Title: The Battles of the World - or, cyclopedia of battles, sieges, and important military events
Author: Borthwick, J. Douglas (John Douglas)
Language: English
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  TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE

  Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.

  Footnote anchors are denoted by [number], and the footnotes have been
  placed at the end of the alphabetical ‘CYCLOPÆDIA’ section, and the
  ‘APPENDIX’ section.

  Minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book.



  THE

  BATTLES OF THE WORLD;

  OR, CYCLOPÆDIA OF

  BATTLES, SIEGES, AND IMPORTANT MILITARY EVENTS,

  The Origin and Institution of Military Titles, &c. &c.,

  ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED,

  WITH AN APPENDIX,

  CONTAINING

  A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE,

  FROM THE CREATION TO THE PRESENT DAY.


  DEDICATED BY PERMISSION TO GENERAL SIR JOHN MICHEL.


  BY

  REV. J. DOUGLAS BORTHWICK,

  AUTHOR OF “CYCLOPÆDIA OF HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY,” “THE BRITISH AMERICAN
  READER,” AND “THE HARP OF CANAAN.”

  Montreal:
  PUBLISHED BY JOHN MUIR; AND PRINTED BY JOHN LOVELL,
  ST. NICHOLAS STREET.
  1866.



  Entered, according to Act of Provincial Parliament, in the year
  one thousand eight hundred and sixty-six, by JOHN MUIR, in the
  Office of the Registrar of the Province of Canada.



To

General Sir John Michel, K. C. B.,

Commanding the Forces

in

British North America,


As a small mark of respect to the highest Military Authority in
these Provinces, and a token of esteem for one of the Generals of
that glorious army which has fought and conquered in every age of
its country’s history, and in almost every clime,--

      Whose flag has braved a thousand years
        The battle and the breeze;

And whose actions constitute NOT a small portion of the “Battles of
the World,”

  This work is dedicated

  BY

  THE AUTHOR.

MONTREAL, August 1866.



PREFACE.


Within the last decade of the history of Great Britain, some very
important books have been added to her literature, and especially
to that particular division which treats of her wars and splendid
victories, during the same period. “The Fifteen Decisive Battles
of the World,” by Sir E. S. Creasy, Chief Justice of Ceylon;
“The Twelve Great Battles of England,” inscribed to the British
Volunteers of 1860; “England’s Battles by Sea and Land,” “Russell’s
Crimea and India,” “Emerson’s Sebastopol,” &c., are valuable in
themselves, as describing those victories which have raised “Dear
Old England” to the _very first_ rank among the nations. But the
object of the present publication embraces a larger and more
extended field of research. It embraces the whole of the principal
battles, by land and sea, that have EVER taken place, from the
earliest recorded action of which we have in history any distinct
and reliable information, to the very last event of military
importance which has transpired previous to going to press.

I need scarcely say here that that event is the unprecedented
and unheard of invasion of our country, by a band of lawless
brigands and filibusters, from the neighbouring Republic, ycleped
Fenians, who have shed blood, and wantonly invaded the territory
of a friendly power. It gives me much pleasure to insert in the
“Cyclopædia of Battles” some account of how they were met by our
brave Volunteers, at Ridgeway and Pigeon Hill; for it proves that
the Volunteers of Canada will compare favorably with those of
the Mother Country: and let it be borne in mind that one-half of
the men who greatly contributed to the Victory of Waterloo were
recruits--raw troops--drafts from the militia--soldiers who had
never been engaged before; and the same indomitable pluck--the same
unconquered spirit--the same manly virtue of England’s offshoot
sons, was seen in the attack at Ridgeway.

In the first general engagement in the Great Rebellion of the
United States--which was fought at Bull Run--American Volunteers
_were also for the first time under fire_, but what was the result?
A total pell-mell rout--a scattered army hurrying on--cavalry,
artillery, and infantry--in one mighty, confused mass--treading
down and overthrowing each other, in their eagerness to escape from
the manly chivalry of the South. OUR brave Volunteers charged with
the “Spirit of their fathers,” and gained the day.

It has been said that Canada was neither a military nor a literary
colony. The events of the last few weeks fully proves to the
contrary, regarding her military ardor. Her sons nobly responded to
the government call; and had necessity required, as fair and fully
equipped an army would have trod the battle-field as ever stood
arrayed before an enemy;--and these sons of hers were scions of
all stocks--from the son of the learnèd divine or lawyer, to the
peasant’s only boy. As regards her literary fame she has produced
works which will compare favorably with sister colonies, and may
rank side by side with the Mother Country. To refute the assertion,
too, may be here remarked, what an agent for some of the largest
publishers both of England and the United States said not long
ago; “In the last three months he had sold twenty complete copies
of one of the largest and best Encyclopædias, and nearly double
that number in parts,” added to the hundreds of other publications
which are being scattered broadcast over the country, prove that
the Canadians are cultivating their minds as well as their “broad
acres.” For my own individual part, I can bear ample testimony
to the generous patronage given to my publications. The first,
published some years ago was rapidly sold. The second issued, was
accepted by the _unanimous_ voice and vote of the Council of Public
Instruction as the standard School Reader for Lower Canada, and
received the approval of the Government. The whole edition of the
third, issued last Christmas, was sold in two weeks. The present
work bids fair to receive as large if not a larger circulation.

To the people of Canada who have advanced and are advancing
literature, by subscribing to and supporting literary institutions
and productions, I tender my sincere thanks for all the patronage
hitherto bestowed upon my humble endeavours to elevate the
literature of this, my adopted country, and to perpetuate, in book
form, among the “Battles of the World,” CANADA’S ENGAGEMENTS with
foreign foes--HER BATTLES BY LAND AND SEA.

  J. DOUGLAS BORTHWICK.

  MONTREAL, 24th July 1866.

  POSTSCRIPT.--Since the above Preface has been in type events
  which were looked for, have transpired in Europe and by the
  accounts received some battles have already been fought on
  Continental soil. As far as practicable, insertion will be given
  to those of which we have received reliable information as
  regarding statistics, &c.

  J. D. B.



CYCLOPÆDIA

OF THE

BATTLES OF THE WORLD.



A.


ABDICATION OF KINGS.--Numerous in ancient history. The following
are those of the most remarkable character and greatest political
importance:

  Henry IV. of Germany          A.D. 1080
  Baliol of Scotland             “   1306
  Charles V. of Germany          “   1556
  James II. of England           “   1688
  Philip V. of Spain             “   1724
  Napoleon                  April 5, 1814
  Charles X. of France       Aug. 2, 1830
  Louis Philippe  “         Feb. 24, 1848
  Ferdinand of Austria.      Dec. 2, 1848


ABOUKIR.--Commonly called the Battle of the Nile. Fought between
the French and English fleets August 1st, 1798. (See NILE.)


ABRAHAM, HEIGHTS OF.--Commonly called the Taking of Quebec, or the
Battle of the Plains of Abraham. Fought September 13th, 1759. (See
QUEBEC.)


ACAPULCO SHIP.--This was the celebrated prize. A Spanish galleon,
from Acapulco, laden with gold and precious wares, and estimated by
some annalists at £1,000,000 sterling and upwards, taken by Lord
Anson, who had previously acquired in his memorable voyage booty
amounting to £600,000. Admiral Anson arrived at Spithead, in the
_Centurion_, with his immense gains, after having circumnavigated
the globe, June 15th, 1744.


ACRE, ST. JEAN D’--anciently _Ptolemais_. This city was taken
by Richard I and other Crusaders in 1192, after a siege of two
years, with the loss of 6 archbishops, 12 bishops, 40 earls, 500
barons, and 300,000 soldiers. It was retaken by the Saracens,
when 60,000 Christians perished, A.D. 1291. Acre was attacked by
Bonaparte, in July, A.D. 1798, and was relieved by Sir Sidney
Smith, who gallantly resisted twelve attempts during the memorable
siege of the French, between March 1st, and May 27th, 1799, when,
baffled by the British squadron on the water, and the Turks on
shore, Bonaparte relinquished his object and retreated. St. Jean
d’Acre is a pachalic, subject to the Porte, seized upon by Ibrahim
Pacha, who had revolted, July 2nd, 1832. It became a point in the
Syrian war in 1840. It was stormed by the British fleet under Sir
Robert Stopford, and taken after a bombardment of a few hours--the
Egyptians losing upwards of 2,000 in killed and wounded, and 3,000
prisoners; while the British had but 12 killed, and 42 wounded,
November 3, 1840.


ACTIUM.--This battle was fought September 2nd, B.C. 31, between the
fleets of Octavianus Cæsar on the one side, and of Marc Antony and
Cleopatra on the other. The victory of Octavianus which followed,
procured him the name of Augustus, the Venerable, bestowed on him
by the Senate, and the commencement of the Roman Empire is commonly
dated from this year.


ADRIANOPLE.--This battle, by which Constantine the Great procured
the Roman Empire, was fought July 3rd, A.D. 323. Adrianople was
afterwards taken by the Ottomans from the Greeks, in 1360, and
continued to be the seat of the Turkish Empire till the capture of
Constantinople in 1453. Mahomet II, one of the most distinguished
of the Sultans, and the one who took Constantinople, was born here
in 1430. Adrianople was taken by the Russians, who entered it,
August 20th, 1829, but was restored to the Sultan at the close of
the war, September 14th, the same year.


ADJUTANT.--This name is given to the officer, generally a
lieutenant, whose business it is to assist the superior officers,
by receiving and communicating orders.


ADMIRAL.--This, the highest title in the navy, does not appear to
have been adopted till about 1300. This title was first given in
England to William de Leybourne, by Edward I, in 1297. The first
Lord High Admiral of England was created by Richard II in 1388. It
is an office which has seldom been trusted to single hands. Prince
George of Denmark, consort to Queen Anne, was Lord High Admiral in
her reign. Since that time (1708) the duties were uninterruptedly
executed by Lords Commissioners until 1827, when the Duke of
Clarence, afterwards William IV, was appointed. He resigned August
12th, 1828, and the office has ever since been vested in the Lords
of the Admiralty.


AEGOS POTAMOS.--This place is famous for the victory of Lysander
over the Athenian fleet, on the 13th December, B.C. 405, in the
last year of the Peloponnesian war. All the triremes of the
Athenians, 180 in number, were either lost or captured, without the
loss of a single ship on the side of Lysander.


AFGHAN WAR.--A fierce rebellion broke out on November 2nd, 1842,
at Cabul; Burnes and Macnaughten, the British ministers, with
other civil and military officers, were successively murdered, and
the whole country rose in arms under the treacherous Akbar Khan,
the son of the deposed king, Dost Mohammed, who determined on the
massacre of the whole British force. Pusillanimity and indecision
in the councils of the general-in-chief, led to an immediate
evacuation of the country. 4,500 fighting men, together with about
12,000 camp followers, besides women and children, set forward,
through ice and snow, on their lamentable retreat; and no sooner
had they cleared out of their cantonments, than the blood-thirsty
Afghans began to plunder the baggage, and fire upon the soldiery;
they continued without ceasing their revengeful assaults upon the
bewildered and desponding multitude, till there was nothing left to
plunder, and none left to kill. Out of a host of about 26,000 human
beings, only a few hundreds were rescued from death by captivity.
The ladies and the wounded had been given up to the enemy early
in the march, and Dr. Brydon was the only officer who made good
his retreat. In the following year, however, on the appointment of
Lord Ellenborough to the governor-generalship of India in the place
of Lord Auckland, the British national character was repaired,
the honour of their arms retrieved, and the unfortunate prisoners
rescued. General Pollock was despatched into Afghanistan with an
invading army; he advanced on Cabul with all possible rapidity;
while, on the other side, General Nott, who had held out at
Candahar during the recent difficulties, brought his forces also to
bear on the capital. Victory everywhere attended the British arms;
and the British officers and ladies, who had been taken prisoners,
were also rescued, at Bameean, on the road to Turkistan. These
disgraces having been so gloriously redeemed, it was determined
to evacuate a country which ought never to have been entered; the
fortifications and other works of Cabul having been destroyed,
the British troops set forward, on their return home, and, after
a march of about ten weeks, arrived safely on the banks of the
Sutlej, December 17th, 1842.


AGINCOURT.--Fought on the 25th of October, 1415, between the
English and French. When all his preparations were completed, King
Henry V embarked at Southampton with a gallant army of 30,000 men,
and landing at the mouth of the river Seine, invested the town
of Harfleur. After a brave resistance of five months’ duration,
the town surrendered; the inhabitants were expelled like those of
Calais, and an English garrison occupied it. To his mortification,
Henry, at the end of the siege, found his army no longer in a
condition for active operations; for it had suffered so severely
from dysentery, that when the sick and wounded had been sent home,
it did not count more than one half of its original number. In
spite however, of the remonstrances of his council, Henry resolved
to march with his diminished force to Calais. He reached unopposed
the ford by which Edward III had crossed the Somme, but found it
secured by lines of palisades, behind which troops were posted.
All the other fords were secured in like manner, and the bridges
were broken. At length finding a ford unguarded, the English passed
over. The constable of France, who commanded the French army, fell
back towards Calais, and having received orders from his court to
fight without delay, he sent heralds to King Henry to ask which way
he intended to march. Henry replied, by that which led straight to
Calais, and dismissed the heralds with a present of 100 crowns.

As the English were advancing, the Duke of York, having ascended
an eminence, descried the masses of the enemy. The troops were
instantly formed in line of battle, but the French would not
advance to attack them, the experience of Cressy and Poitiers
having inspired them with a dread of the cloth-yard arrows of the
English. But as their army presented an array of 50,000 horsemen,
they had no doubt whatever of the victory; and though the night
was dark and rainy, they assembled round their banners revelling
and discussing the events of the coming day; and such was their
confidence that they even fixed the ransoms of King Henry and his
barons. English, on the contrary, made their wills, and passed the
night in devotion. Sickness, famine, and the smallness of their
numbers, depressed their spirits; but their courage rose when they
thought on Cressy and other victories, and on the gallant spirit
of their king. Henry himself visited all their quarters, and he
ordered bands of music to play all through the night to cheer their
drooping spirits.

Before sunrise, on the 25th of October, 1415, being St. Crispin’s
day, the English army, having heard mass, stood in order of battle.
The king, wearing a helmet of polished steel, wreathed with a
crown of sparkling stones, rode on a grey pony from rank to rank,
inspecting and encouraging them. Hearing an officer say to another
that he wished a miracle would transfer thither some of the good
knights who were sitting idle at home, he declared aloud that “he
would not have a single man more, as if God gave them the victory,
it would be plainly due to His goodness; if he did not, the fewer
that fell, the less the loss to their country.” Three French
knights now came, summoning them to surrender. The king ordered
them off and cried out, “Banners, advance.” The archers fell on
their knees on the ground, then rose and ran on with a shout. They
halted, and poured their hail of arrows on the first division of
the French; and when they had thrown it into some confusion, they
slung their bows behind their backs, and grasping their swords
and battle-axes, killed the constable and his principal officers,
and routed the whole division. They then advanced to attack the
second division, led by the Duke of Alençon. Here the resistance
was obstinate. Alençon forced his way to the royal standard,
killed the Duke of York, and cleft the crown in the helmet of the
king; but he was slain, and the division turned and fled. Henry
was advancing to attack the third division, when word came that a
large force was falling on the rear. The king gave hasty orders to
put the prisoners to death, and numbers had perished before it was
discovered that it was a false alarm, caused by an attempt of some
peasantry to plunder the baggage. The slaughter was then stopped,
but this cruel act tarnished the victory which was already won, for
the third division offered but a slight resistance.

When Montjoy, the French king-at-arms, appeared, “To whom,”
said Henry, “doth the victory belong?” “To you, sir.” “And what
castle is that I see at a distance?” “It is called the castle
of Agincourt.” “Then,” said the king, “be this battle known to
posterity by the name of the battle of Agincourt.” The prime
nobility of France were taken or slain, and 8000 knights and
gentlemen lay dead on the field. The loss of the English was only
the Duke of York, the Earl of Suffolk, and about 600 men.


AGRA.--This celebrated city is called the Key of Hindostan. It
was surrendered, in the war of the Mahrattas, to the British
forces, October 17th, 1803. The great Mogul frequently, before its
surrender, resided here. It now exhibits the most magnificent ruins.


AIDE-DE-CAMP.--(_From the French_.) An officer whose duty is to
receive and communicate the orders of a general or superior officer.


AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, PEACE OF.--The first treaty signed here was
between France and Spain, May 2nd, 1668. The second, or the
_celebrated_ treaty, was between Great Britain, France, Holland,
Hungary, Spain and Geneva, October 7th, 1748. A congress of the
sovereigns of Austria, Prussia and Russia, assisted by ministers
from England and France, met here, October 9th, 1818, and signed a
convention. The sum settled by this convention as due by France to
the Allies, was 265,000,000 francs.


ALBUERA OR ALBUHERA.--This battle was fought May 16th, 1811,
between the English and French. The English and Anglo-Spanish
army was commanded by Marshal, now Lord Beresford, and the French
by Marshal Soult. After an obstinate and sanguinary engagement,
the allies obtained the victory, one of the most brilliant
achievements of the Peninsular War. The French loss exceeded 7000
men, previously to their retreat; but the allies lost an equal
number. On the side of the allies the chief brunt of the battle
fell on the British. “Colonel Inglis, 22 officers, and more than
400 men, out of 570, who had mounted a hill, fell in the 57th
regiment alone; the other regiments were scarcely better off, not
one-third being left standing; 1800 unwounded men, the remnant of
6000 unconquerable British soldiers, stood triumphant on this fatal
hill.”


ALDERNEY, RACE OF.--Through this strait the French made their
escape after their defeat at the battle of La Hogue, by Admiral
Rooke, in 1692. It is celebrated for two memorable and melancholy
events: 1st. Here the only son of Henry I of England was
shipwrecked and drowned, with 140 youths of the highest families in
England and France in 1119. 2nd. The British man-of-war Victory, of
110 guns and 1100 men, was also wrecked here October 8th, 1744,
when the Admiral, Sir John Balchan, and his crew, perished on the
rocks.


ALEMANNI OR ALL MEN (_i.e._ Men of all Nations).--A body of Suevi,
who were defeated by Caracalla, A.D. 214. On one occasion 300,000
of this warlike people are said to have been vanquished in a
battle, near Milan, by Gallienus, at the head of 10,000 Romans.


ALESSANDRIA.--This battle was fought, May 17th, 1799, between the
Austro-Russian army, under Suwarrow, and the French under Moreau,
when the latter were defeated with the loss of 4000 men. The French
had possessed themselves of Alessandria the year before, but they
were now driven out. It was again delivered up to them after the
battle of Marengo in 1800. The village and battlefield of Marengo
lie east of this town.


ALEXANDRIA.--The battle of Alexandria was fought, March 21st, 1801,
between the English and the French, the latter being commanded by
Menou, and the former by Sir Ralph Abercrombie. It resulted in the
defeat of the French, but the British general was mortally wounded,
and after the retreat of Menou, he was carried to the admiral’s
ship, and died on the 28th. The command devolved on Major-General
Hutchinson, who baffled all the schemes of Menou, and obliged him
to surrender, September 2nd, following, the victor guaranteeing the
conveyance of the French, exceeding 10,000, to a French port in the
Mediterranean.


ALFORD.--This battle was fought, July 2nd, 1645, between a large
body of Covenanters, under General Bailie, and the troops under
the Marquis of Montrose. There was discovered some years since, in
one of the mosses near this place, a man in armour, on horseback,
supposed to have been drowned in attempting to escape from this
battle.


ALGESIRAS, OR OLD GIBRALTAR.--By this city the Moors entered
Spain A.D. 713, and it was not recovered from them till 1344. An
engagement was fought here between a British squadron, under Sir
James Saumurez, and several French and Spanish ships of war, which
closed in the destruction of two Spanish ships, each of 112 guns,
and the capture of the _St. Antonio_, of 74 guns, July 12th, 1801.


ALGIERS.--The British fleet, under Lord Exmouth, anchoring off
Algiers, bombarded the town, which returned the fire; but all the
fortifications and houses towards the sea were soon reduced to
ashes, and the fleet in the harbour entirely destroyed, August
27th, 1816. The Dey was compelled to conclude a treaty by which he
set the Christian captives free, and engaged to cease, in future,
from reducing Christians to slaves--a stipulation which, however,
he did not afterwards strictly observe; so that the French took
possession of the country and made it a colony with a governor,
bearing the title of Regent of Algeria. This country is famous for
the celebrated French soldiers, the Zouaves, of the late wars.


ALIWAL, _India_.--This battle was fought, January 28th, 1846,
between the British under Sir H. Smith, with 1200 men and 32
guns, and the Sikh army, under Sirdar Runjoor Singh Majeethea,
26,000 strong, supported by 68 pieces of cannon. The contest was
obstinate, but ended in the defeat of the Sikhs, who lost nearly
6000 killed, or drowned, in attempting to recross the Sutlej.
This battle was named after the village of Aliwal, in the Indian
language, _Ulleewal_, near which it was fought.


ALLIA.--This memorable battle, in the history of Rome, was fought
on the 18th July, B.C. 390, between the Romans and the celebrated
Brennus, king of the Gauls; 40,000 of the Romans fell, and Brennus
took and burnt the city of Rome. This day was always marked unlucky
in the Roman calendar, and called Alliensis.


ALLIANCE, TREATIES OF.--Between the greatest European powers, which
are most commonly referred to:

  Alliance of Leipsic      April  9, 1631.
      “    “  Vienna       May   27, 1657.
      “   The Triple       Jan.  28, 1668.
      “   The Grand        May   12, 1689.
      “   The Hague        Jan.   4, 1717.
      “   The Quadruple    Aug.   2, 1718.
      “   The Germanic     July  23, 1785.
      “   The Paris        May   16, 1795.
  Austrian Alliance        March 14, 1812.
  Alliance of Toplitz      Sept.  9, 1813.
  The Holy Alliance        Sept. 26, 1815.


ALMA, BATTLE OF THE.--Fought, September 20th, 1854. “Lord Raglan
waited patiently for the development of the French attack. At
length an aide-de-camp came to him and reported that the French
had crossed the Alma, but that they had not established themselves
sufficiently to justify our advancing. The infantry were,
therefore, ordered to lie down, and the army for a short time was
quite passive, only that our artillery poured forth an unceasing
fire of shell, rockets, and round shot, which ploughed through the
Russians, and caused them great loss. They did not waver, however,
and replied to our artillery manfully, their shot falling among our
men as they lay, and carrying off legs and arms at every round.
Lord Raglan at last became weary of this inactivity--his spirit was
up--he looked around and saw by his side men on whom he knew he
might stake the honour and fate of Great Britain, and anticipating
a little, in military point of view, the crisis of action, he gave
orders for our whole line to advance. Up rose those serried masses,
and passing through a fearful shower of round shot, case shot,
and shell, they dashed into the Alma, and floundered through its
waters, which were literally torn into foam by the deadly hail.
At the other side of the river were a number of vineyards, and to
our surprise they were occupied by Russian riflemen. Three of the
staff were here shot down, but led by Lord Raglan in person, they
advanced, cheering on the men.

And now came the turning-point of the battle, ... Lord Raglan
dashed over the bridge, followed by his staff. From the road over
it, under the Russian guns, he saw the state of action. The British
line, which he had ordered to advance, was struggling through the
river and up to the heights in masses, firm indeed, but mowed
down by the murderous fire of the batteries, and by grape, round
shot, shell, canister, case shot, and musketry, from some of the
guns of the central battery, and from an immense and compact mass
of Russian infantry. Then commenced one of the most bloody and
determined struggles in the annals of war. The Second Division,
led by Sir De Lacy Evans in the most dashing manner, crossed the
stream on the right. The 7th Fusiliers, led by Colonel Yea, were
swept down by fifties. The 55th, 30th, and 95th, led by Brigadier
Pennefather, who was in the thickest of the fight, cheering on
his men, again and again were checked indeed, but never drew back
in their onward progress, which was marked by a fierce roll of
Minié musketry; and Brigadier Adams, with the 41st, 47th, and
49th, bravely charged up the hill, and aided them in the battle.
Sir George Brown, conspicuous on a grey horse, rode in front of
his Light Division, urging them with voice and gesture. Gallant
fellows! they were worthy of such a gallant chief. The 7th,
diminished by one-half, fell back to re-form their columns lost for
the time: the 23rd, with eight officers dead and four wounded,
were still rushing to the front, aided by the 15th, 33d, 77th,
and 88th. Down went Sir George in a cloud of dust in front of the
battery. He was soon up, and shouted, “23d, I’m all right! Be sure
I’ll remember this day,” and led them on again; but in the shock
produced by the fall of their chief, the gallant regiment suffered
terribly, while paralysed for a moment.

Meantime the Guards on the right of the Light Division, and the
brigade of Highlanders, were storming the heights on the left.
Their line was almost as regular as though they were in Hyde Park.
Suddenly a tornado of round and grape, rushed through from the
terrible battery, and a roar of musketry from behind thinned their
front ranks by dozens. It was evident that we were just able to
contend against the Russians, favoured as they were by a great
position. At this very time an immense mass of Russian infantry
were seen moving down towards the battery. They halted. It was the
crisis of the day. Sharp, angular, and solid, they looked as if
they were cut out of the solid rock. It was beyond all doubt that
if our infantry, harassed and thinned as they were, got into the
battery, they would have to encounter again a formidable fire,
which they were but ill calculated to bear. Lord Raglan saw the
difficulties of the situation. He asked if it would be possible to
get a couple of guns to bear on these masses. The reply was “Yes;”
and an artillery officer, whose name I do not know, brought up two
guns to fire on the Russian squares. The first shot missed, but the
next, and the next, and the next, cut through the ranks so cleanly,
and so keenly, that a clear lane could be seen for a moment through
the square. After a few rounds, the columns of the square became
broken, wavered to and fro, broke, and fled over the brow of the
hill, leaving behind them six or seven distinct lines of dead,
lying as close as possible to each other, marking the passage of
the fatal messengers. This act relieved our infantry of a deadly
incubus, and they continued their magnificent and fearful progress
up the hill. The Duke encouraged his men by voice and example,
and proved himself worthy of his proud command and of the royal
race from which he comes. “Highlanders,” said Sir Colin Campbell,
ere they came to the charge, “I am going to ask a favour of you:
it is, that you will act so as to justify me in asking permission
of the Queen for you to wear a bonnet! Don’t pull a trigger till
you are within a yard of the Russians!” They charged, and well
they obeyed their chieftain’s wish; Sir Colin had his horse shot
under him, but his men took the battery at a bound. The Russians
rushed out, and left multitudes of dead behind them. The Guards
had stormed the right of the battery ere the Highlanders got into
the left, and it is said the Scots Fusilier Guards were the first
to enter. The Second and Light Division crowned the heights. The
French turned the guns on the hill against the flying masses, which
the cavalry in vain tried to cover. A few faint struggles from the
scattered infantry, a few rounds of cannon and musketry, and the
enemy fled to the south-east, leaving three generals, three guns,
700 prisoners, and 4000 wounded behind them. The battle of the Alma
was won. It was won with a loss of nearly 3000 killed and wounded
on our side. The Russians’ retreat was covered by their cavalry,
but if we had had an adequate force, we could have captured many
guns and multitudes of prisoners.”

The following graphic account is taken from _Emerson’s Sebastopol_:

“On the 19th September the march commenced. Proceeding southward,
the French army, under the command of Marshal St. Arnaud, with
Caurobert and Bosquet as generals of divisions, keeping the coast
line; the English on their left. The fleets accompanied the march,
close to the shore, ready to render assistance should circumstances
render it necessary.

The English army comprised about 25,000 men, and was composed of
the following regiments, led as under:--


COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF, LORD RAGLAN.

_Light Division._--Lieut.-General Sir G. Brown. Generals of
Brigade, Colonels Airey and Buller. 7th, 19th, 23rd (Welsh
Fusiliers), 33rd, 77th, and 88th Infantry.

_First Division._--Lieut.-General H.R.H. the Duke of Cambridge.
Generals of Brigade, Major-General Bentinck and Major-General Sir
Colin Campbell. Battalions, Grenadier Guards, Coldstream Guards,
Scots Fusiliers; 42nd, 79th, and 93rd Highlanders.

_Second Division._--Lieut.-General Sir De Lacy Evans. Generals of
Brigade, Major-Generals Pennefather and Adams. 30th, 41st, 47th,
49th, 55th, and 95th Infantry.

_Third Division._--Major-General Sir Richard England. Generals of
Brigade, Colonels Sir J. Campbell and Eyre. 1st, 4th, 28th, 38th,
44th, 50th, and 63rd Infantry.

_Fourth Division._--Lieut.-General Sir George Cathcart. Generals of
Brigade, Generals Goldie and Torrens. 20th, 21st, 57th, and 63rd
Infantry; 1st Battalion Rifle Brigade.

_Cavalry Division._--Lieut.-General the Earl of Lucan. Generals of
Brigade, the Earl of Cardigan and Major-General Scarlett. 8th and
11th Dragoons; 17th Lancers.

[The Scots Greys, the Enniskillens, the 1st Royals, and the 4th
and 5th Dragoon Guards, forming the Heavy Brigade, under General
Scarlett, did not land with the remainder of the army, but joined
it after the battle of Alma.]

_Artillery._--General Strangways.

_Engineers._--General Tylden.

On the evening of the 19th, the first actual encounter with the
enemy occurred. A strong body of Cossacks hovered about our line
of march, and two or three guns opened fire upon our little force
of cavalry from the heights on the river Bouljanak, the first
stream we had to cross. The Earl of Cardigan gallantly charged the
hostile troop, who evaded actual contact, and retreated until they
had led our men within the range of the guns. Four of our dragoons
were killed and six wounded in this skirmish. Two or three of our
guns were speedily brought to bear upon the enemy, and Cossacks,
gunners, and all were soon dispersed.

Another dreary bivouac on the wet ground prepared the armies for
the great contest which awaited them. At day break on the morning
of the 20th of September--a day destined to receive an undying
fame in our military annals,--the troops resumed their march. As
they approached the river Alma, and mounted the heights to the
north of that once obscure but now renowned stream, they saw the
preparations which the Russians had made to repel the invaders
of their territory. The Alma is a small river, rising in the
mountains in the east of the peninsula, and falling into the sea
about twelve miles to the north of Sebastopol. The southern bank
is formed of almost precipitous hills intersected by deep ravines.
At the mouth of the river the cliffs are several hundred feet
high, and almost perpendicular towards the sea. A large conical
hill was the centre of the enemy’s position, and here enormous
batteries and entrenchments had been formed, while the crown of
the hills was occupied by dense masses of infantry. On the side
facing the Allies, a huge redoubt was constructed with two faces,
mounting thirteen large guns, and commanding the approaches to
the summit and the passage of the river. Each side of the ravines
enfilading the hill had powerful batteries, mounting altogether
twenty-five guns, and on the cliffs towards the sea an unfinished
redoubt was placed, and a large force of infantry and artillery
held the position. It was presumed by the Russian commanders that
the precipitous character of the hill was a sufficient defence to
their left flank. In this expectation they were doomed to bitter
disappointment, as the sequel will show. The immediate banks of
the river were covered with vineyards and plantations, affording
excellent shelter for the Russian riflemen, who were stationed
there in strong force. The bridge carrying the main road across the
river was destroyed, and the village of Burliuk, at its northern
extremity, was in flames, to prevent its being made a point of
attack by the Allies.

The effect on our men was almost miraculous. The sight of the
foe strongly entrenched, and determined to wait their attack,
stimulated them in an extraordinary degree. Fatigued as they were
by the labours they had undergone,--despondent from their five
nights’ melancholy bivouac on the wet earth, it seemed as if a new
life were suddenly infused into them. Diarrhœa and dysentery had
not quite departed from their ranks, and many had returned to the
vessels, unable to accompany the march. But when they stood on the
hill-tops on that memorable morn, and saw the tents of the Russian
army, not a man but felt the strength of a giant, and burned with
a fierce desire to cross bayonets with the enemy. Many a brave
fellow, who had staggered thus far leaning on a comrade’s arm,
and ready to drop behind and perish by the wayside, begged for a
draught of brandy, and then, forgetting his weakness, and deriving
new strength from the occasion, shouldered his musket, took his
wonted position among his comrades, and marched bravely to the
encounter.

Although the spot where they had bivouacked was only three miles
distant from the river, it was mid-day by the time the allied
armies had reached its banks, and were drawn up in battle array. It
had been arranged by the generals that the French should commence
the attack, and they occupied the extreme right of the extended
line. The division commanded by General Bosquet, including those
renowned warriors, the African Zouaves, rested upon the sea, and
the left of their army consisted of Prince Napoleon’s division.
Joining this wing of our allies, the veteran Sir De Lacy Evans was
posted with the Second Division, supported by the Third Division
under Sir Richard England. Sir George Brown’s Light Division came
next; and the Duke of Cambridge led his magnificent body of Guards
and Highlanders to the extreme left, as a support to Sir George
Brown. Sir George Cathcart had the important but less showy duty
of acting as a reserve, and, in conjunction with the cavalry under
the Earl of Cardigan, guarding the attacking forces from any sudden
_coup_ by the Cossacks, who were hovering in suspicious proximity
to our rear.

Such was the army, composed of the choicest troops, and led by the
most experienced commanders of France and England, which stood
prepared to attempt the dislodgment of the Russians from their
strongly-fortified position. Prince Menschikoff, the Russian
commander,--the same who, in his character of diplomatist, had
been the agent through whom the first insult had been offered to
Turkey,--now, by a singular destiny, was the first general upon
whom it devolved to measure swords with the military champions whom
that insult had called into the field. His army numbered about
54,000 men, so that numerically the opposing forces were very
nearly matched; but the Russians had the advantage of their almost
impregnable position, to approach which a river must be forded,
broken ground crossed, and steep hills ascended. In addition, they
were abundantly provided with guns, which were so positioned as to
sweep the ground over which the attacking force must pass, while
the Allies had but a small force of artillery. So confident was
Menschikoff in his advantages, that he did not scruple to boast
his ability to hold his position for at least three weeks against
any force that could be brought against him. A number of ladies
and civilians from Sebastopol had also assembled on the heights to
witness the defeat and utter rout of the invaders.

The plan of the allied commanders was that the French should
make a vigorous attack upon the Russian left, and when they had
succeeded in driving them in upon the main body, the English,
taking advantage of the confusion, were to cross the river, and
endeavour to force the centre of the position. The enemy, we have
already said, had considered that their left was sufficiently
protected by the precipitous nature of the cliffs, which rendered
them almost inaccessible; but it appears they had not calculated on
the activity of the troops to whom they were opposed. The steamers
of the allied fleets, shortly before ten o’clock, commenced a
vigorous shelling of these heights, and soon drove back the small
force of the enemy which occupied them. The mouth of the river was
very narrow, and Captain Peel had moored a boat across the stream,
which materially facilitated the passage of the French soldiers.
The Zouaves, thoroughly seasoned and trained to the emergencies
of guerilla warfare in Algeria, stealthily crossed the river, and
commenced the ascent of the almost perpendicular cliffs, clinging
like goats to the rocks, and finding a precarious foothold where
probably no other soldiers in the world could have maintained their
position. While they were thus approaching the plateau, the main
body of the French army dashed through the river, exposed to a
galling fire from the Russian riflemen,--who were hidden in the
vineyards and plantations,--and desperately fighting, struggled up
the hills. Meanwhile, the gallant Zouaves had reached the top of
the cliffs, and, rapidly forming into line, charged the Russians,
paralyzed by their sudden appearance, and drove them back. But
in achieving this desperate feat, they had separated themselves
from the main body, and cut off the possibility of retreat. The
unfinished redoubt, which we have already mentioned, now opened
a deadly fire on their ranks; and had it not been for the timely
arrival of General Bosquet and the remainder of the division, who
had succeeded in reaching the plateau, scarcely a Zouave would
have remained to tell the tale of that gallant achievement. Prince
Napoleon, too, had by this time crossed the stream, and arrived at
the scene of action, and the indefatigable French artillerists had
succeeded, with immense difficulty, in dragging a few guns up the
steep hill-side.

Animated by these reinforcements, the brave Zouaves gallantly
charged the Russian lines, now concentrated nearer the main body,
and advanced towards the redoubt whose guns had inflicted such loss
in their ranks. Two of their number, Lieutenant Poitevin and a
sergeant, rushed in advance of their comrades, and leaping upon the
works, planted the French flag on the redoubt. But they paid dearly
for their temerity. The shouts of the French soldiers, hailing
this gallant deed, had scarcely reached their ears, when they fell
mortally wounded beneath the flag they had raised.

Taken by surprise by this desperate assault upon his left wing,
Prince Menschikoff hastily detached considerable reinforcements
from his main body to the succour of the embarrassed regiments
yielding to the prowess of their French antagonists. Then the
battle waged fiercely: the French, with all the chivalry of their
race, gallantly charged the Russian masses, and at the bayonet’s
point forced them to retreat. The enemy’s artillery, however,
poured a tremendous fire into the ranks of our allies, and for
a time the issue of the contest seemed doubtful. Some French
regiments of the line were driven back, so deadly was the fire to
which they were exposed; and nothing but the unflinching gallantry
of the troops who were enabled to hold their ground, prevented them
from being ignominiously precipitated from the cliffs they had so
adventurously scaled.

Marshal St. Arnaud, alarmed for the safety of his soldiers,
hundreds of whom were lying dead around him, so fatal were the
volleys from the Russian guns and so sure the aim of the riflemen,
hastily despatched an aide-de-camp to the English commander,
calling upon him to bring his troops into action without a moment’s
delay. “We are massacred,” was the message--certainly not the words
which Napoleon, or Murat, or Ney, would have used when attacking
an enemy considerably less in force than themselves; for, be it
remembered, Menschikoff still held the centre of the position with
the main body of the army, which had not yet been brought into
action. At half-past one o’clock the order to advance was given to
the English army. The soldiers, who had been lying down, so as not
to expose themselves unnecessarily to the fire of the enemy, sprang
to their feet, and rapidly formed into line. Sir G. Brown’s Light
Division, and the Second Division, under Sir De Lacy Evans, were
the first to dash into the stream, and through a perfect shower
of balls from the riflemen concealed in the gardens, and heavier
missiles from the batteries above, reached the opposite bank.

Since the commencement of the French attack, our artillery had
been throwing shot into the Russian redoubts, and under cover of
this cannonade, and the accurate fire of the Rifle Brigade, which
protected our advance, the two leading divisions succeeded in
crossing the stream, though not without great loss. The Russians
had previously marked out the range of their guns, so that they
were enabled to pour their volleys into our brigades, as they
advanced to the stream, with fatal precision. The burning village
of Burliuk, in front of the position occupied by Sir De Lacy Evans,
necessitated the separation of his division. General Pennefather
led the First Brigade and a portion of the Second across the river
to the right of the village; the remainder, under General Adams,
crossing to the left. The Light Division struggled manfully up
the bank, which was rugged and precipitous. The ford was deep and
dangerous, and as the men, drenched with water, scrambled up the
banks, scores of their number fell back into the stream pierced
by the fatal rifle bullet. But the blood of the gallant fellows
was flowing hotly in their veins; those who, in other times, had
borne the shock of battles, felt renewed the old spirit which had
made them conquerors at Vimiera and at Waterloo; those who for the
first time trod the fatal field felt an indescribable and fierce
courage, which the sight of danger and of death infuses into most
men. Six months of inaction and passive suffering were about to
be consummated by a glorious victory, which should crown them as
conquering heroes or immortalize their death. They had stood long
“like greyhounds on the slips, straining upon the start;” now
“the game was afoot,” and the old fire of English chivalry was
rekindled, and burnt with as glowing a flame as of yore.

Quickly forming into line, and opening a sharp fire of musketry,
the gallant Light Division rapidly advanced towards the conical
hill opposite to which they had crossed, and immediately beneath
the guns of the great redoubt. As they passed through the
vineyards, the soldiers plucked and eagerly ate large bunches of
the luscious Crimean grapes, which allayed their burning thirst,
and somewhat cooled the mad fever of their excitement. Sir George
Brown gallantly led the charge, and, mounted on a white horse,
was a conspicuous mark for the enemy. The 7th Royal Fusiliers and
the 23rd Welsh Fusiliers were among the first in the mad career.
“Hurrah for the Royal Welsh! Well done! I will remember you!”
shouted Sir George Brown; and animated by his voice and example,
the gallant regiment dashed up the hill. Then there opened a sheet
of fire, and when the smoke lifted, the 7th was broken, and a
long line of dead marked the path of the fatal missiles. For a
moment the brave soldiers struggled onwards, and then, blinded and
confused, fell back to re-form. The Welsh Fusiliers, regardless
of the fierce volleys, still pressed onwards. Once they paused,
as Sir George Brown fell at their head, and rolled heavily on the
blood-stained ground. In an instant he was up again unhurt, and
cheering the men to the charge. His horse had fallen, pierced
by eleven shots, but he was unhurt! They had reached the first
stockade, had even planted their flag upon the works, when a shout
was heard--“Cease firing; the French are in front!” Their gallant
chief, Colonel Chester, rushing to the front, exclaimed, “No! no!
on, lads!” As he spoke he fell mortally wounded. Then the regiment,
confused by the contrary orders, and disheartened, _did_ fall
back; and the Russians, returning to the guns from which the brave
fellows had driven them, opened a fire which left a long line of
dead through their columns. Nine officers and about one hundred men
were stretched upon the field. The other regiments of the Light
Brigade, the 19th, 33rd, 77th, and 88th, emulated the courage
of the gallant Welshmen, who, after a moment’s breathing-time,
re-formed, and joined once more in the heroic assault.

Onward swept that magnificent charge, officers and men vying with
each other who should be foremost to avenge their comrades’ death.
But before they reached the guns, Prince Menschikoff had formed a
compact mass of Russian infantry on the summit of the hill, which
now advanced with level bayonets against our exhausted battalions.
Breathless from their rapid charge up the hill, diminished in
numbers, and fatigued from their almost superhuman exertions,
they were unable to resist the shock, and, desperately contesting
every inch of ground, slowly yielded to the enormous weight of
the Russian columns. The gallant 33rd, the Duke of Wellington’s
regiment, displayed a prowess excelled by none. Their colours were
borne proudly to the last, and ever in the spot of the greatest
danger. The Queen’s colours, when the fight was over, showed
fourteen bullet-holes, and the regimental colours eleven. Nineteen
sergeants fell around their standards, defending to the last the
honour of their regiment, and preserving the fame so identified
with the career of the departed warrior whose name it bore.

While the heroes of the Light Division were thus nobly performing
their part, Sir De Lacy Evans and General England were gallantly
bringing their divisions into action. They had forced a passage,
with great difficulty, and exposed to a most destructive fire,
somewhat to the left of their compatriots of Sir George Brown’s
division, and, breaking through the obstacles which awaited them
on the bank, rapidly advanced up the hill. The 55th and 95th
encountered a tremendous fire, which they returned with vigour from
their muskets, while our artillery did good service by an energetic
discharge of shot and shell into the enemy’s lines. Major Rose,
Captains Butler and Scham, fell to rise no more, and many other
officers were severely wounded; 123 killed and wounded were the
contribution of this regiment to the day’s slaughter.

As the 95th charged up the hill, one of the most affecting episodes
of that fierce encounter--so full of incidents, of unsurpassed
courage, and pathetic scenes--occurred. Early in the charge,
Captain Eddington, a young officer, fell wounded, a ball passing
through his chest. The regiment, unable to stand against the
scathing fire to which they were exposed, fell back to re-form,
and left the wounded officer on the ground. In full view of the
regiment, a Russian rifleman advanced, and kneeling by his side,
appeared to be about to offer his canteen to his lips. A thrill
passed through the ranks, at the spectacle of a soldier exposing
his own life thus for the purpose of alleviating the sufferings of
a dying enemy. No gun would have been pointed against that man, no
bayonet levelled at his life. It seemed one of those incidents that
show the better feelings of humanity are not quite extinguished by
the breath of war. But what was their horror when the rifleman,
laying aside his canteen, levelled his piece and deliberately blew
out the brains of the dying man! Among those who witnessed this
cowardly assassination was a younger brother of the captain who
had recently exchanged into the regiment, that he might share death
and danger with his brother, whom he tenderly loved. Maddened by
the spectacle of his brother’s murder, the young lieutenant sprang
forward, shouting with frantic energy to the men to follow and
avenge the deed. One loud yell of execration burst from the lips
of the soldiers, and bounding onwards, they rushed after their
leader. Waving his sword above his head, the gallant young man was
a conspicuous mark, and in another moment fell headlong, pierced by
a dozen bullets. Thus the two brothers, so fondly attached in life,
mingled their blood on that fatal hillside--among thousands of the
slain perhaps the most generally and deeply mourned.

At length Sir De Lacy Evans, who had received a severe contusion
on his shoulder, rallied his men, and led them victors to the
summit of the hill, silencing one of the batteries which had done
such execution upon the gallant fellows of the Light Division.
Sir Richard England’s division had fought--to use the language
of one who shared in that charge--“like devils,” and surmounting
every impediment, though not without dreadful loss, joined their
gallant comrades. Everywhere the Russians were driven back by the
irresistible bayonets of the British, and the conquerors literally
marched through paths of blood to victory.

As yet we have not detailed the part borne by the magnificent
First Division,--the very flower of the British army. The Duke
of Cambridge had led his Guards and Highlanders across the Alma,
to the left of the Light Division, and rapidly advanced to its
assistance. As they ascended the hill, they encountered Sir George
Brown’s regiments slowly yielding to the immense impetus of the
Russian charge. Opening their ranks, they allowed their comrades to
pass and re-form in their rear, and then the enemy for the first
time was confronted with the most redoubtable infantry soldiers in
the world. Then began the most desperate hand-to-hand conflict yet
witnessed. The Scots Fusiliers had hurried to the rescue without
waiting to form properly, and for a brief space were confused.
But the individual courage of the members of that distinguished
corps never for an instant was found deficient. Surrounded by
the enemy, they fought with undaunted valour. Viscount Chewton,
a distinguished young captain, who had gained renown in both
services, having been originally a midshipman, and having borne
an honourable part in the Indian campaign, dashed forward, and,
waving his bearskin, shouted to them to advance. Thirteen other
officers, with reckless bravery, followed his example, and in a few
minutes eleven of their number were wounded. The gallant Chewton
had his leg broken by a ball, and fell within fifty yards of the
redoubt. Before he could be rescued, several Russians attacked
the fallen man, and beat him savagely with the butt-ends of their
muskets, others stabbing him at the same time with their bayonets.
A strong man, he struggled desperately; and when at length rescued
and borne from the field, his body was found to be almost covered
with wounds. He lingered for a few days, and then expired. Two
young officers, Lieutenants Lindsay and Thistlethwayte, who bore
the colours, were surrounded by the enemy, and, except the four
colour-sergeants, isolated from their comrades. The sergeants were
one by one struck down; and then these gallant young men, back
to back, kept the foe at bay, and, almost miraculously escaping
unhurt, cut their way through and carried their colours safely to
the top of the hill.

Meanwhile the Light Division had re-formed their lines, and now
returned to the charge, in the footsteps of the dauntless Guards.
In vain broad sheets of fire poured through the ranks--no man
flinched. The flag which the Fusiliers had planted on the redoubt
was still there, and pointed out the path they were to tread. Their
royal leader proved himself worthy of his charge, and encouraged
by his example the valour of his men. The Russians quailed before
the tremendous onset; and when the Highlanders, who had reserved
their fire, came dashing up to the front, and, after discharging
a tremendous volley, charged at the bayonet’s point, the rout
was complete. Thu enemy fled terror-stricken, and the Guards
and Highlanders together leaped into the redoubt, the gunners
precipitately hastening after their flying comrades.

At the summit of the hill a brief stand was made, and it seemed
as if the contest were about to be renewed; but the Highlanders,
levelling their bayonets, advanced at a rapid pace, and the enemy,
dashing down their accoutrements and arms, fled, like frightened
sheep, down the declivity.

Meantime the French had driven back the Russian left wing upon the
main body, and now brought to bear, with deadly effect, their guns
upon the retreating foe; and the second and third divisions of our
army arrived upon the scene. The victory was complete: a great
army, in a position of immense strength, had been ignominiously
defeated, in less than three hours, by the sheer valour of English
and French soldiers. True, we had paid dearly for our victory; but
the annals of the British army do not record a nobler achievement.

We were unable to pursue the fugitives--our cavalry was too weak
in numbers to be detached from the main body of the army: had we
been stronger in that branch of the service, the victory of the
Alma might have been equivalent to the conquest of the Crimea. We
afterwards ascertained that Sebastopol was emptied of its garrison
to strengthen the army, and had we been in a position to follow
the retreating forces, we might have inflicted a blow on Russian
strength from which it would not in all probability have soon
recovered; as it was, the Allies remained masters of the field, and
the defeated Menschikoff fled towards Baktchi-Serai, leaving behind
him, according to his own admission, 1,762 dead, and 2,720 wounded.
Russian assertions are not the most trustworthy, especially
when the circumstances are unfavourable to themselves, and the
probability is that the loss was really much greater. The English
had 353 killed, and 1,612 wounded, many of whom afterwards died of
their injuries. Our allies lost 256 killed, and 1,087 wounded.

On the bloody field reposed the victors when that day’s dreadful
work was done: amid the dead and dying--the lifebreath painfully
passing from the lips of wounded friend and foe--some of our bravo
fellows, pillowed on their knapsacks, slept a fitful sleep; some
crept among the heaps of dying, searching for friend or brother,
and some supported the drooping head and administered a draught of
water to the fevered lips of wounded comrade or dying enemy. The
fight was over, the lust of blood satisfied, and all the better
qualities of manhood, mercy and forgiveness, appeared beneath that
setting sun. Sometimes, as they stooped to assist a dying enemy,
the Muscovite, trained to treachery, with a final effort, would
discharge a pistol at their heads; and then the old war spirit was
once more aroused, and with clubbed musket, or deadly bayonet, the
malevolent Russian was sent to his account. The sailors, who had
watched the progress of the battle from the ships, when they saw
that victory was ours, swarmed ashore, and hurried to the scene of
strife. There they bore the wounded to the surgeon’s quarters, and
to the ships, with the tenderness of women. Little drummer-boys
might be seen among the prostrate heroes, comforting and rendering
assistance with a care and zeal beyond their years. A fatigue party
was ordered on service to bury the dead; and the surgeons, with
bare arms and splashed with blood, strove by their skill and energy
to alleviate the sufferings and save the lives of the poor fellows
brought to them.

A frightful spectacle was that hill-side of the Alma, on the
evening of the renowned 20th of September, 1854. England’s best and
bravest lay dead, their pale faces lit by the setting sun: some
retained the expression of that intense energy which bore them
fearlessly to the mouths of the Russian guns; some, with faces
calm and beautiful as an infant’s, seemed peacefully sleeping, and
smiling as they slept: others, with limbs contracted, and features
frightfully distorted, bore witness to the fierce agonies of the
death-struggle. Russian and English and French lay commingled, as
they fell in the deadly struggle; and among the heaps of corpses,
many in whom the spark of life yet lingered, lay miserably
groaning, or faintly crawled with shattered limbs, in search of
help. Some of the bodies were headless, the brains scattered around
the bloody trunk: and others were so frightfully mutilated that it
was difficult to recognize any trace of humanity. While some of
our men helped to bear the wounded from the field, and bury the
corpses of the slain, others hovered about, and plundered the dead
of clothes, arms and such matters as could be carried away; the
sailors especially were active in securing trophies of war. Russian
orders and crosses, Russian arms, and even the black bread from
the soldiers’ knapsacks, were eagerly sought; the boots were real
prizes, and the seamen, who would heartily lend a hand to succour
a wounded comrade, or even a foe, had no delicacy in appropriating
the clothing of the dead. An expeditious mode of measurement,
by which they secured the articles which would best fit, caused
some amusement, even at such a time. Jack, seating himself at the
feet of a dead Russian, placed the sole of his foot against that
of the corpse; if they agreed in size, the boots were at once
appropriated; if otherwise, the critical mariner proceeded to
another selection.

For two days the armies remained upon the field; had they marched
at once, it is more than probable, nay, almost certain, they might
have entered Sebastopol with but little resistance. Marshal St.
Arnaud wished to make an immediate advance; but Lord Raglan refused
to leave his wounded untended on the field. Though possibly we
ultimately lost by this delay, we can scarcely blame a general who
showed such a fine humanity even among the horrors of warfare. Our
English courage is of the old chivalric sort--we fight as men,
for great principles, not for the lust of conquest: our soldiers
are every one a treasure of immense value, rightly used, not to
be cast away to perish when their first use is passed. Human life
is to Englishmen intensely sacred: we cheerfully lay it down when
demanded, and in proportion do we honour and cherish those who have
perilled it in our cause. A single life wilfully sacrificed for a
mere strategical advantage would have been a stain on our English
honour, which we should not speedily have forgiven.

At early morning, on the 23rd of September, the Allies turned their
backs on the memorable heights. Two men, strong and unwounded,
remained upon the field, and watched their departure; and in all
that proud array, flushed with victory, there were none who bore
more heroic hearts. Upwards of 200 wounded Russians still lay upon
the field; and Dr. Thompson, surgeon of the 44th regiment, and his
servant, volunteered to remain, and administer to their wants.
Every moment increased their loneliness and their danger; for
predatory bands of Cossack horsemen still hovered around the scene,
against whose revengeful lances the plea of mercy and Christian
charity would have been but an ineffectual shield; and yet these
two brave men quailed not in their mission, and many a dying foe
had his last pangs soothed, and parting agonies alleviated, by the
ministrations of these good Samaritans of peace.”


ALMANZA.--This battle was fought, April 4th, 1707, between the
confederate forces under the Earl of Galway, and the French and
Spaniards, commanded by James Fitzjames, Duke of Berwick, the
illegitimate son of James II of England, when most of the English
were killed or made prisoners of war, having been abandoned by the
Portuguese at the first charge.


ALMEIDA.--This was an important position, as a frontier town of
Portugal, in the Peninsular war. Massena laid siege to it August
15th, 1810, and the governor capitulated August 27th following. The
French crossed into Spain, leaving a garrison at Almeida, blockaded
by the British, April 6th, 1811. It was evacuated by the French,
May 11th, of the same year. In the end Wellington compelled Massena
to retire from Portugal, but the route of the French was tracked by
horrid desolation.


ALNEY.--This was rather a single combat than a battle, between
Edmund Ironside and Canute the Great, in sight of their armies. The
latter was wounded, when he proposed a division of the kingdom, the
south part falling to Edmund, A.D. 1016; but this prince having
been murdered at Oxford, shortly after the treaty, according to
some by the treachery of Aldric Streon, Canute was left in the
peaceable possession of the whole kingdom, A.D. 1017.


AMBOYNA.--This place is celebrated for the memorable massacre of
the English factors by the Dutch, February 17th, 1623; they were
cruelly tortured and put to death on an accusation of a conspiracy
to expel the Dutch from the island, where the two nations resided
and jointly shared in the pepper trade of Java. Amboyna was seized
by the English, February 16th, 1796, but was restored by the treaty
of Amiens in 1802. It was again seized by the British, February
17th, 1810, and was restored at the peace of 1814.


AMHERSTBURG.--Fought between the Canadians and Americans. In
July, 1812, the American General Hull, with a force of 2500 men,
crossed over from Detroit, and entered the Western district, where
he issued a proclamation inviting the inhabitants to join his
standard. At this time the British force on the frontier was merely
nominal, and could offer little resistance. As soon as General
Brock heard of this invasion, he prorogued the Parliament, then
sitting at Toronto, and proceeded westward. He arrived on the 12th
of August at Amherstburg, where he mustered about 330 regulars, and
400 militia and six hundred Indians. Hull, whose force, weakened
by sickness and sending away two detachments, is said at this time
not to have exceeded 800 effective men, retreated across the river,
withdrawing the cannon prepared for the siege of Amherstburg, and
shut himself up in Detroit. General Brock, instantly crossing over,
advanced upon the fort and prepared for an immediate assault. A
white flag, however, appeared from the walls, and a capitulation
was signed, by which the whole American force, including the
detachments, were made prisoners and sent to Montreal. Loud and
just complaints were made by the Americans against the conduct of
Hull, who was afterwards tried and condemned to be shot, but was
spared on account of his age and former services.


AMIENS, PEACE OF.--Between Great Britain, Holland, France and
Spain, signed March 27th, 1801.


AMSTERDAM.--Capital of Holland, surrendered to the King of Prussia,
when he invaded Holland in favor of the Stadtholder in 1737. The
French were admitted, without resistance, January 18th, 1795. The
ancient government restored in November, 1813.


ANDRÉ, MAJOR.--An adjutant general of the British army, taken
prisoner by the Americans whilst returning in disguise from a
secret expedition to the American General Arnold; hanged October
2nd, 1780.


ANGRIA.--A pirate’s fort on the coast of Malabar, invested by
Admiral Watson, and destroyed 1756.


ANHOLT, ISLAND OF.--Owing to the injury done by the Danish cruisers
to British commerce, this island was taken possession of by
England. The Danes made an attempt to regain it with a force of
4000, but were gallantly repulsed. The British force opposed to
them did not amount to more than 150 men, yet triumphed in a close
and desperate engagement, March 14th, 1811.


ANJOU, OR BLAUGÉ.--This battle was fought between the English and
French armies April 3rd, 1421. The French were commanded by the
Dauphin of France, who defeated the English, on whose side the Duke
of Clarence and 1500 men perished on the field; the Duke was slain
by Sir Allan Swinton, a Scotch knight, who commanded a company
at arms; and the earls of Somerset, Dorset, and Huntingdon were
taken prisoners. This was the first battle that turned the tide of
success against the English in their first wars with France.


ANTOIGN.--This battle was fought between the central army of the
French and the Allies, August 13th, 1792, in which 4500 Austrians
and Prussians were killed, 3,500 taken prisoners, and 600 emigrants
shut up in Longwy; 900 French were killed in the action; 30 pieces
of battering cannon and howitzers, with all the baggage of the
combined army, were captured.


AQUILEIA.--In the first battle fought there, Constantine II
was slain by Constans towards the close of March, A.D. 340. In
the second, Maximus was defeated and slain by Theodosius, July
28th. A.D. 388. In the third, Theodosius defeated Eugenius and
Arbogastes, the Gaul, and remained sole emperor of the Roman world,
September 6th, A.D. 394. Eugenius was put to death, and Arbogastes
died by his own hand, mortified by his overthrow.


ARBELA.--The third and decisive battle fought between Alexander
the Great and Darius Codomanus, king of Persia, which decided the
fate of Persia, B.C. 331. The army of Darius consisted of 1,000,000
of foot and 100,000 horse; the Macedonian army amounted to only
40,000 foot and 7,000 horse. The gold and silver found in the
cities of Susa, Babylon, and Persepolis, which fell into the hands
of Alexander, after this victory, amounted to £30,000,000, and the
jewels and other precious spoil, belonging to Darius, sufficed to
load 20,000 mules and 5,000 camels. At the battle of Arbela, the
Persians lost 300,000, or as some, with greater probability, say
40,000, whilst the Macedonians had only 500 slain. Darius betook
himself to flight, and was slain by Bessus, Governor of Bactria,
who was punished for his perfidy in the following manner:--He was
taken and bound naked, hand and foot, and four trees having been by
main force bent down to the ground, and one of the criminal’s limbs
tied to each of them, the trees, as they were suffered to return to
their natural position, flew back with prodigious violence, each
carrying with it one of the limbs.


ARCOLA.--This battle was fought between the French, under General
Bonaparte, and the Austrians, under Field-Marshal Alvinzy,
November 19th, 1796. The result of this bloody conflict, which was
fought for eight successive days, was the loss on the part of the
Austrians of 12,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, with 4
flags and 18 guns.


ARGENTARIA.--This battle was one of the most renowned of its times.
It was fought A.D. 378, in Alsace, between the Allemanni and the
Romans, the former being defeated by the latter, with the loss of
more than 35,000 men, out of their whole army of 40,000.


ARKLOW.--This battle was fought June 10th, 1798, between the
insurgent Irish, amounting to 31,000, and a small regular force of
British, which signally defeated them.


ARMADA.--Philip, king of Spain, after some years of preparation
in all the ports of his extensive dominions, had assembled in the
river Tagus a fleet of 130 large vessels, carrying nearly 30,000
men, and the Prince of Parma had collected, in the ports of the
Netherlands, ships and boats for the embarkation of an equal number
of his veteran troops. To resist these formidable preparations,
Elizabeth had only a navy of 34 ships, but the nobility and the
seaports fitted out such a number of vessels at their own expense,
that there soon was at sea a fleet of 180 vessels of all kinds,
large and small. The chief command was committed to Howard of
Effingham, Lord High-Admiral of England, and Drake, Hawkins, and
Frobisher held commands under him. The fleet was stationed at
Plymouth. A land army of 30,000 men was posted at Tilbury, in
Essex, under the command of Lord Leicester, for the protection of
the city of London, while another of equal strength was destined
for the guard of the Queen’s person.

On the 29th of May, 1588, the Invincible Armada (i.e. _Fleet_), as
it was proudly styled, sailed from the Tagus, but owing to a storm
which it encountered, it did not appear off the coast of England
till the 19th of July. On that day it was descried near the Lizard
point, in Cornwall, by a Scottish pirate, who made all the sail he
could to convey the intelligence to Plymouth, and the Admiral got
his fleet out to sea with as little delay as possible.

As the Spanish Admiral had orders not to engage in hostilities
till he should have seen the Prince of Parma’s army landed in
England, he took no notice of the English fleet, but steadily
directed his course up the Channel. The Armada sailed in the form
of a crescent, of which the horns were seven miles asunder. Its
motion was slow, though every sail was spread; “The winds,” says
the historian, “being as it were tired with carrying the ships,
and the ocean groaning beneath their weight.” The English ships,
which were smaller and more active than those of the Armada,
followed to harass it and cut off stragglers, and during the six
days which it took to reach Calais, it suffered considerably
from their persevering attacks. At Calais the Admiral learned
that the Prince could not embark his troops for want of stores
and sailors, and while he waited, the Armada narrowly escaped
destruction from fire-ships sent into it by the English. A violent
tempest succeeded, which drove it among the shoals on the coast of
Zealand; and a council of war determined that, as it was now in too
shattered a condition to attempt anything against the enemy, it
were best to return to Spain without delay; but as the passage down
the Channel was so full of hazard, it was resolved to sail round
Scotland and Ireland. The Armada, therefore, set sail; the English
pursued it as far as Flamborough-head, where want of ammunition
forced them to give over the chase. Storms, however, assailed the
Armada, and several of the vessels were cast away on the coast of
Ireland, where the crews were butchered by the barbarous natives.
The total loss was 30 large ships and 10,000 men. Philip received
the intelligence with great tranquillity, and ordered public thanks
to God and the saints for the calamity not having been greater.

In this great danger of herself and kingdom, Elizabeth had shown
the spirit of a heroine. She visited the camp at Tilbury, rode
along the lines mounted on a white palfrey, and cheered the
soldiers by her animated language. When the danger was over she
went in state to St. Paul’s, and publicly returned thanks to
Heaven. She granted pensions to the disabled seamen, created the
Admiral, Earl of Nottingham, and bestowed honours and rewards on
his officers. The sudden death of Leicester, shortly after he had
disbanded his army, intercepted the favours she might have designed
for him.


ARMED NEUTRALITY.--A confederacy of the Northern powers against
England, commenced by the Empress of Russia, in 1780. It resulted
in the destruction of the Danish fleet before Copenhagen, April,
1801. This gave England the acknowledged claim to the empire of the
sea. The neutrality was soon after dissolved.


ARMAGH.--This battle was fought A.D. 1318, against Edward Bruce,
who was defeated, taken, and beheaded at Dundalk, and with him 6200
Scots lost their lives.


ARMISTICES, CELEBRATED.--The most celebrated armistices recorded
in Modern History are the following:--That of Leobon, in 1797,
was signed a few days after the victory of Tagliamento, gained
by Napoleon I over Prince Charles. It was Bonaparte himself who
proposed it. This armistice was followed by the preliminaries of
Leobon and the treaty of Campo-Formio. The armistice of Stayer,
concluded on the 25th December, 1800, took place after the battle
of Hohenlinden. It was signed by Moreau, on the 16th January, 1801.
Brune signed the armistice of Treviso, which delivered into the
hands of the French the fortified places of Ferrara, Peschiera and
Porto-Legnano. He was reproached with not having demanded Mantua.
In 1805, Murat concluded an armistice at Hollebrun, which saved the
Russian army, and was the cause of a severe letter written to him
by the Emperor. On the very evening of the battle of Austerlitz,
the Emperor of Austria demanded and obtained an armistice, which
was preliminary to the peace of Presburg. Another armistice, also
celebrated, was signed after the battle of Friedland, and led to
the peace of Tilsit. At Wagram took place the armistice of Zoaim,
which was the prelude to the peace of Vienna, 1809. Lastly, on
the 4th of June, 1813, after Bautzen, was signed the armistice of
Pleiswitz, which the Emperor Napoleon I himself considered a fault.


ARTILLERY.--The first piece was invented by Schwartz, a German
Cordelier monk, soon after the invention of gunpowder, in 1330.
First used by the English by Edward III at the battle of Crecy, in
1346, when that king had 4 pieces of cannon, which greatly aided in
his gaining the battle. Brass cannon, first used 1635--improvements
made by Browne in 1728, and have continued ever since.


ASCALON.--This battle was fought A.D. 1192. Richard I of England,
commanding the Christian army, met and defeated the Sultan
Saladin’s army of 300,000 Saracens and other infidels. No less than
40,000 of the enemy were left dead on the field of battle, and the
victorious Richard marched to Jerusalem.


ASPERNE.--This battle was fought between the Austrian army under
the archduke Charles, and the French, on the 21st of May, 1809,
and two following days. In this most sanguinary fight the loss
of the former army exceeded 20,000 men, and the loss of the
French was more than 30,000; it ended in the defeat of Bonaparte,
who commanded in person, and was the severest check he had yet
received. The bridge of the Danube was destroyed and his retreat
endangered; but the success of the Austrians had no beneficial
effect on the subsequent prosecution of the war.


ASSAYE.--Fought September 23rd, 1803, between the Duke of
Wellington (then General Arthur Wellesley) and Scindiah and the
Rajah of Berar. This was Wellington’s _first_ great battle in
which he opposed a force fully ten times greater than his own. In
Stocqueler’s Life of the “Iron Duke” we have the following account
of this battle: “Scindiah’s army having changed its position,
occupied the whole space between the Kaitna and Assaye, with a
great number of guns in front, and commenced a murderous cannonade.
The small number of British guns was quite incapable of coping
with this vast battery. General Wellesley, therefore, directed his
infantry to advance with the bayonet.

With the determined courage which had given them victory at
Seringapatam, in the actions with Dhoondia Waugh, and on the walls
of Ahmednuggur, the line dashed forward, carried the guns on the
right, and approached Assaye. At this moment a cloud of Mahratta
horse had stolen round the village, and fell upon them--sabre to
bayonet--with characteristic fury. The 74th regiment wavered--the
charge was too much for them.

Colonel Maxwell of the 19th Light Dragoons saw that the critical
moment had arrived, _Forward!_ was the word. Falling upon the
Mahratta cavalry, the Dragoons gave the British infantry time to
rally, cut up the Mahratta horse, pushed through the Scindiah’s
left, and threw the whole of that part of the army into confusion.
In the meantime the enemy’s centre, which had remained untouched,
closed in upon the ground before occupied by their left wing, and
uniting with such of their infantry and artillery as had been
passed over unhurt by the British cavalry, formed itself into a
kind of crescent, with its right horn resting on the river Jouah,
and its left on the village of Assaye; thus presenting themselves
in a fresh position on the flank of our infantry, on which, having
collected a considerable number of guns, they recommenced a heavy
fire. The battle was now to be fought over again, with this
difference, that the contending forces had changed sides, and had
the enemy’s horse behaved with the least spirit, while our cavalry
was absent in pursuit of their broken battalions, there is no
guessing what the consequences might have been; but, happily for
General Wellesley, they kept aloof. To oppose the enemy in their
new position, the Sepoy battalion on the right was immediately
advanced against them, but without effect, being obliged to retire.
Another was brought forward and equally repulsed. The cavalry,
having by this time returned from the pursuit, and formed on the
left, and the enemy’s horse having disappeared before them, the
General ordered the 78th regiment and the 7th cavalry up, to head
a fresh attack against the enemy’s infantry and guns, which still
defended their position with obstinacy. No sooner, however, had he
formed the 78th regiment in line, in directing which his horse’s
leg was carried off by a cannon shot, than the enemy without
waiting an attack, commenced their retreat across the Jouah, which
they passed in tolerable order before our troops could come up with
them. Previously to this last attack Colonel Maxwell had requested
and obtained permission to charge a considerable body of infantry
and guns, which having formed part of the reserve, were seen
retiring in good order, along the right bank of the Jouah.

The 19th Dragoons were not long in coming up with the enemy, who
having formed with their left to the Jouah, steadily waited their
approach. The charge was sounded. The Dragoons advanced with
rapidity, amidst a shower of musketry and grape, and had already
got almost within reach of the bayonets of the enemy, who still
gallantly stood their ground.

“At this moment,” writes an officer engaged in the charge, “instead
of dashing among their ranks, I suddenly found my horse swept round
as it were by an eddy torrent. Away we galloped right shoulders
forward, along the whole of the enemy’s line, receiving their fire
as we passed, till having turned our backs on them, we took to our
heels manfully; every one called out _Halt! Halt!_ while nobody
would set the example! till at last a trumpet having sounded, we
pulled up, but in complete disorder, dragoons and native cavalry,
pell-mell. On this occasion Colonel Maxwell fell, pierced by a
grape-shot. He was gallantly leading the charge when he received
his death blow. Having involuntarily checked his horse and thrown
his arm back, when he received his wound, the soldiers immediately
behind him, not knowing the cause, mistook the gesture for a signal
to retire, and did so accordingly. At least this was the reason
afterwards assigned for the failure, and if true, shows how the
fate of armies, and even of nations, may depend on the direction
of a single shot.” Recovering from their disorder, the Dragoons
renewed the charge with terrible effect, and the enemy gave way in
every direction.

Thus closed this memorable battle, one of the most bloody on record
to the victors. Out of about 4500 men in action, upwards of 2000
were either killed or wounded, the former amounting to more than
one-third of the whole number.”


ASSYRIANS AND JEWS.--the Battles, &c., between--B.C. 710.
These battles resulted in the total destruction of the army of
Sennacharib, so graphically described by the Sacred penman--and
afterwards in the destruction of Jerusalem, the overthrow of
Solomon’s Temple, and the exile of the Jews to Babylon, for 70
years.


ATHLONE.--The English army under General Ginckel stormed Athlone,
then a town of prodigious strength--crossing the Shannon in the
face of the Irish army, yet not losing more than 50 men. This bold
and successful enterprise procured for Ginckel the title of Earl of
Athlone, 1691. _See Aughrim._


ATTILA.--Surnamed _The Scourge of God_, ravaged all Europe, A.D.
447. He invaded the Roman empire with an army of 500,000 Huns, and
laid waste all the provinces at Chalons-sur-Marne. Aetius, the
Roman prefect, met him, and defeated him with the loss of 200,000
men. Afterwards he was as signally defeated by Thorismond, King of
the Goths, and died in the midst of his career.


AUERSTADT, BATTLE OF.--In this most sanguinary conflict, between
the French and Prussian armies, October 14th, 1806, the Prussians
were routed on every side, having lost 200 pieces of cannon, 30
standards, and 28,000 prisoners, and leaving 30,000 slain on the
battle field. Both the King of Prussia and Napoleon commanded at
this engagement. The French Emperor immediately afterwards entered
Berlin, from which city he issued his memorable Berlin Decrees.


AUGHRIM, BATTLE OF.--Near Athlone, in Ireland. This battle was
fought, July 12th, 1691, between the Irish, headed by the French
General St. Ruth, and the English under General Ginckel, when the
former lost 7000 men; the latter only 600 killed and 960 wounded.
St. Ruth was slain. This engagement proved decisively fatal to the
interests of James II in Ireland, Ginckel was immediately created
Earl of Athlone; the ball by which St. Ruth was killed is still
preserved suspended in the choir of St. Patrick’s Cathedral, Dublin.


AUGSBURG, BATTLE OF.--Fought between the Imperialists and the
French army, the latter commanded by Moreau; who obtained so
complete a victory, that Augsburg and Munich were opened to him.
It was fought August 26th, 1796; Moreau, September 2nd following,
again defeated the Austrians on the Jun, and again, September 7th,
at Mainburg.


AUSTERLITZ, BATTLE OF.--Fought December 2nd, 1805, between the
French and Austrian armies; gained by the former. Three Emperors
commanded at this battle, Alexander of Russia, Francis of Austria,
and Napoleon of France. The killed and wounded exceeded 40,000 on
the side of the Allies, who lost besides, 40 standards, 150 pieces
of cannon, and many thousands of prisoners. This decisive victory
of the French led to the treaty of Presburg, which was signed
December 26th same year.



B.


BABYLON.--This city was first taken by Ninus, B.C. 2059, then by
Esar-haddon, B.C. 680. Both Darius and Cyrus took the city, the
first through the fidelity of his officer Zopyrus, who having cut
off his nose and ears fled to the Babylonians, and was admitted
within the walls, and found means shortly afterwards to betray the
city--the other by turning the course of the river Euphrates, and
marching his soldiers up the dry bed into the city.


BADAJOS, SIEGE OF.--This important frontier fortress had
surrendered to the French, March 11th, 1811, and was invested
by the British under Lord Wellington, on March 16th, 1812; and
stormed and taken on April following. The siege is one of the most
important in the annals of warfare; for the victory was not only a
glorious military achievement in itself, but it obliged the French,
who had entered Portugal for the purpose of plunder, to commence a
precipitate retreat from that kingdom. For particulars, see Life of
Wellington, and Napier’s Peninsular War.


BADEN, TREATY OF.--Between France and the Emperor, September
7th, 1814. It was erected into a grand duchy of the Rhenish
Confederation in 1806. Its territorial acquisitions, by its
alliance with France, was guaranteed by the Vienna Congress of 1815.


BALAKLAVA, BATTLE OF.--Fought October 25th, 1854. If the exhibition
of the most brilliant valour, of the excess of courage, and of
a daring which would have reflected lustre on the best days of
chivalry can afford full consolation for the disaster of to-day, we
can have no reason to regret the melancholy loss which we sustained
in a contest with a savage and barbarous enemy.

I shall proceed to describe, to the best of my power, what occurred
under my own eyes, and to state the facts which I have heard from
men whose veracity is unimpeachable, reserving to myself the
exercise of the right of private judgment in making public and in
suppressing the details of what occurred on this memorable day.
Before I proceed to my narrative, I must premise that a certain
feeling existed in some quarters that our cavalry had not been
properly handled since they landed in the Crimea, and that they had
lost golden opportunities from the indecision and excessive caution
of their leaders. It was said that our cavalry ought to have been
manœuvred at Bouljanak in one way or in another, according to the
fancy of the critic. It was affirmed, too, that the Light Cavalry
were utterly useless in the performance of one of their most
important duties--the collection of supplies for the army--that
they were “above their business, and too fine gentlemen for their
work;” that our horse should have pushed on after the flying
enemy after the battle of the Alma, to their utter confusion,
and with the certainty of taking many guns and prisoners; and,
above all, that at Mackenzie’s farm first, and at the gorge near
Inkermann, subsequently, they had been improperly restrained
from charging, and had failed in gaining great successes, which
would have entitled them to a full share of the laurels of the
campaign, solely owing to the timidity of the officer in command.
The existence of this feeling was known to many of our cavalry,
and they were indignant and exasperated that the faintest shade of
suspicion should rest on any of their corps. With the justice of
these aspersions they seemed to think they had nothing to do, and
perhaps the prominent thought in their minds was that they would
give such an example of courage to the world, if the chance offered
itself, as would shame their detractors for ever.

In my last I mentioned that several battalions of Russian infantry
had crossed the Tchernaya, and that they threatened the rear of
our position and our communication with Balaklava. Their bands
could be heard playing at night by the travellers along the
Balaklava road to the camp, but they “showed” but little during
the day, and kept up among the gorges and mountain passes through
which the roads to Inkermann, Simpheropol, and the south-east, of
the Crimea wind towards the interior. The position we occupied,
in reference to Balaklava was supposed by most people to be very
strong--even impregnable. Our lines were formed by natural mountain
slopes in the rear, along which the French had made very formidable
entrenchments. Below those entrenchments, and very nearly in a
right line across the valley beneath, are four conical hillocks,
one rising above the other as they recede from our lines; the
furthest, which joins the chain of mountains opposite to our ridges
being named Canrobert’s Hill, from the meeting there of that
General with Lord Raglan after the march to Balaklava. On the top
of each of these hills the Turks had thrown up earthen redoubts,
defended by 250 men each, and armed with two or three guns--some
heavy ship guns--lent by us to them, with one artilleryman in
each redoubt to look after them. These hills cross the valley of
Balaklava at the distance of about two and a half miles from the
town. Supposing the spectator, then, to take his stand on one
of the heights forming the rear of our camp before Sebastopol,
he would see the town of Balaklava, with its scanty shipping,
its narrow strip of water, and its old forts on his right hand;
immediately below he would behold the valley and plain of coarse
meadow land, occupied by our cavalry tents, and stretching from the
base of the ridge on which he stood to the foot of the formidable
heights at the other side; he would see the French trenches lined
with Zouaves a few feet beneath, and distant from him, on the slope
of the hill; a Turkish redoubt lower down, then another in the
valley, then, in a line with it, some angular earthworks, then, in
succession, the other two redoubts up to Canrobert’s Hill. At the
distance of two or two and a half miles across the valley there is
an abrupt rocky mountain range of most irregular and picturesque
formation, covered with scanty brushwood here and there, or rising
into barren pinnacles and _plateaux_ of rock. In outline and
appearance this portion of the landscape is wonderfully like the
Trosachs. A patch of blue sea is caught in between the overhanging
cliff’s of Balaklava as they close in the entrance to the harbour
on the right. The camp of the Marines, pitched on the hill sides
more than 1000 feet above the level of the sea, is opposite to you
as your back is turned to Sebastopol and your right side towards
Balaklava. On the road leading up the valley, close to the entrance
of the town, and beneath these hills, is the encampment of the 93rd
Highlanders.

The cavalry lines are nearer to you below, and are some way in
advance of the Highlanders, but nearer to the town than the Turkish
redoubts. The valley is crossed here and there by small waves of
land. On your left the hills and rocky mountain ranges gradually
close in towards the course of the Tchernaya, till at three or
four miles’ distance from Balaklava, the valley is swallowed up in
a mountain gorge and deep ravines, above which rise tiers after
tiers of desolate whitish rock, garnished now and then by bits of
scanty herbage, and spreading away towards the east and south,
where they attain the Alpine dimensions of the Tschatir Dugh. It
is very easy for an enemy at the Belbek, or in command of the road
of Mackenzies’s farm, Inkermann, Simpheropol, or Bakshiserai,
to debouch through these gorges at any time upon this plain
from the neck of the valley, or to march from Sebastopol by the
Tchernaya, and to advance along it towards Balaklava, till checked
by the Turkish redoubts on the southern side, or by the fire from
the French works on the northern side--_i.e._, the side which,
in relation to the valley to Balaklava, forms the rear of our
position. It was evident enough that Menschikoff and Gortschakoff
had been feeling their way along this route for several days past,
and very probably at night the Cossacks had crept up close to our
picquets, which are not always as watchful as might be desired, and
had observed the weakness of a position far too extended for our
army to defend, and occupied by their despised enemy, the Turks.

At half-past seven o’clock this morning, an orderly came galloping
in to the head-quarters camp from Balaklava, with the news,
that at dawn a strong corps of Russian horse, supported by guns
and battalions of infantry had marched into the valley, and had
already nearly dispossessed the Turks of the redoubt No 1, (that
on Canrobert’ Hill, which is farthest from our lines), and that
they were opening fire on the redoubts Nos. 2, 3, and 4, which
would speedily be in their hands unless the Turks offered a stouter
resistance than they had done already.

Orders were despatched to Sir George Cathcart, and to H.R.H.
the Duke of Cambridge, to put their respective divisions, the
Fourth and the First, in motion for the scene of action; and
intelligence of the advance of the Russians was also furnished to
General Canrobert. Immediately on receipt of the news, the General
commanded General Bosquet to get the Third Division under arms, and
sent a strong body of artillery and some 200 Chasseurs d’Afrique
to assist us in holding the valley. Sir Colin Campbell, who was in
command of Balaklava, had drawn up the 93rd Highlanders a little in
front of the road to the town, at the first news of the advance of
the enemy. The Marines on the heights got under arms; the seamen’s
batteries and Marines’ batteries, on the heights close to the town,
were manned, and the French artillerymen and the Zouaves prepared
for action along their lines. Lord Lucan’s little camp was the
scene of great excitement. The men had not had time to water their
horses; they had not broken their fast from the evening of the day
before, and had barely saddled at the first blast of the trumpet,
when they were drawn up on the slope behind the redoubts in front
of their camp to operate on the enemy’s squadrons. It was soon
evident that no reliance was to be placed on the Turkish infantry
or artillerymen. All the stories we had heard about their bravery
behind stone walls and earthworks proved how differently the
same or similar people fight under different circumstances. When
the Russians advanced, the Turks fired a few rounds at them, got
frightened at the distance of their supports in the rear, looked
round, received a few shots and shell, and then “bolted,” and fled
with an agility quite at variance with common-place notions of
Oriental deportment on the battle-field. But Turks on the Danube
are very different beings from Turks in the Crimea, as it appears
that the Russians of Sebastopol are not at all like the Russians of
Silistria.

Soon after eight o’clock, Lord Raglan and his staff turned out
and cantered towards the rear of our position. The booming of the
artillery, the spattering roll of musketry, were heard rising from
the valley, drowning the roar of the siege guns in front before
Sebastopol. As I rode in the direction of the firing, over the
thistles and large stones which cover the undulating plain that
stretches away towards Balaklava, on a level with the summit of the
ridges above it, I observed a French light infantry regiment (the
27th, I think) advancing with admirable care and celerity from our
right towards the ridge near the telegraph-house, which was already
lined by companies of French infantry, while mounted officers
scampered along its broken outline in every direction.

General Bosquet, a stout soldierlike-looking man, who reminds one
of the old _genre_ of French Generals as depicted at Versailles,
followed, with his staff and a small escort of Hussars, at a
gallop. Faint white clouds rose here and there above the hill from
the cannonade below. Never did the painter’s eye rest on a more
beautiful scene than I beheld from the ridge. The fleecy vapours
still hung around the mountain tops, and mingled with the ascending
volumes of smoke; the patch of sea sparkled freshly in the rays of
the morning sun, but its light was eclipsed by the flashes which
gleamed from the massess of armed men below.

Looking to the left towards the gorge, we beheld six compact masses
of Russian infantry, which had just debouched from the mountain
passes near Tchernaya, and were slowly advancing with solemn
stateliness up the valley. Immediately in their front was a regular
line of artillery, of at least twenty pieces strong. Two batteries
of light guns were already a mile in advance of them, and were
playing with energy on the redoubts, from which feeble puffs of
smoke came at long intervals. Behind these guns, in front of the
infantry, were enormous bodies of cavalry. They were in six compact
squares, three on each flank, moving down _en échelon_ towards us,
and the valley was lit up with the blaze of their sabres, and lance
points, and gay accoutrements. In their front, and extending along
the intervals between each battery of guns, were clouds of mounted
skirmishers, wheeling and whirling in the front of their march like
autumn leaves tossed by the wind. The Zouaves close to us were
lying like tigers at the spring, with ready rifles in hand, hidden
chin deep by the earthworks which run along the line of these
ridges on our rear, but the quick-eyed Russians were manœuvring
on the other side of the valley, and did not expose their columns
to attack. Below the Zouaves we could see the Turkish gunners in
the redoubts, all in confusion as the shells burst over them.
Just as I came up, the Russians had carried No. 1 redoubt, the
farthest and most elevated of all, and their horsemen were chasing
the Turks across the interval which lay between it and redoubt
No. 2. At that moment the cavalry, under Lord Lucan, were formed
in glittering masses--the Light Brigade, under Lord Cardigan, in
advance; the Heavy Brigade, under Brigadier-General Scarlet, in
reserve. They were drawn up just in front of their encampment,
and were concealed from the view of the enemy by a slight “wave”
in the plain. Considerably to the rear of their right, the 93rd
Highlanders were drawn up in line, in front of the approach to
Balaklava. Above and behind them, on the heights, the Marines were
visible through the glass, drawn up under arms, and the gunners
could be seen ready in the earthworks, in which were placed the
heavy ships’ guns. The 93rd had originally been advanced somewhat
more into the plain, but the instant the Russians got possession
of the first redoubt they opened fire on them from our own guns
which inflicted some injury, and Sir Colin Campbell “retired” his
men to a better position. Meantime the enemy advanced his cavalry
rapidly. To our inexpressible disgust we saw the Turks in redoubt
No. 2 fly at their approach. They ran in scattered groups across
towards redoubt No. 3, and towards Balaklava, but the horse-hoof
of the Cossack was too quick for them, and sword and lance were
busily plied among the retreating herd. The yells of the pursuers
and pursued were plainly audible. As the Lancers and Light Cavalry
of the Russians advanced they gathered up their skirmishers with
great speed and in excellent order--the shifting trails of men,
which played all over the valley like moonlight on the water,
contracted, gathered up, and the little _peloton_ in a few moments
became a solid column. Then up came their guns, in rushed their
gunners to the abandoned redoubt, and the guns of No. 2 redoubt
soon played with deadly effect upon the dispirited defenders of
No. 3 redoubt. Two or three shots in return from the earthworks,
and all is silent. The Turks swarm over the earthworks, and run
in confusion towards the town, firing their muskets at the enemy
as they run. Again the solid column of cavalry opens like a fan,
and resolves itself into a “Long spray” of skirmishers. It laps
the flying Turks, steel flashes in the air, and down go the poor
Moslem quivering on the plain, split through fez and musket-guard
to the chin and breast-belt. There is no support for them. It
is evident the Russians have been too quick for us. The Turks
have been too quick also, for they have not held their redoubts
long enough to enable us to bring them help. In vain the Turkish
gunners in the earthen batteries which are placed along the French
entrenchments strive to protect their flying countrymen; their
shot fly wide and short of the swarming masses. The Turks betake
themselves towards the Highlanders, where they check their flight
and form into companies on the flanks of the Highlanders. As the
Russian cavalry on the left of their line crown the hill across
the valley, they perceive the Highlanders drawn up at the distance
of some half mile, calmly awaiting their approach. They halt, and
squadron after squadron flies up from the rear, till they have a
body of some 1500 men along the ridge--Lancers, and Dragoons, and
Hussars. Then they move _en échelon_ in two bodies, with another
in reserve. The cavalry who have been pursuing the Turks on the
right are coming up to the ridge beneath us, which conceals our
cavalry from view. The heavy brigade in advance is drawn up in two
lines. The first line consists of the Scots Greys, and of their old
companions in glory, the Enniskillens; the second of the 4th Royal
Irish, of the 5th Dragoon Guards, and of the 1st Royal Dragoons.
The Light Cavalry Brigade is on their left, in two lines also. The
silence is oppressive; between the cannon bursts one can hear the
champing of bits and the clink of sabres in the valley below. The
Russians on their left drew breath for a moment, and then in one
grand line charged in towards Balaklava. The ground flies beneath
their horses’ feet; gathering speed at every stride, they dash
on towards that _thin red streak topped with a line of steel_.
The Turks fire a volley at eight hundred yards and run. As the
Russians come within six hundred yards, down goes that line of
steel in front, and out rings a rolling volley of Minié musketry.
The distance is too great; the Russians are not checked, but still
sweep onwards through the smoke, with the whole force of horse
and man, here and there knocked over by the shot of our batteries
above. With breathless suspense every one awaits the bursting of
the wave upon the line of Gaelic rock; but ere they come within
two hundred and fifty yards, another deadly volley flashes from
the levelled rifle, and carries terror into the Russians. They
wheel about, open files right and left, and fly back faster than
they came. “Bravo Highlanders! well done!” shout the excited
spectators; but events thicken. The Highlanders and their splendid
front are soon forgotten, men scarcely have a moment to think of
this fact, that the 93rd never altered their formation to receive
that tide of horsemen. “No,” said Sir Colin Campbell, “I did not
think it worth while to form them even four deep!” The ordinary
British line, two deep, was quite sufficient to repel the attack
of these Muscovite cavaliers. Our eyes were, however, turned in a
moment on our own cavalry. We saw Brigadier-General Scarlett ride
along in front of his massive squadrons. The Russians--evidently
_corps d’elite_--their light blue jackets embroidered with silver
lace, were advancing on their left, at an easy gallop, towards
the brow of the hill. A forest of lances glistened in their rear,
and several squadrons of grey-coated dragoons moved up quickly to
support them as they reached the summit. The instant they came
in sight the trumpets of our cavalry gave out the warning blast
which told us all that in another moment we should see the shock
of battle beneath our very eyes. Lord Raglan, all his staff and
escort, and groups of officers, the Zouaves, French generals
and officers, and bodies of French infantry on the height, were
spectators of the scene as though they were looking on the stage
from the boxes of a theatre. Nearly every one dismounted and sat
down, and not a word was said. The Russians advanced down the hill
at a slow canter, which they changed to a trot, and at last nearly
halted. Their first line was at least double the length of ours--it
was three times as deep. Behind them was a similar line, equally
strong and compact. They evidently despised their insignificant
looking enemy, but their time was come. The trumpets rang out again
through the valley, and the Greys and Enniskilleners went right at
the centre of the Russian cavalry. The space between them was only
a few hundred yards; it was scarce enough to let the horses “gather
away,” nor had the men quite space sufficient for the full play of
their sword arms. The Russian line brings forward each wing as our
cavalry advance, and threatens to annihilate them as they pass on.
Turning a little to their left, so as to meet the Russian right,
the Greys rush on with a cheer that thrills to every heart--the
wild shout of the Enniskilleners rises through the air at the
same instant. As lightning flashes through a cloud, the Greys and
Enniskilleners pierced through the dark masses of Russians. The
shock was but for a moment. There was a clash of steel and a light
play of swordblades in the air, and then the Greys and the redcoats
disappear in the midst of the shaken and quivering columns. In
another moment we see them emerging and dashing on with diminished
numbers, and in broken order, against the second line, which is
advancing against them as fast as it can to retrieve the fortune
of the charge. It was a terrible moment. “God help them! they are
lost” was the exclamation of more than one man, and the thought
of many. With unabated fire the noble hearts dashed at their
enemy. It was a fight of heroes. The first line of Russians, which
had been smashed utterly by our charge, and had fled off at one
flank and towards the centre, were coming back to swallow up our
handful of men. By sheer steel and sheer courage Enniskillener and
Scot were winning their desperate way right through the enemy’s
squadrons, and already grey horses and red coats had appeared
right at the rear of the second mass, when, with irresistible
force, like one bolt from a bow, the 1st Royals, the 4th Dragoon
Guards, and the 5th Dragoon Guards rushed at the remnants of the
first line of the enemy, went through it as though it were made
of pasteboard, and dashing on the second body of Russians as they
were still disordered by the terrible assault of the Greys and
their companions, put them to utter rout. The Russian Horse in
less than five minutes after it met our dragoons was flying with
all its speed before a force certainly not half its strength. A
cheer burst from every lip--in the enthusiasm, officers and men
took off their caps and shouted with delight, and thus keeping up
the scenic character of their position, they clapped their hands
again and again. Lord Raglan at once despatched Lieutenant Curzon,
Aide-de-Camp, to convey his congratulations to Brigadier-General
Scarlett, and to say “Well done.” The gallant old officer’s face
beamed with pleasure when he received the message. “I beg to thank
his Lordship very sincerely,” was his reply. The cavalry did
not long pursue their enemy. Their loss was very slight, about
thirty-five killed and wounded in both affairs. There were not more
than four or five men killed outright, and our most material loss
was from the cannon playing on our heavy dragoons afterwards, when
covering the retreat of our light cavalry.

In the Royal Horse Artillery we had a severe, but I am glad to say
a temporary loss. Captain Maude, who directed the service of his
guns with his usual devotedness and dauntless courage, was struck
in the arm by a shell which burst at his saddle bow and killed his
horse. To the joy of all the army, it is ascertained that he is
doing well on board ship. After the charge, Captain the Hon. Arthur
Hardinge came galloping up to Lord Raglan with the news of what the
cavalry had done.

At ten o’clock the Guards and Highlanders of the First Division
were seen moving towards the plains from their camp. The Duke of
Cambridge came up to Lord Raglan for orders, and his Lordship,
ready to give the honour of the day to Sir Colin Campbell, who
commands at Balaklava, told his Royal Highness to place himself
under the direction of the Brigadier. At forty minutes after ten,
the Fourth Division also took up their position in advance of
Balaklava. The cavalry were then on the left front of our position,
facing the enemy; the Light Cavalry Brigade was on the left flank
forward; the Heavy Cavalry Brigade _en échelon_ in reserve, with
guns on the right; the 4th Dragoons and 5th Dragoons and Greys on
the left of the brigade, the Enniskillens and 3rd Dragoons on the
right. The Fourth Division took up ground in the centre; the Guards
and Highlanders filed off towards the extreme right, and faced the
redoubts, from which the Russians opened on them with such guns as
had not been spiked.

At fifty minutes after ten, General Canrobert, attended by his
staff and Brigadier-General Rose, rode up to Lord Raglan, and the
staffs of the two Generals and their escorts mingled together in
praise of the magnificent charge of our cavalry, while the chiefs
apart conversed over the operations of the day, which promised to
be one of battle. The Russian cavalry, followed by our shot, had
retired in confusion, leaving the ground covered with horses and
men. In carrying an order early in the day Mr. Blunt, Lord Lucan’s
interpreter, and son of our Consul in Thessaly, had a narrow
escape. His horse was killed, he seized a Russian charger as it
galloped past riderless, but the horse carried him almost into
the Russian cavalry, and he only saved himself by leaping into a
redoubt among a number of frightened Turks who were praying to
Allah on their bellies. At fifty-five minutes after ten, a body of
Cavalry, the Chasseurs d’Afrique, passed down to the plain, and
were loudly cheered by our men. They took up ground in advance of
the ridges on our left.

And now occurred the melancholy catastrophe which fills us all
with sorrow. It appears that the Quartermaster-General, Brigadier
Airey, thinking that the Light Cavalry had not gone far enough in
front when the enemy’s horse had fled, gave an order in writing to
Captain Nolan, 15th Hussars, to take to Lord Lucan, directing his
Lordship “to advance” his cavalry nearer to the enemy. A braver
soldier than Captain Nolan the army did not possess. He was known
to all his arm of the service for his entire devotion to his
profession, and his name must be familiar to all who take interest
in our cavalry for his excellent work, published a year ago, on
our drill and system of remount and breaking horses. I had the
pleasure of his acquaintance, and I know he entertained the most
exalted opinions respecting the capabilities of the English horse
soldier. Properly led, the British Hussar and Dragoon could in his
mind break square, take batteries, ride over columns of infantry,
and pierce any other cavalry in the world as if they were made of
straw. He thought that they had not had the opportunity of doing
all that was in their power, and that they had missed even such
chances as they had offered to them,--that, in fact, they were
in some measure disgraced. A matchless horseman and a first-rate
swordsman, he held in contempt, I am afraid, even grape and
canister. He rode off with his orders to Lord Lucan. He is now dead
and gone. God forbid I should cast a shade on the brightness of his
honour, but I am bound to state what I am told occurred when he
reached his Lordship. I should premise that as the Russian cavalry
retired, their infantry fell back towards the head of the valley,
leaving men in three of the redoubts they had taken, and abandoning
the fourth. They had also placed some guns on the heights over
their position on the left of the gorge. Their cavalry joined the
reserve, and drew up in six solid divisions, in an oblique line
across the entrance to the gorge. Six battalions of infantry were
placed behind them, and about thirty guns were drawn up along their
line, while masses of infantry were also collected on the hills
behind the redoubts on our right. Our cavalry had moved up to the
ridge across the valley, on our left, as the ground was broken in
front, and had halted in the order I have already mentioned. When
Lord Lucan received the order from Captain Nolan and had read
it, he asked, we are told, “Where are we to advance to?” Captain
Nolan pointed with his finger to the line of the Russians, and
said, “There are the enemy, and there are the guns, sir, before
them; it is your duty to take them,” or words to that effect,
according to the statements made since his death. Lord Lucan, with
reluctance, gave the order to Lord Cardigan to advance upon the
guns, conceiving that his orders compelled him to do so. The noble
Earl, though he did not shrink, also saw the fearful odds against
him. Don Quixote in his tilt against the windmill was not near
so rash and reckless as the gallant fellows who prepared without
a thought to rush on almost certain death. It is a maxim of war,
that “cavalry never act without a support,” that “infantry should
be close at hand when cavalry carry guns, as the effect is only
instantaneous, and that it is necessary to have on the flank of a
line of cavalry some squadrons in column, the attack on the flank
being most dangerous. The only support our light cavalry had was
the reserve of heavy cavalry at a great distance behind them, the
infantry and guns being far in the rear. There were no squadrons
in column at all, and there was a plain to charge over, before the
enemy’s guns were reached, of a mile and a half in length.

At ten minutes past eleven, our Light Cavalry brigade advanced.
The whole brigade scarcely made one effective regiment, according
to the numbers of continental armies; and yet it was more than we
could spare. As they rushed towards the front, the Russians opened
on them from the guns in the redoubt on the right, with volleys
of musketry and rifles. They swept proudly past, glittering in
the morning sun in all the pride and splendour of war. We could
scarcely believe the evidence of our senses! Surely that handful
of men are not going to charge an army in position? Alas! it was
but too true--their desperate valour knew no bounds, and far indeed
was it removed from its so-called better part--discretion. They
advanced in two lines, quickening their pace as they closed towards
the enemy. A more fearful spectacle was never witnessed than by
those who, without the power to aid, beheld their heroic countrymen
rushing to the arms of death. At the distance of 1200 yards the
whole line of the enemy belched forth, from thirty iron mouths, a
flood of smoke and flame, through which hissed the deadly balls.
Their flight was marked by instant gaps in our ranks, by dead
men and horses, by steeds flying wounded or riderless across the
plain. The first line is broken, it is joined by the second, they
never halt or check their speed an instant; with diminished ranks,
thinned by those thirty guns, which the Russians had laid with the
most deadly accuracy, with a halo of flashing steel above their
heads, and with a cheer which was many a noble fellow’s death-cry,
they flew into the smoke of the batteries, but ere they were lost
from view the plain was strewed with their bodies and with the
carcasses of horses. They were exposed to an oblique fire from the
batteries on the hills on both sides, as well as to a direct fire
of musketry. Through the clouds of smoke we could see their sabres
flashing as they rode up to the guns and dashed between them,
cutting down the gunners as they stood. We saw them riding through
the guns, as I have said; to our delight we saw them returning,
after breaking through a column of Russian infantry, and scattering
them like chaff, when the flank fire of the battery on the hill
swept them down, scattered and broken as they were. Wounded men and
dismounted troopers flying towards us told the sad tale--demi-gods
could not have done what we had failed to do. At the very moment
when they were about to retreat an enormous mass of Lancers was
hurled on their flank. Colonel Shewell, of the 8th Hussars, saw
the danger, and rode his few men straight at them, cutting his
way through with fearful loss. The other regiments turned and
engaged in a desperate encounter. With courage too great almost for
credence, they were breaking their way through the columns which
enveloped them, when there took place an act of atrocity without
parallel in the modern warfare of civilized nations. The Russian
gunners, when the storm of cavalry passed, returned to their guns.
They saw their own cavalry mingled with the troopers who had just
ridden over them, and, to the eternal disgrace of the Russian name,
the miscreants poured a murderous volley of grape and canister on
the mass of struggling men and horses, mingling friend and foe in
one common ruin. It was as much as our Heavy Cavalry brigade could
do to cover the retreat of the miserable remnants of that band of
heroes as they returned to the place they had so lately quitted in
all the pride of life. At thirty-five minutes past eleven not a
British soldier, except the dead and dying, was left in front of
these bloody Muscovite guns.

Captain Nolan was killed by the first shot fired, as he rode in
advance of the Hussars, cheering them on. Lord Lucan was slightly
wounded. Lord Cardigan received a lance thrust through his clothes.
Major Halkett, of the 4th Light Dragoons, was killed. Lord
Fitzgibbon of the 8th Hussars, was desperately wounded, and has
since, I fear, died.

In our cavalry fight we had 13 officers killed or missing, 156
men killed or missing: total 169; 21 officers wounded, 197 men
wounded; total 218. Total killed, wounded, and missing, 387.
Horses killed or missing, 394; horses wounded 126; total 520.


BALKAN, PASSAGE OF THE.--This adventurous experiment was deemed
impracticable by a hostile army, until effected by the Russian
army under Diebitsch, whose march through the Balkan mountains
is a memorable achievement of the late great Russian and Turkish
war. The passage was completed July 26th, 1829. An armistice was
the consequence; and a treaty of peace was signed at Adrianople in
September following.


BALLINAHINCH, BATTLE OF.--This sanguinary engagement was fought,
June 13th, 1798, between the Earl of Moira, afterwards Marquis of
Hastings, and a large body of insurgent Irish. In this battle a
large part of the town was destroyed and the royal army suffered
very severely.


BALTIC EXPEDITIONS.--There were three--1st, under Lord Nelson and
Admiral Patton, April 2nd, 1801, when Copenhagen was bombarded and
28 Danish ships taken or destroyed. 2nd, under Admiral Gambier
and Lord Cathcart, July 27th, 1807, where 18 sail of the line, 15
frigates, and 31 brigs and gunboats surrendered to the British.
3rd, during the Crimean war, under Admiral Sir Charles Napier,
accompanied by a French fleet, the bombardment of Bummersund
and burning Abo were some of the more important actions of the
expedition.


BALTIMORE, BATTLE OF.--Fought September 12th, 1814, between the
British army, under General Ross, and the Americans; the British
in making an attack upon the town were unsuccessful, and after a
desperate engagement were repulsed with great loss. The gallant
General who led the enterprise was killed.


BANGALORE, SIEGE OF.--This siege was commenced by the British,
under Lord Cornwallis, March 6th, and the town was taken March
21st, 1791. Bangalore was restored to Tippoo, in 1792, when he
destroyed the strong fort, deemed the “Bulwark of Mysore.”


BANNOCKBURN, BATTLE OF.--This battle is called the “Marathon of
Scotland.” It was fought June 25th, 1314, between King Robert
Bruce of Scotland and Edward II, of England. The army of Bruce
consisted of 30,000 Scots, that of Edward consisted of 100,000
English, of whom 52,000 were archers. The English crossed a rivulet
to the attack, and Bruce having dug deep pits, which he afterwards
covered, the English cavalry fell into them and were thrown into
confusion. The rout was complete--the king narrowly escaped being
taken, and 50,000 English were killed or taken prisoners.


BANTRY BAY.--A French fleet, with succors to the adherents of
James II, was in this bay attacked by Admiral Herbert, May, 1689.
Here a French squadron anchored for a few days, in December, 1796.
The mutiny of Bantry Bay is famous in naval history--17 of the
mutineers were condemned to death, and 11 executed afterwards at
Portsmouth, January, 1802.


BAREILLY.--India.--This place is famous in the great Indian
Mutiny.--The following is a description of the attack on the
British troops, by a body of Ghazees, or Fanatics, May 5th, 1859,
from Dr. Russell’s correspondence.

“As soon as the Sikhs got into the houses, they were exposed to a
heavy fire from a large body of matchlockmen concealed around them.
They either retired of their own accord, or were ordered to do
so; at all events, they fell back with rapidity and disorder upon
the advancing Highlanders. And now occurred a most extraordinary
scene. Among the matchlockmen, who, to the number of seven or eight
hundred, were lying behind the walls of the houses, was a body of
Ghazees, or Mussulman fanatics, who, like the Roman Decii, devote
their lives with solemn oaths to their country or their faith.
Uttering loud cries, ‘Bismillah, Allah, deen, deen!’ one hundred
and thirty of these fanatics, sword in hand, with small circular
bucklers on the left arm, and green cummerbungs, rushed out
after the Sikhs, and dashed at the left of the right wing of the
Highlanders. With bodies bent and heads low, waving their tulwars
with a circular motion in the air, they came on with astonishing
rapidity. At first they were mistaken for Sikhs, whose passage
had already somewhat disordered our ranks. Fortunately Sir Colin
Campbell was close up with the 42nd; his keen, quick eye detected
the case at once. “Steady, men, steady; close up the ranks. Bayonet
them as they come on.” It was just in time; for these madmen,
furious with bang, were already among us, and a body of them
sweeping around the left of the right wing, got into the rear of
the regiment. The struggle was short, but sanguinary. Three of them
dashed so suddenly at Colonel Cameron, that they pulled him off
his horse ere he could defend himself. His sword fell out of its
sheath, and he would have been hacked to pieces in another moment,
but for the gallant promptitude of Colour Sergeant Gardiner, who,
stepping out of the ranks, drove his bayonet through two of them
in the twinkling of an eye. The third was shot by one of the 42nd.
Brigadier Walpole had a similar escape; he was seized by two or
three of the Ghazees, who sought to pull him off his horse, while
others cut at him with their tulwars. He received two cuts on the
hand, but he was delivered from the enemy by the quick bayonets
of the 42nd. In a few minutes the dead bodies of one hundred and
thirty-three of these Ghazees, and some eighteen or twenty wounded
men of ours, were all the tokens left of the struggle.”


