orchestration loom up in gigantic proportions. One of
the primary objects of his orchestral conceptions was to display
tone-color in its own right, an object that was foreign to the more
æsthetic ideals of the classicists. The distinctive features of his
orchestration are power of musical description; new combinations,
new effects, new treatment; insight into the characteristics of
the instruments whereby their possibilities both individual and
collective are demonstrated; excessive polyphony and complicated
rhythm. Berlioz must be accredited with having anticipated many
effects subsequently elaborated upon by Wagner, as discovered, for
example, by his frequent use of homogeneous tone-color in independent
three and four part harmony. Berlioz represents the ultra-realistic
school of instrumental music and was the most daring orchestral
writer that has ever lived.
LISZT. The importance attached to the rich and heavy
orchestration of Liszt consists of the bearing it has upon the
unfettered form, the freedom of tonality and the novelty of treatment
that characterize the New German School. His scoring is masterful,
highly colored and ingenious, but contains nothing conspicuously new.
He was led to modify the cyclic form of the symphony which became
transformed into the symphonic poem with its continuity of music,
monothematic principle and absence of conventional formulas.
WAGNER. The highest ideals of German opera culminated in the
music dramas of Wagner. He aimed to substitute a noble form of art
in the place of mere pleasure-giving and sensational fabrications.
Music, poetic ideas, action and stage setting were all to be worthy
of the subject intended for presentation. By developing the so-called
_Leit-motiv_, Wagner discovered a most potent factor for recalling
past events, for emphasizing those present, and for anticipating
those of the future. To-day Wagner stands forth as the accepted
champion of dramatic reforms, as the most eminent composer of the
nineteenth century, and as the greatest master of orchestration in
the annals of the world. Although at first susceptible to tone-color
as an end to itself, he learned to subordinate it to the demands of
the musical and poetic ideas of the immediate dramatic situation. He
emphasized solidity, made the orchestra firm and supple, increased
its melodic as well as harmonic force, and used it for two definite
purposes: to render emotion and to portray action and situations.
His orchestration does not deviate from well-established and approved
traditions, but the grouping and treatment of instruments are
entirely new. Every phase of his inexhaustible variety in string
writing is of surpassing beauty. The use of deep, sonorous basses
never interferes with harmonic clearness or with the outline of
melodic and rhythmic movement. The modern extreme development of
unsupported wood-wind and their numerical distribution are entirely
due to Wagner. The most radical changes are those affecting the
brass. Of incalculable value was the permanent employment of
valve-horns and valve-trumpets, the immense development in horn
writing, the discarding of opheicleides, and the introduction of a
complete group of tubas. Much of Wagner's warm and rich orchestration
is due to a substratum of soft brass harmonies that are apparently
not audible at all. No composer knew better than he how to obtain the
best effects from instruments of percussion without overstepping the
bounds of artistic refinement. Greatest of masters for the orchestra,
Wagner brought that organization to its highest point of evolution.
Further prominent representatives of the "New Movement" are
Cornelius, Bruckner, Lassen, Ritter, Draeseke, Weingartner, Nicodé,
Richard Strauss. The masterful and ingenious instrumentation of
Cornelius proves him a worthy follower of Wagner. Bruckner's
orchestration, though clever, lacks buoyancy and warmth. That of
Lassen, Ritter, Draeseke and Weingartner contains many sterling
qualities, but has not advanced the evolution of orchestration to
any perceptible degree. Nicodé's methods present some of the most
interesting specimens of modern orchestration.
RICHARD STRAUSS. The greatest cosmopolitan master of
orchestration after Wagner is Richard Strauss. He has progressed step
by step through various stages of development. Conforming at first
to the conservative romanticism of Mendelssohn and Schumann, he soon
came to admire and emulate the doctrines of Brahms, but eventually
leaned more and more upon Liszt and Wagner for the dominating thought
of his conceptions. With "Till Eulenspiegel" and "Also sprach
Zarathustra" Strauss inaugurated a permanent and ever advancing
method of procedure distinctly individualistic and unprecedented
that has so far culminated in the vast realistic conceptions of "Don
Juan" and "Ein Heldenleben." His works embody flowing cantilena,
intricate polyphony, freely used chromatic harmony, daring harmonic
combinations, complex rhythm, startling contrasts, monumental
climaxes, clever orchestral devices, and extreme realism. In order
to grasp the true significance of the contrapuntally synthesized
harmonic Melos it is of utmost importance to trace the complicated
melodic delineations as independent factors flowing in a horizontal
direction. His orchestral conceptions are vast color-pictures
and display a wealth of melodic utterance in all the principal
orchestral voices, a prolific number of themes and sub-themes, and
the most intimate acquaintance with the specific characteristics
of the various instruments as well as with orchestral combinations
and the resultant mixture of tonal tints thereby to be obtained.
Like Berlioz, Strauss secures dramatic effects by means of vivid
orchestration, and displays an insatiable craving for the discovery
of novel combinations. His themes are arrayed in a kaleidoscopic
sequence of instrumental color rather than being subjected to
elaborate thematic treatment, and climaxes are reached by means of
dynamic effects instead of by melodic evolution. An elaborately
conceived program justifies the requisition for vast orchestral
resources. There is further evidence of genuine inspiration, of a
true gift for thematic development forming a marvellous filigree of
contrapuntally interwoven leading motives, of intellectual power,
philosophical reflection, poetic revery, and naïve humor.
Germany still leads the van in the art of orchestration, of which she
possesses many eminent exponents such as Max Shillings and Cyrill
Kistler,--slavish imitators of extreme Wagnerism, and Humperdinck,
Thuille, Kienzl, Georg Schumann, Mahler,--less extreme in their views
but more successful in their results.
* * * * *
During the nineteenth century a small group of men were especially
instrumental in transplanting the daintiness and refinement of modern
French light opera into indigenous German productions. Conspicuous
among these is Lortzing, supported by Nicolai, Flotow, Suppé and
Johann Strauss junior.
CHAPTER XII.
(1) =France.= The French composers of the nineteenth century
may for convenience be divided into several distinctive groups.
After Berlioz, a number of representative writers devoted themselves
with signal success to the development of orchestral concert music.
Conspicuous among these are David, Franck, Lalo, Godard, d'Indy.
DAVID possessed, in addition to the characteristic feature
of _clearness_, a highly developed talent for artistic disposition of
his plans, for poetic picture-painting, and for rich and descriptive
orchestral color, especially when portraying Oriental subjects.
Like Berlioz, he introduced certain scenic qualities into his
orchestration, which is ever buoyant, supple, and varied.
CÉSAR FRANCK differs from his French contemporaries by
reason of what might be termed the masculine severity of his
inspiration, together with monumental mastery of polyphonic design,
exhaustless command of orchestral resources.