BARNET, BATTLE OF.--This battle was fought between the houses of
York and Lancaster, when Edward IV gained a decisive and memorable
victory over the Earl of Warwick, on Easter day, April 14th, 1471.
The Earl of Warwick, who has been styled in history “The King
Maker,” his brother, the Marquess of Montacute, and 10,000 of his
army were slain. At the moment Warwick fell, he was leading a
chosen body of troops into the thickest of the slaughter, and his
body was found covered with wounds after the battle.


BARRACKS.--This word is not found in our early dictionaries. In the
_Dictionaire de l’Académie_, it is thus defined, “_Baraque--Hutte
que font les soldats en campagne pour se mettre à couvert._”


BARROSA OR BAROSSA, BATTLE OF.--Fought between the British army,
commanded by Major General Graham, afterwards Lord Lynedoch,
and the French, under Marshal Victor. After a long conflict,
the British achieved one of the most glorious triumphs of the
Peninsular war. Although they fought to great disadvantage, they
compelled the enemy to retreat, leaving nearly 3000 dead, 6 pieces
of cannon and an eagle, the first that the British had taken. The
loss of the British was 1169 men in killed and wounded.


BASQUE ROADS.--This was the place of a heroic achievement by the
British. Four French ships of the line were, while riding at
anchor, attacked by Lord Gambier and Lord Cochrane, and all, with
a number of merchant ships, destroyed, April 12th, 1809.


BATAVIA.--Capital of Java.--Fortified by the Dutch in 1618--12,000
Chinese massacred here in one day, 1740.--Taken by the English
January, 1782.--Again by the British under General Sir S. Auchmuty,
August 8th, 1811.


BATTERIES.--Introduced, after the use of cannon, by the English
along the coasts. Perhaps the most celebrated batteries on record
are those of the French at the siege of Gibraltar, September, 1782.


BATTERING-RAM.--This was the instrument by which the ancient Romans
levelled the walls of cities. It consisted of a long beam with a
head of iron, like that of a ram, hence the name, and sometimes it
was so ponderous that 150 or 200 men at once worked it.


BATTLE-AXE.--A weapon of the Celtae.--The battle-axe guards, or
beaufetiers, who are vulgarly called beef-eaters, and whose arms
are a sword and lance, were first raised by Henry VII, in 1482.


BATTLEFIELD, BATTLE OF.--Near Shrewsbury, England.--This engagement
was fought between Henry IV and Percy, surnamed Hotspur. The
victory was gained by Henry, whose usurpation of the throne had
laid the foundation of the factions of the houses of York and
Lancaster, and the civil wars that ensued. It was fought July 21st,
1403.


BAUTZEN, BATTLE OF.--Between the allied army, under the Sovereigns
of Russia and Prussia, and the French, commanded by Napoleon;
the allies were defeated, and this battle, followed by that of
Wurtzchen, compelled them to pass the Oder, and led to armistice,
which, however, did not produce peace. Fought May 20th, 1813.


BAYLEN, BATTLE OF.--The French, consisting of 14,000 men, commanded
by Generals Dupont and Wedel, were defeated by the Spaniards under
Pena, Compigny and other Generals, whose forces amounted to 25,000.
The French had nearly 3000 killed and wounded, and the division of
Dupont, which consisted of about 8000 men, was made prisoners of
war. Fought July 19th, 1808.


BAYONNE.--In the neighbourhood of this town there was much
desperate fighting between the French and English armies, December
10th, 11th, and 13th, 1813. Bayonne was invested by the British,
January 14th, 1814, during which the French made a sally and
attacked the English with success, but were at length driven back.
The loss of the British was considerable, and Lieut.-General Sir
John Hope was wounded and taken prisoner. It was here that the
bayonet was first made, in or about A.D. 1670. According to the
Abbé Langlet, it was first used by the French in battle, 1693,
“with great success against an enemy unprepared for the encounter
with so formidable a novelty.” Adopted by the British, September
26th, 1693.


BEACHY HEAD, ENGAGEMENT OF.--Memorable for the defeat of the
British and Dutch combined fleet, by the French. The British,
whose ships were commanded by the Earl of Torrington, suffered
very severely in the unequal contest, June 30th, 1690. The Dutch
lost two Admirals and 500 men, the English two ships and 400 men.
Several of the Dutch ships were sunk to prevent them from falling
into the hands of the enemy. The Admirals on both sides were
blamed; on the English side for not fighting, on the French, for
not pursuing the victory.


BEAGUE, BATTLE OF.--_In Anjou, France._--Fought April 3rd, 1421,
between the English and French.--The former commanded by the Duke
of Clarence, the latter by the Dauphin of France, who was aided by
a body of 7000 Scots, under the Earl of Buchan. The English were
defeated with the loss of 1500 men killed, and the Duke himself was
killed by a Scotch Knight.


BELGRADE, BATTLE OF.--Fought in 1456, between the German and
Turkish armies, in which the latter was defeated with the loss of
40,000 men. Belgrade was taken by Solyman, 1522, and retaken by the
Imperialists in 1688, from whom it again reverted to the Turks in
1690. Again taken by Prince Eugene, in 1717, and kept till 1739,
when it was ceded to the Turks, after its fine fortifications had
been demolished. It was again taken in 1789, and restored at the
peace of Reichenbach, 1790. The Servian insurgents had possession
of it in 1806. The most memorable siege which it sustained was
undertaken in May, 1717, by Prince Eugene. On August 5th of that
year, the Turkish army, 200,000 strong, approached to relieve
it, and a sanguinary battle was fought, in which the Turks lost
20,000; after the battle Belgrade surrendered. This city is called
“_The Key of Eastern Christendom_,” and “_The Bulwark of Christian
Europe_.”


BELLAIR, BATTLE OF.--In America.--This town was attacked by the
British forces, under command of Sir Peter Parker; but after an
obstinate engagement, in which the result was a long time doubtful,
they were repulsed with considerable loss, and their gallant
commander was killed. August 30th, 1814.


BENDER.--Is memorable as the asylum of Charles XII of Sweden, after
his defeat at Pultowa, by the Czar Peter the Great, July 8th, 1709.
The celebrated peace of Bender was concluded 1711. It was taken by
storm by the Russians in 1770, and again in 1789.--Restored by the
peace of Jassey, but retained at the peace of 1812.


BERESINA, BATTLE OF.--Fought November 28th, 1812, and resulted in
the total defeat of the French main army, by the Russians, on the
banks of the Beresina, followed by their disastrous passage of it
when escaping out of Russia. The French lost upwards of 20,000 men
in this battle, and in their retreat, which was attended by the
greatest difficulty, calamity and suffering, the career of their
glory was closed in that campaign.


BERGEN, BATTLES OF.--Between the French and allies; the latter
defeated April 14th, 1759. The allies again defeated by the French,
with great loss, September, 1799. In another battle, fought October
2nd, same year, the allies lost 4000 men, and on the 6th, they were
again defeated before Alkmaer, losing 5000 men. On the 20th, the
Duke of York entered into a convention, by which he exchanged his
army for 6,000 French and Dutch prisoners in England.


BERGEN-OP-ZOOM.--This place, the works of which were deemed
impregnable, was taken by the French, September 10th, 1747, and
again in 1794. Here a gallant attempt was made by the British under
General Sir T. Graham (afterwards Lord Lynedoch) to carry the
fortress by storm, but it was defeated. After forcing an entrance,
their retreat was cut off, and a dreadful slaughter ensued; nearly
all were cut to pieces or made prisoners. March 8th, 1814.


BERLIN DEGREE.--A memorable interdict against the commerce of
England. It declared the British Isles in a state of blockade, and
all Englishmen found in countries occupied by French troops were to
be taken prisoners of war. It was issued by Napoleon from the court
of the Prussian King, shortly after the battle of Jena, November
21st, 1806.


BERWICK.--Many bloody contests, were fought here between the
English and Scots. It surrendered to Cromwell in 1648, and
afterwards to General Monk.


BEYROOT.--This place is celebrated for the total defeat of the
Egyptian army, by the allied English, Austrian and Turkish forces.
The Egyptians lost 7000 in killed, wounded and prisoners, and 20
cannons. Fought October 10th, 1840.


BHURTPORE.--_India._--Besieged by the British, January 3rd, 1805,
and attacked five times up to March 21st, without success. The
fortress was taken by General Lake, after a desperate engagement
with Holkar, April 2nd, 1805. The defeat of Holkar led to a treaty
by which the Rajah of Bhurtpore agreed to pay twenty lacs of
rupees, and ceded the territories that had been granted to him by
a former treaty, delivering up his son as a hostage, April 10th,
1805. This city was taken by storm, by Lord Combermere, January
18th, 1826.


BIDASSOA, PASSAGE OF THE.--The allied army, under Lord Wellington,
effected the passage of this river, October 7th, 1813; and the
illustrious British chieftain, having thus completed his glorious
career in Spain and Portugal, pursued the enemy into France.


BILBOA, BATTLE OF.--This place, which had been invested by the
Carlists under Villareal, and was in considerable danger, was
delivered by the defeat of the besiegers by Espartero, assisted by
British naval co-operation. Espartero entered Bilboa in triumph
next day, Christmas day, December 25th, 1836.


BLACK HOLE OF CALCUTTA.--Surajah Doulah declared war against the
English, from motives of personal resentment; and, levying a
numerous army, laid siege to Calcutta--one of the principal British
forts in India--but which was not in a state of strength to defend
itself against the attack even of barbarians. The fort was taken,
having been deserted by the commander; and the garrison, to the
number of 146 persons, were made prisoners.

They expected the usual treatment of prisoners of war, and were
therefore the less vigorous in their defence; but they soon found
what mercy was to be expected from a savage conqueror. They were
all crowded together into a narrow prison, called the Black Hole,
of about 18 feet square, and received air only by two small windows
to the west, which by no means afforded a sufficient circulation.
It is terrible to reflect on the situation of these unfortunate
men, shut up in this narrow place, in the burning climate of
the East, and suffocating each other. Their first efforts, upon
perceiving the effects of their horrid confinement, were to break
open the door of the prison; but, as it opened inwards, they
soon found that impossible. They next endeavoured to excite the
compassion or the avarice of the guard by offering him a large sum
of money for his assistance in removing them into separate prisons;
but with this he was not able to comply, as the viceroy was asleep,
and no person dared to disturb him. They were now, therefore, left
to die without hopes of relief; and the whole prison was filled
with groans, shrieks, contest, and despair. This turbulence,
however, soon after sunk into a calm still more hideous! Their
efforts of strength and courage were over, and an expiring languor
succeeded. In the morning, June 20th, 1750, when the keepers came
to visit the prison, all was horror, silence, and desolation. Of
146 who had entered alive, 23 only survived, and of these the
greatest part died of putrid fevers upon being set free.


BLENHEIM, BATTLE OF.--Fought between the English and confederates,
commanded by the Duke of Marlborough, and the French and Bavarians,
under Marshal Tallard and the Elector of Bavaria, whom the Duke
totally defeated, with the loss of 27,000 men, in killed, and
13,000 prisoners--Tallard being among the number of the latter; the
Electorate of Bavaria became a prize of the conquerors. The nation
testified its gratitude to the Duke of Marlborough by the gifts
of the honour of Woodstock and hundred of Wotton, and erected for
him one of the finest seats in the kingdom, known as the domain
and house of Blenheim. This great battle was fought on the 2nd of
August, 1704.


BOIS-LE-DUC, BATTLE OF.--Between the British and the French
Republican army, in which the former were defeated, September
14th, 1794. Captured by the French, October 6th, following, and
surrendered to the Prussian army under Bulow, 1814.


BOLOGNA.--Taken by the French in 1796; by the Austrians in 1799;
again by the French, after Marengo, in 1800; and restored to the
Pope, in 1815.


BOMBS.--Invented at Venlo in 1495; came into general use in 1634.
The Shrapnel shell is a bomb filled with balls and a lighted fuse
to make it explode before it reaches the enemy. A thirteen inch
bomb-shell weighs 198 lbs.


BOMBARDMENT OF SEBASTOPOL.--_First Attempt._--“At half-past
six o’clock, on the morning of 17th October, a gun from the
English batteries boomed ominously upon the ears of the Russians
in Sebastopol. It was the signal for the commencement of the
bombardment. It had been announced, on the previous evening, that
the morrow was to initiate the combat; and already groups of
expectant gazers thronged every spot which promised to afford a
view of the warlike spectacle. For a moment after the signal-gun
had despatched its messenger of death, a breathless expectation
held the spectators in suspense; and then, from the whole line
of attack, from the Quarantine on the far left to the Inkerman
battery on the extreme right, a sheet of fire belched forth, and a
volley of shot and shell was hurled upon the town. By this time the
Russian gunners were at their post, and bravely responded to the
challenge. As far as the eye could reach, a dense volume of smoke
hung suspended in the air; and when it lifted, another and yet
another streak of flame poured from the black earthworks, and lit
up the white churches and houses of the town. The earth literally
shook with the concussion of the mighty conflict. Distinct amid
the roar, a sharp whizzing sound, swelling as it approached into
a crashing rush, like a railway train at inexpressible speed, was
heard, and a heavy blow upon the solid earthworks told where had
fallen the ball of the renowned Lancaster gun. In a couple of
hours it was evident that the Round Tower, the most formidable of
the Russian works, was seriously damaged. But little impression,
however, appeared to have been made on the mass of the enemy’s
works. Their fire was splendid, and it was abundantly apparent
that the victory was not to be easily achieved. About ten o’clock,
a shell fell into one of the French magazines, which exploded,
killing and injuring more than fifty men. This was a serious
blow; and from that time the guns of our allies were evidently
feebly served, and inadequate to bear their part effectually.
For two hours more the terrific cannonade continued, spreading
destruction in the ranks alike of the Russians and the Allies; and
then, at mid-day, the fleets approached the scene of action, and
prepared to take their share in the dangers and glories of the
day. The French was the first to take up their position. It had
been arranged between the Admirals, with the hearty concurrence
of the land forces, that the French should engage the forts on
the south of the harbour, while the English should attack Fort
Constantine, and the batteries on the north. A semicircular line,
enclosing the mouth of the harbour, would represent the position
occupied by the allied fleets. The _Vautour_, a French frigate, had
the honour of opening the fire, and very shortly afterwards the
_Charlemagne_, _Montebello_, _Jean Bart_, and others, joined in the
fray. The sight from the land side now was of the most stupendous
character, and the roar deafening and incessant. Enormous volleys
from hundreds of guns of the largest size rolled with never-ceasing
impetuosity; and the air was loaded with a dense smoke that hid
from the anxious gazers the effects of the fire. Occasionally a
breeze lifted the murky canopy, and then the eye could catch the
prospect beyond the frowning earthworks of shattered buildings,
and not unfrequently a bright flame where the explosion of a shell
had fired a roof, soon to be extinguished by the active enemy.
Then, in the far distance, rose the grim outlines of the massive
forts, pointing seawards their deadly array of guns; and further
yet, a line of noble vessels rapidly forming into order of attack,
finished the picture. But such glimpses were but momentary. Again
the crimson volleys thundered forth, a light smoke poured from
the sides of the French steamers, and the reply of the forts sent
forth a vaporous veil, which, mingling with the smoke from the
earthworks, once more enveloped in obscurity alike the attack and
the defence.

It was arranged that the English sailing-vessels should be taken
into position by the smaller steamers lashed to their sides.
In this manner they drew up before the forts: the _Queen_,
_Britannia_, _Trafalgar_, _Vengeance_, _Rodney_, and _Bellerophon_,
with the _Vesuvius_, _Furious_, _Retribution_, _Highflyer_,
_Spitfire_, _Spiteful_, and _Cyclops_ alongside, arrived at their
appointed positions about an hour after the French had commenced
firing. The ships in advance were the magnificent steamer the
_Agamemnon_, bearing the flag of Sir Edmund Lyons, the brave second
in command; the _Sanspareil_, _Sampson_, _Tribune_, _Terrible_,
_Sphynx_, and _Lynx_, and the _Arrow_ gun-boat, accompanied by the
sailing vessels, _Albion_, _London_, and _Arethusa_, towed by the
_Firebrand_, _Niger_, and _Triton_.

Preceding this imposing force, a little steam-tug, the _Circassia_,
commanded by Mr. Ball, led the way, carefully sounding as it went,
and marking out the position for the larger ships. Sir Edmund
Lyons had already settled the share he was determined to take
in the day’s adventure, and had selected the enormous fort of
Constantine as the object of his special attention. The _Terrible_
and _Sampson_, dashing through the storm of fire from the casemates
of Constantine, anchored opposite two very mischievous little
batteries, one of which the sailors named the Wasp, from its
power of annoyance in comparison with its size, and the other the
Telegraph, from its proximity to the signal station. In a few
moments a vigorous shelling was opened upon these two batteries,
which briskly replied. The _Agamemnon_ now opened fire, and never
was a cannonade more briskly sustained, or exhibited greater
precision of fire. Sir Edmund had anchored his vessel at the
very edge of the shoal, which extended about 900 yards from the
fort. At this distance the Russian fire was most severe. For four
hours the gallant crew bore the galling shower of missiles which
cut through the rigging, pierced the hull, and sent many a brave
fellow to his last account. The _Albion_ and _London_ boldly came
within range, but so deadly was the fire, that they soon withdrew,
terribly crippled. The _Sanspareil_ admirably seconded the efforts
of the _Agamemnon_, and maintained a telling fire upon the fort.
At length that too withdrew, and the dauntless Sir Edmund was left
to bear the brunt of the concentrated fire of the Russian guns.
His ship was riddled with shot, the sails and rigging hanging
in shreds, yet, with a bull-dog pertinacity, he clung to his
opponent. Despatching his lieutenant in an open boat, he summoned
the _Bellerophon_ to his aid. His message was characteristically
pithy: “Tell them to come in; these forts will sink me, and I’m
d----d if I leave this.” The _Bellerophon_ quickly responded; and
throwing a volley into the big fort, passed on to where the Wasp
and Telegraph forts were showering their missiles on the gallant
_Agamemnon_. The Wasp was soon silenced by the vigorous shelling
of the _Bellerophon_; and Sir Edmund, freed from the annoyance
it had caused, with unabated courage hurled his fire at his huge
antagonist. The _Bellerophon_, however, suffered fearfully. A shell
from the Russian batteries exploded in the fore part of the ship,
and set fire to the lower deck. For a few moments it seemed as
if unavoidable destruction was the fate of the gallant crew. The
firing was suspended, and all hands rushed forward to endeavour to
extinguish the flames. In this endeavour they were successful; but
then a new mischance awaited them. The anchor had dragged on the
bottom, and they were fast drifting towards the shoals beneath the
forts, where they would have lain a helpless target for the Russian
guns. In this emergency, the _Spitfire_, seeing the critical
position of the larger vessel, dashed in, took her in tow, and
safely brought her, though much damaged, out of the action.

The “saucy _Arethusa_,” and her little companion in arms, the
_Triton_ steamer, which, lashed to the larger vessel, had boldly
entered into the thick of the fight, bore a full share of the
damage done that day. As they arrived within the range of the fire,
the small steamer, which was then exposed, received a volley.
Then, hauling round, the broadside of the frigate was presented
to the forts, and the _Triton_ was, to some degree, sheltered
by the larger hull of her consort. The sailors from the steamer
hastened on board the _Arethusa_, to assist in manning her guns,
and a glorious broadside was hurled at the Russian fort. Every
shot vibrated through the _Triton_, so great was the recoil of the
frigate’s guns. Broadside after broadside was gallantly delivered,
and as promptly replied to by the cannon of the fort. Down went the
rigging of the _Arethusa_, ropes hanging in tangled masses from
her yards, and not unfrequent shots striking her hull. Some passed
beyond the frigate, and soon the _Triton’s_ gear aloft, and fallen
gaffs, stays, and shrouds attested the severity of the enemy’s
fire. Two shots struck the paddle-wheel, and the commander and
carpenter’s mate were wounded by a shell while examining the extent
of damage done. At length the _Arethusa_, nearly sinking, her decks
covered with fallen rigging, her cockpit crowded with bleeding men,
was compelled to relinquish the contest. The _Triton_ gallantly
towed her out of range, but in the act, a raking fire of shells
was poured upon the deck, killing and wounding all within range of
their explosion. With twenty-two holes in her funnel, she contrived
to tow the frigate to Constantinople, to be docked for repairs, so
extensive were her injuries.

The _Labrador_ steamer had a narrow escape from entire destruction.
Towards four o’clock a shell burst in the captain’s cabin,
adjoining the powder magazine, and set fire to some ropes. A cry of
“fire” was raised, the pumps set to work, and enormous quantities
of water poured into the magazine. The fire was fortunately
extinguished in time to save the vessel. She was, of course,
compelled to withdraw from the attack, her powder being rendered
useless.

Admiral Dundas’s flag-ship, the _Britannia_, which fired from
a longer range than the ones we have mentioned, received less
damage, though she did not escape quite scatheless. The enemy’s
shot ploughed up the water around, and occasionally a shell or
round-shot fell upon the deck or crashed through the rigging.
Fortunately, however, only two men were wounded on board this ship.

The French vessels gallantly performed their part in the
bombardment. Our allies had adopted the same plan as the
English, and lashed small steamers to the large sailing-vessels
to bring them into action. Two splendid steamers, the _Pluton_
and the _Charlemagne_, proudly led the way in, followed by the
_Montebello_, the _Jean Bart_, and the rest of the squadron. The
enemy at Fort Alexander maintained an unflinching resistance, and
inflicted severe punishment on the attacking vessels.

Those who witnessed this tremendous bombardment, whether from land
or sea, will probably never forget the spectacle. No imaginative
description could approach the mingled sublimity and horror of
the scene. A fleet of noble vessels, powerfully armed, poured
forth sheets of flame from every port-hole on the attacking side;
and the ponderous forts, from hundreds of embrasures, vomited
a death-dealing reply. The thunder of artillery was deafening,
and the sky darkened with the smoke. Thousands of grim and
fierce-looking men, their faces blackened with gunpowder and sweat,
moved about the decks, and pointed the guns, amid the crash of
falling spars and the groans of their wounded messmates. Beyond
the town, a sullen roar was heard, which might have been the echo
of the sea-battle, but which the sailors well knew was the voice
of the guns on land, many manned by seamen from the fleets, and
responded to by a thousand of the enemy’s pieces. The awful boom of
the guns grew in intensity as some fresh ship arrived on the scene,
and contributed her broadside to the attack.

On the land side the combat was an equal one. Volley replied to
volley, and no symptoms appeared to induce the belief that either
party was the stronger. Suddenly, about four o’clock, a mighty
explosion occurred in the Russian lines, which, for a moment,
seemed to quell and subdue the roar of the thundering cannon. The
earth shook, and volumes of fire sprang upwards and cast a lurid
glare on every object. The very artillery was paused, awe-struck
by the catastrophe; and the spectators watched the result in
breathless excitement. It seemed as if a subterranean fire had
forced its way through the surface of the earth to annihilate the
presumption of competing man. Then the flame sank, the frightful
shock was passed, and a pillar of dust and rubbish took the
place of the mingled fire and smoke. The magazine in the centre
of the Redan had exploded, and for a brief space not a gun from
that great work replied to our volleys. Then the fire re-opened,
and the Russian gunners, nothing daunted, again hurled their
shower of missiles against our works. Shortly afterwards, a small
powder-waggon, belonging to the English, was struck by a shell and
exploded, fortunately injuring none.

At length twilight warned the combatants to cease. At about six
o’clock the fleets drew off, and shortly afterwards the batteries
suspended their fire. The naval attack, so far as damage to the
enemy was concerned, was a failure. Many Russian artillerymen
were, doubtless, victims to the accuracy of our aim, and the
undaunted pertinacity of our seamen. Nothing, indeed, could exceed
the brilliancy of the fire; and our gallant sailors of all ranks
nobly maintained their reputation. But when the morrow came, the
forts were found to be almost uninjured. Not a gun the less frowned
from their embrasures, not a stone seemed to be displaced. The
blackened mouths of the casemates, and a multitude of scars, as it
were, where the fierce storm of iron had splintered the surface
of the granite, were all the evidence afforded of that desperate
assault. The question between wood and granite had been fairly
tried, and granite was the victor. The forts were essentially
unhurt; but scarcely a ship had escaped without serious damage
to masts, sails, and rigging. The _Albion_ and _Arethusa_ were
compelled to proceed to Constantinople to be docked; the _Rodney_
got fast upon the reef, and her masts were soon shattered by the
Russian shell and shot--the little steamer _Spiteful_ gallantly
towing her off, with considerable damage to herself and loss of
men; and the _Bellerophon_ had about fifteen shots in her hull,
and her wheel knocked away. Throughout the English fleet, 44 men
were killed, and 266 wounded. The French loss was even greater. The
Turkish vessels, which occupied the centre of the line, were too
far removed from the intensity of the action to sustain any serious
injury to the ships or loss to the crew.”


BOMBARDMENT OF SEBASTOPOL.--_Final Attempt_.--“Generals Pelissier
and Simpson had arranged to commence the assault at noon on
Saturday. Thu French were to commence by an attack on the Malakoff
tower. If they established themselves in that work, the English
were to throw themselves upon the Great Redan, while simultaneous
assaults were to be made on the right on the Little Redan, towards
Careening Bay, and on the extreme left on the Central Bastion
and Flagstaff Battery. General Bosquet was entrusted with the
direction of the Malakoff attack, which was to be approached on
the left flank by General MacMahon, with a powerful corps of
Zouaves, Chasseurs, and regiments of the line; the right attack on
the Little Redan was to be led by General Dulac, who had a strong
body of Chasseurs, and four line regiments, with another powerful
force in reserve. General De la Motterouge, with five regiments,
was to assault the middle of the curtain connecting these two
works. General De la Salles conducted the assault on the extreme
left. Five regiments, composing Levaillant’s division, were in
front of the Central Bastion and its lunettes; while to its right,
General D’Autemarre, with Niel’s and Breton’s brigades, were to
penetrate in the track of Levaillant’s division, and seize the Mast
Bastion. The Sardinians, anxious to share in the honors of the
day, contributed a brigade under the orders of General Cialdini,
which was to attack in conjunction with D’Autemare’s division.
Finally, ten regiments, under the command of Generals Bouat and
Pate, with some troops from Kamiesch, were held in reserve, ready
for immediate action. On each attack a competent number of sappers
were provided with materials to form bridges, and handy tools; and
the gunners had abundant implements for the spiking of guns; field
artillery was also posted in commanding positions to render any
assistance the fortunes of the day might render necessary.

The English storming party was comprised of detachments from the
Light and Second Divisions. General Codrington, of the Light
Division, assisted by General Markham, commanding the Second, had
the direction of the assault. The first stormers, 1000 men, were
selected in equal numbers from each division, Colonels Unett and
Windham leading. The Highland brigade and Guards were ordered up
to the post as a reserve. General Herbillon, commanding the French
_corps d’armée_ on the Tchernaya, had made every preparation
to meet any attack which might be made by the Russian army of
observation; but the enemy had experienced the prowess of the
Allies in the open field too bitterly again to attempt defeat.

Early in the morning, squadrons of cavalry took position on
the roads leading from Balaklava and Kadikoi to the camp, to
prevent, stragglers and spectators from crowding to the front, and
impeding the movements of the troops engaged in the assault. Every
precaution, too, was observed to prevent the enemy from having
any intimation of the movements of the soldiers. Parapets were
heightened, and the regiments, French and English, moved up before
daylight, with such promptness and secrecy that many even in the
camp were unaware of the nature of the contemplated operations.

The plan of attack had originally included the co-operation of the
fleet, but a brisk gale from the north-west forbade them to leave
their anchorage; and except some French and English gunboats, which
did good service in throwing shells and rockets into the forts, the
sailors were unwillingly mere spectators of the fray.

Precisely at twelve o’clock General MacMahon’s division left the
French trenches, which were within a few yards of the Malakoff
tower, and advanced rapidly up the rugged and steep ascent. It
proved that very great damage had been inflicted on the tower, and
nearly all the guns dismounted. In a few minutes, with the loss of
only one man, the French had leaped into the work, and the tricolor
waved triumphantly on the summit of this great fort--the key to
the town. The Russians contested their ground with great bravery,
renewing again and again their attacks, but every time repulsed
with enormous loss. General Bosquet was early wounded, and retired
from the field.

The signal was now given by General Pelissier for the commencement
of the English assault on the Redan; and the first stormers, led
by Major Welsford of the 97th, and Captain Grove of the 90th,
dashed from the trenches, followed by the remainder of the troops.
The great work was distant about 250 yards, and the ground was
so broken that it was impossible to preserve order. The enemy,
who had been taken by surprise by the suddenness of the French
attack upon the Malakoff, were now thoroughly aroused and manned
every gun. Showers of grape and shell poured among our men as they
struggled across the open space; General Shirley, the brigadier
of the Light Division, was compelled to retire, and hundreds were
shot down. When the foremost men reached the Redan, the ladders
were too short to reach the breach; but spite of every obstacle
our brave fellows climbed the broken walls, and poured into
the salient angle of the work. Major Welsford was shot down as
he entered the Redan. Colonel Windham, with his brigade of the
Second Division, followed quickly after, and in a few moments the
triangular apex of the work was thronged with men. Then a now
obstacle presented itself. An inner work commanded the position,
and a terrible array of embrasures frowned upon the assailers.
For the first time English troops quailed before an enemy’s fire,
and notwithstanding the daring courage of Colonel Windham and the
other officers, retreated to such cover as they could obtain,
maintaining an ineffective fire from their muskets. In vain Colonel
Windham hurried from side to side, crossing with amazing courage
the line of fire, and endeavored to form his men for another
assault. The few who answered his appeal were swept away by the
terrible fire of the enemy. For nearly two hours was the little
band exposed to such a fearful risk; and from some unaccountable
remissness no reinforcements were sent. Three messengers were
sent by Colonel Windham, but all were wounded in the attempt to
reach General Codrington. At length the dauntless Colonel resolved
to go himself; and passing across the open space, succeeded in
obtaining the desired help. It was too late; the men inside the
work, unable longer to hold their position, were in full retreat;
and the Russians, pouring out of their cover, charged them with the
bayonet, till the ditch was filled with the bodies of the English
soldiers.

While the English attack was thus disastrous, the French assaults
on the Little Redan and the Central Bastions were equally
unsuccessful. The division of Dulac and De la Motterouge three
times carried the works to which they were exposed, only to be
repulsed by the heavy fire of the inner defences, and of the
steamers, which ran up, and poured their broadsides into the
ranks. General De la Salles, on the extreme left, attacked with
great energy the Central Bastion; but the intense fire to which
his division was exposed, daunted his men, many of whom were fresh
troops, unused to the stern realities of battle; and after a
sanguinary struggle, he was forced to abandon the attempt. General
Pelissier having obtained possession of the Malakoff, suspended
farther attacks; and, at length, night closed in, leaving the
armies in anxious expectation of the events of the morrow.

It was the intention of General Simpson to renew the assault on the
Redan with the Highlanders and Guards on the next morning. When
daylight broke, a few soldiers crept forward to seek for wounded
comrades, and found the work was deserted! In a brief space,
flames arose from every quarter of the town; and long lines of
troops could be seen passing to the north forts. Then tremendous
explosions rent the air--the great forts on the south side were
exploded; and, covered by a conflagration which effectually
prevented pursuit, Prince Gortschakoff evacuated the town. A few
hours later, and the ships in the harbor--the steamers excepted
(and a few days afterwards they, too, shared the same fate)--burst
into flames, or were scuttled, and sank slowly beneath the waters
of the once crowded inlet of the sea, where had ridden the fleet
with which Russia hoped to rule the Euxine, and from which had
darted forth the murderers of Sinopé.

In this final assault the English lost no fewer than 29 officers
and 356 men killed, and 124 officers and 1762 men wounded; 1
officer and 175 men were missing; total of casualties, 2447. The
French suffered a loss of 5 generals killed, 4 wounded, and 6
hurt; 24 superior officers killed, 20 wounded, and 2 missing;
116 subaltern officers killed, 224 wounded, and 8 missing; 1489
sub-officers and soldiers killed, 4259 wounded, and 1400 missing;
total, 7551. The Russians admit a loss on the last day of the
assault of 2684 killed, 7263 wounded, and 1754 missing. Between the
battle of the Tehernaya and the opening of the final bombardment,
they lost 18,000 men.

Thus did Sebastopol fall! The strongest fortress in the world,
garrisoned by the most colossal military power, after a siege
unexampled in modern history had succumbed to the efforts of the
armies of the Western Powers. Three great battles had been fought
beneath its walls, and four bombardments of hitherto unknown
fierceness had been directed against its bastions. The siege
occupied very nearly twelve months; and more than 100,000 men must
have perished by wounds and disease in and before its walls.

The besieging army had, in its different attacks, about 800
guns mounted, which fired more than 1,600,000 rounds, and the
approaches, dug during 336 days, of open trenches through a rocky
ground, to an extent of fifty-four English miles, were made under
the constant fire of the place, and with incessant combats by
day and night. During the siege we employed no less than 80,000
gabions, 60,000 fascines, and nearly 1,000,000 earth bags.

To the French unquestionably is due the honor of its capture;
but who can forget the courage which the English exhibited, the
fortitude they displayed, or the sufferings they endured? The first
victories of that eventful year are claimed by British valour, and
if, at the last, they failed, let us remember there are some tasks
no ability can execute, some difficulties no skill can surmount,
and some opposition no valour can subdue.”


BORODINO, OR MOSKWA, BATTLE OF.--This battle is one of the most
sanguinary in the annals of the world. It was fought September
7th, 1812, between the French and Russians, commanded on the one
side by Napoleon and on the other by Kutusoff, 240,000 men being
engaged in the battle. Each party claimed the victory, because the
loss of the others was so immense, but it was rather in favour of
Napoleon, for the Russians subsequently retreated, leaving Moscow
to its fate. Among the principal persons of the Russians who fell
on this sanguinary field, may be mentioned Prince Bagration and
General Touczkoff. Many Russian generals were wounded. Their loss
amounted to the awful sum total of 15,000 men killed and more than
30,000 wounded. The French were supposed to have at least 10,000
men killed and 20,000 wounded; of these last few recovered. There
were 8 French generals slain, the most distinguished of whom were
Montbrun and Caulaimcourt, whose brother was the grand equerry to
Napoleon Bonaparte.


BOROUGH BRIDGE, BATTLE OF.--Fought between the Earls of Hertford
and Lancaster and Edward II. The king, at the head of 30,000 men,
pressed Lancaster so closely that he was taken, and executed, 1322.


BOSCOBEL.--Here Charles II concealed himself in an oak tree after
the fatal battle of Worcester, September 3rd, 1651. The whole army
of the Prince was either killed or taken prisoners by Cromwell, and
Charles ultimately escaped with great difficulty.


BOSTON.--Here the first resistance was made to the British
authority by the American Colonies, in 1773. Besieged by the
British next year, and two houses destroyed. In June 1775, the
scene of a battle between the royal and the independent troops.
Finally evacuated by the King’s troops, April, 1776.--_See_
BUNKER’S HILL.


BOSWORTH, BATTLE OF.--This battle was the thirteenth and last,
between the houses of York and Lancaster.--Fought August 22nd,
1485. The crown of Richard III was found in a hawthorn bush, on
the plain where the battle was fought, and so eager was Henry of
Richmond to be crowned, that he had the ceremony performed on the
very spot, with that very crown. “Richard advanced to meet his
rival as far us the town of Bosworth. Henry, who had been joined
by some of the Stanleys, and whose army now counted six thousand
men, had reached the neighbouring town of Atherton. Next morning,
the 22nd of August, 1485, both armies were set in battle-array
on the moor called Redmore. Richard was dismayed when he saw the
Stanleys opposed to him; but he soon displayed his wonted courage.
Observing part of his troops inactive and others wavering, he
resolved to make one desperate effort and conquer or fall, and
crying out “Treason, treason!” and giving his horse the spurs, he
rushed to where he saw Richmond. He killed his standard-bearer
and made a furious stroke at Henry himself, which was warded off
by Sir William Stanley, and Richard was thrown from his horse and
slain. Lord Stanley taking up the crown which he wore, placed it on
the head of Richmond, and shouts of “Long live King Henry!” were
instantly raised all over the field. The loss on Richard’s side in
this decisive battle was three hundred, that on Henry’s only one
hundred men. The body of Richard was stripped, and being thrown
across a horse, was conveyed to Leicester and there interred, and
many years after his coffin could be seen used as a horse-trough.”
“_Sic transit gloria mundi._”


BOULOGNE.--_France._--Taken by the British in 1542, restored
1550--attacked by Lord Nelson, who disabled ten vessels and sunk
five, August 3rd, 1801. In another attempt he was repulsed with
great loss, August 18th, following. The flotilla of Boulogne
consisted of 160,000 men and 10,000 horses, with 1300 vessels and
17,000 sailors. Napoleon attempted by it to invade England, but
could not succeed, and at last gave up the idea.


BOXTEL, BATTLE OF.--Fought September 17th, 1794, between the
British and allied army, commanded by the Duke of York, and the
army of the French Republic. The latter attacked the allies and
obtained the victory after an obstinate engagement, taking 2000
prisoners and 8 pieces of cannon, and the Duke retreated across the
Meuse.


BOYNE, BATTLE OF THE.--Fought July 1st, 1689, between the Prince of
Orange, afterwards William III of England, and James II of England.
James was defeated. “Early next morning, the 1st of July, 1689, the
English prepared to pass the river in three divisions. The right
forced the passage at the ford of Slane; the centre led by the old
warrior Duke Schomberg, passed opposite the Irish camp; it was
vigorously opposed, but it finally forced the Irish to fall back
to the village of Donóre, where James stood viewing the battle.
William, meantime, had passed at the head of the third division,
composed of cavalry, and driven off the enemy’s horse. The French
General Lausun immediately urged James to set out with all speed
for Dublin, lest he should be surrounded. He forthwith quitted the
field; the Irish army poured through the pass of Duleék and formed
at the other side, and then retreated in good order. Its loss had
been 1500 men, that of the victors was about 500, among whom were
Duke Schomberg, and Walker, the brave Governor of Derry.”


BRECHIN.--_Scotland._--Edward III besieged it in 1333. A battle was
fought here between the forces of the Earls of Huntly and Crawford.
The latter defeated in 1452.


BREDA.--Taken by Prince Maurice in 1590. By the Spaniards in 1625.
By the Dutch in 1637. By the French 1793, and again by the Dutch in
the same year.


BREST.--Besieged by Julius Cæsar B.C. 54. Possessed by the English,
A.D. 1378. Given up 1391. Lord Berkely and a British force
repulsed here, with terrible loss, in 1694. Here was the French
fleet rendezvous, which was afterwards defeated by Lord Howe, 1st
June, 1794.


BRETIGNY, PEACE OF.--Between France and England, ending in the
release of King John, who was then a prisoner in London, May 8th,
1360.


BRIAR’S CREEK, BATTLE OF.--One of the battles between the revolted
Americans and the British, in 1779. The former, under General Ashe,
2000 strong, were totally defeated by the English, under General
Prevost, March 16th, 1779. Again, 3rd May following, another defeat
happened to the Americans.


BRANDYWINE, BATTLE OF.--Fought between the British royalist forces
and the revolted Americans, in which the latter (after a fight,
sometimes of doubtful result, and which continued the entire day)
were defeated with great loss, and Philadelphia fell into the
possession of the victors, September 11th, 1777.


BRESLAU, BATTLE OF.--Between the Austrians and Prussians, the
latter under Prince Bevern, who was defeated, but the engagement
was most bloody on both sides; fought November 22nd, 1757. Breslau
was taken, but was regained the same year. This city was besieged
by the French and surrendered to them January 5th, 1807, and again
in 1813.


BRIENNE, BATTLE OF.--Fought February 1st and 2nd, 1814, between the
allied armies of Russia and Prussia and the French. The allies were
defeated with great loss; this was one of the last battles in which
the French achieved victory previous to the fall of Napoleon.


BRIDGE OF BOATS OF XERXES.--This bridge was connected from shore to
shore in the following manner: They connected vessels of different
kinds, some long vessels of fifty oars, others three banked
galleys, to the number of 360 on the side of the Euxine sea, and
thirteen on that of the Hellespont. When these vessels were firmly
fixed together they were secured by anchors of great length on the
upper side, because of the winds which set in from the Euxine;
on the lower toward the Ægean sea, on account of the south and
south-east winds. They left openings in three places, sufficient
to afford a passage for light vessels which might have occasion
to sail into the Euxine or from it--having performed this they
extended cables from the shore stretching them on large capstans
of wood. Then they sawed out rafters of wood making their length
equal to that space required for the bridge--these they laid in
order across the extended cables and then bound all fast together.
Then they placed unwrought wood regularly upon the rafters; over
all they threw earth, and fenced both sides in, that the horses and
other animals might not be frightened by looking down into the sea.


BRIGADE.--A party or division of troops or soldiers, whether
cavalry or infantry--regular, volunteer or militia, commanded by
a brigadier. A brigade of artillery consists of six pieces, with
usually about 140 men; a brigade of sappers consists of eight men.


BRIGADIER.--A general officer who commands a brigade, whether of
horse or foot, and ranks next to a major-general--commonly called
a brigadier-general.


BRUSSELS.--Bombarded by Marshal Villeroy, in 1695--taken by the
French 1746. Again by Dumouriez, in 1792; near it is the celebrated
field of Waterloo.


BUCHAREST, TREATY OF.--A treaty of peace between Russia and Turkey,
signed May 28th, 1812.


BUDA.--Once called the _Key of Christendom_. It was taken by
Soleyman II at the memorable battle of Mohatz, when the Hungarian
King Louis was killed, and 200,000 of his subjects carried away as
slaves, 1526. Buda was sacked a second time, and Hungary annexed
to the Ottoman Umpire, 1540. Retaken by the Imperialists, and the
Mohammedans delivered up to the fury of the soldiers, 1626.


BUENOS AYRES, BRITISH DESCENTS UPON.--A British fleet and army,
under Sir Home Popham and General Beresford, took the city, with
slight resistance, in 1806, but it was retaken August 12th, after
six weeks’ possession. Monte-Video was taken by storm by Sir Samuel
Auchmuty, February 3rd, 1807, but evacuated July 7th following.
The British suffered a dreadful repulse here in an expedition of
8000 men, under general Whitelock (who was disgraced) July 6th,
1807. On entering the town they were attacked by a superior force
with musketry and grape from every quarter, and perished in great
numbers, but at last they were allowed to re-embark in their
vessels.


BULL RUN.--This battle was fought between the Northern States of
America and the Confederate States of the South, July 21st, 1861.
The Union army was signally defeated, and fell back on Washington
in confusion. Their loss amounted to 481 killed, 1011 wounded, and
700 prisoners. The rebel or Southern loss was 269 killed and 1483
wounded.


BUNKER’S HILL, BATTLE OF.--Fought between the English and her
revolted colonists, June 16th, 1775. On the evening of that day,
1000 men, under the command of Colonel Prescott, of Massachusetts,
Colonel Stark, from New-Hampshire, and Captain Knowlton, from
Connecticut, were despatched on this service. They were conducted,
by mistake, to Breed’s Hill, which was nearer to the water and to
Boston, than Bunker’s. At twelve o’clock they began to throw up
entrenchments, and by dawn of day had completed a redoubt eight
rods square. As soon as they were discovered, they were fired upon
from a ship of war and several floating batteries lying near, and
from a fortification in Boston opposite the redoubt. The Americans,
nevertheless, encouraged by General Putnam, who often visited them
on the hill, continued to labor until they had finished a slight
breastwork extending from the redoubt eastward to the water. And in
the morning they received a reinforcement of 500 men.

The temerity of the provincials astonished and incensed General
Gage, and he determined to drive them immediately from their
position. About noon, a body of 3000 regulars, commanded by General
Howe, left Boston in boats, and landed in Charlestown, at the
extreme point of the peninsula. Generals Clinton and Burgoyne took
their station on an eminence in Boston, commanding a distinct view
of the hill. The spires of the churches, the roofs of the houses,
and all the heights in the neighborhood, were covered with people,
waiting, in dreadful anxiety, to witness the approaching battle.

The regulars forming at the place of landing, marched slowly up
the hill, halting frequently to allow time to the artillery to
demolish the works. While advancing, the village of Charlestown,
containing about 400 houses, was set on fire by order of General
Gage. The flames ascended to a lofty height, presenting a sublime
and magnificent spectacle. The Americans reserved their fire until
the British were within 10 rods of the redoubt; then taking a
steady aim, they began a furious discharge. Entire ranks of the
assailants fell. The enemy halted and returned the fire; but that
from the redoubt continuing incessant and doing great execution,
they retreated in haste and disorder down the hill, some even
taking refuge in their boats.

The officers were seen running hither and thither, collecting,
arranging and addressing their men, who were at length induced
again to ascend the hill. The Americans now reserved their fire
until the enemy had approached even nearer than before, when a
tremendous volley was at once poured upon them. Terrified by the
carnage around them, they again retreated with precipitation, and
such was the panic, that General Howe was left almost alone on the
hillside, his troops having deserted him, and nearly every officer
around him being killed.

At this moment, General Clinton, who had observed from Boston the
progress of the battle, feeling that British honor was at stake,
hastened with a reinforcement to the assistance of his countrymen.
By his exertions, the troops were a third time rallied, and were
compelled by the officers, who marched behind them with drawn
swords, to advance again towards the Americans. The fire from the
ships and batteries was redoubled, and a few pieces of cannon had
been so placed as to rake the interior of the breastwork from end
to end.

The provincials, having expended their ammunition, awaited in
silence the approach of the regulars. The latter entered the
redoubt. The former, having no bayonets, defended themselves, for a
short time, with the butt-end of their muskets. From this unequal
contest they were soon compelled to retire. As they retreated
over Charleston Neck, the fire from the floating batteries was
incessant; but a few only were killed. The enemy had sustained too
much injury to think of pursuit.

In this desperate and bloody conflict, the royal forces consisted,
as has been stated, of 3000 men, and the provincials of 1500. Of
the former, 1054 were killed and wounded; of the latter 453. This
disparity of loss, the steadiness and bravery displayed by their
recent undisciplined levies, occasioned among the Americans the
highest exultation, and, in their view, more than counterbalanced
the loss of position.


BURGOS, SIEGE OF.--Lord Wellington entered Burgos after the battle
of Salamanca (fought July 22nd, 1812), on September 19th. The
castle was besieged by the British and Allies, and several attempts
were made to carry it by assault, but the siege was abandoned,
October 21st, the same year; the castle and fortifications were
blown up by the French, June 12th, 1813.


BURMESE WAR.--The first dispute with the Burmese took place in
1795, but it was amicably settled by General Erskine. Hostilities
were commenced in 1824, when the British took Rangoon. After some
time peace was declared, February 24th, 1826, when the British
received Arracan as a compensation. A naval force arrived before
Rangoon, October 29th, 1851, and after the non compliance of
certain British demands by the viceroy, war was declared. On
the 5th April, 1852, Martaban was stormed by the British Indian
army, and on the 14th of the same month Rangoon itself fell
into their hands. Then followed the storming of Bassein, May
19th, 1852, and the capture of Pegu, June 4th, 1852. On the 28th
December following, Pegu was annexed to the Indian Government by a
proclamation of the Governor-General.


BURLINGTON HEIGHTS, BATTLE OF.--Between the British and the United
States’ forces--an obstinate and memorable engagement, contested
with great valour on both sides. The Americans were routed, and the
British carried the heights, June 6th, 1813.


BUSACO OR BUZACO, BATTLE OF.--This sanguinary engagement was
fought, September 27th, 1810, between the British, under Lord
Wellington, and the French army, commanded by Massena. The latter
was repulsed with great slaughter, losing one general, and 1000
men killed, two generals and about 3000 men wounded, and several
hundred prisoners; the loss of the British and their allies did
not exceed 1300 in the whole. The British subsequently retreated
to the lines of Torres Vedras, which were too strong for Massena
to attempt to force, and the two armies remained in sight of each
other to the end of the year.



C.


CABUL.--The following is succinct account of this expedition.

“Every preparation was now completed for our march, and on the 12th
of October, 1842, our force, divided into three brigades, left
Cabul, the first under General Pollock, the second under General
McCaskill, and the rear under General Nott. We had not proceeded
more than four miles, when we heard the explosion of the mines,
which left the renowned Cabul a vast region of ruins; and the
Affghans to judge the spirit of the British as an avenging one.
Cabul lies under the Hindoo Koosh, and is bordered on the one side
by the Himalaya, and the rivers Attock and Rozee: the people are
robust and healthy; their manners amount to insolence and cruelty;
they are continually at war with each other; and are divided into
tribes. Trade seemed to have abounded greatly, and the country is
generally in a flourishing state: the cities of Cabul, Ghuznee, and
Candahar, are the principal ones of Affghanistan; the Persians form
a considerable portion of the inhabitants of Cabul, and the traffic
with that country is somewhat extensive.

The divisions made a general move at daybreak, on the 12th
October, to Thag Bakh, about six miles distant from Cabul; and on
the entrance to the Koord Cabul Pass, Her Majesty’s 9th and 13th
Regiments, together with six Native Corps of the 1st Division,
manned the hills commanding the pass, to enable those in the
valley below to move on unmolested. On the morning of the 13th the
troops entered the Pass which led to Tezeen, about nine miles. The
mountains were high and craggy, and very dark, rendering the road
extremely gloomy and sad; a torrent ran in a serpentine direction
from side to side, which reminded me of the Bolun; it had to be
crossed twenty-eight times during about six miles. We had scarcely
got well into the jaws of this awful scene of romantic vastness,
whose hollow crags seemed to echo defiance to our intruding tread,
when a number of the enemy made their appearance in the rear, but
were kept in check. The very great height of the mountains, of a
dark, reddish colour, struck one with awe, and silence seemed to
reign over all; the mind was totally occupied in contemplating this
fearful sight of hidden deeds; horror struck the feeling heart,
when the eye fell on the skeletons of our departed comrades, who
lay in most agonizing positions, indicative of their last struggle
for life. Here a spot would be strewed with a few crouched up in a
corner, where they had evidently fled to cover themselves by some
detached rock, from the overpowering cruelty of their foe, and
had been rivetted by death. There couples were lying who had died
in each other’s arms, locked as it were in the last embrace of
despair: numbers lay in every direction, devoid of every particle
of clothes; some with the greater part of the flesh putrefied on
their bleaching bones--others were clean from having been devoured
by the vast number of carrion birds and beasts inhabiting these
terrible regions. I at first attempted to count the number of
frames as I went along, but found them so numerous that I could not
find time, and my inclination sickened from the awfulness of the
scene. The pass was no more than thirty feet wide at this part, and
so numerous were the mouldering frames of these whose lives had
been sacrificed during the last winter, that they literally covered
the road--and, in consequence, the artillery and other wheeled
carriages had to pass over them--and it was indeed horrible to
hear the wheels cracking the bones of our unburied comrades. It was
quite easy to discover the Europeans by the hair on the skulls,
which still remained fresh. After a tedious, and indeed a painful
march, we reached Tezeen, which opens from the narrow Pass into a
much wider part, sufficient to enable us to pitch our camp. Here
was a sad scene of recent strife--scarce a tent could be pitched
but a skeleton or two had to be removed, just kicked aside as
though it were a stump of a tree, in order to leave clear the
place for the interior of the tent, and there remained unnoticed.
It has often been a subject of deep reflection to me, to think
how utterly reckless man can be made by habit: so used were we
to these sights, that it became a mere commonplace matter to see
such relics of devastation and massacre. I remember walking with a
friend down the centre of the camp, and we had often to stride over
skeletons, without the least observation, further than I could not
help heaving a sigh, and reflecting in silence on their unfortunate
end.

The next day took us thirteen miles on a road of extreme
barrenness; the high, wild, rugged mountains, hemmed in the narrow
defile; the skeletons of the massacred force still strewed the
road in every direction; no signs of vegetation, or aught to
relieve the eye from wildness--the numerous hollow crags, as we
passed, seemed to ring with echoing despair, and afforded most
formidable positions for the treacherous Affghan to use his jezail
or matchlock, without fear of opposition. The enemy, finding we had
now entered the Pass, hovered about, and succeeded in murdering an
officer, and a few men of Pollock’s force. The divisions marched
one day a-head of each other, and thus kept up a continued line of
communication. I, with General Nott’s, arrived at this ground on
the 14th; the road was equally extremely harassing the next day,
as indeed, ever since our entrance to the Pass. The ascents and
descents are so numerous, coupled with having to cross the water so
often, and there being no hold for the feet, on the loose flinty
stones, made it very trying for both man and beast. Upwards of
twenty times had the gushing torrent, dashing from side to side of
the valley, to be waded through, and numbers of bleaching frames of
the victims of Akbar’s treachery, lay exposed in the midst of the
rolling stream. In one part of this day’s march we came to a place
fifty yards in length, crowded with dead bodies of men, horses,
and camels, which were those of a troop of irregular cavalry, who
had all been cut up on this spot. About a mile from Sah Baba, our
next ground, stands a round tower, the ruins of an old fort; it
was now used as a bone house, and was crammed to the ceiling, with
skulls, legs, arms, and shattered frames, and numbers were heaped
outside the door, and round it,--placed there by the enemy, to
form a glaring spectacle of their bitter revenge. A large body of
Affghans were now seen covering the hills in our rear, and opened a
fire into the dreary abyss, on our rear guards and baggage as they
passed. The column had moved on some few miles, but were halted,
and those of our troops in possession of the heights commenced
an attack, and succeeded in repelling them, and forcing them to
retreat, and we reached camp with little loss. This place is said
to be the burial place of Lamech, the father of Noah, and if we may
judge from its wild, dreary, stony, barren appearance, which looked
as if it had been washed up into a heap after the deluge, and so
void of all chances of fertility, that one could scarcely doubt the
tradition.

Our next day led on to Kutta Sang, and of all the roads I had
ever seen or traversed, as yet, this was the worst. The route led
from hill to hill, the ascents being difficult and stony, and the
descents in addition being very dangerous, as a fearful precipice
presented itself should you happen to fall. These unwelcome views
were many in number, and coupled with the tedious progress of the
cattle and baggage, and the difficulty experienced in dragging the
guns and loads up these many steep hills, and nothing but a dreary
road to travel onward, made the march bad indeed. After the main
body reached camp, the rear guard was attacked; a reinforcement
was despatched, and a smart skirmish ensued; the Affghans seemed
to delight in annoying us, and from their hidden positions most
peremptorily carried their plan into effect; we lost few men
compared with them, and the whole reached camp about midnight.
Still the poor soldier found misery destined for him in every
direction. On arriving at a new ground, two regiments had to mount
duty on the summits of the hills bordering the route, which had to
be ascended after the day’s harassing march, thus forming a second,
much more so. The scanty, coarse meal, being nothing more than a
quantity of meat and broth made from an allowance of a scarcely
lifeless carcass, of the hard-driven, skeletonized bullock, and
this of times not prepared before the dead hour of night; and then
carried up to the men cold and tasteless. The bread or cake made of
coarse, hand-ground flour, full of grit and small straw, half-baked
and calculated to produce disease by its use; and ere this was well
eaten, the rouse would sound, and the weary instrument of Britain’s
safety would be wending his way through the dreary and unknown
regions, ’mid almost perpendicular rocks, and perilous tracks. Such
was the road of the next day’s march, to Jugdulluk Pass: this is
by no means the most difficult one to explore--the sides not being
near so high as those already traversed; it had some appearance
of fertility, being studded with many small bushes. There were
innumerable small caves, or recesses in the rocks, and it was from
those dark-dens, forming cover for the enemy, that they succeeded
so well in cutting off our unfortunate brethren, whose skeletons
here were very numerously strewed about the path, and thus rendered
the Pass more horrible than it would have been; for the light shone
brighter here than we had it for some time. Nay, so stupendous were
the mountains, hemming the ravines we had passed, that it would be
often far advanced in the day before the sun would be seen by those
beneath.

The unfortunate 44th made a somewhat successful stand in the
Jugdulluk Pass, and succeeded, ere they were overpowered, in
slaying many of their foes. The pass was narrow, and the Affghans,
who had preceded us some hours, with a view to intercept and baffle
us, had formed breastworks across the road; and, would it be
believed, that these breastworks were formed of skeletons of our
own men and horses? Not less than 100 frames could have been here
piled up, which had to be removed before we could pass on. About
600 of the enemy made their appearance here, and in the first onset
did considerable damage,--but a detachment from the main body soon
dislodged them, and put them to the rout; it was common to see,
lying on the road, bodies of murdered Sepoys and couriers; and in
fact to attempt to enumerate the acts of treachery practised on
us, would be next to impossible. We at length reached Soorkab. At
this ground was a cluster of fine tall trees, which relieved the
eye, and led us to hope we were approaching a land of the living;
the camp was bordered by the celebrated Red River, a most beautiful
crystal stream, rolling most musically over a stony bottom, and
under the ridge of an immense mountain; the continued buzz kept up
by the murmuring torrent echoing from the fearful crags, lulled
the weary travellers in camp to sleep. Across this river is a most
splendid bridge of one gigantic arch, which led by a declivitous
route from this Pass to another; on the right of this bridge, which
was erected by Alexander, issued a cataract roaring and dashing
from the hills, which fed the stream, and formed a most beautiful
picture. It was on this bridge that a number of the 44th--from
the extreme inclemency of the weather, and the bitterness of the
frost--were so benumbed with cold that they were unable to use
their arms when attacked on their retreat. Oh! when reflection is
but called up, and the miserable condition of these poor, oppressed
creatures, considered, it cannot but call forth a sigh of deep
regret,--bereft of every chance of escape, or wherewithal to
exist,--as they were. When we consider that some of our nearest and
dearest relatives or friends were amongst the number--surely, if
there is one spark of sympathy left, it will be kindled for those
whose last struggle was for their country’s cause.

Our next route led across the bridge through the defile already
described, and on the road were lying the bodies of two murdered
Sepoys. The ascents and descents were as usual; and from the summit
of these intersecting hills, the eye would carry itself upon range
after range of never ending cliffs and walls of mountains; the
dark aspect of the distant horizon carried with it a volume of
thoughts, wondering when the back would be once more turned on
such dreariness. The moving mass below would be seen winding its
serpentine length along the Pass, which from its narrowness, being
obstructed by huge masses of detached rock having fallen from the
heights, and impassable by other than taking a circuitous route,
were truly harassing to the men and cattle. I may as well here
mention the great trials and difficulties experienced in dragging
along the heavy portions of the baggage, more particularly the
celebrated Somnauth gates, which it will doubtless be remembered,
were taken by direction of the Governor General, from the tomb of
Sultan Mahomed at Ghuznee. These gates, it will doubtless also
be remembered, were the idolatrous trophy of the Hindoos in the
Guzerat Peninsula. The General directed a guard of not less than
the wing of a regiment to mount over these gates, which were placed
upon two platform carts, and drawn by six bullocks each. The other
castes of the native Sepoys would not go near them, and the Hindoos
were comparatively few, and insufficient to perform the duty, and
as these gates were to be taken to the provinces for the purpose of
being restored to that race, so great was the care taken of them
that they were placed next to the main body of the army on the
march, and nothing was permitted to go before them. The consequence
was, that oftentimes, owing to the bullocks growing stubborn, the
whole in the rear have been delayed; and the gates have had to be
dragged by fatigue parties of the Europeans--night has set in--the
enemy have taken advantage of our position, and have succeeded in
cutting off numbers who otherwise would have been safe in camp. The
badness of the roads and darkness of the night, together with the
incessant fatigue and consequent loss occasioned by the protection
of these idolatrous baubles, have caused much well-grounded
controversy, and involved much discredit on the authorities.
Many are the lives which have been lost by this--and for what? to
restore to a tribe of idolaters, an idol, that they might worship
with the greater vehemence, as it had been recaptured for them;
and all this, too, by the representative of a Christian people. I
need say nothing farther, except that, owing to the great question
raised relative to their restoration, in our Parliament in 1843 and
1844, and since the recall of Lord Ellenborough, they remain like
so much lumber stored in one of the stations in Bengal.

But to proceed to the march. A short distance from our camp, which
was Gundamuck, stands a small hill, where the remnant of the
44th Regiment, about 300, made their last stand, and fought most
desperately whilst their ammunition lasted, and were at length
annihilated: their skeletons strewed the hill sides and summit;
about 250 soldiers, and upwards of 30 officers, I believe, fell on
this hill, and a deplorable sight it presented. We soon reached the
camp, where Generals Pollock and McCaskill had halted; this place
had been formed into a _dépôt_ for grain and forage (only chopped
straw), on Pollock’s advance on Cabul; the Passes from Peshawur,
as he passed through, had been kept by our troops; thus in a great
measure securing our route. We now refreshed ourselves with a day’s
rest, and our cattle with a feast of forage, such as it was; and
also in comparative confidence, as we were now but a couple of
day’s stage from Jellalabad. The mails from Europe for the army
were despatched from Calcutta and met us at this place, so that all
in all it was quite a day of pleasure, receiving news from that
dear place Home, “which never was so sweetly felt as in such times
as these,”--conjunction of the Divisions, and recognition of old
comrades who had escaped the perils of the few past days, and such
like,--made the whole feel refreshed, and filled us with the utmost
cheerfulness.”


CAIRO, OR GRAND CAIRO.--Burnt to prevent its occupation by the
Crusaders, in 1220. Taken by the Turks from the Egyptian sultans,
and their empire subdued, 1517. Taken by the French under
Bonaparte, July 23rd, 1798. Taken by the British and Turks, when
6000 French capitulated, June 27th, 1801.


CALAIS.--Taken by Edward III, after a year’s siege, August 4th,
1347, and held by England 210 years. It was retaken by Mary,
January 7th, 1558, and the loss of Calais so deeply touched the
Queen’s heart, historians say it occasioned her death. Calais was
bombarded by the English, 1694.


CALVI, SIEGE OF.--Besieged by the British, June 12th, 1744, and
after a close investment of 59 days, surrendered on August 10th
following. The garrison then marched out with the honors of war,
and were conveyed to Toulon. It surrendered to the French in 1796.


CAMBRAY.--Taken by the Spaniards in 1595. It was invested by the
Austrians, August 8th, 1793, and the Republican General Declay
replied to the Imperial summons to surrender, that “he knew not how
to do _that_, but his soldiers knew how to fight.” The French here
were defeated by the Duke of York, April 23rd, 1794. It was then
seized by the British, by Sir Charles Colville, June 24th, 1815.
This was one of the fortresses occupied by the allied armies for
five years after the fall of Napoleon.


CAMDEN, BATTLES OF.--The first battle fought here was between
General Gates and Lord Cornwallis. The Americans were defeated
August 16th, 1780. The second battle was fought between the
revolted Americans and the British, the former commanded by General
Greene, and the latter by Lord Rawdon. The Americans were again
defeated, April 25th, 1781. Camden was evacuated and burnt by the
British, May 13th, 1781.


CAMPERDOWN, BATTLE OF.--This was a memorable engagement, off
Camperdown, between the British fleet, under Admiral Duncan, and
the Dutch fleet, commanded by Admiral De Winter. The Dutch lost 15
ships, which were either taken or sunk. It was fought October 11th,
1797. This victory obtained the brave and good Admiral a peerage.


CAMPO FORMIO, TREATY OF.--Concluded between France and Austria.
This memorable and humiliating treaty took place on the 17th
October, 1797. By this treaty Austria had to yield the low
countries and the Ionian Islands to France; and Milan &c., to the
Cisalpine Republic.


CANNAE, BATTLE OF.--This battle, one of the most celebrated in
ancient history, was fought between the Romans and Hannibal. The
forces of the Africans amounted to 50,000, while those of the
Romans were equal to 88,000, of whom 40,000 were slain. The victor
sent 3 bushels of gold rings as a present to the Carthagenian
ladies, which he had taken off the fingers of the Roman knights
slain in this memorable engagement. So contested was the fight
that neither side perceived an earthquake, which happened during
the battle. The place is now called “The Field of Blood.” Fought
21st May, B.C. 216.


CANNON.--They are said to have been used as early as 1338. First
used by the English at the siege of Calais, 1347. Used by the
English first in battle, that of Crecy, in 1346.


CAPE BRETON.--Discovered by the English 1584. Taken by the French
in 1632. Restored and again taken in 1745, and retaken in 1748.
Finally possessed by the English, when 5000 men were made prisoners
of war, and 11 ships destroyed, 1758. Ceded to England at the peace
of 1783.


CAPE ST. VINCENT.--_1st Battle._--Admiral Rooke, with 20 ships
of war, and the Turkish fleet under his convoy, was attacked by
Admiral Tourville with a force vastly superior to his own, off
Cape St. Vincent, when 12 English and Dutch men of war and 80
merchantmen were captured or destroyed by the French. It was fought
June 15th, 1693.

_2nd Battle._--This second battle was one of the most glorious
of the British navy. Sir John Jarvis, being in command of the
Mediterranean fleet of 15 sail, gave battle to the Spanish fleet
of 27 ships of the line, and signally defeated the enemy, nearly
double in strength, taking 4 ships and destroying several others.
Fought February 14th, 1797. For this victory Sir John Jarvis was
raised to the peerage under the title of Earl St. Vincent.


CAPTAIN.--This title, derived from the French _capitaine_,
literally signifies a head or chief officer,--the officer who
commands a company. In Turkey, the Captain-Bashaw is the High
Admiral.


CARLISLE.--The castle founded by William II, in 1092, was made
the prison of the unfortunate Queen of Scots, 1568. Taken by the
Parliamentary forces in 1645, and by the Pretender in 1745.


CARRICKFERGUS.--This town surrendered to the Duke of Schomberg,
August 28th, 1689. William III landed here June 14th, 1690, to
reduce the adherents of James II. This place is memorable for
the expedition of the French Admiral Thurot, when its castle
surrendered to his force of 1000 men, in 1760.


CARTHAGE.--Founded by Dido. Taken by the Roman General Scipio, and
burnt to the ground B.C. 146. The flames of the burning city raged
for 17 days, and thousands of the inhabitants perished in them
rather than survive the calamities of their country. Afterwards it
was rebuilt, but razed by the Saracens, and now no trace of the
city appears.


CARTHAGENA.--_In Columbia_.--Was taken by Sir Francis Drake in
1584. It was pillaged by the French of £1,200,000 in 1697. It was
bombarded by Admiral Vernon in 1740-1.

“When the forces were landed at Carthagena, the commanders erected
a battery, with which they made a breach in the principal fort,
while Vernon, who commanded the fleet, sent a number of ships into
the harbor to divide the fire of the enemy, and to co-operate with
the army on shore. The breach being deemed practicable, a body of
troops were commanded to storm; but the Spaniards deserted the
forts, which, if possessed of courage, they might have defended
with success. The troops, upon gaining this advantage, were
advanced a good deal nearer the city; but there they met a much
greater opposition than they had expected. It was found, or at
least asserted, that the fleet could not lie near enough to batter
the town, and that nothing remained but to attempt one of the forts
by scaling. The leaders of the fleet and the army began mutually
to accuse each other, each asserting the probability of what the
other denied. At length, Wentworth, stimulated by the admiral’s
reproach, resolved to try the dangerous experiment, and ordered
that fort St. Lazare should be attempted by scalade. Nothing could
be more unfortunate than this undertaking; the forces marching up
to the attack, the guides were slain, and they mistook their way.
Instead of attempting the weakest part of the fort, they advanced
to where it was the strongest, and where they were exposed to the
fire of the town. Colonel Grant, who commanded the grenadiers,
was killed in the beginning. Soon after it was found that their
scaling ladders were too short; the officers were perplexed for
want of orders, and the troops stood exposed to the whole fire
of the enemy, without knowing how to proceed. After bearing a
dreadful fire for some hours with great intrepidity, they at length
retreated, leaving 600 men dead on the spot. The terrors of the
climate soon began to be more dreadful than those of war; the
rainy season came on with such violence, that it was impossible
for the troops to continue encamped; and the mortality of the
season now began to attack them in all its frightful varieties. To
these calamities, sufficient to quell any enterprise, was added
the dissension between the land and sea commanders, who blamed
each other for every failure, and became frantic with mutual
recrimination. They only, therefore, at last, could be brought
to agree in one mortifying measure, which was to re-embark the
troops, and withdraw them as quickly as possible from the scene of
slaughter and contagion.”


CASTIGLIONE, BATTLE OF.--One of the most brilliant victories of
the French arms under Napoleon against the Austrians, commanded by
General Wurmsex. The battle lasted 5 days, from the 2nd to the 6th
July, 1796. The Austrians lost 70 field pieces, all their caissons,
and between 12,000 to 15,000 prisoners, and 6000 killed and wounded.


CASTILLON, BATTLE OF.--_In France._--Fought between the armies of
England (Henry VI) and those of France (Charles VII). The English
were signally defeated, July 7th, 1453,--Calais alone remaining in
their hands.


CASTLEBAR, BATTLE OF.--Fought between a body of French troops
and an insurgent Irish force, at Killala, on the one hand, and
the King’s royal forces on the other; the latter, after a short
contest, being obliged to retire, August 28th, 1798.


CATAMARANS.--Fire machines for destroying ships, invented and tried
on the Boulogne flotilla of Napoleon. Sir Sidney Smith attempted to
burn the flotilla, but failed, August 31st, 1805.


CATAPULTÆ.--Engines used by the ancient Romans for throwing stones.
Invented by Dionysius, the King of Syracuse, B.C. 399.


CATEAU, PEACE OF.--Concluded between Henry II of France and Philip
II of Spain, in 1599. A battle was fought here between the allies,
under the Prince of Cobourg, and the French. The latter were
defeated with a loss of 5000 in killed and 5 pieces of cannon,
March 28th, 1794.


CAWNPORE.--_In India._--Famous in the Great Indian mutiny, which is
thus described:

“At Cawnpore, a terrible disaster befell the British arms. Sir Hugh
Wheeler, a veteran officer of approved bravery, had entrenched
himself in the barracks with a force of less than 300 fighting
men, and upwards of 500 women and children, the wives and families
of officers and civilians, and of the Queen’s 32d regiment, then
besieged at Lucknow. The insurgents were commanded by Nena Sahib,
or, rather, Dhandoo Pant, Rajah of Bhitoor, the adopted son of
the late Peishwah Bajee Raho. This man, under the mask of kindly
feeling toward the English, nurtured a deadly hatred against
the government, which had refused to acknowledge his claims as
the Peishwah’s successor. He had long been addicted to the most
revolting sensuality, and had lost all control over his passions.
Wearied and enraged by the desperate resistance of this handful of
brave men, he offered them a safe passage to Allahabad, if they
would give up their guns and treasure. The place, indeed, was no
longer tenable; and the survivors, diminished in number, were
exhausted by constant vigils and want of food. In an evil moment,
then, they accepted the terms of their perfidious enemy, marched
down to the river, and embarked on board the boats which had been
prepared for them. Suddenly a masked battery opened fire upon them,
and crowds of horse and foot soldiers lined either bank. Many were
shot dead, still more were drowned, and about 150 taken prisoners;
four only escaped by swimming. The men were instantly put to death
in cold blood; the women and children were spared for a few days
longer.

“General Havelock, taking the command at Allahabad of the 78th
Highlanders, the Queen’s 64th, the 1st Madras Fusiliers, and the
Ferozepore regiment of Sikhs, had set out in the hope of arriving
at Cawnpore in time to release Sir Hugh Wheeler and his devoted
comrades. After marching 126 miles, fighting four actions, and
capturing a number of guns of heavy calibre, in eight days, and in
the worst season of an Indian climate, he was yet too late to avert
the terrible catastrophe. The day before he entered Cawnpore, Nena
Sahib foully murdered the women and children, who alone survived of
the Cawnpore garrison, and caused them to be flung, the dead and
the dying, into a well of the courtyard of the assembly rooms.”

Another account says:--

“General Havelock arrived before Cawnpore on the 18th July, and so
eager was he to rescue the garrison (for he was not yet aware of
what had happened), that he attacked the Sepoy position without
delay. Ordering a charge, his gallant band rushed to the onset.
Not a word was uttered until when within 100 yards of the rebels,
_three deafening cheers_,--cheers such as Englishmen only can give,
rang out. Then came the crash; a murderous volley of musketry and
the crash of bayonets soon drove the mutineers back, and Cawnpore
was taken; 1000 British troops and 300 Sikhs had put to flight
5000 of the flower of the native soldiery, with a native chief in
command.

“When Havelock’s soldiers entered the assembly rooms, the blood
came up over their shoes. There they found clotted locks of hair,
leaves of religious books, and fragments of clothing in sickening
array, while into the well outside the bodies had been rudely
thrown. The horrors of that scene will never be fully known. A
terrible retribution fell on the mutineers. General Neil compelled
the Brahmins to wipe out, on their bended knees, the sanguinary
traces of the outrages before he ordered them to execution, and
when the 78th Highlanders found the mutilated remains of one of
General Wheeler’s daughters, they divided the locks of hair among
them, pledging each other in solemn covenant, that for every hair
thus appropriated, a mutineer’s life and that alone could be the
atonement. The eldest daughter of Sir Hugh Wheeler is said to have
behaved in a most heroic manner; one of the natives testified that
she shot five _Sepoys_ with a revolver, and then threw herself into
the well.”


CAVALRY.--Of the ancients the Romans had the best cavalry. To each
legion there was attached 300 cavalry in ten turmae. The Persians
were famous for their horse troops--they had 10,000 horse at the
battle of Marathon, B.C. 490, and 10,000 Persian cavalry at the
battle of Issus, B.C. 333. Horse soldiers were early introduced
into the British army. During the wars of Napoleon the strength
amounted to 31,000 men. The British cavalry is divided into the
household troops, dragoons, hussars and lancers. Since 1840 the
number has continued, with little variation, to the present day, at
about 10,000.


CEDAR RAPIDS, CANADA.--Occupied by the Americans as a small fort in
1776. Taken by a detachment of the British army, and 500 Indians,
under the celebrated Indian chief Brant, _without firing a gun_.
The Americans sent to its support were captured after a severe
engagement.


CENTURION.--From the Latin _Centum_ a hundred. An officer who
commanded 100 men in the Roman army. There were 6000 men in a
legion, and hence sixty centurions. He was distinguished from the
others by a branch of vine which he carried in his hand.


CEYLON.--Discovered by the Portuguese, A.D. 1505. Columbo, its
capital, taken by the Dutch, in 1603, recovered in 1621; again
taken 1656. Seized by the British 1795. Ceded to Great Britain by
the Peace of Amiens in 1802. The British troops were treacherously
massacred or imprisoned by the Adigar of Candy, June 26th, 1803.
The complete sovereignty of the whole island taken by England in
1815.


CHÆRONEA, BATTLE OF.--Fought between the Athenians and Bœotians,
B.C. 447. Another battle, and the great one of history, was fought
here between the confederate army of Greece of 30,000, and that of
the Macedonians, under Philip, amounting to 32,000, August 2nd,
338 B.C. Yet another battle was fought here between Archelaus,
Lieutenant of Mithridates and Sylla, B.C. 86, when Archelaus was
defeated and 110,000 Cappadocians slain.


CHAMBLY.--An important military post on the River Richelieu,
Canada. It was often attacked by the Iroquois Indians. In 1775 it
was captured by the Americans, but retaken in 1776. It is now a
small military station.


CHARLEROI, BATTLES OF.--Great battles in several wars have been
fought near this town; the chief in 1690 and 1794. (_See Fleurus._)
Besieged by Prince of Orange in 1672, and again invested by the
same Prince, with 60,000 men, in 1677, but he was obliged to
retire. Near to the place is Ligny--(which see)--memorable at the
battle of Waterloo.


CHARLESTOWN.--_Massachusetts._--Burnt by the British forces under
General Gage, January 17th, 1775. English fleet here repulsed with
great loss, June 28th, 1776. Taken by the British, May 7th, 1779.


CHARLESTON.--_South Carolina_.--Besieged by the British troops
in March 1780, and surrendered in May 13th following, with 6000
prisoners. Evacuated by the British, April 14th, 1783. Famous
during the wars of Secession. The South Carolina Convention
assembled here, March 26th, 1861. A battle was fought here, and
the rebels or Confederates defeated, August 19th, 1861, and after
experiencing all the vicissitudes of war, it was evacuated February
17th, 1865, and next day surrendered to General Gilmore.


CHATEAUGUAY.--_Canada._--To effect a junction with the army of
General Wilkinson, on October 26th, 1813, General Hampton, with
3500 men pushed forward from Lake Champlain towards Montreal.
At the junction of the Ontario and Chateauguay Rivers, he there
met 400 Canadians under Colonel de Salaberry, who most bravely
disputed his advance. By skilful management and great bravery on
the part of the Canadian officers, Viger and Doucet, the Americans
were compelled to retreat towards Plattsburg. Their loss was
considerable, while that of the Canadians was only two men killed
and sixteen wounded. Gen. Hampton returned to Plattsburg, his army
having dwindled away by sickness and desertion.


CHATILLON, CONGRESS OF.--Held by the four powers allied against
France, February 5th, 1814, but the negociation for peace was
broken off, March 19th following.


CHAUMONT, TREATY OF.--Between Great Britain, Austria, Russia and
Prussia, March 1st, 1814. It was followed by the treaty of Paris,
by which Napoleon abdicated, April 11th following.


CHERBOURG.--Famous for an engagement between the English and French
fleets. French defeated; 21 of their ships burnt or destroyed
by Admirals Rooke and Russel, May 19th, 1692. The fort, etc.,
destroyed by the British, who landed August, 1758. The works begun
by Louis XVI, and completed by Napoleon, are proof against any
armament in the world.


CHESAPEAKE, BATTLE OF THE.--Fought at the mouth of the river of
this name, between the British Admiral Greaves and the French
Admiral De Grasse, in the interest of the revolted States of
America, 1781. The Chesapeake and Delaware, blockaded by the
British in 1812. The American frigate of this name surrendered to
the Shannon, British frigate, after a very severe action, June 2nd,
1813.


CHILLIANWALLAH, BATTLE OF.--_In India._--This memorable and
sanguinary battle, between the Sikh forces and the British, was
fought January 13th, 1849. Lord Gough commanded. The Sikhs were
completely routed, but the British also suffered severely: 26
officers were killed and 66 wounded, and 731 rank and file were
killed and 1446 wounded. The loss of the Sikhs was 3000 killed and
4000 wounded. This battle was followed by the attack on the Sikh
camp and the army under Sheere Shing, in its position at Goojerat
(which see) February 21st, 1849.


CHIPPEWA.--On the 5th July, 1814, General Ball with 2400 men gave
battle here to 4000 Americans. The British fought bravely, but were
obliged to retire to Lundy’s Lane, or Bridgewater, near the Falls
of Niagara.


CHRYSLER’S FARM.--_Williamsburg, Canada._--On the 11th November,
1813, the Americans, under General Wilkinson, in their passage down
the St. Lawrence to attack Montreal, being harassed by the Canadian
forces, resolved to land and disperse them. They were 2000 strong
and the Canadians 1000. After two hours of very hard fighting, in
an open field, the Americans were compelled to retire, with the
loss of one general, and 350 killed and wounded. Canadian loss 200.
Medals were granted to the victors of this battle by the British
Government.


CHINA.--“The opening of the China trade to all British subjects,
by the abolition of the East India Company’s monopoly in 1833,
gave rise to a series of disputes with the native rulers, which
at length led to open hostilities. These disputes, relating at
first mainly to the legal rights and immunities to be enjoyed by
the commercial superintendents appointed by the British cabinet,
came eventually to be merged in the greater question touching the
traffic in opium, which had all along been in some measure declared
contraband by the Imperial Government. It was not, however,
peremptorily prohibited till 1836; and even afterwards, through
the connivance of the inferior authorities, an active smuggling
trade continued to be carried on till 1839, when the Imperial
Commissioner Lin, determined on its forcible suppression, seized
the persons of the British merchants at Canton, and of Captain
Elliot, the superintendent. That functionary was then compelled, by
threats of personal violence to himself and his fellow-prisoners,
to issue an order for the surrender of all the opium on board the
vessels in the vicinity of Canton, which, to the value of above
£2,000,000 sterling, was accordingly given up to the Chinese, who
destroyed it,--the superintendent at the same time pledging the
faith of the English government for compensation to the merchants.
After various fruitless attempts to obtain satisfaction for this
outrage, or even an accommodation by which the regular trade might
be resumed, the cabinet of London resolved on hostilities. These,
which were vigorously prosecuted, gave the Chinese a salutary
lesson as to their inferiority to Europeans in military science
and discipline; and they ended in a peace, signed August 29th,
1842, by which the Emperor agreed to pay $21,000,000 by way of
compensation, to open five of his principal ports to our commerce,
and to surrender the island of Hong-Kong to the British crown for
ever.”

The following is a brief narrative from an English journal of the
war of 1860 in China:--“On the 25th of June, 1860, the arrival of
Sir Hope Grant at Tahlien Bay completed the muster of the British
force in Northern China. General de Montauban reached Cheefoo
at the same time, but his tale of men was not full; and as the
Ambassadors were not due for a fortnight, it was determined that
our troops should be landed. This was done, and horses and men
benefited exceedingly by their sojourn on the breezy slopes which
look upon the northern and southern sides of the grand harbor of
Tahlien-wan, chosen for our rendezvous; notwithstanding that the
hottest month of the summer was passed by the men in bell-tents,
and by horses in the open.

On the 1st August, a landing was effected at Pehtang without
opposition, much to our surprise and delight, for the only spot at
which disembarkation was practicable is distant only 2000 yards
from the snug-looking forts which appeared to protect the town; and
even at this place there was a mile of water at high tide, or of
more difficult mud at low water, to be traversed, before the troops
could reach anything which might, by courtesy or comparison, be
termed dry ground.

The 2nd brigade of 1st Division of British troops, and a French
brigade, formed the first landing party. A vigorous resistance
had been expected at this place; and had a fair proportion of the
means lavished on the defence of the Peiho been expended on the
Pehtang river, we should have had great trouble, for by nature that
position is certainly the stronger. The forts on either side, and
the town which adjoins that on the right bank, are built on two
molecules of solid ground, which have turned up, one does not know
how, at a distance of five miles inland from the bar, which closes
the entrance of the river, to even the smallest gunboats, save at
high water. The town is surrounded by a sea of mud, impassable
to horse or man, inundated at high tide; it is connected with
the comparatively higher country bordering the Peiho by a narrow
causeway, which a determined and skilful enemy could hold against
any force whatever, until driven successively from positions which
might be established on the causeway at every hundred yards.
We found, on the night of the 1st August, that the forts were
deserted, and that the guns with which they bristled were but
wooden “Quakers.” Next day we occupied town and forts.

Large bodies of cavalry having shown themselves in our front, a
reconnaissance was made on the 3rd August, covered, in the absence
of cavalry, not yet landed, by infantry and by two French 8-pounder
guns, the only artillery disembarked. We discovered that our polite
enemy had left the causeway unoccupied, and that his force held no
position nearer than 8 miles from the town we were in. The Chinese
pickets opened fire upon our troops, but were speedily driven
back. The reconnaissance effected, our force returned to Pehtang
unmolested.

Meanwhile the Admirals had set to work, landing troops, horses,
guns, materiel, and stores. The navy worked famously; and as
everything had to be brought into the river either in, or in tow
of, the gunboats, whose movements depended upon the tides, the
work, under the active superintendence of Captain Borlase, C.B.,
continued without regard to any arbitrary distinction between
day and night. During four or five of the ten days spent in this
tedious operation, the rain fell in torrents; and as the interior
of Pehtang is below high water-mark, the streets were knee-deep
in mud, composed, in addition to the usual impurities pertaining
to that substance, of flour, wardrobes, Tartar-hats, field rakes,
coal, shutters, oil-cake, chaff, china-cups, matting, beer-bottles,
tin cans, and kittens, being chiefly the contents of the dwellings
of the townspeople, which were successively turned out of windows
to make room for our troops. The cavalry and artillery horses
were picketed in the streets, where alone space was available;
and how they and we and everybody escaped death from typhus fever
or plague, Heaven only knows. The sanitary officer was outraged
by the result. During this time, water for the use of the troops
was obtained in boats filled by the navy in the river above the
influence of the tide, and towed to Pehtang, where the contents
were landed in barrels for distribution.

On the 12th August, after a delay of a day on account of the
French, who at first were unwilling to advance till the season
changed, we moved out to attack the enemy’s position; General
Michel with the 1st Division and the French, along the causeway
against the enemy’s front, General Napier, with the 2nd Division
and cavalry, by a track which diverged from the causeway to the
right at a short distance from Pehtang, with the view of turning
the enemy’s left.

It will not be easy for those who were not present to realise
the difficulties of this march, or to do justice to the troops
who performed it. The gun-waggons sank literally axle-deep, and
their hinder parts had to be left behind; the heavy cavalry were
greatly distressed in struggling through the mud, and it occupied
the troops six hours to traverse four miles, during which time the
enemy remained in his position.

Napier’s division having reached moderately firm ground,
advanced upon the open Tartar flank and rear; whilst the Allied
left cannonaded his front, which was covered by a formidable
intrenchment. The Tartar cavalry came out in great numbers to
meet Napier, who opened on them with Armstrong guns. At first
the Tartars seemed puzzled, but not disturbed; presently, seeing
they were losing men, they rapidly extended, and in a few minutes
the 2nd Division stood enveloped in a grand circle of horsemen,
advancing from all points towards the centre. Napier’s infantry
were speedily deployed, his cavalry let loose, and artillery kept
going; and though the heavy ground was rendered more difficult for
our cavalry by ditches broad and deep, whose passages were known to
the enemy alone, yet, within a quarter of an hour of their advance,
the Tartar force was everywhere in retreat. Not, however, till a
body of their horsemen, which had charged Sterling’s battery, had
been gallantly met and beaten by a party of Fane’s Horse, inferior
in number, under Lieutenant Macgregor, who was severely wounded.

The Allied left then advanced along the causeway, and occupied the
lines of the intrenchments about Senho, which the enemy deserted on
the success of our right.

Amongst some papers found after the action, was a copy of a report
from the Tartar General San-ko-lin-tzin to the Emperor, setting
forth that the physical difficulties in the way of our landing at
Pehtang, and of advancing thence across a country which never is
dry, rendered it unnecessary to dispute our disembarkation on that
river; and even if a landing should be effected, and our troops
could be got under weigh, the general considered that nothing would
be easier than to destroy us with his hordes of cavalry, so soon as
we got entangled in the marshes.

At Senho the Allied forces rested their right on the Peiho river.
The Taku Forts are about six miles lower down. Mid-way between
Senho and the northernmost or nearest fort on the left bank, stands
the town of Tungkoo, surrounded by a very long intrenchment,
consisting of a formidable rampart and a parapet, covered in all
its length by a double wet ditch.

General de Montauban proposed to attack this town the afternoon we
reached Senho, but Sir Hope Grant would not consent to do so until
he had acquired some knowledge of the position.

The French Commander-in-Chief thereon determined to take the place
at once without the aid of our troops. The French troops were led
along the causeway communicating between Senho and Tungkoo, which
appeared to be the only means of approach; but so considerable
a fire was developed from the ramparts as to deter our Allies
from attempting a _coup-de-main_, and they returned to camp after
cannonading the place for half an hour.

Means having been afterwards found of approaching Tungkoo with
a large front on firm ground, the 1st British Division and the
French captured the place on the 14th August. It was exclusively an
affair of artillery; the enemy’s guns in position on the ramparts
were silenced by our Armstrong and 9-pounder guns, and the rifled
24-pounder of the French, gradually advanced, covered by infantry,
to successive positions, as the enemy’s fire became weaker. The
Allies had forty-two guns in the field. We found about fifty guns
of all sorts in the ramparts, which the enemy, abandoned as our
infantry advanced under cover of the guns. The British headed by
the 60th Rifles, turned the right of the ditch, and entered the
works a quarter of an hour before the French, who made their entry
at the gate.

After taking Tungkoo, the 1st Division (British) returned to its
camp in front of Senho, and the 2nd Division, which had been in
reserve, occupied the town.

The view from General Napier’s house-top was not encouraging. As
far as the eye could reach, we were surrounded by salt marshes,
intersected by very numerous and wide canals, which carry sea-water
into the salt-pans.

It was in contemplation to attack the north and south forts
simultaneously, with a force operating on each side of the Peiho,
and a bridge of boats was in course of construction across the
river at Senho. But as all the materials of the bridge, save boats,
had to be conveyed overland from Pehtang, its progress could not be
rapid. Meanwhile, by dint of most laborious reconnaissance, General
Napier had discovered that open ground near the north fort could
be reached by artillery, on the completion of a line of causeway
which he had commenced over the inundated ground within the town of
Tungkoo, and by establishing crossing-places at certain points on
five or six canals. He urged an immediate attack on the north forts
only; and, having obtained permission to throw out a picket towards
them, on the 19th, made so good a use of it, that in one night the
passages of the canals were completed, and the Commander-in-chief
was conducted next morning within five hundred yards of the nearest
fort. Seeing all obstacles to the approach of the forts overcome,
Sir Hope Grant frankly consented to General Napier’s scheme, and
intrusted its execution to his division. The French commander was
very averse to the plan proposed. He formally protested against it,
but General Grant maintained his determination; and, devoting the
night of the 20th to the construction of batteries, the attack was
made upon the upper north fort at daylight of the 21st August. The
fire of thirty-one pieces of British and six of French ordnance
gradually subdued the enemy’s artillery; their magazine was
exploded by one of our shells; shortly before, that of the further
north fort, which supported it, was blown up by a shell from one
of the gunboats, which were rendering such assistance as they
could give at a range of two thousand yards, the distance imposed
by the stakes and booms which were laid across the river. On the
advance of the infantry, the French crossed the ditches, upon
scaling-ladders laid flat. Our engineers, who trusted to pontoons,
were less successful, and the French had reared their ladders
against the ramparts for a quarter of an hour, before our infantry,
some by swimming and scrambling, others by following the French,
had struggled across the ditches and reached the berme. But so
active was the defence that no French soldier got into the place by
the ladders, though several bravo men mounted them; an entrance was
eventually made by both forces at the same time through embrasures,
which were reached by steps hewn out of the earthen rampart with
axes, bayonets, and swords.

When the attack was delivered General de Montauban was absent from
the field, the French army being represented by General Collineau
and his brigade.

It had been intended to breach the rampart near the gate, and so
secure an entrance to the fort actually taken by assault; but our
gallant Commander-in-Chief became impatient of the process, and
the more speedy means of escalade was resorted to. It is highly
probable that the rapidity of our success, and the tremendous
loss inflicted on the garrison of the first fort, who had no time
for escape in any large numbers, conduced to the surrender of the
second fort and to the prompt abandonment of the position. Our loss
amounted to two hundred and three British killed and wounded; the
French loss was somewhat less. That of the Tartars was estimated
at two thousand men, large numbers of whom became inmates of our
hospitals.

The attack was gallant, so was the defence, and the success was
perfect. The enemy immediately surrendered the further northern
fort into our hands, with two thousand prisoners; and before the
evening the entire position on the Peiho, covering an area of six
square miles, and containing upwards of six hundred guns, was
abandoned by its defenders.

The attack on the forts had only been deferred until provisions and
munitions of war could be drawn from Pehtang, which we had quitted
on the 12th August, in as light marching order as possible. Since
our arrival at Senho, our tents, packs, kits, ammunition, and
baggage, had gradually been brought through the mud to the front
as speedily as the limited means of transport would permit, but
in the process many of the beasts of burden perished. The state
of the country would alone account for this; but further, as none
of the commissariat waggons were at this time disembarked, it was
necessary that everything should be carried upon the backs of
transport animals, many of which having just landed from Manilla,
Japan, and Bombay in sorry condition, were quite unfit for this
service. At this juncture the Chinese Coolie Corps, composed of men
recruited at Canton, became the only reliable means of transport.
They were very hard worked, but they performed their duty very
cheerfully and well.

From the first landing at Pehtang until after the capture of the
forts, the army was entirely dependent on sea-borne provisions,
brought from the fleet in gunboats and carried across from Pehtang;
fresh meat rations were therefore rare. No sooner were the forts
surrendered than the Chinese peasantry hastened to establish
markets; and fruit, poultry, eggs and sheep were offered for sale
in profusion, at such moderate prices, that on the march from
Tungkoo to Tientsin, spatchcock fowls, savoury omeletes, and
stewed peaches became the staple food of the British soldier. On
the 22nd of August, the day after the forts were captured, Admiral
Hope, with a squadron of gunboats, had pushed up the Peiho river
to Tientsin. He met with no opposition, and the townspeople threw
themselves at his feet. The Ambassador, Commander-in-Chief, and a
portion of our troops, speedily followed in gunboats; the remainder
of the force by land, so soon as transport could be organized. The
last of our regiments reached Tientsin, distant thirty-five miles
from Taku, on the 5th of September.

A convention for the cessation of hostilities was to be signed
on the 7th, and ground was actually taken for a review of all
the troops, which was to be held for the edification of the
Commissioners, after they should have signed the treaty.

Suddenly the sky darkened: it was ascertained that “Kweiliang”
and his brother Commissioners were not armed with the powers
they asserted, and ultimately, instead of parading on the 8th
in holiday pageant, a portion of our forces began that day the
march towards Pekin. The Ambassadors left next day, in company
with the Commanders-in-Chief; the forces were advanced as far as
carriage could be procured; but the means of the commissariat
were insufficient to move the whole army to such a distance, and
to carry the necessary supplies. The draught cattle furnished by
the mandarins at Tientsin were spirited away at the first halting
place, and the 2nd division of the British army, which was to have
brought up the rear, had to devote its carriage to the assistance
of the 1st division, and remain behind.

In this emergency the commissariat would have had the greatest
difficulty in feeding the troops in the front, but for the measures
taken by Sir Robert Napier, who remained in command at Tientsin. By
inducing persistent efforts to push boats up the river Peiho, which
runs parallel to the road nearly up to Pekin, but which had been
pronounced unnavigable by even the smallest craft, and by laying
embargo on the traffic of Tientsin, General Napier procured, and
with the aid of the navy organised, large means of water transport,
which afforded invaluable assistance.

As the Ambassadors advanced they were met by letters announcing
the appointment of “Tsai Prince of Ee” as Chief Commissioner to
conclude negotiations in lieu of Kweiliang, who was pronounced
to have proved himself incompetent; and on the 14th September,
Messrs. Parkes and Wade held a conference with the Commissioners at
Tung-chow, whereat, all preliminaries being settled, a letter was
written to Lord Elgin acceding in terms to all his demands.

It was arranged that Lord Elgin was to meet the Commissioners in
the walled city of Tung-chow, eight miles short of Pekin, where he
would sign the convention, under escort of 1000 men; and that he
should immediately afterwards proceed to Pekin, there to exchange
ratifications of the Treaty of Tientsin (1858), under similar
protection. Our armies meanwhile were to encamp four miles below
Tung-chow.

Nothing remained but to settle details, and take up suitable
quarters for Lord Elgin at Tung-chow. For this purpose Mr.
Parkes, accompanied by Messrs. Loch (private secretary), De
Norman (attached to Shanghai mission), and Bowlby (_Times’_
correspondent), with an escort of Fane’s Horse, under Lieut.
Anderson, went out on the 17th. Lieut.-Colonel Beauchamp Walker
accompanied the party, for the purpose of inspecting the ground
designated by the Chinese for our encampment, and Mr. Thompson
(Commissariat) was sent to guage the capabilities of supply of the
city of Tung-chow.

On arrival they were well received; but in discussing affairs they
were surprised to find objections raised on several points to which
the Chinese Commissioners had before consented. However, after a
discussion of five or six hours, the Chinese negociators gave way;
and having arranged details, our party slept that night in the
city, the guests of the Commissioners.

Next morning Colonel Walker, accompanied by Messrs. Parkes
and Loch, and attended by a Chinese officer deputed by the
Commissioners, proceeded to examine the ground on which the British
army was to be encamped, leaving the larger part of the escort
at Tung-chow, where Messrs. Bowlby and De Norman also remained,
pending the return of Parkes and Loch, who had yet to find a
suitable residence for Lord Elgin within the walls of Tung-chow. On
the way out, the party found the Tartar army in hurried movement
in the direction of our forces, and on reaching the ground
proposed for encampment, discovered it to be entirely commanded
by the position which the Tartar forces, supported by a numerous
artillery, were then taking up.

Seeing this, Parkes turned round and rode back to Tung-chow to
demand a cessation of these hostile movements. Loch went on into
the British camp with a couple of men to report progress, whilst
Col. Walker, Thompson, and half-a-dozen dragoons, remained in the
Tartar position, at Parkes’s request, until he should return.
Having reported progress to the Commander-in-Chief, whom he met
advancing, about a mile from the Tartar position, Loch returned
towards the Tartars, accompanied by Captain Brabazon, R. A., with
orders to Parkes to come back at once.

Mr. Parkes, on reaching Tung-chow, was rudely received by the
Prince of Ee, and was told that until the questions to which
objections had been made the day previous had been satisfactorily
determined, peace could not exist. Thereupon Parkes, with Bowlby,
De Norman, and all our people, left Tung-chow for the British camp.
Mid-way they met Loch and Brabazon, who turned homewards with them,
and all went on together, preceded by a flag of truce.

Before they came in sight of Colonel Walker and his few men, Tartar
cavalry, blowing their matches, and making other hostile gestures,
came galloping along the high bank on either side of our people,
who were in a hollow way. Presently the party was summoned to
halt; being surrounded, and ignorant of the ground, it was deemed
advisable to comply, both to insist on the sanctity of the flag
of truce, and to gain an opportunity of discovering the best way
out of their uncomfortable position. The Tartar officer in command
civilly told them, that as firing had commenced, he was unable to
let them pass, without orders from his General, to whose presence
he would conduct Mr. Parkes. Parkes, Loch, and one Sikh rode away
with the officer. Suddenly turning the angle of a field of maize,
they found themselves in the midst of a mob of infantry, whose
uplifted weapons their guide with difficulty put aside. Further
on stood San-ko-lin-tzin, the Tartar General, of whom Parkes
demanded a free passage. He was answered with derision; and, after
a brief parley, in which San-ko-lin-tzin upbraided Parkes as the
cause of all the disasters which had befallen the empire, at a sign
from the General our men were tossed off from their horses, their
faces rubbed in the dust, and their hands tied behind them, and
so, painfully bound, were placed upon carts, and taken to Pekin.
Orders, were, at the same time, sent to capture the escort, which
had been already surrounded by ever increasing numbers. Some of the
troopers suggested the propriety of cutting their way through, but
Anderson replied it would compromise the others, and refused to do
what his gallant heart desired.

Soon, however, the whole party was disarmed, and taken to Pekin on
their horses without dishonor. Next day they were removed to the
Summer Palace of Yuen-Ming-Yuen, where they were severally bound.
Their hands and feet tied together behind their backs, they were
thrown on their chests, and kept in the open air exposed to the
cold at night, and the still considerable heat by day, without
food or water, for three days and nights. From the first their
bonds were wetted to tighten them, and if they attempted to turn
or move to rest themselves, they were cruelly kicked and beaten.
On the third day poor Anderson’s fingers and nails burst from the
pressure of the cords, which were not even then relaxed. The wrist
bones became visible, and mortification ensued; the victim became
delirious, and thus mercifully made unconscious of the horror of
his position, this gallant soldier died. During his sufferings his
men made efforts to approach him and to gnaw his cords, but they
were savagely kicked away by his inhuman jailers. The condition of
the survivors was only ameliorated, after the lapse of three days,
by the bonds on their hands and feet being exchanged for heavy
chains and irons. But, from this time, they were regularly, though
most scantily and miserably, fed.

Poor Bowlby died the fifth day, in the same way as Anderson, then
De Norman and several of the men. All appear to have kept noble
hearts, and to have cheered and encouraged each other, but no less
than thirteen sank under the horrors of this captivity. Brabazon
and a French Abbé, who were taken with the escort, were, still
unbound, seen to leave the party, on the way to Pekin, saying they
were going to the Chinese Commander-in-Chief to procure the release
of their companions. Their mournful fate was, we rejoice to know,
less horrible. They were beheaded, by order of a Chinese General,
on the 21st September, in revenge for a wound he had received
during the action of the day; but their bodies being then thrown
into the canal, were unhappily never recovered.

Parkes, Loch, and their Sikh orderly, had been taken off straight
to Pekin, and never saw anything of the rest of their party. Parkes
was known by sight and reputation, and his position and that of
Loch was, in a manner, recognised. Their cords were unbound after
eight hours, when they were heavily ironed, separated from each
other, and each put into ward with sixty prisoners--murderers and
felons of the first class--with whom they ate and slept and lived.
By day they were allowed to move about in their wards; at night
their chains were fastened to staples in the prison roof. They
represent their fellow prisoners to have behaved uniformly with
kindness towards them, sharing with them any little comforts they
possessed, and carrying their chains when they moved. But they were
treated with extreme rigour, and their allowance of food was scanty.

After the 29th September a change of treatment was adopted.
Parkes and Loch were taken from prison, and confined together in
a temple, where they were treated with every consideration. Their
dinner was furnished by the Véry of Pekin, and mandarins visited
them, bringing little presents of fruit. During this time the
diplomatists were trying to turn Parkes to political account.
They wrote to Lord Elgin to say that the prisoners then in Pekin
were very well, and that the basis of a treaty was being arranged
with Mr. Parkes, which would no doubt be satisfactory to all
parties. And thus matters went on until the joyful day came of the
prisoners’ release.

The firing spoken of as the immediate cause of the detention of our
people, began thus: Colonel Walker and his party had been left in
the lines of the Tartars, who were at first rudely good-humoured,
as he moved about and observed how completely the guns, now in
position behind a ridge of sandhills, covered the ground allotted
by the Commissioners for the encampment of our forces. Suddenly
Walker’s attention was attracted by a cry uttered close to him.
He saw a French officer who had come out of Tung-chow during the
morning, and had attached himself to the English, in the act of
being cut down and pulled off his horse by a party of soldiers.
Walker rode up to him, and catching hold of his hand, essayed to
drag him away. A mob closed round Walker; some attempted to lift
him off his horse; whilst others, taking advantage of his right
hand being engaged, canted his sword out of its scabbard and made
off. A mortal blow was dealt to the poor Frenchman; swords were
drawn on all sides; and Walker calling on his men to put spurs
and ride, galloped for his life towards our troops, now drawn up
within sight, about half a mile away. The party was pursued by
cavalry, and fired on by Tartar infantry and guns in succession;
but they reached our lines alive, with one horse severely, and two
men slightly, wounded.

An immediate advance was made by the Allied forces; the enemy were
speedily driven from their guns, and their cavalry was swept away
by successive charges of our horse. All their guns, seventy-five in
number, their camps, and quantities of arms, were captured by our
troops, who occupied for the night the walled town of Chan-kya-wan,
which gave its name to the battle. That place is twelve miles from
Pekin, in a direct line, and four from Tung-chow, which is the port
of Pekin on the Peiho; and lies to the right of the direct road
from Tientsin.

But the victory did not lead, as we had fondly hoped, to the
immediate recovery of the prisoners, victims of treachery so dark
as to have been unsuspected even by the experienced and wary
Parkes. The night before the foul plot was carried out, the Prince
of Ee had entertained our people at dinner, and, smiling, had
bidden them adieu. An officer, deputed by the Prince, attended the
party in the morning, and it was perhaps not unnatural for Parkes
to believe that he could induce the Prince to countermand the
movement of troops which he then saw, and which he supposed to be
unknown to the High Commissioner. The Prince’s reception of Parkes,
of course, dispelled this expectation, and no time was lost in
returning to camp. Even then there was no appearance of immediate
danger to the party, unless from possible excitement of the rude
soldiery through whom they had to pass; for both Chinese and
Tartars had up to this time invariably shown the fullest confidence
in the protection of flags of truce, under which officers had
frequently passed between the Allied and Chinese camps during the
war then waging.

The soldiers, however, possessed that reverence for the emblem of
peace which animates most other savages; and it was at the hands of
San-ko-lin-tzin, the commander-in-Chief of the Chinese army, and
the apostle of competitive examination, that the Chinese Government
was degraded to the last degree by the deliberate violation of a
flag of truce, and by the capture of the heralds whom it should
have shielded.

Having ascertained that a considerable force of Tartars was
encamped between Tung-chow and Pekin, Sir Hope Grant advanced on
the 21st September to attack their position. Again the Tartars were
completely beaten, their camps and guns all captured, and great
loss inflicted on the enemy by our cavalry. The King’s Dragoon
Guards made a capital charge; and a squadron of Fane’s horse, under
Lieutenant Cattley, attached for the day to the French, after
driving the enemy into a village, galloped quickly round it, and
falling on the enemy’s flank, as he emerged on the other side,
inflicted signal punishment. The number of Tartar troops on or
about the field this day is estimated at 80,000 men, of whom 30,000
were actually engaged. The allied forces numbered 6200--viz.,
English, 3200 of all arms, and fifteen guns; and French, 3000, with
twelve guns.

The action of Pā-li-chow left us in possession of the important
strategic point called the Pā-li bridge, whereby the paved causeway
from Tung-chow to Pekin crosses the canal constructed between those
places. It further gave us the line of the canal on which the enemy
had rested, and left the approach to Pekin open to our troops.

Our success was immediately followed by a letter from the Prince
Koung, brother of the Emperor, and heir to the throne, announcing
to the Ambassadors that he had been appointed, with full powers, to
conclude a peace, in the room of Prince Tsai.

After the fight of the 18th, Sir Hope Grant had sent an express to
summon General Napier, with as much of the 2nd division as could
be spared from Tientsin. The General had already succeeded in
procuring from the Chinese authorities carriage for his troops,
which the Commissariat was unable to furnish. The order found them
ready to move, and General Napier reached headquarters on the
24th, having marched seventy miles in sixty hours, with a supply
of ammunition, which was much required, escorted by a company of
Brownlow’s light-footed Punjabees.

The army halted in the position it had won until siege guns had
arrived by water from Tientsin; fourteen days’ supply had been
brought up the river, and all available troops had been collected.
The force in front was strengthened by all the infantry of the
garrison of Tientsin, which was replaced by the 19th Punjab
Infantry from Tahlien Bay, and by marines, whom the Admiral landed
from the fleet.

Advancing from Pā-li on the 6th October, the British took up
position on the northern road leading from the gates of Pekin to
Tartary, without falling in with any of the enemy, except a picket,
which retired with precipitation. The French who were to have
operated on the left between our flank and Pekin, marched, through
some misunderstanding, across our rear, and took possession of the
imperial palace of Yuen-Ming-Yuen, “the Fountain of Summer,” six
miles to the North of Pekin, and four miles away to our right. We
heard nothing of them all night; but Sir Hope Grant found them the
next morning, when arrangements were made for the division between
the two forces of the treasures which the palace contained. But in
the absence of any British troops the arrangements broke through,
and our prize agents, finding the principal valuables appropriated
by the French, abandoned their functions. Thereupon on the 8th
indiscriminate plunder was allowed; but as of the British a few
officers only had access to the palace, and none of the men, our
officers were ultimately desired to give up all they had brought
away, and the property they had collected was ultimately sold by
auction for the benefit of the troops actually present in the field
before Pekin.

A most spirited sale ensued of china, enamels, jade, furs, silk,
&c., which realised £5000; and this sum, added to the amount of
gold and silver bullion which had been brought in, enabled the
prize agents at once to make a distribution amongst the troops,
ranging from £3 for a private soldier, to £60 for a first-class
field officer. All our generals surrendered their shares to the
troops. The arrangement made was perhaps the fairest that could be
arrived at under the actual circumstances of the time; but of a
booty worth at least a million of money, belonging to the imperial
crown--therefore prize of the fairest character--the British troops
have profited only to the amount of £25,000. The balance has gone
to the French, who take the broadest view of the question of
halves, or to the Chinese peasantry, who plundered as they pleased,
after the departure of the French, on the third day of occupation.

On the 8th October, the first-fruits of our advance on Pekin were
realised, in the surrender to us, by the Chinese, of Messrs. Parkes
and Loch, and the Sikh orderly who had been taken with them. A
French savant and three men were given up at the same time. Our
poor fellows looked wonderfully well; but M. d’Escayrae’s hands
were still contorted by the pressure to which they had been
subjected during the twenty hours in which he was bound. The
delivery of prisoners was the direct result of an intimation sent
to the Chinese, on the 7th October, that unless all the prisoners
still in their hands were delivered up immediately, a gate of the
city placed in our possession without opposition, and competent
persons deputed to conclude a peace, Pekin would be taken by
assault; but if all the prisoners were given up, our troops would
not be allowed to enter the city, and the lives and property of the
inhabitants should be respected.

Saturday, the 13th October, at noon, was the period fixed on for
compliance with our demands. Before the time elapsed, eleven of our
Sikh horsemen who had been prisoners, were delivered up alive,
and the remains of all who had perished (save poor Brabazon and
the Abbé), were received in coffins. On the 17th they were buried
in the Russian cemetery, with all the honour and solemnity that
could be paid. The Ambassadors of England, France, and Russia, the
Commanders-in-Chief, and the allied officers not on duty, attended.
The Roman Catholic and Greek prelates showed, by their presence,
generous sympathy in the untimely fate of our countrymen.

But as the complete fulfilment of the demands was still uncertain,
batteries were erected against the city wall at a distance of 150
yards, by the British and French respectively, and arrangements
were made for opening fire at noon of the 13th, if the gate was not
by that time given up. Every one agreed in hoping that thousands of
inoffensive people might be spared the misery of an assault; but
the 2nd Division must have felt something like a pang when, at the
appointed hour, they saw their General ride with an escort through
the gate, and found, by the display of the ensign from its top,
that the Tartars had surrendered to us the command of the Imperial
city.

Yes, we were there, masters of the capital of China--at the
very end of the map of the world--at the point which appears
to schoolboy minds the limit of creation. We held the massive
four-storied keep which frowns like a line-of-battle ship above
the Gate of Peace; our troops and field artillery were actually on
the walls which commanded the whole of the interior of the city,
and they could move to any point along the fifty feet road which
the summit of the wall presents. The walls and gates adjoining,
together with some few larger double-storied buildings, were the
only objects visible from our position varying the universal
dun-colour of the city houses and enclosing walls. The broad
street which leads from our gate into the city was packed with a
dense crowd, anxious to make out the foreigners, and indulging
in sonorous “Ei Yaws” at every novelty which met their wondering
eyes. Electrified indeed were the Celestials when the bands of a
French regiment, and of our 67th and 99th, struck up within the
gateway, and guards presented their clanging arms as the Generals
rode by; but the climax was reached when Desborough’s guns were
spurted up the steep stone ramps which lead from the base to the
summit of the wall, fifty feet in height, drawn by six horses of
fabulous stature, and driven by the terrible barbarians who eat
their enemies.

The surrender was carried out in good faith; but the appearance on
the walls of guns of heavy calibre, evidently recently moved into
positions whence our batteries were observed, spoke either of
divided counsels or of tardy resignation on the part of our enemies.

Still our success was insufficient. No retribution had been exacted
for the violation of the flag of truce, and for the murder of our
countrymen, and no one seemed to feel certain whether a treaty
was to be obtained or not. It was useless to demand the surrender
of the persons who had instigated the barbarous treatment of the
prisoners, for they were known to be very near the person of the
Emperor, and there was therefore no chance of our getting the real
offenders. An atonement in money, for the iniquities perpetrated,
though repugnant to our feelings, appeared to be the only kind of
demand with which the Chinese Government, humiliated and beaten
as it was, could be expected to comply. The readiest means of
obtaining a treaty was obviously to remain at Pekin until we got
it; but the French Commander refused positively to detain his
troops at the capital after the 1st November, and the English
General was greatly indisposed to incur the risk of keeping his
force there through the winter, in the absence of complete and
timely arrangements for provisionment, which it was considered the
advanced period of the season rendered impracticable.

Accordingly, on the 18th October, an ultimatum was addressed by
the plenipotentiaries to Prince Koung, requiring him to reply by
the morning of the 20th, whether, after paying, as a necessary
preliminary to further negotiations, a sum of money in atonement
for the murders committed, he would on an early day sign the
convention already agreed upon? His Excellency was told that the
Summer Palace, which had been partially plundered before the fate
of the prisoners was known, would now be entirely destroyed, that
its ruins might present a lasting mark of the abhorrence of the
British Government at the violation of the law of nations which had
been committed. He was also told, that in case of refusal to comply
with the demands now made, the Imperial Palace of Pekin would be
captured, plundered and burned.

In support of the ultimatum, the 1st Division of the British force,
with cavalry, proceeded on the 18th and 19th to complete the
plunder and destruction of the Summer Palace, whose smoke, driven
by the northerly wind, hung over Pekin, whilst its ashes were
wafted into the very streets of the capital. The French declined
to take any part in this act of punishment--first, because they
thought the palace had already been destroyed on their quitting it;
and further, they feared that this demonstration would frighten the
Chinese out of all hope of making any treaty at all.

The result showed that not one-fourth of the Imperial pavilions
which constitute the Summer Palace had been even visited in the
first instance, much less burned; and great booty was acquired by
the troops employed as well as by the members of the embassy, navy,
and staff, who were able to accompany the force. And so salutary
was the effect produced on the advisers of the Imperial crown, that
a letter acceding to all demands was received at daylight on the
20th, to the renewed disappointment of the 2nd Division, who again
were under arms for the assault.

On the 22nd, the atonement-money, amounting to £100,000, was paid;
and on the 24th, her Majesty’s Plenipotentiary, accompanied by
the Commander-in-Chief, and escorted by a division of the army,
entered in state and triumph the gates of the dim, mysterious city.
The Ambassador was received by a deputation of Mandarins, who
accompanied Lord Elgin to the hall, three miles distant, at the far
side of the Tartar city, where the Prince Koung, surrounded by the
principal officers of state, awaited his arrival.

At five o’clock that afternoon, ratifications of the treaty of
1858 were duly exchanged by the representatives of the sovereigns,
and a convention signed, which, commencing with a recital of the
Emperor’s regret at the occurrences at the Peiho Forts in 1858,
declares Tientsin a free port, and thereby opens the Peiho to
within seventy miles of Pekin for the traffic of the world. The
provisions of the convention permit free emigration of Chinese,
with their wives and families, to all parts of the world, and
transfer a territory at Cowloon, opposite Hong Kong, where our
troops were encamped in 1860, to the British Crown. An indemnity
of three millions sterling to the British is guaranteed; and
stipulation is made for the establishment of a British force
at Tientsin, until the terms are fulfilled. A portion of the
indemnity is to be paid 31st, December, 1860, whereon Chusan is to
be evacuated by the English and French troops. But no provision
is made for the evacuation of Canton, to which the French are at
present understood to be disinclined to agree. The remainder of the
indemnity is to be paid by periodical instalments of one-fifth of
the gross revenue of the customs of China.

After signing the convention, Lord Elgin expressed a hope that the
treaty would inaugurate friendly relations between the powers.
Prince Koung replied that he himself had been about to utter the
same words; and acknowledging that foreign affairs had hitherto
been greatly mismanaged, observed, that as their administration was
now exclusively placed in his hands, he had no doubt their future
management would be more satisfactory.

The Franco-Chinese treaty was ratified by Baron Gros and the Prince
Koung on the following day.”


CINTRA, CONVENTION OF.--This disgraceful convention was concluded
between the British army, under Sir Hew Dalrymple and the French
under Marshal Junot. The latter were allowed to evacuate Portugal
and to be carried home to France in British ships, taking with them
their ill-got gain; signed the day of the battle of Vimeira, August
22nd, 1808.


CITATE.--Fought 5th January, 1854, between Omar Pacha and the
Turks, on the one side, and the Russians on the other.

“The army to which was allotted the first active operation was
that commanded by General Fishback, with Generals Engelhardt and
Bellegarde under his orders. This force was to occupy the extreme
west of the Russian line of attack, and to drive the Turks from
their position at Kalafat. By the time, however, that Fishback had
reached Citate, a village within a few miles of his destination,
he discovered that his force of about 15,000 men was inadequate to
dislodge an equal number, strongly intrenched, and in unimpeded
communication with Widdin, on the opposite side of the river,
whence considerable supplies of men and ammunition could doubtless
be obtained. He resolved, therefore, to postpone the assault until
the 13th of January (the Russian New Year’s day), by which time he
would be in possession of the requisite reinforcements, which he
anticipated would raise his force to 45,000 men. Achmet and Ismail
Pachas, who commanded the garrison at Kalafat, were well aware of
the plans of the Russian commander, and determined to forestall
his action. At daybreak, on the 6th of January, they sallied from
the town with fifteen field-pieces, 10,000 regular infantry, 4000
cavalry, and 1000 of the irregular troops, known as Bashi-Bazouks.
Three thousand men from the garrison at Widdin crossed the river
to defend Kalafat from surprise; and at Moglovitz, between that
town and Citate, a similar number were detached as a reserve. About
nine o’clock the Turks reached Citate, and opened a side fire upon
the village, while the infantry vigorously charged in front. After
three hours of sanguinary street-fighting, the nature of the ground
forbidding organized military combinations, the Russians retreated
to the works they had thrown up beyond the village. The Turkish
field-pieces were now brought to bear upon the intrenchments, and
several vigorous assaults were made and as bravely repulsed. In
the midst of the conflict, a large body of Russian reinforcements
arrived, and the Turks, who occupied the gardens and orchards
round the village, were exposed to an energetic assault in their
rear. Nothing daunted, and favoured by their position, the
Ottomans fought nobly, and succeeded in routing the newly-arrived
reinforcement of the enemy, just as Ismail Pacha appeared upon
the scene with the reserve from Moglovitz. Concentrating their
forces, they now rushed at the intrenchments, and, beating down
all opposition, drove the enemy from the position they had held.
Nearly 2400 Russians dead in the streets and earth-works, a like
number wounded, four guns, and the depôts of ammunition and arms
which they captured, attested that day the prowess of the Turkish
arms. Their own loss was about 200 killed and 700 wounded. For two
days they held the place against the attempts of the Russians to
recapture it; and then, emerging into the open field, drove the
Russians before them back to Krajova. Then, retiring in triumph,
they re-entered Kalafat, which, now mounting 250 heavy guns, and
garrisoned (including Widdin) by 25,000 men, might safely promise
a desperate resistance to any further Russian attempt.”


CIUDAD RODRIGO.--This strong fortress of Spain was invested
by the French, June 11th, 1810, and surrendered July 10th,
following.--Remained in the hands of the French till stormed
gallantly by the British, under Wellington, January 19th,
1812.--Loss of the British and Portuguese 1000 killed and wounded,
equal number of French, and 1700 prisoners.


CLONTARF, BATTLE OF.--Fought between the Irish and Danes on Good
Friday, 1039. The Danes were signally defeated, 11,000 of them
perished in battle, but the Irish had to deplore the loss of Bryan
Boiroimhe, the King, and many of the nobility.


CLOSTERSEVEN, CONVENTION OF.--Between the Duke of Cumberland, third
son of George II, and the Duke of Richelieu, commanding the French;
38,000 Hanovarians laid down their arms and were dispersed,--signed
September 10th, 1757.


COALITIONS AGAINST FRANCE.

  1st. Prussia issued her manifesto June 26th, 1792.

  2nd. Great Britain, Germany, Russia, Naples, Portugal and Turkey
  signed them, June 22nd, 1799.

  3rd. Great Britain, Russia, Austria and Naples, August 5th, 1805.

  4th. Great Britain, Russia, Prussia and Saxony, October 6th, 1806.

  5th. England and Austria, April 6th, 1809.

  6th. Russia and Prussia, ratified at Kalisch, March 17th, 1813.


COLONEL.--This word is derived from the French, and means the chief
commander of a regiment of troops.


COMMANDERS-IN-CHIEF OF THE BRITISH ARMY SINCE 1674:

  Duke of Monmouth                                 1674
  Duke of Marlborough                              1690
  Duke of Schomberg                                1691
  Duke of Ormond                                   1711
  Earl of Stair                                    1744
  Field Marshal Wade                               1745
  Lord Ligonier                                    1757
  Marquess of Granby                               1766
  Lord Amherst                                     1778
  General Seymour Conway                           1782
  Lord Amherst again                               1793
  Frederick, Duke of York                          1795
  Sir David Dundas                       March 25, 1809
  Frederick, Duke of York                May 29,   1811
  Duke of Wellington                     Jan’y 22, 1827
  Lord Hill, Gen’l Commander-in-Chief    Feb’y 25, 1828
  Duke of Wellington again               Dec. 28,  1842
  Viscount Hardinge                      Sept. 25, 1852
  Duke of Cambridge                      July 15,  1856


CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE.--The League of the Germanic States
formed under the auspices of Napoleon Bonaparte. By this celebrated
League the German States had to raise 258,000 troops to serve in
case of war. It terminated with the downfall of Napoleon.


CONFLANS, TREATY OF.--A compact between Louis XI of France and the
Dukes of Bourbon, Brittany and Burgundy. This treaty put an end to
the “War of the Public Good,” in 1468.


CONSTANTINE THE GREAT.--It was whilst preparing to cross the Alps,
to chastise the barbarians, that Constantine is said to have
witnessed the supernatural appearance which induced him to embrace
Christianity, and establish it henceforth as the religion of the
empire. While meditating in his tent on the dangers that surrounded
him, and praying for divine guidance and protection amidst them,
there is said to have appeared over against him in the heavens a
pillar of light in the form of a cross, bearing this inscription,
“By this overcome.” Those who were attached to paganism looked
upon this as a most inauspicious omen, but it made a different
impression on the Emperor. He caused a royal standard to be made,
like the appearance he had seen in the heavens. This was always
carried before him in his war as an ensign of victory and celestial
protection. Soon after this event he embraced the religion of
Christ, and a little while after encountered Maxentius, his
opponent, whom he utterly defeated in a terrible battle--Maxentius
himself having been drowned while attempting to cross the river
Tiber.


CONSTANTINOPLE.--Taken by the western crusaders in 1204. Retaken in
1261. Conquered by Mahomet II., who slew 6000 of the people, A.D.
1453. Ever since possessed by the Turks.


COPENHAGEN.--Capital of Denmark. It was bombarded by the English,
under Nelson and Admiral Parker. Of twenty-three ships belonging
to the Danes, eighteen were taken or destroyed, April 2nd, 1801.
Again, after another bombardment of three days, the city and fleet
surrendered to Admiral Gambier and Lord Cathcart, September 7th,
1807. Immense naval stores and eighteen sail of the line, fifteen
frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five gunboats were captured.


CORNET.--An instrument of music of the nature of a trumpet. In
modern usage, a cornet is a commissioned officer of cavalry next
below a lieutenant who bears the ensign or colors of a troop.


CORONEA, BATTLE OF.--Fought between the Athenians and Allies and
the Spartans. The King of the Spartans, engaging the Allies,
completely defeated them, B.C. 394.


CORPORAL.--The lowest officer of a company next below a
sergeant. The corporal of a ship of war is an officer under the
master-at-arms, employed to teach the sailors the use of small
arms. Napoleon was familiarly known among his troops by the name of
the Little Corporal, and as he used to say there was just one step
between the sublime and the ridiculous, so opposite extremes are
taken in his titles. Emperor! Corporal!


CORUNNA, BATTLE OF.--Sir John Moore commanded the British army of
about 15,000 men, and had just accomplished a safe retreat, when
they were attacked by the French with a force of 20,000. They were
completely repulsed, but the loss of the British was immense. Sir
John Moore was struck by a cannon ball which carried off his left
shoulder and part of his collar bone, leaving the arm dangling by
the flesh. He died immediately. In the evening of the day of battle
the remains of the splendid British army embarked at Corunna,
January 16th, 1809. Previous to the battle, the army under their
illustrious leader, had accomplished an arduous yet honorable
retreat, for many leagues through an enemy’s country.


CRACOW.--It was taken by Charles XII, in 1702. Taken and retaken
several times by the Russians, and Kosciusko expelled the Russians,
March 24th, 1794, but it surrendered to the Prussians the same
year. Occupied by 10,000 Russians, September, 1831; seized by
Austria, and incorporated into that empire, November 16th, 1846.


CRESSY.--Fought between the English and French, August 26th, 1346.
In the month of July in the year 1346, King Edward, at the head
of an army of 30,000 men, landed at La Hogue, in Normandy. He was
accompanied by his son, the Prince of Wales, though only fifteen
years of age, and by his principal nobility. Having taken several
towns, he moved along the left bank of the Seine, which river he
wished to cross, in order to join an army of Flemings in Picardy.
But he found the bridges all broken, and King Philip, at the head
of a numerous army, followed his motions on the opposite bank of
the river. At length Edward contrived to repair one of the broken
bridges, and to pass over unknown to Philip; and he then marched
rapidly till he reached the river Somme; but he there again found
all the bridges secured, and learned that Philip was at Amiens with
100,000 men. Being informed that there was a ford near the town
of Abbeville, which might be passed when the tide was low, Edward
set out for it at midnight; but when the English reached it, the
waters were not sufficiently low; and while they were waiting, a
large body of French cavalry came down to oppose their passage. The
English horsemen, however, gallantly plunged into the stream, drove
off the enemy, and gained the opposite bank. The whole army was
over when King Philip arrived, and the rising of the tide obliged
him to go round by the bridge of Abbeville.

Though the French army was nearly four times as numerous as his
own, King Edward resolved to give it battle. He drew up his troops
in three divisions on an eminence behind the village of Creci or
Cressy. The prince of Wales, aided by the Earls of Oxford and
Warwick, led the first, the King himself commanded the last. At
dawn (the day was the 26th of August), Edward having heard mass
and received the sacrament, rode along the lines, cheering his
men, and at ten o’clock they sat down and took their breakfast
in their ranks. The French, meantime, advanced from Abbeville in
confusion and disorder. A storm of thunder and rain came on and
lasted through a great part of the day; but at five o’clock in the
afternoon, the sky becoming clear, Philip ordered a body of Génoese
cross-bowmen, in his service, to begin the battle. The Génoese
gave a shout, and discharged their bolts; the English archers, who
were posted in front, showered in return their arrows of a yard
in length; and the Génoese, unable to re-charge their ponderous
crossbows, fell into disorder. The count of Alençon then charged
the first division of the English with a numerous body of cavalry.
The second line advanced to its aid, and a knight was sent off to
King Edward, who was viewing the battle from the top of a windmill,
to pray him to send more help. “Is my son slain or wounded?” said
the King. “No, sire.” “Then,” replied he, “tell Warwick, he shall
have no aid. Let the boy win his spurs.” When this message was
brought to the English, it redoubled their courage; and the French
were at length totally routed, with immense loss. “Fair son,” cried
Edward to the Prince, as he clasped him to his bosom after the
battle, “Fair son, continue your career. You have acted nobly, and
shown yourself worthy of me and the crown.”

The person of the highest rank who fell in this great battle was
John, king of Bohemia. This prince, who was blind from age, ordered
four of his knights to lead him into the thick of the battle. They
interlaced his and their own bridles, and rushed forward, and
all were slain. The crest of the King of Bohemia, three ostrich
feathers, and his motto, _Ich dien_, i.e. _I serve_, were adopted
by the Prince of Wales, and still are those of the heir-apparent of
the crown of England.


CRIMEA, LANDING IN THE.--_Crimean War._--The following graphic
description is from Emerson’s Sebastopol:--“At length the great
fleet, nearly 400 vessels in all, on the 7th of September, 1854,
a memorable day thenceforth, set sail for its destination. What
that destination was none knew. Orders were issued to rendezvous
off the Isle of Serpents, near the Sulina mouth of the Danube. The
scene, when the immense flotilla was fairly under weigh, was of
the most exciting and animating character. Every ship bore on its
side the number of the regiment and nature of troops it conveyed,
and carried a distinguishing flag. As night closed in, lanterns
signalling the division to which it belonged were displayed, and
an illumination, such as the waters of the Euxine never reflected,
was witnessed by the sharers in the daring adventure. No incident
of these modern practical times, perhaps, has partaken so largely
of the character of romance as the departure of this renowned
expedition. The great armada, which taxed the energies of the most
powerful maritime nation of the sixteenth century, was a puny
flotilla compared to the one we are now writing of. The largest
vessel of that celebrated fleet was a cockleshell to many of our
noble steamers, detached from their customary vocation of carrying
on the commercial intercourse of nations, and devoted to the
service of war. Resources of science, unknown before the present
generation, and adapted by skill to our naval requirements, were
there in abundance, rendering a single steamer more than a match
for a dozen vessels of an earlier age, and almost independent of
the adverse winds and strong currents which had dispersed many a
gallant fleet and defeated many a deep-laid scheme of conquest.
Iron, naturally one of the densest of bodies, became, in the hands
of the scientific shipwright, buoyant as cork; and vessels, each
large enough to carry a regiment of cavalry besides its proper
crew, and to which a Spanish brig-of-war of the days of Philip
might have served for a jolly-boat, breasted the broad waves of the
Euxine, freighted with as brave and chivalrous warriors as menaced
Troy, or did battle with the infidel possessors of Jerusalem.

Brave and chivalrous indeed, for they sailed they knew not whither,
to encounter an unknown enemy. It might be that they were to force
a landing at once under the very guns of Sebastopol, and by sheer
audacity achieve the capture of the renowned fortress. It might be
that, debarking at a distance from that spot, they would be exposed
to toilsome marches, in an enemy’s country, harassed by clouds
of Cossacks, and opposed by great armies, in strong positions,
infinitely outnumbering their own force, when even continuous
victory would necessarily be almost entire annihilation. But, like
the errant-knights of old, they anticipated no difficulties, and
bore a stout heart for any fate. English and French, officer and
man, seemed to have but one desire, that of meeting all foes at all
hazards, and winning gallantly or dying gloriously.

The general instructions furnished to Marshal St. Arnaud (who, by
reason of the French army being so numerically superior to the
English, and his military rank as marshal being higher than that of
Lord Raglan, assumed the rank of generalissimo of the expedition),
and which were understood to have been drawn up by the Emperor
Louis Napoleon himself, though leaving to the discretion of the
Generals the point of debarkation on the shores of the Crimea, yet
strongly recommended--so strongly, in fact, as almost to amount to
a command--the choice of Kaffa as the most convenient spot. It was,
we cannot help believing, exceedingly fortunate that the allied
Generals resolved upon examining for themselves the locality,
and ultimately rejected the plans of the Emperor. Kaffa, it is
true, affords the largest bay and the most secure anchorage in
the Crimea, and, had they been the only requisites, there could
have been little doubt that the imperial scheme would have been
adopted. But the fleet was only valuable in the expedition as an
auxiliary to the army--as a basis of operations, a depôt of stores,
a means of conveying reinforcements, an assistant in the actual
bombardment, or a medium of retreat in event of a disaster. For all
practical purposes Sebastopol was the Crimea; and Sebastopol is
on the western coast, while Kaffa is on the eastern, at least 100
miles distant. Had the object been to provide for the security and
comfort of the fleet, it might as well have been in snug quarters
at Spithead or Cherbourg, as at Kaffa, and there it would have
been about as useful. The plan of Napoleon was to seize the town
of Kaffa, thence to march across the peninsula, taking possession
of Karu-Bazar, Simferopol, and Baktchi-Serai, thus advancing to
Sebastopol, and securing the harbour of Balaklava, as a naval basis
near the scene of intended operations. But the Emperor, by some
strange oversight, seems to have forgotten his own previous caution
not to separate from the fleets, when he sketched out the march of
an army, only 50,000 strong, encumbered with necessary ammunition
and baggage, along a road forty miles from the sea in some parts,
through a mountainous district, in an enemy’s country, for a 100
miles, exposed to continued encounters with immense armies, and
necessitated to seize and retain possession of, at least, three
large towns, strongly garrisoned. It is true, a force stationed at
Kaffa might intercept reinforcements arriving from Asia, or along
the narrow strip of land bridging the Putrid Sea; but what was to
hinder the arrival of the legions which should be poured into the
Crimea, through Perekop, the most direct and available route from
the very heart of the military strength of Russia, on the first
intelligence of the invasion? Supposing, too, that a sufficient
force to hold Kaffa had been left in occupation there (and if it
had not been, what would have prevented the arrival of troops from
Asia and the north, which would have followed the invaders, and
enclosed them between two fires?)--that the three great towns had
been captured and consequently garrisoned--or where the utility of
taking them?--deduct the necessary casualties of the march, and
the inevitable results of the unavoidable battles, even supposing
them to have been victories, and how many men could possibly have
arrived before Sebastopol out of 50,000? The expedition to the
Crimea at all was romantic, and is said to have been strongly
opposed by some of our most able Generals; but this contemplated
march through a mountainous region, interposing innumerable
obstacles to transit, in the face of a powerful enemy, far from
assistance, cut off from supplies of food or ammunition, with
three fortified towns to capture, at least several pitched battles
to fight, and, as a finish to the prospect, the most strongly
fortified town in the world to reduce, was the very absurdity of
Quixoteism.

Fortunately, we say, the generals were wiser than their teacher.
When the ships collected at their appointed rendezvous, orders
were received to proceed to a spot about forty miles west of
Cape Tarkan, in the north of the Crimea; then, embarking in the
_Caradoc_, a small English steamer, Marshal St. Arnaud and Lord
Raglan, accompanied by their seconds in command, Generals Canrobert
and Brown, and Sir Edmund Lyons, proceeded to survey the coast and
select the spot most favourable to their purpose. They skirted the
western shore, ran close into Eupatoria, examined the coast thence
to Sebastopol (where a few weeks previous, General Canrobert and
Sir George Brown had closely scanned the fortifications on a flying
visit, penetrating, under cover of night even into the harbour,
and not retiring until the grey light of morning had revealed to
them a considerable amount of information), passing almost within
range of the guns, and coasting round to the little harbour of
Balaklava; which having scrutinized, they returned in safety to
the fleets. Had any of the large Russian steamers crossed the path
of the little _Caradoc_, and attacked it, a very different fate
might have awaited the Allies from that which they anticipated. But
the Russian Admirals little dreamed of the prize they might have
secured, and our modern Agamemnons were borne back unscathed from
their perilous cruise.

On the morning of Monday, the 11th of September, the chiefs
returned from their trip and rejoined the fleet; and the anxious
expectation as to the point of debarkation, which had agitated
the minds of all on board, during the two days’ tedious riding
at anchor, was in some degree alleviated by the order to make
sail, and rendezvous thirty miles west of Sebastopol. Even then,
uncertainty seemed to cloud the counsels of the Commanders. The
fleet was dispersed, the heavy sailing vessels having failed to
keep in company with their more alert fellows of the steam fleet.
At length, the English and French fleets, in one compact flotilla,
approached the shore, and the town of Eupatoria, and the hills of
the south-east, were presented to the eager gaze of the soldiers.
A small steamer was despatched to summon the town to surrender at
discretion, and a refusal being received, a small body of English
and French marines was landed, their appearance soon stifling
any qualms of conscience the local authorities might have felt
at yielding up their trust to the enemy. The fleet then shaping
a course in a south-easterly direction, the plans of the allied
Generals became apparent. About eight miles from Eupatoria the
ships cast anchor at a mile from the shore, in the Bay of Kalamita,
near a place known as Old Fort. A narrow strip of level land
was the spot selected for debarkation, and the enemy exhibited
no signs of opposition, or even preparation. It had been not
unnaturally anticipated that a formidable resistance would have
been made to the expected landing of the Allies, which could only
then have been accomplished with much loss. On the contrary, the
only signs of Russian life apparent, was the presence of a mounted
Russian officer, who, attended by three or four Cossacks, securely
stationed on a neighbouring eminence, was calmly sketching the
scene.

It had been arranged that the ships of the Admirals should occupy
the centre of the bay, thus dividing the two armies. Had this
determination been carried out, the landing might have been
effected with the least imaginable difficulty; but the French
Admiral, with an exclusive attention to his own branch of the
allied force, which subsequent events of the campaign paralleled,
thought proper to anchor his vessel at the extreme right of the
bay, thus throwing the vessels into considerable confusion. One
transport was grounded, and several fouled in their endeavours
to get into their proper positions. In an incredibly short space
of time, however, order was restored; and, under the energetic
superintendence of Sir Edmund Lyons, the steamers and transports
commenced to discharge their living freights. The sea was literally
covered with boats, laden with soldiers in their varied uniforms,
and bearing rations for three days, every article that could
possibly be dispensed with being left in the ships. Those who
landed first marked out with flags the spots to be occupied by each
division and regiment; and the sailors, standing knee-deep in the
water, lent hearty assistance to those who were less amphibious
than themselves. Nothing could exceed the delight of the sturdy
seamen, as they lifted their red-coated compatriots from the boats,
and placed them dry-footed on the shore; or lent a hand, with more
zeal than knowledge, to disembark the horses. Frequently, a noble
charger, startled by the novelty of his situation, would roll into
the water, half a dozen ancient mariners clinging to his mane or
tail, and sharing his immersion,--emerging at length, dripping with
brine, but in a high state of jollity at having rescued their
steed, and overwhelming him with caresses of a nautical fashion, as
they soothed his fears or indulged him with a short trot on _terra
firma_. The two or three Cossacks who had watched our landing now
deemed it prudent to withdraw, though not until a few shots had
warned them of the prowess of the English riflemen, and one of
their number had received a compliment from Major Lysons, of the
23rd, which would probably render his sitting in the saddle, or
elsewhere, exceedingly inconvenient for some time to come. It so
chanced, however, that even these few Cossacks were very nearly
inflicting a heavy blow on the English army, by the capture of one
of its most distinguished officers. Sir George Brown, general of
the Light Division, had no sooner landed, than with characteristic
daring he mounted his horse, and advanced alone to gain a view
of the surrounding country. He had ridden some distance, and had
closely approached the retreating party, quite unconscious of their
neighbourhood, when he was suddenly astonished by the unwelcome
apparition of three ferocious horsemen, lance in hand, in full
career towards him, and at but a few yards’ distance. Sir George,
who was almost unarmed, was too old a soldier to mistake rashness
for courage, and wisely considering the odds too great, discreetly
put spurs to his horse and galloped off, followed by his Cossack
pursuers. A few of our men had fortunately, however, followed in
the steps of their leader, and when they saw his danger, hastened
to the rescue. Half a dozen levelled rifles proved too strong an
argument for the valour of the Russian horsemen, and they, in their
turn, made a precipitate retreat. Sir George Brown rejoined the
main body, and proved, when the time came, that he could attack as
bravely as he could retire discreetly.

By the time when the approaching darkness rendered it necessary to
suspend operations for the day, 20,000 English, with thirty-six
guns, and numerous horses, had been landed, and the French in
about equal force. Our men had left their tents in the ships, and
officers and common soldiers were alike unprovided with means of
shelter. Their rations consisted of provisions for three days;
and in this respect, those high in command shared with their less
distinguished followers. As night closed in, torrents of rain began
to descend, and in a brief space of time, the narrow strip of land
on which they stood, bounded on the one side by the sea, and on
the other by a salt lake, was a dismal swamp. Wrapping themselves
in their blankets, which were thoroughly soaked in a few minutes,
the men lay down in the mud, and endeavoured to sleep. A moderate,
and not very luxurious supper of cold pork, washed down with a
single sip of rum, was their first meal in the Crimea; and then,
officers and men strove to drown in slumber the wretched aspect
of affairs which thus initiated their invasion. Sir De Lacy Evans
was fortunate enough to possess a tent, which some considerate
member of the veteran’s staff had contrived to bring on shore. An
old cart, the property probably of some Tartar peasant, frightened
from his accustomed labour, made, when overturned, a canopy such
as royalty seldom couches beneath; but under its welcome shelter
the Duke of Cambridge pressed, no doubt for the first time, the
bare earth. The French were better provided. They had contrived
to land a considerable number of tents; and, moreover, many of
their regiments were supplied with the little _tentes-abris_, a
portion of which was borne by each soldier; and several of these
parts could be united into a small tent, sufficiently commodious to
afford some protection from the severity of the weather.

How little can the home-keeping public realise the feelings which
must have been predominant in the bosoms of the men during that
melancholy bivouac! Soldiers are, perhaps, less sensitive to
hardships and exposure than civilians; and probably comparatively
callous to the finer sentiments. But it is scarcely possible to
conceive that, out of 60,000 men, lying on the bare earth in an
enemy’s country, there would be many who would not be keenly
alive to the emotions their situations would naturally suggest.
Physically depressed by a day of extreme toil, poorly fed, and
drenched by the descending torrent, the past would be inevitably
present to their imaginations, and with the past the probable
future. Many men will march dauntlessly to the cannon’s mouth, and
show no signs of fear, but with cheerful voice, and light step,
dash through the enemy’s fire, and over the bodies of the dead. But
in the stillness of the night, when no excitement warms his blood,
the bravest will be despondent, and the strong man be moved with
emotions as keen as those which agitate the breasts of the tender
woman or the sympathetic child. Oceans rolled between them and all
they had learned to love and value. No hand so rough but had been
pressed by some other hand on the day of departure; no nature so
fierce and ungentle but had softened into a better manhood as the
cliffs of England receded from the view. And now they lay through
the long hours of that miserable night, striving vainly enough to
drown their remembrances in sleep, and gain renewed strength and
courage for the morrow--the morrow that might bring death, and
certainly imminent dangers. Before them lay an unknown land--a
future of deadly uncertainty. Battles were to be fought, shot and
steel to be encountered; and who could tell who were destined to
lie in the obscurity of death on that foreign soil, and who to bear
the tidings back to thousands of melancholy homes?

Thus was passed the night of the 14th of September, the anniversary
of the death of the great Duke of Wellington, who, two years
before, ended his career amid the universally expressed sorrow
of a great people. He was, we had fondly hoped, the last great
representative of the military glory of this country. A new era had
been, we believed, initiated, in which the arts of peace supersede
the operations of war. And now, but two years after the conqueror
of Waterloo had looked for the last time upon the world, an English
army had landed upon the shores of a hostile territory, and was
commencing a warfare of which no man could see the termination,
and which bade fair to involve every nation of Europe. The chosen
champion of England’s military glory was quiet in his tomb; but his
companions, pupils, and successors were prepared to emulate his
deeds, and strike as vigorously for the honor of their country, and
the maintenance of the freedom of Europe.”


CROPREADY, BATTLE OF.--Fought between the forces of Charles I of
England and the Parliament, June 6th, 1644. It was a drawn battle;
for both sides, in their respective accounts, claim the victory.


CRUSADES.--The holy wars, waged by the Christians, to wrest the
Sepulchre of Christ and Jerusalem, from the hands of the Saracens,
continued for many years, and no important results were derived
from them as regards territorial acquisition, but they had an
immense effect in civilizing the west countries of Europe. There
were three principal ones.


CUDDALORE.--_India._--Possessed by the English in 1681. Reduced
by the French, 1758. Recaptured two years afterwards by Sir Eyre
Coote. Taken again in 1781. Besieged by the British under General
Stuart in 1783.


CUIRASS.--A covering for protecting the body of cavalry from the
weapons of opponents. The French had a body of soldiers covered
with them.


CULLODEN, BATTLE OF.--Fought April 16th, 1746, between the
Pretender and the Duke of Cumberland. The Scots lost 2500 men,
while the English lost only 200. A writer thus describes the
battle:--

“Thus far the affairs of the rebel army seemed not unprosperous;
but here was an end of all their triumphs. The Duke of Cumberland,
at that time the favourite of the English army, had been recalled
from Flanders, and put himself at the head of the troops at
Edinburgh, which consisted of about 14,000 men. With these he
advanced to Aberdeen, where he was joined by several of the Scotch
nobility, attached to the house of Hanover; and having revived the
drooping spirits of his army, he resolved to find out the enemy,
who retreated at his approach. After having refreshed his troops at
Aberdeen for some time, he renewed his march, and in twelve days he
came up to the banks of the deep and rapid river Spey. This was the
place where the rebels might have disputed his passage, but they
lost every advantage in disputing with each other. They seemed now
totally void of all counsel and subordination, without conduct, and
without unanimity. After a variety of contests among each other,
they resolved to wait their pursuers upon the plains of Culloden, a
place about nine miles distant from Inverness, embosomed in hills,
except on that side which was open to the sea. There they drew up
in order of battle, to the number of 8000 men, in three divisions,
supplied with some pieces of artillery, ill manned and served.

“The battle began about one o’clock in the afternoon; the cannon
of the King’s army did dreadful execution among the rebels, while
theirs was totally unserviceable. One of the great errors in
all the Pretender’s war-like measures, was his subjecting wild
and undisciplined troops to the forms of artful war, and thus
repressing their native ardour, from which alone he could hope
for success. After they had kept in their ranks and withstood the
English fire for some time, they at length became impatient for
closer engagement; and about 500 of them made an irruption upon the
left wing of the enemy with their accustomed ferocity. The first
line being disordered by this onset, two battalions advanced to
support it, and galled the enemy with a terrible close discharge.
At the same time the dragoons, under Hawley, and the Argyleshire
militia, pulling down a park wall feebly defended, fell among
them, sword in hand, with great slaughter. In less than thirty
minutes they were totally routed, and the field covered with their
wounded and slain, to the number of 3000 men. The French troops
on the left did not fire a shot, but stood inactive during the
engagement, and afterwards surrendered themselves prisoners of
war. An entire body of the clans marched off the field in order,
while the rest were routed with great slaughter, and their leaders
obliged with reluctance to retire. Civil war is in itself terrible,
but much more so when heightened by unnecessary cruelty. How guilty
soever an enemy may be, it is the duty of a brave soldier to
remember that he is only to fight an opposer, and not a suppliant.
The victory was in every respect decisive, and humanity to the
conquered would have rendered it glorious. But little mercy was
shown here; the conquerors were seen to refuse quarter to the
wounded, the unarmed, the defenceless; some were slain who were
only excited by curiosity to become spectators of the combat,
and soldiers were seen to anticipate the base employment of the
executioner. The Duke, immediately after the action, ordered
thirty-six deserters to be executed. The conquerors spread terror
wherever they came; and, after a short space, the whole country
round was one dreadful scene of plunder, slaughter, and desolation;
justice was forgotten, and vengeance assumed the name.”


CUNNERSDORF, BATTLE OF.--The King of Prussia with 50,000 men
attacked the Austrian and Russian army with 90,000 men (in their
camp). At first he gained considerable advantages, but pursuing too
far, the enemy rallied and gained a complete victory. The Russians
lost 200 pieces of cannon and 20,000 men in killed and wounded.
Fought August 12th, 1759.


CUSTOZZA, BATTLE OF.--Fought Sunday, 24th June, 1866 between the
Austrians and Italians. “The Italian army, divided into three
corps and a reserve, making up a force of from 80,000 to 90,000
combatants, after crossing the Mincio at Gotto, and on the other
points, on Saturday afternoon, June 23rd, 1866, and sending
reconnoitering parties towards Peschiera and Verona, encamped for
the night at some place beyond Roverbella, equidistant from the
two fortresses. On the ensuing morning an attempt was made upon
those high positions of Sona, Somma Campaigna, and Santa Ciustina,
which commands the fifteen miles railway line joining the two
strongholds, positions which played a conspicuous part in the
campaign of 1848. The object of the Italians was evidently to take
possession of the railway, so as to isolate Peschiera and secure
a basis of operations against Verona. The Austrians, however, who
were massed in great force at Verona, sallied forth from that place
at daybreak, and, anticipating the Italian movements, took up their
position upon those hills, which are now everywhere bristling with
bastions and redoubts, and may be looked upon as mere outworks of
the two citadels, extending from the gates of one to those of the
other. After a severe and bloody, or, as the Italians describe
it, “desperate struggle,” which lasted nearly the whole day--that
longest of summer days--the Imperial army was victorious along
the whole line. They stormed the summit of Montevente, where the
Italians held out the longest, and at the close of the engagement,
at five o’clock in the afternoon, they also carried the position
of Custozza, a spot fatal to Italian arms in their encounter
with Radetski, in July, 1848. The victors captured several guns,
and about 2000 prisoners, and behaved, as the Archduke Albert’s
bulletin assures us, and as we may readily believe, with even more
than their ordinary bravery and endurance. On the same evening the
Italian army was obliged to re-cross the Mincio.

The Italian accounts of the engagement present no points of
material difference. According to them, the first army corps was
sent forward to occupy some positions between Peschiera and Verona,
but being surrounded by superior numbers, it “failed to effect its
purpose,” and the description given of its losses in the contest
leaves us little doubt that it was all but annihilated. The second
and third corps, unable--it is not said for what reason--to advance
to its rescue, were still in the evening “almost intact.” It was
also stated from Brescia that the army had maintained its position;
but there is little doubt that it had to withdraw across the Mincio
later in the night. The Italians had several of their Generals
wounded, among others the King’s second son, Prince Amadeus, who
has arrived at Brescia.

There is every probability, also, that the Italians were, on this
occasion, outnumbered by their enemies: for the Austrians have
from 200,000 to 250,000 men in Venetia, and as they had in their
hands the most formidable of all engines of modern warfare--the
railway, they had probably massed three-fourths, at least, of their
troops in Verona, ready for the long-expected Italian inroad. The
Archduke’s bulletins, in fact, never speak of garrisons, but tell
us that the “imperial army” was in the field.

The Italians, we are assured, behaved with great heroism, and,
no doubt although they lost the day, they came off without loss
of honour. An advance across the Mincio, right into the heart of
the Quadrilateral, is an enterprise which no other European army
would, under such circumstances, have ventured upon, but a frenzy
to do something seems to have possessed the whole Italian nation,
and the men in command could think of nothing better than dashing
their heads against those formidable stone walls. There may be
bravery in so desperate an attempt to take the bull by the horns,
but we believe it would be impossible for the king or La Marmora
to say what results they expected from their ill-conceived and
worse-executed attempt. It was a battle in which they staked the
very existence of their army, while their enemies, in the worst
event, ran no other risk than that of a safe and leisurely retreat
behind the shelter of their bastions. The least that may be said
of it is, that like the Balaklava charge, “_C’était beau mais ce
n’était pas la guerre_.” Ever since 1848 and 1849 the Austrians
have strained every nerve to strengthen these four citadels, and
have extended their outworks, so that the line between Peschiera
and Verona, especially, is a vast intrenched camp.”


CYZICUM, BATTLE OF.--Fought during the Peloponnesian war. Plutarch
states that Mindarus was slain in this battle. The Athenians gained
a complete victory over the Lacedæmonian fleet. Fought B.C. 410.



D.


DAMASCUS.--Taken by the Saracens, 633. Again by the Turks in 1006,
and was destroyed by Tamerlane in 1400.


DANTZIC.--It surrendered to the French, after a siege of four
months, May 5th, 1807; and, by the treaty of Tilsit, was restored
to its former independence under the protection of Russia and
Saxony. It was besieged by the Allies in 1812, and surrendered to
them January 6th, 1814. By the treaty of Paris it reverted to its
former status.


DARDANELLES, PASSAGE OF THE.--This was achieved by the British
fleet under Sir John Duckworth, February 19th, 1807; but the
admiral was obliged to repass them--which he did with great loss
and immense damage to the fleet, March 2nd following. The castles
of Sestos and Abydos hurled down rocks, each of many tons weight,
upon the decks of the British ships.


DARTMOUTH.--Burnt by the French, in the reign of Richard I and
Henry IV. Prince Maurice took it in 1643, but it was retaken by
General Fairfax, by storm, A.D. 1646.


DELHI.--Once the great capital of the Mogul empire. In 1738, when
Nadir Shah invaded Hindostan, he entered Delhi, and 100,000 of the
inhabitants were put to the sword. In 1803, the Mahrattas aided by
the French, got possession of the place; but they were afterwards
defeated by General Lake. This city has been the scene of much
commotion in the course of its history.

The following is a short account of the storming of Delhi, in the
last great mutiny:

“Until the latter end of August, the British troops before Delhi
are rather to be considered as an army of observation, than as a
besieging force. Their inferiority in numbers and artillery was
barely counter-balanced by their superior discipline, courage
and physical strength. These advantages enabled them, indeed, to
maintain their ground, but not to assume the offensive.

Toward the close of August, however, a re-inforcement of European
and Sikh troops, under Brigadier Nicholson, arrived from the
Punjab, and, on the 25th of that month, the rebels were defeated at
Nujuffghur, with great slaughter, and the loss of thirteen guns. A
few days later a heavy siege-train was received from Ferozepore,
and breaching batteries were constructed on the north side of
the city. The siege may be said to have commenced on the 7th
September, and by the evening of the 13th, the engineers reported
two practicable breaches--one near the Cashmere, the other near the
Water bastion. Arrangements were, therefore, at once made for an
assault, to take place at daybreak on the following morning.

The first column, commanded by Brigadier Nicholson, advanced under
a tremendous fire, and, applying their scaling-ladders, carried the
Cashmere bastion, and established themselves in the main-guard.
Almost simultaneously, the second column, under Brigadier Jones,
stormed the Water bastion, and effected a junction with their
comrades inside the walls.

A third column, under Colonel Campbell, awaited the blowing open of
the Cashmere gate to join the assault. They had not long to wait.
Lieutenants Salkeld and Home, of the engineers, accompanied by
three sergeants carrying the powder-bags, walked up to the gateway
in broad daylight, and, while exposed to a heavy fire of musketry,
coolly fastened the bags to the iron spikes of the gate. In the
performance of this heroic exploit, Lieutenant Salkeld was severely
wounded, and two of the sergeants killed upon the spot; but the
train was lighted, and the gate blown open with a tremendous crash.

As the smoke cleared away, the storming party sprang through the
ruins with a British cheer; and the three columns uniting, made
themselves master of the whole line of works, from the Water
bastion to the Cabul gate; and before nightfall were in possession
of Skinner’s house, the Church, the College, and the adjacent
grounds. This brilliant success, however, was not achieved without
great loss of life.

Of the European soldiery, eight officers and 162 rank and file were
killed, with 52 officers and 510 rank and file wounded; of the
Sepoys, 413 were placed _hors de combat_, of whom 103 were slain
outright. The total number of casualties thus amounted to 1145,
or one-third of the entire assaulting force. Among the mortally
wounded was Brigadier Nicholson, whose death was justly deplored as
a national calamity.

Simultaneously with these main attacks, a diversion was made by
a fourth column, consisting of Sikhs, Ghoorkas, and Cashmerians,
on the suburbs of Kishengunge and Pahareepore. But, in spite of
their most strenuous efforts, these troops failed to overcome the
desperate resistance offered by the enemy, and, in the end, were
compelled to retreat, though not ingloriously.

The day following the assault was consumed in shelling the palace,
and in battering the magazine. A breach was effected, and, at
daylight on the 16th, a storming party dashed forward with such
impetuosity that the rebel artillerymen dropped their lighted
port-fires and fled, leaving undischarged six guns of large calibre
commanding the breach and loaded with grape. On the 17th, the
British troops became masters of the Bank, formerly the palace of
the Begum Sumroo, and shortly afterwards, of the Jumma Musjid, or
principal mosque. Heavy guns were now brought to play upon the
palace and the bridge of boats, and, by the evening of the 20th,
the rebels entirely evacuated the city and its suburbs. Then was
seen the extent of the damage sustained by the former capital
of the Mogul dynasty. Whole streets had been laid in ruins;
dead bodies tainted the air in all directions; the inhabitants,
reduced to beggary, were crouching, terror-stricken, in obscure
lurking-places. But the British soldier is merciful in victory, as
he is irresistible in battle. To armed rebels, no mercy was shown;
but women and children, and the defenceless citizens, were spared
and protected.

The venerable descendant of Timour--venerable only by reason of his
gray hairs and extreme old age--had fled, with his principal Begum,
two sons, and a grandson, to the tomb of his ancestor, Hoomavoon,
son of the mighty Baber. He was discovered and seized by captain
Hodson, of the 2nd European Fusiliers. His own life, and that of
his queen, were respected--but the princes were led out and shot,
and their dead bodies publicly exposed at the kotwalee, or mayor’s
court.

General Wilson, whose health failed him in the hour of victory,
now resigned the command to Brigadier Penny, C.B., a veteran
of approved gallantry. Colonel Burn, whose father so gallantly
defended Delhi against Jeswunt Rao Holkar, in 1803, was
appointed military commandant within the city, and measures were
successfully taken to re-establish order, and to afford protection
to well-disposed and peaceful citizens. Two movable columns,
consisting each of 1600 infantry, 500 cavalry, three troops of
horse artillery, and eighteen guns, were told off, and ordered
to follow up the retreating enemy without delay. One of these,
commanded by Colonel Greathed, of the 84th, came up with a rebel
force strongly posted near Bolundshuhur, and, after a spirited
engagement, utterly discomfited them with the loss of two guns, a
vast quantity of ammunition, and 100 men.”


DEMERARA AND ESSEQUIBO.--Founded by the Dutch but taken by the
British, under Major General White, April 22nd, 1796. Restored in
1802. Again surrendered to the British, under General Grinfield and
Commodore Hood, September 20th, 1803. They are now British colonies.


DENNEWITZ, BATTLE OF.--In this battle a remarkable victory was
obtained by Marshal Bernadotte, Prince of Denmark--who afterward
became Charles XIV of Sweden--over Marshal Ney, September 6th,
1813. The loss of the French exceeded 16,000 men and two eagles,
while the loss of the opposite army was inconsiderable.


DETTINGEN, BATTLE OF.--Between the British, Hanoverian, and Hessian
army, commanded by George II of England in person and the Earl of
Stair, on the one side, and the French army, commanded by Marshal
Noailles and the Duke of Grammont, on the other side. The English
army amounted to 52,000 men, the French to 60,000 strong. The
French having passed a defile which they should have guarded, the
British and Allies bravely sustained the impetuous charge of the
French cavalry, so that they were obliged to give way, and recross
the Mayne, with the loss of 5000 men. Fought June 16th, 1743.


DIEPPE.--_In France._--This town was bombarded by an English
fleet, under Admiral Russell, and laid in ashes, July 1694. Again
bombarded by the British, September 14th, 1803.


DIZIER ST.--_In Champagne._--One of the most memorable sieges in
modern history. This town sustained a siege for six weeks against
the army of Charles V, Emperor of Germany, A.D. 1544. A battle was
fought here between the armies of the Allies on the one side, and
the French, commanded by Napoleon in person, on the other, in
which he was defeated with great loss, January 27th, 1814.


DONNINGTON, BATTLE OF.--_In Lincolnshire, England._--Fought
between the Royalists, commanded by Colonel Cavendish, and the
forces of the Parliament--the latter defeated, 1643. The battle
of Donnington, in Gloucestershire, was fought in 1645, when the
Royalists, under Lord Aston, were defeated by Colonel Morgan. This
victory led to the surrender of the King’s garrison at Oxford.


DRAGOON.--Name supposed to have been derived from dragon. The first
regiment of dragoons in England was raised A.D. 1681.


DRESDEN, BATTLE OF.--Between the allied army, under the Prince of
Schwarzenberg, and the French army, commanded by Napoleon, August
26th and 27th, 1813. The Allies were 200,000 strong. They attacked
the position of Napoleon, and the event had nearly proved fatal to
them, but for an error of General Vandamme. They were defeated with
dreadful loss, and were obliged to retreat into Bohemia. Vandamme
pursuing them too far, his division was cut to pieces, and he
and all his staff made prisoners. In this battle, General Moreau
received his mortal wound, while in conversation with the Emperor
of Russia.


DROGHEDA.--_In Ireland._--Cromwell took this city by storm, and put
the governor and all the garrison to the sword, August 14th, 1649.
More than 3000 men, mostly English, perished, one individual--a
lieutenant--alone escaping. Cromwell also murdered every man,
woman, and child of the citizens that were Irish!


DRUM.--A martial instrument--the invention of which is ascribed to
Bacchus. Being an oriental invention, it was introduced into Europe
by the Moors, A.D. 713.


DUMBLANE OR DUNBLANE, BATTLE OF.--Called also the Battle of
Sheriffmuir.--Fought between the Royalist army, and the Scotch
rebels, November 12th, 1715. The Duke of Argyle, who commanded the
Royalists, had in his army 4000 veteran troops; the Earl of Mar,
who commanded the rebels, 8000, but all newly raised. The loss was
equal on both sides, and each claimed the victory. The Highland
foot behaved most gallantly.


DUNBAR, BATTLE OF.--Fought between the Scottish and English army,
in which John Baliol was defeated by the Earl of Warrenne, and
Scotland subdued by Edward I, April 27th, 1296. Another battle was
fought here between the Scots and the English, under Cromwell, who
obtained a great victory, September 3rd, 1650.


DUNDALK.--Edward Bruce, being defeated in his unfortunate invasion
of Ireland, was beheaded here, in 1318, and with him 6200 Scots
invaders, lost their lives. The walls and fortifications were
destroyed in 1641.


DUNGAN HILL, BATTLE OF.--_In Ireland._--Fought between the English
and Irish armies. The former commanded by Colonel Jones, who
signally defeated the insurgent Irish, of whom 6000 were slain,
while the loss of the English was inconsiderable. Fought July 10th,
1647.


DUNKIRK.--Taken by the English and French from the Spaniards, June
24th, 1658. Sold by Charles II, for £500,000, to Louis XIV, in
1662. The English attempted to besiege this place, but the Duke of
York, who commanded, was defeated by Hoche, and forced to retire
with loss, September 7th, 1793.


DUNSINANE, BATTLE OF.--Celebrated by Shakespeare. Fought between
Macbeth, the thane of Glamis, and Seward, earl of Northumberland.
Macbeth was signally defeated, fled, and was pursued, when he was
slain, 1057.


DURHAM, BATTLE OF.--Fought between the English and Scottish armies,
October 17th, 1316. See _Nevill’s Cross_.



E.


EBRO.--Scene of a signal defeat of the Spaniards, by the French,
November 23rd, 1808. Scene also of several movements of the allied
forces during the Peninsular War.


ECKMUHL, BATTLE OF.--Fought, April 22nd, 1809, between the main
armies of France and Austria. The French army was commanded by
Napoleon, and the Austrian by the Archduke Charles. Napoleon, by
one of his masterly movements, broke through the Imperial army, and
completely routed them.


EDGEHILL, BATTLE OF.--Fought, October 23rd, 1642, between the
Royalists and the Parliament army, the first engagement of
importance in the civil war. Charles I was present in this battle.
Prince Rupert commanded the Royalists and the Earl of Essex the
Parliamentarians. The Earl of Lindsay, one of Charles’ Generals,
who commanded the foot forces, was mortally wounded and taken
prisoner. The King’s army lost 5000 men, dead on the field of
battle, with vast numbers of wounded and prisoners; but the great
loss on the other side prevented them from making all they could of
the victory.


ENSIGN.--A flag or banner. The lowest commissioned officer in an
infantry regiment--he who carries the flag or colors--hence the
name; derived from the French.


ENGHIEN, BATTLE OF.--Fought, August 3rd, 1692, between the British,
under William III, and the French, under Marshal Luxembourg,
who were victorious. William had put himself at the head of the
confederate army in the Netherlands, and leagued himself with the
Protestant powers upon the continent against the ambition of Louis
XIV, and in the end he triumphed.


ENLISTMENT OF SOLDIERS AND SEAMAN.--None enlisted are to be sworn
in before a magistrate in less than twenty-four hours, and then
they are at liberty to withdraw, upon returning enlistment or
bounty money and 21s. costs. All enlistment is now voluntary.


ENNISKILLEN.--_Ireland._--It made an obstinate defence against the
army of Elizabeth; then against James II, 1689--1500 Enniskillens
met General McCarty with a force of 6000 men--defeated him, with a
loss of 3000 men, and took all the rest--losing only twenty men,
July 1689. The Enniskillen dragoons were raised here.


ESSLING, BATTLE OF.--Fought, May 22nd, 1809, between the armies
of France and Austria, commanded by Napoleon and the Archduke
Charles,--a dreadful conflict, which began on May 21st, and
continued on the 22nd. Napoleon was defeated with the loss of
30,000 men--but the Austrians lost 20,000. This was the most severe
check that Napoleon had ever yet experienced, which rendered his
army’s retreat very difficult.


EUPATORIA.--_Crimea._--Famous in the Crimean war. The following is
an account of its capture by the Allies:

“About 25,000 Turks, under Omer Pacha, the veterans for the most
part of the army of the Danube, had occupied the town, and strongly
entrenched themselves, assisted by a small force of English and
French, and supported by the presence of a naval squadron, under
the command of Captain Hastings, of the _Curaçoa_. For some days
previous to the 16th of February, large bodies of Russians had
been observed in the vicinity; and on the morning of that day,
a strong force of artillery, supported by bodies of cavalry and
infantry, estimated at about 40,000 men, opened a smart fire upon
the town, at a distance of 1200 yards, subsequently advancing
nearer. The small squadron, under Captain Hastings, was enabled
to do good service; the _Valorous_ pitching shells and shot among
the enemy on the left; and the _Viper_, an active little gun-boat,
smartly seconding her efforts on the left. The enemy’s infantry
approached to the right of the town, through the cemetery. As they
advanced from the burying-ground, they were met by a vigorous fire
of musketry from the entrenchments. The _Furious_ had detached a
rocket-party, which coming round among the windmills to the right
of the town, met the advancing Russians with a succession of
volleys. The enemy advanced to within twenty yards of the ditch,
and then fell into confusion. Selim Bey, the leader of the Egyptian
contingent, seizing the opportunity, threw forward his brigade in
a rapid charge with the bayonet upon the disordered columns, but
fell mortally wounded at the head of his men. Unable to stand the
terrific fire to which they were exposed, and yielding before the
vigorous charge of the Egyptians, the Russians gave way, and the
repulse was complete. The artillery limbered up their guns, and
with the cavalry, drew leisurely from the spot. The enemy’s loss
must have been immense, considering the short time the skirmish
lasted, as the ground was strewed with the bodies of the slain, who
were quickly despoiled by the ever ready Bashi-Bazouks, and left
stark naked in their blood. The loss to the defenders of the town
was 101 killed, and 286 wounded. The Turkish artillery suffered
greatly from the enemy’s fire, nineteen men being killed in one
battery. Thus did Omer Pacha initiate his campaign in the Crimea.”


EURYMEDON, BATTLE OF.--One of the most celebrated battles in
Grecian history, when Cimon destroyed the fleet of the Persians at
Cyprus, and the land forces also at the River Eurymedon, B.C. 470.


EVESHAM, BATTLE OF.--Fought, August 4th, 1265, between Prince
Edward, afterwards Edward I, and Simon de Montfort, Earl of
Leicester--in which the Barons were defeated, and Montfort slain.
This victory broke up the confederation of the Barons against the
King.


EXETER.--When held by the Danes King Alfred invested and took it
A.D. 894. Sweyn besieged it 1003. Again besieged by William the
Conqueror, 1067. Surrendered to King Stephen, 1136. Besieged by Sir
William Courtenay, 1469. Lastly assaulted by Perkin Warbeck 1497.


EXPEDITIONS OF THE BRITISH. PRINCIPAL ONES.

  France near Port l’Orient      October 1,  1746
  Cherbourg                      August 7,   1758
  St. Malo                       September,  1758
  Ostend                         May,        1798
  Zuyder Zee                     September,  1799
  Egypt                          March,      1801
  Copenhagen                     September,  1807
  Walcheren                      July,       1809
  Bergen-op-Zoom                 March,      1814


EYLAU, BATTLE OF.--Fought, February 8th, 1807, between the French
and Russians.--It was one of the most terrible and bloody in
Napoleon’s wars. Napoleon lost 15,000 men, and the Russians 20,000,
in slain alone. Both armies were dreadfully crippled by this
battle, and both had to retire.



F.


FALCZI, PEACE OF.--This celebrated peace was concluded between
Russia and Turkey, July 2nd, 1711,--the Russians giving up Azof
and all their possessions on the Black Sea to the Turks. In the
following year the war was renewed, and at last terminated in the
peace of Constantinople, April 16th, 1712.


FALKIRK, BATTLE OF.--First battle fought between Edward I of
England, and the Scots under William Wallace, July 22nd, 1298; and
the second between the King’s forces and Prince Charles Stuart, the
Pretender, January 18th, 1746. Both are described in the following
extracts:

“Edward had been in Scotland for about a month. He had advanced as
far as Kirkliston, ten miles west of Edinburgh. Symptoms of mutiny
began to appear among his hungry soldiers. He was compelled to
give orders for a retreat to Edinburgh, meaning to wait there till
his fleet, laden with provisions, should arrive at Leith, and then
to advance again.

Things stood thus, when two scoundrels, the Earl of Dunbar and
the Earl of Angus, came at daybreak into the camp of the English,
and gave information that Wallace lay in the forest of Falkirk,
intending to attack the English in their quarters that very night.
Edward was filled with joy at the tidings. “Thanks be to God,” he
cried, “who hath hitherto delivered me from every danger! They
shall not need to follow me, for I shall instantly go and meet
them.”

In an hour’s time he had his army in motion for the west. That
night they encamped on a moor near Linlithgow. Each man slept in
his armour, each war-horse was kept ready bridled beside its rider.
The king himself slept on the bare ground, like the meanest soldier
in his army. In the middle of the night the sleeping king received
a kick from his own charger, by which two of his ribs were broken.
As soon as morning dawned the march was resumed. The king, wounded
as he was, was among the first to mount.

Passing through the town of Linlithgow, they continued their march,
and gained a rising ground at some distance beyond. There they
halted, and the fighting Bishop of Durham said mass. While the
ceremony was performing the sun rose, and his rays, glancing upon
the array of spears, showed them the Scottish army taking their
ground on the slope of a small hill not far from Falkirk. Wallace
arranged his battle thus: His main force lay in his infantry, who
fought with long spears, and carried short daggers and axes for
close battle slung at the girdle. They were divided into four
circular masses, or _schiltrons_, as they were called in the
military language of the time. In these circles the spearmen stood
compactly together, with their long spears stretched out, and
forming a ring of steel. The spaces between circle and circle were
occupied by the archers, tall yeomen from the forests of Selkirk
and Ettrick. The cavalry, amounting to 1000 heavy armed horse,
were placed in the rear. Among them were most of the nobles who
had joined Wallace; but the jealousy which these proud barons felt
towards him, and their selfish fear of losing their estates, made
them less than half-hearted in the cause.

The English came on in three divisions, each division as strong as
the whole Scottish army. At the first clash of spears the entire
body of the Scottish cavalry, led by the traitor lords, turned
bridle, and rode off the field without a blow given or taken. While
the battle raged against the circles of spearmen, the English
horse charged the Scottish archers. The brave foresters stood
firm to meet the rush of 7000 of the finest cavalry ever present
on a stricken field. But what could they, lightly armed as they
were, do against mailed horse and steel-clad knights? They defended
themselves so bravely with their short daggers that the very enemy
admired them. But they died there to a man. After the battle the
conquerors remarked their tall and handsome forms as they lay dead
on the ground they had kept so well.

The four circles of the Scottish spearmen remained yet entire,
standing up like a wall, with their spears, point over point, so
thick and close together that no living man could pierce through.
But the cloth-yard arrows from the great bows of England fell
thick and deadly among them. The columns of archers advanced near
and discharged their shafts in perfect security, the Scots having
neither cavalry to scatter them by a charge, nor archers to reply
to them. Drawing their arrows to the head, they shot with all their
force into the circles, and quickly breached the living walls.
Through the gaps made by the archers the English cavalry charged,
and having once broken in made a dreadful slaughter. The battle was
lost. One duty alone remained to the Scottish leader, and that was
to save the remainder of his army from destruction by a retreat.
Well and soldierly he did it. Retiring slowly, and himself with his
best knights defending the rear, he was able to draw off the broken
remains of his circles, and to gain the shelter of Torwood forest.”

_Second Battle._--“Being joined by Lord Drummond, Prince Charles
invested the castle of Stirling, commanded by General Blakeney;
but the rebel forces, being unused to sieges, consumed much time
to no purpose. It was during this attempt that General Hawley, who
commanded a considerable body of forces near Edinburgh, undertook
to raise the siege, and advanced towards the rebel army as far
as Falkirk. After two days spent in mutually examining each
other’s strength, the rebels being ardent to engage, were led on,
in full spirits, to attack the King’s army. The Pretender, who
was in the front line, gave the signal to engage, and the first
fire put Hawley’s forces into confusion. The horse retreated
with precipitation, and fell upon their own infantry; while the
rebels, following up the blow, the greatest part of the royal army
fled with the utmost precipitation. They retired in confusion to
Edinburgh, leaving the conquerors in possession of their tents,
their artillery, and the field of battle.”


FEROZESHAH, BATTLE OF.--_India._--Between the Sikhs and British.
The British attacked the entrenchments of the Sikhs, and carried
by storm the first line of works, December 21st, 1845. Night coming
on the operations were suspended till day-break next day, and
their second line was carried and their guns captured; the Sikhs
advanced to recapture the guns but were repulsed with great loss,
and retreated towards the Sutlej, December 22nd, and re-crossed the
river unmolested, December 27th.


FERROL, BRITISH EXPEDITION TO.--Upwards of 10,000 British landed,
August, 1800, near Ferrol, commanded by Sir James Pulteney.
Despairing of success, though they had gained the heights, they
re-embarked and returned to England, by order of the General, and
in opposition to the wishes and advice of his officers.


FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD.--Henry VIII embarked at Windsor to
meet Francis I of France, at Ardres, May 31st, 1520. So much
magnificence was displayed on the occasion, that the field received
that name, by which it is now always known in history.


FIRE SHIPS.--Used first in the 16th century. The first use of them,
in the English navy, was by Lord Effingham, in the engagement of
the Armada, July, 1588.


FLAG.--Acquired its present form in the 6th century, in Spain;
introduced, it is said, by the Saracens.

FLAT BUSH, BATTLE OF.--_Long Island, America._--Fought August 27th,
1776, between the British forces and American colonists, when the
latter, after a desperate engagement, were compelled to retire,
with the loss of 2000 men killed, and 1000 prisoners.


FLEURIS, BATTLE OF.--Fought, June, 17th, 1794, between the Allies,
under the Prince of Cobourg, and the French revolutionary army,
commanded by Marshal Jourdan. The Allies had 100,000 men, and
having met the enemy on the plains of Fleuris, were signally
defeated. Between 8000 and 10,000 were killed, wounded and taken
prisoners, and Jourdan was able to form a junction with the
French armies of the Moselle--the Ardennes and the north. In this
memorable battle, the French made use of a balloon to reconnoitre
the enemy’s army--an experiment which it is said very materially
tended to their gaining the victory.


FLODDEN.--Fought on the 9th September, 1513, between the English
and Scots. Underneath is a graphic account of the most disastrous
battle that ever befell the Scottish arms.

“On the 22nd of August, 1513, James IV of Scotland, at the head of
a gallant army, crossed the Tweed, for the purpose of revenging
some injuries which he conceived himself to have received at the
hands of the King of England, who was then pursuing hostilities
in France. Immediately on his crossing that river, he laid siege
to the castles of Etel and Ford, and spent much precious time in
endeavouring to reduce those fortresses.

Whilst such was the course pursued by the King, the Earl of Surrey
concentrating the strength of the northern counties, soon raised
an army of 26,000 men; and marching through Durham, received there
the sacred banner of St. Cuthbert. He was soon after joined by
Lord Dacre, Sir William Bulmer, Sir Marmaduke Constable, and other
northern Barons; and on proceeding to Alnwick, was met by his son,
Lord Thomas Howard, Lord Admiral of England, with a reinforcement
of 5000 men. On advancing with this united force, Surrey dispatched
Rouge Croix Herald to carry his challenge to the King of Scots,
which was couched in the usual stately terms of feudal defiance.
It reproached him with having broken his faith and league, which
had been solemnly pledged to the King of England, in thus invading
his dominions--and offered him battle on the succeeding Friday, if
he would be content to remain so long in England and accept it.
Lord Thomas Howard added a message, informing the King, that, as
High Admiral, and one who had borne a personal share in the action
against Andrew Barton, he was now ready to justify the death of
that pirate, for which purpose he would lead the vanguard, where
his enemies, from whom he expected as little mercy as he meant to
grant them, would be sure to find him. To this challenge, James
instantly replied, that “he desired nothing more earnestly than the
encounter, and he would abide the battle on the day appointed.”
As to the rude accusation of broken honour which had been brought
against him, he desired his herald to carry a broad denial of the
statement. “Our bond and promise,” he observed, “was to remain true
to our royal brother, so long as he maintained his faith with us.
This he was the first to break; we have desired redress, and have
been denied it; we have warned him of our intended hostility--a
courtesy which he has refused to us; and this is our just quarrel,
which, with the grace of God, we shall defend.” These mutual
messages passed on the 4th of September; and on the day appointed,
Surrey advanced against the enemy. By this time, the distress
for provisions, the incessant rains, and the obstinacy of the
King in waiting upon his pleasures, and his observation of the
punctilios of chivalry, the hours which might have been spent in
active warfare, had created dissatisfaction in the soldiers, many
of whom deserted, with the booty they had already collected; so
that in a short time the army was much diminished in numbers. To
accept the challenge of his adversary, and permit him to appoint
a day for the encounter, was contrary to the advice of his best
councillors; and he might have recollected, that in circumstances
almost similar, two great masters in war, Douglas and Randolph, had
treated a parallel proposal of Edward III with a sarcastic refusal.
He had the sagacity, however, to change his first encampment for
a stronger position on the hill of Flodden, one of the last and
lowest eminences which detach themselves from the range of the
Cheviots; a ground skillfully chosen, inaccessible on both flanks,
and defended in front by the river Till, a deep sluggish stream,
which ran between the armies.

On advancing and reconnoitering the spot, Surrey, who despaired
of being able to attack the Scots without exposing himself to the
probability of defeat, again sent a herald to request the King to
descend from the eminence into the plain. He complained, somewhat
unreasonably, that James had “putte himself into a ground more
like a fortress or a camp, than any indifferent field for battle
to be taxed;” but James would not even admit the messenger into
his presence. So far all had succeeded and nothing was required on
the part of the King but patience. He had chosen an impregnable
position, had fulfilled his agreement by abiding the attack
of the enemy; and such was the distress of Surrey’s army in a
wasted country, that to keep it longer together was impossible.
He attempted, therefore, a decisive measure, which would have
appeared desperate, unless he had reckoned upon the carelessness
and inexperience of his opponent. Passing the Till on the 8th of
September, he proceeded on its east side to Barmoor wood, two
miles distant from the Scottish position, where he encamped for
the night. His march was concealed from the enemy by an eminence
on the east of Ford; but the manœuvre being executed without
observation or interruption, evinces a shameful negligence in the
Scottish commanders. Early on the morning of the 9th, he marched
from Barmoor wood in a north-westerly direction; and then turning
suddenly to the eastward, crossed the Till with his vanguard and
artillery at Twisel bridge, not far from the confluence of the
Till and the Tweed--whilst the rear division, under Surrey in
person, passed the river at a ford. Whilst these movements were
taking place the Scottish King remained unaccountably passive. His
veteran officers remonstrated. They showed him, that if he advanced
against Surrey, when the enemy were defiling over the bridge with
their vanguard separated from the rear, there was every chance of
destroying them in detail, and gaining an easy victory. The Earl of
Angus, whose age and experience gave great weight to his advice,
implored him either to assault the English, or to change his
position by a retreat, ere it was too late; but his prudent counsel
was only received by a cruel taunt. “Angus,” said the King, “if you
are afraid, you may go home;” a reproach which the spirit of the
old Baron could not brook. “My age,” said he, “renders my body of
no service, and my counsel is despised; but I leave my two sons and
the vassals of Douglas in the field; may the result be glorious,
and Angus’s foreboding unfounded!”

The army of Surrey was still marching across the bridge, when
Borthwick, the master of the artillery, fell on his knees before
the King, and solicited permission to bring his guns to bear upon
the columns, which might then be done with the most destructive
effect; but James commanded him to desist on peril of his head,
declaring that he would meet his antagonist on equal terms in a
plain field, and scorned to avail himself of such an advantage.
The counsel of Huntly was equally ineffectual; the remonstrance of
Lord Lindsay of the Byres was received by James with such vehement
indignation, that he threatened on his return to hang him up at
his own gate. Time ran on amidst these useless altercations, and
the opportunity was soon irrecoverable. The last divisions of
Surrey’s force had disentangled themselves from the narrow bridge;
the rear had passed the ford; and the Earl, marshalling his army
with the leisure his enemy allowed him, placed his entire line
between James and his own country. He was thus enabled, by an easy
and gradual ascent, which led to Flodden, to march upon the rear
of the enemy; and without losing his advantage for a moment, he
advanced against them in full array, his army being divided into
two battles, and each battle having two wings. On becoming aware
of this, the King set fire to the temporary huts and booths of his
encampment, and descended the hill, with the object of occupying
the eminence on which the village of Brankston is built. His army
was divided into five battles, some of which had assumed the form
of squares, some of wedges; and all were drawn up in line, about
a bow-shot distant from each other. Their march was conducted in
complete silence; and the clouds of smoke which arose from the
burning camp, being driven in the face of the enemy, mutually
concealed the armies; so that when the breeze freshened, and the
misty curtain was withdrawn, the two hosts discovered that they
were within a quarter of a mile of each other. The arrangement of
both armies was simple. The van of the English, which consisted of
10,000 men, divided into a centre and two wings, was led by Lord
Thomas Howard; the right wing being intrusted to his brother, Sir
Edmund, and the left to Sir Marmaduke Constable. In the main centre
of his host Surrey himself commanded; the charge of the rear was
given to Sir Edward Stanley; and a strong body of horse, under Lord
Dacre, formed a reserve. Upon the part of the Scots, the Earls of
Home and Huntly led the advance; the King, the centre; and the
Earls of Lennox and Argyle, the rear; near which was the reserve,
consisting of the flower of the Lothians, commanded by the Earl
of Bothwell. The battle commenced at four in the afternoon, by a
furious charge of Huntly and Home upon the portion of the English
advance under Sir Edmund Howard; which, after some resistance,
was thrown into confusion, and totally routed. Howard’s banner
was beaten down; and he himself escaped with difficulty. Lord
Thomas Howard, dreading the consequences of a defeat, dispatched a
messenger to his father, Lord Surrey, entreating him to extend his
line with all speed, and strengthen the van by drawing up a part of
the centre on its left. The manœuvre was judicious, but it would
have required too long a time to execute; and at this critical
moment, Lord Dacre galloped forward with his cavalry to the support
of his advance. Nothing could have been more timely than this
assistance; he not only checked the career of the Scottish Earls,
but drove back the division of Huntly with great slaughter; whilst
Home’s men, imagining they had already gained the victory, began
to disperse and pillage. Dacre and the Admiral then turned their
attack against another portion of the Scottish advance, led by
the Earls of Crawford and Montrose, who met them with levelled
spears, and resolutely withstood the charge. Whilst such was the
state of things on the right, a desperate contest was carried on
between James and the Earl of Surrey in the centre. In his ardour,
the King forgot that the duties of a commander were distinct from
the indiscriminate valour of a knight: he placed himself in the
front of his lances and billmen, surrounded by his nobles, who,
whilst they pitied the gallant weakness of such conduct, disdained
to leave their sovereign unsupported. The first consequence of
this was so furious a charge upon the English centre, that its
ranks were broken, and for a while the standard of the Earl of
Surrey was in danger; but by this time Lord Dacre and the Admiral
had been successful in defeating the division led by Crawford
and Montrose, and wheeling towards the left, they turned their
whole strength against the flank of the Scottish centre, which
wavered under the shock, till the Earl of Bothwell came up with
the reserve, and restored the day in this quarter. On the right,
the divisions led by the Earls of Lennox and Argyle were composed
chiefly of the Highlanders and Isle-men, the Campbells, Macleans,
Macleods, and other hardy clans, who were dreadfully galled by
the discharge of the English archers. Unable to reach the enemy
with their broadswords and axes, which formed their only weapons,
and not very amenable to discipline, their squadrons began to
rush fiercely forward, eager for closer fight, and thoughtless of
the fatal consequences of breaking their array. It was to little
purpose that La Motte and the French officers with him attempted
by entreaties and blows to restrain them; they neither understood
their language nor cared for their violence, but threw themselves
sword in hand upon the English. The squares of English pikemen
stood to their ground; and though for a moment the shock of the
mountaineers was terrible, its force once sustained, became spent
with its own violence, and nothing remained but a disorganisation
so complete that to recover their ranks was impossible. The
consequence was, a total rout of the right wing of the Scots,
accompanied by a dreadful slaughter, in which the Earls of Lennox
and Argyle were slain. Yet, notwithstanding this defeat on the
right, the centre, under the King, still maintained an obstinate
and dubious conflict with the Earl of Surrey. No quarter was given
on either side; and the combatants were disputing every inch of
ground, when Stanley, without losing his time in pursuit of the
Highlanders, drew back his division and impetuously charged the
rear of the Scottish centre. It was now late in the evening, and
this movement was decisive. Pressed on the flank by Dacre and the
Admiral--opposed in front by Surrey, and now attacked in the rear
by Stanley, the King’s battle fought with fearful odds against
it; but James continued by his voice and his gestures to animate
his soldiers, till he fell pierced with an arrow, and mortally
wounded in the head by a bill, within a few paces of the English
Earl, his antagonist. The death of their sovereign seemed only to
animate the fury of the Scottish Nobles, who threw themselves into
a circle round the body, and defended it till darkness separated
the combatants. At this time Surrey was uncertain of the result of
the battle; the remains of the enemy’s centre still held the field;
Home with his borderers hovered on the left; and the commander
allowed neither pursuit nor plunder, but kept a strict watch
during the night. When the morning broke, the Scottish artillery
were seen standing deserted on the side of the hill, their
defenders had disappeared; and the Earl ordered thanks to be given
for a victory which was no longer doubtful.

The loss of the Scots, in this fatal battle, amounted to about
10,000 men. Of these a great proportion were of high rank; the
remainder being composed of the gentry, the farmers and landed
yeomanry, who disdained to fly when their sovereign and his nobles
lay stretched in heaps around them. Among the slain were thirteen
Earls--the King’s natural son, the Archbishop of St. Andrews--the
Bishops of Caithness and the Isles--the Abbots of Inchaffray
and Kilwinning--and the Dean of Glasgow; besides fifteen Lords
and chiefs of clans. The body of James was found on the morrow
amongst the thickest of the slain, and recognised by Lord Dacre,
although much disfigured by wounds. It was carried to Berwick, and
ultimately interred at Richmond.”


FONTAINBLEAU, PEACE OF.--Concluded between France and Denmark, in
1670. Treaty of ditto between the Emperor of Germany and Holland,
signed November 8th, 1785. Second Treaty of ditto, between Napoleon
and the Royal Family of Spain, October 27th, 1807. Concordat of
ditto, between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII, January 25th, 1813.
Entered by the Austrians, February 17th, 1814. Napoleon here
resigned his imperial dignity, and bade farewell to his army, April
5th, 1814.


FONTENOY.--Fought, April 30th, 1745,--according to others, May
11th, 1745--between the French, commanded by Count Saxe, and the
English, Hanoverians, Dutch, and Austrians, commanded by the
Duke of Cumberland. “The French entered upon the war with great
alacrity. They besieged Fribourg, and in the beginning of the
succeeding campaign invested the strong city of Tourney. Although
the Allies were inferior in number, and although commanded by the
Duke of Cumberland, yet, they resolved, if possible, to save the
city by hazarding a battle. They accordingly marched against the
enemy, and took post in sight of the French, who were encamped on
an eminence, the village of St. Antoine on the right, a wood on
the left, and the town of Fontenoy before them. This advantageous
situation did not repress the ardour of the English, who began
the attack at two o’clock in the morning, and pressing forward,
bore down all opposition. They were for nearly an hour victorious,
and confident of success, while Saxe, a soldier of fortune, who
commanded the French army, was at that time sick of the same
disorder of which he afterwards died. However, he was carried
about to all the posts in a litter, and assured his attendants
that, notwithstanding all unfavourable appearances, the day was
his own. A column of the English, without any command, but by mere
mechanical courage, had advanced upon the enemy’s lines, which,
opening, formed an avenue on each side to receive them. It was
then that the French artillery on the three sides began to play on
this forlorn body, which, though they continued for a long time
unshaken, were obliged at last to retreat. This was one of the most
bloody battles that had been fought in this age; the Allies left
on the field 12,000 men, and the French bought their victory with
nearly an equal number of slain.”


FORT DU QUESNE.--_United States._--Famous in the French war of
Canada with the English. The following extract well describes the
expedition:

“Braddock, who had been recommended to this service by the Duke
of Cumberland, set forward upon this expedition in June, and left
the cultivated parts of the country on the 10th, at the head
of 2200 men, directing his march to that part of the country
whence Major Washington had retreated the year before. Being at
length within ten miles of the French fortress he was appointed
to besiege, and marching forward through the forest with full
confidence of success, on a sudden his whole army was astonished
by a general discharge of arms, both in front and flank, from an
enemy that still remained unseen. It was now too late to think of
retreating; the troops had passed into the defile which the enemy
had artfully permitted them to do before they offered to fire. The
vanguard of the English therefore, fell back in consternation upon
the main body, and the panic soon became general. The officers
alone disdained to fly, while Braddock himself still continued to
command his brave associates, discovering at once the greatest
intrepidity and imprudence. An enthusiast to the discipline of
war, he disdained to fly from the field, or to permit his men to
quit their ranks, when their only method of treating the Indian
army was by precipitate attack, or an immediate desertion of the
field of battle. At length Braddock, having received a musket
shot through the lungs, dropped, and a total confusion ensued.
All the artillery, ammunition, and baggage of the army was left
to the enemy, and the loss sustained by the English amounted to
700 men. The remnant of the army, in this emergency, was saved by
the courage and ability of Washington, who first here appears
conspicuously on the theatre of this world’s great events.”


FORT ERIE.--_Canada._--This fortress was taken by the American
General Brown, July 3rd, 1814. Defended by only 170 men, no wonder
it yielded to the Americans with 4000 strong. On the 15th August,
General Drummond tried to retake it, but failed. September 17th the
besieged made a sortie but were driven back, each side losing 600
men. Evacuated by the Americans, who blew up to the fort November
5th, 1814.


FORT NIAGARA.--_Canada._--Captured by Sir William Johnston. In the
war of 1813 it was surprised and captured by the Canadians.


FREDERECKSHALL.--Rendered memorable by the death of Charles XII of
Sweden, who was killed by a cannon ball before its walls, and while
in the trenches leaning against the parapet examining the works. He
was found in that position with his hand on his sword and a prayer
book in his pocket.--December 11th, 1718. It is now generally
believed that some traitor shot the King with a pistol.


FRENCHTOWN.--_Canada._--This town was taken from the British by
the American General Winchester, January 22nd, 1813. Retaken by
the British forces under General Proctor immediately afterwards,
when the American commander and the whole of his troops were made
prisoners of war.


FRIEDLAND, BATTLE OF.--Fought, June 14th, 1807, between the allied
Russian and Prussian armies on the one side and the French,
commanded by Napoleon in person, who signally defeated them, with
the lose of eighty pieces of ordnance and 50,000 men. This victory
led to the peace of Tilsit.


FUENTES DE ONORE, BATTLE OF.--Napier thus describes this great
battle: “On May 2nd, 1811, Messina crossed the Agueda with 40,000
infantry, 5000 cavalry, and about thirty pieces of artillery, to
relieve Almeida. He expected every day to be superseded in his
command, and he wished to make a last effort for his own military
character. Wellington could muster no more than 32,000 men, of
which force only 1200 were cavalry. He, however, determined to
fight rather than give up the blockade of Almeida; after much
fighting night came on and put an end to the battle. Next day
Messina was joined by Bessières, with a body of the Imperial Guard,
and on the 5th the enemy made the grand attack. The battle raged
throughout a vast plain, and in all the Peninsular War there was
never so dangerous an hour for England. The fight lasted till
evening, when the lower part of the town was abandoned by both
sides--the British keeping the chapel and crags, and the French
retiring a cannon shot from the stream.” Fought, May 5th, 1811.



G.


GALWAY.--_Ireland._--In 1690, Galway declared for King James, but
it was invested and taken by General Ginckel, immediately after the
memorable battle of Aughrim, July 12th, 1691.


GENERAL.--This rank has been given to commanders from very remote
antiquity. In the French army, Montmorency was the first officer
who was so called, in 1203. Cardinal Richelieu was the first who
took the title _Generalissimo_, having coined the word when he
assumed supreme command of the French armies in Italy, in 1629.


GENOA.--Bombarded by the French, in 1684, and by the British, in
1688 and 1745. Taken by the Imperialists, December 8th, 1746.
Sustained a siege from the British fleet and Austrian army, when
it capitulated, May, 1800. Surrendered to the French, after the
battle of Marengo. Next surrendered to the combined English and
Sicilian armies, April 8th, 1814, but was transferred to the
Kingdom of Sardinia, in 1826. The city seized by insurgents, who,
after a murderous struggle, drove out the garrison, and proclaimed
a Republic, April, 1850, but in the end the insurgents surrendered
to General Marmora.


GERMANIC CONFEDERATION.--When Napoleon determined that the
German or Holy Roman Empire should no longer exist, but that a
Confederation of States should be in its stead, the proposal was
adopted by the Allied Sovereigns, in 1815, which has continued ever
since.


GETTYSBURG.--_United States._--This battle was fought between
the Confederates of the Southern States, and the Northern army.
General Lee was defeated by the United States’ troops. This battle
immediately followed the surrender of Vicksburg to General Grant.
Fought on the 4th July, 1863.


GHENT.--Taken by the Duke of Marlborough, in 1706. Several times
taken and retaken during the Napoleon wars. The peace of Ghent,
between Great Britain and America, signed here, December 24th, 1814.


GHIZNEE, BATTLE OF.--The British, under Sir John Keane, attacked
this place, and having blown up the gates, forced their way into
the city, and succeeded in fixing the British colors on the towers,
July 23rd, 1839. Ghiznee capitulated to the Affghans, March 1st,
1842. The following account gives the items of General Nott’s
entering it, September 7th, 1842:

“GHIZNEE is situated on the base of a hill, which supports its rear
or main post, and commands a most extensive plain, and it is in the
midst of a rich, fertile country; it has ever held the most noble
rank as a capital, and is capable of being rendered one of the most
important fortifications in the Eastern nations; its adjacent hills
are great, and border on Dora and Bameean; it covers the routes of
the latter, as well as Loghar and Cabool; near the low hills which
command the city, are several cemeteries, and ancient buildings; at
a short distance is Rozah, in which stands the great sepulchre, and
shrine of Mahmood, the once famed Emperor of Ghiznee; and of whom
“Dow” speaks so much in his History of Hindostan.

The fortress in itself is of great importance; the town is walled
round, and contains several thousand houses; the former principally
of stone, and the latter of mud. It is surrounded by a deep trench;
the main entrance, being the one blown up by Sir John Keane, is
in ruins, and another was made to the right. In the centre of the
town stands the citadel, which had three tiers; the lower one had
been much improved since we possessed it, and a parade ground,
or large square, had been formed, as a park for the ordnance. A
river ran close by, which afforded good water, and rendered it
almost complete. All remained quiet, till within a short distance
from them, fortunately for us, as it enabled us to get up our
baggage, and cattle; close to the rear of the column the road was
very difficult, being over extensive fields of long grass, and
the ditches very numerous and wide, in crossing which the cattle
were continually falling, which greatly delayed us. General Nott
directed the Light Battalion to proceed with the Quarter Master
General, to take up an encampment opposite to Ghiznee, at a place
some two and a half miles from the fortress, known as Sir John
Keane’s garden. I accompanied this body, and as we proceeded, we
discovered the enemy in the citadel, and a great number outside,
preparing to advance. The Quarter Master General ordered a portion
of his force to man a small hill, which commanded their approach,
and left it in charge of Captain Adamson, of the 40th. The General
dispatched, in another direction, the 16th Native Infantry, under
Colonel McLaren, who were met by the enemy, and a smart action
took place; fortunately, however, after having rallied for some
time, the corps managed to get under cover, in a walled garden,
about a mile from the fort, and kept them off in fine style; the
Colonel, finding the enemy so numerous, feared a serious result, as
the chances were, the General could not send him a re-inforcement
before the whole of his ammunition would be expended, and a
soldier without ammunition is not in the most enviable situation.
The Quarter Master General’s party was attacked, but effected a
complete mastery over them, and drove them back. The General,
perceiving the situation of McLaren, dispatched the 3rd Regiment
Light Cavalry, and two of Anderson’s guns, who got up just in
time to save them, as they were getting short of shot; at length
came up the General with the main body; the cavalry made a grand
charge after those outside the town, and we lost a great number
of our men, but not before leaving a greater number of the enemy
lying on the field; during all this time those in possession of
the citadel were not idle, but made some excellent play with their
guns from the square I named, as being situated on the lower part
of the citadel; but fortunately for us their knowledge of the art
of gunnery was so shallow that they did little or no damage with
their guns. One of the hills mentioned as adjacent to the fortress,
was called Balloon Hill, from its peculiar form, and difficulty
of ascent; this hill was literally crowded with rebels, and their
colours were planted in every direction; they now began to emerge
from the gates in great numbers, and finding, after the charge of
the cavalry, that they had no chance of overpowering the front,
Shooms-ood-Dien dispatched a large force round, to attack the rear
of our columns. The General had, however, taken the necessary
precaution, and reinforced the rear guard to 3000 men, with six
guns, including the heavy battery. Perceiving the object the enemy
had in view, he let fly a volley of grape to meet them, which had
the desired effect, and left numbers of them dead on the ground,
and the rest immediately made off; the next thing to be done was to
got possession of Balloon Hill. This hill was so situated that it
commanded all around it, and more particularly the square in the
citadel, as it immediately covered it. The General directed the
40th and 16th to proceed at once and take the hill. The order was
in itself easily given; my readers may imagine the position.

The guns from the citadel were in full play, the hill was in
possession of, and covered by several hundreds of the enemy, both
horse and foot; the ascent was considerable, and we were nearly
two miles from it. However, it is not for Britons to look at
difficulties in such a moment, for had we done so we should never
have accomplished it; we set forward, and those in the fortress
seeing our advance, opened a heavy fire upon us, which, Providence
be thanked, showed us that they could not hit their mark, and we
reached the foot of the hill with little loss. Those in possession
leapt for joy, at the apparent opportunity of cutting us off. We
commenced the ascent, throwing out skirmishers in every direction;
our fire was kept up steadily as on a parade, and every ball seemed
to find its desired billet; numbers fell, of course, but not near
so many as we had been anticipating. We were obliged to halt half
way to gain breath, and necessitated to keep up a heavy fire; we
again advanced, and the enemy began to show symptoms of retiring,
which greatly encouraged us, and we made a desperate effort, and
sent a volley into them, charged, and at length they retired; we
followed, and at last gained the summit. They rushed down the other
side, and made off in the direction of Candahar, where they were
met by a brigade sent round by the General for that purpose.

Having gained possession of the hill, those in the citadel began to
pour the fire of artillery into us, but as usual without success,
and in order to get out of sight we were ordered to lie down,
that they might imagine we had evacuated our position; as we lay
there, the balls were fast whistling over us, and the force under
the command of the General was making a clean sweep of all those
outside the walls, which, after he had effected, next repaired to
the citadel. It was, however, found impracticable to storm the
fortress that day; first, because the Sappers and Miners would
not have time to complete their operations; and secondly, in
consequence of the fatigued state of the troops. The 16th was to
be left in charge of the hill, and the 40th were ordered to return
to the encampment; this order was, if anything, even worse than
the first, because all being comparatively quiet, we should, on
retiring, be the only targets for them to fire at, and our utter
destruction seemed inevitable; we, however, had to obey, and as was
expected, no sooner did we come under cover of their guns than they
opened a severe fire from all their pieces, but their firing was
always either too far, or too short; and thus we reached camp in
almost safety.

The followers had been all employed in pitching the tents, and the
cooks (natives) had prepared our scanty meal; the 16th were left in
possession of the hill; and the General ordered two guns, either
under Captain Blood or Anderson, to proceed to the top of the hill,
and dislodge them in the citadel, which, after some difficulty,
was effected, and most ably did they accomplish their duty;
they soon put a stop to them, and by their superior arrangement
and management of artillery, disabled nearly all their guns. We
had scarcely got well seated in our tents when we were suddenly
surprised by the whizzing of a ball over the camp, which lodged
in the officer’s mess tent of the 41st; after that came another
and another, and they kept up a fine string of them, aiming most
admirably. We soon discovered that they had a sixty-eight pounder,
which before had remained quiet.

Those shots coming so fast, and lodging just in our midst, doing
considerable damage, although we were nearly two miles from it,
compelled the General to shift camp a mile further off, and we were
at last out of the reach of the bull-dog; they most certainly in
this distance did put us to the rout. This piece was called “Chuppa
Jung,” of Persian manufacture, and as is usual in all the forts of
importance in Asia, was placed in the citadel; and a most powerful
piece it was.

The General now began to arrange his plans for storming and taking
the fortress; the engineers were all busily employed in preparing
for the operation; and as the day began to draw to a close, orders
were issued for the troops to be in readiness to move just before
daylight on the morrow. The night at length came on, and lights
were ordered to be extinguished at eight P.M.; and at that hour all
was darkness, and enveloped upwards of 20,000 souls.

All was at length prepared for the attack, and about half an hour
before the day broke, the word was passed from tent to tent, to
form up. Each rose in sadness, and many shook the hand of his
comrade as for the last time; the cattle were dispatched with the
powder, to ensure the explosion, and platforms had been carefully
planted for the heavy battery to commence a breach. The troops
were slowly and silently advanced, and arranged ready to storm
immediately after the gates were blown up; and daybreak was to be
the signal. At length the day dawned, and lo! what was our surprise
when we saw floating on the highest tower the English colors. The
sight relieved each heart as though we had a fortune. The enemy had
during the night evacuated the citadel, having received certain
orders to that effect from Caboul. Colonel McLaren, who had kept
the hill, finding they had left it, took immediate possession,
and placed “The Flag that braved a thousand years” on the highest
point. Thus did Providence prevent the inevitable loss of some
hundreds of our force, and never was a force more agreeably
surprised than those at Ghiznee, on the 6th of September, 1842.”


GIBRALTAR.--A British fortress on the Straits of the same name.
From the circumstance of its immense strength and impregnability,
other great fortresses have also received its name, as Quebec,
which is called the Gibraltar of America. The height of the wall
is 1437 feet. Taken by the Saracens, in 712. In 1462, the King of
Castile took the fortress and town from the Moors; and the English,
under Sir George Brooke, the Prince of Hesse-Denmark, Sir John
Leake, and Admiral Byng, bravely won it, July 24th, 1704. It was
surrendered, after a dreadful cannonade, to the British by the
Governor, the Marquis de Salines, and has ever since continued one
of the most brilliant gems in the coronet of England’s Queen. Long
may she reign to wear it. The following are the different attacks
which have been made upon it since the British took it. On the 11th
October, 1704, the same year it was captured by the British, it
sustained a siege from the Spaniards and French, who lost 10,000
whilst the British loss was only 400. Again the Spaniards attacked
it in 1720, but were repulsed with great loss. In 1728, they again
attacked it but were driven back with the loss of 5000 out of
20,000, while the English lost 300. After this came the memorable
siege of the Spaniards and French, whose prodigious armaments
astonished the whole of Europe. They were the most stupendous up
to that time ever brought before any city or fortress. The siege
continued from July, 1770, to February, 1783. The allied army
amounted to 40,000 men. The Duke of Crillon had 12,000 of the best
troops of France, 1000 pieces of artillery were brought to bear
against the fortress, besides which there were forty-seven sail of
the line all three-deckers, ten great floating batteries esteemed
invincible, carrying 212 guns, an immense number of frigates,
xebeques, bomb-ketches, cutters, and gun and mortar boats; while
small craft literally covered the bay. For weeks and weeks together
6000 shells were daily thrown into the town, and, on one single
occasion, 8000 barrels of gunpowder were expended by the enemy,
yet in one single night were all these immense batteries destroyed
by red-hot cannon balls, and their whole line of works annihilated
by a sortie of the garrison, commanded by General Elliot, November
27th, 1781. The loss of the enemy in this memorable night alone,
amounted to upwards of £2,000,000 sterling. The grand defeat by
the garrison of only 7000 British, occurred September 13th, 1782.
Since then the British have remained in peaceful possession.


GISORS, BATTLE OF.--_In France._--Fought between the armies of
France and England, in which the former were signally defeated by
Richard I, who commanding in person, and whose parole for the day
was “Dieu et Mon Droit,” and from this it was made the motto of the
Royal Arms of England, A.D. 1193.


GLENCOE, MASSACRE OF.--The McDonalds of Glencoe, were cruelly
massacred, May 9th, 1691, merely for not surrendering in time after
King William’s proclamation perpetrated by the Earl of Argyle’s
regiment. 38 men besides women and children perished.


GOOJERAT, BATTLE OF.--_India._--Fought February 21st, 1849. Lord
Gough with 21,000 men and 100 guns attacked the enemy, numbering
60,000 men, with 59 guns. The Sikh Chief was strongly posted
between two river courses which protected his flanks, and yet
allowed him good manœuvring space to retire either on the east
or west side of the town of Goojerat, which afforded shelter and
protection to his rear. The battle began at 7 A.M. After a severe
engagement of nine hours, at 4 P.M. the enemy had been driven from
every post and was in general retreat, which the field artillery
and cavalry converted into a rout and flight. They were pursued
for 15 miles, and next day another fresh force took up the direct
pursuit. Some of the guns and the whole of the ammunition and
camp equipage fell into the hands of the British. The Chief,
Shere-Singh, escaped with only 8000 men out of 60,000. The loss on
the side of the British was 100 killed and 900 wounded.


GOREE.--Taken by the English Admiral Holmes, in 1693--ceded to
France 1678. Again taken by the British, 1758--1779--1800--and 1804.


GOREY, BATTLE OF.--Fought June 4th, 1798, between the King’s troops
and the Irish rebels, in which, after a desperate battle, the
King’s forces were routed with great slaughter. They lost several
pieces of artillery, and retreated to Gorey and afterwards to
Arklow.


GORGET.--An ancient breastplate. It was of great size, and gave
rise to the modern diminutive breastplate which was in existence at
the Restoration. It is now disused.


GRAMPIAN HILLS, BATTLE OF THE.--This was a celebrated engagement
between the Scots and Picts--the former under Galgacus, and the
latter under Agricola. Fought A.D. 79.


GRAND ALLIANCE.--Signed at Vienna between England and the States
General--to which Spain and the Duke of Savoy afterwards acceded,
May 12th, 1689.


GRANICUS, BATTLE OF.--Alexander the Great fought and won this
battle against the Persians--B.C. 334. The Macedonian troops
crossed the Granicus in the face of the Persian army, and totally
defeated them. Alexander’s army was only 30,000 foot and 5000 horse
and the Persian 600,000 foot, and 60,000 horse.


GRENADES.--A kind of bombshell invented in 1594. It is a small
hollow globe or ball of iron, two inches diameter, and filled
with fine powder and set on fire by a fusee at a touch-hole. The
grenadiers were those soldiers who were armed with a pouch of hand
grenades--established in France in 1667--and England in 1685.
The latter word is applied now, according to Gay, to the tall
soldiers--of which there is generally a company in every regiment.


GROCHOW, BATTLE OF.--_Near Praga, Warsaw._--Fought February 20th,
1831, between the Poles and Russians. After a bloody battle, which
continued all day and almost all the next, the Poles remained
masters of the field. The Russians retreated, having lost 70,000
men, and the Poles, 2000.


GUADALOUPE.--Taken by the English, in 1759, and restored 1763.
Again taken in 1779, 1794, and 1810. At last, restored to France at
the peace of 1814.


GUARDS.--The custom of having guards was introduced by Saul, King
of Israel, B.C. 1093. Bodyguards instituted by Henry VII, 1485.
Horse guards by Edward VI, 1550. The three regiments of the British
service, the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Foot Guards, were raised in 1660,
and the command of them given to Colonel Russell, General Monk,
and Lord Linlithgow. The Second, or the Coldstream, was the first
raised. The Horse Grenadier Guards, first troop raised 1693, and
second in 1702.


GUNPOWDER.--Invented by a Monk of Cologne, 1320. It has entirely
revolutionized the art of war; consists of three ingredients, viz.,
charcoal, sulphur and saltpetre.



H.


HALIDON HILL, BATTLE OF.--Fought July 19th, 1333.--“The Scots were
rash enough to attack the English as they held the top of a bold
hill, at the foot of which lay a marsh. The English archers, posted
on the face of the hill, shot down the Scots, almost at their
leisure, while they struggled heavily through the spongy ground.
Under the deadly arrow flight, the Scots dragged themselves through
the bog, and attempted, all breathless and exhausted, to charge
up the hill against the fresh troops of England. They were forced
down with great slaughter. Many more were slain as they struggled
back through the fatal bog. The bloody lesson, however, seems not
to have been lost. Once and again King Edward made the savage
apparition of war to pass through Scotland. But the Scots baffled
him by following the wise policy of Bruce. He traversed a country
completely deserted and laid waste. The inhabitants, with their
cattle and all their property, had retired to the inaccessible
fastnesses of the mountains. Every advanced column and detached
party of the English was assailed, stragglers cut off, and alarms
kept up. Famine and disease did the work. Captain Hunger was
more than a match for Captain Sword. Edward made nothing by his
invasions, though he marched through the country as far north as
Inverness. He was compelled each time to fall back again on his
own territory, with great loss of men from hardships and misery,
and the harassing attacks of the Scots, who sallied out from every
glen, forest, and mountain defile.”


HALYS, BATTLE OF.--This great battle was fought between the Lydians
and Medes, on the banks of the river Halys. It was interrupted by
an almost total eclipse of the sun. Fought, May 28th, B.C. 585.


HANAN, BATTLE OF.--Fought, October 29th, 1813, between a division
of the combined armies of Austria and Bavaria, 30,000 strong, under
General Wrede and the French, 70,000 strong. The latter were on
their retreat from Leipsic when encountered by the Allies, and
suffered severely, although at the end of the battle the Austrians
had to retire.


HARLAW, BATTLE OF.--Fought, July 24th, 1411, between the Earl of
Mar, who commanded the Royal army, and Donald, the Lord of the
Isles. Neither army gained the victory, it being a drawn battle.
So many nobility and gentry were slain in this engagement that a
Scottish historian declares, “more illustrious men fell in this
one conflict alone than had fallen in foreign wars during many
previous years.”


HASTINGS, BATTLE OF.--Fought, October 14th, 1066. In the beginning
of summer, William embarked his powerful army of 60,000 men on
board a fleet of 300 sail; and, after some small opposition from
the weather, landed at Pevensey, on the coast of Sussex, tranquilly.