LALO. In antithesis to Franck's severe and somewhat solemn
style of writing, that of Lalo betrays a fund of spontaneous
invention, curious rhythmic effects, charming and sprightly
instrumentation, and great aptitude for imbuing his works with the
necessary local coloring.
GODARD. In France, Godard occupies a conspicuous position
on the programs of orchestral concert music. His musical ideas and
instrumentation are both graceful and charming.
D'INDY. In earnest endeavor and in faithful adherence to
high ideals d'Indy has proved himself a worthy successor to his
teacher, César Franck, whom he copies in exceedingly complicated
development of subject-matter. Not content with incorporating in his
works the most advanced tenets of Wagner, he further has explored
the pathway opened up by Brahms. He is essentially a symphonist,
evolves his conceptions on broad and dignified lines, and displays a
masterful deployment of orchestral resources.
* * * * *
A little coterie of Frenchmen--Adam, Maillart and Delibes--have
distinguished themselves by almost exclusive devotion to the lightest
of operatic forms. Conspicuous among these is Delibes by reason of
his naïve descriptive powers and clever instrumentation.
* * * * *
Thomas, Gounod, Saint-Saëns, Bizet, Chabrier, Massenet may be
regarded as the foremost French composers of the nineteenth century
and the greatest French orchestrator after Berlioz is Saint-Saëns.
THOMAS. The orchestration of Thomas is clear in _ensemble_,
ingenious in detail, polished, refined and never overloaded.
Characteristic tone-color and poetically conceived combinations
reveal the skilful hand of a competent master.
GOUNOD stands as the most illustrious recent representative
of lyric opera and exhibits the unusual attribute of attaining
excellent results without apparent effort. His scoring follows the
general path indicated by Auber and Meyerbeer, but it further shows
that he possessed a considerable knowledge of the German science of
instrumentation.
SAINT-SAËNS is the greatest living French composer and
the mightiest of her orchestral exponents. The fundamentals of
his artistic principles differ but slightly from those of Thomas
and Gounod, and the outlines of Meyerbeer's operatic forms are
also in evidence in his works. Nevertheless, Saint-Saëns discloses
involuntary leanings toward Wagner. His symphonic poems, though
not of the same magnitude and significance, are nevertheless
clearer and more compact than those of either Berlioz or Liszt.
Admirable clearness as well as simplicity of treatment characterizes
his chamber music. His orchestration is elaborate, rich and
varied,--intricate, at times, without being obtuse. It invariably
reveals the soundest of judgment in the deployment of large or small
orchestral forces. It is alternately scintillating, impassioned,
melancholy, heroic. Among other details, his scoring frequently makes
requisition for triplets of wood and brass instruments, and embodies
the best traits of all contemporary orchestral writers both native
and foreign.
BIZET followed the prevalent custom of building upon
French traditions, enhanced by German truthfulness of expression
and interpretation. He possessed a rare talent for discovering
novel traits of instrumentation together with variety of rhythm and
tone-color.
CHABRIER'S representative work "Gwendoline" may be
rightfully looked upon as the most advanced exposition of existing
Franco-German music dramas. Much of his orchestration suggests a
progressive yet peculiar phase of Wagnerism enveloped by a tinge of
melancholy and softened by the delicate touch peculiar to the French.
MASSENET appears at his best as a dramatic writer. His
endowments embrace highly developed feeling for sensuous charm, a
style distinctly poetic, and a manner of orchestration both rich and
varied.
* * * * *
French art during this era has been further assisted by the
sterling achievements of many secondary composers such as Dubois
and Paladhile; by the orchestral expounders: Gevaërt, Lavoix;
by the literary champions: Vidal, Benoit, Joncières; by the
organist-composers: Guilmant, Widor; by the representatives of the
fair sex: Augusta Holmès, Cécile Chaminade; and by the most recent
aspirants to fame: Charpentier and Debussy.
* * * * *
The attitude of the French public toward orchestral concert music has
undergone a radical change in the last fifty years. During the first
half of the nineteenth century Habeneck reorganized and developed the
"Concerts du Conservatoire." This was followed by the establishment
of Pasdeloup's "Société des jeunes artistes" and its offspring, the
"Concerts populaires." The persistent propagation of both indigenous
and exotic works of art is largely due to Pasdeloup's initiative. In
recent years, concert performances in France have been brought to a
high state of proficiency through the untiring efforts of Lamoureux
and Colonne.
* * * * *
(2) =Italy.= For half a century Italy has now been represented
by but one luminary of the first magnitude--VERDI. His earlier
scoring is conventional and commonplace. The orchestration
depends largely upon violent and frequently illogical contrasts.
Gradually, however, Verdi acquired increased regard for judicious and
more independent instrumentation, and that more particularly in the
deployment of the wood-wind. An extreme advance is discovered in his
Requiem and later operas. Here the functions of the orchestra become
more important, and the tonal colors acquire a richer and warmer hue.
Verdi's followers have done practically nothing for the cause of
orchestration other than to branch off into infrequented by-ways that
have necessitated corresponding orchestral treatment.
CHAPTER XIII.
The universal development of musical art during the nineteenth
century is indeed unprecedented. Side by side with the rise and
growth of the New Movement in Germany, side by side with the high
development of French lyric opera enhanced by advanced Teutonic
principles, side by side with the gradual unfolding of Verdi's
melodious and impassioned conceptions stands the evolution of
scientifically applied Folk-tunes belonging to the younger musical
countries.
* * * * *
(1) =Hungary.= It cannot be said that Hungary possesses a
national style of orchestration. Although Liszt and Goldmark were
both Hungarians by birth, the former benefited his country not so
much by developing an indigenous style of composition as by the
propagation of those musical traits peculiar to his race. As to
Goldmark's music, it is that of a German rather than of a Magyar.
More faithful to native characteristics were the efforts of a small
group of secondary composers. Their scores, like those of Liszt
and Goldmark, contain plenty of variety and color, but owe their
distinctive features to melodic and rhythmic novelty,--not to
instrumentation. Hungary has, therefore, exerted no more than an
indirect influence upon the art of orchestration.
* * * * *
(2) =Bohemia.= The development of orchestration in Bohemia
affords a striking contrast to that in Hungary. SMETANA, the
pioneer, was content to employ comparatively simple means,--indeed,
his scores occasionally reveal a suggestion of Mozart's naïve touch.
On the other hand, his eminent successor, DVO[VR]ÁK, developed
the art to a point excelled by none. The latter ranks among
the four greatest orchestrators since Wagner. Like Smetana,
Dvo[vr]ák evolved his music from the native folk-song. He was on the
whole, an adherent to strict forms, but subjected these to the utmost
freedom and originality of treatment. His greatest powers displayed
themselves in the colossal development of orchestral resources.