“Harold, who seemed resolved to defend his right to the crown, and
retain that sovereignty which he had received from the people,
who only had a right to bestow it, was now returning, flushed
with conquest, from defeating the Norwegians, who had invaded the
kingdom, with all the forces he had employed in that expedition,
and all he could invite or collect in the country through which he
passed. His army was composed of active and valiant troops, in high
spirits, strongly attached to their king, and eager to engage.

On the other hand, the army of William consisted of the flower
of the continent, and had long been inured to danger. The men of
Britanny, Boulogne, Flanders, Poictou, Maine, Orleans, France, and
Normandy, were all voluntarily united under his command. England
never before nor ever since, saw two such armies drawn up to
dispute its crown.

The day before the battle, William sent an offer to Harold to
decide the quarrel between them by single combat, and thus to spare
the blood of thousands: but Harold refused, and said he would leave
it to the God of armies to determine. Both armies, therefore, that
night pitched in sight of each other, expecting the dawning of the
day with impatience. The English passed the night in songs and
feasting; the Normans in devotion and prayer.

The next morning, at seven as soon as day appeared, both armies
were drawn up in array against each other. Harold appeared in
the centre of his forces, leading on his army on foot, that his
men might be more encouraged, by seeing their king exposed to an
equality of danger. William, fought on horseback, leading on his
army, that moved at once, singing the songs of Roland, one of
the famous chiefs of their country. The Normans began to fight
with their cross-bows, which, at first, galled and surprised the
English; and, as their ranks were closed, their arrows did great
execution. But soon they came to closer fight, and the English with
their bills hewed down their adversaries with great slaughter.
Confusion was spreading among the ranks, when William, who found
himself on the brink of destruction, hastened with a select band
to the relief of his forces. His presence restored the suspense
of battle; he was seen in every place, endeavouring to pierce
the ranks of the enemy, and had three horses slain under him. At
length, perceiving that the English continued impenetrable, he
pretended to give ground, which, as he expected, drew the enemy
from their ranks, and he was instantly ready to take advantage
of their disorder. Upon a signal given the Normans immediately
returned to the charge with greater fury than before, broke the
English troops, and pursued them to a rising ground. It was in this
extremity that Harold was seen flying from rank to rank, rallying
and inspiring his troops with vigour; and though he had toiled all
day, till near night-fall, in front of his Kentish men, yet he
still seemed unabated in force or courage, keeping his men to the
post of honour.

Once more, therefore, the victory seemed to turn against the
Normans, and they fell in great numbers, so that the fierceness and
obstinacy of this memorable battle was often renewed by the courage
of the leaders, whenever that of the soldiers began to slacken.
Fortune at length determined a victory that valour was unable to
decide.

Harold, making a furious onset at the head of his troops against
the Norman heavy armed infantry, was shot into the brains by an
arrow; and his two valiant brothers, fighting by his side, shared
the same fate. He fell with his sword in his hand, amidst heaps of
slain.”


HAVRE-DE-GRACE.--Defended for the Huguenots by the English in 1562.
Bombarded several times by the British Navy. Successfully attacked
for three days from July 6th to 9th, 1759. Again bombarded in 1794
and 1795--and again by Sir Richard Strachan in 1798. Declared in a
state of blockade 1803; and the attempts of the British to burn the
shipping here signally failed, August 7th, 1804.


HERARA, BATTLE OF.--_In Arragon._--In this battle, Don Carlos of
Spain, in his struggle for his hereditary right to the throne of
that kingdom, encountered, at the head of 12,000 men, and defeated
General Buerens, who had not half the number of the Queen’s troops.
The loss of Buerens was about 1000 killed and wounded. Fought,
August 24th, 1837.


HERRINGS, BATTLE OF THE.--Vertot says that this battle, fought in
1429, received its name from the following ludicrous occasion. The
Duc de Bourbon, in attempting to intercept a convoy on the road to
the English Camp, before Orleans, was severely beaten. It was a
convoy of salt-fish--and this action has ever since been called by
the above name.


HOCHKIRCHEN, BATTLE OF.--Between the Prussian army, commanded by
Frederick II, and the Austrians, commanded by Count Daun. The King
was surprised in his camp and defeated by the Imperial General.
In this battle, an illustrious Scotsman, Field-Marshal Keith, in
the service of Prussia, was killed; and such was the respect and
admiration which his name inspired, that Counts Daun and Lacy, the
Austrian Generals, shed tears on beholding the corpse, and ordered
its interment with military honours. Fought, October 14th, 1758.


HOCHENLINDEN, BATTLE OF.--Fought November 3rd, 1800, between the
Austrian and French armies--the latter commanded by General Moreau.
The Austrians were defeated with dreadful slaughter, losing 10,000
men in killed and wounded, and 10,000 more in prisoners. The forces
of each army were nominally equal at the commencement of the battle.


HOMELDEN, BATTLE OF.--Between the Scots, headed by the Earl of
Douglas, and the Percys, in which the Scots were defeated. Douglas
and many of the nobility were taken prisoners in this battle.
Fought in 1403.


HORATII AND CURIATII, COMBAT BETWEEN THE.--Fought B.C. 669. The
forces of the two states met about five miles from Rome. While the
armies were awaiting the signal for the battle, the Alban General,
stepping into the space between them, proposed to decide the
dispute by single combat. To this proposition Tullus agreed. There
were in each army three twin brothers, all remarkable for their
courage, strength, and activity, and to them it was resolved to
commit the management of the combat. The Roman brothers were called
Horatii and the Albans Curiatii. The champions met. Victory, which
for a time, appeared doubtful, at last seemed to decide against
the Romans. Two of their champions lay dead on the field, and the
third seemed, by flight, to beg for mercy. Defeat was however only
apparent. It soon became evident that this flight of the surviving
Roman was pretence in order that, by separating his antagonists, he
might have an opportunity of engaging them singly. Turning suddenly
upon the foremost of the Curiatii, he laid him dead at his feet.
The second instantly shared his fate. Fatigued and disabled by his
wounds, the third slowly advanced to offer an easy victory. He was
slain almost unresisting, while the conqueror exclaimed “Two have
I already sacrificed to the Manes of my brothers; a third will I
offer up to my country.”


HUSSAR.--This kind of soldier originated in Poland and Hungary, and
as they, being light cavalry, were more suited for hasty attacks
than a set battle, they are supposed to have taken their name from
the _huzzas_ or shouts which they made at their first onset. Pardon
says that they were oddly clothed, having the skins of tigers, &c.,
hanging on their backs, against bad weather, and wore fur caps,
with a cock’s feather. Introduced into the British service in the
last century.



I.


INKERMANN, BATTLE OF.--One of the most brilliant achievements in
the history of the British Army. Fought on the 5th of November,
1854.

“Two days after the repulse of the enemy’s sortie, by Sir De
Lacy Evans’ division, General Dannenberg, with a large Russian
reinforcement, arrived at Baktchi-Serai from Odessa, which place he
left on the 19th of October. In order that his men might reach the
scene of action with the greatest practicable rapidity, and in good
condition, every available cart and rustic conveyance was pressed
into the service. They were thus comparatively fresh and vigorous
after so rapid a march. On the 3rd of November, one division, under
General Soimonoff, entered Sebastopol. The remainder, under General
Pauloff, encamped at Tchorgoun, a short distance to the east.

Strengthened by this considerable reinforcement, the Russian
Generals decided upon an attack upon the position of the Allies
in such strength that it should be scarcely possible to make
an effectual resistance. The Grand Dukes Michael and Nicholas,
sons of the Emperor, had arrived at Sebastopol, with the purpose
of encouraging the garrison by their presence, and witnessing
the total defeat of the haughty invaders. On Sunday, the 4th
of November, solemn religious services were held in the town.
Patriarchs and Bishops of the Greek Church addressed the soldiery,
urged upon them the importance of the trust which their good father
the Czar had thought proper to impose upon them,--assured them
that death in his service was only the road to a martyr’s crown,
and that the English were monsters of cruelty, who committed the
most atrocious barbarities upon all prisoners of war. Finally,
they said the British camp abounded in treasure, one-third of
which should be the property of the soldiery. Incited by these
promises,--stimulated by extra rations of ardent spirits,--and
fanatically believing that the destruction of the English heretics
would be a work of acceptable piety, the Russian soldiers mingled
shouts of devotion to the Czar and death to the Allies, and
prepared themselves for the encounter of the morrow.

The plan of attack, as decided upon by the enemy’s commanders, was
shortly this:--The extreme right of the British position, near the
bridge which crossed the Tchernaya at Inkermann, was notoriously
our weak point. Sir De Lacy Evans, whose division occupied this
position, had repeatedly called Lord Raglan’s attention to this
vulnerable point; but so laborious were the duties devolving
upon our men, and so extended the line of defence, that it was
impossible to spare either men or guns for the establishment of
works. The French, whose large numbers and secure position on the
western plateau left them a far smaller share of the duty, had
been early applied to for assistance, but had hitherto refused.
Sir John Burgoyne had called the special attention of General Biot
to the danger of leaving exposed such an avenue to the camp of the
Allies; but the French commander seems to have been at this time
but little disposed to relieve the English of any of the toil or
danger they had so willingly undertaken, but which proved too much
for their effectual performance. At length the English, by almost
superhuman exertions, had erected a small work on the brow of the
hill, intended to carry two guns, but they had not yet been mounted.

Towards this point, then,--of the unprotected nature of which
the Russians were perfectly well aware, thanks to the newspaper
correspondents, who, in their anxiety to satisfy the curiosity
of the readers at home, contrived (unwittingly, we believe) to
afford the enemy a very great deal of valuable information,--the
attention of the Russians was naturally directed. It afforded a
convenient access to the very centre of the English lines, and
would, in all probability, offer but a feeble resistance. It was
arranged that Gortschakoff should, at an early hour on the morning
of the 5th, make a threatening demonstration in front of Balaklava,
apparently renewing the attempt of the 25th of October. This
would have the effect of drawing a considerable portion of the
armies to the defence of that important position, thus leaving the
front comparatively unprotected. On the extreme left of the line,
General Timofeyer would also make a feigned attack, occupying the
attention of the French. The actual assault was to be made by the
recently-arrived army of General Dannenberg. The two divisions
already named, according to the Russian computation (most probably
understated), were of the following strength: General Soimonoff’s
corps consisted of three regiments of the 10th division, three of
the 16th, and one of the 17th, amounting altogether to 16,200
bayonets, with twenty-two heavy and sixteen light guns; that of
General Pauloff, numbering 13,200 bayonets, was composed of three
regiments of the 10th division, two Chasseur regiments of the 18th,
with twelve guns. The two corps thus numbered 29,400 bayonets, and
fifty guns. Soimonoff was ordered to march from the Malakoff Tower
in a westerly direction, until he reached the Kilen ravine, under
cover of which he was to penetrate into the English centre on the
western side of the ravine. Five o’clock in the morning was fixed
as the time for the assault. Pauloff’s division was to cross the
Tchernaya, force the English lines at the unprotected point, and
cutting their way through the second division join Soimonoff in the
main attack, when General Dannenberg, with the remainder of the
army, would appear upon the scene, and, it was fondly imagined,
give the _coup de grace_ to the invaders. Such was the plan of the
Russian Generals, carefully matured, and kept profoundly secret
from the Allies. We shall see the result.

All night the bells of Sebastopol rang loudly. The heavy November
mist obscured the sound; and most probably, the English soldiers,
far from considering the clashing from the belfries as the signal
for the gathering of troops, imagined that one of the multitudinous
festivals of the Greek Church was being celebrated with unwonted
ostentation. Towards morning the mist thickened, and it was
impossible to discern any object at above a few yards’ distance.
Taking advantage of the fog, the Russians conveyed their guns
to the lofty eminences beyond the Tchernaya, facing the British
position, and by almost incredible efforts, in a very brief
time, had established a formidable battery in a most commanding
situation. About four o’clock in the morning, intelligence arrived
at head-quarters that Balaklava was again threatened. General
Bosquet was immediately on the alert, with his French chasseurs,
and the indomitable Sir Colin Campbell was fully prepared to meet
any force which might be despatched against him. It was no part,
however, of the enemy’s tactics seriously to attack this position.
His purpose was fully served by the attention of the French being
attracted to this point, and the English being diverted from the
real point of assault. About five o’clock enormous bodies of
Russian infantry, under cover of the heavy fog, silently passed
the bridge across the Tchernaya, and stealthily crept up the hill
towards the weak point of the English position at the newly-erected
two-gun battery. The pickets of the 55th, on duty at this spot,
suddenly found themselves in presence of an over-whelming force of
the enemy. Desperately fighting, the courageous little band slowly
yielded ground, contesting every step, and retreating up the hill
towards the redoubt. Their smart firing, in reply to the tremendous
volleys of the enemy’s musketry, which were now poured into the
handful of men, aroused the camp, and indicated the real nature of
the enemy’s plans. General Pennefather, who commanded the Second
Division, in the absence of Sir De Lacy Evans (who was compelled
by the debilitated state of his health to leave his active duties,
and retire on board one of the ships in the harbor), immediately
hastened to the scene; and the men of his division, hastily shaking
off their sleep, quickly responded to the alarm. In a few minutes
all was bustle and activity. Officers and men, alike hurried
forward, some half-dressed, all unbreakfasted, many suffering
from sickness, and none free from the effects of privation and
over-toil. From the Second Division the intelligence of the attack
was quickly carried to the camps of the First, Fourth and Light
Divisions, and the Duke of Cambridge, Sir George Cathcart, and Sir
George Brown, instantly put themselves at the heads of their men,
and lost no time in marching to the scene of action.

When the pickets were driven in, they retreated to the little
two-gun battery, and fired through the embrasures at the masses
of the enemy, now advancing in dense columns to the attack. The
Russian batteries on the opposite hills opened a tremendous fire
upon them, and the guns of the town and the ships in the harbor
threw enormous volleys of shell and shot right into the camp of
the Second Division, tearing up the ground, and destroying the
tents. For a few moments the gallant fellows of the 51st held their
ground, but no courage could long contend against such fearful
odds. In spite of their fire, much too feeble to stay the advance
of such massive columns, the Russians advanced at a rapid pace up
the hill, the few shots of the undaunted defenders of the redoubt
telling fatally in their ranks. Almost before the English could
reload, the Russians were swarming around the battery, and leaping
over the embrasure. Many were hurled back again by the bayonets of
the undaunted picket, who at length, borne down by the weight of
the attack, were driven from the work, and retreated down the hill.
The 41st and 49th now came into the action, and forming into line,
charged the advancing Russians, and drove them back to the redoubt.
Again was this little work the scene of a tremendous contest.
The two regiments discharging a brisk volley from their Minié
rifles, levelled their bayonets, and driving the enemy pell-mell
before them, hurled them out of the battery, and once more the
English were masters of the position. The retreating Russians
were speedily met and reinforced by other columns of infantry, and
then doubled in numbers, again advanced to the attack. The fire,
too, from their batteries, poured unceasing destruction into the
thin ranks of the English regiments. Already the dead and dying
were lying thick around, and many of the bravest and best among
them had fallen beneath the intense fire of the enemy. The Russian
masses literally surged up the hill, and hurled themselves once
more at the devoted little band. A fearful struggle followed. Hand
to hand was the combat waged, the bayonet doing deadly havoc upon
friend and foe. In vain the brave defenders of their post struggled
against the unequal odds; in vain the officers heroically exposed
themselves and encouraged their men to the desperate encounter;
and in vain the men themselves emulated their leaders’ undaunted
courage--the enemy, so immensely superior in numbers, drove them,
after a sanguinary defence, from the work, and pursued them,
desperately fighting in their retreat, towards the camp of their
division.

The alarm had now spread throughout the entire camp, and even
reached Balaklava, rousing the sleepers on board the ships in
the harbour. The heavy booming of the cannon told how fierce was
the contest. Sir De Lacy Evans forgot his sickness, and leaving
the bed to which for many days he had been confined, insisted on
being rowed ashore; and mounting a horse, which he was almost too
weak to guide, started for the field of battle. Lord Raglan, with
his staff, had by this time reached the spot, and at once saw the
critical position of the Allies; and saw, too, the blunder which
the enemy had committed. General Soimonoff, who should, upon
issuing from the ravine near Careening Bay, have turned to the
right and attacked the centre of the English line, weakened by the
tremendous assault on the extreme left of the position, mistook
the direction and marched to the left, thus reaching the ground
occupied by the Second Division, and embarrassing General Pauloff’s
operations by permitting the concentration of the English forces
to repel his assault, instead of diverting their attention by an
attack at a comparatively remote point. For a General of Raglan’s
experience to take advantage of this blunder was an easy task.
He immediately made such arrangements of the small means at his
command as would enable him to present two fronts of resistance
on the threatened points, while preserving the solidity of his
position.

The 20th and 47th regiments now arrived to the assistance of the
gallant 49th and 41st, driven with such dreadful slaughter from the
two-gun battery. The brave Colonel Carpenter, of the 41st, had
fallen pierced with many bullets; and the blood-thirsty Russians,
with that tiger-like ferocity which has made the day of Inkermann
so fearfully memorable, mutilated the senseless form of the
grey-headed old warrior, clubbing their muskets, and beating him on
the face till it was almost impossible to distinguish his features.
Covered with blood, frightfully mangled, and recognised only by his
uniform, the colonel was at length, when the enemy retreated, found
by his men, and borne, still breathing, from the field, to linger
for a few days in acute agonies, and then to breathe his last.
Amidst a hurricane of bullets from the Russian troops, and exposed
to a deadly storm of missiles from the enemies’ batteries, the 20th
and 47th fearlessly charged the opposing masses, and endeavoured
to take the redoubt. They were successful in the attempt. The
Russian lines trembled before their impetuous onset. The levelled
bayonets, borne onwards by the resistless vigour of Englishmen, now
maddened by the excitement of battle, cheered by their officers,
and with the memory of Alma, swept down the hordes of irresolute
Muscovites, and with a ringing cheer, the victorious Britons were
once again in the earthwork. There, indeed, was a sight to rouse
their hearts--if, indeed, further stimulant were needed--to deeds
of vengeance. Not one of those who in the previous attacks had
fallen wounded was now alive. The remorseless Russians--assassins
rather than soldiers--had bayonetted every one who showed signs of
life. The little battery was choked with heaps of dead. Englishmen
and Russians lay as they fell stiff in their blood, and disfigured
by the agonies of death. Not one was left to tell his victorious
comrades, who leaped shouting into the redoubt, how bravely their
companions in arms had disputed its possession, how dearly the
enemy had purchased a temporary success, or how basely that success
had been consummated by the most brutal murder of wounded and
unarmed men. But the Russians were not disposed to submit to the
loss of this important position which they had made so many efforts
to retain. Fresh legions were launched against the two regiments
who had been thus far successful; and in irresistible strength,
still another attempt was made to regain the post. Against such
numbers it was impossible to contend successfully. The brave
holders of the redoubt fought desperately, with that unyielding
pertinacity for which the British infantry, beyond any soldiery in
the world, is distinguished. But the shot from the batteries on the
hills beyond the river swept through their lines; on every hand
brave fellows fell pierced with bullets, or mangled by exploding
shells. The enemy was tenfold their number, and swept on like a
torrent against their feeble defence. After a brief but most heroic
struggle, the noble remnant of the gallant 20th and 47th yielded to
a force they could no longer withstand, and retreated to the main
body, leaving the Russians for the third time the masters of the
two-gun battery.

The masters, it is true; but not the undisputed masters. A yet
bloodier contest was to be waged for its possession--a contest
which should make that small unfinished work, on which as yet no
gun had been mounted, renowned throughout Europe. By the time
that the 20th and 41st had been driven back, as we have just
recorded, the Duke of Cambridge had reached the scene of action
with the brigade of Guards--those renowned soldiers whose bayonets
had carried the heights of Alma, and whose prowess was a theme
of terror in the Russian camps. No soldier who had shared in or
witnessed that tremendous fight could forget the terrible onslaught
of those bear-skinned warriors, when the choicest troops of the
Czar were trampled under foot, or scattered like chaff before their
irresistible charge. The Coldstreams, no longer the magnificent
battalion which a few months before left the shores of England,
but reduced by the casualties of war and sickness to a few hundred
badly fed and miserably-clothed men, though retaining all the
ancient courage, heightened, indeed, by the hardships they had
endured and the memory of their former achievements,--advanced
in close ranks, at a rapid pace and with fixed bayonets, against
the living wall of the Russians, who held the crown of the hill.
Though the enemy were as ten to one, they yielded and broke before
that matchless onset. Scattering the foe before them, the valiant
Guardsmen swept like a hurricane into the battery, and the defeated
Russians were precipitated, a flying and disordered mass, down
the hill. The Coldstreams had well avenged their comrades’ fall,
but they had not yet gained an undisputed success. On came fresh
battalions of the Russians. The flying regiments were mingled with,
or sought refuge behind the advancing legions. Again the dense mass
struggled up the hill, and again did it devolve upon English valour
to defend the post which had been so dearly won. Not less than 6000
Russians advanced in a compact mass towards the two-gun battery.
The defenders did not muster more than as many hundreds. Nothing
daunted, they fired through the embrasures and from the brow of the
hill smart volleys; and when their ammunition failed, as at length
it did, many hurled stones at the enemy. But moment by moment the
advancing host drew nearer and nearer. The summit of the hill is
reached, they surround the fort, leap over the earthworks, and
in an instant there is a hand to hand struggle, such as, perhaps,
was never excelled in modern warfare. They are repulsed--literally
dashed down the hill. Twice the assault renewed; the second time
they are again defeated; the third time they are once more in the
battery. Bayonet crosses bayonet in rapid thrusts, fearful shrieks
of agony are mingled with the shouts and curses of infuriated men,
the floor is cumbered with the fallen and slippery with blood; the
gallant Coldstreams are alone and unaided, and every moment fresh
foemen rush into the deadly _mêlée_. Hundreds fall before the
fatal bayonets of the dauntless Guards--their places are supplied
by hundreds more, fresh and unwounded. In front, on either side,
they swarm around, ferocious and malignant. Back to back, the
English heroes meet their tremendous charge. In all the horrors of
that scene, amid all the carnage which surrounds them, their high
courage never fails, their firm bearing is never relaxed. Though
many fall mortally wounded, their comrades bestride their bodies,
and there is still the bristling _chevaux-de-frise_ of bayonets,
against which the foe hurl themselves in vain, and only to fall in
hundreds, thrust to the heart by the fatal steel, wielded by the
hands of the most determined soldiers in the world. At length the
limit is reached beyond which resistance is impossible, and slowly
yielding to the immense superiority of numbers, the Guards give
ground, and prepare to leave the battery once more in the hands of
the enemy. They retreat from the spot, and then see that their path
is barred by another and fresh force of the enemy. Death appears
inevitable; other soldiers might lay down their arms, and few
would doubt their courage, so great is the disparity of strength.
But the Guards are not dismayed even then. Struggling into line,
with rapidity gained only by their perfect discipline, they level
their bayonets, charge the fresh foe, and in an instant are among
them. Down go the Russian infantry, stabbed and trampled on. A
brief struggle, and the invincible Coldstreams have cut through the
masses of the foe, and sweeping all opposition from their path,
have rejoined the main body of their comrades.

While this deadly contest was waging, the battle on the left of
the position was rivalling it in intensity. Soimonoff’s army had
attacked, and the greater portion of the Second Division were
bravely opposing their advance. The English artillery were ordered
up to the support, and taking position on the hill, did good
service, and sent many a Russian to his great account. But at
length their ammunition was exhausted, and the enemy advancing in
great force, after a stirring combat, in which Major Townsend,
a gallant and experienced officer, was killed, and prodigies of
valour were performed, succeeded in capturing four of our guns.

The battle had now assumed tremendous proportions. The whole of
the Second and Fourth Divisions were engaged, as well as portions
of the First and Light Divisions, about 8000 men in all. Including
the fresh regiments which Dannenberg now brought into action,
not less than 60,000 Russians were in the field. Against this
overwhelming force the English bravely held their ground. The
brigade of Guards, gallantly led by their royal commander, had
again united, and waged a desperate warfare against unequal odds.
In front, the Light Division and a portion of the Second preserved
a firm bearing, and opposed themselves fearlessly to the shock of
the advancing battalions. On the left, Soimonoff’s _corps d’armée_
was met by the remainder of the Second Division, who bore the
assault of the enemy, inspirited by their success in driving back
the artillery and capturing the guns. Their exultation was fated
to be of brief duration, for the gallant Second, having repulsed
their first attack, now assumed the offensive, and charging the
Russian columns, after a sanguinary struggle, drove them back, and
recaptured the guns.

The ground to which the struggle was now confined was hilly and
covered with thick brushwood, sloping towards the harbour, the
ships in which, moored so as to command the English lines, poured
a destructive fire into our ranks. The brigade of Guards, forced
by the enormous odds to quit the Two-gun Battery, after such a
terrific contest, were now engaged in hand-to-hand conflict with
nearly ten times their number of the enemy. It was impossible,
from the fierceness of the contest and the nature of the ground,
to preserve military order. The battle was a series of detached
groups, sometimes a few dauntless Guardsmen, bareheaded and back
to back, disputing every inch of ground, and with their bayonets
inflicting terrible execution on the enemy; sometimes a young
officer, rallying a few of his men around him, dashing with a
ringing cheer at a phalanx of the foe, and as their dense mass was
broken by the impetuosity of the attack, falling pierced by a dozen
bullets, with his last breath cheering on his men to the charge.
So fell Lieut.-Colonels Mackinnon and Cowell; so fell Sir Robert
Newman; and so fell many another brave soldier and good man. The
Duke of Cambridge, affected almost to tears by the sight of so many
lying in their blood, was everywhere in the thick of the fight,
urging on his men, and setting them an example of the most daring
courage. Almost alone, he dashed into the _mêlée_, amid a shower
of bullets from the Russian rifles. Once he had nearly fallen a
victim to his own enthusiasm and contempt of danger. Conspicuous
by his uniform and fine person, he presented a prominent mark for
the aim of the ambushed enemy. Reckless of the danger, he disdained
even ordinary precautions. In this emergency, Dr. Wilson, anxious
to lend his professional services to the wounded, saw the peril of
the Duke, and collecting a handful of men, dispersed the enemy’s
riflemen, and rescued the too daring leader. Nothing could exceed
the deadly nature of the combat. The Guards fought as only men can
fight, when utterly desperate. There seemed but small probability
that one of that noble brigade would leave the ground unhurt. The
Russians, strong in their numbers, inspirited by intoxication and
fanaticism, poured their legions in vain against the resistance
of such unquenchable heroism. Heaps of dead covered the ground,
and the assassin Muscovites, unable to subdue the living, wreaked
a miserable vengeance on the fallen, bayonetting and madly
disfiguring with their clubbed muskets every prostrate antagonist.
When the battle was over, many a brave fellow, who had fallen
wounded, was found an unrecognisable mass of mangled flesh and
blood. Rendered nearly mad by the sight of such devilish atrocity,
the survivors redoubled their almost surpernatural efforts,
and though pressed on every side, maintained the struggle with
unfailing valour, still the same invincible Guardsmen, so terrible
at Alma, so heroic at the fight for the Two-gun Battery.

The Light Division meanwhile maintained its reputation in the
vigorous struggle in which they were now engaged. Sir George Brown,
their General, was severely wounded, and borne from the field,
his white hair streaming in the wind, and his face deadly pale,
from the acuteness of his suffering. A five-gun battery, under the
direction of Sir Thomas Troubridge, Major of the 7th Fusiliers, did
good service against the advancing columns of the enemy; but the
brave fellows who manned it suffered terribly from the fire from
the batteries of the town. Sir Thomas himself had his right leg
and left foot carried away by a thirty-nine pounder from the Round
Tower, or Malakoff. Notwithstanding the severity of the injury, and
the excruciating agony he must have endured, he refused to permit
his men to carry him to the rear; but ordered them to lift him
to a gun-carriage, whence, streaming with blood, he continued to
give the word of command, nor quitted his post till the enemy were
routed.

Seeing the desperate nature of the contest, Sir George Cathcart
conceived the idea that by descending the side of the hill, he
might take the enemy in flank, and so relieve the Guards from
the unequal struggle in which they were engaged. He despatched
General Torrens, with portions of the 46th and 68th regiments on
this duty. They advanced rapidly, but from either hand rained the
bullets of the Russian riflemen, concealed in the brushwood. The
horse of General Torrens fell pierced by five bullets, and on every
side, the number who were struck down attested the severity of the
fire to which they were exposed. Torrens himself received a ball
through his lungs, and was carried senseless from the field. Sir
George Cathcart, seeing the fierce opposition which his brigade
sustained, immediately dashed forward with the remainder of his
men, and fearlessly charged the enemy. Too late he saw the error
into which he had been led. He was perfectly surrounded by the
enemy, who held the high ground commanding the valley into which
he had led his brigade, in the hopes of making a vigorous flank
attack. For some time, his little band returned sharp volleys to
the enemy’s rifles. Then a cry was raised that their cartridges
were exhausted. There was no retreat, and the fierce fire poured
like hail into their ranks. “You have got your bayonets!” shouted
their dauntless leader, and dashed forwards followed by his men. As
he raised himself in his stirrups, a bullet pierced his brain, and
the heroic Cathcart, the subduer of the Cape savages, fell headlong
from his horse, quite dead. By his side fell Colonel Seymour,
Adjutant-General of the Fourth Division, sharing his leader’s fate.
He was wounded before Sir George, but concealed his hurt. When the
General fell, Colonel Seymour dismounted to render him assistance.
The brigade had swept on, unable to pause in their career, and then
the enemy rushing on the wounded Seymour cruelly murdered him,
as he stooped over the body of his friend, and consummated their
infamy by basely stabbing with their bayonets the insensible body
of the noble Cathcart.

It was now eleven o’clock, and it seemed impossible that the
English could much longer withstand the terrible assault. They were
driven back exhausted by the long struggle; hundreds of their best
and bravest had fallen heroically; and the enemy was still pouring
fresh legions into the fray. The fog and drizzling rain obscured
the scene of action, so that it was impossible for the Generals
to concert a scheme of operations, or even to know accurately
the state of affairs: it was rather a series of battles than one
action. Lord Raglan and his staff were eagerly watching the fray,
but unable to control the movements of the troops. Nothing could
save the entire army but the self-devotion and valour of the men:
tactics were unavailable, and generalship useless. Now, however,
came the crisis of the struggle. General Bosquet had by this time
discovered that the threatened attack on Balaklava was but a feint;
and warned by the thunder of cannon and the roll of musketry of
the real point of attack, hastened to, the rescue. Two troops of
horse-artillery were speedily despatched, and took up a position
whence they could effectively play upon the Russian guns. Hastening
to the spot, with his dashing regiments of Zouaves and Chasseurs
Indigènes, he precipitated himself upon the left flank of the
Russian hordes. General Canrobert, too, at the same time, ordered
up several French regiments of the line to the assistance of the
English Second Division, on the left.

Wearied, wounded, and almost disheartened, the English heroes
were gradually giving ground to the foe, when their ears caught,
above the din of battle, the rapid tread and loud shouts of
advancing troops, and perceived through the mist the forms of
massive columns, moving at a rapid pace, whether friends or foes
they scarcely knew. In a few moments, a joyous “Hurrah!” rang from
the broken lines, and a mighty cheer was echoed through the fog:
then they knew the French were there to help them. A new life
seemed to animate them; no longer they retreated, but summoning
up the last flashes of their failing fire, charged the foe anew.
The Russians, staggered by the fresh assault, surprised by the
sudden appearance of the warriors of Africa, hesitated and gave
way. Then, uniting their ranks, the English and the French, with
mingled shouts, loud “Hurrahs!” and “Vive l’Empereur!” dashed into
the paralyzed columns, and drove the bayonets home through many a
Russian breast. The Zouaves leaped through the tangled brushwood,
and, with wondrous activity, scattered the confused and retreating
battalions. Then came the tremendous fire from the ships in the
harbour, and the guns from the heights, which almost swept them
from the field, and forced them for a brief space to pause in their
career. It was but for an instant. Renewing their charge, English
and French once more dashed at the flying foe, and at the bayonet’s
point, with fearful slaughter, drove them, a disorderly mob, down
the hill-side.

The moment had now come when Lord Raglan could effectively exhibit
his generalship: for hours he had sat in his saddle, in a most
exposed situation, unable to control the fluctuating fortunes of
the day. Under his direction, General Strangways had opened a
heavy fire of artillery upon the Russian guns upon the opposite
hills, with the hope of silencing their fatal volleys. This was
all he had been enabled to perform for the succour of the troops
engaged. Many fell around him, but the brave old General refused
to move from his exposed situation, anxious for the time to arrive
when he might be enabled so to manœuvre his forces as to drive
back the enemy. General Strangways was within a short distance of
the Commander-in-Chief, when a shot, which had actually passed
between the legs of Lord Raglan’s horse, shattered his leg,
and he fell to the ground. He was borne carefully to the rear,
where, in a few moments, the gallant old man, who had survived
the dangers of Leipzig, and a fearful wound at Waterloo, breathed
his last; meeting his fate with a calm heroism that affected to
tears many a brave man fresh from the honours of that sanguinary
field. The Russians had left on the field two 18-pounder guns,
and Lord Raglan now ordered them to be brought up to the front.
Colonel Dickson had already anticipated the order, and the guns
had been dragged by main strength to the fitting position on a
ridge front of the Second Division. Assisted by Captain D’Aguilar,
a well-aimed fire was poured into the Russian batteries; the guns
were overthrown, the gunners killed, and the fire for an instant
quelled; but the fertility of the enemy’s resources did not fail
them even now: fresh gunners supplied the places of those struck
down by the English fire, and the deadly duel was resumed. Then
came the retreating infantry--a headlong mass, and the fiery
Zouaves and reanimated British in hot pursuit. Three times were the
artillerymen swept away from their guns; as many times their places
were supplied. Then, under cover of fierce volleys from the town
and ships, they succeeded in carrying off their guns. The French
batteries now advanced to the crown of the ridge, and opened fire
on the retreating masses, flying pell-mell towards the heights.
Hundreds fell beneath the deadly volleys--the thunders of the
death-dealing artillery drowned alike the shrieks and groans of the
wounded and the triumphant shouts of the victors, and the battle of
Inkermann was won!

About 8000 English and 6000 French had thus utterly defeated more
than 50,000 of the enemy, with the disadvantage of being taken by
surprise. The English were enfeebled by sickness, imperfectly fed,
and inadequately provided with necessary equipments and ammunition.
The Russians were mostly fresh troops, prepared for the attack,
and supported by the tremendous batteries of the town and ships.
It is to the French unquestionably that we were indebted for the
victory: no human courage could much longer have withstood such
disproportionate odds. The gallant Bosquet, by his promptitude and
the dashing valour of his African soldiers, saved not only the
fortunes of the day, but the very existence of the English army.
Our loss was 462 killed, including 43 officers, 1952 wounded, and
198 missing; giving a total of 2612 casualties. Three generals
were killed--Cathcart, Goldie, and Strangways; and three--Brown,
Torrens, and Bentinck--were wounded. If we reckon that only about
8000 were engaged, these numbers show that nearly every third man
was killed, wounded, or fell into the hands of the enemy. The
Russians admit a loss of 2969 killed, of whom 42 were officers; and
5791 wounded, including 206 officers; giving a total loss of 8760.
There can be no rational doubt that their real loss was nearly
double, and the number of Russians killed or wounded was at the
least equal to the entire English and French forces engaged in the
battle. Our brigade of Guards alone lost twelve officers killed on
the field, besides many wounded. Truly the daring courage of the
English gentleman has not deteriorated in these latter days! The
chivalric valour which placed the officers in the very front of
danger was nobly seconded by the unquenchable spirit of the men
whom they led; they were mostly fasting, when they hurried to the
scene of conflict, and for ten long hours were engaged in one of
the deadliest struggles the military historian has ever recorded.
Some were sick, all were gaunt and emaciated. It was Agincourt
once more. The starved legions met and overthrew five times their
number. Such was the bloody battle of Inkermann!”


IPSUS, BATTLE OF.--Fought B.C. 301. Between Seleucus and Antigonus,
King of Asia. On the side of Antigonus was his son, whilst Ptolemy,
Lysimachus and Cassander were ranged on the side of Seleucus. The
army of Seleucus consisted of 70,000 foot, and 10,000 cavalry,
with 75 elephants. The other army amounted to 64,000 infantry, and
10,500 horse, with 600 elephants and 120 chariots. Antigonus and
his son were signally defeated.


IRUN, BATTLE OF.--Between the British auxiliary legion, under
General Evans, and the Carlist forces. It was fought, May 17th,
1837. On the 16th, the legion marched from St. Sebastian to attack
Irun, which, after a desperate resistance, they carried by assault.
Great exertions were made by the British officers to save the lives
of the prisoners from the fury of the soldiers of the legion, their
minds having been exasperated by the frequent massacre of such of
their comrades as had from time to time fallen into the hands of
the enemy. The town was pillaged.


ISLE-AUX-NOIX.--_In the Richelieu River, Lower Canada._--Commands
the entrance to Lake Champlain. Fortified by the French, in 1759.
Captured by the English, in 1760. Taken by the Americans, in 1775
(from which place they issued their proclamation to the Canadians).
It rendered important service in the war of 1812-1814.


ISLE OF FRANCE.--Taken, with six French frigates, and many
Indiamen, by the British from the French, December 2nd, 1810. The
British retain possession of it, and it is now a freed colony.


ISMAEL, SIEGE OF.--_In Bessarabia._--After a long siege by the
Russians, who lost 20,000 men before the place, the town was
taken by storm, December 22nd, 1790, when the Russian General,
Suwarrow, the bloodiest and most merciless warrior of modern times,
put the brave Turkish garrison, consisting of 30,000 men, to the
sword--every man was butchered. Not satisfied with this vengeance,
the General ordered the town to be pillaged by his ferocious
soldiery, and 6000 women were murdered in cold blood.


ISSUS, BATTLE OF.--Alexander the Great completely defeated Darius
in this battle, fought B.C. 333. The Persian army, according to
Justin, amounted to 400,000 foot and 100,000 horse, of which 61,000
foot and 10,000 cavalry were left dead on the field, and 40,000
were taken prisoners. The Macedonians lost only 300 foot and 150
horse, according to Diodorus Siculus.



J.


JAFFA.--Celebrated in Scripture as Joppa. Taken by Napoleon, in
February, 1799. The French driven out by the British, in June,
the same year. Here, according to the account of Sir Robert
Wilson, Napoleon massacred 3800 Arab prisoners of war; but this is
reasonably doubted.


JANVILLIERS, BATTLE OF.--Between the French and Prussians, which,
after a severe engagement, Blucher, who commanded the latter army,
was driven back to Chalons with considerable loss. Fought, February
14th, 1814.


JARNAC, BATTLE OF.--The Duke of Anjou, afterwards Henry III of
France, defeated the Huguenots, under Louis, Prince of Condé,
who was killed in cold blood by Montesquieu. The victor was but
seventeen years of age, and on account of his successes and his
triumph at Moncontour, the Poles chose him for their king; he had
his arm in a sling, and a moment before the battle, his leg was
broken by a kick from a horse. Fought, March 13th, 1569.


JAVA.--This island capitulated to the British, August 8th, 1811.
The sultan dethroned by the English and the hereditary Prince
raised to the throne, June, 1813. Restored to Holland, in 1814.


JEMMAPPES, BATTLE OF.--This was one of the most obstinate and
hard-fought battles in modern times; 40,000 French troops forced
28,000 Austrians, who were entrenched in woods and mountains,
defended by forty redoubts and an immense number of cannon. The
revolutionary general Dumouriez, was the victor in this battle,
which lasted four days. According to the most authentic accounts,
the loss on the Austrian side was 10,000 men killed, and that of
the French 12,000. Fought, November 5th, 1792.


JENNA, BATTLE OF.--One of the most bloody battles fought in the
Napoleon wars, between the French and Prussian armies; the former
commanded by Napoleon--the latter by the Prussian King. The latter
was signally defeated with the loss of 30,000 slain, and 30,000
taken prisoners, and 200 field pieces taken. After this Napoleon
advanced to Berlin, October 14th, 1806.


JERUSALEM.--Taken by the Israelites B.C. 1048, and by
Nebuchadnezzar B.C. 587. Razed to the ground by Titus A.D. 70,
after one of the most awful as well as remarkable sieges recorded
in history and predicted by our Blessed Lord. More than 1,100,000
Jews perished on this occasion. Rebuilt by Adrian A.D. 130.
Taken by the Persians in 614; by the Saracens in 636; and by the
Crusaders in 1099, when 70,000 infidels were put to the sword. A
new kingdom was then founded, and lasted eighty-eight years. Again
taken from the Christians by Saladin, in 1187, and by the Turks in
1217. Lastly taken by Bonaparte, in February, 1799.


JUGURTHA, THE WAR WITH.--A memorable war, of which the Roman
historian, Sallust, has written an account, commenced B.C. 111, and
continued five years. Metellus was first sent against him, then
Sylla and Marius--the latter of whom took him prisoner, and at last
he died in prison, at Rome.



K.


KAFFIR WAR.--There was an invasion of the Kaffirs, or Caffres, in
the vicinity of Grahamstown, Cape of Good Hope, in October, 1831.
The invaders fell upon the settlers, murdered them, burnt their
houses, destroyed their crops, and carried off their cattle; this
irruption was eventually suppressed by the colonial authorities.
Other, but slighter annoyances to the colonists took place
occasionally, up to December, 1850, when Sir Harry Smith, the then
Governor, proclaimed martial law, and ordered the colonists to
rise _en masse_ for the defence of the frontier; the Kaffirs had
previously defeated the British troops, and had committed many
murderous forays on the villages. Then followed several disastrous
operations in the Water Kloof, and Colonel Fordyce and several
officers and men of the 74th Regiment were killed, November 6th,
1847. Captain Oldham, and others, had just before this fallen into
an ambuscade and been killed. The wreck of the _Birkenhead_ with
re-enforcements from England, took place February 26th, 1852.
General Cathcart, at last, on the 20th December, 1852, attacked
them with 2000 British troops at Berea, where they numbered 6000
cavalry. In this action Captain Tanner and 38 men were killed,
and two other officers and 15 men wounded. The Kaffirs suffered
severely, and at last were obliged to sue for peace.


KALITSCH, BATTLE OF.--Fought, February 13th, 1813, between the
Saxons, under the French General Regnier, and the Russians under
Winzingerode. An obstinate engagement in which the French were
defeated, with the loss of 2000 killed and some thousands taken
prisoners.


KALUNGA, FORT.--_In the East Indies._--Unsuccessfully attacked by
the East India Company’s forces, and General Gillespie killed,
October 31st, 1814. Again unsuccessfully attacked, November 25th,
following, and evacuated by the Nepaulese on the 30th November,
1814.


KARS, THE BATTLE OF THE HEIGHTS OF.--“On the 29th September,
1855, about 3.30 A.M., the Russians were seen advancing up the
Shorak valley in dense masses, but in what order could not then,
on account of the darkness, be ascertained. Our troops were in
a moment under arms, and at their posts. General Kmety, with
one battalion of infantry and seven companies of chasseurs,
was stationed in Sheshanegee Tabia; Major Teesdale, with one
battalion of infantry, in Yuksek Tabia; and Hussein Pacha, with
the Arabistan Corps, in Tahmasb Tabia, where he was soon joined by
Kerim Pacha, the second in command of the army. Bashi-bazouks were
also dispersed throughout the different works, and the Laz held a
small work called Yarem Ai Tabia, in front of Yuksek Tabia. General
Kmety was the first to open fire with round-shot on the advancing
battalions of the enemy; he was immediately answered by two guns
placed in position on a height forming the north-west boundary of
the Shorak valley. In a few minutes the whole visible force of the
Russians charged up the hill with loud cries; they were received
with a terrific fire of grape and musketry, which mowed down whole
ranks at every volley. General Kmety’s position was attacked by
eight battalions of the enemy; they advanced very gallantly to
within five paces of the work, when so heavy a fire was opened on
the head of the column that the whole corps wavered, halted, then
turned, and fled down the hill in the greatest confusion, leaving
850 dead. They did not renew the attack there.

Tahmasb Tabia bore the brunt of the battle; about 16 battalions,
with many guns, were brought up against it, but its garrison
was undaunted, and for a long time the Russians could not even
get possession of the breast-work forming the left wing of that
battery; but, at length, an overwhelming force obliged the Turks to
retire within the redoubt. A scene of carnage now ensued perfectly
terrible to behold. As the Russians came over the brow of the hill
within the breastwork, to take the battery in rear, Tchim and Tek
Tabias and Fort Lake opened on them with 24-pound shot, which tore
through their ranks, but they did not seem to heed this. They
charged Tahmasb Tabia, which was one sheet of fire, over and over
again, and so resolute were their assaults that many of the Russian
officers were killed in the battery, but they could not succeed in
carrying it.

General Kmety, after having repulsed the Russians, went forward
with four companies of chasseurs to Yuksek Tabia, which was
sorely pressed. Major Teesdale pointed out a battalion of Russian
chasseurs which lay hidden behind Yarem Ai Tabia (this work having
been abandoned by the Laz at the commencement of the battle), and
begged that they might be dislodged. The General at once determined
to carry the battery; so, forming up his men, he charged and drove
the Russians down the hill; leaving a company to defend the work,
he returned to Yuksek Tabia, from whence perceiving a battalion
of the enemy trying to turn the right wing of Tahmasb Tabia, he
reinforced his corps with three companies from Major Teesdale,
and charged the Russians; here, too, he was successful. In the
meantime reinforcements were sent up from below; these formed
behind the tents of the reserve, and watched their opportunity in
attacking the Russian columns, when driven back from an assault
on the batteries. For seven hours this went on; reserve after
reserve of the enemy was brought forward, but only to meet death.
Nothing could shake the firmness of our troops, till at length the
Russians, wearied and dispirited, at eleven A.M., turned and fled
down the hills in a confused mass, not one single company keeping
its ranks. The army was followed in its flight by the townspeople
and Bashi-bazouks, who brought down hundreds as they fled. While
the infantry were engaged in this conflict, the Cossacks tried to
penetrate into the tents of the reserve, but they were soon driven
back by the townspeople and infantry reserves with heavy loss.

One battalion of Russian infantry attempted to march round the
position, and take a small battery situated in a commanding
position on the road leading to a village called Tchakmak. It
commenced its march in splendid order, but ere it went 600 yards
it was broken and in great disorder, and so terrified, that
fifty or sixty of our chasseurs drove the broken mass down the
Tchakmak valley like a flock of sheep. The cause of the terror
was the terrible fire opened upon it by Yuksek Tabia, the guns of
Sheshanegee Tabia and Fort Lake.

A column of eight battalions, with 16 guns and three regiments of
cavalry, attacked the English lines at half-past five A.M. This
line of fortification was at the time very weakly garrisoned; the
breastwork was carried in a few minutes, the batteries Teesdale,
Thompson, and Zohrah, successively fell into the enemy’s hands,
and the men who formed their garrisons retired into Williams Pacha
Tabia. The Russians then brought up their artillery into position
in front of Zohrab Tabia, and began firing upon Fort Lake and
shelling the town, but Fort Lake (under the able superintendence of
the gallant officer whose name it bears), Arab Tabia, and Karadagh,
opened so heavy a fire on them with 24 pounders, that they were
compelled to withdraw their artillery altogether. The Russian
infantry then charged Williams Pacha Tabia, but were repulsed by
a flanking fire from Fort Lake and a severe fire of musketry from
the defenders of the battery attacked. They retired into Zohrab
Tabia, re-formed, and again assaulted; a body of their chasseurs
was at the same time sent forward to within 500 yards of Fort Lake,
to take a small open work called Churchill Tabia, which was doing
the enemy without the lines much harm. This was occupied by two
companies of our chasseurs: they turned to receive the attack of
the enemy; and, after retiring a short distance halted, and kept
the Russians at bay. While this was going on, Captain Thompson, who
had charge of the batteries of Karadagh and Arab Tabia, sent over
the 5th regiment of infantry from Arab Tabia to retake the English
Tabias of Teesdale and Thompson, and from below two battalions of
the 2nd regiment came up to recapture Zohrab Tabia. The forces
commenced the attack together from each end of the line, and drove
the Russians out of the forts and breastworks at the point of the
bayonet. Once out of the lines, they did not attempt to retake
them. Unfortunately the enemy had time, while in possession of the
batteries, to take away five guns, and to spike three, but they
abandoned three of the captured guns at a short distance from the
redoubts, so that we only lost two. As the enemy retreated our long
guns again played on their columns, and they retired as speedily as
possible.

Some cavalry attempted to engage the battery above the village of
Tchakmak, but again the terrible guns of Fort Lake drove them off.
By 10.30 A.M. the English Tabias were silent.

Such was the dreadful battle of “The Heights of Kars.” This is but
a very lame account of the glorious fight. I have not the time to
enter into greater details, but it will give an idea of what our
men did and had to endure. The forces of the enemy exceeded 30,000,
while ours, engaged, were below 8000. Not one of our men had
tasted anything since the previous afternoon; hungry and thirsty,
they remained undaunted, and repulsed column after column of the
Russians; at last their heroism was rewarded with perhaps the most
brilliant victory that has been gained during this war.

The field of battle was a sight too horrible ever to be forgotten
by me; the dead lay in vast heaps in every direction around the
forts--the ditches were full of mutilated bodies--the tents were
torn to rags--arms, clothes, broken ammunition-boxes lay strewed
about. Upwards of 6000 Russians fell, and more than 4000 muskets
have been collected, and 150 prisoners taken. The total loss to
the enemy in killed and wounded must have been very near, if not
more than, 15,000. Several Generals were killed or wounded; amongst
the former, reports say, General Breumer, the second in command;
and General Baklanoff, who commanded the attack on Canly Tabia on
the 7th of last August. Thousands of carts have been sent to Gumri
(Alexandropoli) with wounded.

Our list of casualties is but small, about 1000 in killed and
wounded. Dr. Sandwith, the Inspector of Hospitals, had made his
arrangements, and, thanks to his abilities, the hospitals are in
good order.

For this great victory, Turkey has to thank General Williams;
during the past four months his exertions to get things into order
have been astonishing; night and day he has laboured. He has had
many and great obstacles to overcome, but nothing could break his
energy. On the memorable 29th he directed the movements of the
troops; the reinforcements always reached their appointed position
in time. The great results of the day prove how well his operations
were conceived.

The loss inflicted on the enemy fully shows how well the positions
of the redoubts were chosen by Colonel Lake. All the batteries
flanked each other, and the Russians were unable to bring up guns
to command any of our positions. The troops kiss the batteries, and
say that the Miralai Bey (Colonel) was “Chok akill” (very wise)
when he made them work.

Captain Thompson aided greatly in recapturing the English lines. He
directed, by order, the guns of Arab Tabia and Karadagh, and sent
the troops over to attack the Russians.

Major Teesdale was in the hottest fire, and acted with great
coolness and bravery. He is the admiration of the Turks. He showed
them how English officers behave in battle.

All the Turkish officers did their duty nobly. Kerim Pacha was
slightly wounded, and had two horses killed under him; Hussein
Pacha was hit; two Colonels, and many other officers, were killed.”

Another account thus graphically describes the fall of Kars:--

“Omer Pacha, gradually overcoming the difficulties of that
deficiency in transports found himself at the head of about 15,000
troops in Abasia, a good many of these being his own trustworthy
veterans. He had gradually edged them down towards redoubt Kaleh,
which he fixed on as his basis of operations. On the 30th Shemserai
was secured, and, having driven in the Russian outposts from
Sogdidi and endeavoured to open relations with Schamyl, while
conciliating the Princess Dalian and the Christian population
in his own neighbourhood, he moved inland in a south-eastern
direction. But, owing to the difficulties of the country, which
is an entanglement of woods interspersed with very rich but
neglected farm lands, and owing still more to the precariousness
and uncertainty of any supplies from the inhabitants, his progress
was extremely slow. He did all that lay in his power, purchasing
provisions in every direction, and organizing, as his principal
resource, a regular commissariat at Redoubt Kaleh. The river
Phasis, which flows from the Caucasus to the Euxine, is navigable
for nearly a hundred miles from the sea; and he had hoped to have
availed himself of this channel for important manœuvres. His plan
was this:--The first strong Russian post was at Kutais, where the
great high road--by Gori, into Georgia, and down to Tiflis--would
take his advancing columns over the celebrated Soorem Pass. Once
master of Kutais, and with his communications well secured upon
the Black Sea along his rear line, he hoped either to be able to
defeat all the local Russian garrisons and posts between Soorem
and the capital of the fertile province lying beyond and below
it, or else to recall by the terror of his progress the army of
General Mouravieff, then menacing Armenia, and beleaguering Kars.
In either case a great blow would be struck, and the hard-pressed
troops of General Williams relieved. Then, should it even prove too
late to advance permanently that year beyond Mingrelia, he could
at least strengthen himself in Kutais, make it his new centre for
future operations, and call up, meantime, additional forces for
the campaign of spring. General Mouravieff would then be pressed
from the side of Armenia, where he was now acting offensively, and
from the side of Imeretia, on which he would be thrown also upon
the defensive. But it was already too late; and the Russian chief
knew it. Well informed of the true state of the Kars garrison, he
never disquieted himself, or in the slightest altered his plans, in
consequence of Omer Pacha’s diversion. Should the Muchir even beat
the militia which now guarded the northern gorges of Georgia, he
felt sure that it would all come to the same result. The season,
the floods, scarcity, would compel the victor to retreat; much more
would such become his necessity if, in the interim, he, General
Mouravieff, should succeed in reducing Kars, and, while thus
liberating his own army for an encounter with the Ottoman, should
rob the latter of the chief motive which prompted this venturous
advance by depriving it of its character _as a diversion_. Indeed,
in such a contingency, the further Omer might have penetrated, the
worse, perhaps, would be his situation; since General Mouravieff,
by not returning directly towards Tiflis (which would be rather
better able than Kars had been to stand a siege in its turn and to
hold any assailant in play), but by moving diagonally, north-east
by north, along the excellent Russian line from Alexandropol to
Akhazik, would himself take Omer Pacha in flank and rear, shatter
his line of communication, overwhelm his detached supports, and cut
him off from the sea.

For these reasons, General Mouravieff tranquilly and steadily
persisted in the blockade of Kars; and never for a moment showed
any inclination to turn aside to face the Turkish invader. A
month and seven days had now elapsed since the assault on Kars
was repulsed so gloriously, when Omer Pacha at length brought
his labouring columns through the miry woodlands as far as the
Ingour. There he saw, for the first time, a regular stand prepared
by the enemy, about 12,000 strong, intrenched on the opposite
bank, and commanding the passage by batteries. They were chiefly
the Russian militia of Georgia and were under the command of
General Bragation-Makrausky. The Turks had some 20,000 men. The
stream was barely fordable in half-a-dozen places, by which the
enemy’s intrenchments could be turned. The Turks passed it, up
to their armpits in water, holding their muskets aloft; our
countrymen--Colonel Ballard, Captain Dymsck, and others--showing
a splendid example worthy of English officers. The engagement
lasted five hours, when the Russians fled, leaving behind them 60
prisoners, five gun-carriages and ammunition carts, and 400 killed.
They appear to have carried off their wounded. Omer Pacha had 220
wounded and 68 killed. Pressing on the track of the fugitives
he came up with them before the end of November, within sight
of Kutais, and obtained another advantage. But the floods had
come; the Phasis had assumed the dimensions of a torrent; great
forest trees were swept down the stream as if they were reeds--now
engulfed out of sight in the eddies, now reappearing on the surface
for a moment as they were borne away; the roads were impassable
to artillery, and almost to infantry; the whole country was
transformed into an alternation of morass and lagoon; a day’s march
was the work of a week; the troops were broken up and islanded,
as it were, into helpless detachments; the commissariat could not
act; the supplies arrived with greater irregularity, incertitude,
and insufficiency from day to day; the whole army was suffering
incredible hardships and privations; it was threatened with
annihilation unless a retrograde movement were promptly made; and,
finally, came the news Kars had succumbed at last. The conquerors,
therefore, retired, unpursued, and gradually straggled back to
Redoubt Kaleh, where Omer Pacha soon succeeded in restoring their
tone and refreshing their energies.

So ended the war of 1855 with Russia; for this was really its
last incident, General Mouravieff having already dismantled the
fortifications of Kars, and withdrawn the bulk of his forces to
Gumri. It was on the 28th of November that General Williams at
last surrendered to him the stubborn Armenian fortress. The heroic
garrison had long been macerated by the failure of rations and by
disease. Even their ammunition was expended. In another assault on
the day of their surrender they would have had no means of firing
half-a-dozen rounds from their guns, and they were completely past
the power of personal resistance as a body, being unable to wield
their weapons, and hardly able to stand erect. They had borne
literally the fiercest extremities of famine. They were now a corps
of spectres, with scarcely the strength to speak. Yet these men
had furnished indiscriminately the sentinels who had mounted guard
over the little pile of half-rotten farina which was to be doled
out in a biscuit a day for each; and the trusty sentries never
touched the food which was the sole remaining common stock. Under
such circumstances it was that General Williams rode out with a
flag of truce, and told Prince Mouravieff that he would surrender
Kars provided all the courtesies and honours of war were conceded
to the garrison. General Kmety and some few attendants had tried a
different expedient--they stole out and cut their way through the
leaguer on the only serviceable horses left.

Mouravieff listened with attention to General Williams, who
threatened, if his various stipulations were not granted, to burst
every gun and destroy every military trophy still extant in Kars.
The Russian chief replied with chivalrous warmth and visible
emotion as he looked at the emaciated hero, that all was granted,
and that he was proud as an enemy to testify that General Williams
and those under him had immortalised themselves. Nothing, in short,
could surpass the nobility of sentiment displayed (both then and in
the subsequent treatment of the prisoners) by Prince Mouravieff and
the Russian army.”


KERTCH.--An expedition undertaken against this place during the
late Russian war was completely successful. “Notwithstanding the
recall of the expedition to Kertch in the early part of the month,
the Allied Generals were resolved to carry out the project of a
descent upon that part of the coast; and, on the 22nd of May,
another expedition departed: the English force under Sir George
Brown, and the French under General D’Autemarre. The two Admirals,
Sir Edmund Lyons and Bruat, accompanied the land forces. The troops
engaged numbered 15,000, with five batteries of artillery. It
was apprehended that a serious resistance would probably be made
at Kertch, and that the fleets would have difficulty in forcing
the straits into the Sea of Azov, if they were exposed to the
fire of the powerful batteries of Kertch and Yenikale. In order,
then, that the town might be attacked from the land side, Sir
George Brown landed his force at Kamiesch Bournu, a few miles to
the south of Kertch, and advanced overland. The enemy, however,
had no intention of risking a contest, and evacuated the town,
destroying the magazines, and blowing up the fortifications. When
the troops entered Kertch, they found it deserted by nearly all the
inhabitants; and the ships in the straits hurredly endeavouring to
escape into the Sea of Azov. In this attempt they were frustrated
by the activity of the allied fleets; and the Admirals, finding
the depth of water more than they had anticipated, started in full
pursuit, capturing and burning every vessel they could approach.
Yenikale was, like Kertch, deserted by its garrison; and in a few
hours the Allies were in undisturbed and bloodless possession of
the two towns commanding the outlet of the Sea of Azov, and the
fleets were in full chase of the Russian navy in those waters.”


KIEL, TREATY OF.--Between Great Britain, Sweden and Denmark, signed
January 14th, 1814.


KILCULLEN, BATTLE OF.--Fought May 23rd, 1798, between a vast
body of insurgent Irish and the British forces, commanded by
General Dundas. The latter were defeated. General Dundas, however,
subsequently beat the rebels near Kilcullen bridge, when 3000 were
slain, and hundreds wounded and taken prisoners.


KILDARE.--The great rebellion commenced here in May 23rd, 1798. On
that night Lieutenant Gifford, of Dublin, and a number of gentlemen
were murdered. Quelled in the following year.


KILLALA.--A French force landed here, August 22nd, 1798. They were
joined by the Irish insurgents, and the actions of Castlebar,
Colooney and Ballyhannack followed. At the battle of Killala the
insurgents were defeated with great slaughter, by the Royalist
forces, September 23rd, 1798.


KILLIECRANKIE, BATTLE OF.--Fought July 17th, 1689, between the
forces of William III and the adherents of James II. “General
Mackay, the officer sent against Claverhouse, had about 3000 foot
and some companies of horse under his command. But they were mostly
all raw recruits, and entire strangers to the Highland way of
fighting. At the head of the wild and gloomy pass of Killiecrankie,
Mackay found himself in front of the rebels. He drew up his men,
three deep, along the side of the narrow valley into which the
pass opens. The Highlanders occupied the hill on the north side
of the valley. At this time, the bayonet screwed into the muzzle
of the musket, so that troops could not fire with bayonets fixed.
The Highlanders, in dense masses broke down from the hill. Firing
their guns once, they dropped them, and then with target on the
left arm, and flashing broadsword they rushed, wildly yelling, on
the enemy. Mackay’s troops fired a volley, which did little harm to
the loose array of their leaping, bounding foes, and before they
could screw in their bayonets, the Highlanders were among them. An
empty musket without a bayonet could do little against the sweeping
broadsword. A panic seized Mackay’s raw levies, and they broke and
fled, pursued and cut down by the savage Highlanders.

Claverhouse never knew that he had won a victory. He fell at the
beginning of the action, pierced by a musket ball which entered
beneath his arm. When one in a pack of hungry wolves is killed, the
rest turn upon him and eat him up. Claverhouse’s own men, true to
their savage instinct of plunder, stripped his body, and left it
naked upon the field, where it was with difficulty distinguished
from the other bodies of the fallen!”


KOLIN, OR KOLLIN, BATTLE OF.--In this engagement the famous
Austrian General Daun, gained a celebrated victory over Frederick
the Great of Prussia, June 18th, 1757. Next year he obliged the
Prussians to raise the siege of Olmutz and to retreat to Moravia.


KONIAH, BATTLE OF.--Fought on the Plains of Koniah, formerly
Jornium, between the army of the Sultan of Turkey and the Pacha of
Egypt, in which, after a most bloody action which continued all the
day, the Turkish army was defeated, and the Grand Vizier himself
wounded and taken prisoner, December 31st, 1833.


KOWNO, BATTLE OF.--Fought between the French and Russian armies, in
which the French were defeated with great slaughter, and the loss
of upwards of 6000 prisoners, 21 pieces of cannon; many thousands
on both sides were slain. Fought, December 14th, 1812.


KRASNOI, BATTLE OF.--Fought between the French under Davoust, and
the Russian army commanded by Kutusoff. In this bloody battle
Davoust was entirely overthrown, and his army dispersed, thousands
upon thousands being left dead on the field, November 16th, 1812.


KUNNERSDORF, BATTLE OF.--One of the most bloody battles on record,
and fought between the Prussian and Russian armies. The King of
Prussia, after a great slaughter of the enemy for upwards of six
hours, had gained many advantages and had nearly accomplished
victory; but too eager in pursuing the retreating enemy, the latter
rallied, and in the end the Prussians were defeated with the loss
of 20,000 men and 200 pieces of cannon, August 12th, 1759.



L.


LACOLLE MILL, BATTLE OF.--Operations were commenced early in the
spring of 1814. An American army, commanded by General Wilkinson,
and amounting to upwards of 3000 men, entered Lower Canada on the
western shore of Lake Champlain. They attacked and completely
invested Lacolle Mill, which was defended by Major Handcock, of the
13th regiment, and about 180 men. They were vigorously repulsed
from this little fortress and driven back to the United States.


LA HOGUE, BATTLE OF.--Between the English and Dutch combined fleets
under Admirals Russel and Rooke, and the French under Tourville.
The Allies gained a complete victory, burning thirteen ships of the
French, and destroying eight more, and forcing the rest to fly, and
so preventing the threatened invasion of England, May 19th, 1692.


LA ROTHIÈRE, BATTLE OF.--Between the French, commanded by Napoleon,
and the Prussian and Russian armies, which were defeated after a
desperate engagement with the loss of some thousands slain, and
3000 prisoners and 30 pieces of cannon, February 1st, 1814. This
was about one of the last victories of Napoleon.


LA VENDÉE, WAR OF.--Many battles in this war were fought between
the French Royalists of La Vendée and the Republican armies in
1793-4. The war terminated January 10th, 1800.


LAKES CHAMPLAIN, ERIE, AND ONTARIO.--These lakes were the scene of
many engagements between the English and American colonists in the
War of Independence, and also in the war of 1812-15, the chief of
which was the capture of the British fleet by the Americans after
a severe action, September 11th, 1813.


LANDEN, BATTLE OF.--Between the Allies and French, in which William
III of England commanded. Owing chiefly to the cowardice of the
Dutch horse, this sanguinary engagement ended in the defeat of
the Allies, July 19, 1693. The Duke of Berwick, illegitimate son
of James II, who was fighting on the side of France, was taken
prisoner in this battle by Brigadier Churchill, afterwards the
great Duke of Marlborough.


LANGSIDE, BATTLE OF.--Fought, May 13th, 1568, between the forces of
Queen Mary of Scotland and the Regent. “Many powerful Barons called
their vassals to their banners, and hastened to support the Queen.
In a few days her camp at Hamilton contained 6000 men. The Regent
had with difficulty mustered 4000, but he determined to bring the
Queen’s army to battle at once. She broke up her camp at Hamilton,
and marched towards Dumbarton. The village of Langside lay on her
line of march, and her troops must pass through a narrow lane
leading up the face of the hill on which the village stood. Moray
posted his hag-butters, or matchlock-men, among the cottages, and
lined with them the garden-hedges on both sides of the lane. The
Queen took her station on an eminence half a mile distant, from
which she had the battle full in sight. She saw her troops press
up the hill, and endeavour to force the passage of the lane. She
saw them reel under the close and deadly fire of the hagbut-men who
lined the hedges. She saw them come on again stoutly, and meet the
shock of Moray’s spearmen. She saw the mass of combatants swaying
to and fro in doubtful conflict. And then she saw her troops swept
down the hill, broken and scattered, the Regent’s men fiercely
pursuing and spearing the wretched fugitives.”


LAON, BATTLE OF.--_In France._--Between the Allies, chiefly the
Prussian army, and the French. This battle or rather succession of
actions, was fought under the walls of the town, and ended, after a
sanguinary and obstinate contest in the defeat of the latter with
great loss, March 9th, 1814.


LARGS, BATTLE OF.--Fought between the ancient inhabitants of
Scotland and the Northmen. A bloody battle, fought 30th September,
1263. The following description is from the pen of an eminent
Scottish modern writer:

“It was about the middle of August when the fleet of Haco, which
counted 160 ships, rounded the Mull of Cantyre and entered the
Frith of Clyde. Time is everything in war. Haco should have
landed immediately. Every day was bringing the storms of Autumn
nearer, and every day was giving time to the King of Scotland to
increase his forces. Haco was a veteran who had been King of Norway
forty-six winters. Alexander was a young man who had lived fewer
than half the years that Haco had reigned. But the youth fairly
outwitted the veteran. He sent an embassy of barefooted friars on
board of Haco’s ship to propose terms of peace. The barefooted
envoys came and went between the two kings, and the time was spun
out in negociations till the weather began to break; the fleet was
running short of provisions, and the Scots in formidable numbers
were assembling on the shore.

“It was now the last day of September. At night there came on a
storm so sudden and so wild that the Norwegians believed it to have
been raised by the spells of the Scotch witches. The ships were
torn from their anchors and ran ashore, or dashed against each
other in the pitchy darkness. Haco ordered the attendance of his
priests, took to his boat, and landed on the island of Cumbrae,
where, amid the howling of the storm, he had mass performed. In
stranger circumstances, surely, mass was never said or sung.
Unluckily for Haco, the strong-winged tempest heeded it not. It
continued with unabated fury all night and all the next day. The
fleet drove up the channel, scattering the sea with wreck, and
the shore with stranded vessels. The heights above the coast
were covered by a multitude of armed peasants, who watched their
opportunity and rushed down to attack the stranded ships.

“When the second morning broke, and the violence of the tempest had
somewhat abated, Haco, by means of his boats, landed with a large
force to protect his stranded vessels from the armed peasantry, and
if possible to tow them off. While the Norwegians were engaged in
the operation of floating off their ships, the sun rose, and his
level rays caught the surrounding hills. Through the grey sheet of
morning mist which covered the landscape, flashes as of fire were
seen. It was the sun’s rays glancing upon the polished armour of
the Scottish army. They advanced rapidly, and the Norwegians could
soon discern their pennons and banners waving above their wood of
spears, and the knights and leaders, blazing in complete steel,
marshalling the line. They were commanded by King Alexander in
person.

“They attacked with fury, and drove back the advanced body of the
Norwegians. It seemed as if the whole force of the enemy was about
to be swept into the sea before the fierce onset of the Scots. But
the Norsemen, who fought entirely on foot, threw themselves into
a circle with their long spears pointing out to the foe, like a
huge hedgehog with prickles of steel. All day long the battle raged
around this ring of spears. The storm had renewed its violence,
so that it was impossible to send help on shore. Again and again
the Scottish horse repeated their furious charge. The circle of
steel was slowly forced back along the shore, but it could not
be broken. A Scottish knight, Sir Piers de Curry, rode round and
round it brandishing his spear and challenging any Norse captain
to single combat. He wore a helmet inlaid with gold and set with
precious stones; his mail was gold-embossed; his sword-belt studded
with jewels. A leader of the Northmen accepted his challenge,
and stepped out from the circle of spears. The Scottish knight
spurred his horse and rushed down upon him with levelled lance. The
Norseman with his great sword parried the spear-thrust, and as the
knight passed him in his career, smote him with his whole strength
upon the thigh. The sword cut sheer into the saddle through steel
and bone, so that the limb was separated from the body, and the
proud knight fell dead beneath his horse.

“A re-inforcement from the ships at length succeeded in landing
through the surf; and with the aid of these fresh troops the
Norwegians bore back the Scots from the shore. Night fell upon the
weary combatants, and under cover of the darkness the Norwegians
got on board their ships.”


LAYBACH, CONGRESS OF.--Attended by the Sovereigns of Russia,
Prussia, and Austria, and resulting in two circulars, stating that
Naples should be occupied with the Austrian troops, May 6th, 1821.


LEGHORN.--Entered by the French revolutionary army, July 27th,
1796, but the immense amount of British property in the city had
been previously removed. Evacuated by the French in 1799, and
retaken the next year. The Austrian took the city May 12th, 1849.


LEGION.--A Roman body of soldiers, about 6000 men. The 10th legion
was a favourite one with Cæsar. Ancient Britain was generally
protected by three legions.


LEIPSIC, BATTLE OF.--This battle fought, October 16th, 17th,
and 18th, 1813, between the allied army of Russia, Prussia, and
Austria on the one side, and Napoleon on the other, was one of
the greatest, bloodiest, and most decisive of modern times. The
French numbered 160,000 men, and the Allies 260,000 strong. This
great battle was lost by the French, chiefly owing to the seventeen
German battalions, then Saxon allies, turning upon them in the heat
of the action; 80,000 perished on the field, of whom more than
40,000 were French, who also lost sixty-five pieces of cannon and
many standards. This victory of the allied army was followed by
that of the capture of Leipsic, and the rear guard of the French
army next day. The King of Saxony and his family were also made
prisoners.


LEPANTO, BATTLE OF.--The great naval battle between the combined
fleets of Spain, Venice, and Pius V, and the whole maritime force
of the Turks. Don John of Austria commanded the allied fleet, which
consisted of 206 galleys and 30,000 men. The Turks had 200 galleys.
After a dreadful engagement they lost 150 galleys, and 30,000 men
in killed and prisoners. Fought, October 7th, 1571.


LEUCTRA, BATTLE OF.--One of the most famous in ancient history,
fought July 8th, 371 B.C. In this battle 4000 Spartans, with their
King, were slain, and not more than 300 Thebans. After this battle
the Spartans lost their position in Greece, which they had held for
500 years.


LEWES, BATTLE OF.--Between Henry III of England and Montfort,
Earl of Leicester. Fought, May 14th, 1264. The Royal army was
overthrown, and the King, his brother and son Prince Edward, were
taken prisoners.


LEXINGTON, BATTLE OF.--The first battle fought between Great
Britain and her revolted colonies of America; gained by the
British, who destroyed the stores of the colonists, but they lost
in battle 273 men killed and wounded. Fought, April 19th, 1775.


LEYDEN, SIEGE OF.--A memorable siege sustained against the armies
of Spain; 6000 of the inhabitants died during the siege, of famine
and pestilence, A.D. 1574. A University was afterwards founded in
commemoration of this event.


LIEUTENANT.--An officer who supplies the place of a superior in
his absence. In military affairs the second commissioned officer
in a company of infantry, cavalry or artillery. In ships of war, a
lieutenant is next in rank to the captain.


LIGNY, BATTLE OF.--Fought, June 16th, 1815, just before the
celebrated battle of Waterloo, between the Prussians under Blucher,
and the French commanded by Napoleon. The French gained the victory.


LINCELLES, BATTLE OF.--Between the allied English and Dutch armies
and the French, in which the French were defeated August 18th,
1793. In this battle, General Lake commanded the 3rd battalion
of Foot Guards, who so much distinguished themselves. Colonel
Bosville, of the Coldstreams, was killed; the French lost 11 cannon.


LINCOLN, BATTLE OF.--A battle was fought at Lincoln between the
armies of the Princess Maud and King Stephen of England. Stephen
was defeated and captured, February 2nd, 1141. Another battle was
fought here between the Dauphin of France and Henry III of England.
This was a bloody engagement, in which the French and their
English adherents were completely defeated, and Louis withdrew his
pretensions to the English crown, May 19th, 1217.


LINLITHGOW-BRIDGE, BATTLE OF.--Between the forces of the Earl of
Angus, and the forces of Lenox, who fought to get possession of
the person of James V, then a minor. Lenox was slain by Sir James
Hamilton, 1525.


LIPPSTADT, BATTLE OF.--One of the most bloody battles ever fought
in the world. Called also _Lutzen_, which see.


LISLE, SIEGE OF.--Besieged by the Duke of Marlborough and the
Allies, and taken after three months, in 1708. Restored at the
treaty of Utrecht, 1713--this siege is accounted one of the most
famous in modern times. It also sustained a severe bombardment by
the Austrians in the revolutionary war, but they were obliged to
raise the siege, October 7th, 1792.


LISSA, BATTLE OF.--This battle, fought December 5th, 1757, closed
the campaign, in which the King of Prussia vanquished Prince
Charles of Lorraine; 6000 Austrians were slain. Laid in ashes by
the Russians in 1707.


LODI, BATTLE OF THE BRIDGE OF.--One of the earliest of Napoleon’s
victories. Fought in Italy, May 10th, 1796. Napoleon commanded
the French army, which was opposed to the Austrians, under
General Beaulieu, and obtained a splendid victory after a bloody
engagement, in which several thousands of the Imperialists were
slain, and many thousands made prisoners. Napoleon nearly lost his
life at this battle, and was wounded in the hip with a bayonet. One
of his great Marshals in this battle, a sergeant, saved him, and
was commissioned on the spot.


LONDONDERRY, SIEGE OF.--Memorable for a siege during the reign of
James II, of England. James’ army, under the French General Rosene,
retired with the loss of 8000 men, after having practised almost
unparalleled cruelties upon the inhabitants of the surrounding
villages, April 20th, 1689.


LONGBEARDS OR LONGOBARDS.--Hence Lombardy. The Longobards or
Longbeards, who had overrun and taken possession of the great plain
of the basin of the Po, retained to some extent their separate
independence even under the empire of Germany. They had their own
laws and customs, and were in the habit of crowning the emperor,
or whoever else was acknowledged, as king of Lombardy. Hence, too,
Napoleon wore the iron crown of their kings. This famed symbol of
kingship was deposited in the Cathedral of Monza; it is a broad
circle of gold, set with large rubies, emeralds, and sapphires,
and was secured in an ornamented cross placed over an altar,
closely shut up within folding doors of gilt brass. The crown is
kept in an octagonal aperture in the centre of the cross. It is
composed of six equal pieces of beaten gold, joined together by
close hinges, and the jewels and embossed gold ornaments are set
in a ground of blue and gold enamel, interesting as exhibiting
an exact resemblance to the workmanship of the enamelled part of
a gold ornament now in the Ashmolean Museum, which once belonged
to King Alfred. But for those who have an appetite for relics,
the most important part of this crown is a narrow iron rim, which
is attached to the inside of it all round. The rim is about
three-eighths of an inch broad, and a tenth of an inch thick, made
out of one of the nails used in the Crucifixion. The crown is
said to have been presented to Constantine by his mother; and the
sacred iron rim, from which it has its name, was to protect him
in battle. And, although this iron has now been exposed more than
fifteen hundred years, there is not a speck of rust upon it.


LONG ISLAND, BATTLE OF.--Between the British troops under Sir
William Howe and the revolted Americans, who suffered a severe
defeat, after a well fought action, losing 2000 men in killed and
wounded and 1000 prisoners. The Americans were pursued to New
York, but were saved by a thick fog, which enabled them to escape.
Fought, August 27th, 1776.


L’ORIENT, BATTLE OF.--Lord Bridport achieved a memorable victory
over the French fleet, June 23rd, 1795. The British squadron
actually engaged consisted of 10 ships of the line--the enemy’s, of
12 ships of the line, 11 frigates, and some smaller vessels. After
an action of three hours the French got into port, leaving three
sail of the line in the possession of the British. The loss of the
French was severe.


LOSSES IN GREAT BATTLES.--The _Military Gazette_ of Vienna makes
the following comparisons of the forces engaged in the battle
of Solferino and in former great battles:--“At that battle there
were more than 300,000 soldiers in the field, and the losses must
have amounted to at least from 30,000 to 37,000. At the battle
of Leipsic, which lasted for three days, the 330,000 allies had
against them 260,000 French; the latter lost 30,000 prisoners
and 45,000 killed and wounded, and the former 48,000 killed and
wounded. After Leipsic, the most sanguinary battle was that of
Moscow, on the 7th of September, 1812. The Russians had 130,000 men
and 600 pieces of cannon, the French 134,000 men and 587 cannon;
the former lost 58,000 and the latter 50,000; the losses were,
therefore, 40 per cent. At Bautzen, on the 21st of May, 1813, there
were 110,000 Russians and Prussians opposed to 150,000 French; the
latter lost 20,000 men and the allies 15,000, and not a single
cannon. At Wagram, on the 5th and 6th of July, 1809, we had 137,000
men, and Napoleon 170,000; we lost 20,000 men and the enemy 22,000.
At Esling we were 70,000 against 85,000; we had 20,000 killed and
wounded, the enemy 13,000 killed; but he left in our hands 33,000
prisoners, and was obliged to send 30,000 to Vienna to have their
wounds attended to, so that out of the 160,000 men engaged about
one-half were put _hors de combat_. At Austerlitz there were 70,000
French, as many Russians, and 13,000 Austrians; the losses were
21,000 Russians, with 160 pieces of cannon, 5,800 Austrians, and
10,000 French. At Jena there were 142,000 French against 150,000
Prussians. At Waterloo there were 170,000 men, of whom 70,000 were
French, who lost 25,000 men and 250 cannon, whilst the Allies lost
31,000 men.”

The following statistics of Mr. Haussener will complete the account
of the losses in Great Battles:

“The wars which have been waged from 1815 to 1864, have caused
the death of 2,762,000 men, of whom 2,148,000 were Europeans, and
614,000 from other quarters of the globe, which gives an average
of 43,800 per annum. The figures do not include the deaths caused
by epidemics resulting from war. The most sanguinary hostilities
of that period are these:--The Eastern war of 1856, in which
508,600 men fell in the following proportions: 256,000 Russians,
98,900 Turks, 107,000 French, 45,000 English, and 2600 Italians.
The Caucusus (1829-60) 330,000 men lost their lives. The revolt in
India (1857-59) cost 196,000 lives. The Russo-Turkish war (1820-29)
193,000. The Polish insurrection (1831) 190,000. The whole of
the French campaigns in Africa (1830-59) 147,000. The Hungarian
insurrection 142,000. The Italian war 129,870, of whom 96,874
died on the field or from their wounds; and 33,000 from various
diseases. The total number of lives lost in Europe during the
wars from 1793 to 1815 amounted to 5,530,000, which gives for the
twenty-three years an average of 240,434 deaths per year.”


LUCKNOW, SIEGE OF.--Memorable in the Great Indian Mutiny. The
following account of the gallant defence of a few Europeans at
the Gateway, Lucknow, where General Neill fell, September 26th
and 27th, 1857, is abridged from the Account of Dr. A. C. Home,
contained in “The Mutinies of Oude:”--

“There were present, including Dr. Home, nine sound men, two
wounded officers, Captain Beecher and Lieutenant Swanson, and
three wounded men: total, fourteen. Private McManus kept outside
the doorway, sheltering himself behind a pillar, and killed so
many of the assailants that at length he had only to raise his
piece to cause all the enemy to leave their loopholes. The bodies
of the dead Sepoys round the door were, in fact, a defence. Ryan
and McManus actually rushed out and brought in a wounded officer
who lay in a dhoolie in the adjoining street, returning in safety,
although the ground was torn by musket balls about them. The
conduct of Hallowell also was splendid. He always managed to
kill an enemy at a most critical moment, and at length shot the
leader. Finally the Sepoys pushed a screen on wheels before them,
to protect themselves from the Minié rifle, and set the building
on fire, when the gallant little band retreated in good order
to a shed at a short distance, and defended themselves afresh.
Their cowardly assailants took this opportunity to massacre all
the wounded in dhoolies near to the house first defended. This
small company of heroes kept the foe at bay during the night. At
daybreak, however, they heard firing, when Ryan suddenly jumped
up and shouted, ‘Oh, boys! Them’s our own chaps!’ In about three
minutes Captain Moorsom appeared at the entrance-hole of the shed,
and they were brought off in safety.”

The following is an account of Havelock’s relief of Lucknow:

“It was thus the 19th of September before General Havelock was in
a position to cross the Ganges for a third time, and to advance
with an efficient force to relieve the long-beleaguered garrison
at Lucknow. On that day the army of relief crossed the river by a
bridge of boats, and encamped on the other side. General Havelock’s
force consisted of about 2000 European infantry, the Sikh regiment
of Ferozepore, three batteries of field artillery, and a handful
of volunteer cavalry. The rebels mustered above 40,000 strong, but
their numerical superiority only served to enhance the prowess of
their conquerors. The first engagement took place on the 21st of
September, at the village of Mungarwar, and resulted in the total
defeat of the mutineers. Five field-pieces and guns in position
were taken, two of the former being captured by the volunteer
cavalry, led on to the charge by General Outram in person.
From this point the army pushed on by forced marches, without
encountering any organized opposition, until it arrived before the
city of Lucknow. Skirting the suburbs of that once stately capital,
General Havelock forced his way through every obstacle, and, by the
evening of the 25th, had relieved the heroic garrison. The relief
was opportune. Two mines had already been driven under the chief
works, and, in a few hours more, would have been loaded and sprung.
The besieged would thus have been placed at the mercy of those
who knew no mercy. The city, however, had still to be subdued.
From several advantageous positions the enemy continued to fire
upon the fort, and were only finally dislodged after a series of
determined assaults. In these operations the loss of the British
was very severe. General Neill, the brave and energetic saviour of
Benares, and the inexorable avenger of the massacre at Cawnpore,
was among the slain. With him fell major Cooper, in command of the
artillery, and many other gallant spirits. Even now much remained
to be done. Taking courage from their overwhelming numbers, the
enemy soon closed again around the army of deliverance, and cut
off their communications with Cawnpore. Encumbered with not less
than 1000 women and children, and sick and wounded men, it would
have been hazardous if not impossible to have attempted a march
across a difficult country. Under these circumstances Sir James
Outram, who had assumed the chief command, determined on remaining
at Lucknow, and awaiting the arrival of re-inforcements. Sir Colin
Campbell, the Commander-in-Chief, left Cawnpore with a strong
force, on the 9th of November, to relieve Lucknow. He succeeded,
by a well-conceived stratagem on the 12th, in bringing away the
garrison with the women and children, and marched for Cawnpore. On
the third day after leaving Lucknow, General Havelock died from the
effects of dysentery, brought on by excessive fatigue and anxiety.
In December, Cawnpore was attacked by 25,000 rebels with fifty
guns, and Sir Colin Campbell was summoned from the neighbourhood
of Lucknow for its defence. He arrived in season to save the
place, after a severe action with the enemy. Sir Colin remained at
Cawnpore, collecting a large force for the final siege of Lucknow.
During the time which was thus occupied, several actions of minor
importance took place; but it was not till the 17th of March that
Lucknow was recovered, after a short but active siege. After
its fall, the kingdom of Oude, of which it was the capital, was
speedily restored to obedience and comparative tranquillity.”


LUNEVILLE, PEACE OF.--Between the French Republic and the Emperor
of Germany, concluded February 9th, 1801.


LUTZEN, BATTLE OF.--Between the French, commanded by Napoleon, and
the combined armies of Russia and Prussia, commanded by General
Wittgenstein, May 2nd, 1813. This bloody battle opened the campaign
of that year, and though each side claimed the victory, it was
manifestly on the side of France. Marshal Duroc was mortally
wounded in this battle.


LUTZENGEN OR LUTZEN, BATTLE OF.--Gustavus Adolphus, King of
Sweden, fought this battle against the Emperor. In this sanguinary
engagement Gustavus was basely killed in the victory, November 6th,
1632. This Gustavus was the most illustrious hero of his times,
and the chief support of the German Protestants, and an ally to
Charles I of England.


LUXEMBURG.--Considered the strongest fortress in the world, taken
by the French in 1543; then by the Spaniards in 1544; again by
the French in 1684--restored to Spain in 1697. Again taken by the
French, in 1701, and given to the Dutch, and ceded to the Emperor
at the peace of 1713. During last century it also sustained a long
and memorable siege, June 17th, 1795. The garrison surrendered to
the French, and were liberated on parole.



M.


MAESTRICHT.--Taken by the Prince of Parma in 1579; reduced by the
Prince of Orange, in 1632. Louis XIV took it in 1675. William,
Prince of Orange, invested it in 1676; restored to the Dutch
in 1678; besieged by the French, in 1748. In 1793, attacked by
the French, who took it the following year; but in 1814, it was
delivered up to the allied forces.


MAGENTA, BATTLE OF.--Fought June 4th, 1859, between the French and
Austrians. The French gained a splendid victory, the Allies losing
12,000, the Austrians 15,000. The latter rapidly retreated and
evacuated Milan. The battle of Magenta was begun by the Austrians,
who, although in full retreat towards Pavia, were ordered to
change their front, and attack the advanced guard of the Allies,
who had crossed the Ticino at Buffalora. Suddenly 25,000 Austrians
attacked a battalion of Zouaves, together with two battalions of
grenadiers; a close and deadly fire was now exchanged. Then the
Austrians charged with the bayonet. At 12 o’clock the French were
retiring, having lost General Leclere, a colonel, a lieutenant
colonel, and 12 officers, when reinforcements appearing on their
left, they rallied and forced the Austrians to withdraw. The bold
assault of General McMahon decided the victory; and for his brave
conduct and efficient generalship, Napoleon conferred on him the
rank of Marshal, with the title of Duke of Magenta. General Guyalai
brought into the action 120,000 men; he left 20,000 of them wounded
or dead on the battle-field: 7000 were taken prisoners; 5 flags,
4000 knapsacks, 12,000 muskets and 4 guns, fell into the hands of
the French. During the battle of Magenta the bridge and the village
of Magenta were taken and retaken seven times. It was only at
half-past eight at night that the Austrians withdrew. Their retreat
was slow and orderly.


MAIDA, BATTLE OF.--Fought between the French, commanded by General
Regnier, and the British, under Major General Sir John Stuart. The
French were nearly double the number of the British, yet the latter
gained a most glorious victory on the “Plains of Maida,” a village
of Calabria. The loss of the French was very great, July 4th, 1806.
The British commander, from this victory, has historically received
the name of the “Hero of the Plains of Maida.”


MAJOR.--This officer holds the rank between a Lieutenant Colonel
and a Captain. A Major General is one who commands a division, next
above rank to a Brigadier General.


MALAKOFF AND REDAN, ATTACK ON THE.--In the celebrated Crimean war.
The following is a good description of the attack:

“General Pelissier divided his attacking force into three columns,
numbering altogether about 25,000 men. The first, under General
Mayran, was to assault the extreme left of the Russian line;
the second, in the centre, led by General Brunet, was to turn
the Malakoff on its proper left; while the third, under General
d’Autemarre, was to operate upon its right. The Imperial Guard
was held in reserve, and two batteries of artillery occupied the
Mamelon. The signal for advance was to be three rockets fired from
the Lancaster battery, which General Pelissier had chosen as his
position of observation. By an unfortunate mistake, General Mayran
mistook the flaming fuse of a bomb-shell for the rocket, and eager
for the fray, led his division rapidly forward. It was now apparent
that the enemy had full notice of our intended attack. Not only the
batteries were fully armed, but the steamers were anchored so as to
be able to pour their broadsides upon the French columns. Generals
Saurin and De Failly, obedient to the commands of their General,
dashed forward, followed at an impetuous pace by their troops.
Then the Russians opened fire from their batteries and steamers,
and a hurricane of shot and shell arrested the career of the brave
French; and their leader, General Mayran, paid the penalty of his
mistake, falling mortally wounded at their head. General Pelissier
had now arrived upon the scene of action, and perceiving the error,
at once ordered up reinforcements to the threatened division,
which, strengthened by the addition of the voltigeurs of the
Guard, some regiments of the line, and a battalion of grenadiers,
was enabled to maintain its position under the orders of General
De Failly, who succeeded to the command, though prevented by the
deadly fire of the enemy from advancing further. The centre column,
under General Brunet, had little better success than the other
division. In fact, the unlucky mistake of Mayran, in precipitating
the attack, had disordered the entire plan of advance, and aroused
the Russians, and enabled them to concentrate their strength for
defence. General Brunet himself was struck in the chest by a
musket-ball; and his division was forced to retire to the trenches
with great loss. General D’Autemarre, who commanded the left
attack, no sooner saw the preconcerted signal, than he gave the
word to advance, and the 5th Foot Chasseurs and the first battalion
of the 19th regiment of the line, deploying to the left, along
the crest of the ravine which there enters the town, carried the
entrenchment which connects it with the Malakoff, and succeeded in
entering the fortification. The sappers who accompanied the advance
immediately planted ladders, the remainder of the regiments hurried
forward, and the eagles of the French army waved aloft, encouraging
the repulsed troops of the other divisions to renewed exertions.

While the French were thus straining every nerve against tremendous
odds, and with fearful loss, to perform their parts in the
achievements of the day, the English were none the less eager
to win their laurels before the Great Redan. Sir George Brown,
just returned from the Kertch expedition, was intrusted with the
direction of the assaulting party, composed of detachments of the
Light, Second, and Fourth Divisions. The plan of attack was, that
the force should be divided into three columns; the Light Division
to storm the right of the Redan at the re-entering angle; the
Fourth Division was to attack the left flank of the fortification
at a similar position; while the Second was to storm the apex
of the Redan, as soon as the other divisions had established
themselves in the work. Colonel Yea, of the 7th Fusiliers, led the
storming party of the Light Division, composed of the 7th, 23rd,
33rd, and 34th. Colonel Shirley held the 19th, 77th, and 85th in
reserve. The troops advanced in good order from the trenches,
preceded by a covering party of Rifles, and dashed forward to the
attack. They had, however, several hundred yards of broken ground
to cross; and the enemy, well prepared for their reception, poured
from every embrasure such a storm of shot and shell as effectually
broke their ranks. Colonel Yea and the regimental officers
gallantly endeavoured to animate their men to the assault, and led
them fearlessly forward against the belching fire of the batteries.
As the brave old colonel was cheering on his men, a shower of grape
swept along, and he rolled in the agonies of death, struck at once
in the head and stomach. His brave companions fell around him dead
or wounded; and the regiments, unable to face such a sheet of
fire, fell back disordered to the trenches, leaving nearly a third
of their number on the field.

On the left attack, Sir John Campbell, with the Fourth Division,
exhibited extraordinary courage, and led his men forward to the
attack with tremendous energy. Here again was the tragedy of the
Light Division repeated. The men were mowed down as they left the
trenches, and Sir John, like Colonel Yea, fell cheering on his
men. The loss was terrific. The Second Division, to whom had been
reserved the duty of attacking the apex of the Redan, seeing the
failure of the flank assaults, desisted from the attempt, and
withdrew to the trenches, though having suffered considerably from
the enemy’s fire.

The only success of the day was that achieved by the Third Division
under General Eyre, who had been ordered by Lord Raglan to attack
the Cemetery Batteries, at the head of the ravine leading to the
Dockyard Creek. The brigade consisted of the 9th, 18th, 28th, and
44th regiments. Four volunteers from each regiment, under Major
Fielden, of the 44th regiment, were selected to feel the way,
and cover the advance. The 18th Royal Irish formed the storming
party. They possessed themselves of the Cemetery with but little
difficulty; and then four companies of the 18th dashed forward, so
eager were they for the fray, and actually entered the town, and
established themselves in the Russian houses. They were followed by
the 9th, under Colonel Borton. The enemy’s batteries now opened a
fierce fire on the daring handful of men; and although they could
not drive them from their position, effectually prevented their
retreat, from four o’clock in the morning until eight at night.
During that time they suffered terribly from thirst, and some of
the brave fellows actually crawled from the houses, reached the
English lines, and returned with cans of water to their comrades.
In this way a letter was convoyed asking for reinforcements; but
General Eyre had already retired from the spot, and the two gallant
regiments were left unsupported, to bear the brunt of the enemy’s
fire until nightfall, when the remnant of them withdrew from their
dangerous post, and rejoined the main body.

The failure of the English attack enabled the Russians to draw
from the Redan reinforcements to repel the French under General
D’Autemarre, who were so nearly redeeming the fortunes of the
day at the Malakoff. Unable to contend against the forces now
brought against them, the French were compelled to retire from
the commanding position they had obtained. General Pelissier sent
reinforcements; but it was impossible a single division, exposed
to an appalling flank fire and an immensely superior force in
front, could long sustain such an unequal contest. They fought
bravely; but on that fatal day bravery availed but little, and
they, too, added to the numbers of the defeated.

Such was the great disaster of the 18th of June, the anniversary of
that day when the two nations, now brothers in defeat, were opposed
to each other on the plains of Waterloo. Want of concert between
the generals--and to Pelissier the blame is mainly due--resulted in
a most disheartening repulse, and the loss of thousands of brave
men; the English casualties amounting to no less than 251 killed
(including 21 officers); 70 officers and 1130 men wounded; and 22
missing. The French loss must have been greater.”


MALPLAQUET, BATTLE OF.--The Allies under the Duke of Marlborough
and Prince Eugene, gained this battle, September 11th, 1709, over
the French, commanded by Marshal Villars. The armies of each
consisted of nearly 120,000 choice men. It was attended with
immense slaughter on both sides, the Allies losing 18,000 men,
which terrible loss was but ill-repaid by the capture of Mons,
which followed the victory.


MAMELON AND QUARRIES.--The capture of the Mamelon and the action
of the Quarries, took place in the great siege of Sebastopol. The
former was gallantly stormed and taken by our allies the French and
the action of the Quarries redoubted to the indomitable pluck of
British soldiers. The following is a good account of the action and
capture of the fort:

“A third general bombardment opened on the 6th of June. At
half-past two o’clock in the afternoon, the fire of 157 English and
300 French guns and mortars simultaneously opened upon the town.
The Russian reply was feeble, and inflicted but little damage upon
our batteries. A fierce cannonade was maintained by the Allies
during that and the following day, and towards evening, on the 7th,
a grand combined attack was made by the English on the Quarries,
and by the French on the Mamelon. The former of these works, as
the name implies, were pits from which stone had formerly been
excavated for the buildings in the town, and occupied a position
between the head of our advanced sap and the Great Redan, the most
formidable work of Russian defence, and which in the general plan
of attack had been apportioned to the English. The Mamelon, as
it was specifically called--the general term _mamelon_, a rounded
hill, describing its appearance--was the foremost of two similar
eminences, at a short distance from each other. The one nearest
the town was surmounted by the Malakoff tower and works, and was
the most elevated and commanding position of the enemy’s line of
defence, the Mamelon, or Mamelon Vert, as the French designated it,
had long since lost all claim to the latter name, being excavated
into trenches and rifle-pits, from which a most annoying fire was
maintained upon the French lines. Our Allies had already made a
very gallant though unsuccessful attempt at its capture; and it was
under the cover of its guns that the Russian sortie of the 22nd of
March was made.

It was then absolutely necessary that an endeavour should be made
by the besieging army to carry these formidable works, which
presented such obstacles to their advance; and accordingly the
evening of the 7th of June was fixed for the assault. At about
six o’clock, the French battalions, chosen for the assault,
consisting of the Algerine Zouaves, detachments of the 61st, 7th,
and 50th regiments of the line, and of the Chasseurs-à-Pied, and
Imperial Guard, about 1200 men in all, moved up to the front,
closely followed by the reserve or working party, to follow the
attacking column, and secure possession of the works. This second
column, commanded by General Brunet, comprised a battalion of the
Chasseurs-à-Pied, and the 11th, 24th, 69th, and 16th regiments of
the line. General Bosquet was entrusted with the entire direction
of the assault.

Our attacking force was composed of detachments from the Light and
Second Divisions. About 400 men from the 18th, 7th, 47th, 49th,
were told off to lead the assault, under the immediate command of
Colonel Shirley, of the 90th regiment. The working parties were
selected from remaining regiments of the Light Division; the main
body remaining under arms in reserve.

Immediately the signal rockets took their flight towards the town,
the attacking columns darted forward. The active French troops
swarmed up the sides of the Mamelon, and in a few moments were in
hand-to-hand contest with the Russian defenders. With an unusual
supineness the batteries of the town offered no impediment to the
advance. It might be that the fierce bombardment to which for
twenty-four hours they had been exposed, had temporarily silenced
them. Whatever might be the cause, but little opposition was
sustained by, and scarcely any loss inflicted on the attacking
columns, who reached the parapet on the crown of the hill at a
rapid pace. Here the enemy made a stand, and for a brief space
struggled bravely to maintain their position. It was, however, but
an ineffectual effort. The French fought with the utmost daring;
and the enemy giving way before the impetuous onslaught, retreated
down the hill, the French in eager pursuit. In the valley, however,
the Russians received large reinforcements from the Malakoff Tower
on the opposite eminence, and a fierce fire was opened on the
French from the batteries of the Malakoff. Then the tide of battle
turned; and the hitherto assailants, out-numbered, were driven up
the hill, contesting every foot of ground. Some of the Zouaves,
with characteristic daring, evading the attacking force, pressed
onwards, and, as on the previous occasion, positively entered the
Malakoff, and spiked some of the guns. Our allies, unable to bear
the vigorous charge and overwhelming numbers of the enemy, who
now pressed upon them, were forced to relinquish the hold they
had obtained upon the Mamelon, and retreated over the brow of the
hill, reluctantly relinquishing the advantage they had gained.
The French, after a brilliant attack, were driven back by the
reinforced defenders of the hill, and the Russians were once more
masters of the Mamelon.

General Bosquet, however, was not the man to accept a repulse as a
final defeat. Reforming the column in the trenches at the foot of
the hill, and sending fresh troops to their assistance, he prepared
for a second assault. This time the French, eager to retrieve their
disaster, rushed forward with emulous bravery, and again the hill
side was covered with the advancing columns, pressing onwards to
the attack. Trench after trench was carried and in a few moments
the assailers again occupied the topmost parapet. The Russians
fought desperately; but no courage could withstand the fierce
valour of the French. The enemy were hurled down the hills, and our
allies, mad with excitement, rushed after them, in a rapid bayonet
charge, covering the ground with the killed and wounded, and
driving the flying enemy to the refuge of the Malakoff. Meanwhile
the working party in their rear had speedily thrown up parapets and
breastworks on the Russian side; and although the guns from the
town and the shipping in the harbour played vigorously upon the
hill, they were enabled to hold their important acquisition.

Farther to the right, the French had also attacked and carried,
after considerable resistance, a line of works leading to and
defending Careening Bay, and connected with the works of the
Mamelon, known as the White Works. A number of guns were taken,
and the French were thus in possession of an access to the great
harbour, and enabled to throw up works commanding the shipping.

We have thus far related the varying fortunes of the French
attack. Let us now turn to the English assault on the Quarries.
Simultaneously with the advance of our allies, Colonel Campbell
threw his small force into the Russian works, experiencing but
trifling opposition; and congratulating himself upon having so
easily achieved his object. Advancing beyond the Quarries towards
the Redan, there is no doubt the adventurous English might even
have entered that great work itself, so great was the confusion
among the Russians, caused by the attack on the Mamelon, had
they been in sufficient force to warrant such a feat. The enemy,
however, soon mustered their strength, and Colonel Campbell was
forced, after a stubborn resistance, to yield his position. Three
times did the small British force retreat from the Quarries, and as
many times they retook them with the bayonets. At length they were
enabled to throw up an earthwork, which ensured their possession of
this important position. In one of the Russian attacks, an instance
of individual prowess occurred, which obtained for the performer
of it the rare honour of being named, though a non-commissioned
officer, in Lord Raglan’s despatch. The assailing party had wavered
a little before the sharp fire from the British muskets, when
Lance-Corporal Quin, of the 47th, darted out of the work towards a
Russian officer and four men, who had advanced somewhat in front
of the main body of the enemy. With the butt-end of his musket he
brained one of the soldiers, bayoneted a second and the other two
precipitately fled from the doughty corporal. Then collaring the
officer, and administering a gentle stimulant with the point of his
bayonet to quicken his advance, he dragged him a prisoner into the
work, in less time than we have occupied to tell the tale.

The enemy’s loss must been very great, judging by that which the
victors sustained in the two attacks. The French lost about 60
officers, and 2000 men killed and wounded; and the British, 35
officers, and 365 rank and file.”


MARSHAL, FIELD.--This rank is of modern date in the British army.
It is the highest military rank in the army.


MARSTON MOOR, BATTLE OF.--This battle was the beginning of the
misfortunes of Charles I of England--fought July 3rd, 1644.

“The Scots and Parliamentarian army had joined, and were besieging
York, when Prince Rupert, joined by the Marquis of Newcastle,
determined to raise the siege. Both armies drew up on Marston
Moor, to the number of 50,000, and the victory seemed long
undecided between them. Rupert, who commanded the right wing of
the Royalists, was opposed by Oliver Cromwell, who now first came
into notice, at the head of a body of troops which he had taken
care to levy and discipline. Cromwell was victorious; he pushed his
opponents off the field, followed the vanquished, returned to a
second engagement, and a second victory; the Prince’s whole train
of artillery was taken, and the Royalists never after recovered the
blow.”


MERIDA.--_In Spain._--Taken by the French in January, 1811. Near
here the British army, under Lord Hill, defeated the French, under
General Girard, after a severe engagement October 28th, 1811. The
British took Merida from the French, July 1812, after a severe
encounter,--General Hill himself leading the combined armies of
Britain and Spain.


MILAN.--French expelled from it by Charles V, of Germany, 1525.
Seized again by the French, June 30, 1796. Retaken by the Austrians
in 1799; regained by the French, May 31, 1800. Napoleon crowned
with the Iron crown, at Milan, May 26, 1805. (See _Longbeards_ or
_Longobards_). This city, celebrated for the Milan decrees against
all continental intercourse with England, issued by Napoleon,
December 17th, 1807. Here an insurrection occurred against the
Austrians, March 18th, 1848, which resulted in a battle, and flight
of the viceroy and troops.


MILITIA.--Supposed to have been introduced into England by King
Alfred. The English volunteers and militia, a splendid body of men,
who have more than once materially assisted Government in times of
necessity. The Canadian Volunteers are a body of men almost equal
to the soldiers of the line; and during the late Fenian excitement,
have shown to the whole world that a brave man delights to defend
his hearth and home, and that “_dulce est mori pro patriâ_.”


MINDEN, BATTLE OF.--Fought, August 1st, 1759, between the English,
Hessians and Hanoverians, on the one side, and the French on the
other. The Allies were commanded by Prince Ferdinand, and under him
Lord George Sackville. The Allies gained a complete victory, and
pursued the French to the very ramparts of Minden. Lord Sackville,
who commanded the Allied cavalry, for some disobedience of orders,
on his return to England was tried by court martial and dismissed
the service, but was afterwards restored.


MOCKERN, BATTLES OF.--Between the French, under Eugène Beauharnois,
and the allied Russian and Prussian army, which was signally
defeated with great loss, April, 1813. There was another bloodier
battle fought here, October 14th, 1813, between the same contending
armies; five times Mockern was taken and retaken during this
conflict.


MOHATZ, BATTLES OF.--_In Hungary._--Here, in 1526, Louis, King of
Hungary, was defeated by the Turks, under Solyman II, with the
loss of 22,000 men. Another battle was fought here between the
Christians, commanded by Prince Charles of Lorraine, and the Turks,
who were defeated with the loss of 10,000 men, A.D. 1687.


MOHILON, BATTLE OF.--Between the Russians, under the celebrated
Prince Bagration, and the French, under Marshal Davoust. This was
one of the most bloody engagements in the campaign of 1812. The
Russians were totally defeated, with immense loss in killed and
wounded; fought, July 23rd, 1812.


MOLWITZ, BATTLE OF.--Between the Prussians and Austrians. The
Prussians were commanded by Frederick III, who obtained a great and
important victory. An immense number of killed and wounded on the
side of the Austrians was the result of this sanguinary battle.
Austria being at the time in alliance with Great Britain, the
consequence of the victory seriously affected the interest of that
country. Fought, April 10th (March 30th), 1741.


MONTEBELLO, BATTLE OF.--Fought May 20th, 1859, between the
Austrians and French. “On the 20th May, a severe action was fought
at Montebello, which lasted six hours. The Austrians appear, in the
first instance, to have taken Montebello from the French, and to
have been afterwards expelled by the French. A desperate hand to
hand conflict took place in the village, which had to be carried,
house after house. The Austrians, after the battle, evacuated
Casteggio, and retired along the Creatisma road.”


MONTE VIDEO.--Taken by storm, by the British force, under Sir
Samuel Auchmuty, February 3rd, 1807, with a terrible loss of
nearly two-thirds of his army. It was evacuated, July 7th, same
year, in consequence of the severe repulse of the British at Buenos
Ayres.


MONTEREAU, BATTLE OF.--Fought, February 18th, 1814, between the
Allied army and the French, the latter commanded by Napoleon
himself. In this desperate engagement, the Allies were defeated
with great loss in killed and wounded. This battle was one of the
last ever gained by Napoleon. Four months after he was ruined at
Waterloo.


MOODKEE, BATTLE OF.--_In India._--Between the British and Sikhs.
The advanced guard of the British was attacked by the Sikh forces,
but the latter were repulsed and driven back three miles, losing
great numbers of men and 15 pieces of cannon, December 18th, 1845.
Sir Robert Sale was mortally wounded in this battle, being in his
sixty-fifth year. Lady Sale signalized herself during the two
memorable retreats from Afghanistan.


MORGARTEN, BATTLE OF.--Between the Swiss and Austrians. The Swiss
numbered 1300, the Austrians 20,000. Fought, November 15th, 1315.
“The 15th November, 1315, dawned; the sun darted his first rays
on the shields and armour of the advancing host; and this being
the first army ever known to have attempted the frontiers of the
Cantons, the Swiss viewed its long line with various emotions.
Montfort de Tettnang led the cavalry into the narrow pass of
Morgarten, and soon filled the whole space between the Mountain
(Mount Sattel) and the lake. Fifty men, on the eminence above
Morgarten, raised a sudden shout, and rolled down heaps of rocks
and stones among the crowded ranks. The confederates on the
mountain, perceiving the impression made by this attack, rushed
down in close array, and fell upon the flank of the disordered
column. With massy clubs they dashed in pieces the armour of the
enemy, and dealt their blows and thrusts with long pikes. The
narrowness of the defile admitted of no evolutions, and a slight
frost having injured the road, the horses were impeded in all their
motions; many leaped into the lake; all were startled; and at last
the whole column of soldiers gave way, and suddenly fell back on
the infantry; and these last, as the nature of the country did not
allow them to open their files, were run over by the fugitives, and
many of them trampled to death. A general rout ensued, and Duke
Leopold was, with much difficulty, rescued by a peasant, who led
him to Winterthur, where the historian of the times saw him arrive
in the evening, pale, sullen and dismayed.”


MORTAR.--A short gun of an extraordinary large bore and close
chamber, used for throwing bomb shells. The mortar was first made
in England in 1543.


MOSCOW, BURNING OF.--Entered by the French, September 4th, 1812.
“At length Moscow, with its domes, and towers, and palaces,
appeared in sight; and Napoleon, who had joined the advance guard,
gazed long and thoughtfully on that goal of his wishes. Murat went
forward, and entered the gates with his cavalry; but as he passed
through the streets, he was struck by the solitude which surrounded
him.

Nothing was heard but the heavy tramp of his squadrons as he passed
along, for a deserted and abandoned city was the meagre prize, for
which such unparalleled efforts had been made. As night drew its
curtains over the splendid capital, Napoleon entered the gates,
and immediately appointed Mortier governor. In his directions,
he commanded him to abstain from all pillage. For this, said he,
you shall be answerable with your life. Defend Moscow against
all, whether friend or foe. The bright moon rose over the mighty
city, tipping with silver the domes of more than 200 churches, and
pouring a flood of light over 1000 palaces, and the dwellings of
300,000 inhabitants. The weary army sunk to rest; but there was no
sleep for Mortier’s eyes.

Not the gorgeous and variegated palaces and their rich ornaments,
nor the parks and gardens, and oriental magnificence that
everywhere surrounded him, kept him wakeful, but the ominous
foreboding that some dire calamity was hanging over the silent
capital. When he entered it, scarcely a living soul met his
gaze, as he looked down the long streets; and when he broke open
the buildings, he found parlors, and bedrooms, and chambers all
furnished and in order, but no occupants. The sudden abandonment of
their homes, betokened some secret purpose yet to be fulfilled. The
midnight moon was sailing over the city, when the cry of “Fire!”
reached the ears of Mortier; and the first light over Napoleon’s
falling empire was kindled, and the most wondrous scene of modern
time commenced,--the burning of Moscow. Mortier, as governor of the
city, immediately issued his orders, and was putting forth every
exertion, when, at day-light, Napoleon hastened to him. Affecting
to disbelieve the reports that the inhabitants were firing their
own city, he put more rigid commands on Mortier to keep the
soldiers from their work of destruction.

The marshal simply pointed to some iron covered houses that
had not yet been opened, from every crevice of which smoke was
issuing like steam from the sides of a pent up volcano. Sad and
thoughtful, Napoleon turned toward the Kremlin, the ancient palace
of the Czars, whose huge structure rose high above the surrounding
edifices.

In the morning, Mortier, by great exertions, was enabled to subdue
the fire. But the next night, at midnight, the sentinels on watch,
on the lofty Kremlin, saw below them the flames bursting through
the houses and palaces, and the cry of “Fire!” “Fire!” passed
through the city. The dread scene had now fairly opened. Fiery
balloons were seen dropping from the air, and lighting upon the
houses; dull explosions were heard on every side from the shut up
dwellings, and the next moment a bright light burst forth, and
the flames were raging through the apartments. All was uproar and
confusion. The serene air and moonlight of the night before, had
given way to the driving clouds, and a wild tempest that swept with
the roar of the sea over the city. Flames arose on every side,
blazing and crackling in the storm, while clouds of smoke and
sparks, in an incessant shower, went driving toward the Kremlin.
The clouds themselves seemed turned into fire, rolling in wrath
over devoted Moscow. Mortier, crushed with the responsibility thus
thrown over his shoulders, moved with his young guard amid this
desolation, blowing up the houses, and facing the tempest and the
flames, struggling nobly to arrest the conflagration. He hastened
from place to place amid the blazing ruins, his face blackened
with the smoke, and his hair and eyebrows seared with the fierce
heat. At length, the day dawned, a day of tempest and of flame;
and Mortier, who had strained every nerve for 36 hours, entered a
palace, and dropped down with fatigue.

The manly form and stalwart arm, that had so long carried death
into the ranks of the enemy, at length gave way, and the gloomy
marshal lay and panted in utter exhaustion. The day was one of
tempest; and when night again enveloped the city it was one broad
flame, wavering to and fro in the blast.

The wind had increased to a perfect hurricane, and shifted from
quarter to quarter, as if on purpose to swell the sea of fire, and
extinguish the last hope. The fire was approaching the Kremlin, and
already the roar of the flames and the crash of the falling houses,
and the crackling of burning timbers, were borne to the ears of the
startled Emperor.

He arose and walked to and fro, stopping and convulsively gazing
on the terrific scene. Murat, Eugène, and Berthier rushed into his
presence, and on their knees besought him to flee; but he still
clung to that haughty palace, as if it were his empire. But at
length the shout, “The Kremlin on fire!” was heard above the roar
of the conflagration, and Napoleon reluctantly consented to leave.
He descended into the street with his staff, and looked about for
a way of egress, but the flames blocked every passage. At length
they discovered a postern gate, leading to the Moskwa, and entered
it, but they had only entered still further into the danger. As
Napoleon cast his eyes around the open space, girdled and arched
with fire, smoke, and cinders, he saw one single street yet open,
but all on fire.

Into this he rushed, and amid the crash of falling houses, and
raging of the flames, over burning ruins, through clouds of rolling
smoke, and between walls of fire, he pressed on; and at length,
half suffocated, emerged in safety from the blazing city, and took
up his quarters in the imperial palace of Petrousky, nearly three
miles distant.

Mortier, relieved from his anxiety for the Emperor, redoubled his
efforts to arrest the conflagration. His men cheerfully rushed into
every danger. Breathing nothing but smoke and ashes,--canopied by
flame, and smoke, and cinders,--surrounded by walls of fire that
rocked to and fro, and fell with a crash amid the blazing ruins,
carrying down with them red hot roofs of iron,--he struggled
against an enemy, that no boldness could awe, or courage overcome.

Those brave troops had heard the tramp of thousands of cavalry,
sweeping battle without fear, but now they stood in still terror,
before the march of the conflagration, under whose burning
footsteps was heard the incessant crash of falling houses, and
palaces, and churches. The continuous roar of the raging hurricane,
mingled with that of the flames, was more terrible than the thunder
of artillery; and before this new foe, in the midst of this
battle of the elements, the awe-struck army stood powerless and
affrighted. When night descended again on the city, it presented
a spectacle, the like of which was never seen before, and which
baffles all description: the streets of fire, the heavens a canopy
of fire, and the entire body of the city a mass of fire, fed by a
hurricane that whirled the blazing fragments in a constant stream
through the air. Incessant explosions, from the blowing up of
stores of oil, and tar, and spirits, shook the very foundations of
the city, and sent volumes of smoke rolling furiously toward the
sky. Huge sheets of canvas, on fire, came floating, like messengers
of death, through the flames; the towers and domes of the churches
and palaces, glowed with red-hot heat over the wild sea below, then
tottering a moment on their bases, were hurled by the tempest into
the common ruin.

Thousands of wretches, before unseen, were driven by the heat from
the cellars and hovels, and streamed in an incessant throng through
the streets. Children were seen carrying their parents,--the
strong the weak,--while thousands more were staggering under loads
of plunder, they had snatched from the flames. This, too, would
frequently take fire in the falling shower, and the miserable
creatures would be compelled to drop it and flee for their lives.
Oh, it was a scene of woe and fear indescribable! A mighty and
close packed city of houses, and churches, and palaces, wrapt from
limit to limit in flames, which are fed by a whirling hurricane,
is a sight this world will seldom see. But this was all within the
city. To Napoleon, without, the spectacle was still more sublime
and terrific. When the flames had overcome all obstacles, and had
wrapped everything in their red mantle, that great city looked like
a sea of fire, swept by a tempest that drove it into vast billows.

Huge domes and towers, throwing off sparks like blazing firebrands,
now towered above these waves, and now disappeared in their
maddening flow, as they rushed and broke high over tops, and
scattered their spray of fire against the clouds. The heavens
themselves seemed to have caught the conflagration, and the angry
masses that swept it, rolled over a bosom of fire. Columns of flame
would rise and sink along the surface of the sea, and huge volumes
of black smoke suddenly shoot into the air, as if volcanoes were
working below.

The black form of the Kremlin alone towered above the chaos, now
wrapped in flame and smoke, and again emerged into view, standing
amid the scene of desolation and terror, like virtue in the midst
of a burning world, enveloped but unscathed by the devouring
elements. Napoleon stood and gazed upon this scene in silent awe.
Though nearly three miles distant, the windows and walls of his
apartment were so hot, that he could scarcely bear his hand against
them. Said he, years afterwards, “It was the spectacle of a sea
and billows of fire, a sky and clouds of flame; mountains of red
rolling flame, like immense waves of the sea, alternately bursting
forth, and elevating themselves to skies of fire, and then sinking
into the ocean of flame below. Oh! it was the most grand, the most
sublime, the most terrific sight the world ever beheld.”


MOSKWA, BATTLE OF.--Also called the battle of _Borodino_, which see.


MUSKET.--First used at the siege of Anasitti, 1414. Introduced
generally into the British army, and bows and arrows laid aside,
1521.


MUNCHENGRATZ AND GITSCHIN, BATTLES OF.--Fought, 28th June,
1866, between the Austrians and the Prussians. The _Times’_
correspondent, with the Prussian army, gives the following account
of these battles:

“The Prussian leader calculated that if he made a demonstration of
a careless march towards Munchengratz by the highroad and railway,
the Austrians, who might be on the Mushey Berg, would lie there
quiet till the heads of his columns had passed their position
in order that their artillery might take the marching troops in
reverse, and that he might himself in the meantime turn their
position. By the same bait he also hoped to hold his adversaries
on the Kaczowberg until their retreat was cut off. To effect this
double object, the seventh division was to move from Turnau by a
road on the south side of the Iser, whereby the village of Wschew
crosses the road from Podoll to Sobotka, at Zdiar. It was then
to take the Austrians on the Mushey Berg in rear--for this hill
slopes gently on its reverse side towards a rivulet which forms the
little lake of Zdiar. The division was afterwards to push on over
the hill and strike the road from Munchengratz to Furstenbruck,
between the village of Bossin and the former place. On the right
bank of the river General Herwarth was to advance from Huhnerwasser
on Munchengratz, cross the Iser, and occupy the town, throwing out
at the same time a division to his left, which by Mohelnitz should
take in reverse the defenders of the Kaczowberg. The divisions of
Horne and Manstein were to push down the main road from Podoll,
while strong reserves closed down to Podoll. A division of infantry
was to cross at Huberlow and attack the Kaczowberg in front, while
a division of cavalry kept the communications open between the
divisions on the right bank of the river. A strong division of
cavalry was also sent from Turnau to scour the country to Jicin in
the direction of Josephstadt.

About eight o’clock this morning, Prince Charles, with General Von
Voigts-Retz, his chief of the staff, and General Stuhltnahl, his
Quarter-master-General, came down to the bridge of Podoll, and
almost immediately the Jagers, who formed the advanced guard of
Horne’s division, crossed the bridge, but not before an opening
cannonade in the direction of Munchengratz told that Bittenfeld
was already engaged. On a hill upon the northern bank there was a
convenient spot from which to see the whole theatre of the combat,
and here the Prussian staff went to watch the course of the action.

Attention was called towards Munchengratz, where the progress of
Bittenfeld’s attack could be traced by the puffs of white smoke
which rose from the discharges of the artillery. The Prussian
cannonade was seen to be slowly advancing, and that of the Austrian
to be retiring, while a heavy cloud of black smoke rising close
beside the town showed that the Austrians had retired from the
right bank of the river and had burned the bridge. For a short
time the fight was stationary, but in about a quarter of an hour
a bright flash of flame and a much heavier smoke rising from the
Austrian line told that an ammunition waggon had exploded. Their
battery then ceased firing and rapidly retired, while a quick
advance of the Prussian cannonade showed that Bittenfeld’s pioneers
had quickly thrown their bridge, and that his corps was across the
Iser. But the Austrians did not go far, for in a short time they
were again in action in the direction of the Jung Bunzlau Road, and
one battery was drawing off towards Furstenbruck. It then seemed
that Bittenfeld had halted; the cannonade ceased in this direction.
The heads of the Prussian columns were some way past the hill, and
were pushing steadily towards Munchengratz, when the well-known
puff of smoke rising from the dark firs on the Mushey Berg plateau
showed that the Austrians had opened fire upon them. The battery
on the hill did not appear to be more than four guns, and at first
they fired slowly, nor did they do much execution. Their shells,
projected from so great a height, went straight into the ground,
and did not ricochet among the troops; but they were well aimed,
and in most cases burst at the proper moment, and every now and
then a man went down. A squadron of Uhlans was directed to pass
close along the foot of the Mushey Berg, so that the guns on the
plateau could not be depressed sufficiently to hurt them, and were
to gain a steep path which leads to the summit between the highest
point and Bossin, while an infantry brigade was to support the
movement; but before this plan could be carried into execution the
Seventh Division was heard engaged on the reverse side, and the
Austrian battery quickly limbered up and retired. The guns were
not intercepted by the Seventh Division; but here General Franscky
made 600 prisoners from the infantry which was on the hill to
support the battery. While the Seventh Division was still engaged
behind the Mushey Berg, four Austrian guns appeared on the summit
of the hill, between Bossin and Wessely, and opened fire against
the Prussian columns, who were now again advancing over the plain.
But Franscky was pushing towards them, and his artillery threatened
to enfilade them, so that they soon had to retire. The Seventh
Division then struck the road between Munchengratz and Bossin, and
attacked the latter village. Bittenfeld had already pushed towards
it from Munchengratz, and supported this attack. The first round
of Franscky’s artillery set fire to a house, which began to burn
fiercely, and the flames were soon communicated to the next, for
most of the cottages in this country are built of wood, which,
dried in the hot summer sun, readily takes fire. After a sharp
skirmish, the Austrians were driven from the village and retired in
the direction of Furstenbruck, and they left here 200 prisoners;
and General Herwarth von Bittenfeld had already captured 200.

With the occupation of the village of Bossin ended the combat of
Munchengratz, in which, by a series of strategic movements, with
little fighting, and slight loss--for the Prussian killed, wounded,
and missing do not number 100--Prince Frederick Charles has gained
about twelve miles of country, and has taken 1000 prisoners, has
turned the strong position of the Kaczowberg, and has effected his
secure junction with the corps of General Bittenfeld.

The corps of General von Schmitt marched yesterday from the
neighbourhood of Podoll to Sobotka, and there, striking the road
from Munchengratz to Gitschin, General von Schmitt changed the
direction of his march to the left, and advanced towards Gitschin.
He moved with his two divisions at some distance apart--that of
General von Werder, or the Third Division, as it is named in the
muster-roll of the army, led the way. Von Werder’s advanced guard
consisted of the 2nd battalion of Jagers, and the 3rd battalion of
the 42nd Regiment. In rear of these followed the three battalions
of the regiment of the late King of Prussia, the two remaining
battalions of the 42nd, and one battalion of the 14th Regiment,
with one six-pounder and two four-pounder field-batteries.

A strong Austrian force held the wood behind the first ravine,
with its sharpshooters hidden behind the trunks of the fir-trees,
with the view of compensating for the inferiority of their rifle
to the Prussian needle-gun. Behind each marksman two soldiers
were placed, whose only duty was to load their rifles and hand
them to the picked men to whom the firing was intrusted. The
Austrian artillery was placed behind the wood, so that it could
bring a cross fire on the opening in the front through which the
_chaussée_ passes, and strike heavily on the Sobotka bank of the
ravine and the open country beyond. As the Prussian advanced guard
approached the ravine, the Austrian batteries opened fire upon
them, and the marksmen from behind the trees also soon commenced
a biting fire. The Jagers and the men of the 42nd quickly spread
out as skirmishers, and, regardless of the withering fire to which
they themselves were exposed, showered bullets from their quickly
loaded arms against the defenders of the wood, while some of
their artillery quickly brought into action tried to silence the
Austrian guns. But the fight was unequal, the sharpshooters behind
the trees could rarely be seen, and the fire of the Prussians did
not tell much upon their concealed enemies, nor were their guns in
sufficient force to engage successfully the more numerous Austrian
pieces. The Jagers from among the trees were aiming well; the men
of the 42nd were falling fast, and it seemed that the defenders
would be able to hold the wood. But the rest of the Prussian
division was coming up; more artillery was already in action; and
the Austrian gunners began to fire with less effect. The regiment
of the King of Prussia soon arrived. The Prussian soldiers, unable
to make much impression with their fire on the riflemen in the
trees, were already anxious to come to close quarters, and then
General von Werder sent his men forward to take the woods with the
bayonet. They were carried, but not without loss, for the Austrians
retired from tree to tree, and only when pressed beyond the last
skirt of the wood retired under cover of their guns and reserves
to take up a position on the further brow of the next ravine. The
musketry fire recommenced. The opponents stood on either bank
of the hollow, and poured volley after volley into each other’s
ranks, while the artillery, from positions on the flanks of both
lines, sent their shells truly among their adversaries’ infantry.
But here the needle-gun had more success, for the Austrians stood
up clear against the sky, and soon the white uniforms began to go
down quickly. No troops so ill-armed could have stood before the
murderous fire which the Prussians directed against the opposite
line. The Austrians did all that men could do; but, after losing
fearfully, were obliged to fall back and take up their third
position in the village of Lochow.

It was now about seven o’clock in the evening; the combat
had already lasted almost two hours, but here it was renewed
more fiercely than ever. The Prussians, encouraged by their
success--brave soldiers and bravely led--eagerly came to the
attack. With hearts as big and with officers as devoted, the
Austrians stood with a desperate calmness to receive them.
On both sides the fighting was hard; but at any distance the
Austrian rifle had no chance against the needle-gun; and at close
quarters the boyish soldiers of the Kaiser could not cope with the
broad-shouldered men of Pomerania, who form the _corps d’armée_,
one division of which was here engaged. Yet for three-quarters of
an hour the little village of Lochow was held, and the continuous
rattle of the rifles and the heavy cannonade of the guns remaining
almost stationary told the determination of the assault and the
stoutness of the defence. But the Austrians were slowly forced from
house to house and from orchard to orchard, and had to retreat to
their last vantage ground on the top of the Gitschin bank of the
fourth ravine.

And here both sides re-engaged in the fight with the utmost fury.
The defenders felt that this was their last standing-point, and on
its maintenance depended the possession of Gitschin; the assailants
knew that success here would almost certainly bring them to the
object of all their exertions. The Prussian line soon formed on the
top of the opposite bank to that held by the Austrians, and then
began to fire rapidly against the brow where the Austrians stood.
The latter returned the fire, but from necessity more slowly; still
their guns smote the Prussian troops heavily, and the shells,
bursting in front of the assailants’ line, caused many casualties.
But the Pomeranians were highly excited, and it is said that a
heavy mass of the Prussians dashed down the road and rushed up the
opposite slope with their rifles at the charge. There a fierce
struggle ensued. The strong men of Pomerania pressed hard against
their lighter opponents, and pushed them beyond the brow of the
slope on to the level plain; yet the lithe and active Austrians
fought hard, and strove to drive their bayonets into the faces of
their taller antagonists; but strength and weight told, for their
more powerful adversaries urged them back foot by foot till a gap
was clearly opened in the defenders’ line. The musketry bullets
had also told sharply on the Austrians, and they were obliged to
retire. They drew off across the plain towards Gitschin, but not
in rout. Slowly and sullenly they drew back, suffering awful loss
in the open plain where the needle-gun had a fair range; but they
fought for every yard of ground, ever turning to send among the
advancing Prussians shots which were often truly aimed, but which
formed no sufficient return for the showers of bullets which were
rained upon themselves. For long the plain was the scene of the
advancing combat, and it was not till near midnight that General
von Werder occupied Gitschin. In the town the Austrians did not
stand; they held some houses at the entrance for a short time,
but these were carried, and then they retired rapidly towards the
south. In their haste they left their hospitals; and here, as
well as in Lochow, Von Werder’s division took a large number of
prisoners.”


MUTINY:--A memorable mutiny in the British fleet,
      for an advance of wages                      April 15th, 1797;
    Of the Nore                                    June, 1797;
    Of Admiral Mitchell’s fleet at Bantry Bay      December, 1801;
    Great Indian mutiny, begun                     March 27th, 1857.


MYCALE, BATTLE OF.--Fought, September 22nd, 479 B.C., between the
Greeks and Persians. The Persians consisted of about 100,000 men.
They were completely defeated, many thousands of them killed, their
camp burned, and the Greeks triumphantly embarked their troops, and
sailed to Samos with an immense booty.



N.


NAAS, BATTLE OF.--A desperate engagement between a body of the
King’s forces, consisting of the ancient Britons and the Armagh
militia. The insurgent Irish, who had just begun the Great
Rebellion of 1798, were 3000 strong, and were defeated with the
loss of 300 killed and some hundreds wounded. Fought, May 24th,
1798.


NARVA, BATTLE OF.--This was the celebrated battle in which Peter
the Great of Russia was totally defeated by the renowned Charles
XII of Sweden. Fought, November 30th, 1700. The Russians amounted
to 70,000 men, while the Swedes had only 20,000. The enemy lost
30,000 in killed, whilst as many surrendered to the conqueror.


NASEBY, BATTLE OF.--Between Charles I of England and the
Parliamentary army, under Fairfax and Cromwell. The main body of
the Royal army was commanded by Lord Astley. Prince Rupert led the
right wing, Sir Marmaduke Langdale the left, and the King himself
headed the body of reserve. The forces of the Parliament gained the
victory, the Royalists being obliged to abandon the field, losing
all their cannon and baggage and 5000 men made prisoners. Fought,
June 14th, 1645.


NAVY OF ENGLAND.--What the British Navy has done, and the number of
vessels captured by it, is shown in the following table:--

  --------------------------------------------------------
          In the French War, ending 1802.
  ------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------
     FORCE.   | French.| Dutch. |Spanish.| Other  | Total.
              |        |        |        |Nations.|
  ------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------
  Of the Line |    45  |    25  |    11  |    2   |    83
  Fifties     |     2  |     1  |     0  |    0   |     3
  Frigates    |   133  |    31  |    20  |    7   |   191
  Sloops, &c. |   161  |    32  |    55  |   16   |   264
              +--------+--------+--------+--------+-------
    Total     |   341  |    89  |    86  |   25   |   541
  ------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------

  ------------------------------------------------------------------
          In the French War, ending 1814.
  ------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+-------
     FORCE.   | French.|Spanish.| Danish.|Russian.|American.| Total.
              |        |        |        |        |         |
  ------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+-------
  Of the Line |    70  |    27  |    23  |     4  |     0   |   124
  Fifties     |     7  |     0  |     1  |     0  |     1   |     9
  Frigates    |    77  |    36  |    24  |     6  |     5   |   148
  Sloops, &c. |   188  |    64  |    16  |     7  |    13   |   288
              +--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+-------
    Total     |   342  |   127  |    64  |    17  |    19   |   569
  ------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+---------+-------


NAVARINO, BATTLE OF.--Fought on the 20th October, 1827. “The
atrocities which marked the warfare between the Greeks and Turks
were so shocking to humanity, that the Sovereigns of Europe felt
themselves bound to interfere, and a treaty for the pacification
of Greece was signed in London, on the 6th of July, 1827, by the
representatives of England, France, and Russia. In consequence
of this, the allied fleets in the Mediterranean prepared to
force the combatants to consent to an armistice, and blockaded
the Turkish fleet in the harbour of Navarino. Ibrahim Pacha, the
Turkish commander in the Morea, paying but little attention to the
remonstrances of the allied Admirals, the united fleets sailed into
harbour, on the 20th of October, under the command of Sir Edward
Codrington, to intimidate him into submission. A shot fired by
a Turkish vessel was the signal for a general engagement, which
lasted four hours. It terminated in the almost utter annihilation
of the Turkish fleet, with comparatively little loss to the allied
squadrons. The independence of Greece was virtually achieved by
this brilliant victory, and was further secured by the arrival
of a small military force from France; the Turkish government,
however, refused submission, and war was commenced against Russia.
The events of this war, though not properly belonging to English
history, demand a brief notice; in the first campaign the Turks
made an obstinate resistance, and gained some advantages over their
opponents; but in the following year (1829), the Russian arms were
everywhere successful; the passages of the Balkan were forced;
Adrianople, the second city in the empire, was captured, and the
Sultan forced to consent to terms of peace, dictated almost at the
gates of Constantinople. The demands of Russia were, however, less
exhorbitant than might have been expected under the circumstances,
but there is reason to believe that this moderation was inspired by
a dread of provoking the jealousy and resentment of England.”


NEVILL’S CROSS, BATTLE OF.--Fought October 17th, 1346, between the
Scots and English. More than 15,000 of the Scots were slain.

“Philippa, Edward’s Queen, took upon her the conduct of the field,
and prepared to repulse the enemy in person: accordingly, having
made Lord Percy general under her, she met the Scots at a place
called Nevill’s Cross, near Durham, and offered them battle. The
Scots King was no less impatient to engage; he imagined that he
might obtain an easy victory against undisciplined troops, and
headed by a woman. But he was miserably deceived. His army was
quickly routed and driven from the field. 15,000 of his men were
cut to pieces; and he himself, with many of his nobles and knights,
were taken prisoners, and carried in triumph to London, A.D. 1346.”

Another historian says:--

“Some years after his return home, King David burst into England
at the head of an army. Edward was absent in France, and David
thought to avail himself of the opportunity. It turned out a dear
business to him. Marching southward as far as Durham, he laid waste
the country with fire and sword. At a place called Nevill’s Cross,
an English army came up. A Scottish knight, seeing their archers
gathering in a vast cloud, and knowing well the bitter shower which
that cloud would discharge, said to the King, “Give me but 100
horse, and I will disperse them all.” The conceited and headstrong
King gave no heed. The archers commenced their deadly practice
without interruption. Three hours of the arrow sleet, three hours
of furious charging by the English horse, and the Scots were a rout
of fugitives. Their King was taken prisoner and convoyed to London.
Mounted on a tall black horse that he might be seen by all the
people, the son of Robert the Bruce was conducted to the Tower.”


NEWARK, BATTLE OF.--This battle was fought March 21st, 1644,
between the army of the Parliament and the Royal forces, under
Prince Rupert. He was defeated, and here afterwards Charles I put
himself into the hands of the Scotch army.


NEWBURY, BATTLES OF.--The first battle, fought September 20th,
1643, was between the Parliamentary army and that of Charles I.
It lasted till midnight, and among the slain was Lucius Carey,
Viscount Falkland. A second battle was fought here next year,
October 10th, and the result, as the first, was equally dubious,
both sides claiming victory.


NEW ORLEANS, BATTLE OF.--(See _Orleans_.)


NIAGARA FORT.--_Upper Canada._--“The Fort of Niagara was a place
of great importance, and served to command all the communication
between the northern and western French settlements. The siege
was begun with vigour, and promised an easy conquest; but General
Prideaux was killed in the trenches by the bursting of a mortar,
so that the whole command of the expedition devolved upon General
Johnson, who omitted nothing to push forward the vigorous
operations of his predecessor, to which also he added his own
popularity with the soldiers under him. A body of French troops,
who were sensible of the importance of this fort, attempted to
relieve it; but Johnson attacked them with intrepidity and success;
for in less than an hour their whole army was put to the rout.
The garrison soon after perceiving the fate of their countrymen,
surrendered prisoners of war.”


NICOPOLIS, BATTLE OF.--Between the Christian powers, under
Sigismund, King of Hungary, and the Turks. This battle, fought
A.D. 1396, is celebrated as the first fought between the Cross and
Crescent. The Christians triumphed; the Turks lost 20,000 in slain,
and 20,000 in wounded and prisoners.


NILE, BATTLE OF THE.--Fought, August 1st, 1798, between the fleets
of England and France. The French fleet arrived at Alexandria
August 1st, 1798, and Admiral Brueys, not being able to enter port,
which time and neglect had ruined, moored the ships in Aboukir
Bay, in a strong and compact line of battle; the headmost vessel,
according to his own account, being as close as possible to a shoal
on the north-west, and the rest of the fleet forming a kind of
curve along the line of deep water, so as not to be turned by any
means in the south-west.

The advantage of numbers, both in ships, guns, and men, was in
favour of the French. They had 13 ships of the line and 4 frigates,
carrying 1196 guns, and 11,230 men. The English had the same number
of ships of the line, and one 50 gun ship, carrying 1012 guns, and
8068 men. The English ships were all seventy-fours; the French had
three 80 gun ships, and one three-decker of 120.

During the whole pursuit it had been Nelson’s practice, whenever
circumstances would permit, to have his captains on board the
_Vanguard_, and explain to them his own ideas of the different and
best modes of attack, and such plans as he proposed to execute
on falling in with the enemy, whatever their situation might be.
There is no possible position, it is said, which he did not take
into consideration. His officers were thus fully acquainted with
his principles of tactics; and such was his confidence in their
abilities, that the only thing determined upon, in case they
should find the French at anchor, was for the ships to form as
most convenient for their mutual support, and to anchor by the
stern. “First gain your victory,” he said, “and then make the
best use of it you can.” The moment he perceived the position of
the French, that intuitive genius with which Nelson was endowed
displayed itself; and it instantly struck him that where there
was room for an enemy’s ship to swing there was room for one of
ours to anchor. The plan which he intended to pursue, therefore,
was to keep entirely on the outer side of the French line, and
station his ships, as far as he was able, one on the outer bow
and another on the outer quarter of each of the enemy’s. Captain
Berry, when he comprehended the scope of the design, exclaimed with
transport, “If we succeed, what will the world say?” “There is no
_if_ in the case,” replied the Admiral; “that we _shall_ succeed
is certain--who may live to tell the story is a very different
question.”

As the squadron advanced, they were assailed by a shower of shot
and shell from the batteries on the island, and the enemy opened
a steady fire from the starboard side of their whole line, within
half gunshot distance, full into the bows of our van ships. It was
received in silence; the men on board every ship were employed
aloft in furling sails, and below in tending the braces, and making
ready for anchoring;--a miserable sight for the French, who, with
all their skill and all their courage, and all their advantages of
number and situation, were upon that element on which, when the
hour of trial comes, a Frenchman has no hope. Admiral Brueys was
a brave and able man; yet the indelible character of his country
broke out in one of his letters, wherein he delivered it as his
private opinion that the English had missed him, because, not being
superior in force, they did not think it prudent to try their
strength with him. The moment was now come in which he was to be
undeceived.

A French brig was instructed to decoy the English. By manœuvring
so as to tempt them towards a shoal lying off the island of
Beguieres; but Nelson either knew the danger, or suspected some
deceit, and the lure was unsuccessful. Captain Foley led the way in
the _Goliath_, out-sailing the _Zealous_, which for some minutes
disputed this post of honour with him. He had long conceived that,
if the enemy were moored in line of battle in with the land, the
best plan of attack would be to lead between them and the shore,
because the French guns on that side were not likely to be manned,
nor even ready for action. Intending, therefore, to fix himself
on the inner bow of the _Guerrier_, he kept as near the edge of
the bank as the depth of water would admit; but his anchor hung,
and, having opened his fire, he drifted to the second ship, the
_Conquérant_, before it was cleared, then anchored by the stern,
inside of her, and in ten minutes shot away her masts. Hood, in the
_Zealous_, perceiving this, took the station which the _Goliath_
intended to have occupied, and totally disabled the _Guerrier_
in twelve minutes. The third ship which doubled the enemy’s van
was the _Orion_, Sir J. Saumarez; she passed to windward of the
_Zealous_, and opened her larboard guns as long as they bore on
the _Guerrier_; then passing inside the _Goliath_, sunk a frigate
which annoyed her, hauled toward the French line, and, anchoring
inside between the fifth and sixth ships from the _Guerrier_, took
her station on the larboard bow of the _Franklin_ and the quarter
of the _Peuple Souverain_, receiving and returning the fire of
both. The sun was now nearly down. The _Audacious_, Captain Gould,
pouring a heavy fire into the _Guerrier_ and the _Conquérant_,
fixed herself on the larboard bow of the latter, and when that ship
struck, passed on to the _Peuple Souverain_. The _Theseus_, Captain
Miller, followed, brought down the _Guerrier’s_ remaining main and
mizen masts, then anchored inside the _Spartiate_, the third in the
French line.

While these advanced ships doubled the French line, the _Vanguard_
was the first that anchored on the outer side of the enemy, within
half pistol shot of their third ship, the _Spartiate_. Nelson had
six colours flying in different parts of the rigging, lest they
should be shot away--that they should be struck, no British Admiral
considers as a possibility. He veered half a cable, and instantly
opened a tremendous fire, under cover of which the other four
ships of his division, the _Minotaur_, _Bellerophon_, _Defence_
and _Majestic_, sailed on ahead of the Admiral. In a few minutes
every man stationed at the first six guns in the fore part of the
_Vanguard’s_ deck was killed or wounded--these guns were three
times cleared. Captain Louis, in the _Minotaur_, anchored next
ahead, and took off the fire of the _Aquilon_, the fourth in the
enemy’s line. The _Bellerophon_, Captain Darby, passed ahead, and
dropped her stern anchor on the starboard bow of the _Orient_,
seventh in the line, Bruey’s own ship of one hundred and twenty
guns, whose difference in force was in proportion of more than
seven to three, and whose weight of ball, from the lower deck
alone, exceeded that from the whole broadside of the _Bellerophon_.
Captain Peyton, in the _Defence_, took his station ahead of the
_Minotaur_ and engaged the _Franklin_, the sixth in the line, by
which judicious movement the British line remained unbroken. The
_Majestic_, Captain Wescott, got entangled with the main rigging
of one of the French ships astern of the _Orient_, and suffered
dreadfully from that three-decker’s fire; but she swung clear, and
closely engaging the _Heureux_, the ninth ship in the starboard
bow, received also the fire of the _Tonnant_, which was the eighth
in the line. The other four ships of the British squadron, having
been detached previous to the discovery of the French, were at
a considerable distance when the action began. It commenced at
half-after six, about seven the night closed, and there was no
other light than that from the fire of the contending fleets.

Trowbridge, in the _Culloden_, then foremost of the remaining
ships, was two leagues astern. He came on sounding, as the others
had done. As he advanced, the increasing darkness increased the
difficulty of navigation, and suddenly, after having found eleven
fathoms’ water, before the lead could be hove again, he was fast
a-ground; nor could all his own exertions, joined to those of the
_Leander_ and _Mutiné_ brig, which came to his assistance, get
him off in time to bear a part in the action. His ship, however,
served as a beacon to the _Alexander_ and _Swiftsure_, which would
else, from the course they were holding, have gone considerably
further on the reef, and must inevitably have been lost. These
ships entered the bay and took their stations, in the darkness,
in a manner still spoken of with admiration by all who remember
it. Captain Hallowell, in the _Swiftsure_, as he was bearing down,
fell in with what seemed to be a strange sail. Nelson had directed
his ships to hoist four lights horizontally at the mizen peak as
soon as it became dark, and this vessel had no such distinction.
Hallowell, however, with great judgment, ordered his men not to
fire. “If she was an enemy,” he said, “she was in too disabled
a state to escape; but, from her sails being loose, and the way
in which her head was, it was probable she might be an English
ship.” It was the _Bellerophon_, overpowered by the huge _Orient_.
Her lights had gone overboard, nearly two hundred of her crew
were killed or wounded, all her masts and cables had been shot
away, and she was drifting out of the line towards the lee-side
of the bay. Her station at this important time was occupied by
the _Swiftsure_, which opened a steady fire on the quarter of the
_Franklin_ and the bows of the French Admiral. At the same instant
Captain Ball, with the _Alexander_, passed under his stern, and
anchored within sight on his larboard quarter, raking him, and
keeping a severe fire of musketry upon his decks. The last ship
which arrived to complete the destruction of the enemy was the
_Leander_. Captain Thompson, finding that nothing could be done
that night to get off the _Culloden_, advanced with the intention
of anchoring athwart-hawse of the _Orient_. The _Franklin_ was so
near her ahead, that there was not room for him to pass clear of
the two; he therefore took his station athwart-hawse of the latter,
in such a position as to rake both.

The two first ships of the French line had been dismasted within a
quarter of an hour after the commencement of the action; and the
others in that time suffered so severely, that victory was already
certain. The third, fourth and fifth were taken possession of at
half-past eight. Meantime Nelson received a severe wound on the
head from a piece of langridge shot. Captain Berry caught him in
his arms as he was falling. The great effusion of blood occasioned
an apprehension that the wound was mortal. Nelson himself thought
so; a large flap of the skin of the forehead cut from the bone, had
fallen over the eye; and, the other being blind, he was in total
darkness. When he was carried down, the surgeon, in the midst of
a scene scarcely to be conceived by those who have never seen a
cockpit in time of action, and the heroism which is displayed amid
its horrors--with a natural but pardonable eagerness, quitted the
poor fellow then under his hands, that he might instantly attend
the admiral. “No!” said Nelson, “I will take my turn with my brave
fellows.” Nor would he suffer his own wound to be examined, till
every man who had been previously wounded was properly attended to.
Fully believing that the wound was mortal, and that he was about to
die, as he had ever desired, in battle and in victory, he called
the chaplain, and desired him to deliver what he supposed to be his
dying remembrance to Lady Nelson; he then sent for Captain Louis
on board, from the _Minotaur_, that he might thank him personally
for the great assistance he had rendered to the _Vanguard_; and,
ever mindful of those who deserved to be his friends, appointed
Captain Hardy from the brig to the command of his own ship, Captain
Berry having to go home with the news of the victory. When the
surgeon came in due time to examine the wound (for it was in vain
to entreat him to let it be examined sooner), the most anxious
silence prevailed; and the joy of the wounded men, and of the
whole crew, when they heard that the hurt was superficial, gave
Nelson deeper pleasure than the unexpected assurance that his
life was in no danger. The surgeon requested, and, as far as he
could, ordered him to remain quiet; but Nelson could not rest. He
called for his secretary, Mr. Campbell, to write the despatches.
Campbell had himself been wounded, and was so affected at the
blind and suffering state of the Admiral that he was unable to
write. The chaplain was sent for; but before he came, Nelson,
with his characteristic eagerness, took the pen, and contrived to
trace a few words, marking his devout sense of the success which
had already been obtained. He was now left alone; when suddenly a
cry was heard on the deck that the _Orient_ was on fire. In the
confusion he found his way up, unassisted and unnoticed; and, to
the astonishment of every one, appeared on the quarter-deck, where
he immediately gave order that boats should be sent to the relief
of the enemy.

It was soon after nine that the fire on the _Orient_ broke out.
Brueys was dead; he had received three wounds, yet would not
leave his spot; a fourth cut him almost in two. He desired not
to be carried below, but to be left to die upon deck. The flames
soon mastered his ship. Her sides had just been painted, and
the oil-jars and paint-buckets were lying on the poop. By the
prodigious light of this conflagration, the situation of the
fleets could now be perceived, the colours of both being clearly
distinguishable. About ten o’clock the ship blew up, with a shock
which was felt to the very bottom of every vessel. Many of her
officers and men jumped overboard, some clinging to the spars and
pieces of wreck with which the sea was strewn; others swimming
to escape from the destruction which they momently dreaded. Some
were picked up by our boats; and some, even in the heat and fury
of the action, were dragged into the lower ports of the nearest
British ships by the British Sailors. The greater part of her
crew, however, stood the danger to the last, and continued to
fire from the lower deck. This tremendous explosion was followed
by a silence not less awful; the firing immediately ceased on
both sides; and the first sound which broke the silence was the
dash of her shattered masts and yards falling into the water
from the vast height to which they had been exploded. It is upon
record, that a battle between two armies was once broken off by an
earthquake:--such an event would be felt like a miracle: but no
incident in war produced by human means, has ever equalled the
sublimity of this coinstantaneous pause, and all its circumstances.

About seventy of the _Orient’s_ crew were saved by the English
boats. Among the many hundreds who perished were the Commodore,
Casa Bianca, and his son, a brave boy only ten years old. They were
seen floating on a shattered mast when the ship blew up. She had
money on board (the plunder of Malta) to the amount of six hundred
thousand pounds sterling. The masses of burning wreck which were
scattered by the explosion, excited for some moments apprehensions
in the English which they had never felt from any other danger. Two
large pieces fell into the main and foretops of the _Swiftsure_,
without injuring any person. A port-fire also fell into the
main-royal of the _Alexander_; the fire which it occasioned was
speedily extinguished. Captain Ball had provided, as far human
foresight could provide, against any such danger. All the shrouds
and sails of his ship, not absolutely necessary for its immediate
management, were thoroughly wetted, and so rolled up, that they
were as hard and as little inflammable as so many solid cylinders.

The firing recommenced with the ships to leeward of the centre, and
continued till about three. At daybreak the _Guillaume Tell_ and
the _Généreuse_, the two rear ships of the enemy, were the only
French ships of the line which had their colours flying: they cut
their cables in the forenoon, not having been engaged, and stood
out to sea, and two frigates with them. The _Zealous_ pursued; but,
as there was no other ship in a condition to support Captain Hood,
he was recalled. It was generally believed by the officers that,
if Nelson had not been wounded, not one of these ships could have
escaped; the four certainly could not, if the _Culloden_ had got
into action; and, if the frigates belonging to the squadron had
been present, not one of the enemy’s fleet would have left Aboukir
Bay. These four vessels, however, were all that escaped; and the
victory was the most complete and glorious in the annals of naval
history. “Victory,” said Nelson, “is not a name strong enough for
such a scene;” he called it a conquest. Of thirteen sail of the
line, nine were taken and two burnt; of the four frigates, one
was sunk; another the _Artemise_ was burnt in a villainous manner
by her captain, M. Estandlet, who having fired a broadside at the
_Theseus_, struck his colours, then set fire to the ship, and
escaped with most of his crew to shore. The British loss in killed
and wounded amounted to 895. Westcott was the only captain who
fell: 3105 of the French, including the wounded, were sent on shore
by cartel, and 5225 perished.

Thus ended this eventful battle, which exalted the name of Nelson
to a level at least with that of the celebrated conqueror, whose
surprising success at the head of the French armies had then begun
to draw the attention of the civilized world. The first words of
his despatches on this memorable occasion prove his gratitude
to that Providence which had protected him:--“_Almighty God has
blessed his Majesty’s arms._”


NISBET, BATTLE OF.--Fought, May 7th, 1602, between the English and
Scotch armies,--10,000 of the latter were left dead on the field
and in the pursuit.


NORTHALLERTON, BATTLE OF.--_Or the Standard._--A furious engagement
fought in Yorkshire, England, August 22nd, 1137, between the
Scottish and English armies. This battle received the latter name
from a high crucifix which was erected by the English on a waggon
and was carried along by the troops. (See _Standard, Battle of_)


NORTHAMPTON, BATTLE OF.--Fought between the Duke of York and Henry
VI of England. Henry was defeated, and made prisoner, after a
bloody fight, which took place July 19th, 1460.


NOIR, BATTLES OF.--First, fought, August 15th, 1799, between the
French army commanded by Joubert, and the Russians, under Suwarrow.
The French were defeated with immense slaughter,--10,000 being left
dead on the battlefield, among whom was their General, Joubert, and
several distinguished officers. A second battle was fought, January
8th, 1800, between the Austrian and French armies, when the latter
a second time were signally defeated.


NUMANTIA, SIEGE OF.--Celebrated in the life of Scipio Africanus.
He besieged the city with 60,000 men, the Numantines had only
4000 able to bear arms, but for 14 years it bravely withstood all
attempts, till at last it fell, and every soul preferred to perish
rather than fall into the hands of the Romans.



O.


ORLEANS.--_France._--Besieged by John Talbot, the Earl of
Salisbury, October 12th, 1428; relieved, and the siege raised by
the Maid of Orleans--Joan of Arc--from which circumstance she
received her name.


ORLEANS NEW.--The British made an attack on New Orleans, December,
1814; they were repulsed by the Americans, under General Jackson,
with great loss January, 7th, 1815. The American troops were
entrenched behind a large number of cotton bales, and the British
were obliged to advance in an open and exposed plain for more than
a mile, during which they were literally mowed down by the shot
from the cotton batteries. Some of the bravest Peninsular heroes
fell here and met a soldier’s grave.


ORTHES, BATTLE OF.--Fought, February 27th, 1814, between the
British and Spanish armies, on the one side, and the French on
the other. The Allies were commanded by Wellington--the French by
Soult. In this memorable engagement the Allies gained a complete
victory.


OSTROLENKA, BATTLE OF.--Between the Poles and Russians. It was one
of the most sanguinary and desperate battles fought between the
two countries, and took place May 26th, 1831. On both sides the
slaughter was immense, but the Poles remained masters of the field.


OTTERBURN, BATTLE OF.--Fought, July 31st, 1388. The following is a
graphic account of this engagement:--

“One of the Scotch inroads into England, in the time of Robert II,
led to the famous battle of Otterburn, or “Chevy Chase.” This was
considered, by the judges of fighting in those days, to have been
the best fought, and, for the numbers engaged, the most severe of
all the battles of that age. There was not a man, knight or squire,
that did not acquit himself gallantly, fighting hand to hand with
his enemy. It was about the time of Lammas, when the moor men were
busy with their hay harvest, that the Earl of Douglas rode into
England to drive a prey. The warders on the walls of Newcastle and
Durham saw, rising in all directions, thick columns of smoke. This
was the first intimation of the presence of the Scots. In their
return homeward they halted three days before Newcastle, where they
kept up an almost continual skirmish. The Earl of Douglas had a
long combat with Sir Henry Percy, and took his pennon. “Hotspur, I
will carry this pennon into Scotland,” said the Douglas, “and fix
it on the tower of my castle of Dalkeith, that it may be seen from
far.” “That shall you never, Earl of Douglas,” said Hotspur; “be
assured you shall never have this pennon to boast of.” “I will fix
your pennon before my tent,” said Douglas, “and shall see if you
will venture to take it away.”

The Scots resumed their march homeward. They encamped at Otterburn,
“upon the bent so brown,” and Douglas declared his resolution to
wait there for two or three days, and see if the Percy would come
to recover his pennon. On the evening of the second day the Scots
were supping, some, indeed, had gone to sleep, when a loud shout
of “Percy! Percy!” was heard, and the English were upon them. It
was a sweet moonlight evening in August, clear and bright, and the
breeze blew soft and fresh. The Scots, though somewhat taken by
surprise, rose to the fight cool and “siccar,” as at Bannockburn
itself. The lances crossed, and many on both sides went down at the
first shock. Douglas, shouting his war cry, ordered his banner to
advance. Percy, eager to encounter the Douglas, advanced his banner
also. The two banners met, and many valiant deeds of arms were done
around them. But the English were three to one, and the Scots were
beginning to be forced back.

Seeing this, the Earl of Douglas seized a battle-axe with both
hands and dashed into the midst of the enemy, his men following
close. He struck right and left, and cut a lane deep into the
battalion of the English. At last three spears were thrust against
him all at once. One struck him on the shoulder, one on the breast,
and the stroke glanced off his armour down into his groin; the
third struck him in the thigh. With these three strokes he was
borne to the earth, and as soon as he fell a battle-axe hewed deep
into his head. The English marched over him without knowing who he
was.

Sir John Sinclair, cousin to the Earl, knelt beside him, supported
his bloody head, and asked, “Cousin, how fares it with you?”
“Indifferently,” said he. “Thanks be to God, there are but few
of my ancestors who have died in their beds. I bid you revenge
my death, for my heart grows every moment more faint. Lift up my
banner, which is on the ground, from the death of the valiant
squire who bore it. Shout ‘Douglas!’ and tell neither friend nor
foe but what I am with you.” Having spoken thus he expired. His
orders were obeyed. They cast a mantle over his body, took his
banner from the dead hand of the squire, raised it, and shouted,
“Douglas!” The Scots came thronging up to the cry. They levelled
their lances, and pushed with such courage that the English were
soon driven beyond the spot where the Douglas lay. Again the shout
of “Douglas!” rose more vehement and loud. The Scots in a dense
mass renewed the onset, bore the enemy before them, and broke them
so completely that they never rallied again. Percy himself was made
prisoner. He and his pennon, too, had to go to Scotland.

Thus the dead Douglas won the field. The Scots laid the body of
their leader in a coffin, which they placed on a car, and began
their march home. They came without interruption to Melrose, and
there, in the fair abbey, the Douglas was laid. The banner, about
which his dying charge had been given at Otterburn, was hung above
the place of the warrior’s rest.”


OUDENARDE, BATTLE OF.--Fought, July 11th, 1708, between the Allies,
commanded by Marlborough, and Prince Eugene and the French. The
French were defeated, and completely routed, with great loss. The
result of this victory was, that the French King entered into a
negotiation for peace.


OULART, BATTLE OF.--Fought, May 27th, 1798, between a body of 3000
Irish insurgents and the King’s troop, a small number. In this
engagement the North Cork Militia were cut to pieces--the Lieut.
Colonel, one Sergeant and three Privates alone remaining.


OURIQUE, BATTLE OF.--Fought, July 25th, 1139. Alfonso, Count of
Portugal, encountered five Saracen Kings and an immense army of
Moors on the plains of Ourique. After a glorious victory, he was
hailed King by his soldiers on the spot. He afterwards entered
Lisbon in triumph, and overthrew the Moorish dominion in Portugal.
This was, perhaps, the greatest battle recorded in the History of
Portugal.



P.


PALESTRO, BATTLE OF.--Fought, 29th May, 1859, between the Austrians
and the French.

“On the 29th May, was fought the battle of Palestro. The Austrian
avant-garde, 1500 strong, occupied the villages of Palestro and
Vinzaglio. They were carried by the Allies at the point of the
bayonet, and two cannons, the first captured since the opening of
the war, were taken. The next morning the Austrians advanced to
retake Palestro. Having cannonaded the village, a body of Austrians
advanced to cut off the communication between the Piedmontese
troops and the river. Perceiving this, the Zouaves, who had arrived
during the night, threw themselves, in spite of a murderous fire,
on the Austrians, take eight guns and put the Austrians to flight.
During this engagement the King of Sardinia headed an attack on
a battery. The Emperor of the French, a few days afterwards,
complimenting him on his bravery, told him that if he wished to be
King of Italy, he must take rather more care of his august person.
This engagement inspired the Austrians with a great dread of the
Zouaves, whom they call the _quei terribili zuai_.”


PAMPELUNA, BATTLE OF.--Taken by the French on their invasion of
Spain; invested by the British; hence very bloody engagements, July
27th and 29th, 1813. It surrendered to the British same year.


PARMA, BATTLES OF.--The confederates, England, France and Spain,
fought against the Emperor of Austria, June 29th, 1734. Both sides
claimed the victory. A second battle, called the great battle of
Parma, in which the French, under Marshal McDonald, were defeated
by the celebrated Suwarrow, with the loss of 20,000 men and four
Generals, July 12th, 1799.


PATAY, BATTLE OF.--This battle was fought, June 10th, 1429. Joan
of Arc was present in this battle. The French signally defeated
the English; the consequence of which was that Charles VII of
France entered Rheims in triumph, and was crowned July 17th, same
year--Joan of Arc assisting in the ceremony in full armour and
holding the sword of state.


PAVIA, BATTLE OF.--Fought, February 24th, 1525, between the French
and Imperialists, when the former were defeated and their King,
Francis I, after fighting with heroic bravery and killing seven
men with his own hand, was obliged to surrender himself a prisoner
of war. He wrote to his mother a letter acquainting her with the
melancholy news in these expressive words--“_Tout est perdu,
Madame, hors l’honneur._”


PEAFFENDORF, BATTLE OF.--Fought, August 15th, 1760, between the
Imperialists and Prussians; the Austrians were totally defeated by
the King of Prussia, who, by this victory, prevented the Austrian
army from forming a junction with the Russians.


PHALANX.--This word originally signified a battalion or squadron.
The Greek Phalanx consisted of 8000 men, in a square battalion,
with shields joined and spears crossing each other. The celebrated
Phalanx of Epaminondas, or the Theban Phalanx, was wedge shaped,
and by it he achieved his two great victories. The modern square
is based on the Grecian Phalanx, which was itself, as well as the
Roman Orb, taken from the Theban. The renowned Macedonian Phalanx
of Alexander the Great’s father, Philip, was instituted B.C. 360.
This consisted of 16,000 picked men divided into four equal parts
of 4000 each. They performed their evolutions upon the enomoty
or single file, whether it were required to extend or deepen the
line, and there was an interval between every two sections for the
convenience of manœuvring.


PHARSALIA, BATTLE OF.--Fought, May 12th, 48 B.C., between Julius
Cæsar and Pompey.

“The battle commenced about daybreak, and before noon the army of
Pompey was utterly defeated. Pompey himself, early in the battle,
seemed entirely to have lost his presence of mind, and fled in
despair to his tent, there to await the result. Cæsar, determined
to make the most of his advantage, notwithstanding the weariness
of his troops, did not permit the pursuit to slacken till the army
of Pompey was entirely scattered. A considerable body of them had
taken refuge in an adjacent mountain. By cutting off all hope
of succor, Cæsar induced them to surrender. He received their
submission with the greatest gentleness, and forbade his soldiers
from offering violence to their vanquished countrymen. This was
the most complete victory Cæsar ever obtained. His loss did not
exceed 200, while that of Pompey was 10,000, and 24,000 surrendered
themselves prisoners of war. On passing over the battle field, so
thickly strewn with Romans, Cæsar is said to have been affected
even to tears, while he exclaimed to one near him, “They would have
it so.”


PHILIPPI, BATTLE OF.--Fought, October, 42 B.C., between Octavius
Cæsar and Marc Antony, on the one side, and Brutus and Cassius on
the other.

“In the meantime, Brutus and Cassius, the principal conspirators
against Cæsar, having retired into Greece, persuaded the Roman
students at Athens to declare for the cause of freedom. In Syria
and Macedonia they succeeded in raising large armies, and soon
found themselves in a condition to support a contest on which the
empire of the world depended. While at Sardis, Brutus and Cassius
are said to have had a serious misunderstanding, the effect of
a jealousy which had been industriously raised between them.
But no bad consequences arose from it, for immediately joining
their armies, they hastened to oppose Antony and Octavius, who
were rapidly advancing to meet them. Once more the empire of the
world was about to be decided by a single battle. It was a time
of fearful suspense. Should the arms of Brutus be successful, the
Roman people might again form a free republic. On the other hand,
should Octavius triumph, they had to fear a worse tyranny than ever
had been exercised by Julius Cæsar. Brutus and Cassius took their
station each on a little hill near the city of Philippi. Behind
them was the sea, by which they might obtain supplies, and between
them and the plain on which the Triumviri had encamped their army,
was an impassable morass. In this favorable position, it was their
policy to delay a battle as long as possible. On the contrary, the
Triumviri, not being able to obtain supplies by sea, and conscious
that their army could not long be sustained by the resources of the
surrounding country, were eager immediately to engage. A road was
constructed by them through the morass which separated the armies.
The tall reeds of the morass having concealed the soldiers while
making the road, Brutus and Cassius were in some measure taken by
surprise when the enemy advanced over it, and the impatience of
their own soldiers prevented a longer delay.

A battle therefore ensued. Antony led his forces against that part
of the army commanded by Cassius, and in a short time put his
cavalry to flight. Cassius did all that the courage of a single man
could do to rally his troops, but in vain. Supposing the battle to
be entirely lost, and determined not to fall into the hands of the
enemy, he returned into his tent and killed himself. Brutus still
kept possession of the camp, and did all in his power to encourage
his men. Still he determined for the present to avoid seeking
another battle. His design was to starve the enemy, whom he know to
be in great want of provisions. After a respite of twenty days, he
was, however, forced to give in to the impatience of his men, and
try the fate of a battle. In the engagement that followed, wherever
Brutus commanded in person, he had the advantage. But the troops
of Cassius being seized with a panic, communicated their terror to
the rest, and soon the whole army gave way. In the midst of his
bravest officers Brutus fought with undaunted courage. The son of
Cato, and the brother of Cassius, fell fighting at his side. At
last, however, yielding to the necessity of the case, Brutus fled.
Octavius and Antony, secure of the victory, thought only of getting
Brutus into their power. He was on the point of being overtaken,
when Lucilius, his friend, determined to save his life by the
sacrifice of his own. Giving himself up to a band of Thracians,
he told them he was Brutus, and requested to be conducted into the
presence of their General. Antony seeing the Thracians approach,
and being informed of the prisoner’s capture, prepared himself
for an interview with his enemy. But Lucilius, advancing with a
cheerful air, said, “It is not Brutus that is taken. Fortune has
not yet had the power to commit so great an outrage upon virtue.
As for my life, it is well lost in preserving his honor. Take
it, for I have deceived you.” Antony, struck with such fidelity,
pardoned him, and gave him his friendship. Meanwhile Brutus, with a
few friends had escaped over a rivulet, and night coming on, they
concealed themselves under a rock. An officer whom Brutus had sent
out to ascertain the extent of their defeat, did not return, and
he rightly judged that he had fallen into the hands of the enemy.
Before the first battle, Brutus had told Cassius that if he was
defeated, he would not fall alive into the power of Octavius, and
he now prepared to end his misfortunes with his life. After calling
to mind with great tenderness many of his friends, who had fallen
in the battle, he bade farewell to all present, one by one, saying
aloud, that he was happy in never having been betrayed by any one
whom he had trusted as a friend. Soon after, falling upon his
sword, he expired in the forty-third year of his age.”


PIGEON HILL.--Famous as the scene of a skirmish between the British
Regulars and Volunteers and the Fenian bandits, who attempted to
invade Canada during the past summer. The following gives honor to
whom honor is due, and is written by a gentleman who can be relied
on:

“If any evidence were required, more than we possess, of the
essentially weak and contemptible character of the Fenian
organization, the circumstances attending the operations of
Her Majesty’s forces and our own volunteers on Saturday, June
9th, in the neighborhood of Pigeon Hill, would furnish it. As
one who accompanied that expedition, and had an opportunity of
observing all that passed, I shall be happy to furnish you with
a few details. I arrived at St. Armand’s Station between 11 and
12 o’clock, just at the moment that two waggons from Pigeon Hill
arrived, bringing five Fenian prisoners, who had been taken that
morning by different parties, whose names I need not mention, as I
cannot give all with accuracy. I must confess that my astonishment
was great when I saw them. Three were little scamps--such as one
sees about the streets of all great cities, as news-boys, &c.
One was a tolerably stout, resolute looking-fellow, the other a
mild-looking young man, much better dressed, who, I am sorry
to say, stated himself to have been born in Yorkshire, though
hailing from Montpelier, Vt. Shortly after they were lodged in
the guard-house, another prisoner, an able-bodied hard-looking
customer, about 28 or 30 years of age, was brought in. He had a
tremendous black eye, which he told me he received in a brawl
with his own companions the night previous. Leaving these in the
custody of the St. Armand volunteers, the column of attack started
for Pigeon Hill about 2 P.M. The Granby and Waterloo volunteers,
commanded by Captain Millar, formed the advance guard, being
followed by two 12-pounder Armstrong guns of Captain Balfour’s
battery, with their complements of artillerymen, commanded by
Captain Phipps, R.A. These were followed by two companies of the
Rifle Brigade, under Major Nixon, who, I understand, commanded
the whole column, and two companies of the 25th regiment--another
company of that regiment forming the rear guard. Between the main
body and the rear guard, the supply waggon and a farmer’s waggon,
carrying the Surgeon’s apparatus and medical comforts, were placed.

The officers and men were in the highest spirits, only fearing lest
the redoubtable Fenians should seek shelter too promptly in Uncle
Sam’s dominions, the line being only half a mile from their camp.
The day was very fine, a bright sun, tempered by a cool breeze,
having dried up the roads, and made marching pleasant. And I may
here remark a circumstance creditable to the pluck and training of
our volunteers, that, although several soldiers of the line and
rifles were knocked up, and obliged to fall out, the volunteers,
though forming the advance guard and obliged to keep in advance of
the powerful artillery horses, had not a man who manifested the
least fatigue. At Holt’s Corner a short halt took place, and a
prisoner was brought up from the south road, leading to Highgate,
by a farmer I understood, of the name of Reynolds, who with his son
and hired man, had just captured him while reconnoitering. He was
mounted upon a handsome horse, and had rather a gentlemanly and
refined appearance. He was speedily dismounted, being succeeded
in his saddle by Captain Hallowes of the 25th Regiment, and
conducted to the rear in charge of a guard from that regiment.
Another prisoner was met squatted in a single waggon between the
feet of two farmers of Stanbridge who had captured him--a very
low and unintellectual type of humanity. Just before the column
reached Pigeon Hill there was a cry, “Incline to the right,” and
that splendid body of horsemen, the Guides, under Captain D. L.
Macdougall, dashed past in single file, and took their place in
front. They had no opportunity that day, more is the pity, to
“flesh their maiden swords” upon any considerable body of the
Fenians. But they rode round by the Cook’s Corner road, and thus,
at a later period of the day, cut off the retreat of some who
would have escaped, and took two of the scoundrels prisoners. If
the Fenians had a good sight of them, they must have felt inclined
to keep out of their way. In turning to the right at the tavern
at Pigeon Hill, the whole column descended the hill on the road
leading directly to the line--the artillery taking the lead. The
guns were placed in position on a high point overlooking the whole
valley, and about half-a-mile within the line. One company of the
25th remained with the guns, and the remainder of the infantry,
in two lines, with the rifles thrown out in front as skirmishers,
descended into the valley in the direction of the woods, which
were about three-fourths of a mile distant. The last red coat
disappeared among the trees, and we remained in anxious expectation
awaiting the result. Meantime the farmer’s family before whose
door the guns were placed, and who had suffered sore annoyance
for several days from the constant demand of the ragamuffins for
food, gladly brought to their deliverers such simple refreshment
as could be hastily prepared. Presently a single rifle shot was
heard, echoing loudly through the woods--two more followed, then a
dropping fire of twenty-five or thirty shots and all was silent.

At the first report the whole party sprang to their feet, the
gunners placed themselves by their pieces, and the officers of
artillery prepared to point them upon any body of the enemy that
might break cover. And much were all disappointed when the firing
ceased.

Presently the red coats emerged from the woods, marched across a
small clearing and disappeared in the woods beyond. After waiting
some time longer and the sun beginning to approach the horizon, the
horses were put to the guns and waggons and preparations were made
for returning to St. Armand. One company of the 25th regained their
comrades on the hill. The rest of the force made their way by the
Cook’s Corner road back to Pigeon Hill, with the exception of one
company of the Rifles, which was detached towards Frelighsburg. The
rest of the force reached St. Armand’s Station between 9 and 10
o’clock at night.

The result of this expedition was unsatisfactory, though all
concerned did their duty with the utmost alacrity and zeal. But
when there was really no enemy to fight, no great victory could be
achieved.

It was generally supposed that 2 Fenians only were killed and 16
captured, but I have been since informed that 4 bodies were found
in the woods on Sunday.

Thus ended most ingloriously to those concerned in it this base
attempt to desecrate, by unlawful invasion, the soil of Canada,
_and to detach from their allegiance to their rightful Sovereign a
contented, happy and loyal people_. I may add, in conclusion, that
the inhabitants were most active in searching for and arresting
straggling Fenians and bringing them into head-quarters.”


PINKEY, BATTLE OF.--Fought, September 10th, 1547, between the
English, under the Earl of Hertford Protector, and the Scots, when
the latter were totally defeated. Few victories have been achieved
with less loss to the victors; the English loss was no more than
200, whilst the Scots lost the enormous number of 20,000.


PISTOL.--The smallest sort of fire arms. First used by the English
cavalry, A.D. 1544.


PLAINS OF ABRAHAM.--_See Quebec._


PLASSY, BATTLE OF.--Fought, June 23rd, 1757, between the British,
under Lord Clive, and the native Hindoos, under Surajah Dowlah. The
Hindoo army consisted of 70,000 men, whilst the British did not
exceed 3000, yet the Surajah was signally defeated. This battle
laid the foundation of the British power in India.


PLATÆA, BATTLE OF.--Fought, September 22nd, B.C. 479, between
Mardonius, General of the Persians, and the Lacedæmonians and
Athenians under Pausanias. The Persian army consisted of 300,000
men, 3000 of which only remained alive after the battle. The
Grecians lost only 91 Spartans, 52 Athenians, and 16 Tegeans.
Pausanias received one-tenth of all the immense plunder for his
uncommon valour, and the rest were rewarded each according to his
respective merit.


PLATTSBURG, EXPEDITION TO.--The British squadron against
Plattsburg, on Lake Champlain, was designed under General Sir
George Prevost, but it was abandoned, after a severe defeat of the
naval squadron of England on the Lake, September 11th, 1814.


PODULTZ, BATTLE OF.--Fought, June 28th, 1866, between the Austrians
and the Prussians. The Prussians everywhere were victorious. The
needle gun of their army was decidedly superior to any other weapon
used. The following is the _Times_ account:

“On the northern side of Gitschin and on the Turnau road the
Austrians had taken up a position to cover the town against the
Prussians, advancing from the direction of Turnau. As the Prussians
advanced they saw the village of Podultz close to the road, and on
their right, standing at the top of the gentle ascent by which the
road rises to the top of the lower spur, on the other side of the
road and about 300 yards from it, nearer to the advancing division
by 200 yards than Podultz, the village of Diletz, lying in the
plain, while high on their right they could see the chimneys of
Brada above the thick fir wood which, lying on the hill side, in
front of that village, runs down nearly to Podultz, and traced by
the different colours of the foliage the ground occupied by its
orchards. The three villages and the fir wood were held by Austrian
and Saxon troops, supported by seven battalions of artillery,
which were placed both on the spur and on the Brada Hill, while
behind the spur were hidden three of Austria’s finest cavalry
regiments--the Hussars of Radetzky, of Lichtenstein, and of the
Austrian Regiment the King of Prussia. As soon as the Prussians
came within range the Austrian batteries opened upon them; the
Prussian guns replied, and, under cover of their artillery, the
columns advanced to the attack of the position. The 8th and 48th
Regiments advanced against the village of Diletz, which was
garrisoned by the 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th Saxon battalions, and where,
as the prisoners report, the King of Saxony himself took part
in the fight. The 12th and 18th Regiments advanced against the
village of Podultz. Both attacking columns were exposed to a very
hot fire, but after a severe struggle both villages were carried,
though that of Podultz, set on fire by a shell, was burning when
the Prussians occupied it. General Edelsheim, who commanded the
Austrian cavalry, with a desperate valour, attacked the burning
village, but the horses would not face the flames, and the Prussian
infantry, from behind the blazing houses, fired on the disordered
squadrons and killed many troopers. After taking Podultz, the 12th
and 18th Regiments pushed past Brada, leaving it to their right,
and made for the Lochow Road, in order to cut off the retreat of
the Austrians, who were retiring from Lochow on Gitschin. The
Austrian cavalry charged the advancing Prussians, but the latter
received them without forming square, and the horsemen recoiled,
broken by their steady fire. The Austrian troops in Brada, and the
Saxons and Austrians in Diletz were quite separated by the capture
of the village of Podultz, and the former were almost entirely
taken; the latter were cut off from retreat in large numbers, for
Von Werder was pressing towards Gitschin, the roads were crowded,
and the little river formed on the right of the broken allies
a wide extent of marshy ground, which it was almost impossible
to cross. The loss of the Saxons between Diletz and Gitschin was
tremendous; they fell thickly, and the ground was covered with
corpses. The Prussians suffered much, but they fought most bravely,
and, with only four regiments, and half as many guns as their
opponents, carried a very strong position held by a much superior
force; for the Prussians had in the field but 16,000 men, and the
allied strength is estimated at 30,000. Under a crushing fire they
advanced to the attack of Podultz and Diletz, and the vacancies
in the muster-roll show how fearfully they suffered; but every
man who fell on the Prussian side was trebly avenged, and a long
broad track of fallen enemies marks the line of march of the four
regiments who so well fought and won Diletz.

The field of Diletz is almost more thickly strewn with killed and
wounded. Here the Prussians lie more thickly than at Lochow, for
the more numerous artillery of the defenders ploughed with terrible
effect through the dense columns of the assailants as they advanced
to the attack. But between Diletz and Gitschin the ground is
covered with broken arms, knapsacks, shakos, and fallen men, who
are mostly either Saxons or Austrians, for here the needle-gun was
more used than artillery.

The Prussians took 7000 prisoners in the two combats, and many
officers: and the Austrian loss in killed and wounded is estimated
at 3000, so that yesterday evening has withdrawn 10,000 soldiers
from under the Austrian colours.”


POICTIERS, 1356.--“Ten years after the victory of Crecy, a similar
event took place in one of the south-west districts of France, at
Poictiers, the capital of Poiteau. Edward “the Black Prince,” now
in the prime of his early manhood, regarding his country as at war
with France, sallied forth from the Gascon province in the summer
of 1356, on a ravaging expedition, to do his enemy all the damage
in his power. He left Bourdeaux with about 12,000 men; ascended
the Garonne as far as Agen, and then, turning to the left, entered
central France, and overran the fertile provinces of Limousin,
Querci, Auvergne, and Berri. It was harvest-time, and everywhere
the harvest was seized, the towns plundered, and all captives able
to pay a ransom were carried to Bourdeaux. One account states that
the English army sent off no fewer than 5000 cartloads of plunder
to Bourdeaux. This employment doubtless had its attractions for
the army; but its commander seems to have forgotten that he was
invading and exasperating a powerful kingdom, whose people and
sovereign might be expected to take vengeance for such an inroad as
this.

Philip of Valois was now dead, and John, his son, a high-spirited
but indiscreet prince, had succeeded him. Hearing of young Edward’s
performances in Limousin and Berri, “he instantly declared with
an oath,” says Froissart, “that he would forthwith set out after
him, and would fight him whenever he could find him. He therefore
issued forth a general summons to all his nobles and vassals of
every kind, that they should set forth to meet him on the borders
of Touraine and Blois, for he was determined to fight the English.”

He soon marched from Paris, having with him a considerable body of
troops, and went to Chartres to be nearer the enemy, and to gain
quicker intelligence of his proceedings. Here he rested some days,
and “great crowds of knights and men at arms daily joined him, from
Auvergne, Berri, Burgundy, Lorraine, Hainault, Picardy, and other
provinces.” But as yet neither of these two Princes seems to have
been well informed of the other’s movements.

“The Prince,” says Froissart, “having with him 2000 men-at-arms
and 6000 archers, rode on at his ease, having all things at his
command. They found Auvergne, which they were now overrunning,
very rich and teeming with abundance; and when they entered any
town, they rested there for some days to refresh themselves,
consuming what they pleased, and destroying the rest, whether of
corn, wine, or other provisions.” “They kept advancing, and found
plenty everywhere, for the provinces of Berri, Poiteau, Touraine
and Maine,” says Froissart, “were very rich, and full of provisions
for an army.”

At Bourges they were stopped by the strength of the place; having
no means of besieging a fortified town, they passed on, and came
to another town, the name of which Froissart does not give, but
which, he says, had great plenty of wines and provisions. This they
carried by storm, and here they remained three days.

And now tidings were brought to the Prince that the King of France
was at Chartres with a large army, and that all the passes and
towns on the north of the Loire were manned and well defended. He
therefore held a council of war, in which it was resolved to return
at once to Bourdeaux, doing the enemy what damage was possible on
the road. But the castle of Romorontin delayed their retreat, the
Prince making it a point of honour not to be foiled by so small
a place, and wasting therefore three days before it. This delay
enabled the French army to reach him. The King of France, having
now a large force, had set forward from Chartres, had crossed the
Loire at Blois, and was rapidly marching on the city of Poictiers.
Both of the chiefs seem to have been in the dark as to the exact
position of the other--John, imagining the English to be far before
him, and Edward similarly deeming the French to be in his rear. At
last, at Chauvigny, on the Vienne, the two armies came in sight
of each other, or rather, learned each other’s proximity by an
encounter of outposts. A party of French knights falling in with
two of Edward’s captains and a party of sixty men, pursued them
until they came to the main body of the English, and here, not
retreating, the greater part of the assailants were either slain or
captured. From the prisoners, the Prince learned that the King of
France was close by with his army, and that he could not retreat
without fighting him. He called in immediately all foragers; and
ordered every man to keep under his standard. Four experienced
Captains, with 200 horse, were sent out to reconnoitre the French
positions. They were not long before they fell in with it, and
captured some stragglers. They soon perceived the whole plain to
be covered with troops. Their approach alarmed the French, who,
instead of entering Poictiers, turned towards the English army,
and as it was late encamped for the night in the open fields. The
English detachment returned to the Prince, and told him that the
French “were in immense numbers.” The Prince replied, “God help us!
we must begin to consider how we can best receive them.”

The next day was Sunday. The French king ordered a solemn mass in
his pavilion, and he and his four sons communicated. There then
assembled around him the great Lords, the Duke of Orleans, the Duke
of Bourbon, the Earl of Ponthieu, the Constable of France, the
Marshal of France, and a great body of Lords and famous knights.
They were long debating; at last it was resolved “that each Lord
should display his banner, advance into the plain, and push forward
in the name of God and St. Denis.” It is already tolerably clear,
that this great army had _no General_.

“Then might be seen all the nobility of France, richly dressed out
in shining armour, with banners and pennons gallantly displayed;
for all the flower of the French nobility was there.” By the
advice of the Constable and marshals, the army was divided into
three battalions, each consisting of 16,000 men-at-arms. Nearly
50,000 spears then, a large proportion doubtless mounted, were
arrayed against 2000 English lances, and 4,000 archers, with a
few irregulars. Michelet says: “There were the King’s four sons,
26 Dukes or Counts, and 140 knights-bannerets--a magnificent
spectacle; but the army was none the better for all that.”

The King sent forward three knights to reconnoitre the English
army. They returned, and Sir Eustace Ribeaumont said, “Sir, we
have examined the English closely; they amount, according to
our estimate, to about 2000 men-at-arms, 4000 archers, and 1500
footmen. They are posted very strongly; and have fortified their
position as well as they can. They are on a hill, which is only
approachable by one road or lane; so narrow that only four men can
ride abreast.”

The French were now on the point of moving forward to the attack,
when the Cardinal de Perigord came up at a full gallop, and making
a low reverence, entreated the King to listen to him a moment. “You
have here,” he said, “all the flower of your kingdom against a
mere handful of English; you may have them on other terms than by
a battle. Let me go to the Prince, and remonstrate with him on the
dangerous situation he is in.” The King said, “It is very agreeable
to us; but make haste back again.”

The Cardinal set off at full speed; and was admitted to the Prince,
whom he found on foot in the midst of his army. He said, “Fair son,
if you have well considered the great army of the King of France,
you will allow me to make up matters between you, if I possibly
can.” The Prince said, “Sir, save my own honour, and that of my
army, and I will agree to any reasonable terms.” The Cardinal
then returned to the French camp, and saw the King; and all that
day he rode from one army to the other, trying to bring about an
agreement. Many proposals were made, the Prince offered to give up
all the towns and castles which he had taken; to release all his
prisoners without ransom; and to engage not to take up arms against
the King of France for the next seven years. But John refused the
offer; demanding that Edward, with an hundred of his knights,
should surrender themselves prisoners. “The Prince and his army,”
says Froissart, “disdained to accept any such conditions.” Another
account says, that Edward exclaimed, “England shall never have to
pay a ransom for me!”

Thus Sunday was spent; and the battle was necessarily deferred till
the morrow. The English, however, had well employed their time in
still further strengthening their positions. But they were short of
provisions; and could the French have stooped to defer the attack,
and to be content with cutting off all supplies, Edward and his
whole force must have submitted themselves before the termination
of another week. But such a course would have been humbling to
the pride of France. A certain triumph seemed in the power of the
French commanders, and they could brook no delay.

Edward, therefore, made up his mind for a struggle for life or
liberty on the Monday morning. He remained on the defensive; except
that he detached a body of 300 men-at-arms, and as many archers,
with orders to make a circuit, and get into the flank and rear of
the Duke of Normandy’s battalion; the position of which he could
survey from his hill.

“And now,” says Froissart, “the whole army of the Prince, including
every one, did not amount to more than 8000; while the French
had upwards of 60,000 combatants, among whom were more than 3000
knights. The Prince, seeing all hope of an accommodation at an end,
addressed his captains and men, saying:--

“Now, my gallant follows! what though we be but a small body when
compared with our enemies; let us not be cast down on that account;
for victory is not always with the greater numbers, but God gives
it to whom he pleases. If the day shall be ours, great will be the
honour of it: if not, I have a father, and you all have friends,
who will be sure to avenge our deaths. Stand fast, therefore, and
fight like men; and if it please God, you shall see me play the
part of a true knight.”

And now came on the French, and soon it was seen that here, as
in many other battles of the time, the English bow was a most
formidable weapon. The battalion of the French marshals entered the
lane by which the English position must be approached; and now the
archers began to ply their weapons “in such sort that the horses,
smarting under the pain of their wounds, would not advance, but
turned about, threw their masters, and created a general confusion.
And if a few of the French struggled through and came in sight of
the Prince’s battalion, a small party or two of English knights,
who waited for them, instantly attacked them and slew them, or made
them prisoners.

Thus, in a short time, this battalion of the marshals was defeated.
The front line was driven back in confusion on the division
immediately behind it. This, unable to advance, began to give
ground, impelled by the crowd of fugitives pressing back upon
it. But in retreating, this battalion fell back upon the Duke of
Normandy’s and soon confusion and terror spread through the whole
army. The detachment which the Prince had placed over-night on
the flank and rear of the Duke of Normandy’s battalion, now came
forth from their ambuscade, and fell vehemently upon the already
disordered ranks of the French; “and, in truth,” says Froissart,
“the English archers shot so thickly and so well, that the French
did not know which way to turn themselves to avoid the arrows.” And
now, this battalion, which was broad enough in the front, grew thin
and scanty in the rear, for the news of the repulse of the marshals
had spread, and the men began to escape in crowds. Meanwhile the
English on the hill, perceiving that the first battalion was
beaten, and that the Duke of Normandy’s was in great disorder, gave
the word, and the knights and men-at-arms were in a moment in their
saddles.

“The day is ours,” said Sir John Chandos, and, giving a shout,
the 2000 horse pushed down the hill, charging with vehemence the
disordered battalion.

“Let us make for the King himself,” said Sir John to the Prince,
“for I know that he will not fly, and we shall have him--if it
please God.”

And now the battle grew hot; the French were so numerous, and in
such disorder, that it was an arduous task that still remained.
Edward charged the division of the Duke of Athens, broke it, and
drove it before him;--then the battalion of Germans, under the
Count of Salzburg, which was soon overthrown and put to flight.
Meanwhile “the English archers, advancing with the cavalry, shot so
well that none dared to stay within their reach.”

And now three of the King’s sons, the Duke of Normandy, the Earl
of Poictiers, and the Earl of Touraine, with 800 lances which had
never put spear in rest, took flight and rode off the field.

The King himself stood firm. “If one-fourth of his soldiers,” says
Froissart, “had behaved as well as he did, the day would have been
his own.” Again he says, “King John himself did wonders, he fought
with a battle-axe, with which he defended himself bravely.” The
English knew the value of such a prize, and they directed their
chief efforts to his capture. The Earl of Tancarville was made
prisoner close to him, as were the Earl of Ponthieu, and the Earl
of Eu. A little further on, the Lord Charles d’Artois and many
other knights were captured by the flank attack. “The English and
Gascons poured so fast upon the King’s division that they broke all
its ranks,” and now the last show of order was lost, and the whole
field was one confused mass. Every one was pressing forwards, eager
to seize the King; at last a young French knight, who had been
banished and had entered the English service, entreated the king to
surrender or he would lose his life. “To whom am I to surrender?”
said John, “where is my cousin the Prince of Wales? Who are you?”
“I am Denis de Morbeque, knight of Artois,” said the Frenchman,
“surrender yourself to me and I will lead you to the Prince.”
“Well,” said the King, giving him his glove, “I surrender myself to
you.”

Sir John Chandos, who had remained by the Prince’s side all the
day, had now advised him to raise his banner on an elevated point,
and to pitch his tent, for there was no longer any French army in
sight. Accordingly, the banner was raised, a small pavilion was
pitched, wine was brought, the Prince took off his helmet, and the
trumpets began to sound. But now the Prince addressed the Earl of
Warwick and Lord Cobham, saying. “I pray you to mount your horses,
and ride over the field, that I may know, if possible, what has
become of the King.” These two lords immediately rode forth, and
they soon perceived a great crowd of knights and men-at-arms, all
striving with a great noise. More than ten knights were loudly
claiming the honour of having taken the King. “The two lords then
pushed through the crowd by main force, and ordered all to stand
aside. They commanded, in the Prince’s name, all to keep their
distance, on pain of death. They then, dismounting, approached the
King with profound reverence, and conducted him peaceably to the
Prince of Wales.” Edward received the King with a low obeisance,
and comforted him as well as he was able, ordering wines and
refreshments to be brought, which he presented to the King with
his own hand. “In the evening a supper was spread in the Prince’s
pavilion; and the King, his son Philip, with Bourbon, Artois, the
Earl of Tancarville, Estampes, Granville, and others, were seated
at an elevated table, while the Prince served the King with his own
hands. The French princes, struck with Edward’s courtesy, declared
that he would be one of the most gallant knights in Christendom, if
it please God to grant him life.”

Meanwhile, the English horse continued its pursuit of the
fugitives, up to the very gates of Poictiers. “There was such
an horrible spectacle of men slaughtered and trampled down, as
it is wonderful to think of. The frightened French, in crowds,
surrendered the moment they caught sight of an Englishman.”

The report now given in to the Prince, showed that the King and
one of his sons, and 17 Earls, besides a great number of Barons
and knights, were prisoners; and that from five to six thousand
lay dead on the field.[1] But the victors were troubled what to
do with the crowds of captives of all ranks, who were _twice as
numerous as themselves_. They concluded, at last, to ransom them on
the spot, and even to take the pledges of those who had no money.
As for the booty, it was immense; “there being quantities of gold
and silver plate, rich jewels, and trunks full of gold and silver
ornaments. As to fine armour, that was in such abundance as to be
little regarded.”

The prince and his little army, now undisturbed, continued their
march, and in a few days passed the Garonne, and arrived safely
at Bourdeaux. “Great was the dismay at Paris, when the fugitives
brought word that there was no longer a King nor Barons in France,
but all were killed or taken.”

England, very naturally, rejoiced through all her coasts. The
Prince, after a short stay, embarked for England with his
illustrious prisoner, to whom, for greater ease and comfort,
he assigned a separate vessel. He entered London with knightly
courtesy, riding a small black horse, while the King of France,
royally mounted on a white charger, rode by his side. The palace of
the Savoy was made the residence of the captive monarch, and there
king Edward and his Queen frequently visited him. John, however,
was long detained in England, the enormous sum of 3,000,000 of
gold crowns being demanded from France for his ransom. He finally
consented to those hard terms; but on returning to his own kingdom,
he found so much difficulty in persuading his people to raise this
great ransom, that he finally resolved to return to his prison
in Westminster. As true as he was brave, he nobly answered his
council, who tried to persuade him to be guilty of a breach of
his engagement, that “if honour were banished from every other
abode, it ought at least to find a home in the breast of Kings.” He
returned to his home in the Savoy; where, a few months after, he
died. Edward III ordered his obsequies to be performed with royal
magnificence, and sent his corpse, with a splendid retinue to
France, where it found a place in the burial-place of the Kings, in
the abbey-church of St. Denis.”


POLOTSK, BATTLE OF.--Fought, July 30th, 1812, between the French
Marshal, Oudinot, and the Russians under Wittgenstein. The Russians
were defeated with great loss.


PONDICHERRY.--_India._--Settled by the French in 1674; taken by
the Dutch in 1693; besieged by the British in 1748, and taken by
our forces in January, 1761, but restored in 1763. Again taken in
October, 1778, and restored in 1783. Again captured by the British,
August 23rd, 1793, and finally in 1803.


PORTOBELLO.--_South America._--Taken from the Spaniards by Admiral
Vernon, November 22nd, 1739. Again taken by the British, who
destroyed the fortifications, in 1742.


PRAGA, BATTLES OF.--Fought, October 10th, 1794, between the Poles
and Russians; 30,000 Poles were butchered in this battle by the
merciless Suwarrow. A second battle, fought March 31st, 1831,
between the same countries, resulted with defeat of the Russians
who lost 4000 killed and wounded, and 6000 prisoners and 12 pieces
of cannon.


PRESCOTT, BATTLE OF.--_Upper Canada._--Fought, November 27th, 1838,
between the Canadian Rebels and the British, under Major Young,
and on the following day by Lieut.-Colonel Dundas, who, after a
desperate resistance, succeeded in dispersing the insurgents,
several of whom were killed and many taken prisoners; the troops
also suffered considerably. After the attack the remainder of the
rebels surrendered. In these engagements the rebels were aided by
the Americans, who invaded the Canadian territory in great numbers.


PRESTON, BATTLE OF.--Fought, November 12th, 1715, between the
Scotch insurgents, under Forster, and the British, under General
Willis. The first attack was successful, on the side of the
Jacobites, but the Royal forces being augmented by the arrival of
General Carpenter, Preston was invested on every side, and the
Scots at length laid down their arms, and their nobles and leaders
were secured. Some were shot as deserters, and others sent off to
London, pinioned and bound together, to frighten their party.


PRESTON-PANS, BATTLE OF.--Fought, September 21st, 1745, between
Prince Charles the Pretender and the Royal forces.

“In the meantime Sir John Cope, who had pursued the rebels
through the Highlands, but had declined meeting them in their
descent, being now reinforced by two regiments of dragoons,
resolved to march towards Edinburgh and give the enemy battle.
The young Adventurer, whose forces were rather superior, though
undisciplined, attacked him near Preston-Pans, about twelve miles
from the capital, and in a few minutes put him and his troops to
flight. This victory, by which the King lost 500 men, gave the
rebels great influence; and had the Pretender taken advantage of
the general consternation, and marched directly for England, the
consequence might have been fatal to freedom. But he was amused
by the promise of succours which never came; and thus induced to
remain at Edinburgh, to enjoy the triumphs of an important victory,
and to be treated as a monarch.”


PULTOWA, BATTLE OF.--Fought, July 8th, 1709, between Charles XII
of Sweden and Peter the Great of Russia. In this celebrated battle
the Czar entirely defeated the Hero of Sweden, and forced him to
flee to Turkey. This battle was lost on account of Charles having
been wounded just before, being obliged to issue his orders from
a litter, his soldiers thus having no opportunity of seeing their
loved commander.


PULTUSK, BATTLES OF.--One between the Saxons and Swedes, in which
the former were defeated, 1703; and the other between the French,
under Napoleon, and the Russian and Prussian armies. Both sides
claimed the victory, but it inclined in favour of the French.


PYRAMIDS, BATTLE OF THE.--Fought between the French and Turks,
1798. “The sight of the Pyramids, and the anxious nature of the
moment, inspired the French General with even more than usual
ardour; the sun glittered on those immense masses, which seemed to
arise in height every step the soldiers advanced, and the army,
sharing his enthusiasm, gazed, as they marched, on the everlasting
monuments. “Remember,” said he, “that from the summit of those
Pyramids forty centuries contemplate your actions.”

With his usual sagacity, the General had taken extraordinary
precautions to ensure success against the formidable cavalry of
the Desert. The divisions were all drawn up as before, in hollow
squares six deep, the artillery at the angles, the general and
baggage in the centre. When they were in mass, the two sides
advanced in column, those in front and rear moved forward in their
ranks, but the moment they were charged, the whole were to halt,
and face outward on every side. When they were themselves to
charge, the three front ranks were to break off and form the column
of attack, those in the rear remaining behind, still in square, but
three deep only, to constitute the reserve. Napoleon had no fears
for the result, if the infantry were steady; his only apprehension
was, that his soldiers, accustomed to charge, would yield to their
impetuosity too soon, and would not be brought to the immovable
firmness which this species of warfare required.

Mourad Bey, no sooner perceived the lateral movement of the
French army, than, with a promptitude of decision worthy of a
skilful general, he resolved to attack the columns while in the
act of completing it. An extraordinary movement was immediately
observed in the Mameluke line, and speedily 7000 horsemen detached
themselves from the remainder of the army, and bore down upon
the French columns. It was a terrible sight, capable of daunting
the bravest troops, when this immense body of cavalry approached
at full gallop the squares of infantry. The horsemen, admirably
mounted and magnificently dressed, rent the air with their cries.
The glitter of spears and cimeters dazzled the sight, while the
earth groaned under the repeated and increasing thunder of their
feet. The soldiers, impressed, but not panic-struck, by the sight,
stood firm, and anxiously waited, with their pieces ready, the
order to fire. Desaix’s division being entangled in a wood of
palm-trees, was not completely formed when the swiftest of the
Mamelukes came upon them; they were, in consequence, partially
broken, and thirty or forty of the bravest of the assailants
penetrated, and died in the midst of the square, at the feet
of the officers: but before the mass arrived the movement was
completed, and a rapid fire of musketry and grape drove them
from the front round the sides of the column. With matchless
intrepidity, they pierced through the interval between Desaix’s
and Regnier’s divisions, and riding round both squares, strove to
find an entrance; but an incessant fire from every front mowed
them down as fast as they poured in at the opening. Furious at
the unexpected resistance, they dashed their horses against the
rampart of bayonets, and threw their pistols at the heads of the
grenadiers, while many who had lost their steeds crept along the
ground and cut at the legs of the front rank with their cimetars.
In vain thousands succeeded, and galloped round the flaming walls
of steel; multitudes perished under the rolling fire which, without
intermission, issued from the ranks, and at length the survivors,
in despair, fled towards the camp from whence they had issued.
Here, however, they were charged in flank by Napoleon at the head
of Dugua’s division, while those of Vial and Bon, on the extreme
left, stormed the intrenchments. The most horrible confusion now
reigned in the camp; the horsemen, driven in disorder, trampled
under foot the infantry, who, panic-struck at the rout of the
Mamelukes, on whom all their hopes were placed, abandoned their
ranks, and rushed in crowds towards the boats to escape to the
other side of the Nile. Numbers saved themselves by swimming, but a
great proportion perished in the attempt. The Mamelukes, rendered
desperate, seeing no possibility of escape in that direction, fell
upon the columns who were approaching from the right, with their
wings extended in order of attack; but they, forming square again
with inconceivable rapidity, repulsed them with great slaughter,
and drove them finally off in the direction of the Pyramids. The
intrenched camp with all its artillery, stores, and baggage fell
into the hands of the victors. Several thousands of the Mamelukes
were drowned or killed; and of the formidable array which had
appeared in such splendour in the morning, not more than 2500
escaped with Mourad Bey into Upper Egypt. The victors hardly lost
200 men in the action; and several days were occupied after it was
over in stripping the slain of their magnificent appointments, or
fishing up the rich spoils which encumbered the banks of the Nile.”


PYRENEES, BATTLE OF THE.--Fought, July 28th, 1813, between the
British army, commanded by Wellington, and the French, commanded
by Marshal Soult. The French were defeated, with great slaughter.
After the battle of Vittoria, fought, June 21st, Napoleon sent
Soult to supersede Jourdan, with instructions to drive the British
across the Ebro; a duty which he could not accomplish; for he was
obliged to retreat into France, which was entered by the British,
and he lost 20,000 men, in a series of engagements in the Pyrenees,
which separate France from Spain, from July 25th to August 2nd,
same year.



Q.


QUARTRE BRAS, BATTLE OF.--Fought, June 16th, 1815, between the
French and English. The French were commanded by Marshal Ney, and
the British by the Duke of Brunswick, the Prince of Orange, and Sir
Thomas Picton. It was fought two days before Waterloo. The British
fought, to maintain their position, with wonderful intrepidity,
notwithstanding their inferiority in number, and the fatigue of
marching all the preceding night. The gallant 42nd Regiment of
Scotch Highlanders, or the Black Watch, suffered very severely in
pursuit of a French division repulsed early in the morning, by
cuirassiers being posted in ambush behind growing corn as high
as the shoulders of the tallest men. In this battle, the Duke of
Brunswick fell, whose death is alluded to in the well-known lines
of Byron on the field of Waterloo.


QUEBEC.--Has been five times assaulted. Founded by the French
in 1605. Reduced by the English, with all Canada, in 1626, and
restored in 1632. Besieged again by the English, but without
success, in 1711, but was taken, under Wolfe, September 13th, 1759.
The following is a good account of the capture of the city, under
the immortal Wolfe. Quebec was again besieged by the American
General Montgomery, who was slain before it, December 31st, 1775,
and the siege was raised early next year. Appended is also an
account of the siege and death of the American General.

“Wolfe’s army, amounting to about 8000, was conveyed to the
vicinity of Quebec by a fleet of vessels of war and transports,
and landed, in two divisions, on the island of Orleans, on the
27th of June. The Marquis de Montcalm made vigorous preparations
for defending Quebec. His armed force consisted of about 13,000
men, of whom six battalions were regulars, and the remainder well
disciplined Canadian militia, with some cavalry and Indians. He
ranged these forces from the River St. Charles, to the Falls of
Montmorency, with the view of opposing the landing of the British.

“Wolfe first attempted the entrenchment of Montmorency, landing
his troops under cover of the fire from the ships of war, but
he was gallantly repulsed by the French. In consequence of this
repulse, he sent dispatches to England, stating that he had doubts
of being able to reduce Quebec during that campaign. His prospects,
indeed, were not encouraging: the great stronghold kept up an
incessant fire from its almost inaccessible position, bristling
with guns, defended by a superior force, and inhabited by a hostile
population. Above the city, steep banks rendered landing almost
impossible; below, the country for eight miles was embarrassed by
two rivers, many redoubts, and watchful Indians. A part of the
fleet lay above the town, the remainder in the north channel,
between the island of Orleans and Montmorency.

“Soon after this repulse, however, Wolfe roused his brave and
vigorous spirit, called a council of war, and proposed, it is
generally said, at the instigation of his second in command,
General Townsend, to gain the heights of Abraham behind and above
the city, commanding the weakest part of the fortress. The council
acceded to this daring proposal, and their heroic commander
commenced his preparations; in the meanwhile, making such active
demonstrations against Montcalm’s position, that the French still
believed it to be his main object.

“On the 11th of September, the greater part of the troops landed,
and marched up the south shore opposite Quebec,--forded the river
Etchemin--and embarked on board the men of war and transports which
lay above the town. On the 12th, the ships of war sailed nine
miles up the river, to Cap Rouge. This feint deceived Montcalm,
and he detached De Bougainville, who, with his army of reserve,
proceeded still farther up the river to prevent the English from
landing. During the night, the English troops dropped silently down
the river, with the current, in boats, and at four o’clock in the
morning began to land.

“It is surprising how the troops contrived to land, as the French
had posted sentries along the shore, to challenge boats and give
the alarm. The first boat was questioned, when Captain Donald
M‘Donald, one of Frazer’s Highlanders, who was perfectly well
acquainted with the French language and customs, answered to “_Qui
vive?_” which is their challenge, the word “_La France_”--when the
sentinel demanded “_A quel régiment?_” the captain replied, “_De
la Reine_,” which he knew by accident to be one of those commanded
by De Bougainville. The soldier took it for granted that it was an
expected convoy, and saying “_Passe_,” the boats proceeded without
further question. One of the sentries more wary than the rest,
running down to the water’s edge called out, “_Pourquoi est-ce
que vous ne parlez pas plus haut?_” to which the captain answered
in a soft tone of voice, “_Tais-toi, nous serons entendus_.” Thus
cautioned, the sentry retired, and the boats proceeded without
further altercation, and landed at the spot now celebrated as
“Wolfe’s Cove.”

“General Wolfe was one of the first on shore, and on seeing the
difficulty of ascending the precipice, observed familiarly to
Captain M‘Donald, “I don’t believe there is any possibility of
getting up, but you must do your endeavour.” Indeed the precipice
here was so steep, that there seemed no possibility of scaling it,
but the Highlanders, grasping the bushes which grew on its face
ascended the woody precipice with courage and dexterity. They
dislodged a small body of troops that defended a narrow path-way up
the bank; and a few more mounting, the General drew up the rest in
order as they arrived. With great exertion they reached the summit,
and in a short time, Wolfe had his whole army drawn up in regular
order on the plains above.

“Montcalm, struck with this unexpected movement, concluded, that
unless Wolfe could be driven from this position, Quebec was lost.
Hoping probably that only a detachment had as yet reached it,
he lost his usual prudence and forbearance, and finding that
his opponent had gained so much by hazarding all, he, with an
infatuation for which it is difficult to account, resolved to meet
the British army.

“He crossed the St. Charles on the 13th, sallying forth from a
strong fortress without field artillery--without even waiting the
return of Bougainville, who, with 2000 men, formed a corps of
observation,--before he could concentrate his forces, advanced
with haste and precipitation, and commenced a most gallant attack,
when within about 250 yards of the English line. The English
moved forward regularly, firing steadily, until within thirty or
forty yards of the French, when they gave a general volley which
did great execution. The English had only a light cannon, which
the sailors had dragged up the heights with ropes. The sabre,
therefore, and the bayonet decided the day. The agile Scotch
Highlanders, with their stout claymores, served the purposes of
cavalry, and the steady fire of the English Fusiliers compensated,
in some degree, for the want of artillery.

“The heroism of Montcalm was as conspicuous as that of his
illustrious opponent,--both headed their men,--both rushed with
eagerness where the battle raged most fiercely. Often by their
personal prowess and example did they change the fortune of the
moment. Both were repeatedly wounded, but still fought on with
enthusiasm. And, at last, both those gallant commanders fell
mortally wounded, whilst advancing to the last deadly charge at the
head of their respective columns.

“Wolfe was first wounded in the wrist. He immediately wrapped a
handkerchief round his arm, and, putting himself at the head of
his grenadiers, led them on to the charge. He was then struck with
a second ball, but still pressed on, when, just as the enemy were
about to give way, he received a third ball in the breast and
groin, and sank. When they raised him from the ground, he tried
with his faint hand to clear the death-mist from his eyes. He could
not see how the battle went, and was sinking to the earth, when
the cry “_They run!_” “_They run_;” arrested his fleeting spirit.
“_Who run?_” asked the dying hero. “_The French_,” replied his
supporter, “_they give way everywhere_.” “_What!_” said he, “_do
they run already? now God be praised; I die happy!_” and so saying,
the youthful victor breathed his last. Such was the death of Wolfe,
at the early age of thirty-five, when but few men begin even to
appear on the theatre of great events.”


  DEATH OF GENERAL MONTGOMERY, ETC.

“The first Congress of what is now called “The United States,”
met in Philadelphia, on the 5th of September, 1774. It is
remarkable that one of their first objects, after obtaining their
own independence, was to attempt to seize on the country they
had assisted England to conquer. It is a singular fact that the
money, which it was endeavoured to levy upon the New Englanders
and their fellow-colonists, and which, in a great measure, caused
the rupture, was for the express purpose of defraying the great
expenses incurred by England in the capture of Canada.

Having resolved to invade Canada, the Americans entered it in the
fall of 1775, in two directions--by Lake Champlain and by the
sources of the Kennebec River. The first division, under General
Montgomery, was very successful. After obtaining possession of
Ticonderoga, Crown Point, and St. Johns, he advanced towards
Montreal. His force was very considerable, while there were but few
British soldiers in Canada. General Carleton, who succeeded General
Murray in the military command, had been repulsed at Longueuil;
so that Montgomery had only to take possession of the city, which
he did on the 19th of November. The naval force in the river, and
all the military stores and provisions, were surrendered into his
hands, and General Prescott, with the volunteers and soldiers,
became prisoners of war. Finding plenty of woollen cloth in the
city, General Montgomery took the opportunity of new-clothing his
troops, who had suffered much from the severity of the weather. The
second division of the American army, under General Arnold, reached
the St. Lawrence on the 9th of November. They had traversed,
with dreadful fatigue, the forests and swamps in the District of
Maine, and arrived at Point Levi, opposite Quebec, worn out and
dispirited. Quebec was at this time defenceless; and had General
Arnold been able to cross the river, that capital, and with it
the territory of Canada, must have passed into the hands of the
Americans. Fortunately all the shipping had been removed to the
other side, and it was not until the 14th that he was able to cross
over. He landed 500 men at Wolfe’s Cove, and waited near that place
in the hope of being joined by Montgomery from Montreal. General
Carleton, the British Governor, was at this time occupied, with
his troops near Montreal, in endeavouring to repulse Montgomery.
The latter wished to effect a junction with General Arnold, that
they might unitedly attack the fortress. Perceiving that the safety
of the country depended upon the possession of Quebec, Carleton
effected a masterly movement to reach that place. In this, he was
assisted by Captain Bouchette, R.N., who conveyed him through the
American forces by night, in a canoe with muffled paddles. He
arrived at the citadel of Quebec on the 19th, whilst the Americans
thought him busily engaged with Montgomery, near Montreal.

General Carleton’s arrival at Quebec was hailed with great joy
by the Canadians, who vied with the oldest British soldiers in
preparations for defence. The force under his command amounted to
only 1800 men. Not more than 350 were regulars--of whom 230 were
Frazer’s Highlanders, who had settled in the country, and were
re-embodied under Colonel McLean. The remainder were 450 seamen,
and a gallant band composed of Canadian militia and artificers.
The American Generals had now effected a junction of their forces,
and summoned the fortress to surrender. This was at once rejected.
After pushing the siege during the month of December, without
any prospect of success, Montgomery determined upon making a
night-attack. This intention soon became known to General Carleton,
who made every preparation to defeat the enemy. The Governor, with
the officers and gentlemen off duty, took up their quarters for
several days at the Recollet Convent, where they slept in their
clothes. During this month’s siege, the American riflemen kept up
an unintermitting fire upon the sentinels, and threw from forty
to fifty shells every night into the city. The inhabitants became
so accustomed to the occurrences of a siege that they ceased to
regard them with alarm, all joining cheerfully in bearing arms and
performing the duty of soldiers. Two strong parties were formed on
the 31st of December--one under Montgomery, the other under Arnold,
whose local knowledge of Quebec was accurate. They were to advance
from opposite sides and meet at the foot of Mountain street; then
force Prescott gate and reach the Upper Town.