His orchestration is appropriate and consistent, varied, warm and
brilliant. It abounds in beautiful combinations. It is rich but never
overburdened. Further distinctive features include clear and bright
string writing, methods of employing the wood-wind similar to those
of Schubert, and an occasional touch of the supernatural suggestive
of Spohr and Weber. In a word, Dvo[vr]ák was a master of vivacious
and refined orchestration.
* * * * *
(3) =Scandinavia.= The music of Scandinavia is likewise
evolved from native folk-melodies. The Northern composers are not
particularly dramatic nor have they developed many novel traits of
instrumentation. They resemble the Hungarians in having wielded
but an indirect influence upon orchestration, this influence being
restricted to the indigenous properties of their melody, rhythm
and local coloring. Their chief representatives are GADE,
the pioneer, and his illustrious successor--GRIEG. The former,
under the beneficial influence of Mendelssohn, developed high
efficiency in the art of orchestration. He appreciated both the
possibilities and the limitations of each instrument, and revealed
his nationality by the application of suggestive tone-color. Grieg's
instrumentation is not conspicuously influenced by modern tendencies.
Though he cannot be ranked as a great orchestrator, his writing for
strings alone is of surpassing beauty, nor does his deployment of
larger forces lack novelty and effectiveness.
* * * * *
(4) =Russia.= The gradual ascendency of Russian music is one
of the phenomena of the nineteenth century. Here again the native
folk-song forms the basis for scientific development. Russian
composers may be divided into three classes:--the old lyric
school,--the new Russian school,--Rubinstein and Tschaikowsky in a
class by themselves.
GLINKA, pioneer of the old lyric school, accomplished for
his country what Gade and Smetana did for theirs. His orchestration
calls for but little comment excepting that it is clever and at times
even brilliant.
The tenets of the "New Russian Movement" are closely allied to those
of the "New German Movement." Chief representatives of this class are
BORODIN, CESAR CUI, RIMSKI-KORSAKOFF. The orchestration of these men
and their associates is, on the whole, but the reflection of
Tschaikowsky's style combined with the further progressive methods
of German and French orchestration.
RUBINSTEIN cannot be compared with Glinka as an operatic
writer or with Tschaikowsky as an orchestrator. His instrumentation
was hampered by his antagonism to the innovations of the New German
Movement. In string writing, however, Rubinstein reveals fine
appreciation of tone-color, and his full scoring at times displays
superb power.
TSCHAIKOWSKY still reigns supreme as the greatest
interpreter of Slavonic ideals. A remarkable feature of his scoring
is the extreme modern effect secured with comparatively modest means.
He expressed himself in a language of profound pathos which was in
part due to the embodiment of weird and gloomy orchestration. He made
prominent use of low wood-wind, which were constantly combined with
the violas, and he evinced peculiar predilection for clarinets in
their low range and bassoons in their upper range. On the other hand,
many magnificent specimens of forceful writing are also in evidence
in his scores.
* * * * *
(5) =England.= Of the ten men chosen as representative English
composers of the nineteenth century, six are prominently identified
with the evolution of English orchestration. The pioneer of these was
Macfarren, whose cosmopolitan range of composition is particularly
noteworthy. Bennett, a disciple of Mendelssohn, proved himself a
worthy heir to Purcell, and is regarded as the founder of a new
English School. Most widely known is Sullivan, who substantially
aided the development of an Anglican style of orchestration. Sullivan
based his methods of instrumentation upon those of Mozart, but
occasionally copied Gounod and even Berlioz. He displayed sound
musicianship, dramatic power, and a thorough command of orchestral
resources. Mackenzie's conceptions are wholly orchestral. His scoring
is powerful and effective, allowing also commendable freedom to the
wood-wind, and suggests a mixture of Mendelssohnian and Wagnerian
externals. Cowen is an exponent of both absolute and programmatic
music. He shares with Stanford the rank of representative English
symphonist.
The twentieth century gives promise of marked advance in English
composition from an emotional and orchestral standpoint as discovered
in the initial productions of Elgar.
* * * * *
(6) =America.= America and Russia are the two countries that
have forged to the front in musical art during the past quarter
century. Until the shackles of English conservatism and of Puritan
dogmas were thrown off, little could be done in the way of preparing
for a national school of composition. But with the ever increasing
influx of German musicians, American composers were stimulated to
extend their horizon, so that at the present day one can point to
a host of cultured and highly educated musicians who are devoting
themselves to the furtherance of national art. Many of them have
displayed rare skill as orchestral writers, but comparatively few
have as yet been sufficiently fortunate to acquire wide-spread
recognition in this branch. The list of pioneer composers and
promoters includes Lowell and William Mason, Bristow, Gottschalk,
C.C. Converse, Paine, Lang, and Emery. A somewhat arbitrary selection
of representative orchestrators includes Paine, Buck, Foote,
Chadwick, MacDowell, Parker. The pioneer of America's great composers
is Paine. His opera "Azara" may be regarded as his representative
work, and is conspicuous for its dramatic continuity, irresistible
climaxes, dignity and breadth of musical contents, consistent and
effective orchestration. Buck is prominently identified with the
evolution of American church music. The orchestration of his choral
compositions reveals the firm hand of a master. Foote appears to best
advantage when writing chamber and orchestral music. He does not aim
to produce sensational effects, yet clothes his artistic conceptions
in appropriate orchestral garment. Chadwick's music is above all
manly and energetic. His form, though conservative, is well rounded.
His orchestration is chaste and refined rather than sensational and
glowing. He has proved himself a keen judge of those essentials
required for large instrumental works. MacDowell's music possesses
certain characteristics that distinguish it from that of any other
American composer. His education has been thoroughly cosmopolitan.
He aims to induce poetic imagination symbolic of emotional reality.
His chord formations, harmonic progressions, thematic treatment,
and structural form are all in accord with the psychological
subtleties to be expressed. His orchestration is one of his strongest
attributes; though founded upon that of Raff, it possesses also the
charming touch of the modern French school. Parker has risen to
eminence through his choral writings, and is the best known American
writer in England. He wields his orchestral forces with no uncertain
hand, but does not allow tone-color in its own right to predominate
in his choral works. Further prominent writers for the orchestra
are Gilchrist, Gleason, Foerster, Beck, Bird, Kelley, Schoenefeld,
Zeck, van der Stucken, Mrs. Beach, F.S. Converse, Huss, Hadley. Until
recently the larger number of orchestral conductors in the United
States were foreigners, but the Americans are gradually taking the
reins into their own hands. The present display of musical activity
in America is unprecedented. The schools, the colleges, the churches,
the concert hall, the dramatic stage are all preparing the way for
the ascendency of the American composer.
CONCLUSION.
We have now traced the history of our modern art of orchestration
through five great stages of evolution. (1) Under the head of "The
Cradle of Instrumental Music," musical development among primitive
men was attributed to two impelling forces: emotional expression and
pagan religious rites. The nature of these early attempts at musical
utterance can only be conjectured, but although we have no knowledge
of its tonal aspect, extant relics and representations of primitive
instruments among such races as the Egyptians, the Assyrians and the
Jews correspond to the leading types of sound-producing apparatus
belonging to civilized nations. Authentic history discloses the
development of artistic music in India, in Greece and in early Rome.
These efforts were essentially melodic. Rhythm was dependent upon
poetic instinct, whereas the harmony of simultaneous sounds, though
scientifically expounded, was put to but small practical use. Systems
of harmony, notation and measure were eventually established, though
circuitously devolved from the tedious experiments of the scholastic
monks to the more tangible results of the troubadours and of the
masters of the Netherland School. Lasso and Palestrina eventually
pointed the way toward a settled tonality determined by harmonic
considerations. (2) "The Dawn of Independent Instrumentation" treats
of the further development of consistent tonality, of greater
rhythmic freedom, of artistic structural form, and of the gradual
ascendency of a secular style in connection with solo-singing and
independent instrumental music. Independent instrumental music found
its origin in the attempts at embellished organ accompaniment; solo
singing devolved from the Miracle Plays, from the lyrics of the
troubadours, and from the Florentine monody as developed by Peri and
Cavalieri, whose theories contained the germ of opera and oratorio,
for which instrumental accompaniment is a requisite. (3) The chapter
entitled "Beginnings of Orchestration" marks the actual starting
point for the nuclear thought of this book. Here the central figure
is Monteverde, father of modern instrumentation. His methods were
propagated by Carissimi in Italy, Schütz in Germany, Cavalli and
Lulli in France. The greatest orchestral writer after Monteverde
was Scarlatti. (4) The way was now prepared for the comprehensive
"Classic Era," of which the central figures, as regards orchestral
evolution, are Haydn, the father of modern orchestration, and
Beethoven,--magnificently supported by Mozart, and to a lesser degree
by Bach, Händel and Gluck. In the earlier part of this era, France
owed the high standard of her indigenous music primarily to Rameau
and Grétry. The former stands as an exponent of serious opera,
whereas the latter established _opéra comique_ upon a permanent
basis. Rameau found a worthy successor in the great orchestrator,
Méhul. Grétry was succeeded by Boieldieu, Auber, Hérold, Halévy.
Meanwhile the orchestration of Italy did not keep pace with that of
Germany or France. The Italians were primarily engaged in composing
church music and in writing operas that should satisfy the existing
demands for vocal virtuosity. Pergolesi was a notable exception.
Even though the art of instrumentation had originated in Italy, no
important evolutionist of orchestration can be mentioned between
Scarlatti (1659) and Cherubini (1760); the latter is moreover
identified with France rather than with Italy. Spontini, Rossini,
and the German, Meyerbeer, likewise won their laurels in Paris.
Cherubini and Spontini stand as the chief Italian exponents of
orchestration during the classic era, the one for the church, the
other for the drama. (5) The classic era overlaps the rise and
growth of the "Romantic Movement," for the highest attainments of
Beethoven, Auber and Rossini were not reached until after Spohr and
Weber had already entered the lists. These two early romanticists
were shortly succeeded by Schubert, Mendelssohn, Schumann, by the
classical-romanticists, headed by Raff and Brahms, and by the
originators of the New Movement, Berlioz, Liszt, Wagner. Recent
development of differentiated types of orchestration discloses
the unique fact that almost every country of musical prominence
is represented by a single orchestral writer of unusual ability
whose success was dependent upon the initiatory work of one single
predecessor. Italy is represented by Spontini and Verdi, France
by Berlioz and Saint-Saëns, Bohemia by Smetana and Dvo[vr]ák,
Scandinavia by Gade and Grieg, Russia by Glinka and Tschaikowsky,
Germany by Wagner and Richard Strauss.
The above epitome presents the historical aspect of orchestral
development. Due credit has been given to those men who particularly
helped to forge the connecting links in the evolutionary chain,
irrespective of the intrinsic value of their own instrumentation. In
antithesis to the above historical aspect, the following synopsis
presents the purely practical aspect of orchestration proper as
developed by thirteen men whose contributions thereto would appear
to be of chief importance. They are named in chronological order
without regard to evolutionary sequence or nationality. It is from
their works that the specimens of orchestral scoring in the appendix
to this book have been chosen. These thirteen representatives are:
Monteverde, Scarlatti, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Weber, Berlioz,
Mendelssohn, Wagner, Saint-Saëns, Tschaikowsky, Dvo[vr]ák, Richard
Strauss. Monteverde aimed to obtain expressive and dramatic
effects, established the orchestra on a permanent basis of stringed
instruments played with a bow, and realized the necessity for an
individualistic and differentiated style of writing for voices
and instruments. Scarlatti divided his strings into four parts,
properly dispersed and balanced, readjusted the relation of
the wind instruments to the rest of the orchestra by employing
them in pairs, strengthened and extended the structure of his
opera-symphonies. Haydn established a perfectly balanced orchestra
as a whole, realized the value of the wood-wind in their capacity
of lending warmth and color to the orchestral canvas, employed them
systematically in pairs, and regulated the proportion of the brass
to the strings and wood. Mozart infused into the orchestra vitality
and warmth, exploited the proper functions of the wood-wind with
especial attention to those of the clarinet, and was the first to
consistently mix the tonal colors of the orchestra. The evolution
of the classic orchestra culminated in the symphonic writings
of Beethoven. His scoring not only embodies the ideals of his
predecessors, but treats each instrument also with characteristic
individuality, subordinated, however, as a means for faithfully
depicting the details of the composition proper. He pointed the way
for the subsequent romanticists, and his descriptive music proves
that even with comparatively simple means gorgeous tone-painting can
be attained. Weber initiated a novel style of dramatic orchestration
and contributed substantially to the independence of the wood-wind.