The besiegers approached the city with the most careful silence,
aided by the raging of a furious storm. Advancing by the road
which winds round the face of the rock, the army was crowded
into the narrow pass which led to the gate. Notwithstanding every
precaution the confused noise of the approaching troops rose
above the conflict of the elements, and struck the watchful ear
of the outer sentinel, who, receiving no answer to his challenge,
roused the British guard. The party who defended the battery,
consisted of Canadian militia, with nine British seamen to work
the guns. They kept a close watch, and, as soon as the day broke,
discovered the troops marching in the snow. Orders were given to
make no movement; and the Americans, having halted at the distance
of fifty yards, sent forward an officer to reconnoitre. On his
return the troops marched forward with a quickness and precision
deserving the highest praise. The English then opened a tremendous
fire from the artillery which commanded the path; the groans which
succeeded plainly revealed the enemy; and it was not until every
sound in answer to their fire had died away, that they ceased
their cannonade. The enemy having retired, thirteen bodies were
found in the snow. Montgomery’s orderly sergeant, desperately
wounded, but yet alive, was found and brought into the guard-room.
On being asked if the General himself had been killed, he evaded
the question by replying that he had not seen him for some time.
This faithful sergeant died in about an hour afterwards. It was
not ascertained that the American General had been killed, until
General Carleton, anxious to learn the truth, sent to inquire if
any of the prisoners would identify the body. An officer consenting
accompanied the aide-de-camp to the “_Près de Ville_” guard, and
pointed out the body, pronouncing over it a glowing eulogium on
Montgomery’s bravery. His two aides-de-camp were also recognised
among the slain. This brave man had fought by the side of Wolfe on
the Plains of Abraham; but, marrying an American lady, the daughter
of Judge Livingston, he imbibed the politics of his father-in-law’s
family, and joined the cause of the colonists against the Mother
Country. The excellence of his qualities and disposition procured
him an uncommon share of private affection and esteem. After his
death the Continental Congress ordered a magnificent cenotaph to
be erected to his memory in St. Paul’s Church, N.Y. Thither his
remains were removed in 1818, by the desire of his widow, and with
the permission of the then British Governor, Sir John Sherbrooke.
In the meantime, Arnold, who had been repulsed at the opposite side
of the town, took the command, and attempted still to maintain his
ground; but the dispirited state of his men rendered him unable to
keep up more than an imperfect blockade at a distance of three
miles, which he at last abandoned. In the whole attack upon Quebec
the Americans lost about 100 killed and wounded, and six officers
of Arnold’s division, inclusive of the loss at _Près de Ville_. The
British had one officer and seventeen men killed and wounded. The
number of those who surrendered was 426.”


QUEENSTON.--_Upper Canada._--This town, on the River Niagara, was
taken by the United States troops in the American war of 1812,
October 13th, but was retaken by the British, who defeated the
Americans with loss. The following is a succinct account of the
battle and death of general Brock, the Hero of Upper Canada:


  WAR OF 1812 AND DEATH OF GEN. BROCK.

“The American Government assembled at the Niagara frontier a force
of 6300 men; of this force, 3170 (900 of whom were regular troops)
were at Lewiston, under the command of General Van Rensselaer. In
the American reports this army is set down at 8000 strong, with
15 pieces of field ordnance. To oppose this force Major General
Brock had part of the 41st and 49th regiments, a few companies of
militia, and about 200 Indians, in all 1500 men; but so dispersed
in different posts at and between Fort Erie and Fort George, that
only a small number was available at any one point. Before daylight
on the morning of the 13th of October, a large division of General
Van Rensselaer’s army, numbering between 1300 and 1400, under
Brigadier General Wadsworth, effected a landing at the lower end of
the village of Queenston (opposite Lewiston), and made an attack
upon the position, which was defended with the most determined
bravery by the two flank companies of the 49th regiment, commanded
by Captains Dennis and Williams, aided by such of the militia
forces and Indians as could be collected in the vicinity. Captain
Dennis marched his company to the landing place opposite Lewiston,
and was soon followed by the light company of the 49th, and the few
militia who could be hastily assembled. Here the attempt of the
enemy to effect a passage, was for some time successfully resisted,
and several boats were either disabled or sunk by the fire from the
one-gun battery on the heights, and that from the masked battery,
about a mile below. Several boats also were, by the fire from this
battery, so annoyed, that falling before the landing place, they
were compelled to drop down with the current and recross to the
American side. A considerable force, however, effected a landing
some distance above, and succeeded in gaining the summit of the
mountain. No resistance could now be offered to the crossing from
Lewiston, except by the battery at Vromont’s Point, half a mile
below, and from this a steady and harassing fire was kept up, which
did considerable execution.

At this juncture Sir Isaac Brock arrived. He had for days suspected
this invasion, and on the preceding evening he called his staff
together and gave to each the necessary instructions. Agreeable
to his usual custom he rose before daylight, and hearing the
cannonade, awoke Major Glegg, and called for his horse Alfred,
which Sir James Craig had presented to him. He then galloped
eagerly from Fort George to the scene of action, and with two
Aides-de-Camp passed up the hill at full gallop in front of the
light company, under a heavy fire of artillery and musketry
from the American shore. On reaching the 18-pounder battery at
the top of the hill, they dismounted and took a view of passing
events, which at that moment appeared highly favourable. But in
a few minutes a firing was heard, which proceeded from a strong
detachment of American regulars under Captain Wool, who, as just
stated, had succeeded in gaining the brow of the heights in rear
of the battery, by a fisherman’s path up the rocks, which being
reported as impossible, was not guarded. Sir Isaac Brock and his
Aides-de-Camp had not even time to remount, but were obliged to
retire precipitately with the twelve men stationed in the battery,
which was quickly occupied by the enemy. Captain Wool having sent
forward about 150 regulars, Captain Williams’ detachment of about
100 men advanced to meet them, personally directed by the General,
who, observing the enemy waver, ordered a charge, which was
promptly executed; but as the Americans gave way, the result was
not equal to his expectations. Captain Wool sent a reinforcement
to his regulars, notwithstanding which, the whole was driven to
the edge of the bank. Here some of the American officers were on
the point of hoisting a white flag with an intention to surrender,
when Captain Wool tore it off and reanimated his dispirited troops.
They now opened a heavy fire of musketry, and, conspicuous from his
cross, his height, and the enthusiasm with which he animated his
little band, the British Commander was soon singled out, and he
fell about an hour after his arrival.

The fatal bullet entered his right breast, and passed through
his left side. He had but that instant said, “_Push on the York
Volunteers!_” and he lived only long enough to request that his
fall might not be noticed, or prevent the advance of his brave
troops, adding a wish which could not be distinctly understood,
that some token of remembrance should be transmitted to his
sister. He died unmarried, and on the same day, a week previously,
he had completed his 43rd year. The lifeless corpse was immediately
conveyed into a house close by, where it remained until the
afternoon, unperceived by the enemy. His Provincial Aide-de-Camp,
Lieutenant Colonel McDonell, of the militia, and the Attorney
General of Upper Canada, a fine promising young man, was mortally
wounded soon after his chief, and died the next day, at the early
age of twenty-five years. Although one bullet had passed through
his body, and he was wounded in four places, yet he survived twenty
hours, and during a period of excruciating agony his thoughts and
words were constantly occupied with lamentations for his deceased
commander and friend. He fell, while gallantly charging up the
hill, with 190 men, chiefly York Volunteers, by which charge the
enemy was compelled to spike the 18-pounder in the battery there.


  THE BATTLE OF QUEENSTON HEIGHTS.

At this time, about two in the afternoon, the whole British and
Indian force thus assembled was about 1000 men, of whom 600 were
regulars. In numbers the Americans were about equal--courage they
had, but they wanted the confidence and discipline of British
Soldiers. After carefully reconnoitering, General Sheaffe, who had
arrived from Fort George, and who had now assumed the command,
commenced the attack by an advance of his left flank, composed of
the light company of the 41st, under Lieutenant McIntyre, supported
by a body of militia and Indians. After a volley, the bayonet was
resorted to, and the American right driven in. The main body now
advanced under cover of the fire from the two 3-pounders, and after
a short conflict forced the Americans over the first ridge of
the heights to the road loading from Queenston to the Falls. The
fight was maintained on both sides with courage truly heroic. The
British regulars and militia charged in rapid succession, until
they succeeded in turning the left flank of the enemy’s column,
which rested on the summit of the hill. The Americans who attempted
to escape into the woods were quickly driven back by the Indians;
and many cut off in their return to the main body, and terrified by
the sight of these exasperated warriors, flung themselves wildly
over the cliffs, and endeavoured to cling to the bushes which grew
upon them; but some, losing their hold, were dashed frightfully on
the rocks beneath; while others, who reached the river, perished in
their attempts to swim across it. The event of the day no longer
appeared doubtful.

Major-General Van Rensselaer, commanding the American army,
perceiving his reinforcements embarking very slowly, recrossed
the river to accelerate their movements; but, to his utter
astonishment, he found that at the very moment when their services
were most required, the ardour of the unengaged troops had entirely
subsided. He rode in all directions through the camp, urging his
men by every consideration, to pass over. Lieutenant-Colonel
Bloome, who had been wounded in the action and recrossed the river,
together with Judge Peck, who happened to be in Lewiston at the
time, mounted their horses and rode through the camp, exhorting the
companies to proceed, but all in vain. Crowds of the United States
militia remained on the American bank of the river, to which they
had not been marched in any order, but ran as a mob; not one of
them would cross. They had seen the wounded recrossing, they had
seen the Indians; and they had seen the “Green Tigers,” as they
called the 49th, from their green facings, and were panic struck.
There were those to be found in the American ranks who, at this
critical juncture, could talk of the Constitution, and the right of
the militia to refuse crossing the imaginary line which separates
the two countries. General Van Rensselaer having found that it was
impossible to urge a single man to cross the river to reinforce
the army on the Heights, and that army having nearly expended its
ammunition, boats were immediately sent to cover their retreat;
but a desultory fire which was maintained upon the ferry from a
battery on the bank at the lower end of Queenston, completely
dispersed the boats, and many of the boatmen relanded and fled in
dismay. Brigadier-General Wadsworth was, therefore, compelled,
after a vigorous conflict had been maintained for some time upon
both sides, to surrender himself, all his officers, and 900 men,
between three and four o’clock in the afternoon. The loss of the
British army was 16 killed and 69 wounded; while that on the side
of the Americans was not less than 900 men, made prisoners, and one
gun and two colours taken, and 90 killed and about 100 wounded.
But amongst the killed of the British army, the government and
the country had to deplore the loss of one of their bravest and
most zealous Generals, in Sir Isaac Brock, and one whose memory
will long live in the warmest affections of every Canadian and
British subject. The country had also to deplore the loss of the
eminent services and talents of Lieutenant-Colonel McDonell, whose
gallantry and merit rendered him worthy of his chief.

The gratitude of the people of Canada to the memory of Brock
was manifested in an enduring form. They desired to perpetuate
the memory of the hero who had been the instrument of their
deliverance, and they were not slow in executing their design; and
whilst his noble deeds were still fresh in the memory of all, the
Provincial Legislature erected a lofty column on the Queenston
Heights, near the spot where he fell. The height of the monument,
from the base to the summit, was 135 feet; and from the level
of the Niagara River, which runs nearly under it, 485 feet. The
monument was a Tuscan column, on rustic pedestal with a pedestal
for a statue; the diameter of the base of the column was 17½ feet
and the abacus of the capital was surmounted by an iron railing.
The centre shaft, containing the spiral staircase, was 10 feet in
diameter.

On Good Friday, the 17th of April, 1840, a vagabond of the name of
Lett, introduced a quantity of gunpowder into the monument with the
fiendish purpose of destroying it, and the explosion, effected by
a train, caused so much damage us to render the column altogether
irreparable. Lett had been compelled to fly into the United States
for his share in the rebellion of 1837, and well knowing the
feeling of attachment to the name and memory of General Brock,
which pervaded all classes of Canadians, he sought to gratify his
malicious and vindictive spirit, and at the same time to wound and
insult the people of Canada by this atrocious deed.

He afterward met with some meed of his deserts in the State Prison
at Auburn, New York.

After the first monument had remained in the dilapidated condition,
to which it was reduced, for some years, a new and beautiful column
was a short time ago raised on its site. It is thus described:
“Upon the solid rock is built a foundation 40 feet square and 10
feet thick of massive stone; upon this, the structure stands in
a grooved plinth or sub-basement 38 feet square and 27 feet in
height, and has an eastern entrance by a massive oak door and
bronze pateras, forming two galleries to the interior 114 feet in
extent, round the inner pedestal on the North and South sides of
which, in vaults under the ground floor, are deposited the remains
of General Brock, and those of his Aide-de-Camp, Colonel McDonell,
in massive stone sarcophagi. On the exterior angles of the
sub-basement are placed lions rampant 7 feet in height, supporting
shields with the armorial bearings of the hero: The column is of
the Roman composite order, 95 feet in height, a fluted shaft,
10 feet diameter at the base; the loftiest column known of this
style; the lower part enriched with laurel leaves, and the flutes
terminating on the base with palms.”

The height from the ground to the top of the statue is 190 feet,
exceeding that of any monumental column, ancient or modern, known,
with the exception of that on Fish-street Hill, London, England, by
Sir Christopher Wren, architect, in commemoration of the great fire
of 1666, 202 feet high, which exceeds it in height by 12 feet.”


QUESNOY, BATTLE OF.--Fought, September 11th, 1773, between the
French and British, in which the British were defeated, with some
loss. Taken by the Austrians in 1793, but recovered by the French
the following year. It surrendered to Prince Frederick of the
Netherlands, after the battle of Waterloo.


QUIBERON BAY.--A British force landed here in 1736, and was
repulsed. In this Bay Admiral Hawke gained a complete victory over
the French, under Conflans. This most perilous and important action
defeated the French invasion, November 10th 1758. Taken by some
French regiments in pay of the British, July 3rd, 1795; but on July
21st, retaken by the French Republicans. About 900 of the troops
and near 1500 Royalist inhabitants effected their escape on board
the ships.



R.


RAMILIES, BATTLE OF.--Between the English and Allies, commanded
by Marlborough, on the one side, and the French, commanded by the
Elector of Bavaria and the Marshal de Villeroy. The French, having
no confidence in their Commander, were soon seized with a panic,
and a general rout ensued. About 4000 of the Allied army were
slain. Fought on Whitsunday, May 26th, 1706.

“The year following the victory of Blenheim was, for the most part,
wasted in the struggles of Marlborough with his enemies at home,
and with the dilatory and uncertain course of the allies of England
abroad. He succeeded in forcing the French lines in Flanders;
but the fruits of this great achievement were snatched from him
by the constant backwardness of the Dutch Generals, who opposed
every measure which was urged by him. So grieved was he by their
continual opposition, that on one occasion, when the opportunity of
a brilliant success was thus lost, he exclaimed, “I feel at this
moment ten years older than I was four years ago.” In fact, towards
the end of what he had hoped to make a glorious campaign, but
which through this opposition had been lost in disputes, he fell
seriously ill, and was obliged to retire for a time from active
employment.

Meanwhile, the Imperial government had begun to show signs
of jealousy and uneasiness that this great General should be
employed in Flanders, and in the defence of Holland, instead of
recovering the Austrian possessions on the Rhine, and liberating
Lorraine. Pressing applications were made that the Duke, instead of
prosecuting the war in Belgium, would return to the Moselle, and
co-operate with the Imperial forces in that quarter. Taking his
departure from the army at the end of October, 1705, Marlborough
set out for Vienna, which he reached on the 12th of November.
Here the Emperor Joseph created him a Prince of the Empire, and
conferred on him the lordship of Mindelheim. But which gave him far
more satisfaction, he succeeded in reconciling all differences, and
in cementing the alliance, which seemed in danger of dissolution,
between Austria, Prussia, and the Netherlands, against the
ambitious designs of France. He then returned to the Hague, which
he reached on the 11th of December, proceeding thence to London,
which he reached early in the new year.

On the 25th of April, 1706, he again arrived at the Hague for the
active duties of the approaching campaign. This year’s warfare
began at an earlier period than the previous ones, for the French
General, with commendable zeal and activity, took the field in the
spring, forced the German lines on the Motter, reduced Dreisenheim
and Hagenau, and threatened the Palatinate. The Duke, therefore,
left the Hague on the 9th May, the Dutch being now anxious to
retain him with them, and offering him uncontrolled power over
their forces. Accompanied by Overkirk, he passed through Rimemont,
and reached Maestricht on the 12th. Here he reviewed the Dutch
troops, and began to take measures for an attack on Namur. But
Villeroy received orders from Paris rather to risk a battle than to
give up this important place. Hence, in the third week in May, the
two armies began to approach each other.

Villeroy and the Elector of Bavaria passed the Dyle, and approached
Tirlemont. Their combined forces amounted to about 62,000 men. The
Duke, with his English, joined the Dutch at Bilsen on the 20th of
May, and on the 22nd he had intelligence of the arrival of the
Danish contingent, which raised the strength of his army to about
60,000 men. His first desire, now, was to learn the position of
the enemy, and how best to come in contact with them. The field of
battle ultimately proved to be in an elevated part of the plain of
Brabant, lying between Maestricht, Louvain, and Namur. The village
of Ramilies itself is but a few miles to the east of Wavre, the
position of Marshal Blucher on the morning of the day of Waterloo.

On the 23rd of May, then, in 1706, the English, Dutch, and Danish
army, commencing their march early in the morning, came in sight,
about eight o’clock, of the Franco-Bavarian outposts. A fog for
some time made everything obscure, but about ten o’clock the two
armies stood in presence of each other. The French commander
had formed his order of battle with the skill which experience
generally gives; but he was opposed by a greater commander, whose
eye speedily detected the weaknesses of his position.

The French and Bavarians were drawn up on ground which, by its
nature, gave their order of battle a concave form. Thus the
attacking enemy would have the advantage of being able to bring his
men more rapidly from one side to the other, as required. The left
wing of the French, also, though strongly posted, was in a position
from which it could not easily move. Marlborough, therefore, was
not long in forming his plan, which was, to turn the enemy’s right
wing; to seize an elevated position in the rear of that wing, and
from that position to outflank the whole army.

He therefore began a feigned attack, by his own right wing,
upon the left of the French. Villeroy immediately met this, as
Marlborough intended, by sending for fresh troops from his centre,
and by weakening his right. Pausing in his apparent attack,
Marlborough promptly moved to the left all the infantry that were
out of sight of the French, and fell upon the enemy’s right wing,
which was posted in Tavieres.

The attack succeeded, and Tavieres was carried. Villeroy, finding
out his mistake, hurried his squadron of dragoons to the succour of
his right wing; but these squadrons were met by the Danish cavalry
emerging from Tavieres, and they were all cut to pieces, or driven
into the Mehaigne.

And now Ramilies itself, in the centre, became the object of
attack. The Duke ordered up from his own right wing every available
squadron, and exposed himself much in leading the attack. He was,
at one moment, thrown from his horse, and in danger of being
made prisoner. While he was remounting, a cannon-ball killed his
equerry, Captain Bingfield, who was assisting him.

But now the allied cavalry had reached the height of Ottomond, in
the rear of the French position, and the success of the attack
was secured. The French were in utter confusion in all parts of
the field, and Ramilies itself was carried. There remained only
the left wing of Villeroy’s army; and this, attacked now by the
reserves on Marlborough’s right, and by the victorious troops
which had cleared Ramilies, gave way as evening drew on, rushed
in crowds down the descent behind their position, and fled for
Judoigne. The cannon and baggage fell into the hands of the
victors, who pursued the flying French and Bavarians until two
o’clock in the morning. The allied army did not halt in its pursuit
till past midnight, when it had advanced to Meldert, five leagues
from the field of battle, and two from Louvian.

This battle cost the Franco-Bavarian army 13,000 men, in killed,
wounded, and prisoners: among whom were the Princes of Soubise
and Rohan, and a son of Marshal Tallard. The spoils of the day
consisted of 80 colours and standards taken from the French; nearly
all their artillery, and all the baggage which was in the field.
The loss of the Allies was 1066 killed, and 2567 wounded. The vast
difference between this, and the loss sustained at Blenheim, shows
that the victory of Ramilies was gained by the Duke’s masterly
manœuvres; and was not owing merely to the courage of the soldiers.

The results of the battle of Ramilies were very great. Louvain
instantly surrendered; Brussels received the Duke with open arms
on the 28th. Mechlin, Alost, and Lierre, quickly followed. All
Brabant was gained by this one victory. Nor was this all. Flanders
caught the infection. Ghent opened its gates on the 1st of June;
and Antwerp surrendered a few days afterwards. Ostend fell on the
6th of July; and in its harbour were taken two men-of-war, and 45
smaller vessels.”


RATHMINES, BATTLE OF.--_In Ireland._--Colonel Jones, Governor of
Dublin Castle, made a sally, August 2nd, 1649, and routed the
Marquis of Ormond, killed 4000 men and took 2517 prisoners, with
their cannon, baggage and ammunition. This battle, and other
successes, completely discomfited the rebels in this part of
Ireland.


RAVENNA, BATTLE OF.--Fought, April 11th, 1512, between the French,
under the great Gaston de Foix, Duke of Nemours, and nephew of
Louis XII, and the Spanish and Papal armies. De Foix, gained this
memorable battle, but perished in the moment of victory, and the
French fortunes in Italy were thus closed. The confederate army
was cut to pieces. The Duke had performed prodigies of valor, but
being too eager in his pursuit of the Spaniards, who were retiring
in good order, he was slain.


REVOLUTION.--The Great Revolution which overturned the old Monarchy
of France occurred at the close of the last century. The 2nd, the
one here described sent Charles X into exile and was somewhat like
that of 1848 which also exiled Louis Philippe.


  SECOND FRENCH REVOLUTION.

“The political history of 1830 commenced on March 2nd, by a speech
from the throne, announcing war against Algiers for the insults
offered to the French flag, and a wish for a reconciliation with
the Bragazana family.

This caused great dissatisfaction; the funds fell, the Chamber of
Deputies were against the measure, and on the 19th were convoked
till August 3rd, and several fires took place, evidently the work
of incendiaries.

On the 25th July, Polignac addressed a report to the king on
“legitimate power,” and which formed the ground-work of three
memorable ordinances, which were signed on that day by Charles, and
countersigned by the ministers.

The first ordinance abolished the freedom of the press; the second
dissolved the Chamber of Deputies; and the third abrogated the most
important rights of the elective franchise.

On the publication of the _Moniteur_ on the following morning, all
Paris was astounded by the mystifying report of the ministers of
Charles X and the king’s arbitrary decrees. The _Rentes_ fell, and
the bank stopped payment.

All work was now abandoned, every manufactory closed, and
detachments of artisans with large sticks traversed the streets.
Troops of gendarmes patrolled the streets at full gallop to
disperse the accumulating crowds. The people were silent; and at an
early hour the shops were closed. Early on the 27th, troops of the
royal guard and soldiers of the line came pouring in. The people
looked sullen and determined. The chief points of rendezvous were
the Palais Royal, the Palais de Justice, and the Bourse. Here were
simultaneous cries of “_Viva la Charte!_”--“Down with the absolute
king!” but no conversation--no exchange of words with each other.
The King was at the Tuilleries. In the Place Carousel there was a
station of several thousands of the military, including the lancers
of the royal guard, with a great number of cannon. At the Place
Vendome a strong guard of infantry was stationed around the column,
to guard the ensigns of royalty upon it from being defaced. Crowds
of people assembled, and several skirmishes took place.

On Wednesday morning, July 28th, the shops of Paris were closely
shut, and the windows fastened and barred, as if the inhabitants
of the city were in mourning for the dead, or in apprehension of
approaching calamity. The tocsin sounded, and the people flocked
in from the fauxbourgs and different quarters of the city. That
determined enemy to oppression, the press, had been at work during
the night. Handbills were profusely distributed, containing
vehement philippics against the king and his ministers, and
summoning every man to arm for his country, and to aid in ejecting
the Bourbons. Placards were constantly posted up and eagerly read.
During the preceding night an organisation of the people had been
arranged. All the arms that could be found at the theatres, and
remaining in the shops of armourers that had not been visited the
evening before, were seized and distributed. Every other kind of
property, however, was respected.

Strong detachments guarded the different hotels of the ministers.
Loud cries and shouts were constantly heard, of “Down with the
Jesuits!”--“Down with the Bourbons!” “Death to the Ministers!” Each
man strove to provide himself with a musket, a pistol, a sword,
a pole with a knife, or some cutting instrument to form a weapon
of offence. Troops continually arrived from St. Denis, St. Cloud,
and other military stations. Rude barricades were hastily thrown
up in different places, to prevent the attacks of cavalry. Several
telegraphs, including that on the Church des Petits Peres, were
dismounted. Groups of the people, armed with sticks, bayonets,
pikes, and muskets, removed or effaced all the insignia and emblems
of royalty. A red flag was hoisted on the gate of St. Denis, amidst
the shouts of the people. Tri-coloured flags were promenaded in
the streets, and tri-coloured cockades and breast-knots were worn,
not only by the French, but by the English and foreigners of all
nations. The royal arms, and other ensigns of the government of
Charles X that were moveable, were burned in the Place Publique.
All Paris was in insurrection. Every movement of the people
portended a terrible conflict. The government reposed in security
upon a blind and implacable dignity.

M. Lafitte had an interview with Polignac, who said “that the
ministers could enter into no compromise or concession.” “We have,
then, civil war,” said Lafitte. The prince bowed, and Lafitte
retired.

As soon, however, as Polignac’s answer was made known, that
“ministers would enter into no compromise or concession,” war, and
war to the knife, commenced; and never were witnessed more heroic
acts of personal bravery, and more generous disregard of selfish
feelings, than were displayed by the citizens of Paris on this
memorable day and night. The drums of the national guards soon
beat “to arms!” The populace answered the call amid the incessant
ringing of the tocsin, and the struggle began in earnest. About two
o’clock a cannon on the bridge near the Marche aux Fleurs raked
with grape-shot the quay, while the troops were resolutely attacked
by the people, and numbers of the guards led off, killed or wounded.

There was a tremendous conflict in La Halle, the great market-place
of the Rue St. Denis. The royal guard were early in possession
of it. All the outlets were speedily closed by barricades, from
behind which, from the corners of the various streets, and from the
windows of the houses, the people fired on the guards, and there
was a terrible slaughter on both sides. The hottest engagement
seems to have been in the Rue St. Honoré, opposite the Palais
Royal, where the military were assembled in great force, and the
people resisted their assailants with desperate determination.

At the Place de Grêve they fiercely contended with the household
troops, the Swiss guards, and compelled them to fly with great
loss. In the Rue Montmartre an attack was made by the duke of
Ragusa in person. During part of the day the Place des Victoires
was occupied by some troops, among whom was a part of the fifth
regiment of the line, who had gone over to the national guards
established at the Petits Peres. About two o’clock the duke de
Ragusa arrived at the place at the head of fresh troops. He drew
them up opposite the Rues du Mail, des Fosses, Montmartre, Croix
des Petits Champs, and Neuve des Petits Champs. He immediately
commanded a charge, and on both sides hundreds of men were killed.
The marshal directed his troops down the Rue du Mail, and they
scoured the Rue Montmartre without much difficulty till they
reached the Rue Joquelet, where the people were prepared. Each
house was armed and guarded. The black flag was displayed on the
Porte St. Denis and other edifices.

As soon as the firing ceased, the people made preparations for
the next day by strengthening the barricades and increasing
their number. They were assisted by women and even children. The
remainder of the afternoon and evening, and the whole of the
night, was spent in raising these important obstacles to the
evolutions of cavalry. Excellent materials were at hand in the
paving-stones; they were dug up and piled across the streets in
walls breast high, and four or five feet thick. These walls were
about fifty paces distant from each other. Hundreds of the finest
trees were cut down for blockades. Nothing could be more effective
for the defence of a large open town like Paris, traversed in
every direction by long narrow streets, overlooked by houses of
six, seven, and eight stories, than such barriers, scientifically
constructed. All the means that industry and ingenuity could
devise, in so short a time, were carried into execution, for the
energetic stand and assault determined to be made against the
military in the morning.

At day-break on Thursday the tocsin sounded “To arms;” and the
people began to assemble rapidly and in great crowds. The military,
whose guard-houses had been destroyed, were chiefly quartered at
the Louvre and the Tuilleries, the Swiss and the royal guards
being posted in the houses of the Rue St. Honoré and the adjacent
streets. At the same time, the students of the Polytechnic
School joined the citizens nearly to a man; they then separated,
proceeding singly to different parts to take the command of the
people, and nobly repaid the confidence reposed in them. The garden
of the Tuilleries was closed. In the Place du Carousel were three
squadrons of lancers of the garde royale, a battalion of the third
regiment of the guards, and a battery of six pieces, also belonging
to the guards.

About one o’clock in the afternoon, a party of the royal guards and
of Swiss, to the number of nearly 800 men, appeared on the Place de
Grêve. A brisk fire commenced, but the national guards not being
in sufficient strength, were obliged to give ground and to suffer
the royal guards to take possession of their post. The royal guards
had scarcely made themselves masters of the Hotel de Ville, when
they were assailed on all sides with a shower of bullets from the
windows of the houses on the Place de Grêve and in the streets
abutting on the quay. The royal guards resisted vigorously, but
were ultimately compelled to retreat along the quay; their firing
by files and by platoons succeeding each other with astonishing
rapidity. They were soon joined by fresh troops of the royal
guard and of Swiss, including 100 cuirassiers of the guard and
four pieces of artillery, each of them escorted by a dozen of
artillerymen on horseback. With this terrible reinforcement they
again advanced on the Hotel de Ville, and a frightful firing began
on all sides. The artillery debouching from the quay, and their
pieces charged with cannister shot, swept the Place de Grêve in
a terrific manner. They succeeded in driving the citizens into
the Rues de Matriot and du Mouton, and entered for the second
time that day into their position at the Hotel de Ville. But
their possession of it did not continue long; for they were soon
again attacked with a perseverance and courage which was almost
irresistible. Their artillery ranged before the Prefecture of the
Seine and the Hotel de Ville threatened death to thousands.

Hundreds of the constitutionalists were killed by the fire of
the Swiss guard from the windows of this edifice. It was erected
in 1600, and though it does not appear to possess any of the
characteristics of strength in a military sense of the word, yet
its gates, being of immense thickness, furnished a good defence
from the musketry of the attacking parties. The Hotel de Ville was
afterwards employed as the head-quarters of La Fayette and the
provisional government.

The Rue St. Honoré, for two days, was a perpetual scene of
slaughter. The Louvre, except the picture-gallery, was on all sides
attacked and defended at the same moment, and for hours. In the
court of the Louvre a field-piece was planted, which commanded
the Pont des Arts, being exactly opposite the Institute. Here the
fighting was so dreadful and so maintained, that the front of the
building of the Institute was completely covered with muskets and
grape shot. One cannon ball smashed a portion of the wall, and from
its elevation did dreadful execution in sweeping the bridge. The
attack on the Tuilleries was over in two or three hours. A young
man marched with a tri-coloured flag at the head of the attacking
bourgeois. A thousand balls, fired from the front of the chateau,
whistled by him without touching him. He continued to march
with perfect _sangfroid_, but with, at the same time, an air of
importance, up to the triumphal arch, and remained until the end of
the battle.

While the people and the military were combating at the Place de
Grêve, the Louvre, and the Tuilleries, troops were arriving by the
Champs Elysees. A great party of the people, and many national
guards, with two pieces of cannon, were hastening along near the
Place Louis XVI towards the Barrier St. Etoile, when a largo
troop of dragoons arrived, made a desperate charge, and cut down
the people without mercy who made a very bold stand. Many of the
soldiers solemnly vowed that they would not continue to obey orders
to massacre their brothers and sons. Their numbers were thinned,
they were fatigued, disheartened, discomfited, beaten, and fled. At
Chaillot, a district of Paris, verging on the route to St. Cloud,
the inhabitants, though few in number, sustained the fire of five
regiments of the guards, who attempted to effect their retreat by
the barrier of Passy. At length, all the royal troops left the
capital by the way of the Champs Elysees, and in their retreat were
fired upon by the people.

At night, part of the town was illuminated, particularly
the streets of St. Denis, St. Martin, St. Jacques, and the
neighbourhood of the Hotel de Ville. Perfect tranquillity prevailed
throughout the city. Strong patroles silently paraded the streets,
passed gently from barricade to barricade, and disarmed individuals
whom fatigue and the heat of the weather, more than wine, had
rendered incapable of employing their weapons usefully.

A deputation from Charles X at St. Cloud, arrived at the Hotel
de Ville early in the morning. It consisted of the marquis de
Rastoret, chancellor of France; M. Semonville; and count d’Argout,
peer of France. They announced that Charles had named the duke de
Mortemart president of the council, and that he was willing to
accept a ministry chosen by him.

At eleven o’clock, the deputies and peers then in Paris assembled
in their respective halls, and established regular communications
with each other. The duke de Mortemart was introduced to the
chamber of deputies, and delivered four ordinances, signed,
the previous day, by Charles X. One of them recalled the fatal
ordinances of the 25th; another convoked the chambers on the 3rd;
the third appointed the duke de Mortemart president of the council,
and the fourth appointed count Gerard minister of war, and M.
Casimir-Perier minister of finance. The reading of these ordinances
was listened to with the greatest attention. At the termination
profound silence continued;--no observation was made;--the deputies
passed to other business.--The duke de Mortemart returned to
acquaint his master that he was no longer acknowledged as king of
France. The manner in which the duke and his communications were
received by the deputies, was an announcement that Charles X had
ceased to reign.

On the 31st, the deputies published a proclamation, declaring that
they had invited the duke of Orleans to become Lieutenant-General
of the kingdom. At noon of the same day, Louis Philippe d’Orleans
issued a proclamation, declaring that he had hastened to Paris,
wearing the “glorious colours” of France, to accept the invitation
of the assembled deputies to become Lieutenant-General of the
kingdom. A proclamation of the same date appointed provisional
commissaries for the different departments of government. The king,
with his family, escaped to St. Cloud.

On the 3rd of August the chambers met, when the abdication of
Charles was announced; and on the 9th, Louis Philippe, having taken
the prescribed oath, was created king, under the title of “King of
the French.”

Thus terminated this desperate struggle for popular rights, and
which has no parallel in the annals of history. The Parisians left
their homes to fight, without organization and almost without
arms, against some of the best troops in the world;--and for what?
Were they a rabble driven by hunger, or a rebellious nobility
endeavouring to wrest new privileges from the monarch? No: they
were men who, animated with an ardent desire to be free, would not
suffer themselves to be stripped of their civil rights, but firmly
and manfully defended them with their lives. It was in this respect
a great moral revolution, and forms a brilliant epoch in the annals
of the world.”


RETREAT OF THE GREEKS.--Whoever has read the beautiful descriptions
of Xenophon, has read of the memorable retreat of the 10,000
Greeks. It happened B.C. 401, after the battle of Cunaxa; Xenophon
was chosen commander. He rose superior to danger, and though under
continual alarms from the sudden attacks of the Persians, he was
enabled to cross rapid rivers, penetrate through vast deserts, gain
the tops of mountains, till he could rest secure for a while, and
refresh his tired companions. At last they returned home, after a
retreat of 1155 parasangs or leagues, which was performed in 215
days,--and after an absence of 15 months.


RIDGEWAY, BATTLE OF, OR LIME RIDGE.--Fought, Saturday, June 2nd,
1866, between the Canadian Volunteers of Toronto and Hamilton, and
the Fenians, a lawless band of predatory scoundrels, who wantonly
invaded Canada, and were driven back by Canada’s brave sons. The
following succinct account is from the pen of the Rev. D. Inglis,
D.D., of Hamilton, who was present in the engagement.

“Rev. Mr. Burwash and myself were appointed by a number of the
ministers of this city to join the 13th Battalion of Hamilton
volunteers, and to render them such assistance as might be in our
power. The shadows of night had just given way to the bright light
of that June morning when we reached Port Colborne and joined
the battalion in the cars, a few minutes before the train left
for Ridgeway. Much has been written on the proper rations and
equipments for the men, and I only refer to this with the view
of noticing the want of shoulder-straps with which to fasten the
overcoats on the back of the soldiers, and the fact that they were
obliged to roll them up and sling them over their right shoulders,
under their left arm-pits, an expedient which afterwards greatly
impeded them in aiming and firing, and caused them to abandon their
overcoats when going into battle.

The train proceeded slowly to Ridgeway, where the men left the
cars and were drawn up on the Stevensville road. The Queen’s Own
were in the front, then came the 13th Battalion, and a company of
riflemen from Caledonia forming the rear-guard. The men were in
good spirits, and I could not look without admiration upon the
coolness and intrepidity with which these volunteer soldiers,
many of them mere lads, prepared for the advance. The ammunition
was distributed to the men, the order given to load with ball
cartridge, and then followed an interval of suspense and waiting.
The sensation of relief was great when after some minutes of
anxiety and impatience the order to advance was given. The position
assigned to the waggon containing the ammunition, &c., in which Mr.
Burwash and myself were riding, was immediately behind the main
body, and in front of the rear guard. When about a mile and a half
from Ridgeway several companies of the Queen’s Own were ordered
into the fields and woods to clear them of Fenians--and in a short
time the first shot was fired--and then in a rapid succession we
saw small clouds of blue smoke issuing from the woods, telling us
of a rapid discharge of musketry before the reports reached our
ears. The sergeants in charge concluded to halt with their waggon,
and Mr. Burwash and myself hurried on in the rear of our main body.
The Fenian skirmishers fell back upon the main body of their force,
who were drawn up in an entrenched position along the Fort Erie
road. They had converted a stone wall and the ordinary snake-fences
into barricades, and held a strong position; but on the advance of
our forces, fearing lest our skirmishers should out-flank them,
they retired in good order, and amid rapid firing, to a slightly
elevated piece of ground covered with thick woods, some distance
in their rear. It was in this advance that Ensign McEachren was
mortally wounded. It has been stated that Colonel Booker rushed to
the rear calling for a surgeon. I am in a position positively to
deny this; the cry for a surgeon was heard by me, but it did not
come from the Colonel. Mr. McEachren was borne to the rear by some
men of his company, accompanied by the Captain, a noble fellow,
whose name I do not know, to whom I at once introduced myself as
a minister, and offered to do all I could for his friend. He
thanked me with tears in his eyes, and hastened back to the post of
danger. Dr. May was in attendance; but a glance at the wound shewed
that it was mortal--and it fell to me to inform him of the fact.
He received the intelligence as a Christian soldier--informing me
that his faith rested in the Lord Jesus Christ. I prayed with him,
and after a few moments’ conversation I mentioned Mr. Burwash’s
name, and finding that he was an old parishioner of Mr. Burwash,
I left him mainly to his care--though I several times spent a few
moments with him afterwards. I then returned to the battle-field to
see if I could be of use there. Our forces had advanced, throwing
out their skirmishers right and left of the skirmishers--Queen’s
Own--to the extreme right--13th battalion--the distance was
probably a little more than three-quarters of a mile. Not a Fenian
was to be seen, but as our brave soldiers advanced, nearer and
nearer, there came again first a single shot, and then a rapid
discharge of fire-arms along the whole line. From their elevated
position, or from what other cause, I know not, the shots went
over the heads of our men, and I could see them striking the field
behind. I hastened back to the hospital with feelings of admiration
for the brave fellows who, exposed to a terrible fire from an
unseen foe, so nobly stood their ground, while the sharp crack of
their rifles assured me that the gallant fellows were doing their
duty amidst those showers of bullets, in spite of all the manifest
disadvantages of their position; but I could not rid myself of a
feeling of depression and anxiety when I thought of the result.

In the hospital I found a few men slightly wounded. One of them
told me there were no litters with which to bear the wounded from
the field. I set the men who were on guard to work to make litters
with some poles which we found near--and such sheets and blankets
as I could lay my hands on--and returned to the field with the men
carrying the litters. I took my old position, from which I had a
full view of the whole field, and was startled to notice strange
movements going on among our men. They had halted--the whole line
trembled--I do not mean that the brave men trembled, but there was
a movement along their line which I find no other word to describe.
The order to receive cavalry was given, and an effort was made to
obey it. Then another and another order. The only one which the
men seemed eager to obey was the one to advance, and then came the
fatal bugle’s notes that told them to retreat, and our men began to
fall back. I hurried to the hospital and told the Doctor and Mr.
Burwash that I feared the day was against us, but said I would
return to the field while they made the necessary preparations to
remove the sick and wounded from a place which should soon be the
very centre of the battle. When I again reached my old post of
observation a shower of bullets fell around me, and before I got
back to the hospital, a number of men belonging to the Queen’s Own
had got between me and the house. These were quickly followed by
a large number of the 13th Battalion, and I was forced to leave
without again communicating with my friends. I soon found, however,
that the Doctor and his wounded men, as well as Mr. Burwash, had
got safely out of that terrible fire.

The descriptions given of the retreat, are, for the most part
greatly exaggerated. Some men, it is true, ran away in terror,
but the main body, though in confusion, were not panic-stricken.
The feeling was one of vexation, and at the very moment when they
expected victory, all had unaccountably gone wrong with them. Tears
were shed, but they were tears wrung from brave men at the bitter
thought of being called to retreat before their foes. In the rear,
Major Skinner, with a number of men belonging to the 13th and the
Queen’s Own, kept in good order, and so effectually covered our
retreat, that the enemy were unaware of the disorder in which the
main body were retiring. Beyond all doubt, we were at this point
saved from further disaster by the coolness and steadiness of Major
Skinner, and the officers and men who were with him.

At Ridgeway the confused and scattered mass of men who got into
order through the exertions of a Toronto officer whose name I have
been told is Captain Arthurs, and who certainly discharged his duty
in a way that marked him out as a man able to control and lead
others.

I have refrained from all criticism of the conduct of the officers
on whom the responsibilities of this matter lie. I know nothing
of military tactics, and it does not become me to say anything
of why this little band of volunteers should have been led into
a conflict with superior numbers of trained and veteran soldiers
without support from artillery or the regulars--it is not my part
to say what the commanding officer should or should not have
done. This only I am bound to say, that the officers and men of
the Queen’s Own and 13th Battalion, behaved throughout the battle
with coolness and gallantry--and even the unfortunate retreat only
brought out more clearly that, with few exceptions, they were men
of unflinching courage. The hospital, no less than the battle-field
proved the noble courage of our men, and it would have moved the
stoutest heart to tears, to see those boy-heroes suffering as they
did, without a murmur or a groan.

Major Gilmore, of the Queen’s Own, and Major Skinner, of the 13th,
distinguished themselves greatly, their words of command inspiring
their men with courage--while they themselves were steady as rocks
under the hottest fire. Indeed, but for Major Skinner’s coolness
and power over the men under his command, the retreat of Ridgeway
must have resulted in fearful consequences.”


RIFLE PITS, CONTEST AT THE.--_Crimean war._ “The bombardment was
re-opened on Easter Monday, the 9th April, soon after daybreak.
Heavy rain fell all day, and the dense atmosphere prevented our
men from observing the effect of the fire. This time the fleets
did not share in the bombardment. At the close of the day, it was
evident that our weight of metal, though greatly superior to that
employed on the occasion of the first bombardment in October,
was yet inadequate to the task of destroying the colossal works
of the enemy. In vain our artillery pounded the earthworks and
batteries. In vain showers of shell were poured into the town. The
Russian engineers proved themselves consummate masters of their
art, and every morning fresh guns poured forth a deadly reply
from the repaired embrasures. Their resources seemed literally
inexhaustible, and their courage was fully equal to the occasion.
For more than a week the tremendous bombardment continued, and
notwithstanding the intensity of the fire from the French and
English batteries, comparatively little effect was produced. In
the meanwhile both armies worked assiduously at the trenches. The
French succeeded in carrying their parallels yet nearer to the
Mamelon, a large rounded hill in front of the Malakoff Tower,
and covered with rifle pits and earthworks; while the English
gradually extended their lines towards the formidable Redan. Their
great difficulty lay in forming a trench which should connect the
zigzags leading on the right towards the Malakoff, and on the left
towards the Redan. In order to obstruct the formation of this
work, the enemy established a series of rifle-pits which enfiladed
the new parallel, and whence considerable loss was inflicted upon
our working parties. In addition to the fire from the rifle-pits,
the enemy brought down a 12-pounder gun which swept our trenches,
and effectually hindered the progress of the work. It became
necessary, therefore, to attempt to drive the Russians from their
vantage-ground; and on the night of the 19th of April, Colonel
Egerton, at the head of 250 men of the Light Division, attempted
the exploit, dashed from the breastwork, and, taking the enemy
by surprise, drove him out. The successful English immediately
established themselves in the pits, but the Russians were too
sensible of the value of the position to permit the advantage
to remain undisputed, and marched down a column 1000 strong, to
attempt the recovery of the pits. Our troops met them with a
well-directed volley, which shook their ranks and then closed
with them in a deadly contest. The enemy was, after an obstinate
fight, completely routed, and the British had secured an important
advantage, though not without the loss of the gallant Colonel.
On the following night, the second line of rifle-pits was also
carried, after a feeble resistance; and our working parties were
thus enabled to pursue their labours without annoyance, and in
comparative security.”


ROADS, LORD COCHRANE AT BASQUE.--“Our fire-ships were sent in, each
conducted by a lieutenant and five men; the ships were sixteen in
number, and some very heavy. When they got in, the French ships
cut and slipt, nine sail of the line got on shore on the Isle
of Aix, and the next morning we discovered them: the fire-ships
having done little good, the small craft and frigates were ordered
in to attempt to destroy them. The place where they lay was like
Portsmouth harbour, under the fire of the two batteries, each of
which had three tiers of guns, of twenty-nine each, all heavy
metal: the navigation to get at them was very difficult, in some
places there being only four fathoms water. Just as we were sitting
down to dinner on board the Revenge, our signal was made to go in
and assist the gun and mortar vessels; our ship was cleared for
action in fifteen minutes, and in half an hour we were alongside
of three sail of the line, when we opened a dreadful cannonade on
them, which continued for an hour and a quarter, the Warsaw, a
fine 80-gun ship, and the Aquilon, struck to us. We were now in a
very critical state ourselves, being in only five fathoms water,
which was ebbing very fast; the batteries on shore, having got
our length, struck us almost every shot for the last quarter of
an hour; luckily, a breeze springing up, we got off into deeper
water, and out of reach of their guns, when we anchored again, and
sent our boats to take out the prisoners, and set them on fire,
about seven, p.m. At nine they were all in flames, and at two in
the morning they blew up with a tremendous explosion; the French
set fire to the Tonniere, and the Imperieuse to the Calcutta; three
other ships of the line were on shore, very much mauled by the
frigates and boom-ships; some of them were on their beam-ends, and
but little chance of getting off again. The captain of the Warsaw
was on board our ship; he said, they were bound out to relieve
Martinique with troops and provisions. I went on board his ship
after she struck, and the decks were strewed with dead and dying, a
most dreadful slaughter. We also lost several killed and wounded,
and our ship was much cut up in sails and rigging.

Lord Cochrane caused about 1500 barrels of gunpowder to be started
into puncheons, which were placed end upwards: upon the tops of
these were placed between 3 and 400 shells, charged with fuses; and
again, among and upon these were between 2 and 3000 hand-grenades.
The puncheons were fastened to each other by cables wound round
them, and jammed together with wedges; and moistened sand was
rammed down between these casks, so as to render the whole, from
stem to stern, as solid as possible, that the resistance might
render the explosion the more violent.

In this tremendous instrument of destruction, Lord Cochrane
committed himself, with only one lieutenant and four seamen;
and after the boom was broken, his lordship proceeded with this
explosion-ship towards the enemy’s line. Let it be recollected,
that at this moment the batteries on shore were provided with
furnaces to fire red-hot shot, and then his lordship’s danger in
this enterprize may be properly conceived.

The wind blew a gale, and the tide ran three knots an hour. When
the blue lights of the fire-ships were discovered, one of the
enemy’s line made the signal for fire-ships; which being also a
blue light, the enemy fell into great confusion, firing upon her
with very injurious effect, and directly cut their cables.

When lord Cochrane had conducted his explosion-ship as near as was
possible, the enemy having taken the alarm, he ordered his brave
little crew into the boat, and followed them, after putting fire
to the fuse, which was calculated to give them fifteen minutes to
get out of reach of the explosion. However, in consequence of the
wind getting very high, the fuse burnt too quickly; so that, with
the most violent exertion against wind and tide, this intrepid
little party was six minutes nearer than they calculated to be, at
the time when the most tremendous explosion that human art ever
contrived took place, followed by the bursting at once in the air
of nearly 400 shells and 3000 hand-grenades, pouring down a shower
of castmetal in every direction. But fortunately our second Nelson
was spared, the boat having reached, by unparalleled exertion,
only just beyond the extent of destruction. Unhappily, this effort
to escape cost the life of the brave lieutenant, whom his noble
captain saw die in the boat, partly under fatigue, and partly
drowned with waves that continually broke over them. Two of the
four sailors were also so nearly exhausted, that their recovery was
for some time despaired of.

The repetition of his explosions was so dreaded by the enemy,
that they apprehended an equal destruction in every fire-ship,
and, immediately crowding all sail, ran before wind and tide so
fast, that the fire-ships, though at first very near, could not
overtake them, before they were high and dry on shore, except three
seventy-fours, besides the Calcutta, which were afterwards engaged,
taken, and burned.

Lord Cochrane now turned his attention to rescue the vanquished
from the devouring elements; and in bringing away the people of the
Ville de Varsovie, he would not allow even a dog to be abandoned,
but took the crying little favourite up into his arms and brought
it away. But a still greater instance of goodness was displayed in
his humanity to a captain of a French seventy-four, who came to
deliver his sword to Lord Cochrane, and lamented that all he had
in the world was about to be destroyed by the conflagration of his
ship. His lordship instantly got into the boat with him, and pushed
off to assist his prisoner in retrieving some valuable loss; but
in passing by a seventy-four, which was on fire, her loaded guns
began to go off; a shot from which killed the French captain by
Lord Cochrane’s side, and so damaged the boat, that she filled and
the rest of the party were nearly drowned.”


RODNEY’S, ADMIRAL, VICTORIES.--This renowned Admiral fought,
near Cape St. Vincent, the Spanish Admiral Don Langara, whom
he defeated, and made prisoner, destroying eight of his ships
and taking four, January 16th, 1780. On April 12th, 1782, he
encountered the French fleet in the West Indies, commanded by Count
de Grasse--took 10 ships of the line, and sent the French Admiral
prisoner to England. The enemy lost also one ship, sunk, and three
blown up.


ROSAS, BAY OF.--Brilliant naval action by the boats of the Tigre,
Cumberland, Volontaire, Apollo, Topaz, Philomel, Scout, and Tuscan,
commanded by Lieutenant Tailour, which ended in the capture or
destruction of 11 armed vessels in the bay. November 1st, 1809.


ROSBACH, BATTLES OF.--In the first battle fought at Rosbach 40,000
rebel Flemings, under the command of the Duke of Burgundy, the King
Charles VI in France being present, fell November 17th, 1382. A
second battle between the Prussians, commanded by their King and
the combined army of the French and Austrians, in which the latter
sustained a severe defeat. Many thousands were slain on both sides,
November 5th, 1757.


ROSES, WARS OF THE.--These wars arose out of a contest for the
throne, between the two houses of York and Lancaster. It was
termed the War of the Roses, from the badge of the York party
being a white, and that of the Lancaster a red rose. It arose in
complicated disputes about the succession among the descendants of
Edward III. The feud thus arising was not concluded until Henry VII
asserted the ascendency of the Lancaster party, on the field of
Bosworth, and united the two, by marriage with a daughter of the
York party.

King Richard was killed at Bosworth and the Crown conferred upon
the Earl of Richmond, and an end put to the wars between the two
houses of York and Lancaster, begun upon the intrusion of king
Henry IV, and continued till the death of King Richard III. There
were fought 12 pitched battles, and 2 kings, 1 prince, 10 dukes, 2
marquesses, 24 earls, 27 lords, 2 viscounts, 1 lord prior, 1 judge,
139 knights, 441 esquires, and 84,998 private soldiers were slain;
which, being added to the 638 of superior quality, there appears to
have been killed in the quarrels between the two roses, 85,625.


ROSS, BATTLE OF.--_In Ireland._--Fought, June 4th, 1698, between
the Royal troops and the insurgent forces, when, after the most
obstinate contest, the latter were defeated losing more than 2600
killed on the field.


ROXBURGH.--The following describes the razing of this fortress A.D.
1460: “Ever since the captivity of David II, a period of more than
a hundred years, the castle of Roxburgh had been in possession of
the English. James laid siege to it. He had gone with several of
his nobility to watch the effect of a battery of cannon which had
begun to play on the fortress. One of the pieces, a large gun of
Flemish manufacture, formed of iron bars hooped together, burst in
firing. A heavy fragment struck the King on the groin, and killed
him on the spot. A holly tree in the park of Fleurs Castle still
marks the place where James of the Fiery Face, not yet 30 years
old, came to his untimely end. On hearing the lamentable tidings,
the queen came immediately to the camp. She appeared in the midst
of the army, leading by the hand her little son, now the King.
The spirited woman exhorted the soldiers to spend no time in vain
regrets, but to show their regard for the dead, by gaining the
victory which he had so much at heart. Catching ardour from her
appeal, the army renewed the attack and carried the castle by storm
that same day. The ruins of the stronghold, which cost Scotland so
dear, are still to be seen on the tongue of land where Tweed and
Teviot join, a little way above Kelso Bridge.



S.


SACRED WAR.--_Sacrum Bellum._--The first, about the celebrated
temple of Delphi, took place B.C. 448. The second occurred also at
the same place, when it was attacked by the Phœnicians, B.C. 356.


SADOWA, BATTLE OF.--Fought, July 3rd, 1866, between the Prussians
and Austrians. Dr. Russel thus writes:--

“In spite of the sombre morning and of the grey clothing, relieved
only by the darker but livelier green of the Jagers and their
plumed hats, the effect of the whole host wheeling, deploying,
advancing, taking ground to the right or left, or marching in
lengthened column, was so bright that it was difficult to believe
they all, horses and men, had been sleeping out under the veiled
stars of heaven, and were still dank and heavy with the night
dew and the rain of the morning. But there could be no mistake
about the reality of the work in which they were engaged, for the
Austrians on the brow of the slope to the right were pounding away
fiercely at the invincible enemy in the valley. That there was
an enemy was plain enough, for the earth flew up on the slope as
the answering shells glanced upwards, and then exploded among the
infantry in the rear. This was about 8.30 A.M. At nine o’clock a
heavy shower obscured the field, and when it drifted northwards
three Austrian batteries were still busy on the slope, and several
columns of infantry, deploying on its side, moved up around it
and disappeared into the valley, whence there soon came masses of
curling smoke, and then the batteries limbered up and moved over
also, showing that the enemy were falling back. The second line on
the right made a slight movement to the right and upwards, but it
did not seem as if the Austrians concerned themselves much for the
ground between the rear of Imilovitz and the river. The cannonade
which had all this time been going on towards the right now
extended towards the middle or centre; a line of batteries moving
on or halting to fire could be seen on the plateau to the right of
Klum, and it was evident that the enemy was in great force in that
direction. It looked as if the Prussians had attacked the position
almost simultaneously from left to right, for no sooner had the
action developed itself on the centre than it rolled back from
Nechanitz on the left, and before 9.30 the whole range of hills and
valleys and slopes for nine miles and more was as if the earth had
been turned into snow wreaths agitated in a wintry gale. Before
10 o’clock a thicker and darker cloud rose from the trees and the
village on the right. “My God, Imilovitz is in flames,” exclaimed
the guardian of the tower. The officers said “_Ja so!_” “_Hem!_”
and uttered various other sounds of varied import possibly,
smoked their cigars, and looked on. Imilovitz, indeed, blazed up
furiously after a time, and in about a quarter of an hour more the
Austrian batteries which had gone down the slope toiled up again,
unlimbered, and fired from the brow. Puffs of smoke high in the air
or rising from the ground showed where the Prussian fire was plying
the Austrians on the right; but their guns replied vigorously, and
all through that day, though sometimes ill-placed, the Austrian
artillery behaved most gallantly. It was difficult to ascertain why
the Austrian corps on the right were so unsteady, and why so many
men were leaving the ranks of regiments still invisible; but after
a time another sponge-like rain-cloud wiped away everything, and
left it all like a clean slate, from behind which there issued a
rolling fire of cannon as close as the volleys of a _feu de joie_.
When the shower passed away, the cannonade on the right near the
tree had sensibly diminished, and the Austrians seemed to have the
advantage all along the front, judging by the advance of their guns
and infantry, except near the left centre and right of their line.
On the extreme left another black cloud now rose up, licked by
flames at the base. “_Gott in Himmel!_” exclaimed the guardian of
the tower, “Sadowa burns now!” And so it was. The pleasant little
village, snug church, hospitable mill--all were burning. It was
with surer divination of the coming woe than we had that the poor
people had fled in tears, or remained in hopeless sorrow in their
homes. The heat of this great battle burned up whatever it touched,
and sent forth the lava which destroyed as it flowed on all sides.
Between the big tree and Klum, in the centre and far away towards
the second ridge, the fight was raging with extraordinary fury from
10 o’clock till 10.30--and that half-hour seemed an age. But still
the Austrians advanced. One grey mass of men followed another into
the smoke, and was lost there. Towards Sadowa and Nechanitz on the
left they also were gaining ground, and before 11 o’clock their
columns had gone out of sight into the valley or undulations, and
the Prussians could be seen by their fire to have fallen back on
the opposing slopes of the second range of hills.

An animating and magnificent feature was now added to the terrible
spectacle by the forward movement of the heavy cavalry near the
Prague road and towards the centre. These great squares of white,
spreading out slowly, obliterated the cornfields. The very colour
of the ground was changed and darkened under the trampling of
horses. One column went towards the Nechanitz road, the other two
moved towards Klum; but after a few formations they halted again,
and some of these regiments dismounted and stood by their horses.
The Saxons, readily to be distinguished by their light blue, also
advanced parallel with the Prague road towards the top of the
slope. This was some time after eleven o’clock, when the Prussian
left and centre had visibly given way, though fighting with extreme
tenacity and fervour. The light cavalry, at the same time, or part
of them, advanced towards Klum in the centre, awaiting the moment
to deluge the plain with an exulting flood. But the time was not
come. The Prussians, reinforced, or calling in their second line
and reserves, came with a desperate impetus up the slopes on the
left and centre, and also developed a new attack on the left of
the Prague road, which looked like a black riband now and then as
the smoke was driven off by the wind. They were intent on turning
our left if possible, but they met with a stubborn and successful
resistance at that point. Soon afterwards, in the midst of a heavy
fall of rain, the cavalry made another advance, and when it cleared
the Austrian infantry were seen to have moved still further to the
left and centre, while the sound of the cannonade grew so deafening
that the Prussians must have been driven back beyond the position
they occupied when they began the action. Between half-past eleven
and twelve o’clock the Austrians were to all intents successful on
the centre and on its flanks, although the fury of the cannonade
and the incessant rattle of musketry all along the front, from the
front of Nechanitz to the plateau beyond Klum attested the severity
of the struggle and the obstinate resistance of the Prussians.
Probbis, another pretty village, was now in flames; three villages
burning at once, farmhouses adding their contingents to the fire
and smoke, caissons blowing up, shells bursting, and the slopes
and hill tops covered with grey and blue specs--each a man in
agony or in death. Again the cavalry moved onwards. This time one
division, in three bodies, crowned the ridge and formed near the
front line under the church, on the left of Klum, in the centre
and left of the position, and there they waited once more. But
now on the right the action awoke again, and, to our surprise, a
very heavy fire of musketry, comparatively close at hand, came
from the direction of Smirlintz; the Austrians on the crest of the
ridge moved uneasily, while many more stragglers than one cared
to see pressed down towards the railroad. Whatever the cause of
the agitation, the Prussians on the centre and left pressed their
attack with renewed vigour, and the contest which ensued was of
exceeding fierceness; but still the enemy did not prevail--the
Austrians not only held their ground, but repulsed the enemy
advanced against them, took their ground, and made prisoners. From
the left of Klum to the Prague road, and beyond it, all was fire
and smoke. The tumult of voices was dreadful, and such as is never
to be heard save in such awful agony of battle. The Austrians again
advanced a little nearer the big tree, and two batteries of reserve
artillery could be seen driving fast to the left to strengthen
the attack. But the Prussian reserves were once more called upon,
and from 12.30 till nearly 1 o’clock there was an artillery fire
from centre to left for six miles or more, which could not well
have been exceeded in any action of which history makes mention.
That ammunition was becoming needed in the advanced position was
evident from the motion of the trains of supply and reserve, and
we watched the cavalry with intense interest, as it seemed to
be the time for them to make an impression. The Prussians were
wavering. At 1 o’clock the Prussians, however, recovered some of
the ground on the right near the big tree. The Austrian artillery
began to fall back over the brow of the hill, and again battalions
of infantry came in sight and moved away obliquely towards the
centre. Still, no Prussians appeared in that direction, but they
were certainly forcing the Austrians back on the right. It might
have been expected that the reserves to the right would have been
sent up to hold the top of the slope, but I could not see it was
so. Many stragglers now appeared on the railway, the fields were
spotted with them; and now and then a shell bursting in or over
the infantry marching along the slope or the reserves, struck
them, or left a little pile of dead or struggling men in the voids
which the opening columns displayed. I confess the advance of the
Prussians in this direction appeared to me inexplicable and very
serious; for, although the left and centre of the Austrians might
be victorious, this movement threatened, by forcing back their
right, to cut them off from Konigsgratz--so, at least, was the
situation as viewed from the tower; but it is strange how different
a field of action appears from different points of view, as any one
may find out by riding from place to place on a field-day. However,
a General who saw what was visible to those in the tower would have
felt uneasiness and have turned his attention to fill the gap in
his line at the centre, and to drive back the Prussians who were
doubling up his right.

While the centre advanced slowly, but surely, a space seemed to
be left between the ground they had occupied and the left of the
Austrians, who were continually retiring there. The houses burning
fiercely in Klum emitted volumes of smoke, which were swept away
towards the right. Another village lying apparently to the left
of Prague road, named Gres Biaritz, or Hiaritz, as well as I
could catch the name, was now in flames. More tumbrils blew up in
that direction, so that there were now six or seven villages and
hamlets on fire from left to right. The battle was assuming a more
awful and tremendous aspect, and the faint rays of sunshine which
shot at intervals through the lifting clouds only gave the scene
greater terror. Horses without riders careered among the wounded,
who were crawling all over the plain, dismounted dragoons dragged
themselves to the rear, and men came crawling along in such numbers
that they appeared like a broad fringe to the edges of the battle.
The rolling of musketry in the hollows beyond smothered the voice
of the cannon. At last the reserves behind were pressed forward
with energy. Their artillery unlimbering opened from sixteen guns
into the dense blue columns which were driving the Austrians before
them, and checked their advance, till the Prussian artillery,
getting upon the small ridge and firing down so as to get a slight
enfilade, began to knock over horses and men. The Austrians,
however, here, as elsewhere, stuck to their pieces admirably, and
it was not till the Prussian infantry, getting into a clump of
timber, opened a sharp fire on their flank that they limbered up,
leaving more than one black heap to mark the position they had
occupied. Meanwhile the Austrians on the left pursued their onward
career. The Saxon reserves pushed up the hills in the direction
of Nechanitz; and a great body of cavalry sweeping round between
the left and centre, dashed in wavelike columns through the smoke
towards the Prussians, and menaced their artillery, against which
some thirty or forty pieces in line were directing a steady and
rapid fire. Prussian prisoners begun to arrive at intervals between
the convoys of wounded, winding their way along the Prague road.
Most of those men belonged to the 6th and 31st regiments, to judge
from the numbers on their shoulder-straps; and among them was an
officer of great stature, with red moustaches and whiskers, who
bore his captivity with great _sang froid_, and walked along like
a conqueror. As the Austrian left and centre gained ground, the
right yielded, and column after column of Prussians came upon the
ridge, firing as they advanced, while their guns on the flanks
swept the slowly retreating, but not disorderly, Austrians with
shrapnel and shell. At times the Austrians halting opened a brisk
fire; once or twice several regiments formed square to receive
cavalry, but I could not see any Prussian horse on the slope near
them. There was a hesitation, both in the Austrians and the enemy,
which was not intelligible, and several times the officers at the
head of the Prussian columns riding forward, fired over their
horses’ heads, and stood up in their stirrups as if to see into the
hollows. A shell burst close over one of them, and when the smoke
cleared away, man and horse were down, and never stirred again. The
folds of the ground must have hid most of the Prussians from the
Austrian artillery as they got near the big tree, for the gunners
principally directed their pieces against the Prussian guns, which
received accessions rapidly, and occupied their full attention. At
last the Prussians were perceived, and five battalions of Austrians
from the reserve, coming from the extreme right, tried to check
their advance by a flanking fire. The Prussians halted, and in an
instant a fire of surprising volume and sharpness flew along their
front. The Austrians for a few minutes replied steadily, but they
fell fast, and at last two battalions, with great vigour, charged
up the hill, but were broken in the run, were shaken by a rolling
volley and by several rounds from the artillery in flank, and
retreated in some disorder towards the left, behind a spur of the
ridge. The enemy pressed on anew, and soon gained the _plateau_
close by the big tree, where they dipped into an undulation only
to reappear at the other side, and then formed up in compact
square-like formations, pushing out lines of skirmishers towards
Klum, from which they were about a mile distant. The Austrians
below them and nearer to Konigsgratz halted and faced round to meet
a new enemy, for the Prussians now showed near the railway, and
a sanguinary encounter took place around some houses in a wood,
in which artillery and musketry raged for a quarter of an hour
in a perfect tornado. A range of buildings near a large factory
chimney on the very banks of the Elbe, as it seemed to me, was the
scene of another very severe struggle. Another village, Trothina,
burst into flames, and from under the very smoke appeared the
Prussian skirmishers on the very extreme right, followed by more
infantry. The enemy were, indeed, quite inexhaustible in number,
though still he could not hold his own on the left. Suddenly an
Austrian battery, galloping from the left centre, began to mow
down the Prussians on the right. They were retiring behind the
burning Trothina. But their artillery was at hand again. From a
lane above the village a battery opened on the Austrians, and,
at the same time, another battery, wheeling over the slope below
the big tree, crossed its fire on the devoted Austrians. “_Ein
Kreuz feuer? Ein Kreuz feuer?_” exclaimed the officers. “Good God!
where do they come from?” Where, indeed! This combat now assumed
larger proportions. The Prussian right showed in great force, and
the hills were covered with their regiments advancing in the most
perfect order. All over the field were hundreds limping away, and
piles of dead lay in rows along the lanes and in the thick corn.
The enemy, whose strength had been hidden from us by the hills, now
displayed numbers, which accounted for the retreat of the Austrians
on the right.

The Austrian gunners could not hold up against the cross fire, and
the weight of pieces opposed to them. What avail was it that they
were winning on the centre? Through the glass they could be seen
pressing on from point to point in a tempest of smoke and flame.
It was now near two o’clock. On the left and centre there could be
no hesitation in declaring that the Prussians were all but beaten.
It seemed as if a charge _en masse_ of the horse deployed for
miles on the _plateau_ could roll up their centre on their left,
or crumble the left into pieces. The fire at Klum, in the centre,
which had died out, broke forth with fresh violence, and all the
village began to burn. The Prussians in the centre made another
grand effort, and it would only be a repetition of adjectives,
utterly feeble at the strongest, to endeavour to give the smallest
conception of the roar of cannon which announced and met this fresh
attempt to change the fortunes of the day. The strong wind could
not clear away the smoke, which poured in banks as agitated as the
sea itself over the battle-field, now contracted to the centre and
right, for all towards the Prague road the fight had apparently
ended in the discomfiture of the Prussian left. As it contracted
it heated up, and the caissons and tumbrils blew up repeatedly.
The movements of the Austrians from the right centre to oppose the
last effort of the Prussians increased the open interval between
the centre and the extreme right resting on the lower ground near
the river, but the Austrians did not perceive it, or if they did,
could not prevent the advance of the enemy along the _plateau_
by the big tree towards Klum. The Austrian right and reserves
become more unsteady, but their artillery contests every foot of
ground. Suddenly a spattering of musketry breaks out of the trees
and houses of Klum right down on the Austrian gunners, and on the
columns of infantry drawn up on the slopes below. The gunners fall
on all sides--their horses are disabled--the fire increases in
intensity--the Prussians on the ridge press on over the _plateau_;
this is an awful catastrophe--two columns of Austrians are led
against the village, but they cannot stand the fire, and after
three attempts to carry it, retreat, leaving the hill-side covered
with the fallen. It is a terrible moment. The Prussians see their
advantage; they here get into the very centre of the position.
In vain the staff officers fly to the reserves and hasten to get
back some of the artillery from the front. The dark blue regiments
multiply on all sides and from their edges roll perpetually
sparkling musketry. Their guns hurry up, and from the slope take
both the Austrians on the extreme right and the reserves in flank.
They spread away to the woods near the Prague road and fire into
the rear of the Austrian gunners.

Thus a wedge growing broader and driven in more deeply every
instant was forced into the very body of the Austrian army,
separating it at the heart and dividing its left and centre
from the right. The troops in the centre and left are dismayed
at hearing the enemy’s guns in their rear, and are soon exposed
to the fire which most of all destroys the _morale_ of soldiers
already shaken by surprise. The right, previously broken up and
discomfited, hurry towards the Prague road in something like
confusion, and spread alarm among the reserves of the centre and
left. The regular lines of the columns below are gradually bulging
out, and are at last swallowed up in disordered multitude. Officers
gallop about trying to restore order. Some regiments hold together,
though they are losing men in heaps every instant. The left wing
is arrested in its onward progress. The Prussian Generals in front
of them and on the centre, seeing their enemy waver, throw their
battalions against them, and encourage their artillery to fresh
efforts; but the formidable Austrian cavalry prevents any hasty
or enthusiastic demonstrations on the part of the Prussian right,
whom long continued fighting and heavy losses must have somewhat
enervated.

Even yet there was hope for the Austrians! There, on the Prussian
front, wheeled a force of horse with which a Murat or a Kellerman
or a Seidlitz could have won a battle and saved an empire. There,
still unshaken, were at least 40,000 men, of whom scarcely one
had ever fired a shot. The indomitable Austrian artillery still
turned hundreds of muzzles on the enemy’s guns, and girt their men
in a band of fire. To let slip that cavalry on both sides of Klum,
to crash through infantry and guns, seemed really worth doing,
though failure would have made the difference between a defeat and
a rout. It would have been a supreme deed fit for such a force to
accomplish or to perish in attempting. And there were no natural
obstacles visible from the tower to a grand charge. The Prussian
right, separated from its centre and left, would have been rolled
down into the valley among the Austrians, and utterly crushed,
and the Austrian centre and left have been liberated to continue
their contest with the enemy. Moments were precious. The Prussian
fire became more severe, the wavering of the Austrians greater.
The falling of trees on the Prague road, the rush of fugitives,
the near approach of the Prussian shells to the place, some of
them bursting over the railway station, were awful warnings of the
state of the battle. All the roads were blocked up with retreating
trains and waggons. Men were throwing down their arms and wading
through the inundations. The Austrian gunners on the causeway began
to catch a sight of the Prussians near at hand in the woods, and
opened on them with shrapnel and shell. It was now somewhere about
2.30; but it was not possible to note time when such things were
going on so near. Scarce could the glass be directed to one point
ere an exclamation from a bystanding officer or an awful clamour
carried it to another. Seconds were of inestimable value--not
only that hundreds were falling, but that they were falling in
vain--that all the issues for which an empire had summoned its
might and the Kaiser his people to the field were being decided,
and that the toils of generations of Emperors, warriors, and
statesmen were about being lost for ever. The genius of the
Prussian was in the ascendant.

The spirit of Bismark or his genius ruled the battle-field. While
the Austrian was hesitating, the Prussian was acting. The lines
of dark blue which came in sight from the right teemed from the
vales below as if the earth yielded them. They filled the whole
back ground of the awful picture of which Klum was the centre.
They pressed down on the left of the Prague road. In square, in
column, deploying or wheeling hither and thither--everywhere
pouring in showers of deadly precision--penetrating the whole line
of the Austrians; still they could not force their stubborn enemy
to fly. On all sides they met brave but unfortunate men, ready to
die if they could do no more. At the side of the Prague road the
fight went on with incredible vehemence. The Austrians had still
an immense force of artillery, and although its concentrated fire
swept the ground before it, its effect was lost in some degree by
reason of the rising ground above, and at last by its divergence
to so many points to answer the enemy’s cannon. Many Austrians
must have fallen by their own artillery. Once an Austrian column,
separating itself from the great multitude below, with levelled
bayonets, led by its officers in front waving caps and sabres,
went straight at the wood around Klum and drove back the Prussian
Tirailleurs, but were staggered by fearful volleys of musketry.
Their officers were all killed or wounded. They fell suddenly back.
Down came the Prussians, but they were received on the bayonet
point and with clubbed muskets, and were driven back to the shelter
of the wood, and some were carried off prisoners in the retreating
column. Indeed, handfuls of Prussians were coming into the town
behind us all the day, showing how close the fight was, and a
considerable body of the 27th Regiment, with some officers, are
now in the Grosser Ring. Chesta and Visa were now burning, so that
from right to left the flames of ten villages, and the flashes of
guns and musketry, contended with the sun that pierced the clouds
for the honour of illuminating the seas of steel and the fields
of carnage. It was three o’clock. The efforts of the Austrians
to occupy Klum and free their centre had failed, the right was
driven down in a helpless mass towards Konigsgratz, quivering
and palpitating as shot and shell tore through it. “_Alles ist
verloren!_” Artillery still thundered with a force and violence
which might have led a stranger to such scenes to think no enemy
could withstand it. The Austrian cavalry still hung like white
thunder-clouds on the flanks, and threatened the front of the
Prussians, keeping them in square and solid columns. But already
the trains were streaming away from Konigsgratz, placing the Elbe
and Adler between them and the enemy. The grip of the Prussians
could not be shaken. Word was brought to me to leave at once, for
the city gates were about being closed, and the gunners on the
walls were laying their pieces to cover the inundations and the
causeways. One more glance showed a very hell of fire--cornfields,
highways, slopes, and dells, and hillsides covered with the
slain--the pride and might of Austria shattered and laid low. What
happened more I can only tell from hearsay. But I am told that at
the last the Austrian horse saved all that was not lost, and in
brilliant charges rolled back the tide of Prussian infantry; that
the gunners threw their pieces into the Elbe and into the inundated
fields as they retreated; that men were drowned in hundreds as
they crowded over pontoon bridges hastily laid and sunk or burned
ere the columns could cross over; that luggage-trains, reserve
ammunition, guns, and prisoners, the spoils of that enormous host,
fell into the hands of the victors, who remained masters of that
hard-fought field, covered for nine miles with myriads of the
slain. Well might Benedek exclaim, “All is lost but my life! Would
to God I had lost that too!”

There is no account of our losses, estimates varying from 10,000
to 25,000. If prisoners be included, I am inclined to think the
latter number correct. The loss in guns is reckoned at 150 to 180.
It would not astonish me to hear it was more.”


  INCIDENTS OF THE BATTLE.

Incidents of the battle are furnished by several other
correspondents of the London papers. The following are selections:--

“In the Austrian ranks some striking instances of inhumanity have
been exhibited. Yesterday, a prisoner was brought hither loaded
with chains, to suffer well-deserved punishment. He was a Croat,
and was taken in the very act of cutting off his own wounded
captain’s fingers to get quicker at his rings.

In the knapsacks of the fallen Austrians were found spare suits
of regimentals that had never been worn; and, according to the
prisoners, those uniforms were intended to be worn at the solemn
entry into Berlin.

One correspondent was informed by an Austrian officer, a prisoner,
that in Konigsgratz, on the 2nd July even, there were 7000 wounded
Austrians. But--disgraceful as the fact may seem--three days after
the battle of Skalitz, wounded Austrians--such is the testimony
of Prussian officers and surgeons--were found with wounds still
bleeding on the field among the dead bodies.

At 1.5 the staff galloped off to see the position on the right,
passing through the 6th Corps, which was in reserve. As the
green plumes were seen rapidly advancing, the bands broke into
the National Anthem, and the men cheered their commander as he
passed with no uncertain note. Faces broke out into broad smiles;
Jager hats were thrown into the air; all seemed joyous in the
anticipation of an approaching triumph. Benedek, however, waved to
them to cease, shouting in his peculiar tone of voice, always clear
and distinct, “Not now--wait till to-morrow, my children.”

By half-past four o’clock the whole army was in full retreat; its
rear, harassed by the enemy, was protected by the artillery and
cavalry, who are said to have made many desperate charges, and to
have been more than decimated. The bridges across the Adler and
the Elbe are few and narrow, and the several columns meeting at
such points became confused and intermixed. Guns that could not be
carried away, were thrown off their carriages into the river; many
were lost in this manner, but it is said that comparatively few
are taken. A captain of artillery, who heard me asking about the
loss in guns, said, “Out of my whole battery I have but one gun and
seven horses left, and many others are in like condition.” Another
said, “We have no artillery.” Every head was hung down, every
spirit depressed. It was not merely a battle, but an empire lost,
unless diplomatists can at last unweave the net which baffled them
before, and which the sword has failed to cut. The soldiers knew
nothing of all this; their only trouble was the fatigue from which
they suffered, or the thought that the day’s battle would have to
be fought over again before they could reach the pleasant plains
and reap the benefits held out to their imaginations in Benedek’s
proclamation issued but a few days ago. The night was chilly, and
bivouac fires lined the sides of the road at intervals. Had it
been an advance instead of a retreat, we might have enjoyed the
picturesque scene. Round fires of firwood, flaming high above their
heads, stood or sat the brave fellows who had laboured so hard and
fought so gallantly on that day. Some stood warming themselves by
the blaze which lighted up their bronzed faces to as red a glow as
that of the pine stems that towered over them; others sat resting a
wounded arm or leg on the bed of branches plucked for them by their
more fortunate comrades; others, again, lay about in every attitude
of exhaustion.”


SAGUNTUM, SIEGE OF.--Like Numantia, one of the most important in
history, occurred B.C. 219. The citizens, after sustaining the
siege for eight months, with heroic bravery, to prevent themselves
falling into the hands of Hannibal, buried themselves in the ruins
of their city. They burnt their houses and all their effects, and
thus reduced the city to ashes.


ST. ALBANS, BATTLES OF.--The first fought, May 22nd, 1455, between
the houses of York and Lancaster. The second between the Earl
of Warwick and Queen Margaret of Anjou, who conquered. Fought,
February 2nd, 1461. This battle was fought on Shrove-Tuesday,
and resulted in the death of the Earl. “The Earl of Warwick, who
now put himself at the head of the Yorkists, was one of the most
celebrated generals of the age, formed for times of trouble,
extremely artful and incontestably brave, equally skilful in
council and the field; and inspired with a degree of hatred against
the Queen that nothing could suppress. He commanded an army, in
which he led about the captive King, to give a sanction to his
attempts. Upon the approach of the Lancastrians, he conducted
his forces, strengthened by a body of Londoners, who were very
affectionate to his cause, and gave battle to the Queen at St.
Alban’s. In this, however, he was defeated. About 2000 of the
Yorkists perished in the battle, and the person of the King again
fell into the hands of his own party, to be treated with apparent
respect, but real contempt.”


ST. CHARLES.--On the 6th of November, 1837, a riot occurred at
Montreal, but no lives were lost. On the 10th, Sir John Colborne,
the Commander of the Forces, removed his head quarters from Sorel
to Montreal. On the same day, a detachment proceeded to St.
John’s under the command of Captain Glasgow. He found a large
body of people posted on the opposite bank of the Richelieu,
and the cavalry proceeded to take possession of the bridge, in
order to prevent them from crossing. On the 16th, warrants were
issued for the apprehension of twenty-six of the chief leaders.
As a party of volunteer cavalry, newly organised, who had charge
of two prisoners, were returning to Montreal, a large body of
peasantry fired upon them from behind the fences near Longueuil,
and compelled them to abandon their prisoners. Colonel Wetherall,
with a considerable force, proceeded immediately from Chambly in
the direction of St. Charles, for the purpose of dispersing a
large body of people who had assembled there, and fortified their
position. At some places the insurgents fled on the approach of
the army, but at St. Charles the defenders were so obstinate that
the Colonel was obliged to storm and carry the works, burning
every house but one. The slaughter was great on the side of the
unfortunate and misguided people, but slight on that of the troops.
Another party of troops, who were marching from Sorel up the course
of the Richelieu to effect a junction with Colonel Wetherall,
were not so successful. At St. Denis they met with such a strong
opposition, that they were compelled to abandon their intention and
march back to Sorel. This success on the part of the insurgents was
only of short duration, for, on the winter roads being formed, the
same party marched through the country without opposition. Having
captured St. Charles, and dispersed a considerable body collected
for the purpose of cutting off his return, Colonel Wetherall came
back to Montreal, bringing with him the pole and cap of liberty,
which had been reared at St. Charles, and twenty-five prisoners.
Four or five battalions of troops were raised in Montreal, and
upwards of 50 corps of various kinds in other parts of the country.
One of the most tragical events which took place at this time was
the murder of Lieutenant Weir. This young officer had been sent
overland to Sorel with a despatch directing the officer in command
to prepare a force to accompany Colonel Gore, who was to leave
Montreal in the afternoon in the steamboat. The roads were so bad
that travelling was almost impossible, and he could not reach Sorel
by land until half an hour after Colonel Gore and his division
had crossed the St. Lawrence and marched on their route to St.
Denis. Taking a fresh calèche, he hastened to join his troops;
but, mistaking the road, he passed them and arrived at St. Denis
before them. Here he was made a prisoner, closely pinioned, sent
forward to St. Charles, and on the road was barbarously murdered by
his brutal guardians. The fact and the circumstances attending it
were only ascertained on the second expedition to St. Denis. The
body was found in the Richelieu, and was brought to Montreal for
interment. The funeral took place with military honours, and so
solemn and imposing a sight was never before witnessed in the city.

Martial law was proclaimed in the District of Montreal on the 5th
of December, and Sir John Colborne invested with authority to
administer it. Immediately after this the attention of Government
was called to the preparations making at the Lake of the Two
Mountains, at St. Eustache, St. Benoit and St. Scholastique, where
the most active and able leaders of the revolt had fortified
themselves in a formidable manner.

On the morning of the 13th of December, Sir John Colborne, with
about 1300 men, advanced towards the district from Montreal along
the left hank of the Ottawa. On the 14th the army crossed the
river and invested the village of St. Eustache. The attack was
completely successful, though attended with much destruction of
life and property. The handsome church was set on fire as well
as the _presbytère_ and about 60 of the principal houses. One of
the leaders was killed near the church, and a large number burnt
or suffocated from the flames; of the troops only one or two were
killed and a few wounded.

The next day, as the troops marched forward to St. Benoit, His
Excellency was met by delegates bearing a flag of truce, and
stating that the insurgents were prepared to lay down their arms
unconditionally. Almost every house exhibited something white; and,
on arriving at St. Benoit, 250 of these misguided men were found
drawn up in a line and suing for pardon, stating that their leaders
had deserted them. They were immediately dismissed to their homes
and occupations. With the return of the troops from the county of
the Two Mountains the military operations, connected with the first
insurrection in Lower Canada, may be said to have terminated.


ST. DIZIER, BATTLES OF.--_In France._--Between the Allied armies
and the French--one of the engagements being commanded by Napoleon
himself. The French sustained in these battles, as in several
proceeding, severe defeats, and led the way by which the Allied
armies entered Paris. Fought, January 27th and March 26th, 1814.


ST. JEAN DE LUZ, BATTLE OF.--“Soult had a strong position on
the Nivelle from St. Jean de Luz to Ainhoe, about twelve miles
in length. General Hill, with the British right, advanced from
the valley of Baztan, and attacking the French on the height of
Ainhoe, drove them towards Cambo, on the Nive, while the centre of
the Allies, consisting of the English and Spanish troops, under
Beresford and Alton, carried the works behind Sarre, and drove the
French beyond the Nivelle, which the Allies crossed at St. Pé, in
the rear of the enemy. Upon this the French hastily abandoned their
ground and works on the left of the Nivelle, and during the night
withdrew to their entrenched camp in front of Bayonne. Wellington’s
headquarters were established at St. Jean de Luz, November 10th,
1813.”


ST. QUENTIN, BATTLE OF.--Philip II, of Spain, assisted by the
British, defeated the French here, August 10th, 1557.


ST. SEBASTIAN, BATTLE OF.--The fortified works, through which ran
the high road to Hernani, were carried by the English Auxiliary
Legion, under General Evans, after very hard fighting. The British
naval squadron off the place, lent, under Lord John Hay, very great
aid to the victors. Fought, May 5th, 1836. Again, on the 1st of
October, same year, a vigorous assault was made on the lines of
General De Lacy Evan by the Carlists. Both sides fought with great
bravery, but the Carlists were repulsed after suffering severely.
The Anglo-Spanish loss was 376 men, and thirty-seven officers
killed and wounded. The General was also wounded.


ST. SEBASTIAN, SIEGE OF.--By the British and Allied armies, under
Wellington. After a short siege, during which it sustained a heavy
bombardment, and by which the whole town was nearly laid in ruins,
it was stormed by General Graham, and taken, August 31st, 1803.
The loss was almost all on the British side in the storming--the
Spaniards losing few.


ST. VINCENT, BATTLE OF CAPE.--Between the Spanish and British
fleets off this Cape. The latter was commanded by Admiral Sir
John Jarvis, who took four line of battle ships, and damaged
considerably the rest of the Spanish fleet, February 14th, 1797.
His own fleet consisted of 15 sail of the line only--whilst the
enemy’s fleet was 27 sail, 7 of which carried from 112 to 130 guns
each.


ST. VINCENT, CAPE.--Admiral Rooke, with 20 men of war, and the
Turkish fleet, under his convoy, was attacked by Admiral Tourville
with a force vastly superior to his own, when 12 English and Dutch
men of war, and 80 merchant men were taken or destroyed by the
French, June 16th, 1693. Here, also, Admiral Rodney destroyed
several Spanish ships, January 16th, 1780.


SALAMANCA, BATTLE OF.--Fought July 22nd, 1812.--“Lord Wellington
had fought the battle of Talavera in less than three months after
he had marched out of Lisbon, and in only three months and six days
after his landing in Portugal. He had seen some kind of action and
enterprise to be absolutely necessary. It was demanded by England;
it was expected by Spain and Portugal. Hence he first drove the
French out of Oporto and out of the Portuguese dominions, and then,
in conjunction with a Spanish army, marched upon Madrid, and fought
a battle with the French.

But these three months sufficed to show him, how utterly valueless
was the aid proffered him by the Spaniards. They left him without
provisions; they furnished him with no means of transport; and when
they placed an army by his side, that army could do nothing but run
away, and spread alarm and consternation on every side. Hence, so
soon as he fully understood the real condition of affairs, he wrote
home to the British government in these plain terms:

“Spain has proved untrue to her alliance because she is untrue to
herself;” “and until some great change shall be effected in the
conduct of the military resources of Spain, and in the state of
her armies, no British army can attempt safely to co-operate with
Spanish troops in the territories of Spain.”

Having arrived at this conclusion, Lord Wellington soon withdrew
his army from Spain, retired into Portugal, and began to concert
measures for the effectual defence of that kingdom. At home,
party spirit, as usual, led to injustice. The opposition in the
British parliament questioned the whole of his conduct of the past
campaign. Sir W. Napier tells us, that “his merits, they said, were
nought; his actions silly, presumptuous, and rash; his campaign one
deserving not reward but punishment. Yet he had delivered Portugal,
cleared Galicia and Estramadura, and forced 100,000 French veterans
to abandon the offensive and concentrate about Madrid!”

He now calmly submitted to the British government his views of
the defence of Portugal. He assigned to Marshal Beresford the
organization of the Portuguese army; he required only 13,000
British troops to be permanently maintained; and with this force
he expected to be able to defend Portugal, at least until Spain
should be thoroughly subdued by the French; so as to allow of the
concentration of their whole force on the work of subjugating
Portugal.

The wisdom and expediency of this employment of English troops
and English revenues in foreign war, was abundantly evident. For,
when the Continent should have been wholly conquered by Napoleon,
he would then, as he plainly declared, attempt the invasion of
England. Hence, to keep his armies employed in the Peninsula, was
the way plainly pointed out by common sense, as likely to postpone
or wholly avert a French invasion of the British islands. To defend
Portugal, therefore, was Wellington’s first object; for Portugal
had become a sort of outwork of England.

The Spanish government, meanwhile, with equal imbecility and
self-sufficiency, chose to rush into inevitable defeat. They
had starved the English army; which, in a whole month, got only
ten days’ bread; and which lost 1000 horses from mere want of
provender; and had thus forced Lord Wellington to retire into
Portugal. They now choose, with an army of 50,000 men, to give
battle to the French at Ocana; where, on the 12th of November,
they sustained such a total defeat, that ten days after the battle
not a single battalion kept the field. No fewer than 20,000 of the
Spaniards laid down their arms, and the rest were utterly scattered
and dispersed.

At the opening of 1810, Napoleon resolved to complete the conquest
of the Peninsula. He augmented his armies in Spain to 360,000 men.
One army, consisting of 65,000 men, under the command of Soult, was
charged with the subjugation of Andalusia; and another, of 80,000
men, under Massena, was to move to the west, and reduce Portugal.
Now, therefore, must Wellington’s plans for the defence of Portugal
be brought to the test.

The actual force of Massena’s army in May, 1810, is shown by French
returns given by Sir W. Napier, to have been 86,847 men.

On the 1st of June the French commander invested Ciudad Rodrigo,
which capitulated on the 11th of July. Almeida surrendered on the
26th of August, and thus the road to Lisbon was opened to the
French army. Wellington would gladly have fought a battle to save
these fortresses; but if he engaged 80,000 French, with 32,000
English and Portuguese, and did not signally defeat them; what
would then have become of Portugal? Still, when on Portuguese
ground, and engaged in the defence of Portugal, he thought it
right, on September 27th, to make one stand at Busaco; where he
inflicted on the French a loss of 4500 men, at a cost, to his own
army, of only 1300. Massena then began even to think of retreating
into Spain; when a peasant informed him of a mountain-pass by
which he might carry his army into a position from which he could
threaten Wellington’s left. This compelled the English General
again to make a retrograde movement; and on the 15th of October the
whole British and Portuguese army was collected within the lines of
Torres Vedras.

These now famous lines, which Wellington had long been silently
constructing, were so little thought of either in England or in
France, that military instructions were actually given in England
commencing thus: “As it is probable the army will embark in
September.” And the French commander on his part, found his way
suddenly stopped by an insurmountable obstacle, of the existence of
which he had never before heard.

Lord Wellington had observed that on the land side (and the French
had no force upon the water) Lisbon could be completely defended
by a series of entrenchments properly manned. Silently, therefore,
during many months past, he had been at work on these lines. They
were now complete, mounting 600 guns and when manned by 50,000 men
they might have defied Napoleon himself at the head of one of his
largest armies.

Massena, astonished, employed several days in examining these
lines on every side, but at no point could he find an attack to
be feasible. One or two attempts were made, in which his troops
were roughly handled, and one of his Generals killed. At last,
altogether perplexed, he sent off General Foy to Paris to ask of
Napoleon what was to be done. But Napoleon himself had no remedy
to prescribe, and hence, after remaining before the lines for one
whole month, until utter starvation menaced his army, the French
Marshal commenced a retreat. He first retired to Santaren, where
he remained until the following March. He then finally retreated
out of Portugal, having lost, in the short space of seven months,
not fewer than 45,000 men, chiefly by exposure, disease, and
starvation. Lord Wellington followed him, and at once invested
Almeida. Massena ventured on an engagement at Fuentes d’Onore, but
failed, and Almeida capitulated to the English on the 12th of May,
1811.

This campaign had greatly raised the hopes and the confidence
of England, and had placed the character of her General on an
unassailable elevation. Portugal had been defeated, and a French
Marshal with a noble army had been driven back in defeat. Lord
Wellington now, therefore, resolved to begin offensive operations
in Spain, and he sat down before Badajoz. But Napoleon had at
last awakened to the real character of this great struggle. He
resolved that Badajoz should not be lost. He therefore earnestly
and strenuously increased his forces in Spain, until, in September,
1811, they again amounted to 368,000 men. Soult and Marmont
received their orders, and approached Badajoz with 60,000 men. Lord
Wellington retired, but in July he threatened Ciudad Rodrigo, when
again the two French Marshals marched to its relief with a greatly
superior army. And now, as the winter approached, both armies went
into cantonments, and the campaign of 1811 ended.

But with January, 1812, commenced that career of triumph which
only ended at Waterloo. In 1810, Wellington had saved Portugal; in
1811, he had threatened and disquieted the French armies in their
possession of Spain; but the opening year was not to close until
that possession was very seriously endangered.

Silently, all November and December, Wellington’s preparations were
going on. Soult imagined that he was about to renew the siege of
Badajoz, but suddenly, in the earliest days of January, a bridge
was thrown over the Agueda, and the English army crossed the river
and invested Ciudad Rodrigo. The siege commenced on the 8th, and
on the 19th the place was stormed and carried. It had cost the
French a siege of six weeks to take it from the Spaniards two years
before. On hearing of its capture in twelve days, Marmont wrote to
Napoleon, saying, “On the 16th, the English batteries opened their
fire: on the 19th the place was taken by storm, and fell into the
power of the enemy. There is something so incomprehensible in all
this, that until I know more I refrain from any observation.”

Badajoz, a far stronger place, was next invested, on the 17th of
March, and on the 6th of April it was taken by storm. And here,
too, General Lery, a French engineer, expressed his astonishment,
writing thus: “I think the capture of Badajoz a very extraordinary
event, and I should be at a loss to account for it in any manner
consistent with probability.” These two great strongholds, the
border-fortresses, had now been taken, and the way was thus opened
into the heart of Spain. All Europe saw with astonishment that a
little English army, seldom amounting--even with the aid of the
Portuguese,--to more than 40,000 men, could counteract the efforts
of the best armies of France, led by Napoleon’s most trusted
Generals.

After these exploits, Wellington gave his army some rest until the
harvest should grow up, and provisions be more easily obtained. But
in May he sent General Hill to storm the forts at Almarez on the
Tagus, when the French works, with all their artillery and stores,
fell into the hands of the English, who lost only 180 men. By this
able manœuvre the two armies of Marmont and Soult were separated.

On the 13th of June, the rains having ceased, and the field
magazines being completed, Wellington passed the Agueda, and on
the 17th be entered Salamanca, the people shouting, singing, and
weeping for joy. The forts, however, were still held by French
garrisons, and were not taken until the 27th.

On the 8th of July, Marmont, the French General now opposed to
Wellington, received a reinforcement of 6000 men, and both he and
Wellington began to prepare for a battle. On the 15th and 16th,
Marmont, who had previously made several deceptive movements,
concentrated his beautiful and gallant army between Toro and the
Hornija rivers. Then began a series of manœuvres, continued for
several successive days, until, on the 20th, the two armies were
in sight, marching on parallel heights within musket-shot of
each other in the most perfect array. The strength of each army
amounted to from 45,000 to 48,000 men; but of Wellington’s force a
considerable portion consisted of Portuguese troops.

In two or three days more, Marmont would have been joined by two
other French corps, augmenting his force by nearly 20,000 men.
But then he apprehended the arrival of either King Joseph, or
Jourdan, the senior Marshal then in Spain, either of whom would
have superseded him in the command. His object, therefore, was
either to force the English to retreat from Salamanca, or else to
fight a battle, and if possible gain a victory, before either of
his superiors in command could arrive.

On the 22nd of July, some change of position on the part of the
English army gave Marmont the impression that Wellington was about
to retire towards Ciudad Rodrigo. Eager not to let the English
thus escape him, the French General ordered Maucune’s division,
which formed his left, to march forward so as to fall upon the
flank of the British in their expected retreat. They did so; but in
so advancing a chasm intervened between them and the division of
Bonnet, which formed part of the French centre. Word was brought
to Wellington of this movement. “Starting up, he repaired to the
high ground, and observed their movements for some time with stern
contentment. Their left wing was entirely separated from the
centre. The fault was flagrant, and he fixed it with the stroke of
a thunderbolt.” Turning to the Spanish General Alava who stood by
his side, he exclaimed, “Mon cher Alava, Marmont est perdu!”

A few orders issued suddenly from his lips like the incantations of
a wizard, and suddenly the dark mass of troops seemed animated by
some mighty spirit. Rushing down the slope of the mountain, they
entered the great basin. And now, after long coiling and winding
like angry serpents, the armies suddenly fastened together in
deadly strife.

Marmont saw the country beneath him suddenly covered with enemies
when he was in the act of making a complicated evolution; and when
by the rash advance of his left, his troops were separated into
three parts, each at too great a distance to assist the other. In
this crisis, despatching officer after officer, some to hasten up
his troops from the forest, some to stop the march of his left
wing, he still looked for victory, till he saw Pakenham with his
division penetrate between his left and his centre; then hope died
within him, and he was hurrying in person to the fatal spot, when
an exploding shell stretched him on the field, with two deep wounds
in his side.”

This naturally augmented the confusion of the French; but they
still fought manfully. It was just five o’clock when Pakenham fell
on Maucune, who, little thinking of such an onset, expected to see,
from the summit of a hill he had just gained, the Allies in full
retreat. Still, his gunners stood to their guns, and his cavalry
charged; but both were killed or repulsed; the infantry endeavoured
to form a front, but in the midst of its evolution it was charged
and broken. The British cavalry fell upon the rear, while Leith,
with the fifth division, bore down on the right flank. For awhile,
the French veterans maintained some kind of order, but at last the
cavalry broke them; Thomiere, one of their Generals, was killed,
2000 of the French threw down their arms, and the whole division
was utterly routed.

The next portion of the French line, Clausel’s division, while
warmly engaged with the English under Cole and Leith, had to
sustain a charge from 1200 British dragoons. The whole French
division was broken in an instant. Five guns and 2000 prisoners
were taken in a few minutes. The entire of the left wing of the
French army was now only a helpless mob of fugitives. In the centre
the struggle was a more arduous one. The French still held a strong
position on a hill--the Arapiles. Two attacks by the Portuguese
and English were repelled. Beresford, Cole and Leith, were all
wounded, and the English centre for a moment was shaken and in
danger. But Wellington, whose eye was always where the peril was
greatest, immediately ordered up Clinton’s division from the rear,
and restored the battle. The ridge of the Arapiles was regained,
“And now the current once more set in for the British. Pakenham
continued to outflank the French left; Foy retired from the ridge
of Calveriza, and the Allied host, righting itself like a gallant
ship after a sudden gust, again bore right onwards, holding its
course through blood and gloom.”

There remained only the division of Foy, which formed the extreme
right of the French line, and still maintained a gallant fight.
It seemed difficult for this General to extricate his division,
but he did it with great dexterity. Just as the darkness fell, he
increased his skirmishers, and brought forward some cavalry, as if
for a charge. But when the English had prepared themselves for a
real encounter, the skirmishers fell back, and the English pursued;
but when they reached the top of the hill, the main body of the
French had escaped into a forest hard by, where darkness gave them
safety.

Another failure on the part of a Spaniard, here, again, favoured
the French. The castle of Alba, on the Tormes, was garrisoned by a
Spanish force, under Carlos d’Espana. This, if maintained, would
have stopped the French in their flight by the main road, and have
forced them to take the fords. But d’Espana, without informing
Wellington, had withdrawn the garrison, and left the road open!
“Had the castle of Alba been held,” says Napier, “the French could
never have carried off a third of their army.” But by this piece of
Spanish folly or cowardice, they were permitted to escape.

As it was, their loss was enormous. They went into action with
43,800 infantry and 4000 cavalry. Three weeks after, their
General, Clausel, who succeeded Marmont in the command, wrote
to the Minister of War at Paris, “The army consists of 20,000
infantry, and 1800 horse.” So that, by death or wounds or capture,
it had lost more than half of its numbers. On the part of the
Allies, the loss was 3176 British, 2018 Portuguese, and eight
Spanish. One General was killed, and five were among the wounded.
Wellington himself was struck in the thigh by a spent ball, which
passed through his holster. This was one of the last incidents of
this great battle; in which the English leader, to use a French
officer’s expression, “defeated 40,000 men in forty minutes.” “Late
in the evening of that great day,” says Sir William Napier, “I saw
him behind my regiment, then marching towards the ford. He was
alone; the flush of victory was on his brow, his eyes were eager
and watchful, but his voice was calm and even gentle. More than the
rival of Marlborough,--for he had defeated greater Generals than
Marlborough ever encountered, he seemed with prescient pride to
accept this victory only as an earnest of future glory.”

The French fled with such celerity, that their headquarters, on the
following night, were at Flores d’Avila, no less than forty miles
from the field of battle! The English army, on the other hand,
entered Madrid on the 12th of August, amidst a scene of the wildest
ecstasy. “No words can express the enthusiasm which prevailed
when the English standards were seen in the distance, and the
scarlet uniforms began to be discerned through the crowd. Amidst a
countless multitude, wrought up to the highest pitch of rapturous
feeling; amidst tears of gratitude and shouts of triumph, the
British army entered the Spanish capital, not as conquerors, but
as friends; not as oppressors, but deliverers.” As for Wellington,
“with tears and every sign of deep emotion, the multitudes crowded
round his horse, hung by his stirrups, touched his clothes, and
throwing themselves on their knees, blessed him aloud.” The
intrusive King, with about 12,000 men, had fled out of the city a
few days previous.

The Retiro, the largest arsenal which the French possessed in
Spain, still had a garrison of 1700 men. But it surrendered on the
13th, and the British found in it, 180 pieces of cannon, 20,000
stand of arms, and immense stores of all kinds. Meanwhile, “the
French affairs in every part of the Peninsula now exhibited that
general crash and ruin which so usually follows a great military
disaster, and presages the breaking up of a political power.”

Nor were the mighty results of this great battle limited to
Southern Europe. At the very moment when it took place, Napoleon,
at the head of 450,000, was entering the heart of the Russian
empire. The news of the defeat of his forces in Spain, reached
him on the evening preceding the great battle of Borodino. It
doubtless reached the Emperor Alexander also; and the news must
have greatly aided the Russian Monarch in forming that remarkable
resolve, “I am _immovable_; and no terms whatever shall induce me
to terminate the war, or to fail in the sacred duty of avenging our
country.” And, in a general order, issued shortly after, General
Kutusoff, Alexander’s chief commander, said, “The hand of God is
falling heavily on Napoleon: _Madrid is taken_.” Still, when, in
October, Wellington, from the want of battering-artillery, failed
in carrying the castle of Burgos, faction again raised its head
in England, and even dared to question his skill and talent as
a General! It was with reference to some of these attacks that
Wellington took the following review of the results of the year.

“I fear that the public will be disappointed at the results of
the last campaign: and yet it is, in fact, the most important and
successful campaign in which a British army has been engaged for
the last century. We have taken by siege Ciudad Rodrigo, Badajoz,
and Salamanca, and the Retiro has surrendered. Since January, this
army has sent to England little short of 20,000 prisoners; and it
has taken and destroyed, or we now possess, little short of 3000
pieces of cannon.”

More wonderful achievements, occupying a series of years, never
were wrought out by a British army. Sir William Napier justly
traces the triumph of Salamanca and other victories to the
forethought of Wellington, in having laid such a foundation as
he had provided in Torres Vedras. “This strong post was of his
own planning,--he had chosen it, fortified it, defended it, and
now, knowing its full value, he was availing himself of its
advantages. The tree was planted to bear such fruit as was gathered
at Salamanca, and the value of his combinations must be estimated
from the general result. He had only 60,000 disposable troops, and
100,000 were especially appointed to watch and control him; yet he
passed the frontier, defeated 45,000 men in a pitched battle, and
drove 20,000 others from Madrid in confusion, without difficulty
and without risk. No General was ever more entitled to the honour
of victory.”


SALAMIS, BATTLE OF.--The Persians defeated by the Greeks in this
great battle, October 20th, 480 B.C. Themistocles, the Greek
commander, with only 310 sail defeated the whole fleet of Xerxes,
consisting of 2000 sail. One of the greatest naval engagements in
ancient times.


SALDANHA BAY.--_Near the Cape of Good Hope._--Here a Dutch squadron
was captured by Admiral St. George Keith Elphinstone, without
resistance. Five men of war and nine frigates surrendered, and St.
George was in consequence of this bloodless victory, which was
executed with wonderful judgment, created Lord Keith, August 17th,
1796.


SANTA CRUZ.--Here, April 25th, 1657, the renowned Blake totally
destroyed 16 Spanish ships, secured with great nautical skill,
and protected by the castle and the forts on the shore. This was
thought, at that time, one of the greatest feats ever accomplished.
The Earl of Clarendon, speaking of this exploit, says, “It was so
miraculous, that all who knew the place wondered that any sober
man, with what courage soever endowed, would have undertaken it;
and the victors could hardly persuade themselves to believe what
they had done, whilst the surviving Spaniards thought that they
were devils and not men who had destroyed their ships so.” Here
also, in an unsuccessful attack made upon this place by Nelson,
several officers and 141 men were killed, and the brave Admiral
lost his right arm, July 24th, 1797. It is remarkable that Captain
Freemantle, the great friend of Nelson, and a companion of his in
most of his great and brilliant achievements was also wounded in
the arm immediately before Nelson had received his wound in the
same limb. The following laconic note addressed to the lady of
Captain Freemantle, (who was on board with her husband at the time
he wrote) has been preserved, as being the first letter written by
the glorious hero with his left hand:

  MY DEAR MRS. FREEMANTLE,

  Tell me how Tom is? I hope he has saved his arm. Mine is off;
  but, thank God, I am as well as I hope he is.