Berlioz was the first of the great modern symphonists and represents
the ultra-realistic school of orchestral program-music. He combined
both dramatic and symphonic principles but also applied tone-color in
its own right. His unique genius disclosed itself in the discovery
of new combinations, new effects, new treatment, and in his power of
musical description. The orchestration of Mendelssohn is invaluable
for its finish of detail. It is buoyant, transparent, delicate, and
perfectly balanced. Wagner brought the art of dramatic orchestration
to its highest point of evolution. His orchestration does not deviate
from well-established and approved principles, but the grouping and
treatment of instruments are entirely new. He emphasized solidity,
made the orchestra firm and supple, increased its melodic as well
as harmonic force, and used it for two definite purposes: to render
emotion and to portray action and situations. Saint-Saëns' methods
emphasize the prevailing custom of his countrymen to combine French
traditions and advanced German principles. Clear and compact form,
comparative simplicity of thematic treatment, elaborate, rich, varied
and above all scintillating orchestration constitute the cardinal
features of his conspicuous attainments. The ideal representative
of Greater Russia is Tschaikowsky. He secured a gloomy eloquence of
instrumentation by drawing upon the lower accents of the orchestra,
but was also a master of magnificent and stirring effects. Dvo[vr]ák
evolved his music from the Bohemian folk-song and was a master of
vivacious and refined orchestration. His scoring is appropriate,
consistent, varied, warm and brilliant. It abounds in beautiful
combinations. It is rich but never overburdened. Richard Strauss
is proving himself a worthy successor to Wagner as a result of
his marvellous insight into the specific characteristics of each
individual instrument and of his genius for combining them in a
bewildering network of contrapuntally interwoven melodic themes. He
possesses an hitherto unheard of orchestral technique, and taxes
both the executive ability and the artistic attributes of the
instrumentalists to the utmost. He makes use of elaborately conceived
programs necessitating vast orchestral resources, is an extremist in
the realm of realism, and secures powerful dramatic effects by means
of vivid orchestration.
Orchestration in its present development would seem to have reached
its highest possible attainment of effectiveness and virtuosity. The
problem of the future, therefore, deals not so much with material
increase of orchestral resource, as with what manner of thought
and music the orchestra is destined to portray. What are to be
the musical ethics of the twentieth century composers? The most
subtle thinkers of the world have generally taken an idealistic
view of the social mission of musical art. Eminent psychologists of
Germany, France and England, who otherwise represent distinctive and
frequently antagonistic schools of philosophy, all agree on this
point, as illustrated by a few quotations selected from the writings
of Hegel, Schopenhauer, Emile Montegut and Herbert Spencer. Music,
according to Hegel, should "fill the heart and bring to consciousness
everything developed and undeveloped which human feeling can carry,
experience and bring forth, in its innermost and most secret parts;
whatever the human heart in its manifold possibilities and moods
desires to express or excite; and especially whatever the spirit has
in its idea of the Most Essential and High; the glory of the Honored,
the Eternal and the True." Schopenhauer declared that music "never
expresses phenomena, but solely the inner being, the essence of
phenomena, the will itself. It expresses, therefore, not this or that
single and particular joy, this or that sorrow, or pain, or horror,
or exultation, or hilarity, or repose of mind itself; but, as it were
_in abstracto_, the essentials of these without their concomitants,
therefore without their motives. Nevertheless, in such quintessence
we understand it perfectly. Hence our fancy is so easily excited
by it and tries to clothe this invisible spirit world, that speaks
to us so immediately and eloquently, with flesh and blood, _i.e._
to embody it in an analogous example." Emile Montegut expresses
himself to the effect that this magic sound of what is called music
"pierces the material barriers which limit human words; it gives
to hearts the means of communicating among themselves; it creates
a language of which the most ignorant and the poorest perceive all
the power and all the sweetness. Music speaks, and suddenly the
hearts which were chilled with consciousness of their own isolation
are thrilled with tenderness and radiant with happiness." Herbert
Spencer believed that "music ought to take rank at the head of the
fine arts because it is the one which adds most to human happiness.
Not content with exciting powerfully our better instincts, it awakens
sentiments lying dormant in us, of which we had not conceived the
possibility, of which we do not understand the sense. This obscure
presentment of an unknown happiness, which music awakens in us, this
confused dream of an ideal and new life, all this is but a prophecy
of something which music itself ought assuredly to accomplish." In
contrast to the above enthusiastic utterances, how material and
unsatisfying are the dreary speculations of such men as Leibniz! The
latter looked upon music as being but the "_exercitium arithmeticae
occultum nescientis se numerare animi_"! The ideal mission of music,
therefore, ever has been and surely should continue to be that of
uplifting. It should present a moral synonymous for the æsthetic,
the pure, the spiritual. It should reveal the highest ideals of the
living soul. It should, according to Browning, express truth, not of
the mind--knowledge, which is absolute, but of the soul--shifting.
Music above all other arts interprets the innermost thoughts of
the soul. It is being constantly re-created, whereas all other
arts are but the images of what is already created. The imitative
arts--sculpture and painting, can no longer be all-satisfying to the
self-consciousness of an age influenced by the subjective thought of
such men as Goethe and Schiller. Why, therefore, should modern music
be reared solely upon a similar realistic basis of imitation instead
of upon an idealistic one of representation? The fundamentals of
music rest upon an acoustic element dependent upon absolute pitch.
Since, however, an isolated tone cannot suggest a definite idea or
image, it is necessary, in order that music should mean something, to
connect a series of tones so as to produce melody, to combine several
tones so as to form chords, and to group these chords so as to obtain
contrasts of tonality and modes. This accomplished, there must be
added rhythmic life, variety of tone-color, and dynamic contrast.
Finally, the whole fabrication must be fitted into a framework of
structural form based upon the science of logic. But all this is
not enough. There exists an underlying psychological principle
that cannot be disregarded. Appreciation for acoustic effects and
the realizations of intellectual reflection are but the stepping
stones to something higher. The first requirement of a composer is
intuition or the spontaneous expression of musical instinct--an
element more essential to musical creation than to any other branch
of art. Further requisites are imagination, emotion, inspiration, and
above all spirituality. There is a tendency among recent exponents
of the most advanced school to declare that the possibilities of
purely æsthetic music have been exhausted. Morbidness and pessimism
dominate the creative conceptions of these recent experimentalists.
They are leaning more and more toward the expression of concrete
ideas concealing vague abstractions. The present writer is heartily
in sympathy with the most catholic application of all legitimate
resources so long as the primary object of musical utterance be not
lost sight of. It goes without saying that descriptive, imitative,
realistic and even morbid music has its proper place in the poetic
conceptions of our contemporary tone-masters. Exception only is
made to music that is primarily intellectual or pessimistic. On the
other hand, it need not be primarily pleasure-giving. In a word, all
such objectives should be made subjective to a purer motive. The
portrayal of lesser sentiments and passions is legitimate only in so
far as to form a background for the nobler, which are thereby thrown
into relief. The ideal mission of music is to reflect the loftiest
sentiments of the composer's soul, and to awaken similar experiences
in the mind of the auditor so as to inspire and uplift him. Such were
the ideals of Beethoven. May his example continue to be emulated!
APPENDIX
OF
MUSICAL ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
MONTEVERDE 191
SCARLATTI 194
HAYDN 197
MOZART 203
BEETHOVEN 208
WEBER 215
BERLIOZ 224
MENDELSSOHN 232
WAGNER 238
SAINT-SAËNS 247
TSCHAIKOWSKY 254
DVO[vR]ÁK 260
RICHARD STRAUSS 267
MONTEVERDE.
(Page 16)
[Music: No. 1. L'Orfeo: Atto I--Toccata, (_che si suona avanti il
levar de la tela tre volte con tutti li stromenti_.)]
[Music: No. 2. L'Orfeo: Atto II--Ritornello. (_Questo Ritornello fù
sonato di dentra da un Clavicembano, duoi Chitaroni, e 2 Violini
piccioli alla Francese._)]
[Music: No. 3. L'Orfeo: Atto III. (_Orfeo canta al suono del Organo
di legno solamente._)
Ei dorme, e la mia cetra, se pietà non impetra nel indurato core,]
[Music: No. 4. L'Orfeo: Atto IV--Sinfonia.]
[Music: No. 5. L'Orfeo: Atto V. (_Apollo ed Orfeo ascende al cielo
cantando._)
Saliam, Saliam cantand' al cielo,]
SCARLATTI.
(Page 22)
[Music: No. 6. La Rosaura: Prologo-Sinfonia.]
[Music: No. 7. La Rosaura: Atto I--Scena II.
(_Climene._)
Langue, geme, geme, quest'anima, amante, langue,]
[Music: No. 8. La Rosaura: Atto II--Scena II.
(_Rosaura._)
Se due petti ardon d'amore, se due petti ardon d'amore è il penar,]
[Music: No. 9. La Rosaura: Atto II.--Scena IV.
(_Climene sola._)
ma non sia, chi di mia fede il candor tenti, tenti offuscar il candor
tenti, tenti offuscar.]
HAYDN.
(Page 47)
[Music: No. 10. Symphony in D, No. 2: 1st Movement.]
[Music: No. 11. Symphony in D: 2d Movement.]
[Music: No. 12. Symphony in D: 2d Movement.]
[Music: No. 13. Symphony in D: 2d Movement.]
[Music: No. 14. Symphony No. 3: 1st Movement.]
[Music: No. 15. Symphony No. 4: 1st Movement.]
[Music: No. 16. Symphony No. 5: 2d Movement.]
[Music: No. 17. Symphony No. 6: Adagio.]
MOZART.
(Page 50)
[Music: No. 18. Jupiter Symphony: Menuetto.]
[Music: No. 19. Jupiter Symphony: Finale.]
[Music: No. 20. Jupiter Symphony: Finale.]
[Music: No. 21. Symphony in G minor: 2d Movement.]
[Music: No. 22. Symphony in E flat: 2d Movement.]
[Music: No. 23. Symphony in E flat: Menuetto.]
BEETHOVEN.
(Page 53)
[Music: No. 24. Fifth Symphony: 2d Movement.]
[Music: No. 25. Fifth Symphony: 2d Movement.]
[Music: No. 26. Fifth Symphony: 2d Movement.]
[Music: No. 27. Fifth Symphony: 3d Movement.]
[Music: No. 28. Fifth Symphony: 3d Movement.]
[Music: No. 29. Fifth Symphony: 3d Movement.]
[Music: No. 30. Fifth Symphony: Finale.]
[Music: No. 31. Pastoral Symphony: 2d Movement.]
[Music: No. 32. Pastoral Symphony: Shepherd's Song.]
[Music: No. 33. Seventh Symphony: Allegretto.]
[Music: No. 34. Seventh Symphony: 3d Movement.]
[Music: No. 35. Seventh Symphony: 3d Movement.]
WEBER.
(Page 71)
[Music: No. 36. Der Freischütz: Overture.]
[Music: No. 37. Der Freischütz: Overture.]
[Music: No. 38. Der Freischütz: Overture.]
[Music: No. 39. Der Freischütz: Overture.]
[Music: No. 40. Der Freischütz: Overture.]
[Music: No. 41. Der Freischütz: Act I--Scene I.]
[Music: No. 42. Der Freischütz: Act I--Scene II.
CORO. O lass Hoffnung dich beleben, und vertraue, vertraue dem Geschick!]
[Music: No. 43. Der Freischütz: Act II--Scene II.
Agathe.
Leise, leise, fromme Weise, schwing' dich auf zum Sternenkreise!]
[Music: No. 44. Der Freischütz: Act II--Scene IV.]
[Music: No. 45. Der Freischütz: Act II--Scene IV.]
[Music: No. 46. Der Freischütz: Act II--Scene IV.]
[Music: No. 47. Der Freischütz: Act III--Scene III.
Aennchen.
Du zürnest mir?]
BERLIOZ.
(Page 89)
[Music: No. 48. Symphonie fantastique: Rêveries.]
[Music: No. 49. Symphonie fantastique: Scène aux champs.]
[Music: No. 50. Symphonie fantastique: Scène aux champs.]
[Music: No. 51. Symphonie fantastique: Scène aux champs.]
[Music: No. 52. Symphonie fantastique: Marche au supplice.]
[Music: No. 53. Symphonie fantastique: Marche au supplice.]
[Music: No. 54. Symphonie fantastique: Marche au supplice.]
[Music: No. 55. Symphonie fantastique: Ronde du Sabbat.]
[Music: No. 56. Harold en Italie: Sérénade.]
[Music: No. 57. Harold en Italie: Orgie de Brigands.]
MENDELSSOHN.
(Page 75)
[Music: No. 58. Midsummer Night's Dream: Overture.]
[Music: No. 59. Midsummer Night's Dream: Scherzo.]
[Music: No. 60. Midsummer Night's Dream: Scherzo.]
[Music: No. 61. Midsummer Night's Dream: No. 5.]
[Music: No. 62. Midsummer Night's Dream: No. 6.]
[Music: No. 63. Midsummer Night's Dream: No. 6.]
[Music: No. 64. Midsummer Night's Dream: No. 6.]
[Music: No. 65. Midsummer Night's Dream: Notturno.]
[Music: No. 66. Midsummer Night's Dream: Notturno.]
WAGNER.
(Page 93)
[Music: No. 67. Die Walküre: Act I--Scene I.]
[Music: No. 68. Die Walküre: Act I--Scene I.]
[Music: No. 69. Die Walküre: Act I--Scene I.]
[Music: No. 70. Die Walküre: Act I--Scene II.]
[Music: No. 71. Die Walküre: Act I--Scene II.]
[Music: No. 72. Die Walküre: Act I--Scene III.
SIEGLINDE.
Ein Greis in grauem Gewand;]
[Music: No. 73. Die Walküre: Act I--Scene III.]
[Music: No. 74. Die Walküre: Act I--Scene III.