  Ever Yours,
  HORATIO NELSON.


SARATOGA, BURGOYNE’S SURRENDER AT.--General Burgoyne, commander of
a body of the British Army, after a very severe engagement with the
American Provincials in the American War of Independence, October
17th, 1777, surrendered to the American General Gates. No less than
5791 men laid down their arms. This was the greatest check the
British suffered during the war.


SCOPOLO.--On July the 5th, 1808, a desperate action was fought
off the island of Scopolo, between a large Turkish frigate and
corvette, and the Seahorse thirty-eight guns, captain Stewart,
exhibiting the skill and gallantry of the latter against a great
disparity of force, by which his own ship was so well preserved,
while that of his opponent was ruined. The action began at
half-past nine in the evening, the Turks under easy sail, a little
off the wind, and continually endeavouring to board. At ten
o’clock, after a quarter of an hour’s hot fire, the small ship
was silenced; the large ship, which had during this time fallen
a little to leeward, and thus been prevented from assisting her
consort, recovered her position; the action was recommenced; and
the resistance of the Turks was so obstinate, that it was not
till a quarter past one she was rendered a motionless wreck. As
they would neither answer nor fire, captain Stewart, knowing the
character of the people, conceived it most prudent to wait for
daylight to send on board her. At daylight, observing her colours
upon the stump of the mizenmast, the Seahorse poured a broadside
into her stern, when she struck. She was named the Badere Zaffer,
of fifty-two guns, with a complement of 500 men, commanded by
captain Scanderli Kichuc Ali, who had been prevented by his own
people from blowing her up. Her loss was prodigious--165 killed and
195 wounded. The Seahorse had only five killed and ten wounded.


SEBASTOPOL.--The celebrated city besieged during the Crimean war.
See _Bombardment, first and second (final) of Sebastopol_; also,
_Mamelon_, _Malakoff_ and _Sortie_.


SEDGMOOR, BATTLE OF.--Fought, July 5th, 1685, in which the Duke
of Monmouth was completely defeated by the army of James II of
England. The Duke, who was the natural son of Charles II, by
Lucy Walters, one of his mistresses, was made prisoner, and soon
afterwards executed.


SEIDLITZ, BATTLE OF.--Fought, April 10th, 1831, between the Poles
and Russians. The Poles obtained the victory, after a bloody
battle, taking 4000 prisoners, and several pieces of cannon. The
killed and wounded, on both sides, amounted to many thousands.


SEMINCAS, BATTLE OF.--Fought A.D. 938. One of the most bloody
battles ever fought. Between the Moors and Ramirez II, King of
Leon, and the Austrians. More than 80,000 of the infidels were
slain, the dead lying in heaps for miles around.


SEMPACH, BATTLE OF.--Fought, July 9th, 1386, between the Swiss and
Leopold, Duke of Austria. The heroic Swiss, after prodigies of
valour, gained a great and memorable victory over the Duke, who was
slain. By this battle they gained their independence, which they
possess until this day; and they annually commemorate, with great
solemnity, this victory.


SERGEANT.--The highest non-commissioned officer of a company.
This word enters into the title of different officers, as
sergeant-major, color-sergeant, &c.


SERINGAPATAM, BATTLE OF.--This first battle, called also the Battle
of Arikera, in which the British defeated Tippoo Saib, was fought
May 15th, 1791. The second, in which the redoubts were stormed, and
Tippoo reduced by Lord Cornwallis, fought February 6th, 1792. After
this capture peace was signed, and Tippoo agreed to cede one-half
of Mysore, and to pay 33,000,000 of rupees, about £3,000,000,
sterling to England, and to give up his two sons as hostages. In
a new war the Madras army arrived before Seringapatam, April 5th,
1799. It was joined by the Bombay army, April 14th, and the place
was stormed and carried by Major General Baird, May 4th, same year.
Tippoo was killed in this engagement.

The following account gives the particulars of the 1st engagement
previous to the capture of Seringapatam.

“On the 27th of March, 1799, at three o’clock p.m., the right wing
(of the British army destined for the capture of Seringapatam)
moved slowly off the ground of encampment, along a heavy sandy
road, impeded in their progress by the ponderous battering-train
of guns, each 42 pounder being drawn majestically along by thirty,
forty, and sometimes fifty bullocks, harnessed four abreast; and
even these numbers were frequently found insufficient to extricate
the wheels of the carriages from the deep sloughs into which
they often sank, even up to the axles, when the aid of elephants
was required; these sagacious animals would wind their trunks or
probosci around the nave and between the spokes of the wheels, and
thus lift gun and carriage from the impending difficulty, whilst
the bullocks were being goaded and whipped with leather thongs.
The ponderous machines were thus drawn forward. It was indeed an
admirable and beautiful sight to observe the sagacity of these
huge creatures; for when one only was brought up to assist, if
the weight was too considerable for its animal strength, a shrill
trumpeting proceeding from its proboscis would instantly proclaim
this deficiency in strength for the object required, when the
keeper would call for another elephant, and then the united power
of the two, simultaneously applying their whole force, would
speedily overcome almost insurmountable difficulties; though,
when guns and carriages were embedded up to the axles of the four
wheels, several of these noble animals have been required to lift
the machines bodily from the tenacious clay into which they had
sunk.

Clouds of looties, or irregular predatory horsemen, were on the
right flank of the line, who fired incessantly on the British as
they advanced; and when a stoppage occurred, to extricate the guns,
large bodies of these looties would suddenly dash through the
intervals, cutting down the artillerymen, maiming the bullocks,
and destroying the whole paraphernalia of harness; and this in
spite of all the exertions of skirmishers to keep them at a
respectable distance. The fierce sun was almost intolerable, and
many Europeans fell dead from _coups-de-soleil_. Only three miles
and a half could be marched from three o’clock until nearly twelve,
when the little mud-walled fort of Malleville was descried, with
the gallant 19th dragoons, drawn up in close column under the
walls, to shelter them from the enemy’s brisk cannonade. At a hill
fortress (Amboor), previous to mounting the Ghauts and entering the
Mysore country, the British army had been joined by about 10,000
of the Nizam’s troops--a disorderly set of savage, undisciplined
barbarians (clothed in stuffed cotton jackets, covered with
steel-chained armour, capable of resisting a musket-ball), prancing
and skirmishing about the country in every direction, wielding
their long lances with uncommon dexterity, managing their horses
with grace and ease, almost to perfection in the equestrian
art--sometimes casting their spears, and then, at full gallop,
bending the body so low under the horse, as to recover possession
of the spear that lay flat on the sand. This heterogeneous force
was certainly an additional strength to the numerical force of the
British, but, in a military point of view, of dubious advantage
to the invading regular army, whose movements they frequently
disconcerted by dashing furiously through the intervals between the
columns on the line of march, and, being often mistaken for the
enemy’s irregular horse, were fired at accordingly, many of them
perishing in this unprofitable manner; and had any adverse fortune
occurred in the campaign, confusion and defeat must have ensued,
as these disorderly masses would inevitably have incommoded,
and rendered all military discipline abortive. Accordingly, to
protect them from absolute annihilation, the 33rd regiment of
infantry, under command of the hon. colonel Wellesley (the Duke
of Wellington), was attached to this disorderly crew, and acted
with them during the advance to Seringapatam. The movements of the
whole army was entirely confided to the management of Colonel Barry
Close, a Company’s officer, and adjutant-general to the forces--a
man of extensive capacity, who had displayed eminent talents in
both civil and military departments during his long residence in
India. He was an ornament to his profession, and, had fortune
favoured him, might have proved a first-rate general. For his
amiable and conciliatory disposition, he was beloved and esteemed
by all who enjoyed the advantage of his society.

During the march, the towns and villages were involved in flames
in every direction, and not an atom of food or forage was anywhere
procurable (every officer of the army was provided with three
months’ provision of biscuit, &c., borne on the backs of bullocks
in various numbers, according to the grade of the officer), and
every tank or pool of water was impregnated with the poison of the
milk hedge, large quantities of the branches of which the enemy had
industriously thrown in--so that many horses, bullocks, and even,
in some instances, men, fell victims to the deleterious infusion.

As the head of the British column passed the little fort of
Malleville, the quarter-master-general was observed marking out
the site for encampment on an extensive sandy plain in front
of the fort. The booming of distant heavy ordnance was plainly
distinguishable. The lascars had commenced pitching the tents
and marquees for the reception of the exhausted troops, but were
suddenly interrupted in their occupation by the successive bounding
of cannon-balls amongst them, when they precipitately quitted the
dangerous situation, and fled for protection to the rear of the
approaching troops. The enemy were posted on a commanding eminence
about two miles distant, at the extremity of the sandy plain,
supported by a long range of numerous heavy artillery and strong
imposing bodies of regular cavalry. The English pickets, commanded
by Captain Macpherson, of the 12th foot, pushed on towards the
enemy’s left flank with two 12-pounder galloppers, and the action
became brisk in that quarter--for, having ensconced themselves
in a wood, they were thus secure from the charges of hordes of
cavalry surrounding, whom they saluted with reiterated discharges
of grape-shot from the galloppers. In the interim, whilst this
scene was agitating, the right wing of the British army formed, on
the intended ground of encampment, in contiguous close columns, and
in this form cautiously advanced towards the eminence in front.
I now, for the first time, became acquainted with the whirring,
hoarse noise of cannon-balls--the phitz, phitz, of musket-bullets
passing close to the body--and the ping, ping, of those flying
distantly over head: fortunately, the balls, rockets, &c., were
ill-directed, and did little execution. As the columns approached
nearer the enemy’s position, the heavy guns were withdrawn behind
the eminence (Tippoo Saib fearing nothing so much as the capture of
his artillery, which he had invariably lost in his former battles
with lord Cornwallis, in 1782), and ultimately disappeared! In
this short advance, Captain Whitley, of the grenadiers of the
12th (to which company I was attached), observing, I presume, the
unaccustomed paleness of my countenance, turned round and offered
me a refreshing draught of brandy and water from the contents
of his canteen, or leathern bottle attached to his side, which
I gratefully accepted; for at eighteen we have not the nerves
and stamina of a man of forty years old. Untried individuals may
sarcastically sneer at this apparent indication of pusillanimity;
but never, during all my service, did I observe soldiers enter on
a scene of action with that calm, florid appearance, denoting a
sense of health and security: did man ever yet exist exempt from
the common feelings of human nature? In point of fact, there is
an evident, palpable alteration of feature in every man, at the
commencement of a battle; as it rages, this marked difference in
the lineaments of the countenance disappears, and the excitement
of exertion soon produces the usual effect of renewed animation,
with a spirit of recklessness indifferent to the consequences of
existing danger.

The advancing columns having approached within a few yards of
the summit of the eminence, halted, and deployed into line, and
thus marched on, when having reached the apex of the ascent, the
formidable army of the redoubtable Tippoo Saib appeared drawn up
on the plain below in battle array, with woods on both flanks,
covered with tens of thousands of horsemen: the first indication
of a serious attack proceeded from a body of cavalry, who
charging the light infantry skirmishing front, soon drove them
with headlong speed into the British line, where they rejoined
their battalions; this body of horse, of about 1500, was formed
in a compact wedge-like shape, with the front angle headed by two
enormous elephants (saddled with howdahs, filled with distinguished
officers), having each a huge iron chain dangling from the
proboscis, which they whirled about with great rapidity, a blow
from which would have destroyed half a company of infantry; at the
first superficial view they were mistaken for the Nizam’s troops,
but as they rapidly approached (firing their pistols and carbines,
which produced some trifling effect) towards an interval of a few
yards extent between his majesty’s 12th regiment and a battalion
of Sepoys on the right, it was soon obvious they intended passing
through this interval to the rear of the British line; fortunately,
at this momentous crisis, a detachment of the Company’s native
cavalry suddenly galloped from the rear, and completely filled
up the space, when the enemy edged off, and directed their whole
column to the front of the 12th regiment. General Harris, the
commander-in-chief, suddenly appeared in the rear, vociferating
aloud, “Fire, 12th! fire!” To their eternal credit, coolness, and
unexampled discipline, be it recorded, that although standing with
recovered arms, not a shot was fired, nor even a movement made,
that indicated indecision; the men knew it was not the voice of
the colonel, who, however, thus pressed by the authority of his
superior officer, now gave the command--“Steady, 12th! and wait
until these fellows are within ten yards of you,--then singe the
beggars’ whiskers.” This order was implicitly obeyed. At the word
“Fire!” a volley was effectually poured into the wedge of cavalry,
followed by a rapid and well-directed file-firing, which produced
the happiest effect; for on the smoke clearing away, a complete
rampart of men and horses lay extended on the earth, in front of
this invincible old corps! The elephants, maddened, with pain
from their innumerable wounds, were shuffling away with speed,
and swinging the enormous chains to right and left amidst the
retiring cavalry, many of whom were thus destroyed. The howdahs
(from which the leading chiefs had directed the charge) were
dashed to atoms, and several of these brave men’s heads hung from
the backs of the enraged animals; horses rearing, and crushing
the riders to death--other loose and wounded horses scouring the
plain on all sides--the scene was awfully terrific! Just at this
eventful period, two 9-pounder field-pieces replaced the cavalry
in the interval alluded to, at once opening a destructive shower
of grape-shot on the discomfited horsemen, who were attempting to
join their main body stationed in the woods below; these latter,
perceiving the entire defeat of the “_Forlorn Hope_,” poured forth
their tens of thousands, scouring rapidly over the sandy plain,
exposed to the exterminating effects of the British artillery. The
battle now became general along the whole line--infantry, cavalry,
and artillery, all exerting their utmost efforts of destruction.
Unfortunately, a large body of the Mysorian cavalry outflanked and
cut into the rear of the British line, destroyed crowds of sick men
and lascars, who were considered safe from such indiscriminate and
inhuman butchery. Many of these gallant fellows, although in the
last stage of human debility, crawled out of the doolies (rough
palanquins for sick men), and fought manfully to the last gasp.
On the extreme right of the line, the hon. colonel Wellesley was
stationed, with his majesty’s 33rd regiment of foot, surrounded
by the Nizam’s cavalry. The Mysorians at once charged the Nizam’s
horse, who as suddenly scampered off. When the 33rd regiment were
first observed by the enemy, the usual cry of “Feringee bong
chute!” (“Rascally English!”) was uttered, and Tippoo’s cavalry
fled in confusion, leaving several battalions of infantry to
receive the dreadful charge of the British regiment! One hurrah!
and the opposing infantry came in contact; several thousands of the
Mysorians were bayonetted, the rest retiring in dismay, followed
by the 19th dragoons, who cut and slashed without mercy. The right
wing of the enemy being thrown into irretrievable confusion, and
all parts of their line wavering, the battle was soon ended, Tippoo
Saib drawing off with all possible haste. The British line now
began to advance from their fighting position; but so numerous were
the dead bodies of men and horses in front of the 12th regiment,
that some difficulty was experienced in surmounting the obstacle!
Two or three horsemen, in the attack of the wedge of cavalry,
cut through the 12th regiment, but were immediately shot in the
rear. To give an idea of the temper, sharpness, and weight of the
swords of these men, who had all drugged themselves with bang (a
narcotic herb, resembling opium in its effects on the human frame),
for the attack, I have only to mention, that the barrel of one of
the European’s muskets was completely severed by one cut from a
Moorman’s sabre, the blade of which was three and a half feet long,
half an inch thick at the back, and four inches broad, weighing
fourteen pounds!

It is now only necessary to add, that the victory was in favour of
the British, who with the right wing of their army (about 16,000
men) had engaged the combined forces of the sultan, destroying
several thousands, with the loss only of a few hundreds. No guns
were captured on either side. About six o’clock in the afternoon,
the only indication of the proximity of an enemy was the distant
booming of heavy artillery. The British, on reaching their original
ground of encampment, were congratulated by the left wing of the
army (just encamping, after a tedious hot march) on the success of
the engagement, expressing regret that they had not arrived in time
to participate in the glory of the day.”


SERINGAPATAM, OPENING THE TRENCHES BEFORE.--“On the morning
of the 5th April, 1799, the British army encamped on their
permanent ground for the siege of the celebrated fortress of
Seringapatam; and, after due deliberation, it was decided to open
the trenches, if possible, the same evening. In accordance with
this determination, two separate bodies of troops were ordered to
parade, at six o’clock in the afternoon--one destined to drive
the enemy from the dry bed of a nullah, or narrow river--the
other to take possession of a small wood situated in a line on
the right of the river, and rather nearer the encampment, which
had been occupied the night before by a detachment of flankers
under General Baird, and evacuated, the enemy having silently
retreated from it on the approach of the English. Both these
positions were, on the 5th, strongly occupied by select bodies
of Tippoo’s troops. To accomplish these arduous enterprises, his
Majesty’s 12th regiment, with a proportion of sepoys or native
troops, consisting of about 2000 effective men, under the command
of lieutenant-colonel Shaw (of the 12th foot), marched from the
British lines at a quarter past six o’clock, to take possession of
the bed of the river; his majesty’s 33rd regiment of foot, with
a detachment of sepoys, amounting, in toto, to 2000 men, under
the command of colonel Wellesley (now the duke of Wellington),
quitted camp about the same time, to occupy the tope, or wood, on
the right of the bed of the river. The two posts were intended to
be carried at or near the same time as possible, for the mutual
protection and security of both detachments--as one position was
almost untenable without the occupation of the other. The British
encampment was situated three miles from Seringapatam, on a rising
ground gradually sloping up from the fortress, with the exception
of partial undulations, which, however, did not prevent a perfect
view of the whole intermediate spaces. The two posts (nullah and
top) were midway between the camp and the besieged town. Scarcely
had these two little columns quitted the camp, than they were
assailed by showers of rockets and blue lights from every direction
in front, which completely illumined the atmosphere, and exposed
the British to the fire of Tippoo’s tiger sepoys; heavy masses of
whom poured death into Shaw’s force, with the most terrific effect.
Still this gallant little body moved slowly on (as the night was
exceedingly dark), although more encumbered each moment with dead,
dying, and wounded: the rockets and musketry from upwards of 20,000
of the enemy were incessant--no hail could be thicker; with every
blue light came a shower of bullets, and several rockets passed
through the head to the rear of the column, causing death, wounds,
and dreadful lacerations:[2] the cries of the wounded were quite
awful. Not a shot did the British fire, nor had the men even
loaded their pieces; a caution from the brave old colonel Shaw,
that “_all must be done with the bayonet_,” needed no repetition
to ensure obedience; but scarcely had this caution been conveyed
through the ranks, when a tremendous peal of musketry was heard
on the right flank, in the direction of the wood, which caused
Shaw’s force to halt, as the attack became so formidable from
the front, and both flanks, that it would have been an useless
sacrifice of the men’s lives to stand up; they were consequently
directed to lie down for a few minutes, to avoid the effects of
the enemy’s scorching fire, which now proceeded from a very few
yards’ distance--the brilliant light of their fire-balls or blue
lights exposing Shaw’s column to the full force of their musketry;
and imagining, from the recumbent posture of the British, that the
majority was killed, a large column of the tiger sepoys ventured
an attack with the bayonet, and drove in the battalion of the
Company’s sepoys, who were a few yards in advance on the right,
and killing their major. The command, “_Up, 12th and charge!_”
was no sooner given, than each man sprang up and advanced to the
charge in silence and compact order. The tiger sepoys stood,
until a very few yards intervened between the combatants, when a
general shout of “Feringee bong chute!” (“the rascally English!”)
was uttered, and the enemy dispersed on all sides in considerable
confusion; but, shortly after, again threw out their blue lights,
and recommenced their murderous file-firing, which once more
compelled the British to resume their prostrate posture. It was
now about twelve o’clock at night, when the solemn trampling of
a body of troops was plainly distinguished, approaching from the
right flank in a hasty and rather tumultuous manner. Once more
Shaw’s column were on their feet and preparing to charge, when a
few stragglers from the hon. colonel Wellesley’s force rushed in,
and announced that the detachment had been repulsed from the wood,
and that the approaching trampling was part of the force coming
to join Shaw--that two companies of the 33rd, with their colonel
(Wellesley), were missing! A few minutes after this report, major
Shea (second in command to Wellesley) joined Shaw’s force with the
remains of that detachment: he stated that colonel Wellesley, with
two companies of the 33rd regiment, had been either taken prisoners
or had retreated to camp! As second in command, he had considered
it his duty to traverse the wood in search of him, which proving
unsuccessful, and the fire from the enemy becoming so exceedingly
heavy, had induced him to lead the remaining troops to colonel
Shaw, for the purpose of obtaining information, and receiving
instructions how to act. Colonel Shaw replied, ironically, “that he
had better follow his colonel to camp”--a hint that was implicitly
and immediately complied with. Indignation here overcame prudence,
as Shaw soon saw the enemy pouring in from all sides, and the
stoutest heart in his force predicted a fatal result, from the
united and concentrated efforts of so numerous an enemy. Large
quantities of ammunition were sent from camp during the night,
for the supply of Shaw’s column, as, from the tremendous firing,
it was naturally apprehended that all their cartridges had been
expended; but these incessant peals of musketry had all proceeded
from Tippoo’s troops (not a single shot had been returned by
Shaw’s column). The oldest soldier in camp declared they had never
heard so tremendous a fire: in fact, it continued for twelve hours
without intermission, blue lights and rockets illuminating the
air the whole time--beautiful, though terrific. It was generally
imagined in camp that Shaw and his detachment must have been
inevitably annihilated; but this gallant old officer only waited
the dawn of day, to exhibit one of the most glorious and impressive
spectacles that ever added lustre to the annals of British military
fame! The appearance of Wellesley in camp, followed by part of two
companies of the 33rd regiment, reporting that the remainder of his
detachment had been cut to pieces, increased the probability of the
inevitable destruction of the other attacking column, and all was
anxiety and commiseration, in camp, for the fate of this devoted
little band.

At five o’clock on the morning of the 6th April, the fire of
musketry began to relax; the whole were under arms, and generously
anxious for the safety of the column under Shaw’s command: but
scarcely had the day dawned, than a glorious and exhilarating scene
was displayed: the gallant old 12th, and the sepoys in line with
them, were seen rushing on the entrenched enemy at the point of
the bayonet, and driving them from the bed of the river, in spite
of a heavy cannonade from the fortress of Seringapatam, and the
resistance of the numerous columns opposed to them. Never did men
more heroically perform their duty: the conflict was excessively
murderous and obstinate, as the tiger sepoys were brave, numerous
and well-disciplined. For some time the result of the attack
appeared most dubious, as a considerable body of French troops
persevered in most gallant style, in leading on Tippoo’s sepoys.
The rapid charge of the 12th regiment, supported by the sepoys
composing the force, excited the admiration of the whole British
army. General Harris was heard to exclaim, “Well done, old 12th!
why, they are going to take Seringapatam!” The occupation of the
bed of the nullah being at length achieved by Shaw’s column, it had
scarcely secured itself under the embankment of the river, from
the thundering cannon of the fortress, when the enemy in the wood
(who had opposed and put Wellesley to flight) opened a destructive
fire from several field-pieces, which completely enfiladed Shaw’s
post. A mound of earth was quickly thrown up on the right flank of
the 12th regiment, to protect them, as much as possible, from this
fresh annoyance; but this precaution could not have prevented the
British from being dislodged from the bed of the river, had not
several brigades from camp been observed advancing to support the
position of Shaw’s post, and to drive the enemy from the wood. The
certainty of speedy support inspired Shaw’s column with renewed
ardour, and a fire was for the first time returned, with a rapidity
and effect that completely disconcerted the enemy, who retired
in good order, ever and anon facing about and firing a volley of
musketry.

They were not relieved until the close of the evening of the 6th,
as the enemy’s firing from the fortress of Seringapatam was so
destructive, that Baird’s brigade was compelled to halt and return
to camp; the other brigade, under Wellesley, advanced and took
possession of the wood which the enemy abandoned, and thus relieved
Shaw’s post from an annoying enfilade of cannon and musketry, from
which they suffered for at least an hour and a half after daybreak,
with the greatest constancy and courage. Eleven officers and 180
rank and file were killed and wounded in this small force during
the night and morning of the 5th and 6th April. About seven o’clock
in the evening of the latter day, the 74th regiment relieved the
12th, who were right happy to break their fast after twenty-four
hours’ hard fighting and fasting.”


SEVILLE.--Surrendered to the French, February 1st, 1810; taken
by assault by the British and Spaniards, after the battle of
Salamanca, August 27th, 1812, when the French left it, at the
general evacuation of the south of Spain, in consequence of their
signal defeat in that battle.


SHERRIFMUIR, BATTLE OF.--Fought, November 12th, 1715, between the
Royal army, under the Duke of Argyle, and the Scotch rebel forces,
who favored the Pretender, and commanded by the Earl of Mar. The
insurgents were defeated. Fought on the same day in which the rebel
forces were defeated at Preston.


SHREWSBURY, BATTLE OF.--Fought, July 21st, 1403, between the
Royal army of Henry IV, and the army of the Nobles, led by Percy,
surnamed Hotspur, who had conspired to dethrone Henry. Each
army consisted of about 12,000 men, and the engagement was most
obstinate and bloody. Henry was seen everywhere in the thickest of
the fight, while his valiant son, who was afterwards the renowned
conqueror of France, fought by his side, though wounded in the
face by an arrow, still kept the field and performed astonishing
deeds of bravery. On the other hand, Hotspur performed prodigies
of valour; 2300 gentlemen were slain, and about 6000 private men.
Hotspur was killed by an unknown hand, and his death decided the
fortune of the day.


SHROPSHIRE, BATTLE OF.--In which the Britons were completely
defeated, and Caractacus, their leader, taken prisoner and sent to
Rome; fought A.D. 51.


SIEGES.--Numerous in History; the following are the most
important:--

_Acre_, 1799, by Bonaparte; siege raised after sixty days, open
trenches.

_Algiers_, 1816. _See this article._

_Almeida_, August 27th, 1810.

_Antwerp_, 1576, use of infernal machines; also besieged 1583,
1585, 1706, 1792, and 1814.

_Badajoz_, March 11th, 1811, but raised June 9th. Taken by escalade
on the night of April 6th, 1812.

_Bagdad_, 1248.

_Bayonne_, 1451.

_Berwick_, 1293. _See this article._

_Bommel_, 1794; the invention of the covert-way used here.

_Burgos_, September to October, 1812, raised; the French in their
retreat blew up the works, June 13th, 1813.

_Calais_, 1347; British historians affirm cannon first used here at
this siege. _See this article._

_Candia_, 1667; the largest cannon then known in Europe, used here
by the Turks.

_Carthagena_, 1706.

_Chalons_, 1199.

_Cherbourg_, 1650.

_Ciudad Rodrigo_, 1706, July, 1810; January, 1812. _See this
article._

_Constantinople_, 1453.

_Copenhagen_, 1700, 1801, and 1807. _See this article._

_Cracow_, 1772.

_Dunkirk_, 1646, 1793.

_Frederickshall_, 1718, Charles XII killed here.

_Gibraltar_, 1704, 1799, and 1782; red hot cannon balls used here
to burn the French fleet. _See this article._

_Ismael_, 1790. _See this article._

_Kars_, 1855. _See this article._

_Londonderry_, 1689. _See this article._

_Mons_, 1572, 1691, 1709, 1746, 1792, and 1794.

_Mothe_, 1634; the French taught by Mr. Muller, an English
engineer, first practised the art of throwing shells.

_Naples_, 1381, 1435, 1504, 1557, 1792, 1799, and 1806.

_Orleans_, 1428, 1563.

_Philipsburg_, 1644, 1675, and 1688; first experiment of firing
artillery à-ricochet here, also besieged 1734 and 1795.

_Romorentin_, 1356; according to Voltaire, artillery first used
here in sieges.

_St. Sebastian_, September, 1813.

_Salamanca_, June, 1812.

_Saragossa_, oftener spelled _Zaragosa_,--appended to this article
is a graphic account of the 2nd siege. It was besieged three times,
in 1710, 1808, and 1809, the two last were dreadful sieges.

_Schweidnitz_, 1762 and 1807. Here was the first experiment to
reduce a fortress by springing globes of compression.

_Sebastopol_, 1854 and 1855. _See this article under the heads of
Bombardment of Sebastopol, Mamelon, Quarries, Rifle Pits, Sortie,
&c._

_Seville_, 1096, 1247, 1248, one of the most memorable sieges
mentioned in Spanish history.

_Silistria_, 1854. _See this article_.

_Stralsund_, 1675, 1713, and 1807; the method of throwing red hot
cannon balls first practiced here with certainty.

_Tarifa_, December 20th, 1811.

_Toulon_, 1707 and 1793.

_Tournay_, 1340, 1312, 1581, 1667, and 1709. During this siege the
best defence ever drawn from countermines was here practised; also
besieged in 1765 and 1794.

_Tunis_, 1270, 1535.

_Valenciennes_, May 23rd to July 14th, 1793. _See this article._

_Warsaw_, September 8th, 1831.

_Zutphen_, 1572 and 1586.


SILISTRIA, SIEGE OF.--In 1854.--The following is an admirable
account of the siege of this place:

“After the battle of Citate, so bitter a blow to the pretensions
of Russia, the enemy’s Generals found it advisable to change
their plan of operations. Adopting Foktchani as their basis, they
accumulated a large amount of military stores, and finding that
the Turks were not to be tempted into crossing the Danube, calmly
awaited reinforcements. When these had arrived, it was resolved
to make a desperate effort to force the passage of the river.
Imperative orders arrived from St. Petersburg to press the war
vigorously, and at any cost. On the 13th of February they attacked
Giurgevo, on the Wallachian bank of the Danube, with a considerable
force, and after a vigorous resistance, the Turks were forced to
evacuate their position, though not without being able to effect an
orderly retreat across the river, and establish themselves firmly
in the opposite town of Rustchuk. The Russian Generals now resolved
on concentrating their strength, and making an irresistible advance
into Bulgaria. With characteristic promptness, however, Omer Pacha
initiated the attack. Throwing a small column across the Danube
at Rahova, he assaulted and drove back the outposts at Kalarasch
with considerable slaughter; and the Turks, after this dashing
feat, retired in security to Rahova. Another attempt was made
by the extreme right of the Russian line, on the 11th of March,
to seize Kalafat; but they were energetically repulsed by the
brave garrison of that renowned town. Four days later, Prince
Gortschakoff made a desperate effort to wrest from its Ottoman
defenders the island in the Danube between Tukurtai and Oltenitza,
which had been so important a position in the battle at the latter
place. The Russians were again driven back, but some idea of the
sanguinary nature of the struggle may be formed from the fact that
2000 soldiers of the Czar left their bodies on the disputed ground.

“Five days before this desperate attempt to force the passage of
the river at Oltenitza, General Luders had succeeded in crossing,
at Galatz, into the Dobrudscha. Gortschakoff, defeated as he had
been, resolved upon abandoning the position he had so disastrously
occupied, and shifting his ground farther to the east, effected a
passage at Tultscha, beyond the point where Luders had passed with
his army. The two divisions were now united, and numbered about
5000 men. By a curious coincidence, the 23rd of March, the day on
which Gortschakoff crossed the river, was the same day in which
Odessa was so successfully bombarded by the allied fleets. Thus was
the Russian success more than counterbalanced. Four days later,
England and France had officially entered into the struggle. The
great object of the enemy’s movements now became apparent. Prince
Paskiewitch, the veteran General, the most celebrated commander of
the Russian army, was summoned from Poland to assume the supreme
command, and Schilders, the most accomplished general of engineers,
also hastened to the scene of operations. The capture of Silistria,
the strongest fortress on the southern bank of the Danube, and
the key to Bulgaria, was evidently the object of the Russians. So
important was the possession of this place deemed by the Czar, that
the most imperative directions were forwarded to accomplish it at
any cost. The plan of operations was this. Gortschakoff and Luders,
having crossed the Danube, were to advance towards Silistria,
intercepting communications, and investing it on the land side;
while Paskiewitch was to throw forward the main body of the army
and vigorously assault it from the northern side. The garrison of
Silistria, commanded by Moussa Pacha, a General of great ability
and indomitable courage, did not number more than 8000 men.

“Now commenced one of the most memorable sieges which history
has ever recorded. Others have exceeded it in the number of men
engaged, in the length of time occupied, but none in heroic
episodes and unflinching constancy. On the 14th of April, batteries
were thrown up on the north bank of the Danube, opposite the
devoted town, and a vigorous bombardment opened, but without much
effect. On the 28th the first assault was made, but so hot was the
reception the attacking force met with, that three weeks elapsed
before they had sufficiently recovered to completely invest the
town. By that time 53,000 Russians had surrounded the fortress,
and batteries had been established, commanding the most important
points. On the south-west front, and consequently the land side
of the town, two very important earthworks were thrown up, known
as Arab Tabia and Illanii. The ground on which these works were
situated rises in a series of platforms, which virtually command
the town. Their defence, therefore, was of the utmost importance
to the brave garrison. Again and again, for the space of ten
weeks, did the enemy precipitate strong columns of men against
these mounds of earth, and again and again were they driven back
with enormous loss. In vain the Russian cannonade levelled the
bastions and slaughtered the defenders; others supplied their
places, and once more the works rose defiantly. The Russian shells
swept the ground, and the Turks burrowed in the trenches, till
the advancing columns of assailants rushed to the breach. Then
the undaunted defenders sprang upon them, and hurled them back,
covered with defeat. Every attack was made with increased numbers,
and made only to be the more ignominiously defeated. Mines were
stealthily advanced towards the works; but the Turks countermined,
and the Russian sappers were blown into the air. All this while an
incessant bombardment from the river batteries poured death into
the town. But the undaunted besieged never for a moment relaxed
their resistance. Three master-spirits guided their operations,
and infused heroic courage into their ranks. Captain James Butler,
a young Englishman, who had volunteered for service in the army
of the East, had joined the garrison, in company with Lieutenant
Nasmyth, another young officer, animated by similar motives. These
two gallant men were the very soul of the defence, and aided
by the brave Maussa Pacha, the Ottoman Commander, successfully
defied the power of the assailants. Butler, as the senior of the
two Englishmen, assumed a position readily acceded to him by his
Turkish allies, and to him they were indebted for the admirable
construction and disposition of the defensive works. Lieutenant
Nasmyth proved himself a most able seconder of his friend’s
exertions, and in the capacity of “special correspondent” of the
_Times_ newspaper, made all Europe acquainted with the details of
this extraordinary siege.

“Straining every nerve, and exhausting every resource, to become
masters of the place, the Russian Generals summoned to their aid
the larger portion of the right wing of their army, thus materially
weakening their power of opposing the Turkish forces to the
westward of Silistria, who, in consequence, obtained some easy
successes. On the 12th of May, a tremendous assault was made by the
besiegers on the town, and repulsed after a sanguinary struggle, in
which more than 2000 Russians was lost. Ten days afterwards another
assault was attempted, and again was the enemy defeated. With true
Russian wiliness, overtures were secretly made to Moussa Pacha to
betray his trust, and for an adequate price to deliver the fortress
to the Czar. The brave man scornfully rejected the proposition, and
bade the enemy to take it if they could. Meanwhile, Omer Pacha was
anxiously endeavouring to succour the devoted garrison. Obstacles
interposed by the stupidity, if not traitorous connivance, of
officials in the ministry, had hitherto effectually tied his hands;
but at length, on the 5th of July, a detachment of Turkish troops
effected an entrance into the town after a smart skirmish; and on
the 8th, about a thousand more literally cut their way through the
Russians, and were added to the garrison. Aided by those welcome
reinforcements, the Turks now assumed the offensive, and on the
night of the 13th made a sortie, and succeeded in destroying the
Russian works, springing their mines, and inflicting a terrible
loss upon their ranks.

“It was now evident to the Russian Commanders that, if the town
were to be taken at all, it must be by a _coup de main_, and a
grand assault was ordered for the 28th of June. But they had
miscalculated the valour of their soldiers. Daunted by the warm
reception they had hitherto experienced, they absolutely refused to
march again to the breach; and nothing but the threat of stopping
their rations unless Silistria were taken the next day, could
induce these valiant warriors to perform their duty. On the next
day, the Russian Generals led their half-starved and unwilling
forces against the redoubts of Silistria. The Commanders, Prince
Paskiewitch, Count Orloff, Generals Schilders, Gortschakoff, and
Luders, placed themselves in the very front of the attacking force,
anxious to stimulate the soldiers by their own exposure. The
assault was attempted, and most triumphantly repulsed. The Russians
were thrown into the utmost disorganization, and fled precipitately
from the well-directed volleys of the garrison. Their leaders, too,
paid dearly for their temerity. Paskiewitch himself was severely
wounded; Schilders had both his legs shattered, Luders his jaw shot
away, Count Orloff was killed, and Gortschakoff received a serious
wound. Nor did the brave defenders escape without irreparable
loss. Their gallant chief, Moussa Pacha, was struck on the head
by a round shot, and expired instantly; and the noble Butler fell
a sacrifice to his undaunted courage. The Turkish reinforcements
outside the garrison fell upon the rear of the retreating Russians,
and completed the rout their compatriots had so gloriously
initiated. Beaten on every hand, the enemy dashed pell-mell across
the river, in confused retreat towards Foktchani. The siege was
raised. More than 30,000 Russian soldiers had perished in the
attempt to take Silistria, and the broken remnant was now in full
flight, owing its safety solely to the limited number of the
victorious Turks, which forbade pursuit.

“With the exception of the small force which still lingered in the
plague-stricken plains of the Dobrudscha, not a Russian remained
to the south of the Danube. The mighty legions, precipitated so
recklessly across the Danube, were dead upon the Turkish bank, or
flying ignominiously from the scene. The despised Turks were the
triumphant conquerors, and the great Czar had received another and
a greater blow from the “sick man.”


SLAUGHTER OR MASSACRE.--Under this head both Ancient and Modern
History abound with events which can be so called. The following
are among the most remarkable, as recorded by various authors:

The Carthagenians in Sicily who were totally slaughtered, 397 B.C.

2000 Tyrians crucified and 8000 put to the sword by Alexander the
Great. 331 B.C.

The Romans throughout Asia, women and children not exempted,
cruelly butchered in one day, by order of Mithridates, King of
Pontus, 88 B.C.

The massacre of Roman Senators, &c., 86 B.C.

That of Octavianus Cæsar to the Manes of Julius Cæsar, 41 B.C.

Jerusalem, 1,100,000 Jews cruelly put to the sword, A.D. 70.

Cassius slaughtered 400,000 of the inhabitants of Selucia, A.D. 167.

Eighty Christian Fathers by order of the Emperor Gratian were put
into a ship which was set on fire and then driven out to sea, A.D.
370.

Belisarius massacred 30,000 citizens of Constantinople, A.D. 552.

That of the Albigenses and Waldenses, A.D. 1209.

The Sicilian Vespers--all the French in Sicily butchered without
distinction of age or sex, the first bell for vespers being the
signal, A.D. 1282.

That of St. Bartholomew’s day throughout France, August 24th, 1572.

Ismael, 30,000 of the inhabitants old and young slain, December,
1790. _See Ismael._

Of all the whites in the Island of St. Domingo, March 29th, 1804.

Massacre of the Mamelukes in Egypt, March 1st, 1811. _See account
appended to this list._

Sinopé during the Crimean war, 1854.


MASSACRES IN ENGLISH HISTORY.

Of 300 nobles on Salisbury Plain, A.D. 474.

The Danes in England, November 13th, 1002.

The Jews in England, A.D. 1189.

The unoffending McDonalds of Glencoe, 1692. _See account appended
to this list._

Massacres of Cawnpore, Delhi, and other places during the Great
Indian Mutiny, 1857. _See Cawnpore and Delhi._


SLAUGHTER or MASSACRE OF GLENCOE.--This barbarous and diabolical
massacre, which, at the time of its commission, excited universal
and heartfelt indignation, took place in February, 1692. About
the middle of 1691, “as the Highlanders were not yet totally
subdued, the Earl of Breadalbane undertook to bring them over by
distributing sums of money among their chiefs; and £15,000 were
accordingly remitted from England for that purpose. The clans
being informed of this, suspected that the Earl’s design was to
appropriate to himself the best part of the money; and when he
began to treat with them, they made such extravagant demands, that
he found his scheme impracticable. He had therefore to refund
the sum he had received; and resolved to wreak his vengeance on
those who had frustrated his intention. He who chiefly thwarted
him was McDonald of Glencoe, whose opposition rose from a private
circumstance, which ought to have had no effect on a treaty that
regarded the public weal. McDonald had plundered the lands of
Breadalbane during the course of hostilities; and the Earl insisted
upon being indemnified for his losses, from the other’s share of
the money which he was employed to distribute. The Highlander,
however, not only refused to acquiesce in these terms, but, by
his influence among the clans, defeated the whole scheme, and,
in revenge, Breadalbane devoted him to destruction. King William
had, by proclamation, offered an indemnity to all those who had
been in arms against him, provided they would submit and take the
oaths by a certain day; and this was prolonged to the close of
1691, with a denunciation of military execution against those who
should hold out after the end of December. McDonald, intimidated
by this declaration, repaired, on the very last day of the month,
to Fort William, and desired that the oaths might be tendered to
him by Colonel Hill, governor of that fortress. As this officer
was not vested with the power of a civil magistrate, he refused to
administer them; and McDonald set out immediately for Inverary, the
county-town of Argyle. Though the ground was covered with snow,
and the weather intensely cold, he travelled with such diligence,
that the term prescribed by the proclamation was but one day
elapsed when he reached the place, and addressed himself to Sir
John Campbell, sheriff of the county, who, in consideration of his
disappointment at Fort William, was prevailed upon to administer
the oaths to him and his adherents. Then they returned to their
own habitations in the valley of Glencoe, in full confidence of
being protected by the government, to which they had so solemnly
submitted.

Breadalbane had represented McDonald at court as an incorrigible
rebel, as a ruffian inured to bloodshed and rapine, who would never
be obedient to the laws of his country, nor live peaceably under
any sovereign. He observed, that he had paid no regard to the
proclamation, and proposed that the government should sacrifice
him to the quiet of the kingdom, in extirpating him, with his
family and dependants, by military execution. His advice was
supported by the suggestions of the other Scottish ministers; and
the King, whose chief virtue was not humanity, signed a warrant
for the destruction of those unhappy people, though it does not
appear that he knew of McDonald’s submission. An order for this
barbarous execution, signed and counter-signed by his majesty’s
own hand, being transmitted to the master of Stair, secretary for
Scotland, this minister sent particular directions to Livingstone,
who commanded the troops in that kingdom, to put the inhabitants
of Glencoe to the sword, charging him to take no prisoners, that
the scene might be more terrible. In the month of February, captain
Campbell of Glenlyon, by virtue of an order from major Duncanson,
marched into the valley of Glencoe with a company of soldiers
belonging to Argyle’s regiment, on pretence of levying the arrears
of the land-tax and hearth-money. When McDonald demanded whether
they came as friends or enemies, he answered as friends, and
promised, upon his honour, that neither he nor his people should
sustain the least injury. In consequence of this declaration, he
and his men were received with the most cordial hospitality, and
lived fifteen days with the men of the valley in all the appearance
of the most unreserved friendship. At length the fatal period
approached. McDonald and Campbell having passed the day together,
parted about seven in the evening, with mutual professions of the
warmest affection. As soon as Campbell had retired, he received the
following letter from major Duncanson, quartered at Ballachalis, a
place some distance from Glencoe. It is dated the 12th of February,
1692, and runs thus:--

  “SIR,--You are hereby ordered to fall upon the rebels, the
  McDonalds of Glencoe, and put all to the sword under seventy
  years of age. You are to have especial care that the old fox and
  his sons do upon no account escape. This you are to put into
  execution at five o’clock in the morning (Saturday, the 13th)
  precisely; and by that time I will strive to be with you, with a
  stronger party. If I do not come to you at five, you are not to
  tarry for me, but to fall on. Secure all the avenues, that not a
  man may escape. _This is by the King’s especial command_, for the
  good of the country, that these miscreants may be cut off, root
  and branch.”

This was instantly communicated to the officers and men under his
command, and immediate preparations made for carrying the inhuman
massacre into effect.

The younger McDonald, perceiving the guards doubled, began to
suspect some treachery, and communicated his suspicion to his
brother; but neither he nor the father would harbour the least
doubt of Campbell’s sincerity; nevertheless, the two young men
went forth privately, to make farther observations. They overheard
the common soldiers say they liked not the work; that though they
would willingly have fought the McDonalds of the glen fairly in
the field, they held it base to murder them in cold blood; but
that their officers were answerable for the treachery. When the
youths hasted back to apprise their father of the impending danger,
they saw the house already surrounded; they heard the discharge of
muskets, the shrieks of women and children; and, being destitute
of arms, secured their own lives by immediate flight. The savage
ministers of vengeance had entered the old man’s chamber, and shot
him through the head. He fell down dead in the arms of his wife,
who died next day, distracted by the horror of her husband’s fate.
The laird of Auchintrincken, McDonald’s guest, who had, three
months before this period, submitted to the government, and at this
very time had a protection in his pocket, was put to death without
question. A boy of eight years, who fell at Campbell’s feet,
imploring mercy, and offering to serve him for life, was stabbed
to the heart by one Drummond, a subaltern officer. Eight and thirty
persons suffered in this manner, the greater part of whom where
surprised in their beds, and hurried into eternity before they
had time to implore the divine mercy. The design to butcher all
the males under seventy years of ago that lived in the valley,
the number of whom amounted to 200, was defeated by Duncanson not
arriving in time to secure the passes, so that one young man and
woman had nearly succeeded in escaping, and were climbing the last
rugged height of their native place, when they were discovered,
and shots immediately sent after them. Struck by one of them the
unfortunate young man made a convulsive spring, and fell headlong
into the valley below. His companion, alarmed by the report, lost
her hold, and tumbled after him. They were both killed by the fall.

Campbell, having perpetrated this brutal massacre, ordered all the
houses to be burned, made a prey of all the cattle and effects
that were found in the valley, and left the helpless women and
children, whose husbands and fathers he had murdered, naked and
forlorn, without covering, food, or shelter, in the midst of the
snow that covered the whole face of the country, at the distance of
six long miles from any inhabited place. Distracted with grief and
horror, surrounded with the shades of night, shivering with cold,
and appalled with the apprehension of immediate death from the
swords of those who had sacrificed their friends and kinsmen, they
could not endure such a complication of calamities, but generally
perished in the waste, before they could receive the least
comfort or assistance. This barbarous massacre, performed under
the sanction of King William’s authority, answered the immediate
purpose of the court, by striking terror into the hearts of the
jacobite Highlanders; but at the same time excited the horror of
all those who had not renounced every sentiment of humanity, and
produced such an aversion to the government, as all the arts of a
ministry could never totally surmount. A detail of the particulars
was published at Paris, with many exaggerations, and the jacobites
did not fail to expatiate upon every circumstance, in domestic
libels and private conversation. The King, alarmed at the outcry
which was raised on this occasion, ordered an inquiry to be set
on foot, and dismissed the master of Stair from his employment of
secretary; he likewise pretended that he had subscribed the order
amidst a heap of other papers, without knowing the purport, of it;
but as he did not severely punish those who made his authority
subservient to their own cruel revenge, the imputation stuck fast
to his character; and the Highlanders, though terrified into
silence and submission, were inspired with the most implacable
resentment against his person and administration.”


SLAUGHTER or MASSACRE OF THE MAMELUKES, March 1st, 1811.--“It has
been related, that one of the chief means employed by Mahomet Ali
in civilizing Egypt, or in improving the state of the country,
was the destruction of the Mamelukes--a class of hired foreign
soldiers, who, as usual in such cases, were opposed to all changes
in the government. It was only by resorting to a barbarous
stratagem in one of his campaigns, that the sanguinary blow was
struck. The following is an account of this sanguinary affair:

“The chiefs of the Mamelukes, with their adherents, being
assembled, by invitation from the Pacha of Egypt, within the
citadel of Cairo, after a time, according to eastern custom, coffee
was brought, and, last of all, the pipes; but at the moment when
these were presented, as if from etiquette, or to leave his guests
more at their case, Mahomet Ali rose and withdrew, and, sending
privately for the captain of his guard, gave orders that the gates
of the citadel should be closed; adding, that as soon as Siam Bey
and his two associates should come out for the purpose of mounting,
they should be fired upon till they dropped, and that at the same
signal the troops posted throughout the fortress should take aim
at, every Mameluke within their reach, while a corresponding order
was sent down at the same time to those in the town, and to such
even as were encamped without, round the foot of the fortress,
to pursue the work of extermination on all stragglers that they
should find, so that not one of the proscribed body might escape.
Siam Bey, and his two brothers in command, finding that the Pacha
did not return to them, and being informed by the attendants that
he was gone into his harem (an answer that precluded all farther
inquiry), judged it time to take their departure. But no sooner
did they make their appearance without, and were mounting their
horses, than they were suddenly fired upon from every quarter,
and all became at once a scene of confusion, and dismay, and
horror, similar volleys being directed at all the rest, who were
collected round, and preparing to return with them, so that the
victims dropped by hundreds. Siam himself had time to gain his
saddle, and even to penetrate to one of the gates of the citadel;
but all to no purpose, for he found it closed like the rest, and
fell there pierced with innumerable bullets. Another chief, Amim
Bey, who was the brother to Elfi, urged the noble animal which
he rode to an act of greater desperation, for he spurred him till
he made him clamber upon the rampart; and preferring rather to be
dashed to pieces than to be slaughtered in cold blood, drove him to
leap down the precipice, a height that has been estimated at from
thirty to forty feet, or even more; yet fortune so favoured him,
that though the horse was killed in the fall, the rider escaped.
An Albanian camp was below, and an officer’s tent very near the
spot on which he alighted. Instead of shunning it, he went in,
and throwing himself on the rites of hospitality, implored that
no advantage might be taken of him; which was not only granted,
but the officer offered him protection, even at his own peril, and
kept him concealed so long as the popular fury and the excesses of
the soldiery continued. Of the rest of that devoted number, thus
shut up and surrounded, not one went out alive; and even of those
who had quietly remained in the town, but very few found means to
elude the activity and greedy search that was made after them--a
high price being set upon every Mameluke’s head that should be
brought. All Cairo was filled with wailing and lamentations; and,
in truth, the confusion and horrors of that day are indescribable;
for not the Mamelukes alone, but others also, in many instances
wholly unconnected with them, either from mistake, or from malice,
or for plunder, were indiscriminately seized on and put to death;
so that great as the number was that perished of that ill-fated
body, it yet did not comprehend the total of the victims. The
strange fact of the leap and escape of Amim Bey, and of his asylum
in the officer’s tent, reached at last the Pacha’s ears, who sent
instantly to demand him; and when the generous Albanian found
that it would be impossible any longer to shelter or screen his
fugitive, he gave him a horse, and recommended him to fly with all
speed into Asia, where, in the palace of Suleyman Pacha at Acre, he
found safety.”


SLAVE TRADE.--The following is a good description of this horrible
trade now nearly at an end:--

“On our return from Brazil, we fell in with a slave-ship. She
had taken in, on the coast of Africa, 336 males and 226 females,
making in all 562, and had been out seventeen days, during which
she had thrown overboard 55. The slaves were all enclosed under
grated hatchways, between decks. The space was so low, that they
sat between each other’s legs, and stowed so close together, that
there was no possibility of their lying down, or at all changing
their position, by night or day. As they belonged to, and were
shipped on account of different individuals, they were all branded,
like sheep, with the owners’ marks, of different forms. These were
impressed under their breasts, or on their arms, and, as the mate
informed me, with perfect indifference, “queimados pelo ferro
quento--burnt with the red-hot iron.” Over the hatchway stood a
ferocious-looking fellow, with a scourge of many twisted thongs in
his hand, who was the slave-driver of the ship; and whenever he
heard the slightest noise below, he shook it over them, and seemed
eager to exercise it. As soon as the poor creatures saw us looking
down at them, their dark and melancholy visages brightened up. They
perceived something of sympathy and kindness in our looks, which
they had not been accustomed to, and feeling, instinctively, that
we were friends, they immediately began to shout and clap their
hands. One or two had picked up a few Portuguese words, and cried
out, “Viva! viva!” The women were particularly excited. They all
held up their arms; and when we bent down and shook hands with
them, they could not contain their delight; they endeavoured to
scramble upon their knees, stretching up to kiss our hands; and
we understood that they knew we had come to liberate them. Some,
however, hung down their heads in apparently hopeless dejection;
some were greatly emaciated, and some, particularly children,
seemed dying. But the circumstance which struck us most forcibly,
was, how it was possible for such a number of human beings to
exist, packed up and wedged together as tight as they could cram,
in low cells, three feet high, the greater part of which, except
that immediately under the grated hatchways, was shut out from
light or air, and this when the thermometer, exposed to the open
sky, was standing in the shade, on our deck, at 89 deg. The space
between decks was divided into compartments, three feet three
inches high; the size of one was sixteen feet by eighteen, and
of the other, forty by twenty-one; into the first were crammed
the women and girls; into the second, the men and boys: 226
fellow-creatures were thus thrust into one space 288 feet square,
and 336 into another space 800 feet square, giving to the whole an
average of twenty-three inches, and to each of the women not more
than thirteen inches, though many of them were pregnant. We also
found manacles and fetters of different kinds; but it appeared that
they had all been taken off before we boarded. The heat of these
horrid places was so great, and the odour so offensive, that it was
quite impossible to enter them, even had there been room. They were
measured, as above, when the slaves had left them. The officers
insisted that the poor suffering creatures should be admitted
on deck, to get air and water. This was opposed by the mate of
the slaver, who, from a feeling that they deserved it, declared
they would murder them all. The officers, however, persisted, and
the poor beings were all turned up together. It is impossible to
conceive the effect of this eruption--507 fellow-creatures, of all
ages and sexes, some children, some adults, some old men and women,
all in a state of total nudity, scrambling out together to taste
the luxury of a little fresh air and water. They came swarming
up, like bees from the aperture of a hive, till the whole deck
was crowded to suffocation, from stem to stern, so that it was
impossible to imagine where they could all have come from, or how
they could all have been stowed away. On looking into places where
they had been crammed, there were found some children next the
sides of the ship, in the places most remote from light and air;
they were lying nearly in a torpid state, after the rest had turned
out. The little creatures seemed indifferent as to life or death;
and when they were carried on deck, many of them could not stand.
After enjoying for a short time the unusual luxury of air, some
water was brought; it was then that the extent of their sufferings
was exposed in a fearful manner. They all rushed like maniacs
towards it. No entreaties, or threats, or blows, could restrain
them; they shrieked and struggled, and fought with one another, for
a drop of this precious liquid, as if they grew rabid at the sight
of it. There is nothing which slaves, in the middle passage, suffer
from so much as the want of water. It is sometimes usual to take
out casks filled with sea-water as ballast, and when the slaves are
received on board, to start the casks and refill them with fresh.
On one occasion, a ship from Bahia neglected to change the contents
of the casks, and on the mid-passage found, to their horror, that
they were filled with nothing but salt water. All the slaves on
board perished! We could judge of the extent of their sufferings
from the afflicting sight we now saw.”


SLUYS, NAVAL BATTLE OF.--In this battle Edward III gained a signal
victory over the French. The English had the wind of the enemy, and
the sun at their backs, and began the action, which was fierce and
bloody--the English archers galling the French on their approach;
230 French ships were taken; 30,000 Frenchmen were killed, and two
Admirals; English loss inconsiderable.--Fought, June 24th, 1340.


SMOLENSKO, BATTLE OF.--One of the most memorable battles fought
during the Russian campaign of 1812, between the French and
Russian armies. Fought, August 17th, 1812. The French were three
times repulsed, but at last gained the victory, and on entering
Smolensko, found it in ruins, on account of their bombardment.


SOBRAON, BATTLE OF.--_In India._--Fought, February 10th, 1846,
between the British army, 35,000 strong, under Sir Hugh Gough, and
the Sikh force on the Sutlej. The enemy were dislodged after a
dreadful contest, and all their batteries taken; and in attempting
the passage of the river by a floating bridge in their rear, the
weight of the masses that crowded upon it caused it to break down,
and more than 10,000 Sikhs were killed, wounded or drowned. They
also lost sixty-seven cannon and some standards. The British lost
2383 men.


SOLEBAY, NAVAL BATTLE OF.--Between the fleets of England and France
on the one side and the Dutch on the other; the Allies commanded
by the Duke of York. The Dutch were compelled to flee, having lost
three ships, but the English lost four. In this obstinate and
bloody engagement the _Earl of Sandwich_ man-of-war blew up, and
1000 men were either killed or wounded. Fought, May 28th, 1672.


SOLFERINO, BATTLE OF.--This great battle, one of the most bloody
ever fought, took place during the war of Italy and France against
Austria. Fought, June 24th, 1859. The loss on both sides was
tremendous. The Austrians mustered 250,000 men; the Allies 150,000.
The number slain and wounded ranged from 30,000 to 37,000. The
result of this battle was the Austrians repassed the Mincio, whilst
the Allied headquarters were placed at Cavriana.


SORTIE FROM SEBASTOPOL.--The great sortie, during which the
good Captain Hedley Vicars was killed, is well described in the
following account:

“On the night of the 22nd of March, the enemy, about 7000 strong
made a sortie from the works of the Mamelon, which the French, as
already related, had so gallantly endeavoured to wrest from them.
The distance between the advanced parallels of the opposing forces
was not more than sixty yards; and the Russians were fully alive
to the necessity of preventing, if possible, any further advance
on the part of the Allies. The French and English Generals were
equally aware of the importance of the position, and not less than
6000 or 7000 French soldiers were nightly marched down to the
trenches; our working and covering parties numbering about 1500.
Advancing stealthily in two columns, the enemy attacked the head
of the French sap, and were gallantly met by a division of the 3rd
Zouaves, under Chef de Bataillon Balon. Three times was the attack
made, and three times repulsed, not without great loss both to
assailants and defenders. Finding themselves unable to force the
French lines in this direction, the enemy changed his front, and
threw himself against the left of the French position; but here,
too, our brave Allies were equally on the alert, and a sharp volley
assured the adventurous Russians that but little success was to be
hoped for in that quarter. Rapidly extending their attack, they
succeeded in occupying the nearest English parallel, and thence
poured a murderous fire into the French lines. General D’Autemarre,
the officer in command, seeing the fierce nature of the attack,
now ordered up the 4th battalion of the Chasseurs-à-Pied, who, in
a vigorous bayonet charge, drove the enemy from his position.

While this was going on in the French trenches, to the right of
our lines, our troops were also engaged in repelling an equally
determined attack. A portion of the Russian columns advanced under
cover of the darkness, and succeeded in approaching the English
lines. The first intimation our men had of the threatened attack
was from the advanced sentinels, who quietly fell back with the
intelligence that a large body of the enemy was approaching our
position. The English troops engaged that night in the trenches
consisted of detachments of the 7th, 34th, 77th, 88th, 90th, and
97th regiments, under the command of Colonel Kelly, of the 34th.
The advanced posts on the right nearest the French lines were
composed of men from the 77th and 97th, led by Captain Vicars,
who, hearing the approach of the enemy, ordered his men to keep
silence. On came the Russians, and when within a few yards of the
English trenches, they rushed forward and leaped into the works.
They were immediately met by the brave defenders of the lines,
who, hitherto motionless, now made an irresistible charge upon the
advancing foe, and after a few moments of desperate hand-to-hand
conflict, literally pitched them from the parapet. Captain Vicars,
who led his men with distinguished courage, met his death in this
vigorous repulse. Major Gordon, of the Engineers, who commanded the
detachment on the right, was severely wounded. While the attention
of the defenders of the trenches was thus drawn to the conflict in
this direction, the enemy made another attempt to penetrate our
lines farther to the left, where two mortars had been established
for the defence of the trenches. Here they succeeded in gaining a
footing, notwithstanding a most brilliant resistance from a few men
of the 90th, who actually drove them from the battery, though they
were unable effectually to oppose their advance. The 7th and 34th,
under the command of Lieut.-Colonel Tylden, were now brought up to
the scene of action, and gallantly met the fierce assault. After
a severe contest, the Russians gave way, and were precipitated
from the works. A general attack was now made upon the retreating
masses, who fled utterly beaten. The French followed them so
far as to be enabled to destroy some of the rifle-pits they had
established on the slope of the Mamelon, which had been the means
of such constant annoyance to our Allies. In this pursuit Colonel
Kelly was killed. The Russian loss must have been very great. On
our side, the casualties were not more than 38 killed and wounded;
the French lost over 300.

On the next day an armistice, for the purpose of burying the dead,
was requested by General Osten-Sacken, the Russian Commander.
This was granted, and for two hours, on the 24th, the guns ceased
firing, and the officers and men of the opposed armies enjoyed
a brief respite from their deadly contest. There was a natural
desire on each side to approach as nearly as possible the lines
of the other; and the soldiers mingled freely in the open space
between the Allies on the one side and entrenched sides of the
Mamelon in front. Burial parties were formed and the dead and
wounded of either army borne away by their comrades. Meanwhile the
officers chatted and exchanged cigars, and the men passed equivocal
compliments--such as their very limited acquaintance with each
other’s language would permit; the Russians making kind inquiries
as to when the Allies would favour them with a visit at Sebastopol;
and our fellows requesting them not to trouble themselves with
special preparations, as they intended to make themselves quite at
home when they did come. The dead and wounded, in every variety
of attitude, were a frightful spectacle, even to those inured to
scenes of strife and bloodshed. At length the armistice expired,
the white flags disappeared from the parapet of the Mamelon, the
stragglers hastily ran to the protection of their works, and in an
instant the boom of hostile cannon again thundered on the ear, and
clouds of white smoke again obscured the scene of the brief truce.”


SOVEREIGNTY OF THE SEAS, THE.--“The grand truth embodied in the
majestic lines--

      “Let us be back’d with God, and with the seas,
      Which he hath given for fence impregnable,
      And with their helps alone defend ourselves;
      In them, and in ourselves, our safety lies.”

seems to have been a heartfelt conviction in the breasts of all
true Englishmen, long centuries before the poet was born.

King John, whom history has generally branded as a very unworthy
monarch, had some redeeming kingly qualities--not the least of
which was his determined assertion of England’s sovereignty of
the seas. He ordered his sea-captains to compel all foreigners
to salute his flag by “striking” their own national flags, and,
probably, by also lowering their topsails (as was the practice
at a subsequent period), in acknowledgment of England’s maritime
supremacy. If any foreign ship, even though belonging to a friendly
power, refused compliance, it was to be seized, and adjudged a
lawful prize. This and other facts lead to the conclusion that John
only enforced an ancient claim to dominion of the seas, which had
been asserted and enforced occasionally time out of mind.

Edward III, during his wonderfully long reign of fifty-one years,
was a most jealous asserter of his sovereignty of the seas, over
which he claimed a judicial power. Dr. Campbell says that Edward,
“in his commissions to admirals and inferior offices, frequently
styles himself sovereign of the English seas, asserting that he
derived this title from his progenitors, and deducing from them by
the grounds of his instructions, and of the authority committed
to them by these delegations. His parliaments, likewise, in the
preambles of their bills, take notice of this point, and that it
was a thing notorious to foreign nations that the King of England,
in right of his crown, was sovereign of the seas. In old “Hakluyt’s
Voyages” is printed a very curious poem, called “De politia
conservativa maris,” supposed to have been written in the time of
Edward IV. It contains a number of separate chapters, each of which
is full of most valuable and instructive information concerning the
commerce of England with various countries. The unknown author,
who must have been a man of very extensive information in his
day, urges most strongly his countrymen to maintain inviolate
the sovereignty of the seas, as the only means to preserve their
prosperity and safety.

In the reign of Charles I, both the French and Dutch began to
express great jealousy of the British claim to dominion of the
seas, and Hugo Grotius endeavoured very learnedly to prove that
Albion had no better natural right than Holland, or any other
maritime nation, to such a title. Our own equally learned and
eloquent Selden retorted by his celebrated treatise “Mare Clausum.”
We need not quote any of his arguments, which are generally
profound, and, if not always impregnable to impartial criticism,
are at any rate patriotic and singularly striking and ingenious.
Suffice it that the general conclusion to which he arrives is
conveyed in one very impressive sentence: “That they (the English)
have an hereditary, uninterrupted right to the sovereignty of their
seas, conveyed to them from their earliest ancestors, in trust for
their latest posterity.” Mainly with a view to enforce his claim
to the sovereignty of the narrow seas, did Charles I endeavour to
provide a naval force sufficient to overawe both French and Dutch,
and therefore issued his writs for levying “ship-money”--a most
fatal undertaking as concerned himself; for, as every reader knows,
this arbitrary measure (however honourable its original motives
might have been) was the beginning of that deplorable alienation
between the King and his subjects which resulted in the great civil
war, and eventually cost the hapless monarch both his crown and his
life.

In 1635 the King, by his secretary of state, addressed a long and
deeply interesting letter of instructions to his ambassador at the
Hague, in order to enable the latter to explain and justify to
their “High Mightinesses” his naval preparations, and their meaning
and objects. We will extract a few passages illustrative of our
theme: “We hold it,” saith King Charles, “a principle not to be
denied, that the King of Great Britain is a monarch at land and
sea, to the full extent of his dominions; and that it concerneth
him as much to maintain his sovereignty in all the British seas, as
within his three kingdoms; because, without that, these cannot be
kept safe, nor he preserve his honour, and due respect with other
nations. But, commanding the seas, he may cause his neighbours, and
all countries, to stand upon their guard whensoever he thinks fit.
And this cannot be doubted, that whosoever will encroach on him
by sea, will do it by land also, when they see their time.... The
degrees by which his Majesty’s dominion at sea hath of later years
been first impeached, and then questioned, are as considerable as
notorious.... But withal, considering that peace must be maintained
by the arm of power, which only keeps down war by keeping up
dominion; his Majesty, thus provoked, finds it necessary, for
his own defence and safety, _to re-assume and keep his ancient
and undoubted right in the dominion of the seas_, and suffer no
other prince or state to encroach upon him, thereby assuming to
themselves or their admirals any sovereign command, but to force
them to perform due homage to his admirals and ships, and to pay
acknowledgments as in former times they did.”

The Protector of the Commonwealth proved himself quite as jealous
of maintaining the power and privileges of the navy, as any of
his kingly predecessors, and he did what not one of them had ever
effected, namely, made a treaty with the United Provinces (the Low
Countries), by which it was solemnly stipulated “that the ships and
vessels of the United Provinces, as well those fitted for war as
others, meeting any ships of war of the said Commonwealth in the
British seas, shall strike their flag and lower their topsail, in
such manner as had been any time before practised under any former
government.” This was in 1654. After the restoration, Charles II
renewed the treaty in 1662, and in 1667, in almost precisely the
same terms as the above; and at the conclusion of the Dutch war, in
1673, in the fourth article of the treaty of peace it was expressly
stipulated that if any “ships or vessels of war, or others, or
whether single or in fleets, shall meet in any of the seas from
Cape Finisterre to the middle point of the land of Vanstaten in
Norway, with any ships or vessels belonging to his Majesty of Great
Britain, whether those ships be single or in greater numbers,
if they carry his Majesty of Great Britain’s flag or jack, the
aforesaid Dutch vessels or ships shall strike their flag and lower
their topsail, in the same manner, and with as much respect, as
has at any time and in any place been formerly practised,” &c. The
reader will bear in mind that the Dutch were at that time the most
powerful naval power next to Great Britain. The treaty appears
to have confirmed the dominion of the latter beyond what might
properly be called the “narrow,” or “British seas,” including, as
it did, all from the south-west of Portugal to a cape in Norway.

During the reigns of the four Stuart kings, as well as under the
protectorate of Cromwell, the “Mariners of England,”

      “Whose flag has braved, a thousand years,
      The battle and the breeze,”

did indeed jealously “guard our native seas,” and assert and
maintain their country’s sovereignty thereof. In 1652, two fierce
actions were fought on this very score “On the 14th of May,
Commodore Young fell in with a Dutch convoy, escorted by three
ships of war, from whom he civilly demanded _the usual honours
to be paid to the English flag_. The Dutch commander positively
refused to comply, giving as a reason that he had express orders
from the States-General not to pay those honours which the English
exacted from their ships in the Channel. Commodore Young, on this
refusal, fired into the Dutch, which brought on a smart action;
but at length the Dutch ships struck, and, _after paying the
compliment_, were allowed to proceed on their voyage.” Only four
days later, Blake himself and Van Tromp had a far more serious
encounter on the very same score. Van Tromp and his fleet stood
towards Dover, off which Blake was lying with fifteen men-of-war,
and paid no respect whatever to the English flag. Blake instantly
fired, from his own ship, three unshotted guns at the Dutchman
as a reminder of his want of respect. Van Tromp retorted with a
broadside. “A most furious engagement instantly began. At first
the whole of the Dutch fleet directed their fire at the English
admiral, but he was soon bravely supported by the rest of the
ships, and Commodore Bourne joining at the same time with eight
sail more, obliged the Dutch to bear away, though still superior in
number, and seek shelter at the back of the Goodwin Sands, after
having been most severely mauled. The action lasted from four till
nine at night. One of the Dutch ships was taken, and another sunk.”

In a volume of the “Naval Chronicle,” for 1807, the sovereignty
of the sea is described as being “an actual and peculiar use
and enjoyment of the sea itself, and the performance of all the
functions of a sovereign upon it; such as prescribing rules of
navigation to those who frequent it, punishing delinquents,
protecting others, and receiving from all that homage and advantage
which are due to every lawful sovereign.” The writer proceeds to
state that the dominion of the sea entitles the “lawful possessors”
to six several prerogatives. The first two refer to the right of
fishing, &c., and the residue we will give at length.

“3. To impose tribute and customs on all merchant ships and
fishermen, fishing and trading within the limits of the sea that is
subjected to any particular dominions.

“4. The regular execution of justice for protecting the innocent,
and punishing the guilty for all crimes committed within the extent
of such sea-dominions.

“5. To grant free passage through any such sea to any number of
ships of war belonging to any other prince or republic, or to deny
the same, according to the circumstances and occasion of such
passage, in the same manner as any prince or state may grant or
deny free passage to foreign troops through their territories by
land, even though the prince or state to whom such ships or land
forces belong _be not only at peace, but in alliance_ with the
prince or republic of whom passage is desired.

“6. To demand of all foreign ships whatsoever within those seas
to strike the flag and lower the topsail to any ships of war, or
others bearing the colours of the sovereign of such seas.”

The latest example of an English commander insisting on a salute to
his flag, which we have been able to find, occurred in the month of
June, 1769, when “a French frigate having anchored in the Downs,
without paying the usual compliment to the British flag, Captain
John Holwell, who was the senior officer lying there, in the
‘Apollo’ frigate, sent an officer on board to demand the customary
salute; the French captain refused to comply, upon which Captain
Holwell immediately ordered the ‘Hawk,’ sloop of war, to fire two
shot over her, which being done, the French commander thought
proper instantly to salute.”

Many of the greatest of our poets have eloquently alluded to the
sea-sovereignty of their native island, ramparted with tidal
waters. Who does not remember the truly magnificent lines:--

      “This precious stone set in the silver sea,
      Which serves it as the office of a wall,
      Or as a moat defensive to a house
      Against the envy of less happy lands!

             *       *       *       *       *

      England, bound in with the triumphant sea,
      Whose rocky shore beats back the envious siege
      Of watery Neptune.”

The popular strain of Thomson’s “Rule Britannia” gives an emphatic
assertion of Britain’s naval greatness. No poet, however, has so
celebrated the floating bulwarks of Britain, and the “Hearts of
Oak” who man them, as Campbell. His marvellously spirit-stirring
lyric, “Ye Mariners of England,”[3] has no rival in its intense
patriotism.

In conclusion, suffice it that for a considerable time the claim of
England’s sovereignty of the seas, so far as it includes special
homage to our flag, or anything resembling a judicial supremacy
over the ships of other nations, within the limits of the narrow
(or any other) seas, has been a dead letter. But we can well afford
to dispense with what was at best a somewhat questionable sort of
shadowy honour, for we know that we yet retain the substantial
maritime supremacy which alone enables us to rank as the foremost
nation of the world--

      “Mistress, at least while Providence shall please,
      And trident-bearing Queen of the wide seas!”

to quote the noble lines of the patriotic and Christian poet,
Cowper. Well will it be for us to constantly bear in mind the vital
truth that the same great poet proclaimed:--

      “They trust in navies, and their navies fail:
      God’s curse can cast away ten thousand sail!”


SPURS, BATTLE OF THE.--Henry VIII of England landed in France,
July, 1513, and soon gathered an army of 30,000 men. He was shortly
after joined by the Emperor Maximilian, with a well-appointed
army of horse and foot. They laid siege to Terouenne, which they
invested with an army of 50,000 men; and the Duc de Longueville
advancing to its relief was signally defeated. The French were
everywhere routed in the battle. This battle of Guinnegate was
called the Battle of the Spurs, because the French made more use of
their spurs than their swords. Fought 18th, August, 1513.


STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE.--Fought A.D. 1135. The following graphic
account gives the reason why the engagement was so called:

“King David at once marched into England to strike for the rights
of his niece. Twice he ravaged Northumberland with merciless
barbarity. In a third invasion he penetrated into Yorkshire.
Stephen was in the south, hard pressed by the partisans of Matilda,
and was obliged to leave the northern part of his kingdom to look
to its own defence. There was a man in those parts who knew what to
do. This was the aged Thurstan, Archbishop of York. He assembled
the Barons at York, held a solemn fast, gave them absolution and
his blessing, and delivered into their hands his crozier and the
holy banner of St. Peter of York. He ordered processions of the
priests with crosses, banners, and relics in every parish. He
enjoined all men capable of bearing arms to rise “for the defence
of the Church against the barbarians.” To all who should die in
battle he promised salvation. He sent forth the priests to lead
their parishioners to battle. Sickness alone prevented him, aged as
he was, from putting on his own coat of mail.

The English standard was erected on Cutton Moor, near
Northallerton. The mast of a ship was set up on a high four-wheeled
car. At the top of the mast was a large cross; in the centre of
the cross a silver box containing the consecrated wafer. Below the
cross floated the banners of three Saints, St. Peter of York, St.
John of Beverley, and St. Wilfred of Ripon. The idea of this car
seems to have been taken from the great standard car which was used
by the people of Lombardy.

The Scottish army was 26,000 strong. Men from the Lowlands of
Scotland were there armed with cuirasses and long spears; archers
from the southland “dales,” or valleys of the rivers that run into
Tweed and Solway; troopers from the Border mountains, who rode
small, but strong and active horses; the fierce men of Galloway,
who carried long pikes and wore no defensive armour; clansmen from
the Highlands with the small round target and claymore; men of the
isles, who wielded a long-handled battle-axe. A strong body of
knights and men-at-arms, sheathed in complete mail, rode around the
King.

The English placed their standard in their centre. Their steel-clad
knights dismounted, sent their horses to the rear, and formed in a
compact mass round the standard car. The Scots came on, shouting
their war cry, “Alban! Alban!” Their fierce charge drove in the
English infantry, but they could not break through the dense array
of mailed warriors who surrounded the standard, and received them
on the points of their levelled lances. The long pikes of the
Galloway men were shivered against the strong plate-armour of the
knights. In vain the Highlanders tried to hew their way with the
claymore into the mass of iron-cased chivalry. The archers of
Yorkshire, Nottingham, and Lincolnshire, with their great bows, and
arrows of three feet in length, ranged themselves on both flanks of
the Scots, and kept up from either side a constant flight of their
deadly shafts. On many another bloody day the Scots were destined
to know right cruelly the fatal force of the cloth-yard arrow!

For full two hours the attack was maintained. At length the Scots
began to recoil. An English soldier, cutting off the head of one
of the slain, raised it aloft, and cried, “The head of the King
of Scots.” The report that their King was killed flew through the
Scottish army and filled them with dismay. They broke and fled.
The King, tearing off his helmet to show his face, kept together
a small body of troops around himself, and was able in some degree
to check the pursuit. On that bloody moor he left 12,000 dead.”


STIRLING, BATTLE OF.--Fought, A.D. 1297.

“Wallace was engaged in the siege of Dundee when tidings were
brought him that an army, fifty thousand strong, was on the march
from England to put the Scots down. They were holding their
course towards Stirling. Wallace immediately left Dundee and
advanced to meet them. If he could reach the river Forth before
the English, he meant to make them pay for their passage. He
marched swiftly, talking over and arranging his plans with the
good Sir John the Graham as they rode. When they reached the hill
above Cambuskenneth, two miles east from Stirling, no English
were in sight. It was not long, however, till their banners were
seen approaching. The chief of their host was the Earl of Surrey.
But he was old and in broken health, and the man who really took
the command was Sir Hugh Cressingham, Edward’s Lord Treasurer of
Scotland. Cressingham was a priest, haughty and insolent, who loved
the corslet better than the cassock.

The English, three times more in number than the Scots, advanced
and took up their position on the banks of the Forth. Wallace
occupied the high ground to the north. The river, spanned by a long
and narrow wooden bridge, flowed between the armies. The towers
of Cambuskenneth Abbey threw their shadows slant and long as the
September sun sank behind Ben Lomond. The glow of the watchfires
lighted up the deep and sluggish waters of the Forth, as the two
armies lay under the silent night, waiting for day, and what
fortune God might send.

Morning came, but Surrey was in no haste to begin. The bridge was
so narrow that only two men-at-arms could pass it abreast. The
attempt to cross a deep river in the face of an enemy, by one
narrow passage, was so dangerous that the English general hesitated
to risk it. But the rash and scornful churchman, Cressingham, would
try it. He insisted on instantly attacking the Scots with the
division under his command. Surrey gave way to the taunts of the
headstrong priest, and ordered the attack.

A brave knight, Sir Marmaduke de Twenge, led the advance at the
head of a squadron of cavalry, heavily sheathed in steel, both
horse and man. Cressingham with his division followed. The Scots,
posted on high ground, kept their ranks and allowed the English
to defile over the bridge. Wait! they know what they are about.
Twenge has got his division of heavy cavalry over to the opposite
shore. Cressingham’s division are eagerly crowding along the
bridge. Twenge forms his cavalry and leads them up the hill against
the main body of the Scots. Nearly half the English army has
crossed without interruption. But see that strong force of Scottish
spearmen who, fetching a circuit, and keeping near the river, make
swiftly for the head of the bridge. They dash across the line of
English as it issues from the bridge, and cut it in two. Forming
in a solid mass bristling with spears, they occupy the bridgehead,
and bar the bridge against all passage. Surrey looks on over the
water. In three minutes the old General shall see a sight to make
his white hair stand up!

The moment Wallace has waited for has come. Up then, and at them!
The Scots charge furiously down the hill on Twenge and his cavalry,
and hurl them back in disorder on the squadrons of Cressingham,
great part of which have not had time to form since they passed
the bridge. The English are mingled, horse and foot, in desperate
confusion. Hundreds of them go down before the fierce charge of
the Scots. The long spears plough the thick, disordered mass. Vast
numbers are driven back into the river. The deep, still-flowing
river swallows horse and man with splash and gurgle. Multitudes
madly plunge in, vainly hoping to struggle to the other side,
and the water is lashed into a foam by the drowning struggles of
thousands of men and horses. This is the sight which old Surrey
sees, sitting his warhorse on the safe side of the Forth.

He did what he could to send help to his reeling squadrons. The
royal standard of England, with its three gold leopards set on red,
was advanced to the cry of “For God and St. George!” A strong body
of knights attended it. Then came Surrey’s own banner, of chequered
blue and gold, followed by a numerous force of his vassals. It was
in vain. They forced their way over the bridge, but finding no room
to form, they only served to increase the confusion and swell the
slaughter made by the Scottish spearmen. Of all who crossed that
fatal bridge there returned but three. Sir Marmaduke Twenge with
his nephew and armour-bearer, spurring their steads, rushed into
the midst of the Scots at the bridgehead, cut their way through,
and escaped unharmed. The haughty churchman, Cressingham, lay dead
on the field. A Scottish spear had pierced his mail like silk, and
run him through the body, till the point stood out on the other
side. It was said that Wallace’s own hand drove that spear home.

Surrey saw that the safe side of the Forth was safe no longer, for
the Scots were preparing to cross. He turned his horse, and fled
without drawing bridle to Berwick. His troops broke and scattered
in all directions. The face of the country was covered with a
confused mass of terrified fugitives, who threw away their arms
and standards as they fled. Keen and fierce the Scots pressed the
chase, and their thirsty swords drank much blood. The powerful host
which a few hours before had marshalled so proudly beside Stirling
Bridge was beaten small and scattered like chaff.”


STONY CREEK.--_Canada._--Fought, June 5th, 1813. Between the
Canadians and Americans, the latter commanded by Generals Chandler
and Winder. The Americans had advanced as far as Stony Creek with
the intention of dislodging him, when Lieutenant Colonel Harvey,
now Sir John Harvey, conceived and executed a plan of surprising
them in the night. Before day he entered their camp, consisting
of 3000 men, with only 704 soldiers, killed and wounded a great
number, and captured two Generals and 120 prisoners. This affair
so disconcerted the Americans that they returned hastily to Fort
George, leaving the communication with part of Niagara frontier
open to the British, and perhaps eventually saving the whole of the
Province.


STRATTON HILL, BATTLE OF.--Between the Royal army and the forces
of the Parliament, headed by the Poet Waller. The Parliamentarians
lost the battle, with numbers of killed and wounded, and Waller
was obliged to flee to Bristol. Fought, May 16th, 1643. Waller was
nephew to the great Hampden.



T.


TALAVERA.--Fought, July, 27th and 28th, 1809, between the
English and French and Spanish armies.--“After the campaigns of
Marlborough, the English army acquired little distinction in the
field for more than a century. The battles of Dettingen (1743),
Fontenoy (1745), and Minden (1759), were affairs in which England
was involved by her Hanoverian alliances, and in which small
bodies of English troops were engaged, with little glory, and
with but trifling results. It was not until the next century had
opened, and the talent and ambition of one of the world’s greatest
conquerors had almost reached the climax of universal dominion,
that England, for her own preservation, and for the rescue of the
Spanish peninsula from his grasp, was compelled to send an army
into Spain; which, under the guidance of one of the most consummate
Generals that the world has ever seen, chased the armies of France
over province after province, from Lisbon to Biscay, and ultimately
drove them over the Pyrenees.

The peninsular campaigns of the Duke of Wellington commenced
with the brilliant affair of Vimiera; but we cannot dignify that
engagement with the name of a great battle, in which the forces
on either side, did not exceed thirteen or fourteen thousand men;
and the fruits of which were snatched from the victor’s hands by
the sudden arrival of a superior in command. It was on Sir Arthur
Wellesley’s second appearance in Portugal, in the year following
the battle of Vimiera, that the contest really began; and the three
great battles which distinguished its successive stages, were those
of Talavera, Salamanca, and Vittoria. The first exhibited the
power of Napoleon in Spain fairly grappled with; the second showed
that power defeated; the third closed the struggle by its absolute
downfall and expulsion.

After his supercession in 1808, on the very day of Vimiera, Sir
Arthur Wellesley had returned to England; but, happily, the
indignation felt by the English people at the convention of Cintra,
by which the results of that victory had been thrown away, warned
the British government that it was needful in times of great
emergency to depart from the rule of _seniority_, and to select
a Commander mainly on the ground of known and proved talent and
ability. Hence the victor of Vimiera was again called into the
field, and, on the 22nd of April, 1809, Sir Arthur Wellesley a
second time landed in Portugal.

“The unexpected arrival of a victorious Commander,” says Sir W.
Napier, “created the greatest enthusiasm:--the Regency nominated
him Captain-General; the people hailed his presence, and an
undefined but powerful sentiment that something great would be
achieved, pervaded the public mind.” Still, somewhat surprising,
and rather overweening, was this confidence; for Sir Arthur
Wellesley commanded only 26,000 English and German troops;--the
Spanish and Portuguese armies were of little worth, and the French
Emperor had at that moment in the Peninsula, a force of _two
hundred and seventy thousand men_.

Sir Arthur lost no time in bringing his troops into action. On
the 12th of May he crossed the Douro, in the face of the French
army, and carried Oporto. Soult had entered it two months before
with 25,500 men; he quitted it with 19,500, having lost by the
sword and by sickness, by assassination and capture, 6,000 good
soldiers. He had marched into Portugal with 58 pieces of artillery,
he quitted it without a gun! Yet Soult was perhaps the greatest of
all Napoleon’s Generals. Sir Arthur’s next object was, and indeed
it seemed a necessity of his position, to seek the French armies,
and to fight them with the least possible delay. The demand of the
English, and of the Portuguese also, was to be led against the foe.
To raise the spirit of the people of Spain and Portugal, and also
of the governments of both countries, it was necessary to show that
there was an army and a General in the field, and that neither the
army nor the General were afraid of meeting the French.

At this period the Spanish Generals and the Spanish Ministers had
not fully proved their entire inefficiency. They still boasted of
their power to “drive the French out of Madrid, and out of Spain;”
and if the English General had refused to co-operate with them, he
would have been charged with cowardice or with treachery. On the
27th of June, 1809, therefore, Sir Arthur, at the head of 22,000
British troops, and with 30 guns, entered Spain, and began his
march on Madrid. The Spanish General Cuesta, with an army of 39,000
men, was to co-operate with him.

This co-operation, however, proved to be nothing but hindrance
and a source of vexation. The two armies marched forward, Sir
Arthur grieved, day by day, by some failure of supplies, means of
transport, or other necessary aid. On one occasion a delay of two
whole days was created by the Spanish General’s obstinacy. On the
24th of July Sir Arthur wrote to Lord Castlereagh, “I am not able
to follow the enemy as I could wish; having found it impossible to
procure _even one mule, or a cart in Spain_; ... My troops have
been in actual want of provisions for the last two days.” Meanwhile
the Spanish Government took care of its own troops, and left the
English to shift for themselves. “The French,” writes Sir Arthur,
“can take what they like and will take it--while we cannot even buy
common necessaries.”

Joseph, the nominal King of Spain, was apprized of the approach
of the English and Spanish forces, and marched out of Madrid with
25,000 French veterans, commanded by Marshals Jourdan and Victor,
to meet them. The two armies came into the neighbourhood of each
other about the 22nd of July, 1809. Sir Arthur and Cuesta had
agreed, on that day, that Victor’s corps, which had been found
detached from the rest of the French army, should be attacked on
the following day. But when the English troops were getting under
arms the next morning, the old Spaniard was not up, and finally,
he objected to any attack that day. The fact was, that the French
General had contrived to corrupt some of Cuesta’s staff, and thus
difficulties were constantly thrown in the way.

Victor, whose discomfiture would have been easy on the 23rd, had
now escaped, and had joined Sebastiani and King Joseph. The whole
French army now amounted to 56,122 men, and, confident in their
strength, the Commanders resolved at once to march upon Talavera,
and to attack the Anglo-Spanish army.

Two or three minor engagements preceded the general battle. On
the 27th, in the afternoon, Victor’s advanced guards came upon
the British outposts, and immediately attacked them. The English
troops, some of whom then saw fire for the first time, were thrown
into some confusion, and Sir Arthur himself narrowly escaped being
made prisoner. A body of 10,000 Spanish which was posted near, took
such an alarm, that they broke and fled, giving out that “all was
lost.” Sir Arthur, with some difficulty, restored order, brought up
fresh troops, and the French were finally driven off. Yet such was
the effect of this panic among the Spanish troops, that they went
into action the next day with 6000 men less than their previous
number.

That same night Victor, encouraged by the effect of the surprise
thus narrated, made an attack after sunset on a hill which was
the key of the English position. For a moment the French attack
succeeded, but General Hill brought up the 48th regiment, and at
last expelled the French from the ground which they had gained. The
British lost 800 men, and the French 1000, in this affair, which
was not ended until long after dark.

As soon, however, as the day dawned, the French renewed the attack.

Once more they ascended the hill, and struggled hand to hand with
the English infantry. General Hill was wounded, and many officers
fell around him. But the French never gained the upper hand. After
a severe contest, they fell back; and the English pressed down
the hill, after them, until the whole of the attacking column got
into confusion, and finally rushed down the declivity in headlong
rout. This single attack, which lasted only forty minutes, cost the
French nearly 1500 men.

A consultation was now held in the French camp, as to the
expediency of immediately risking a general battle. Jourdan
strongly urged the taking up a position behind the Alberche, and
there awaiting the approach of Soult, who, with another army, was
expected to menace the English on their flank and rear in a few
days. Victor was more confident, promising to carry the hill on the
English left, if Sebastiani would attack the centre and right at
the same moment. He added, “If such a combination can fail, it is
time that we gave up war.”

King Joseph hesitated; when, at that moment, a despatch arrived
from Soult, stating that he could not reach the neighbourhood in
less than a week. This decided the matter, and orders were given to
attack.

Meanwhile, many discouragements prevailed in the English camp.
Provisions were scarce, and the men suffered from hunger. Among the
Spaniards all was confusion and distrust. Such alarm was created
by Cuesta’s conduct, that in the very midst of the battle, his own
countryman, the Duke d’Albuquerque, sent one of his staff to warn
Sir Arthur Wellesley that “Cuesta was betraying him.” Sir Arthur
received the message while seated on the hill, intently watching
the movements of the French. He listened to it without even turning
his head; and coolly replied to the officer who brought him the
message, “Very well, you may return to your brigade;” and then
quietly resumed his survey.

But now the battle began. The allied army was posted near Talavera,
having that city and the Tagus on its right, a hill already
referred to on its left, a sort of ravine and water-course in
front; and looking towards the Alberche,--a river which flows into
the Tagus,--in front of which lay the whole French army. “The
British and Germans,” says Sir W. Napier, “were somewhat above
19,000 sabres and bayonets, with 30 guns. The Spaniards were 33
or 34,000 men, with 70 guns. The French advanced with 80 guns,
and nearly 50,000 men. But what a difference in the quality of
the troops! The French were all hardy veterans; while the genuine
soldiers of the allied army did not exceed 19,000.”

Before one o’clock the French soldiers were seen to gather round
their eagles, and the rolling of drums was heard along the whole
line. Half an hour later, King Joseph’s guards, the reserve, and
the fourth corps were descried in march; and soon the table-land
and the height on the French right were covered with dark and
lowering masses. Victor gave the signal for battle, and 80 pieces
of artillery sent a tempest of bullets before the light troops,
who came on with all the swiftness and violence of a hailstorm,
followed by the broad black columns in all the majesty of war.

“Sir Arthur Wellesley from the hill viewed the whole field of
battle. He saw the fourth corps rushing forwards with the usual
impetuosity of French soldiers and falling upon Campbell’s
division, which held the right centre, with infinite fury; yet
that General, assisted by Mackenzie’s brigade and two Spanish
battalions, withstood their utmost efforts. The British regiment
met the advancing columns with loud shouts, broke their front,
lapped their flanks with fire, and at last pushed them back with
a terrible carnage. Ten guns were taken; but as Campbell feared
to break his line by a pursuit, the French rallied, and made head
for another attack. Then the British artillery played vehemently
upon them; a Spanish regiment of cavalry charged their flank; they
retired in disorder, and the victory was secured in that quarter.”

This was on the right of the English line. On the left, two
different columns of French were seen advancing towards the hill,
the key of the position. Sir Arthur sent forward an English
regiment of cavalry, and the 1st German hussars, to charge the
heads of these columns. A hollow cleft, not before perceived,
stopped the Germans; some of the English leaped it, in twos and
threes, and in desultory manner fell upon the French infantry. Some
Polish lancers charged them while thus disordered, and the regiment
was broken, and lost 207 officers and men.

Meanwhile, one of the French attacking columns was actually
contending for possession of the hill; and at the same time a
powerful mass of infantry, crossing the ravine, pressed hard upon
the English centre. The French attack was at first driven back;
then the English Guards, in the excitement of success, rushed after
them with reckless ardour. The French reserves charged them; the
Guards, disordered, were broken; the German Legion, adjoining, got
into confusion, and for the moment the English centre seemed to be
shaken and in disorder.

But when the Guards had made their rash charge, Sir Arthur,
foreseeing the issue of it, had ordered up the 48th regiment; and
had also sent for Cotton’s light-horse. The French came on, pushing
before them the disordered foot-guards. Sir Arthur charged them
with the 48th, brought them to a stand; the Guards and the German
Legion speedily recovered their ranks; and at last this terrible
attack was defeated, and the French were pushed back over the
ravine, carrying with them their general, Lapisse, mortally wounded.

Meanwhile their attack on the hill had failed; while on the Spanish
part of the army, safely posted behind redoubts in Talavera, they
had made no assault. And so closed the battle of Talavera. Both
sides remained in the position of the morning when night closed
upon them. But at day-break the French began their retreat; and
before six o’clock their whole army was safely encamped behind the
Alberche. That day, too, Sir Robert Crawford joined the British
army, bringing with him the 43rd, the 52nd, and the 95th regiments;
which troops immediately relieved the rest of the army of the
outpost-duty.

The loss of the English in this terrible contest was 6268;
including in the reckoning all the attacks, both on the 27th and
the 28th. The loss of the French was 8794, according to their own
returns. They lost also 17 guns, some tumbrils, and several hundred
prisoners.

Sir Arthur Wellesley, as we have said, was obliged to fight this
battle. Had he refused to advance, the Spanish government and
people would have deemed his presence useless, and would have
upbraided him with want of courage. And having advanced, the French
Marshals very naturally looked upon him as their prey; and attacked
him, deeming his defeat certain.

The reputation gained by the victory was obviously that arising
from a fearless meeting of the attack of a fine French army of
50,000 men, led by two celebrated Generals, with an Anglo-German
force of 19,000, encumbered with the merely nominal aid of
Spaniards. A French critic, General Jomini, thus speaks of the
moral result: “This battle at once restored the reputation of the
British army, which, during a century past, had declined. It was
now ascertained, that the English infantry could dispute the palm
with the best in Europe.”

Sir Arthur, too, had now seen, and his troops had seen and proved,
the value of the Spanish army; and all illusion on that subject had
ceased. Their artillery was well trained, and sometimes rendered
good service; but their cavalry was wretched; and their infantry
was totally unable to perform evolutions under fire without falling
into confusion. The result therefore naturally was, that the
English General, retiring into Portugal, commenced plans to be
carried out by English and Portuguese forces, in which the Spanish
armies bore little or no part.

The merits of the English Commander were promptly recognized by his
own government. He was immediately created Baron Douro and Viscount
Wellington of Talavera, and of Wellington in the county of Somerset.

There is a remarkable similarity, in all its chief features,
between this, the first of Wellington’s great battles, and
Waterloo, his last. Doubling the numbers on both sides, the
proportions were nearly the same. The French at Talavera had more
than 50,000 excellent troops,--at Waterloo they had almost twice
as many. The great English General had about 19,000 good troops
at Talavera, with the nominal aid of 30,000 worthless ones. At
Waterloo, he had about 33 or 34,000 good troops, with the addition
of about as many unreliable ones. In both cases alike, the French,
confident of success, made the attack; and in both cases they were
foiled and driven back by a British force of less than half their
number. The one material difference between the two conflicts lay
in this,--that in the second great battle, just as Napoleon’s last
attack had been repelled, a force of 50,000 Prussians broke in upon
the retreating French, and utterly dispersed and annihilated their
already-beaten army.”


TARA, BATTLE OF.--This was one of the earliest battles in Ireland
in ’98. Fought between the Royal forces, only 400 strong, and
the insurgent Irish, amounting to 4000, yet they were completely
beaten, and 500 slain, May 26th, 1798.


TARBES, BATTLE OF.--Fought, March 20th, 1814, between the English
and French. Marshal Soult was forced from his position, with great
loss, by the Duke of Wellington. This engagement shortly preceded
that of Toulouse.


TARENTUM WAR.--One of the most celebrated wars in Roman History.
Undertaken by the inhabitants of Tarentum, with the aid of the
renowned Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, which resulted, after many
battles, in their subjugation by the arms of the Romans.


TCHERNAYA, BATTLE OF.--One of the brilliant engagements during
the Crimean war. Fought, August 10th, 1854. The enemy, in dense
columns of infantry and cavalry, supported by 160 guns, advanced
from the heights towards the river, here crossed by two bridges,
the larger one being known as the Traktir Bridge. They carried
pontoons, and appliances for crossing the stream; and there were
also several places in which the Tchernaya was fordable. Favoured
by the dim light of early morning, they succeeded in throwing
several battalions unobserved across the river, and attacking the
division led by General Camon, on the extreme left of the French
line. Though taken by surprise, the French made a brave resistance,
and the 3rd Zouaves and 50th of the line assisted by the 82nd,
which attacked them in the flank, succeeded in repelling them with
considerable loss.

In their second attempt the Russians were somewhat more successful.
They advanced across the Traktir Bridge. The _tête du pont_ was
guarded by the 20th regiment of the line, who were too weak to
offer any effective resistance. They bravely disputed the ground,
and lost twelve officers before they would give way. The dense
masses of the Russians now thronged across the bridge. In their
train followed three guns, which were promptly got into position to
sweep the road along which the French would advance. The infantry
swarmed across the bridge, or waded breast high through the stream.
Quickly forming into heavy columns, they advanced in gallant style
up the hill in front of the French centre. General Herbillon was
fully prepared for the attack, and the enemy was promptly met, and,
after a very animated contest, driven back across the bridge by the
2nd Zouaves, the 97th of the line, and one battalion of the foot
Chasseurs. The slaughter was terrific; the French and Sardinian
guns playing on the retreating mass, and the French pursuing them
in a vigorous bayonet charge.

The right of the French position occupied some low hillocks,
defended in front by the river, and by the aqueduct used to supply
the Turkish army with water. The Sardinian army was encamped on
their right and had manned a very effective battery. General
Faucheux was the French commander at this portion of the line, and
a considerable body of artillery was under his command. While the
Russians were attacking the French centre, as already related,
another column of enormous strength advanced across the river and
aqueduct, and attacked the French right. The artillery and the
rifles of the Sardinians made dreadful havoc in their ranks; but
the Russian officers cheered on their men to the advance, and, in
defiance of dreadful loss, charged gallantly the French position.
The Zouaves, who held the brow of the hill, retired slowly to the
main body, which was partially hidden by the nature of the ground,
and the enemy came on with loud cheers, imagining an easy conquest.
Then the French suddenly formed up into line, and charging forward
with an impetuosity that defies description, literally crushed
the enemy in their tremendous rush, and hurled them down the
hill. Many rolled into the aqueduct and were suffocated; others
had their limbs broken by the fall; and the main hotly turned and
fled precipitately towards the bridge. As the broken and flying
mass poured onwards, the batteries opened upon them, and a scene
of fearful massacre ensued. The bridge was choked with the troops
endeavouring to pass across, and the river was crowded with the
fugitives. Among them poured the iron hail of the Sardinian
batteries; and when they struggled into the open ground, hundreds
more fell mortally wounded. Never was there a more complete or
ignominious defeat.

The remnants of the infantry withdrew behind the cavalry, and
retreated to the hill; the Russian artillery covering them by
a heavy fire against the French batteries. Prince Gortschakoff
manœuvred his cavalry for some time in sight of the Allies, hoping
apparently to draw our dragoons in pursuit among the hills, where
a second Balaklava massacre would probably have awaited them.
General Scarlett, commanding the English cavalry division, eagerly
proffered the services of his splendid warriors, but General
Pelissier wisely declined to hazard such valuable troops in such a
perilous adventure.

Towards evening the Russians drew off, leaving about 3000 dead upon
the field, and their wounded could not have amounted to less than
5000. The French carried off in their ambulances, 1626 soldiers
and thirty-three officers, besides 400 prisoners. Among the dead
was General Read, a very distinguished Russian officer, upon whose
person was found a plan of the attack. The French lost 9 officers
killed and 61 wounded, 172 men killed and 1163 wounded, besides 146
missing. The gallant Sardinians, besides the death of General the
Count of Montevecchio, sustained a loss of 250 men. The Turkish
battalions arrived too late to take any part in the affair.


TEWKESBURY, BATTLE OF.--Fought, May 4th, 1471. The very day of the
battle of Barnet, Queen Margaret landed at Plymouth. At the news
of the defeat of Warwick she sank to the ground in despair; but
the arguments of her friends soon awakened her natural courage,
and she advanced to Bath. It was there resolved to try to effect
a junction with the Earl of Pembroke, who had a large force in
Wales; but the people of Gloucester had secured the only bridge
over the Severn, and at Tewkesbury it was found that Edward was at
hand with a more numerous army. The Lancastrian leaders then drew
up their forces without the town; the Yorkists, led by the King’s
brother, the Duke of Gloucester, fell on them furiously, and after
a short but gallant resistance, the Lancastrians were totally
routed. The Queen and Prince were made prisoners; the latter being
led into the royal tent, Edward demanded of him what had brought
him to England. “To recover my father’s kingdom and heritage, from
his father and grandfather to him, and from him to me lineally
descended,” replied the undaunted youth. Edward struck him in the
face with his gauntlet, and Gloucester, Clarence, and some others
despatched him with their swords. Edward then set out for London,
and on the evening of his arrival king Henry died in the Tower, of
grief as was given out, but there can be little doubt that he was
murdered by order of Edward. The guilt of the deed, though without
any proof, was afterwards laid on the Duke of Gloucester.


TEXEL, BATTLES OF THE.--The vicinity of the Texel has been the
scene of some remarkable engagements, among others a battle of
three days was fought here, between the English, under Blake and
Monk, and the Dutch, under Van Tromp and DeRuyter, when the Dutch
were signally defeated and Van Tromp killed, 1653. Again Ruyter
was defeated here, August 11th, 1673. The Dutch fleet gloriously
vanquished by Lord Duncan, October 11th, 1797. Twelve ships of war
and thirteen Indiamen of the Dutch surrendered to Admiral Mitchell,
who took them without firing a shot, August 28th, 1799.


THERMOPYLÆ, BATTLE OF.--Leonidas, at the head of 300 Spartans at
this defile withstood the whole army of the Persians, until of
the 300 heroes who surrounded him, all were slain but one man;
20,000 Persians perished by the hands of the Spartans, August 7th,
480 B.C. This battle was one of the most celebrated events in the
annals of Greece, and effectually, at last, gave a check to the
invading Persian army. The following is from Rollin’s Ancient
History.

[4]“Thermopylæ is a strait or narrow pass of mount Œta, between
Thessaly and Phocis, but 25 feet broad, which therefore might be
defended by a small number of forces, and which was the only way
through which the Persian land army could enter Achaia, and advance
to besiege Athens. This was the place where the Grecian army
thought fit to wait for the enemy: the person who commanded it was
Leonidas, one of the two kings of Sparta.

[5]Xerxes in the meantime was upon his march: he had given orders
for his fleet to follow him along the coast, and to regulate their
motions according to those of the land army. Wherever he came, he
found provisions and refreshments prepared beforehand, pursuant to
the orders he had sent; and every city he arrived at gave him a
magnificent entertainment, which cost immense sums of money. The
vast expense of those treats gave occasion to a witty saying of a
certain citizen of Abdera in Thrace, who, when the king was gone,
said, they ought to thank the gods, that he ate but one meal a-day.

[6]In the same country of Thrace, there was a prince who showed an
extraordinary greatness of soul on this occasion: it was the king
of the Bisaltes. Whilst all the other princes ran into servitude,
and basely submitted to Xerxes, he bravely refused to receive
his yoke, or to obey him. Not being in a condition to resist him
with open force, he retired to the top of the mountain Rhodope,
into an inaccessible place, and forbade all his sons, who were
six in number, to carry arms against Greece. But they, either out
of fear of Xerxes, or out of a curiosity to see so important a
war, followed the Persians, in contradiction to their father’s
injunction. On their return home, their father, to punish so direct
a disobedience, condemned all his sons to have their eyes put out.
Xerxes continued his march through Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly,
every thing giving way before him till he came to the Strait of
Thermopylæ.

[7]One cannot see, without the utmost astonishment, with what an
handful of troops the Grecians opposed the innumerable army of
Xerxes. We find a particular account of their number in Pausanias.
All their forces joined together, amounted only to 11,200 men, of
which number 4000 only were employed at Thermopylæ to defend the
pass. But these soldiers, adds the historian, were all determined
to a man either to conquer or die. And what is it that an army of
such resolution is not able to effect?

[8]When Xerxes advanced near the Straits of Thermopylæ, he was
strangely surprised to find that they were prepared to dispute
his passage. He had always flattered himself, that on the first
hearing of his arrival, the Grecians would betake themselves to
flight: nor could he ever be persuaded to believe, what Demaratus
had told him from the beginning of his project, that at the first
pass he came to, he would find his whole army stopped by an handful
of men. He sent out a spy before him to take a view of the enemy.
The spy brought him word, that he found the Lacedæmonians out of
their intrenchments, and that they were diverting themselves with
military exercises, and combing their hair: this was the Spartan
manner of preparing themselves for battle.

Xerxes, still entertaining some hopes of their flight, waited
four days on purpose to give them time to retreat;[9] and in this
interval of time he used his utmost endeavours to gain Leonidas, by
making him magnificent promises, and assuring him, that he would
make him master of all Greece if he would come over to his party.
Leonidas rejected his proposal with scorn and indignation. Xerxes,
having afterwards written to him to deliver up his arms, Leonidas,
in a style and spirit truly laconical, answered him in these
words,[10] “Come and take them.” Nothing remained but to prepare
themselves to engage the Lacedæmonians. Xerxes first commanded his
Median forces to march against them, with orders to take them all
alive, and bring them to him. These Medes were not able to stand
the charge of the Grecians; and being shamefully put to flight,
they showed, says Herodotus,[11] that Xerxes had a great many men,
and but few soldiers. The next that were sent to face the Spartans,
were those Persians called the Immortal Band, which consisted of
10,000 men, and were the best troops in the whole army. But these
had no better success than the former.