SIEGLINDE.
Dich grüsste mein Herz mit heiligem Grau'n, als dein]
[Music: No. 75. Die Walküre: Act I--Scene III.]
SAINT-SAËNS.
(Page 131)
[Music: No. 76. Le Rouet d'Omphale.]
[Music: No. 77. Le Rouet d'Omphale.]
[Music: No. 78. Le Rouet d'Omphale.]
[Music: No. 79. Phaéton.]
[Music: No. 80. Danse Macabre.]
[Music: No. 81. Danse Macabre.]
[Music: No. 82. La Jeunesse d'Hercule.]
TSCHAIKOWSKY.
(Page 155)
[Music: No. 83. Symphonie pathétique: 1st Movement.]
[Music: No. 84. Symphonie pathétique: 1st Movement.]
[Music: No. 85. Symphonie pathétique: 1st Movement.]
[Music: No. 86. Symphonie pathétique: 1st Movement.]
[Music: No. 87. Symphonie pathétique: 2d Movement.]
[Music: No. 88. Symphonie pathétique: 3d Movement.]
[Music: No. 89. Symphonie pathétique: Finale.]
DVO[vR]ÁK.
(Page 147)
[Music: No. 90. Symphony No. 5 in E minor: "From the New
World."--First Movement.]
[Music: No. 91. Sym. in E minor: First Movement.]
[Music: No. 92. Sym. in E minor: 1st Movement.]
[Music: No. 93. Sym. in E minor: 2d Movement.]
[Music: No. 94. Sym. in E minor: 4th Movement.]
[Music: No. 95. Sym. in E minor: 4th Movement.]
[Music: No. 96. Sym. in E minor: 4th Movement.]
RICHARD STRAUSS.
(Page 106)
[Music: No. 97. Zarathustra: (»das Grablied.«)]
[Music: No. 98. Zarathustra: (»von der Wissenschaft.«)]
[Music: No. 99. Zarathustra.]
[Music: No. 100. Zarathustra: (»das Tanzlied.«)]
[Music: No. 101. Zarathustra.]
[Music: No. 102. Till Eulenspiegel.]
[Music: No. 103. Till Eulenspiegel.]
INDEX
Adam, 129, (59).
Adam de la Hale, 3.
(Aldrich, R.), 107, (110).
Allen, N.H., 173.
Ambrosius, 2.
Archer, 172.
Arensky, 154.
Atherton, 172.
Auber, 62.
Aulin, 151.
Bach, 29.
Bach, Em., 33.
Balakireff, 154.
Balfe, 157.
Bardi, 6.
Bargiel, 79.
Barnby, 158.
Beach, 169.
Beck, 168.
BEETHOVEN, 53, (Music, 208).
Bellinger, 171.
Bellini, 59.
Bennett, 157, (77).
Benoit, 136.
Bergmann, 170.
BERLIOZ, 89, (Music, 224).
Berton, 59.
Bird, A., 168.
Bizet, 133.
Blech, 123.
Blodgett, 173.
Boccherini, 41.
Boëtius, 2.
Boieldieu, 61.
Boise, 173.
Boïto, 142.
Bonvin, 162, 169.
Borodin, 154.
Brahms, 82.
Bridge, 158.
Bristow, 163.
(Browning), 187.
Bruch, 86.
Bruckner, 104.
Bruneau, 137.
Buck, 165.
Bullard, 172.
Buonamici, 143.
Buononcini, 32.
Buxtehude, 25.
Byrd, 4.
(Byron), 71.
Caccini, 7.
Cambert, 20.
Campra, 35.
Cannabich, 43, 44.
Carissimi, 19.
Catel, 59.
Cavalieri, 7.
Cavalli, 19.
Cesti, 19.
Chabrier, 133, (129).
Chadwick, 166.
Chaminade, 136.
Charpentier, 137.
Chausson, 137.
Cherubini, 59.
Chopin, 59, (78, 160).
Cimarosa, 41.
Clari, 21.
Claude le Jeune, 4.
Coleridge-Taylor, 160.
Colonne, 139.
Converse, C.C., 164.
Converse, F., 170.
Coombs, 173.
Corelli, 21.
(Corneille), 20.
Cornelius, 104.
Corsi, 7.
Couperin, 25.
Cowen, 159.
Cui, Cesar, 154.
Cutter, 173.
Czibulka, 146.
d'Alayrac, 58.
d'Albert, 124.
dall'Abaco, 43.
Damrosch, F., 171, 173.
Damrosch, L., 164.
Damrosch, W., 169.
(Dannreuther), 156.
Dargomizski, 153.
David, Félicien, 126.
Debussy, 137.
de Koven, 169.
Delibes, 129.
Destouches, 35.
(Dickinson), 38, 78, 92.
d'Indy, 128.
Dittersdorf, 42.
Donizetti, 59.
Doppler, A., 146.
Doppler, K., 146.
Draeseke, 105.
Dubois, 135.
Dufay, 3.
Duni, 37.
Dunstable, 4.
Durante, 32.
DVO[vR]ÁK, 147, (Music, 260).
Eddy, 172.
Elgar, 160.
(Elson), 162.
Emery, 164.
Enna, 151.
Erkel, 146.
Farwell, 162.
Fauré, 137.
(Ferris), 141.
Field, 59.
Fischer, Franz, 107.
Flotow, 124.
Foerster, 168.
Foote, 165.
Franck, César, 127.
Franco de Cologne, 2.
(Francoeur), 44.
Franz, 78.
(Frederick the Great), 34.
Frescobaldi, 5, (25).
Froberger, 25.
Fuchs, Anton, 138.
Gabrieli, A., 5.
Gabrieli, G., 5.
Gade, 150, (77).
Galilei, 7.
Gericke, 171.
Gevaërt, 136, (51, 56).
Gibbons, 7.
Gilchrist, 168.
(Gilman, L.), 167.
Gilmore, 172.
Glazounoff, 154.
Gleason, 168.
Glinka, 153.
Gluck, 38.
Godard, 127.
(Goethe), 187.
Goetschius, 173.
Goldmark, 85, (145).
Goldmark, R., 170.
Gomez, 142.
Goodrich, A.J., 173.
Goodrich, J.W., 172.
Gossec, 43.
Gottschalk, 163.
Goudimel, 4.
Gounod, 130.
Gow, 173.
Graun, 34.
Gregories, The, 2.
Grétry, 40, (44).
Grieg, 150.
(Grove), 75.
Guido d'Arezzo, 2.
Guilmant, 136.
Habeneck, 138.
Hadley, 170.
Halévy, 62.
Hall, 172.
Hallström, 149.
Händel, 30.
Hanscom, 173.
Hasse, 34.
HAYDN, 47, (Music, 197).
(Hegel), 186.
(Henderson), 155, 156, 160.
Henry, 166.
Henschel, 171.
Herbert, 170.
Hérold, 62.
Hiller, F., 77.
Hiller, J.A., 42.
(Hipkins), 10.
Holmès, 136.
(Howard, A.A.), 11.
Howland, 166.
Hucbald, 2.
(Hughes), 162, 164.
Humperdinck, 123.
Huss, 170.
Innes, 172.
Isaak, 4.
Isadore, 2.
Isouard, 58.
Jadassohn, 80.
Jensen, 79.
Johannes de Muris, 2.
Johns, 172.
Jomelli, 41, 42.
Joncières, 136.
Jordan, 173.
Josquin des Près, 3.
Keiser, 33.
Kelley, 168.
Kerl, 25.
Kienzl, 123.
Kistler, 123.
(Klein, Herman), 111.
(Krehbiel), 148.
Kreutzer, 73, (59).
Kuhnau, 25.
Lachner, 80.
Lalo, 127.
Lamoureux, 139.
Lang, B.J., 171.
Lang, M.R., 172.
(Langhans), 19, 71.
Lassen, 105.
Lasso, 4.
Lavoix, 136, (20, 43, 60).
Legrenzi, 21.
Lehár, 124.
(Leibniz), 187.
Leo, 32.
Leoncavallo, 143.
Lesueur, 61.
Levi, 106, 107, 134, 147.
Lewis, 162, 169.
Lindblad, 149.
Listemann, 171.
Liszt, 92, (103, 104, 145).
(Lobe), 101.
Locke, 172.
Loeffler, 170, (9).
Logroscino, 32.
(Lorenzo the Great), 6.
Lortzing, 124.
Lotti, 32.
(Louis XIV of France), 20.
(Ludwig II of Bavaria), 101.
Lulli, 19.
Lund, 171.
Macdougall, 173.
MacDowell, 166.
Macfarren, 157.
Mackenzie, 158.
Mahler, 123.
Maillart, 129.
Marschner, 73.
Marston, 173.
Mascagni, 143.
(Mason, D.G.), 150.
Mason, L., 163.
Mason, W., 163.
Massenet, 134.
Mattheson, 33.
(Matthews, W.S.B.), 173, (82).
McWhood, 173.
(Medici), 6.
Méhul, 60.
MENDELSSOHN, 75, (Music, 232).
Merbecke, 4.
Merulo, 5.
Meyerbeer, 64, (9).
(Molière), 20.
Mollenhauer, 171.
Monsigny, 37.
(Montegut), 186.
MONTEVERDE, 16, (Music, 191).
Mosonyi, 146.
Morley, 4.
Moszkowski, 80.
Mouret, 36.
MOZART, 50, (Music, 203).
Muck, 107, 171.
Mussorgski, 154.
(Napoleon), 63.
Naumann, 35.
Neidlinger, 172.
Nevin, 172.
Nicodé, 105.
Nicolai, 124.
(Nietzsche), 101.
Nikisch, 171.
(Nordau), 101.
Normann, 149.
Norris, 173.
Notker, 2.
Ockeghem, 3.
Onslow, 126.
Pachelbel, 25.
Paesiello, 41.
Paine, 164.
Paladhile, 136.
Palestrina, 4.
Parker, 167.
Parry, 159, (4, 38, 145).
Parsons, 173.
Pasdeloup, 139.
Paur, 171.
Pergolesi, 32.
Peri, 7.
Perrin, 23.
Philidor, 37.
Piccini, 40.
Ponchielli, 142.
Porpora, 32.
(Praetorius), 12.
Pratt, 173.
(Prout), 71, 74, 84.
Puccini, 143.
Purcell, 24, (30).
(Pythagoras), 10.
(Racine), 20.
Raff, 81.
Rameau, 36.
Reber, 126.
Reger, 123.
Reincken, 25.
Reinecke, 79.
Reyer, 127, (133).
Rheinberger, 86, (101).
(Richter, Jean Paul), 71.
(Riemann), 10, 34, 80, 109, 153, 164.
Rietz, 77.
Rimski-Korsakoff, 154.
Ritter, A., 105, (107).
(Ritter, Dr.), 162.
Rogers, 172.
(Rösch), 110, 113, 115.
Rossini, 64.
Rousseau, 37.
Rubinstein, 155, (81).
Rübner, 173.
Sacchini, 40.
SAINT-SAËNS, 131, (Music, 247).
Salieri, 40.
Sammartini, 42, 43.
(Savanarola), 6.
Sax, 12, 63.
SCARLATTI, 22, (Music, 194).
Scarlatti, D., 25.
Scharwenka, X., 170.
Scheel, 171.
Scheidt, 25.
(Schiller), 187.
Schillings, 123.
Schoenefeld, 168.
(Schopenhauer), 186.
Schubert, 74.
Schuch, 118.
Schumann, 78.
Schumann, Georg, 123.
Schütz, 17.
Seidl, 171.
Serow, 153.
Sgambati, 143.
Shelley, 172.
Sherwood, 164.
Sibelius, 151.
Sinding, 151.
Smetana, 147.
Smith, G., 172.
Smith, W.G., 173.
Södermann, 149.
Sousa, 172.
Spalding, 173.
(Spencer), 186.
Spohr, 70.
Spontini, 63.
Stamitz, 42, 44.
Stanford, 160, (159).
Steffani, 21.
Stennhammer, 151.
Story, 173.
Strauss, J., 124.
STRAUSS, RICHARD, 106, (Music, 267).
Striggio, 7.
Strong, 172.
Stubbs, 172.
Suk, 147.
Sullivan, 158.
Suppé, 124.
Svendsen, 150.
Sylvester, 2.
Tallys, 4.
Telemann, 33.
Theile, 33.
Thomas, Ambrose, 129.
Thomas, A. Goring, 159.
Thomas, Theodore, 170, 171, (109).
Thuille, 123.
Tomlins, 171, 173.
Torelli, 21.
TSCHAIKOWSKY, 155, (Music, 254).
van der Stucken, 169.
van Malder, 44.
Verdi, 140, (59).
Viadana, 7.
Vidal, 136.
Vivaldi, 21.
Volkmann, 79.
von Bülow, 103, 106, 107.
WAGNER, 93, (72, 92), (Music, 238).
Walther, Benno, 106.
Wanhal, 44.
Warren, R.H., 172.
Warren, S., 172.
WEBER, 71, (Music, 215).
Weingartner, 105.
White, 166.
Whiting, 172.
Whitney, 172.
Widor, 136.
Willaert, 3.
(Willeby), 159, 160.
Wolf, 123.
Wolf-Ferrari, 144.
Zeck, 169.
Zerrahn, 171.
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