Xerxes, out of all hopes of being able to force his way through
troops so determined to conquer or die, was extremely perplexed,
and could not tell what resolution to take, when an inhabitant of
the country came to him, and discovered a secret[12] path to the
top of an eminence, which overlooked and commanded the Spartan
forces. He quickly dispatched a detachment thither; which, marching
all night, arrived there at the break of day, and possessed
themselves of that advantageous post.

The Greeks were soon apprized of this misfortune; and Leonidas,
seeing that it was now impossible to repulse the enemy, obliged
the rest of the allies to retire, but staid himself with his
300 Lacedæmonians, all resolved to die with their leader; who
being told by the oracle, that either Lacedæmon or her king must
necessarily perish, determined, without the least difficulty or
hesitation, to sacrifice himself for his country. The Spartans
lost all hopes either of conquering or escaping, and looked upon
Thermopylæ as their burying-place. The king, exhorting his men to
take some nourishment, and telling them at the same time, that they
should sup together with Pluto, they set up a shout of joy as if
they had been invited to a banquet, and full of ardour advanced
with their king to battle. The shock was exceedingly violent and
bloody. Leonidas himself was one of the first that fell. The
endeavours of the Lacedæmonians to defend his dead body were
incredible. At length, not vanquished, but oppressed by numbers,
they all fell except one man, who escaped to Sparta, where he was
treated as a coward and traitor to his country, and nobody would
keep company or converse with him. But soon afterwards he made a
glorious amend for his fault at the battle of Platæa, where he
distinguished himself in an extraordinary manner. Xerxes, enraged
to the last degree against Leonidas for daring to make head against
him, caused his dead body to be hung up on a gallows, and made his
intended dishonour of his enemy his own immortal shame.”


THRASYMENE, BATTLE OF.--Fought, B.C. 217.--On a circular range of
hills, near the lake, Hannibal disposed his army, and Flaminius,
the Roman General, took his station in the valley beneath. A mist
rising from the lake completely concealed the Carthaginians from
the Romans, while it left the view of the former unimpeded. The
fortune of the day was such as might have been expected--15,000
soldiers fell with Flaminius in the valley, and 6000 more were
obliged to surrender themselves prisoners of war. The following is
from Rollin’s Ancient History:

[13]“Hannibal being thus got, almost unexpectedly, out of this
dangerous place, refreshed his troops, and then marched and pitched
his camp between Arretium and Fesulæ, in the richest and most
fruitful part of Tuscany. His first endeavours were to discover
the genius and character of Flaminius, in order that he might take
advantage of his foible, which, according to Polybius, ought to
be the chief study of a general. He was told that Flaminius was
greatly conceited of his own merit, bold, enterprising, rash, and
fond of glory. To plunge him the deeper into these excesses, to
which he was naturally prone,[14] he inflamed his impetuous spirit,
by laying waste and burning the whole country, in his sight.

Flaminius was not of a temper to continue inactive in his camp,
though Hannibal should have lain still. But when he saw the
territories of his allies laid waste before his eyes, he thought
it would reflect dishonour upon him, should he suffer Hannibal to
ransack Italy without control, and even advance to the very walls
of Rome, without meeting any resistance.

He rejected with scorn the prudent counsels of those who advised
him to wait the arrival of his colleague, and to be satisfied for
the present with putting a stop to the devastation of the enemy.

In the meantime, Hannibal was still advancing towards Rome, having
Cortona on the left hand, and the lake Thrasymene on the right.
When he saw that the consul followed close after him, with the
design to give him battle, by stopping him in his march; having
observed that the ground was convenient for that purpose, he also
began to prepare himself for the battle. The lake Thrasymene
and the mountains of Cortona form a very narrow defile, which
leads into a large valley, lined on both sides, with hills of a
considerable height, and closed at the outlet by a steep hill of
difficult access. On this hill, Hannibal, after having crossed the
valley, came and encamped with the main body of his army; posting
his light-armed infantry in ambuscade upon the hills on the right,
and part of his cavalry behind those on the left, as far almost as
the entrance of the defile, through which Flaminius was obliged to
pass. Accordingly, this general, who followed him very eagerly,
with the resolution to fight him, being come to the defile near
the lake, was forced to halt, because night was coming on; but he
entered it the next morning at day-break.

Hannibal having permitted him to advance, with all his forces,
above half way through the valley, and seeing the Roman vanguard
pretty near him, he sounded the charge, and commanded the troops
to come out of their ambuscade, in order that he might attack the
enemy, at the same time, from all quarters. The reader may guess at
the consternation with which the Romans were seized.

They were not yet drawn up in order of battle, neither had they
got their arms in readiness, when they found themselves attacked
in front, in rear, and in flank. In a moment all the ranks were
put into disorder. Flaminius, alone undaunted in so universal a
surprise, animates his soldiers both with his hand and voice;
and exhorts them to cut themselves a passage with their swords
through the midst of the enemy. But the tumult which reigned
everywhere, the dreadful shouts of the enemy, and a fog that was
risen, prevented his being seen or heard. However, when the Romans
saw themselves surrounded on all sides, either by the enemy or
the lake, and the impossibility of saving their lives by flight,
it roused their courage, and both parties began the fight with
astonishing animosity. Their fury was so great, that not a soldier
in either army perceived an earthquake, which happened in that
country, and buried whole cities in ruins. In this confusion,
Flaminius being slain by one of the Insubrian Gauls, the Romans
began to give ground, and at last quite ran away. Great numbers,
to save themselves, leaped into the lake, whilst others, climbing
over the mountains, fell into the enemy’s hands whom they strove
to avoid. Six thousand only cut their way through the conquerors,
and retreated to a place of safety; but the next day they were
taken prisoners. In this battle 15,000 Romans were killed, and
about 10,000 escaped to Rome, by different roads. Hannibal sent
back the Latins, who were allies of the Romans, into their own
country, without demanding the least ransom. He commanded search to
be made for the body of Flaminius, in order to give it burial, but
it could not be found. He afterwards put his troops into quarters
of refreshment, and solemnized the funerals of 30 of his chief
officers, who were killed in the battle. He lost in all but 1500
men, most of whom were Gauls.

Immediately after, Hannibal dispatched a courier to Carthage, with
the news of his good success in Italy. This caused the greatest joy
for the present, raised the most promising hopes with regard to
the future, and revived the courage of all the citizens. They now
prepared with incredible ardour to send into Italy and Spain all
necessary succours.

Rome, on the contrary, was filled with universal grief and alarm,
as soon as the prætor had pronounced from the rostra the following
words, “we have lost a great battle.” The senate, studious of
nothing but the public welfare, thought that in so great a calamity
and so imminent a danger recourse must be had to extraordinary
remedies. They therefore appointed Quintus Fabius, dictator, a
person as conspicuous for his wisdom as his birth. It was the
custom at Rome that the moment a dictator was nominated, all
authority ceased, that of the tribunes of the people excepted. M.
Minucius was appointed his general of horse.”


TILSIT, PEACE OF.--Between France and Russia, when Napoleon
restored to the Russian Monarch one-half his dominions, and Russia
recognized the confederation of the Rhine and the elevation of his
three brothers, Joseph, Louis, and Jerome to the thrones of Naples,
Holland, and Westphalia. Signed, July 7th, 1807.


TINCHEBRAY, BATTLE, OF.--Fought, 1106, between Henry I of England,
and Robert, Duke of Normandy. The two brothers met at this
place, and Robert was defeated, and all Normandy was taken by
Henry,--Robert himself being thrown into a dungeon, and kept for
more than twenty-five years a prisoner.


TOPLITZ, BATTLES OF.--The first was fought between the Austrians
and Prussians, the latter defeated, in 1762. Another battle August
30th, 1813. Treaty of ditto, September 9th, 1813. Second treaty of
ditto, October 3rd, 1813.


TORGAN, BATTLE OF.--Between Frederick II of Prussia and the
Austrians, in which the former obtained a complete victory. The
Austrian General, Count Daun, was wounded, November 11th, 1760.


TOULON, NAVAL BATTLES OF.--A memorable battle off this port between
the English, French and Spanish fleets, February 10th, 1744. The
English lost the victory through a misunderstanding of their
Admirals. Another battle fought here, when Lord Hood took six ships
of the French fleet, and sunk one of very large force, and several
others, June 4th, 1794. While the two fleets were engaged, a large
fleet of Indiamen got safely into Brest harbour. As on this fleet
depended the means of the French carrying on the war, they claim
the victory, notwithstanding their loss in ships and men.


TOULOUSE, BATTLE OF.--This was the final battle of the Peninsular
war--one of the most bloody that was fought between the French and
English. The French were commanded by Soult, and the English by
Wellington. Wellington forced the French to retreat after twelve
hours of hard fighting, the battle raging from seven in the morning
till seven at night. The English lost between 4000 and 5000 men,
that of the French exceeded 10,000. Fought, April 10th, 1814.


TOURNAMENTS, OR TILTS.--Every one has read of these ancient modes
of duelling. If not, let them read Sir Walter Scott’s “Ivanhoe,”
&c. The Arabs are very expert in their management of horses at
these tilts. The following will describe the whole:--

“The tournament field is oblong, and bordered by rows of
spectators, sitting cross-legged round the open space. The best
riders of the tribe, mounted on the most active horses, are then
introduced into the arena, the men being clothed with as much
splendour as their means will permit them, while the chargers are
covered with large silk housings of different colours, reaching to
the ground, and resembling those of ancient knights, as represented
in Froissart. Some of the Arabs then commence making their horses
dance to the sound of drums and trumpets, whilst men on foot
occasionally rush forward and discharge their muskets close to the
horses’ ears. Others dash forward at full speed along the line
of seated spectators, as close to their feet as they possibly
can, without actually trampling upon them: and every now and then
suddenly throwing their horses on their haunches, spin them round
on their hind legs, and resume in the opposite direction their
wild career. It is a nervous sight to behold; for you momentarily
expect to see some person or child crushed beneath the horses’
hoofs; but no accident ever happens, and men, women, and children,
maintain their seats with the greatest calmness and feeling of
security, saluting any well-executed point of horsemanship with
loud and exulting shouts of approbation, whilst the women accompany
them with the usual but indescribable cries of the quick-repeated
lu-lu-lu-lu; in return for which they are covered with clouds of
sand and dust, which the impetuous coursers throw up behind them.
Three or four others dashing their sharp stirrups into the flanks
of their impatient steeds, rush madly along the length of the
arena, shouting forth their _tekbir_, or war-cries, and whirling
round their heads the long and silver-adorned Arab guns, which they
discharge at the spectators when they have reached the farthest
extremity of the lists. Others engage with swords soldiers on foot,
galloping round their adversaries in incredibly small circles,
twisting their horses suddenly round, and then circling to the
other hand; and I know not which most to admire, the activity and
suppleness of the rider or of his horse. Others, whilst at full
speed, will lean over, and without in the least reducing their
pace, pick up from the ground a piastre or any other equally
small object, thrown down for the purpose. These sports form, on
the whole, one of the gayest and most animating scenes I ever
beheld, increased as it is by the waving of many silken sanjaks
of the brightest colours, by the music, the report of fire-arms,
the war-cries of the performers, and the shouts of the numerous
spectators.”


TOURNAY.--Taken by the Allies in 1709; taken again by the French,
November 11th, 1792. A battle was fought here by the Anglo-Austrian
army, against the French, in which they were defeated, May 8th,
1793. Another battle was fought between the English and French,
when the French were repulsed, losing 200 men and three field
pieces. Fought, May 6th, 1794.


TOURS, BATTLE OF.--One of the glorious victories of Charles Martel,
and that which most established his fame; gained over the Saracens,
near Tours, and from which he acquired the name of Martel or the
Hammer. Some historians declare that but for this victory, all
Europe, us well as Asia and Africa, would otherwise have become
Mahommedan. Fought, October 10th, 732.


TOWTON, BATTLE OF.--This great battle is supposed to be the most
fierce and bloody that ever happened in any domestic war. Fought,
March 29th, 1461, between the houses of York and Lancaster, to
the latter of which it proved fatal; more than 37,000 men of the
Lancastrians fell. Edward IV of York issued orders to give no
quarter, and a merciless massacre ensued.


TRAFALGAR, BATTLE OF.--The most glorious and splendid naval
engagement ever achieved by the British navy. The French had
18 and the Spaniards 15 ships of the line; the British had 27
ships. Several of the enemies’ Admirals were taken prisoners. The
following is Southey’s fine description of the death of England’s
greatest naval hero. He says:--

“Nelson having despatched his business at Portsmouth, endeavoured
to elude the populace by taking a by-way to the beach, but a crowd
collected in his train, pressing forward to obtain a sight of his
face: many were in tears, and many knelt down before him, and
blessed him as he passed. England has had many heroes, but never
one who so entirely possessed the love of his fellow-countrymen
as Nelson. All men knew that his heart was as humane as it was
fearless; that there was not in his nature the slightest alloy
of selfishness or cupidity; but that, with perfect and entire
devotion, he served his country with all his heart, and with all
his soul, and with all his strength; and therefore they loved
him as truly and as fervently as he loved England. They pressed
upon the parapet to gaze after him when his barge pushed off, and
he returned their cheers by waving his hat. The sentinels who
endeavoured to prevent them from trespassing upon this ground, were
wedged among the crowd; and an officer who, not very prudently upon
such an occasion, ordered them to drive the people down with their
bayonets, was compelled speedily to retreat; for the people would
not be debarred from gazing till the last moment upon the hero--the
darling hero of England!

       *       *       *       *       *

It had been part of Nelson’s prayer, that the British fleet might
be distinguished by humanity in the victory which he expected.
Setting an example himself, he twice give orders to cease firing
on the Redoubtable, supposing that she had struck, because her
guns was silent; for, as she carried no flag, there was no means
of instantly ascertaining the fact. From this ship, which he had
thus twice spared, he received his death. A ball fired from her
mizen-top, which, in the then situation of the two vessels, was
not more than 15 yards from that part of the deck where he was
standing, struck the epaulette on his left shoulder, about a
quarter after one, just in the heat of action. He fell upon his
face, on the spot which was covered with his poor secretary’s
blood. Hardy, who was a few steps from him, turning round,
saw three men raising him up. “They have done for me at last,
Hardy,” said he. “I hope not,” cried Hardy. “Yes” he replied,
“my back-bone is shot through.” Yet even now, not for a moment
losing his presence of mind, he observed, as they were carrying
him down the ladder, that the tiller ropes, which had been shot
away, were not yet replaced, and ordered that new ones should be
rove immediately: then, that he might not be seen by the crew, he
took out his handkerchief, and covered his face and his stars. Had
he but concealed these badges of honour from the enemy, England,
perhaps, would not have had cause to receive with sorrow the news
of the battle of Trafalgar. The cockpit was crowded with wounded
and dying men, over whose bodies he was with some difficulty
conveyed, and laid upon a pallet in the midshipmen’s berth. It was
soon perceived, upon examination, that the wound was mortal. This,
however, was concealed from all except Captain Hardy, the Chaplain,
and the medical attendants. He himself being certain, from the
sensation in his back, and the gush of blood he felt momently
within his breast, that no human care could avail him, insisted
that the surgeon should leave him, and attend to those to whom he
might be useful; “for,” said he, “you can do nothing for me.” All
that could be done was to fan him with paper, and frequently to
give him lemonade to alleviate his intense thirst. He was in great
pain, and expressed much anxiety for the event of the action, which
now began to declare itself. As often as a ship struck, the crew of
the Victory hurrahed, and at every hurrah, visible expression of
joy gleamed in the eyes, and marked the countenance of the dying
hero. But he became impatient to see Hardy; and as that officer,
though often sent for, could not leave the deck, Nelson feared
that some fatal cause prevented him, and repeatedly cried, “Will
no one bring Hardy to me? he must be killed! he is surely dead!”
An hour and ten minutes elapsed from the time when Nelson received
his wound, before Hardy could come to him. They shook hands in
silence, Hardy in vain struggling to suppress the feelings of that
most painful and yet sublime moment. “Well, Hardy,” said Nelson,
“how goes the day with us?” “Very well,” replied Hardy; “ten ships
have struck, but five of the van have tacked, and show an intention
to bear down upon the Victory. I have called two or three of our
fresh ships round, and have no doubt of giving them a drubbing.”
“I hope,” said Nelson, “none of our ships have struck.” Hardy
answered, “there was no fear of that.” Then, and not till then,
Nelson spoke of himself. “I am a dead man, Hardy,” said he; “I
am going fast; it will be all over with me soon. Come nearer to
me. Let my dear Lady Hamilton have my hair, and all other things
belonging to me.” Hardy observed, that he hoped Mr. Beatty could
yet hold out some prospect of life. “Oh! no,” he replied; “it is
impossible. My back is shot through. Beatty will tell you so.”
Hardy then once more shook hands with him, and with a heart almost
bursting, hastened upon deck.

By this time all feeling below the breast was gone, and Nelson,
having made the surgeon ascertain this, said to him: “You know I
am gone. I know it. I feel something rising in my breast,” putting
his hand on his left side, “which tells me so.” And upon Beatty’s
inquiring whether his pain was very great, he replied, “so great
that he wished he was dead. Yet,” said he, in a lower voice, “one
would like to live a little longer too!” And after a few minutes,
in the same undertone, he added: “What would become of poor Lady
Hamilton if she knew my situation!” Next to his country she
occupied his thoughts. Captain Hardy, some fifty minutes after he
had left the cockpit, returned, and again taking the hand of his
dying friend and commander, congratulated him on having gained a
complete victory. How many of the enemy were taken he did not know,
as it was impossible to perceive them distinctly, but 14 or 15
at least. “That’s well,” cried Nelson, but “I bargained for 20.”
And then, in a stronger voice, he said: “Anchor, Hardy, anchor.”
Hardy, upon this, hinted that Admiral Collingwood would take upon
himself the direction of affairs. “Not while I live, Hardy,” said
the dying Nelson, ineffectually endeavouring to raise himself
from the bed: “do you anchor.” His previous orders for preparing
to anchor had shown how clearly he foresaw the necessity of this.
Presently calling Hardy back, he said to him in a low voice, “Don’t
throw me overboard;” and he desired that he might be buried by his
parents, unless it should please the King to order otherwise. Then
reverting to private feelings: “Take care of my dear Lady Hamilton,
Hardy; take care of poor Lady Hamilton. Kiss me, Hardy,” said he.
Hardy knelt down and kissed his cheek; and Nelson said, “Now I
am satisfied. Thank God I have done my duty!” Hardy stood over
him in silence for a moment or two, then knelt again and kissed
his forehead “Who is that?” said Nelson; and being informed, he
replied, “God bless you, Hardy.” And Hardy then left him for ever.
Nelson now desired to be turned upon his right side, and said, “I
wish I had not left the deck; for I shall soon be gone.” Death was,
indeed, rapidly approaching. He said to the Chaplain, “Doctor,
I have _not_ been a _great_ sinner;” and after a short pause,
“Remember that I leave Lady Hamilton and my daughter Horatia as a
legacy to my country.” His articulation now became difficult; but
he was distinctly heard to say, “Thank God, I have done my duty!”
These words he repeatedly pronounced, and they were the last words
which he uttered. He expired at thirty minutes after four, three
hours and a quarter after he had received his wound.”


TRAKTIR BRIDGE, BATTLE OF.--Fought during the Crimean campaign,
between the French and Sardinian forces, and the Russians--

“The garrison of Sebastopol having failed, on the 2nd of August,
in a desperate attempt to forces the Allied lines by the Woronzoff
Road, remained inactive only in appearance. They were ready for
a new Balaclava and a new Inkerman all in one, so far as the
strategic movement is concerned. In August the Tchernaya is
fordable at many points, well known, of course, to the enemy.
On the 16th of that month they debouched from the Tchouliou
Heights, and descended to the Tchernaya, in the neighbourhood of
Traktir-bridge. Behind this bridge rise, at a little distance,
the Fediukine hills, on which rested the rear of the French army,
which now faced about. To their right were the Sardinians,--to
theirs the Turks. Beyond the river, and under Tchouliou hills is
a valley, along which swarmed the Russian masses, driving the
outposts of the Sardinian Bersaglieri, or sharp-shooters. About
1500 Zouaves and Chasseurs guarded the bridge: they were attacked
by 10,000 Russians, under General Read. For an hour the 1500 held
the 10,000 beneath the storm of artillery which pound upon their
dense columns from one English battery and from the Sardinian and
French artillery. At last, the Russians swarmed over the fords,
forced the bridge, and slowly pushed the brave Zouaves up the hill;
but executed this movement painfully, out of breath, in disorder,
and rent by ordnance. At the hill’s brow the main body of the
French received in their openings comrades worthy of Leonidas, who,
turning, and now backed by strong columns, charged bayonets down
the declivity. Twice the enemy rallied, but in vain. The Sardinians
and French made a final rush, and drove them with carnage upon
their supports, who were thus disarrayed. The artillery reopened,
and the battle was won. General Scarlett’s dragoons came up at this
moment, but General Pelissier deemed pursuit unwise. The enemy
retired on Mackenzie’s Farm. He left on the field a quantity of
fascines, planks, beams, ladders, and sappers’ tools, destined
to destroy the works of the besiegers. He left also 2500 dead;
and 1620 of his wounded were that night in the ambulances of the
French, who took, in addition, 500 prisoners. They themselves lost
180 killed, and 810 wounded--chiefly on and near the bridge. This
great battle occurred the day succeeding the First Napoleon’s natal
anniversary, and the fête-day of the French Empire. It was on that
very morning that the Queen of England set out to pay the first
Royal visit ever made by English Monarch to a Sovereign of that
warlike dynasty. It seemed as if events both in the East and in the
West were conspiring to raise to the highest point the glory of the
Napoleon destinies at one and the same hour.”


TREBIA, BATTLE OF.--Fought between Hannibal and the Romans.
Hannibal taking advantage of the well known impetuosity of the
Romans, sent over at first a detachment of 1000 horse. These
pretending defeat, hastily recrossed the river, followed by the
main body of the Romans. By this means the defeat of the Romans was
insured. Benumbed with wading up to their armpits in water, they
became an easy prey to their enemies; 26,000 were either slain, or
drowned in attempting to cross the river.


TRINCOMALEE.--Taken from the Dutch by the English in 1782. Retaken
by the French same year; restored to the Dutch in 1783. Surrendered
to the British, under Colonel Stewart, August 26th, 1795, and was
confirmed by the peace of Amiens in 1802. Of a series of actions
fought off Trincomalee, between Sir Edward Hughes and the French
Admiral Suffrein, one was fought February 18th, 1782, the enemy
having 11 ships and the British 9. On April 12th following, they
had 18 to 11 ships, and on July 6th, same year, they had 15 to 12
ships. Yet, in every one of these battles, the French suffered
severe defeats.


TRIPLE ALLIANCE.--This celebrated party alliance between the States
General and England against France, was for the protection of the
Netherlands (Holland and Belgium). Sweden afterwards joined the
alliance, January 28th, 1668.


TRIUMPH.--On the day appointed, the General, crowned with laurels,
pronounced an oration to the soldiers and surrounding multitude,
relating his military achievements; then the march began with a
long procession, in which were carried inscriptions, containing
the names of the nations, provinces, or cities, he had conquered;
the priests assisted, leading the beasts used for sacrifice.
The conqueror, in an ivory car, richly ornamented, closed the
procession. He was surrounded by his friends and relations, bearing
branches of laurel; the procession stopped at the Capitol, where
they sacrificed to Jupiter, and deposited part of the spoils.
The lustre of the Roman conquests was often tarnished by their
inhumanity to the conquered; their prisoners, if of high rank,
were only reserved to suffer superior mortifications; the captive
Monarchs and Generals were bound in chains, their heads closely
shaven (a mark of peculiar degradation), and they were thus
presented a sad spectacle to the gazing multitude.


TROYES.--Celebrated for the treaty, May 24th, 1420. The French
were driven from Troyes by the Allied armies, February 7th, 1814.
Retaken by Napoleon, February 28th, and finally occupied by the
Allies, March 4th, same year.


TYRE.--A celebrated city in Asia Minor. Besieged by Nebuchadnezzar,
B.C. 572, and the city demolished a year after its rebuilding.
Taken by Alexander the Great, who spent seven months in the siege,
August 20th, 332 B.C. Thousands of the inhabitants were crucified
by Alexander, along the shore, for the bravery with which they had
defended their city.



U.


ULM, BATTLE OF.--A fierce and bloody engagement between the French
and Austrians, the latter commanded by General Mack, and the French
by Marshal Ney. The French gained a complete victory, the Austrians
losing 36,000 men as prisoners, the flower of their army, and an
immense number of killed and wounded. Fought, October 17th, and
19th, 1805.


UNIFORMS.--First used in France by Louis XIV in 1668, adopted in
England not long after.


USHANT, NAVAL BATTLE OF.--Between the British and French fleets,
when after an indecisive action of three hours, under cover of the
night, the latter withdrew in a deceptive manner to the harbour of
Brest. Keppel commanded the English fleet and the Count d’Ovillier
the French. A dispute occurring between the English Admiral and the
second in command caused the victory to be not so complete as it
would otherwise have been. Fought, July 27th, 1778.


UTRECHT, TREATY OF.--The Union of the seven Provinces began here
A.D. 1579. Celebrated treaty, April 11th, 1713. Surrendered to the
Prussians, May 9th, 1787. Possessed by the French, January 17th,
1795.



V.


VALENCIA, BATTLE OF.--Taken by the Earl of Peterborough in 1705,
and soon again lost. Resisted the attempts of many, but was taken
from the Spaniards by the French, under Suchet, January 9th, 1812;
all the garrison, 16,000 men, and immense stores, surrendered.


VALENCIENNES, SIEGE OF.--Besieged from May 23rd to July 14th, when
the French garrison surrendered to the Duke of York, 1793. Retaken
by the French, on capitulation; the garrison and 1100 emigrants
made prisoners, with immense stores, viz. 200 cannon, 1,000,000
pounds of gunpowder, 8,000,000 florins in specie, 6,000,000 of
livres, 1000 head of cattle, &c., on August 30th, 1794.


VALUE OF PRINCES.--£400,000 was the price paid to the Scots for
delivering up to the English Charles I.

Margaret of Anjou was ransomed for £12,500.

£1,000 offered by Parliament for the head of Charles II.

£30,000 for that of the Pretender.

Richard I was ransomed for the large sum of £100,000 or 150,000
marks; he had before been sold by the Duke Leopold of Austria, to
the Emperor Henry IV, for £60,000.

King John, of France, was to be redeemed by his subjects for the
enormous sum of 3,000,000 crowns, but they could not raise the
amount.


VARNA, BATTLE OF.--The Emperor Nicholas of Russia arrived before
Varna, the head-quarters of his army, then besieging the place,
August 5th, 1828. The Turks made a vigorous attack on the
besiegers August 7th; another on the 21st, but they were repulsed;
surrendered to the Russians, October 1st, 1828. Famous as the
point of _rendezvous_ of the Allied army, preparatory to the
Crimean war. The cholera made dreadful devastation in both the
English and French armies; then a great fire nearly destroyed the
town, but purified the air; and the news of the Crimean invasion
expedition dispelled the gloom and melancholy which pervaded, to a
very great degree, our troops.


VIENNA.--Besieged by the Turks, under Solyman the Magnificent, with
an army of 300,000 men, but forced to raise the siege having lost
70,000 soldiers. Again besieged in 1683, and the siege raised by
the celebrated John Sobieski, King of Poland, who totally routed
the Turkish army of 100,000 men. Taken by the French, November
14th, 1805, and afterwards retaken and taken for some time.


VILLA FRANCA, BATTLE OF.--Engagement here between the British
cavalry, under Cotton, and the French cavalry, under Soult. The
French were defeated, April 10th, 1812. When Napoleon heard of the
result he reproached Soult the first time in his life.


VIMEIRA, BATTLE OF.--Between the British, under Wellington, and
the whole of the French and Spanish forces, in Portugal, under
Marshal Guinot, whom the British signally defeated, August 21st,
1808. The enemy’s force were 14,000 men, of whom 1600 were cavalry.
They attacked the English at Vimeira early in the morning. The
principal assault was on the English centre and left, with the
view, according to a favourite French expression of “driving the
English into the sea,” which was close in their rear. The attack
was made with great bravery but as bravely repulsed. It was
repeated by Kellerman, at the head of the French reserve, which
was also signally repulsed, and the French being charged with the
British bayonet, withdrew on all sides in confusion, leaving many
prisoners, a General Officer, and 14 cannon, with ammunition, in
the hands of the British. French loss, killed and wounded, 1800.
English 720; only one-half of the British force was actually
engaged.


VINEGAR HILL, BATTLE OF.--Between the British troops and the Irish
insurgents, in 1798. The rebels suffered a severe defeat, and much
blood shed on both sides. June 12th, 1798.


VITTORIA, BATTLE OF.--Fought, June 21st, 1813, between the French
and English. The following is a graphic account of this great
victory:

“The splendid achievements of the campaign of 1812 produced their
natural results. Even the torpid obstinacy of Castilian pride was
at last overcome, and by a decree of the Cortes of September 22nd,
1812, the great English General was invested with the supreme
command of the Spanish armies. He repaired to Cadiz on the 24th of
December, and on the 30th he was received by the Cortes in full
assembly. The news of Napoleon’s overthrow in Russia had just
arrived, and all hearts seemed to expand with hope of the speedy
expulsion of his troops from Spain.

England herself also now began to put forth efforts commensurate
with the crisis. At the opening of the year 1813 her land forces
consisted of 228,000 men, besides 28,000 in India, 95,000 militia
at home, and 32,000 foreign troops in the British service. And,
besides these, she had 200,000 native troops in India, a local
militia of 300,000, and a yeomanry cavalry of 68,000, forming a
grand total of 949,000 men in arms; and her expenditure in the year
amounted to £118,000,000 sterling.

Thus supported, her great Commander, of whom it may be questioned
if his equal _in all respects_ ever stood upon a field of battle,
looked forward with reasonable expectation to a coming harvest;
to a campaign in which, after four years’ toils and sufferings,
the grand object of the final expulsion of the French from Spain
might be anticipated. And assuredly the means he took to gain this
end in the simplest and completest manner, were marked by the most
consummate skill and wisdom.

To be nearer to his supplies, and to relieve the wasted provinces
of Spain, Wellington had withdrawn his army into cantonments on
the Coa and the Agueda, that is, in Leon and in Beira, or Northern
Portugal. All the Lusitanian kingdom had long been free from the
French, and the campaign of 1812 had compelled them to abandon all
Andalusia Murcia, Granada, Asturias and Estramadura. The French
army now occupied only central and eastern Spain, the bulk of the
troops being quartered in New and Old Castile.

Wellington’s chief attention was naturally devoted, during the
winter, to the task of reorganizing his forces for the final
struggle of the opening year. His own English army was the only
force he had which was at all in a condition to march against
the enemy. Of the Spanish troops he found it necessary to give
the Spanish Minister of War, in March 1813, the following
description:--“There is not a single battalion or squadron in the
Spanish armies in a condition to take the field; there is not in
the whole kingdom of Spain a depôt of provisions for the support of
a single battalion for one day; there is not a shilling of money in
any military chest. To move them forward at any point now, against
even inconsiderable bodies of the enemy, would be to insure their
certain destruction.”

But by unceasing exertions these evils were, in a measure,
overcome: and Wellington found himself, in the month of May, 1813,
for the first time in a state approaching to an equality with the
French. Their force, which in former years had often amounted to
nearly 400,000 men, was now reduced to 239,000 of which about
197,000 were present with the eagles. Meanwhile Wellington’s
nominal force now amounted to 200,000, and although only about
one-half of this number were fit to take the field, the remainder
was still of use in maintaining the communications, guarding
convoys, and cutting off the foraging parties of the enemy. His
principal army of English and Portuguese mustered about 75,000 men,
of whom about 44,000 were English. The efficiency of the Portuguese
troops was advanced in a surprising manner; reinforcements,
especially of cavalry, had arrived from England; and the
Anglo-Portuguese troops, conscious of an improved organization,
were more confident than ever; while the French, hearing of the
calamities of their brethren in Russia, were proportionably
depressed. Even the Spaniards had, in some numbers, been brought
into better condition:--Wellington had kept them fed and clothed
during the winter, and had now several efficient corps of native
troops, ready to act in conjunction with his own army. Hence, on
the 22nd of May the great English General began his march, and
when he crossed the stream which divides Portugal from Spain, he
rose in his stirrups, and waving his hand, exclaimed, “Good bye to
Portugal!”

The military skill and talent of a commander is never more
conspicuously seen than in those manœuvres by which an enemy is
defeated _without a battle_. Such manœuvres often resemble the
skill and power with which an able and fearless horseman, even
while on the ground, will control a powerful courser, forcing
him backwards by a small leverage upon his mouth. In the present
instance the French still had a considerable army and able
Generals, and they occupied the centre of Spain, defending the
capital, and ready to fight, if needful, a succession of battles
before they would relinquish their prey. But their more able
antagonist forced them to retreat, step by step, without fighting,
until their last and only stand was made at Vittoria, almost in
sight of France; and then delivering his attack, he utterly routed
them, and chased them over the Pyrenees. On the 22nd of May, as we
have said, the English army marched out of Portugal; on the 21st of
June it fought and gained the battle of Vittoria; and before the
1st of July the shattered remains of the French army, with their
King Joseph at their head, had fled over the Pyrenees. Little more
than a single month had sufficed to destroy, uproot, and utterly
abolish the French dominion in Spain, and that at a time, too, when
there were still 197,000 French soldiers in the field, under many
able Commanders.

A brave general of the ordinary kind would have marched in quest
of the French, lying in front of Madrid; would have defeated them,
and taken the capital. All the smaller bodies of French in Spain
would then have been called round the King; and in July a second
battle would have been fought in Arragon, or in front of Burgos.
One more victory,--a third, supposing the English to have been
always victorious, might have sent the French out of Spain; but any
mistake or mishap might have prevented this. But Wellington, by
masterly tactics, always threatening to turn the enemy’s right wing
and to get upon his communications, backed his foe as a man backs
a horse, till he could bring the opposing army into a position fit
for his purpose; and then, delivering at once a knock-down blow, he
drove the whole mass, king and army, in four-and-twenty hours, out
of Spain.

King Joseph had reckoned, in the spring, upon a direct attack by
the great road of Madrid; but when it would come, or where it would
fall, he could not divine, for Wellington kept him constantly in
doubt, by a variety of feigned movements.

At last, towards the end of May, he found that Wellington, sending
40,000 men under Graham through the difficult passes of the
Tras-os-Montes, and moving himself a week after on the Esla, had
carried his whole army, by the 4th of June, over the Douro, and was
now in full march for Valladolid. If he should gain that place,
Joseph well knew that his communications would be cut off, and his
whole army taken, to use Napoleon’s phrase, “_flagrante delicto_.”
Hastily, therefore, Madrid was abandoned, the whole army put in
retreat; and now Joseph would make his stand at Burgos.

Thus 100 miles of Spanish ground had been cleared of the French
without firing a shot. And now, Joseph would fight for his
kingdom in this, his second position. But his Generals examined
the country, and disliked the prospect. Meanwhile Wellington
pushed on, conducting his operations continually on the same
principle,--pushing forwards his left wing, and out-flanking and
turning the French right. Again perplexed, Joseph now abandoned his
second purpose, as he had abandoned his first. Burgos must be given
up, and the retreat must be continued on Vittoria. Into Vittoria
there was poured, therefore, the artillery depôts of Madrid, of
Valladolid, and of Burgos, and the baggage and stores of several
armies; with the King’s valuables, the archives, and papers of the
State and of the army, and a large amount of treasure.

Vittoria is only 26 miles from Irun, on the French frontier. Here,
therefore, had been driven together, like a flock of sheep, the
intruders and plunderers of Spain, and one vigorous assault only
was needed to rid the land of them altogether. It was not long
delayed.

It was about the 15th of June when King Joseph found his army
assembled round Vittoria, reckoning, Napier tells us, from 60,000
to 70,000 men. Wellington had left his sixth division at Medina de
Pomar, and therefore had 60,000 English and Portuguese, besides
some Spanish troops. In the number and calibre of their guns the
French had the advantage.

From the mountain-region through which the British army was
marching, the way to Vittoria lay over many a rugged steep, and
through many dangerous defiles; but no difficulty was allowed to
stop their march. “Six days they toiled unceasingly; but on the
seventh, swelled by a Spanish reinforcement, they burst like raging
streams from every defile, and went foaming into the basin of
Vittoria.”

The French army was drawn up round this basin, which is a small
plain about 10 miles in length, by 8 in breadth, through which runs
the river Zadora. As this battle-field was approached by various
mountain-passes, Wellington resolved to enter it from three sides
at once, forming three distinct combats. General Graham, with a
corps of about 20,000 men, was to attack from the British left, and
to pass the Zadora at Ariaga, near the city of Vittoria. Hill was
to attack from the right with an equal force. Wellington stationed
himself in the centre, with a rather larger force, which was to
descend from the mountain ridges, to cross the Zadora by various
roads, and to march straight upon Vittoria. In fact, the whole
battle was merely an attack on a strong army hemmed in, by an army
equally strong, and marching to the attack on three sides at the
same moment.

At daybreak the English began to move; but the distance to Vittoria
was several miles, and every step was to be contended for. Hill
reached the village of Puebla about ten in the morning; pushed on,
fighting hard, till he gained the village of Subijana de Alava,
and so placed himself in communication with the English centre.
Graham had to make a march of several miles to reach Ariaga, near
Vittoria; but about one o’clock his attack began to tell. This was
a serious one for the French; for, if successful, it would cut
them off from the great road to Bayonne. King Joseph, finding both
his flanks thus threatened, sent an order to the centre to retire.
But the troops were fiercely engaged, and retreat was difficult.
Meanwhile, however, three attacks of the English, right, left, and
centre, were all succeeding; and step by step, the French were
being pushed back upon Vittoria.

“At six o’clock,” says Napier, “the French reached the last
defensible height in front of Vittoria. Behind them was the plain
in which the city stood, and beyond the city were thousands of
carriages and animals, and of men, women, and children, crowded
together in all the madness of terror; and as the English shot
went booming overhead, the vast crowd started and swerved with a
convulsive movement, while a dull and horrid cry of distress arose;
but there was no hope, no stay for army or multitude, it was the
wreck of a nation!” Still the courage of the French soldiers was
unquelled. Their artillery for a time kept the Allies in check, but
suddenly the fourth English division, rushing forward, carried a
hill on the left, and the heights were at once abandoned. Joseph
finding the main road so completely blocked up by carriages that
the artillery could not pass, indicated the road of Salvatierra
as the line of retreat, and the army went off in a confused and
yet compact body on that side, leaving Vittoria on its left. The
British infantry followed hard, and the light cavalry galloped
through the town to intercept the new line of retreat. All became
disorder and confusion, the guns were left, while the artillerymen
fled with the horses. Vehemently and closely did the British
pursue, and nothing could stop their victorious career until night
and the disappearance of the flying masses had ended the struggle.
The French lost all their artillery, all their baggage, all their
equipages, all their stores, treasures, and papers, “so that no
man,” says a French writer, “could prove even how much pay was due
to him. Generals and subordinate officers were alike reduced to the
clothes on their backs, and many of them were barefooted.”

“Never was victory more complete. The trophies were innumerable.
Marshal Jourdan’s baton of command was brought to Lord Wellington,
who sent it to the Prince Regent, from whom he quickly received
one of an English marshal in return. The loss of the French was
never ascertained; that of the Allies was 3,567 English, 1,059
Portuguese, and 550 Spanish. The spoil taken was enormous. “The
soldiers of the army,” wrote Lord Wellington, “have got among them
about 1,000,000 sterling in money, with the exception of about
100,000 dollars found in the military chest. Rich vestures of all
sorts, gold and silver plate, pictures, jewels, parrots, monkeys,
and children, lay scattered about the field amidst weeping mothers
and wailing children. Joseph himself narrowly escaped; a squadron
of dragoons pursued his carriage and fired into it.”

All the remaining bodies of the French in Spain fell in the fall
of Vittoria. They escaped out of the kingdom by various roads
as quickly as possible. “Joseph’s reign was over, the crown had
fallen from his head, and after years of toil and combats, which
had rather been admired than understood, the great English leader,
emerging from the chaos of the Peninsular struggle, stood on the
summit of the Pyrenees a recognized conqueror. From those lofty
pinnacles the clangour of his trumpets pealed clear and loud, and
the splendour of his genius appeared as a flaming beacon to warring
nations.”[15]

Thus, in some five or six weeks, had a great kingdom been cleared
of its invaders and oppressors--not by the power of superior
numbers, but by the natural ascendency of a consummate military
genius. “Here,” remarks Napier, “was a noble army driven like sheep
before prowling wolves, although in every action the officers
had been prompt and skilful, and the soldiers brave, firm, and
obedient. The French troops were excellent and numerous, and the
country strong and favourable for defence; but the soul of a great
Commander was wanting; and hence, the Esla, the Tormes, the Douro,
the Pisuerga, seemed to be all dried up, the mountains to be
levelled; and 60,000 veteran soldiers, willing to fight at every
step, were hurried with all the tumult and confusion of defeat
across the Ebro.”

The deliverance of the Peninsula, by a force so far inferior to
that of the French, must always remain one of Wellington’s greatest
glories. The same French writer, whom we have already quoted, Jules
Maurel, remarks this surprising fact. He says: “The truth is,
that from 1808 to 1813, Wellington never had 30,000 English under
his orders, even at a period when the Imperial armies deluged the
Peninsula with no fewer than 370,000 men.”

Nor were the results of this great day confined to the Spanish
peninsula. Like its predecessor, the victory of Salamanca, the
battle of Vittoria shook the whole continent of Europe. Napoleon
himself, holding his ground at Dresden, had, up to this moment,
succeeded in withholding Austria from any actual participation in
the confederacy against him. He had even succeeded, on the 30th
of June, in obtaining a convention for the restoration of peace
between himself, Russia and Prussia. But the very next day the news
of the expulsion of the French from Spain reached Dresden, filling
Napoleon and his ministers with consternation, and giving new
life and vigour to the Russian and Prussian councils. The Allies
regretted that any cessation of arms had been agreed to, and they
began to long for its termination. The very moment it expired by
lapse of time, Austria joined the Allies; war was actively resumed,
and the autumn had not ended before Napoleon had been driven across
the Rhine, and Germany freed from the presence of the French armies.

The French writer from whom we have just quoted, Jules Maurel, thus
notices this remarkable passage in modern history:

“Scarcely had the armistice been signed when intelligence arrived
that the French had lost everything in Spain. In 40 days Wellington
had turned, one after another, all the positions occupied by the
French armies of the centre, of the south and of the north, and had
crossed the Tormes, the Douro, the Esla, the Carrion, and the Ebro.
He had reached Vittoria; he had gained a decisive battle; he had
expelled King Joseph from the Peninsula, and had planted his army
on the Pyrenees. In the beginning of May he was in Portugal; on
the 23rd of June he was on the frontiers of France. The defeat of
Vittoria entirely neutralized the victories of Lutzen and Bautzen,
and at once restored the coalition.”


VOUGLE, BATTLE OF.--Fought between Alaric II and Clovis of France.
Alaric was entirely overthrown, and the whole country subdued.
Clovis afterwards made Paris the capital, and became the founder of
the French Monarchy.



W.


WAGRAM, BATTLE OF.--Fought, July 5th, 1809, between the Austrians
and French, in which the former were completely overthrown; 20,000
were taken by the French. The slaughter on both sides was dreadful.
The defeated army retreated into Moravia.


WAKEFIELD, BATTLE OF.--Fought, December 31st, 1460, between Queen
Margaret, the wife of Henry VI, and the Duke of York, in which the
latter was slain, and 3000 Yorkists fell in the field. This was one
of the bloodiest battles between the houses of York and Lancaster.


WALCHEREN EXPEDITION.--This important expedition consisted of
thirty-five ships of the line, and 200 smaller vessels, and 40,000
troops, under the command of the Earl of Chatham. The fleet was
commanded by Sir Richard Strachan. A large number of the forces
died, and the whole expedition came to nothing, December 28th, 1809.


WARSAW, BATTLES OF.--The Poles suffered a great defeat here from
the Russians, October 10th and 12th, 1794. Suwarrow, the Russian
General, after the siege of Warsaw, cruelly butchered 30,000 Poles,
November 8th, 1794. The battle preceding the surrender of Warsaw
was fearfully bloody; of 26,000 men, more than 10,000 were killed;
nearly 10,000 were made prisoners, and only 2000 escaped the
merciless fury of the Russian butcher. Another battle fought here,
and the Poles again defeated, September 7th and 8th, 1831.


WASHINGTON.--Taken, August 24th, 1814, in the war between Great
Britain and the United States, by General Ross, when all the superb
national structures were consumed, in a general conflagration--the
troops not sparing the national library.


WATERLOO, BATTLE OF.--The greatest of all British engagements,
fought June 18th, 1815, between the Duke of Wellington and
Napoleon. The carnage on both sides was immense. The account of
this great battle is taken from the “Twelve Great Battles of
England.” The following is a fine account of the visit of Scott
to the field of Waterloo after the battle, and also Alison on the
defeat of the Old Guard:


  WATERLOO AT NOON ON THE DAY AFTER THE BATTLE.

“On a surface of two square miles, it was ascertained that 50,000
men and horses were lying! The luxurious crop of ripe grain which
had covered the field of battle was reduced to litter, and beaten
into the earth; and the surface, trodden down by the cavalry, and
furrowed deeply by the cannon wheels, was strewn with many a relic
of the fight. Helmets and cuirasses, shattered fire-arms and broken
swords; all the variety of military ornaments; Lancer caps and
Highland bonnets; uniforms of every colour, plume, and pennon;
musical instruments, the apparatus of artillery, drums, bugles;
but, good God! why dwell on the harrowing picture of a foughten
field? Each and every ruinous display bore mute testimony to the
misery of such a battle. * * * Could the melancholy appearance
of this scene of death be heightened, it would be by witnessing
the researches of the living midst its desolation for the objects
of their love. Mothers, and wives, and children, for days were
occupied in that mournful duty; and the confusion of the corpses,
friend and foe intermingled as they were, often rendered the
attempt at recognising individuals difficult, and in some cases
impossible. * * * In many places the dead lay four deep upon each
other, marking the spot some British square had occupied, when
exposed for hours to the murderous fire of a French battery.
Outside, lancer and cuirassier were scattered thickly on the earth.
Madly attempting to force the serried bayonets of the British,
they had fallen, in the bootless essay, by the musketry of the
inner files. Farther on, you traced the spot where the cavalry
of France and England had encountered. Chasseur and hussar were
intermingled; and the heavy Norman horse of the Imperial Guard were
interspersed with the grey chargers which had carried Albion’s
chivalry. Here the Highlander and tirailleur lay, side by side,
together; and the heavy dragoon, with Green Erin’s badge upon his
helmet, was grappling in death with the Polish lancer. * * * On
the summit of the ridge, where the ground was covered with death,
and trodden fetlock-deep in mud and gore, by the frequent rush
of rival cavalry, the thick-strewn corpses of the Imperial Guard
pointed out the spot where Napoleon had been defeated. Here, in
column, that favoured corps, on whom his last chance rested, had
been annihilated; and the advance and repulse of the Guard was
traceable by a mass of fallen Frenchmen. In the hollow below, the
last struggle of France had been vainly made; for the Old Guard,
when the middle battalion had been forced back, attempted to meet
the British, and afford time for their disorganised companions to
rally. Here the British left, which had converged upon the French
centre, had come up; and here the bayonet closed the contest.”


  DEFEAT OF THE OLD GUARD AT WATERLOO.

“The Imperial Guard was divided into two columns, which, advancing
from different parts of the field, were to converge to the decisive
point on the British right centre, about midway between La Haye
Sainte and the nearest enclosures of Hougoumont. Reille commanded
the first column, which was supported by all the infantry and
cavalry which remained of his corps on either flank, and advanced
up the hill in a slanting direction, beside the orchard of
Hougoumont. The second was headed by Ney in person, and moving down
the _chaussée_ of Charleroi to the bottom of the slope, it then
inclined to the left, and leaving La Haye Sainte to the right,
mounted the slope, also in a slanting direction, converging towards
the same point whither the other column was directing its steps.
Napoleon went with this column as far as the place where it left
the hollow of the high road, and spoke a few words--the last he
ever addressed to his soldiers--to each battalion in passing. The
men moved on with shouts of _Vive l’Empereur!_ so loud as to be
heard along the whole British line, above the roar of artillery,
and it was universally thought the Emperor himself was heading the
attack. But, meanwhile, Wellington had not been idle. Sir Frederick
Adam’s brigade, consisting of the 52nd, 71st, and 95th, and General
Maitland’s brigade of Guards, which had been drawn from Hougoumont,
with Chasse’s Dutch troops, yet fresh, were ordered to bring up
their right shoulders, and wheel inward, with their guns in front,
towards the edge of the ridge; and the whole batteries in that
quarter inclined to the left, so as to expose the advancing columns
coming up to a concentric fire on either flank: the central point,
where the attack seemed likely to fall, was strengthened by nine
heavy guns; the troops at that point were drawn up four deep, in
the form of an interior angle: the Guards forming one side, the
73rd and 30th the other;--while the light cavalry of Vivian and
Vandeleur was brought up behind the line, at the back of La Haye
Sainte, and stationed close in the rear, so as to be ready to make
the most of any advantage which might occur.

It was a quarter past seven when the first column of the Old
Guard, under Reille, advanced to the attack; but the effect of the
artillery on its flank was such, that the cavalry were quickly
dispersed: and the French battalions uncovered, showed their long
flank to Adam’s guns, which opened on them a fire so terrible, that
the head of the column, constantly pushed on by the mass in the
rear, never advanced, but melted away as it came into the scene of
carnage. Shortly after, Ney’s column approached with an intrepid
step; the veterans of Wagram and Austerlitz were there; no force
on earth seemed capable of resisting them; they had decided every
former battle. Drouot was beside the Marshal, who repeatedly said
to him they were about to gain a glorious victory. General Friant
was killed by Ney’s side: the Marshal’s own horse was shot under
him; but bravely advancing on foot, with his drawn sabre in his
hand, he sought death from the enemy’s volleys. The impulse of
this massy column was at first irresistible; the guns were forced
back, and the Imperial Guard came up to within forty paces of the
English Foot Guards, and the 73rd and 30th regiments. These men
were lying down, four deep, in a small ditch behind the rough road,
which there goes along the summit of the ridge. “Up Guards, and at
them!” cried the Duke, who had repaired to the spot; and the whole,
on both sides of the angle into which the French were advancing,
springing up, moved forward a few paces, and poured in a volley
so close and well directed, that nearly the whole first two ranks
of the French fell at once. Gradually advancing, they now pushed
the immense column, yet bravely combatting, down the slope; and
Wellington, at that decisive instant, ordered Vivian’s brigade to
charge the retiring body on one flank, while Adam’s foot advanced
against it on the other. The effect of this triple attack, at once
in front and on both flanks, was decisive: the 52nd and 71st,
swiftly converging inward, threw in so terrible a volley on their
left flank, that the Imperial Guard swerved in disorder to the
right; and at that very instant the 10th, 18th, and 21st dragoons,
under Vivian, bore down with irresistible fury, and piercing right
through the body, threw it into irrevocable confusion. The cry,
“Tout est perdu--la Garde recule!” arose in the French ranks, and
the enormous mass, driven headlong down the hill, overwhelmed
everything which came in its way, and spread disorder through the
whole French centre.”


  DESCRIPTION OF WATERLOO FROM THE TWELVE BATTLES.

“We have seen the three several stages by which the Duke of
Wellington had conducted the British army to that elevated position
in which the peace of 1814 left it. We have seen how it had, first,
on the broad fields of Castile, boldly encountered a French army
of twice its strength, and had sent it back in defeat. Next, at
Salamanca, meeting an army of equal force, it had scattered it by
an assault of a single hour, annihilating at a blow one-half of
its strength. And lastly, falling upon the intrusive King himself
in his final position of retreat and defence at Vittoria, it had
driven his entire array, like a flock of frightened sheep, over the
Pyrenees. After those triumphs, by which a whole realm of great
extent had been delivered from its invaders, there seemed scarcely
any way by which the fame and honour of the British army and its
illustrious Commander could be enhanced, except by an event not to
be anticipated--an encounter with the great conqueror of modern
times, now an exile at Elba; and a triumph over him.

This event, however unlikely it might seem, was reserved for
England’s soldiers and her General; and it occurred in less than
a year after the apparent restoration of peace. Napoleon suddenly
left his island-home, reappeared in France, gathered his soldiers
round him, and re-entered Paris as once more its Emperor. Naturally
enough, the Sovereigns who had compelled his retirement, scarcely
nine months before, resolved to maintain their position; and
they covenanted with each other to place armies amounting to
600,000 men on the soil of France in the course of July, 1815.
The British portion of this force was collecting together in the
months of May and June, under the Duke’s command; when Napoleon
determined not to wait for the attack, but to carry the war into
the allied territories; and, accordingly, in the second week in
June he entered Belgium. Before he had proceeded twenty miles he
encountered both the English and the Prussian armies, and on the
fourth day, at a distance of about thirty miles from the French
frontier, was fought the great and decisive battle of Waterloo.

This momentous contest will require of us a more lengthened
description than we have given of any of the great battles; both
because it was an event of the highest possible importance to the
fate of England, of Europe, and of the world; and also because it
was, so to speak, a succession of battles fought on one field, and
on the same day. In a former case we have seen “an army of forty
thousand men defeated in forty minutes;” but here the deadly strife
occupied nearly ten hours. The French opened the attack at eleven
in the morning, and at nine o’clock at night the last of their
battalions had not yet quitted the field. In the course of these
ten hours four or five desperate and prolonged contests had taken
place; each of which might have been justly called a battle. It
will be impossible, therefore, to give any fair or complete idea of
this long continued struggle, without occupying much greater space
than is required for an ordinary battle.

It is also a history which is thickly strewn with controversies.
The defeated General himself was the first to open this wordy
strife. The loss of the fight of Waterloo was a fact to which he
never could be reconciled. That battle hurled him, finally, from
the throne on which he had for the second time seated himself,
and sent him to wear out the few remaining years of his life on
the rock of St. Helena. In that retirement he occupied himself,
for the most part, in a series of efforts to resuscitate his
extinguished “glory.”[16] In these attempts he was hampered by
no moral scruples; for, as Emerson has remarked, “this, the
highest-placed individual in the world, had not the merit of common
truth and honesty; he would steal, slander, assassinate, as his
interest indicated.” Any reasonable man, therefore, will read his
“Historical Memoir,” book ix, written at St. Helena, and published
in London in 1820, with that caution which is so plainly called for
when a document is confessedly an _exparte_ statement, and written
by one who is known to be of unscrupulous character.

Yet that document has been received in many quarters with a
credulity which is somewhat surprising. It is true that this
credulity may be accounted for in the case of the French
historians--who, obliged to confess that their defeat at Waterloo
was “horrible”--a “massacre”--a “deluge of blood”--are glad to have
supplied to them, under Napoleon’s own hand, the apology that he
was overmatched and greatly outnumbered; and that yet, after all,
he would have proved victorious if one of his Generals had not
disobeyed his commands.

The latter of these two pleas has been generally rejected by
English writers--utterly denied as its truth has been by the
party so accused. But, strangely enough, although there was every
probability that Napoleon’s account of his own strength, and of
that of his opponent, would be wholly untrustworthy--several of our
best English writers have given entire credence of his statement
of the real amount of his army; even while those statements are
clearly refuted by abundant testimonies of many Frenchmen. And this
point is not an immaterial one. For if we could admit the truth of
Napoleon’s final conclusion, that “On that day 69,000 French beat
120,000 men, and the victory was only torn from them between eight
and nine o’clock at night by the increase of the allies to 150,000
men”[17]--what merit could we assign to the British soldiers, or to
their great commander, for such a victory? But, in sober verity, of
all the falsehoods deliberately put forth by Napoleon in the course
of his life, this, probably, is nearly the greatest.

Let us, however, now endeavour to arrange our narrative in its
proper order. The army which was assembling in Belgium under
the Duke’s command, had reached, in the beginning of June, the
respectable amount of almost 100,000 men. It contained, however,
far more Belgians, Hanoverians, Brunswickers, and Dutchmen, than
British troops, and far more new levies, landwehr, and militia,
than of experienced soldiers. The English regiments which had
followed the Duke through all the fields of Spain had been sent to
America, and were now on the Atlantic, on their return home. He had
some of the Guards, and a few other regiments of some standing; but
the largest portion of the British troops which had yet reached
Belgium were second battalions--new recruits drafted from the
militia--and the same observation would apply to the Hanoverians
and other auxiliaries.

It was a knowledge of this intrinsic weakness of the Duke’s army,
and of the fact that 10,000 or 15,000 of his old Peninsular
troops would soon join him, that decided Napoleon, as is frankly
confessed,[18] to make a sudden attack on the British and Prussian
forces before they were fully prepared to meet him. Silently,
therefore, but with his usual skill and rapidity, Napoleon brought
together a powerful army, and on the morning of the 15th of June he
moved forward and entered Belgium.

And here we are met by the most current of all the fictions
which are connected with this history. A variety of writers have
repeated, one after another--Napoleon himself setting them the
example--the story that the Duke never heard of the approach of the
French until eleven o’clock in the evening of that day, while at a
ball at Brussels. The facts, however, which are beyond dispute, are
these--that the French did not enter Charleroi, the first Belgian
town, until eleven or twelve o’clock on June the 15th--that tidings
of their movement reached the Duke at Brussels by three o’clock,
and that between four and five o’clock that same afternoon orders
went out to every corps of the British army to move to the front,
many of them beginning their march that same evening. There was no
surprise, then, nor was there the loss of a single day. The French
had not marched thirty miles--had not entered any place of the
least importance, when, on the third day, they found the British
army drawn up across their path, and had to fight the battle of
Waterloo.

They had, indeed, found their progress arrested still earlier.
Entering Belgium on the 15th, they were stopped the very next day
at Ligny by the Prussians, at Quatre Bras by a part of the English
army. Marshal Blucher being defeated, and retiring a few miles,
the Duke fell back also, and thus was enabled to draw up his army
at Waterloo--a position which he had before observed to be an
advantageous one, and which was in all respects well suited to the
defence of Brussels.

It was on the afternoon of the 17th June that the Duke’s army found
itself assembled on this spot. The French army, led by Napoleon
himself, soon approached, but the day was too far advanced to
afford time for a general engagement. The two armies, therefore,
took position, the English on a rising ground called Mont St. Jean,
about half a mile in advance of the village of Waterloo, and nine
miles on the French side of Brussels; the French on a series of
heights facing Mont St. Jean, having the village of Planchenoit on
the right, and looking down upon a small valley which separated the
two hosts.

And now we are naturally brought to a consideration of the
question, what was the respective strength of these two armies?
This is a point upon which Napoleon has bestowed great pains in
his “Historical Memoir, Book ix,” and on which he has succeeded in
deluding many English writers.

As to the strength of the British army, there can be no kind of
doubt upon that point, for the actual numbers present in each
battalion and squadron was carefully recorded; and these records
were needed to establish the respective rights of all present to
honours and rewards. We have spoken of a gross amount of nearly
100,000 men. But of these, several thousands were required to
garrison Antwerp, Ostend, Nieuport, Ypres, Tournai, and Mons,--the
loss at Quatre Bras had been 3000 or 4000, and a post of
observation at Hal, consisted of nearly 6000. When these deductions
were made, not quite 70,000 men remained, to meet Napoleon’s attack
at Waterloo.

The British infantry in the field were 15,181, and the German
Legion infantry were 3301. The British and German cavalry were
7840, and their artillery was 3493. Thus the whole reliable force
of the Duke--the force to which he must look to stand the French
attack--was not quite 30,000 men. All this was well known to
Napoleon, who, in his “Book ix,” says, “Victory appeared to be
_certain_,” for the French army consisted of “good troops, while,
in the enemy’s army, the English only, amounting to 40,000 _at
most_, could be reckoned upon as such.”[19]

The “Allied troops,” who made up the Duke’s array, consisted of
10,755 Hanoverians, many of whom were mere landwehr or militia, and
nearly 25,000 Belgians, Dutch, and men of Brunswick and Nassau.
Some of these fought gallantly, but others retreated whenever
the French approached,--some actually flying from the field.
Hence Napoleon justly says, “one Englishman might be counted
for one Frenchman:--two Dutchmen, Prussians, or soldiers of the
Confederation, for one Frenchman.”

Adopting, therefore, Napoleon’s own method of calculation, we may
say, that the Duke had an army nominally amounting to about 68,000
men, really equal to something less than 50,000.

And now we turn to the other side of the account. Here we must,
to be safe, accept only French testimony. If we draw together all
the credible statements of this class that we can find, we shall
probably be able to arrive at a just conclusion.

There was published at Paris, in 1815, a volume by an officer
attached to the staff, which may be considered to be “the French
account,” at the time and in detail, of this battle. In this
volume, the whole army which entered Belgium is stated to have been
“150,000 effective men of whom about 30,000 were cavalry.” It seems
improbable that a staff-officer should have greatly erred, or that
a Frenchman should have exaggerated the strength of the beaten
army. Reckoning, therefore, the gross number to have been 150,000;
and deducting 15,000 for losses at Ligny, and at Quatre Bras, we
may estimate the force detached under Grouchy on the 17th, at about
38 or 40,000 men, and the strength of the French army at Waterloo
at something more than 90,000.

And this estimate precisely agrees with Napoleon’s own statement,
written at Paris three days after the battle. In this bulletin he
says, “We estimated the force of the English army at 80,000 men. We
_supposed_ that a Prussian corps which _might be_ in line toward
the right might be 15,000 men. The enemy’s force, then, was upwards
of 90,000 men; ours less numerous.”

He is here speaking of the morning. But there was not a Prussian
soldier in the field until five o’clock in the afternoon; and this
Napoleon well knew. Why, then, does he here introduce a “supposed”
Prussian corps? Clearly, in order to bring up the allied force
to 95,000 men, so that he might be able to add, “Ours, _less
numerous_.” He had every possible motive, as a beaten General,
striving to make the best of his case,--for saying, _if he had
dared_,--“The enemy was more than 90,000 strong, but we had not
quite 70,000.” But he could not venture, in the face of abundant
evidence then existing, to say that his army was less than 80,000,
the force he assigns to the English. He therefore, by an “ingenious
device,” augments the allied force to 95,000; and then he can
venture to assert that his own army was inferior in numbers. There
is clearly implied in this statement an admission that his own
force was not greatly below 95,000.

Yet when Ney and others were dead, and the records, in all
probability, scattered or destroyed, the same man who wrote this
bulletin, concocted at St. Helena, four or five years after, a
widely-different account. In his “Book ix,” p. 128, he puts forth
an elaborate table, purporting to show, that the whole force of the
French army at Waterloo was only 68,650 men! And such has been the
imposing effect of this table, that many English writers, while
they could detect the falsehood of other statements in that same
volume, still accepted, as an undeniable fact, the conclusion, that
Napoleon’s army at Waterloo consisted of only 68,650 men! Yet only
common prudence, and the use of a little careful scrutiny, was
needed, to prove that these same elaborate tables in “Book ix” were
nothing more than what is usually called, in railway language, “a
cooked account.”

The proof of this shall be given from French writers alone. And,
first, let “Book ix” refute itself, by its own self contradictions.
At page 71, it gives the second corps, 19,800 infantry; while at
p. 95-97, it states the same infantry, at the same moment, at
21,000. At page 128 it gives the first corps 16,500 infantry, and
at table F it calls the same infantry, 17,600. At page 128 the
cavalry of the Guard and the third and fourth corps of cavalry are
stated at 10,000; while at pp. 158 and 173 they are twice called
12,000. At p. 35 we are told that “the regiments generally had but
two battalions; each battalion consisting of 600 men, _present and
under arms_.” Yet in the principal table, F, the regiments are
always estimated at either 1000 or 1100 men, the battalions at 500
or 550. Thus it is abundantly clear, even from the pages of “Book
ix” itself, that its writer is one who “plays at fast and loose
with figures.”

But other refutations, from purely French sources, are abundant.
We have seen that Napoleon states, in “Book ix,” p. 35, that his
battalions had 600 men; but that he quietly puts them down in table
F, as being only 500 or 550.

Now in his portfolio, captured at Charleroi, and published at
Brussels, there was one report, made by an officer named De
Launoy, and dated “Montalimert, June 4th,” which said, “The first
battalion, 720 strong, marched on the 1st of June.” And, in the
_Moniteur_ of May 28th, published at Paris under Napoleon’s own
authority, there was given a letter dated “Lille, May 26th,” which
says, “Our garrison is entirely composed of battalions of select
troops, which successively arrive: the 20th arrived yesterday;
almost all consist of 720 men; we are expecting two battalions of
veterans.” Now these troops formed part of the first corps, as
stated in “Book ix,” p. 31; and in table F they are all set down as
having in each battalion, 550 men!

It was of this first corps that Marshal Ney spoke in his letter
of June 26th, 1815, in which he complained of having it taken
away from him on the 16th. He describes it as having consisted
of “between 25,000 and 30,000 men.” He must have had the actual
returns in his pocket when he wrote this. Now if the battalions
generally consisted of 720 men, as the _Moniteur_ of May 28th
had told us, then its thirty-two battalions would have contained
23,040; which added to 1400 cavalry, and 1564 artillery men, would
be accurately described as “between 25,000 and 30,000 men.” But
Napoleon, in his statement of the force at Waterloo, sets down
the infantry of this corps as only 16,500; thus contradicting at
once the statement of the _Moniteur_, the report found in his own
portfolio, and the declaration of the Marshal who commanded that
corps!

In the same spirit, in the table of the troops at Waterloo, (Book
ix, p. 128,) we find the infantry of the Guard set down as being
11,500. Yet Gourgaud, Napoleon’s Aide-de-Camp, and Fleury de
Chaboulon, his secretary, both concur in stating this infantry to
have been 14,000.[20]

Of the heavy cavalry we have already seen, that while Napoleon,
in his table, at p. 128, sets it down at 4000, 3000, and 3000, or
10,000 in all, he afterwards twice describes it, at p. 158 and at
p. 173, as “these 12,000 select horse.”

Once more, in “Book ix,” p. 129, he states the force detached under
Grouchy to have been 34,300. His own companion at St. Helena,
General Montholon, in his history, (vol. i, p. 14,) calls this
force 42,000.

All this evidence, then, drawn from several quarters, but wholly
French, points to one conclusion,--namely, that Napoleon, in
forming his tables for “Book ix,” deliberately reduced his real
strength at Waterloo by about one-fourth or one-fifth; and that his
first statement, in his bulletin issued at the time, was the true
one; namely, that his army was only somewhat “less numerous than
95,000.”

And to this conclusion a remarkable support is found, in
the behaviour of the two Generals on the day preceding the
action. Wellington had beaten nearly every one of Napoleon’s
Marshals;[21]--and could not but feel a degree of exultation at the
thought of meeting the master of them all. Napoleon, on his part,
had to encounter a General who had never been conquered. Supposing,
then, the armies to have been nearly equal in strength, what might
have been anticipated, but a degree of eager anticipation on
Wellington’s side, and of seriousness on Napoleon’s? Instead of
which, what do we hear? The Duke writes to Marshal Blucher, that he
will accept battle, _if_ the Marshal will assist him with one corps
of his army. Meanwhile, Napoleon’s only anxiety is lest the English
should escape him. “He was surprised,” writes his secretary,
Fleury, “when daylight discovered to him that the English army had
not quitted its positions, but appeared disposed to accept battle.”
“He returned to his head-quarters (Book ix, p. 125) full of
satisfaction at the great fault committed by the enemy’s General.”
“He held this,” says Brialmont, “to be rashness, and a fault,
exclaiming, ‘At last, then, I have them,--these English!’” Do not
these views and anticipations, on the part of both of the Generals,
make it quite evident that each of them was fully aware of the
great superiority of the French army; and of the temerity of which
the Duke would be guilty if, without any assurance of support, he
ventured on an engagement in the face of such odds?

It is worth remark, too, that while several of the best English
writers have accepted with the most good-natured simplicity,
Napoleon’s own account of the force with which he fought this
battle--French historians, even when admirers of Napoleon, show
much less faith in his assertions. Thus, Lamartine, having
Napoleon’s ixth Book before him, in which the number, “sixty-eight
thousand, six hundred and fifty men,” is strenuously insisted
on--quietly disregards the fiction, and repeatedly speaks of the
French force as being “eighty thousand men.”[22]

But Napoleon’s “_certainty_ of success,” of which he speaks at p.
127 of his Book ix, rested more upon the superior _quality_ of
his troops than on their superior _numbers_. He was thoroughly
well aware, both of the slight value of the Belgian and Hanoverian
auxiliaries, and of the excellence of his own troops. And the Duke,
also, knew full well both of these facts. On the 8th of May he had
written to Lord Stewart, “I have got an infamous army; very weak
and ill-equipped; and a very inexperienced staff.” And seven days
after the battle, he repeated to Lord Bathurst, that he had got
“not only the worst troops, but the worst-equipped army, with the
worst staff, that ever was brought together.”[23]

On the other hand, Napoleon’s army was, for its amount, the finest
that he had ever led into the field. Thus his secretary, Fleury,
says, “The whole army was superb, and full of ardour.” Lamartine
speaks of it as “his grand army of chosen men; every battalion of
which had a soul equal to the utmost extremity.” Napoleon himself,
in “Book ix,” says: “The spectacle was really magnificent: the
earth seemed proud of being trod by such intrepid combatants.” And
at St. Helena he told O’Meara: “My troops were so good, that I
esteemed them sufficient to beat a hundred and twenty thousand.”[24]

Thus, as Brialmont remarks, whatever might be the numerical
proportion of the two armies, “when we come to look at the
respective qualities of the troops, the inferiority of the
Anglo-Belgian army _was enormous_. Not only was it composed of
heterogeneous elements, but it consisted almost entirely of young
soldiers, a large proportion of whom had never been under fire. The
Hanoverian contingent was made up of militia; and many regiments
were fit only for garrison duty.”[25]

The evening which preceded the memorable 18th of June was dark
and cloudy; the rain fell in torrents, and the men were often
ankle-deep in water. But, however deplorable might be their
outward condition, the interest of this eventful moment rendered
the combatants on either side, almost insensible to physical
sufferings. Every man in both armies knew that a great and
decisive battle was to be fought on the following day. With the
opening morning, then, would begin what might prove the final
contest,--ending a strife of nations which had lasted more than
twenty years. The two greatest Generals of the age were for the
first time to be brought into collision: the conqueror of Europe
was to measure swords with the deliverer of Spain. No two such
leaders, it has been well observed, had confronted each other,
since Hannibal and Scipio met at Zama.

Doubtless, and very naturally, the greatest degree of confidence
was felt in the camp of the invaders. The French soldiers relied
with reason on the extraordinary talents of their great leader,
victorious in fifty contests, foiled in scarcely any. The men
who stood by his side, too, were the veterans who had marched
triumphantly over many victorious fields, and who now felt defeat,
under such a Captain, to be scarcely possible. They were confident,
too, in their numbers. All of them had heard that the Emperor had
carried over the frontier a picked army of 150,000 men. They saw
on the heights around them the first and second corps, amounting
together to nearly 50,000 men, with the sixth, less numerous,
in reserve. The Imperial Guard was there, from 18,000 to 20,000
strong,--the finest troops that France had ever possessed, and the
cuirassiers, nearly 6,000 in number. What could a mixed force of a
few English, joined with Belgians, Hanoverians, and Dutchmen, do
against such a power?

Very naturally, therefore, we learn from Gourgaud, that “the French
troops were full of enthusiasm. Such were the acclamations of joy,
that they prevented the orders from being heard.”[26] From Napoleon
to his Generals, from the Generals to the troops, the feeling
had spread and become universal. “Ah! we have them, then,--these
English!”

The British troops had not the same ground of confidence. They knew
well that their own numbers did not amount to one-third of the
strength of Napoleon’s army, and that the Hanoverian and Belgian
landwehr, by whom their line was to be filled up, were of very
uncertain value. Many of the battalions, both English and foreign,
had never been in action before. Still, they had a great and
well-founded trust in their Commander; and with a spirit like his
own, they meant to _do their duty_, and while they lived, to stand
their ground.

The field of Waterloo, or the heights of Mont St. Jean, as the
English and the French respectively call this spot, is a piece of
slightly-elevated ground lying, as we have already said, about 1000
yards in advance of the village of Waterloo. Brussels, in which
Napoleon intended to sleep that night, was about nine miles in the
rear of the English army. The main road from Charleroi to Brussels
passed through the French position, descended into the valley, and
then ascended Mont St. Jean, cutting the English position at right
angles near a farm-house called La Haye Sainte. The English line
lay about 200 yards behind this farm-house. Here was the centre
and left centre. In advance of the right wing of the English army,
and between it and the left wing of the French, stood a larger
house, surrounded by walled gardens and orchards, and called
Hougoumont. As this place would have afforded great advantages to
the French in preparing attacking columns, the Duke placed in it
some companies of the Foot-Guards, with some Nassau and Hanoverian
troops, and enjoined its resolute defence. Well were his orders
obeyed, for the utmost efforts of a whole army corps of the French
were ineffectual to carry this position. The French lost 6 or 8000
men in the attempt, but up to the very close of the day the English
Foot-Guards maintained their possession.

The position of Waterloo was deliberately chosen by the Duke,
and the choice is commended by all unprejudiced critics. Yet
Napoleon, ungenerous throughout, strives to depreciate his
antagonist’s judgment in this particular. He says, in “Book
ix:”--“The English General had in his rear the defiles of the
forest of Soignes, so that if beaten, retreat was impossible”
(p. 125). Upon which M. Lamartine observes: “In fighting on the
borders of a forest fortified in all its approaches, as well as
by its own impenetrability, the Duke had every pledge of victory,
if victory was possible; and of a secure retreat if defeat were
unavoidable. Waterloo was an admirable field of battle, and it is
to be regretted that Napoleon has not acknowledged this, but has
obstinately striven to prove that his conqueror was unworthy of
him. These are the littlenesses of glory. The choice of Waterloo
on Wellington’s part was a further mark of that genius, at once
resolute, powerful, and prudent, which has characterized all the
campaigns of this General.”

It should be added, that the Duke, during five years of constant
warfare with the French armies, had never once been beaten by them
in a pitched battle. Nor had he any thought of retreating upon the
present occasion, or any desire to make a special provision for
such an emergency. In after years he dropped the remark: “I knew
that they could never so beat us, but that we could have made good
the forest against them.”

And now the several divisions of the two armies were placed in the
positions which to the two commanders seemed suitable. On the left
of Napoleon’s line he placed his second corps, which he himself
states to have consisted of 17,000 men, and which undoubtedly
was nearer 20,000. This corps, to which his brother Jerome was
attached, was ordered to seize upon Hougoumont, and then to attack
the right of the British army. Napoleon’s right wing was formed
of his first corps, under Ney’s command. This corps had not yet
been in action, and was complete. Napoleon sets down its strength
us 17,900 men; but Ney, who commanded it, describes it as “from
twenty-five to thirty thousand.” In the second line stood the
sixth corps, consisting of 7 or 8000 men; the heavy cavalry, of
about 7000; and in a third line stood the Imperial Guard, which, of
cavalry and infantry, had at least 18,000. The artillery numbered
more than 6000 men, with 240 cannon. The entire force was probably
described with truth in Napoleon’s bulletin of the battle, in which
he calls it “less than 95,000.”

Against these the Duke had to place in position, on the opposite
heights, his 15,181 British infantry, his 3,300 infantry of
the German Legion, and about 28,000 Belgians, Hanoverians, and
Brunswickers. Many of these showed themselves, in the battle,
unable to stand a French attack. In the second line he had 7,840
English and German cavalry, and about 4,500 Belgians, Hanoverians,
and Brunswickers. His artillery (English, Belgian, &c.,) were
5,600 and his guns, 156. At Hal and Enghien, on the road from Mons
to Brussels, the Duke placed a detachment of 5,819 men to guard
against any possible device in that quarter. These could take no
part in the battle, being fixed by their orders at a distance of
several miles from it.

The Duke had slept for a few hours at his headquarters in the
village of Waterloo, and then rising before dawn on the morning
of the 18th he wrote several letters, in which he expressed his
confidence that all would go well, but still gave specific orders
for all that was to be done in Brussels, Antwerp, &c., in the
event of the success of the French attack. He then saw to the
distribution of the reserves of artillery, which had been packed in
the village, so that supplies should be readily forwarded to every
point where they might be needed. He also personally inspected the
arrangements made for the reception of the wounded. Then mounting
his horse Copenhagen, he rode to Hougoumont, and thence down a lane
leading through the wood beyond it. Halting on the eastern slant of
the thicket, he narrowly surveyed all of the enemy’s arrangements
that could be seen. Then giving some final orders at Hougoumont,
he galloped back to the high ground in the right centre of his
position, where he began to chat with the members of his staff
with as much liveliness as if they were about to take part in an
ordinary review.

There was now a pause of considerable duration. This was one of
the chief mistakes committed by Napoleon. He had before him, as he
well know, an army exceedingly inferior to his own; so inferior,
in short, that it was a matter of joyful surprise to him that the
Duke had not decamped in the night. But on his right he knew that
there was Grouchy with less than 40,000 men, opposed to Blucher,
who had 80,000 or 90,000. It was obvious to every one that the
Prussian general might, and probably would, engage Grouchy with
one or two corps, and carry the rest of his army to the succour of
the English. It was, then, a great error not to use the present
opportunity with decision and rapidity. He accounts for the
delay by the state of the ground; but when Grouchy justified his
inertness at Wavre by the same plea, Napoleon exclaims, in “Book
ix,” p. 153, “The dreadful state of the weather, ridiculous motive!”

The village clock was striking eleven when the first gun was fired
from the French centre, and this great battle began, which only
ended with the darkness of night. There has never been a battle
which was so distinctly divided, like a drama, into four or five
acts. These were: 1. The attack on Hougoumont and the English
right; 2. The attack on La Haye Sainte and the English centre and
left; 3. The irruption of the French heavy cavalry upon the centre
of the English position; 4. The Prussian diversion; 5. The charge
of the Imperial Guard, and final defeat of the French army. These
several acts or stages in this great contest usually followed each
other at intervals of about two hours, _i.e._ at 11, at 1, at 3, at
5, and at 7 o’clock. There cannot, therefore, be a better way of
obtaining a clear idea of the progress of this tremendous struggle,
than by passing in review these five acts or stages, just us they
occurred, and distinctly from each other.


  ELEVEN O’CLOCK.

Precisely at this hour the French artillery opened fire upon the
orchards of Hougoumont, and Jerome, with his division, moved
forward to the attack. As we have seen, Napoleon himself assigns
to his second corps, to whom this duty was assigned, a strength of
17,900 men; and, reasoning upon his uniform practice of diminishing
his real numbers, we may safely estimate its real force at 20,000.
This corps was to storm and take Hougoumont, and then, from this
position, to annoy and perhaps to attack with success, the Duke’s
right. But it never succeeded even in its first object. The whole
power of these 18,000 or 20,000 men failed to carry a post which
was never garrisoned by so many us 2,800. Thus, Gourgaud tells us
that at noon “Prince Jerome with his division took possession of
the wood: he was driven out, but a new attack once more rendered
him master of it. The enemy, however, kept possession of the largo
house in the centre.” Again, at half-past four, he says, “General
Reille supported the attack of Jerome’s division by Foy’s division.
(Each being 5,000 or 6,000 strong.) Howitzers had set fire to the
house and nearly destroyed it; three-fourths of the wood was in our
possession; the fields were strewed with the English guards, the
flower of the enemy’s army.” But beyond this partial success the
French never attained. They never carried the chateau itself, but
in the attempt they lost from 6,000 to 8,000 men, while the killed
and wounded of the defenders amounted to a few hundreds only. This
portion of the battle lasted from noon until night, and all that
the French could boast of, was, that with five or seven times the
number of the British, they obtained possession of “three-fourths
of the wood.”[27] Napoleon says, in “Book ix,” “The wood remained
in the possession of the French; but the chateau, in which some
hundreds of intrepid English troops defended themselves, opposed an
invincible resistance.”[28]


  ONE O’CLOCK.

But now, having commenced the battle by this vehement assault on
Hougoumont by his left wing, Napoleon prepared what he admits to be
his main attack, on the Duke’s centre and left, by Count d’Erlon’s
whole corps, led by Marshal Ney. This was the corps which had not
been engaged at either Ligny or Quatre Bras. Napoleon states its
strength at 17,900; but Ney more frankly describes it us between
“twenty-five and thirty thousand.” This force was directed against
the centre of the English position. Throughout the day Napoleon
seemed to rely on _mere strength_. He knew that he was superior
on every point, in each branch of the service, and in every
particular, and he had never experienced the obstinate endurance of
the English infantry. Thus, as the Duke afterwards said, “He did
not manœuvre at all. He just moved forward, in the old style, in
columns, and was driven off in the old style.”

Great were the expectations based on this attack. Napoleon himself
said to Ney: “This is a day and an action worthy of you: I give
you the command of the centre; and it is you who are to gain the
battle.”[29] But while all the French accounts admit the vast
importance which was attached to this, the main attack, they
entirely forget to say _what was the result of it_. Thus Gourgaud
writes: “The Emperor directed Marshal Ney to commence the attack,
and to take possession of La Haye Sainte;” “Our infantry advanced;”
“The enemy’s line, however, made no manœuvre; it maintained its
immobility. His cavalry made several successful charges on the
flank of one of the columns of the first corps, and about 15 of our
pieces of artillery, which were advancing, were driven back into
a hollow road. One of Milhaud’s brigades of Cuirassiers advanced
against this cavalry, and the field of battle was soon covered
with their slain. When the Emperor perceived that some disorder
prevailed on our right, he proceeded at full gallop.”[30]

Napoleon says, in “Book ix,” “Many charges of infantry and cavalry
followed it; the detail of them belong more to the history of each
regiment, than to the general history of the battle; it is enough
to say, that after three hours’ fighting, the farm of La Haye
Sainte was occupied by the French infantry; while the end which the
Emperor had in view was obtained.”[31]

Thus, from the French accounts, we gain no intelligible information
as to the actual result of this attack of 25,000 men on the English
centre; except, indeed, that Gourgaud’s single phrase, “the enemy’s
line maintained its immobility,” tacitly implies that the attack
failed. We turn, then, to the English narrators, and learn from
them what actually occurred.

“Seventy-four guns” (“Book ix,” says eighty) were ordered forward
to a little elevation, so as to bring their fire to bear upon the
English line at a range of about 700 yards. Soon after, as two
o’clock approached, the columns of attack, under Ney’s command,
were seen descending from their elevated ground, crossing the
valley, and ascending the northern slope. The British artillery
gave them a warm reception; but still the columns pressed on, until
they approached the Duke’s line, near the centre and left centre.
Here were placed the brigade of Sir Thomas Picton, about 3000
strong; and a Belgic-Dutch brigade under Bylandt. As the French
columns drew near, with shouts of “Vive l’Empereur!” the courage
of the Belgians gave way, and the whole brigade, amidst the groans
and hooting of the British soldiers, begun a hasty movement to the
rear, from which they could not be induced to advance during the
whole remainder of the day.

Left thus to himself, to sustain the whole attack of twice or three
times his numbers, the gallant Picton never hesitated. Forming
his little band two deep, he waited till the French column came
within charging distance. It then halted, and endeavoured to deploy
into line. Saluting it, at this moment, with a volley from his
whole brigade, Picton gave the word “Charge!” and his men sprang
forward with the bayonet. In an instant the whole French column
was in confusion; and before they had time to recover themselves,
Ponsonby’s brigade of heavy cavalry, the Royals, the Scots Greys,
and the Enniskilleners, broke in upon them, and in a few moments
the whole side of the hill was covered with fugitives. The heroic
leader of “the fighting division,” however, the gallant Picton,
fell, shot through the brain in the moment of triumph. Another
fierce encounter was at hand. Milhaud’s Cuirassiers were close
behind the French columns, and they essayed to retrieve the
fight. But the Household Brigade met them, and after a desperate
encounter--of the best horsemen in England and the best in
France--the whole mass of the French, horse and foot, were driven
back in confusion, leaving behind them the eagles of the 45th and
105th regiments, and nearly 3000 prisoners. The grand attack of
Ney on the British centre had failed; and the first corps of the
French army was so seriously cut up and disorganized, as to be in
no condition to renew the attack. We now understand Gourgaud’s
confessions, “The enemy’s cavalry made several successful charges
on the flank of one of the columns of the first corps;” and, “when
the Emperor perceived that some disorder prevailed on our right, he
proceeded thither at full gallop.”

It was now considerably past two o’clock. The principal attack had
been repelled: the English position had not been forced, or even
endangered. “The enemy’s line,” says Gourgaud, “maintained its
immobility.” But Napoleon’s second corps had been beaten and much
damaged at Hougoumont; and now his first was crippled and nearly
disabled in front of La Haye Sainte. In this strait, either Ney
or Napoleon, or both of them, still confident in their superior
strength, had recourse to a desperate measure, which had, indeed,
a probability of success; but which, if it failed, would involve a
serious danger.

They had, still untouched, or nearly so, a reserve of what Napoleon
himself styles, “twelve thousand select horse,” the two corps
of Cuirassiers, the light cavalry of the Guard, and the horse
grenadiers and dragoons of the Guard. There need be no dispute as
to the strength of this force, since Napoleon himself twice states
it to have been 12,000.


  THREE O’CLOCK.

At this period of the battle, then, desperate at the two failures
on the left and on the right, either Ney or his master launched
this enormous mass of “select cavalry” against the centre of the
British line. The error, if it is one, is sought by Napoleon to be
charged on somebody else. In his bulletin, written at the time, he
says:--

“Our two divisions of cuirassiers being engaged, all our cavalry
ran at the same moment to support their comrades.”

Gourgaud endeavours to cast the blame upon Ney, saying:--

“Marshal Ney, borne away by excess of ardour, lost sight of the
orders he had received; he debouched on the level height, which was
immediately crowned by two divisions of Milhaud’s cuirassiers, and
the light cavalry of the Guard. The emperor observed to Marshal
Soult, “This is a premature movement, which may be attended with
fatal consequences.”

These accounts would represent Napoleon himself famous for his
rapidity and decision, to have had no command over his own troops.
They are, therefore, not credible.

But remembering that Napoleon was himself at this moment in a
forward position, and that the heavy cavalry placed in the rear
as a reserve force must have defiled past him, we must at least
believe him to have permitted this movement. Gourgaud says that
Ney ordered forward Milhaud’s Cuirassiers, and that “the emperor
ordered Kellerman’s corps to support him.” Colonel Heymes,
aide-de-camp to Ney, says, “That movement took place under the eyes
of the emperor, who might have stopped it, but did not.” Still
as he afterwards, in private conversation, charged the fault on
Ney,[32] we must suppose that the marshal, in his desperation,
called for the reserve of cavalry, and that Napoleon permitted
him to employ them. However this might be, it is certain that
about three or four o’clock--the attack of the first corps on the
centre and left of the English having failed, the whole mass of
the “cavalry of reserve,” was brought forward and thrown upon the
centre of the Duke’s position. Such an assault has rarely been
made upon any other army in modern times. Deducting the troops in
Hougoumont, and the losses from four hours’ fighting, there could
not have been at this moment so many as 12,000 British infantry
in the whole line. Yet it is from Napoleon’s own narrative that
we learn, that upon this weak array there was launched a mass of
12,000 heavy horse, 6,000 of whom wore armour, and who seemed,
in their united strength, able positively to ride down the
insignificant force of resolute soldiers who still kept the heights
of Mont St. Jean.

The British accounts generally divide this tremendous onset of
the cavalry into two attacks, the first, between three and four
o’clock, when forty squadrons, twenty-one of them being composed of
cuirassiers, ascended the heights behind La Haye Sainte; the second
perhaps an hour later, when the first assailants, having found it
difficult to maintain their ground were rallied behind thirty-seven
fresh squadrons sent by Napoleon to their succour. And this agrees
with Gourgaud’s account who tells us, first, that “Ney debouched
upon the level height, with Milhaud’s Cuirassiers and the light
cavalry of the Guard,” and then adds, a little after, that “the
Emperor directed Kellerman’s Cuirassiers to support the cavalry on
the height lest it should be repulsed.” It is clear, therefore,
that the first onset of 5,000 or 6,000 men had failed, or was in
danger of failing, when Napoleon sent forward a second until, as
he himself says, the whole “twelve thousand select horse” were
involved in the struggle.

How it was that this tremendous attack failed, it is not easy at
this distance of time to understand. The whole of the infantry in
the British line were quickly formed into squares; the front ranks
kneeling and presenting fixed bayonets, and the second and third
lines keeping up a constant fire of musketry. The artillery, also,
saluted the intruders with grape-shot; but many of the British guns
were soon taken possession of by the cuirassiers. The Duke, always
prepared for every emergency, had instructed the artillerymen that
they should, on the approach of danger, take off a wheel and retire
with it into the nearest square of infantry. Thus the cuirassiers,
when they had seized a gun, found themselves hampered with it, and
while they were trying to carry it off, the musketry of the British
squares thinned their numbers.

Wellington, in describing the battle in a letter to Marshal
Beresford, said, “I had the infantry for some time in squares, and
the French cavalry walking about us as if it had been our own.”

There probably never was such a trial of “pluck” as this part of
the contest presented. It was a hand-to-hand struggle, _lasting
two or three hours_. Had a regiment of cuirassiers ever found
courage enough to throw themselves on the British bayonets, there
can be little doubt that some of the weaker squares might have
been broken. But this never once occurred. Gourgaud, indeed, says,
“Our cavalry penetrated many of the enemy’s squares, and took
three standards,” but he must here be speaking of the Belgian or
Hanoverian troops, many of whom were unsteady, and some of whom
were scattered and cut up. There was, in fact, no absolute reliance
to be placed on any but the British troops, and some of the best
of the German. A whole Dutch-Belgian brigade, on the approach of
the cuirassiers, moved off without firing a shot. After several
charges of the British horse upon portions of the French cavalry,
Lord Uxbridge put himself at the head of Tripp’s brigade of
Dutch-Belgian carabineers, and ordered them to charge; and so they
did, but not until they had first turned their backs to the enemy!
Somewhat later, he ordered forward the Hanoverian regiment called
the Cumberland hussars; but the colonel “did not see what good was
to be done” by moving him from his snug position, which was out of
reach of the firing. He added, that he could not answer for his
men, for that they rode their own horses, and could not afford to
lose them! Receiving from Lord Uxbridge the vehement reproof which
might have been expected, he and his men moved off to Brussels,
where they spread the report that the allied army was destroyed,
and that Napoleon was advancing at the head of his Guards!

Yet this tremendous attack failed, as the two preceding attacks
had done. And its failure was one chief cause of Napoleon’s ruin.
He had risked his cavalry reserve, and had lost it. For it is a
remarkable and wonderful fact, that, continuing this struggle
for two or three hours, this splendid body of “twelve thousand
select cavalry” was wholly destroyed. Individuals, and parties of
fugitives, doubtless escaped, and their number in the aggregate
might be considerable; but this arm of the service was utterly
disabled. In his Bulletin, Napoleon said, “For three hours numerous
charges were made, several squares penetrated, and six standards
taken;--an advantage bearing no proportion to the loss which our
cavalry experienced by the grape-shot and musket-firing.” Fleury
de Chaboulon, his secretary, says, “Our cavalry, exposed to the
incessant firing of the enemy’s batteries and infantry, sustained
and executed numerous brilliant charges, took six flags, and
dismounted several batteries; but in this conflict we lost the
flower of our intrepid cuirassiers, and of the cavalry of the
Guard.” He adds, that on reaching Paris, and describing the
battle, the emperor said, “Ney behaved like a madman!--he got my
cavalry _massacred_ for me.” And it is the chief complaint of all
the French accounts, that when at the close of the day the English
horse swept over the field, the Emperor had not a single regiment
of cavalry to oppose to them![33] The “twelve thousand select
cavalry” had broken into the English position; but, except as
scattered fugitives, they never returned!


  FIVE O’CLOCK.

But the battle had now lasted six hours, and Napoleon had allowed
his opportunity to pass away. Five o’clock brought the Prussians;
and after they had entered the field a decisive victory for
Napoleon became impossible.

Bent on his object of proving that he had been not so much beaten
as overpowered by numbers, Napoleon in his “Book ix,” brings the
Prussians into the field at _noon-day_! In doing this he does not
scruple to employ the most direct and obvious falsehood. To give a
single instance,--Gourgaud, his _aide-de-camp_, in his account of
the battle, thus writes:

“It was _half-past four o’clock_, and the most vigorous fire was
still kept up on every side. _At this moment_ General Domont
informed his Majesty that he observed Bulow’s corps in movement,
and that a division of 8,000 or 10,000 Prussians was debouching
from the woods of Frischenois.”

Yet in “Book ix” Napoleon does not hesitate to say: At _two
o’clock_ in the afternoon General Domont had given notice that
Bulow formed in three columns; that the enemy appeared to him to be
very numerous,--he estimated the corps at 40,000 men.”

But he does not even postpone their arrival until two o’clock:--two
pages earlier he insists upon it that he saw them, in the distance,
at _noon_.[34] Now as it is absolutely certain that, with the
greatest exertion, the earliest of the Prussian brigades were
unable to reach the field until half-past four, we may be sure
that at twelve o’clock they must have been eight or ten miles off!
Hence this passage in “Book ix” must either be a downright fiction;
or else Napoleon must have discovered on a distant hill a party of
the Prussian staff who had ridden forward to observe the position
of affairs, and who must have been magnified by his alarms into an
army-corps!

The real time of the arrival of the Prussians is one of the most
clearly-defined facts of the whole history. All the witnesses agree
upon it. We have just cited Gourgaud’s words, that “at half-past
four General Domont observed a division of 8,000 to 10,000
Prussians debouching from the woods of Frischenois.”

In strict agreement with which the Prussian official account says.

“It was half-past four o’clock.... The difficulties of the road
had retarded the march of the Prussian columns; so that only two
brigades had arrived at the covered position which was assigned
them. The generals resolved to begin the attack with the troops
which they had at hand.”[35]

And General Drouet, who was at Napoleon’s side during the action,
said, in his speech in the Chamber of Peers on the 24th of June,
1815,--“The Prussians began to attack us at about half-past five in
the afternoon.”

It is quite clear, then, and beyond all dispute, that the Prussians
first began to enter the field of battle, and to be visible to
the French at half-past four in the afternoon; that the Prussian
commanders immediately proceeded to make arrangements for an
attack;--and that their first collision with the French troops took
place about half-past five in the afternoon.

But Napoleon had been forewarned of their approach; for his flying
parties had brought in, he tells us, two or three hours before, a
Prussian hussar who was bearing a letter to the Duke of Wellington,
announcing that General Bulow and his corps were on their march.
Hence Napoleon had already set apart his sixth corps, under Count
Lobau, to receive the Prussians whenever they should make their
appearance.

He introduces at this period many complaints of Marshal Grouchy,
who, he pretends, ought to have followed Bulow’s corps, and have
taken part in the battle of Waterloo. This is the very height of
injustice and absurdity; since he had employed Grouchy distinctly
to follow and occupy the attention of the main body of the
Prussian army; and in obedience to this command the marshal was at
that moment engaged with the Prussian third corps at Wavre. But,
on looking at Napoleon’s first bulletin of the battle, we see that
this aspersion of Grouchy is an afterthought,--a mere device to
lessen his own defeat. Writing at the time, and giving to France a
full account of the battle, in that bulletin _not one word_ of any
default of Grouchy’s appears.

This, of itself, is enough to show the hollowness of the excuse for
the loss of the battle. Grouchy himself, when the “ixth Book” made
its appearance, instantly wrote and published an indignant denial
of its statements; and Brialmont remarks, that “Napoleon has so
expressed himself to make it clear that he was anxious to diminish
the amount of his own responsibility by sacrificing the reputation
of his subordinates. Thus he pretends that he received on the night
of the 17th a letter from Grouchy, which letter _never could have
existed_.”

But Gourgaud himself, Napoleon’s own aide-de-camp, is the best
witness in exculpation of Grouchy. He tells us, that in the
afternoon, hearing the cannonade of Waterloo, General Excelmans
urged upon Grouchy to leave following the Prussians and to march
towards the cannonade. But Grouchy, “though he burnt with desire to
take part in the great battle, _showed Excelmans his instructions_,
which were to march upon Wavre, and said, that he could not take
such a responsibility on himself.”[36] It is clear therefore, that
up to the afternoon of the 18th Grouchy had no other orders than
those which bade him follow the Prussians who were in position at
Wavre.

Grouchy then, was not at Waterloo, simply because Napoleon had sent
him to Wavre, a town some twelve miles distant; and because he was
there engaged in a struggle with the third Prussian corps. But the
fourth Prussian corps was at Waterloo at five o’clock, because
Blucher had promised to send it there, and because Wellington
expected it; and gave battle with inferior forces, relying on
this assistance. Napoleon ought to have foreseen the probability
of all this,--and, foreseeing it, he ought to have delivered his
blows more rapidly so as to break the English line, if that were
possible, before the Prussians could enter the field. But now
that he had allowed his opportunity to pass, and now that Bulow
was actually beginning to take part in the battle,--what was the
respective strength ranged on either side? This question must
be answered; for Napoleon says, “The enemy’s army had just been
augmented by 30,000 men, already ranged on the held of battle; thus
placing 120,000 men against 69,000, or two to one.” (p. 148.) And
then he immediately afterwards, adds “It was _noon_.”

This statement, however, like most of Napoleon’s other statements,
is untrue. The Duke’s army had never amounted to 70,000 men, of
whom some 10 or 15,000 were merely nominal combatants, whom it was
impossible to persuade to fight. And Napoleon wilfully overlooks
the plain averment of the Prussian official account, that when
their commanders began the attack,--not at _noon_, but some time
after half-past four, _only two brigades_, had arrived on the
field. Captain Siborne, who took the greatest pains to ascertain
every fact of the case, states that at half-past four o’clock the
Prussian force which had come up, amounted to 16,000 men; which,
added to the Duke’s army of 68,000, made a joint force of about
84,000; but, if the non-fighting part of the Duke’s army were
deducted,--of scarcely 70,000. Thus, even with the addition of the
newly-arrived Prussians, the allied force was still numerically
weaker than Napoleon’s army.

This diversion, however, which was caused so opportunely by Bulow’s
arrival, naturally brought great relief to the British line. It
drew off Count Lobau’s corps, the sixth, of 7000 men, which might
otherwise have been sent forward to attack the British centre. The
remark, however, which is sometimes made, that “the English were
saved by arrival of the Prussians,” is singularly absurd. Bulow’s
arrival was not an unexpected thing; or a lucky chance;--it was
a part of the Duke’s plan. He had demanded this aid of Blucher,
and had obtained the promise of it, and without this aid, his
acceptance of battle would have been an act of great temerity. The
arrival of the Prussians, so far from being unexpected, had been
calculated on three hours earlier; Blucher having promised that
they should be in the field by two o’clock.

And sorely had they been needed. The “thin red line” of the British
infantry had scarcely ever found it so difficult to maintain its
ground. At this moment, as we have already remarked, there could
not have been so many as 12,000 of this branch of the Duke’s army
left in position. And yet upon them rested the whole burden of the
battle. Some of the German troops behaved gallantly; but of the
mixed mass of 25,000 Belgians, Hanoverians, Dutchmen, &c., a large
proportion were unable to stand the French attacks. So soon as
one of Napoleon’s columns approached them, they became unsteady,
and often went to the rear. Meanwhile there still stood in front
of the Duke’s right wing, the second corps; and in front of his
left wing, the first corps; and all that were left of Napoleon’s
“12,000 select cavalry” were riding about the British position, as
if they were masters of it. This hour, then, or two hours, from
five o’clock till seven, must have been a most anxious one for the
British General and his troops. The commander of one brigade sent
to the Duke to beg for some relief or reinforcement; and the answer
he received was, “Tell him, that what he wishes is impossible. He,
and I, and every man here, must fight till we die on the spot where
we stand.” Some one asked for a general instruction, as to what
plan should be followed if the Duke himself should fall. “My only
plan,” said the Duke, “is to stand my ground here to the last man.”
Long after the battle, he remarked, of this period of the day, “I
looked oftener at my watch than at anything else. I knew that if
my troops could keep their position till night, I must be joined
by Blucher before morning; and we should not have left Bonaparte
an army next day. But I was glad, as one hour of day-light slipped
away after another, and our position was still maintained.” It is
scarcely possible for words to imply more distinctly, that the
Duke felt that he was standing his ground with an inferior force;
relying on Blucher’s aid, to enable him to strike a blow in return.

Meanwhile, as he was constantly calm, so he was ever hopeful and
high-minded. An Italian officer in the French service, being taken
prisoner afterwards described the dismay he felt, on observing
the quietness of the Duke’s demeanour, and the calmness of his
countenance; which forced him to think that he must have some
concealed reserve, of which the French generals knew nothing. His
brief remarks, too, were always cheerful and reassuring. A young
Piedmontese officer made himself useful, in carrying orders. “Were
you ever in a battle before?” asked the Duke. “No, my lord.” “Then
you are a lucky fellow, for you will never see such another!” was
the rejoinder. At another time, encouraging the 95th regiment,
expecting a charge of cavalry, he said, “Stand fast! 95th, we
musn’t be beat; what would they say in England!” Shortly after,
when the French cavalry came on with threatening aspect, he said,
“Never mind, we’ll win this battle yet!” To a regiment exposed to a
brisk cannonade, he remarked, “Hard pounding this! let’s see who’ll
pound longest!” Often he was evidently the object of the enemy’s
aim, and a tree under which he sometimes took his stand, was
repeatedly struck. “That’s good practice,” said the Duke; “I think
they fire better than in Spain.” But, as we have said, he was ever
high-minded; and when an officer of artillery came to the Duke to
tell him, that he had a clear view of Napoleon, and had several
guns pointed in that direction, the Duke exclaimed, “No! I’ll not
allow it. It is not the business of commanders to be firing upon
one another!”

At half-past five, according to Count Drouet, the Prussians first
came into collision with the sixth corps, which, with Domont’s
cavalry, had been placed on Napoleon’s right wing, specially to
give these new comers a warm reception. The contest soon became an
earnest one on this side; Planchenoit, in the rear of Napoleon’s
right centre, was taken, and retaken, and he felt obliged to send
some battalions of the Young Guard to strengthen Count Lobau. In
this new struggle an hour or more passed, and seven o’clock, the
last hour of the day drew on.

Here Gourgaud stops to claim a triumph. He says, “65 to 68,000
French troops _had beaten_ 115,000 English, Prussians, &c.” But
then he adds, “The Emperor was of opinion that this was the moment
for making a decisive attack, and _determining the fate of the
day_.” So that, although the English and Prussians are assumed to
be beaten, the “fate of the day” remains “to be determined.”

In fact, not one single step in retreat had the English army yet
taken. About six o’clock, indeed, the farm-house of La Haye Sainte
was abandoned by its English defenders, simply because their
ammunition was expended, and without ammunition they could not
defend the place. This was the one solitary advantage gained by the
French in the whole day; and even this was not wrested by them from
the English; the post was evacuated by the latter for the reason we
have stated. And La Haye Sainte, it should be remembered, was about
200 yards _in advance_ of the British line. It was an outpost,
and not a part of the main line. Its capture at an earlier period
might have seriously endangered the Duke’s centre; but at this late
hour Napoleon had but one card left to play, and in playing it the
possession of La Haye Sainte did not greatly aid him.

Up to seven o’clock, then, this one poor outpost was the only foot
of ground gained by the French, in compensation for what Ney calls
“the most frightful carnage that I have ever witnessed.” He is not
here speaking of the defeat of the Imperial Guard, but of what
preceded it. He had led, at one o’clock, the attack by D’Erlon’s
corps on the centre and left of the English position, and at
three o’clock he had sent the heavy cavalry in among the British
battalions. It is of these two attacks that Ney is speaking,
and of the manner in which they were repulsed; and this veteran
soldier, after witnessing Borodino, Leipsic, and twenty other
fields of slaughter, describes the defeat of the first corps, and
the destruction of the cavalry, as a “carnage” the like of which he
had never before beheld.

“The Emperor,” says Gourgaud, “was now of opinion that the moment
was come for making a decisive attack, and determining the fate of
the day.” Yes, the moment was come; for, if the matter had been
left as it stood, Napoleon’s overthrow on the following morning
would have been made certain. “I knew,” said the Duke, long after,
“that if my troops could keep their position till night, I must
be joined by Blucher before morning, and we should not have left
Bonaparte an army next day.” To keep the English and Prussian
armies apart had been Napoleon’s chief endeavour, but the sagacity
and military talent of the two Generals had defeated this purpose.
The French army had only crossed the frontier on the 15th, and
here, on the 18th, were the two allied armies already uniting on
the same battle-field. When, therefore, Gourgaud tells us, in lofty
and decorous language, that “the Emperor was of opinion that this
was the moment for making a decisive attack, and determining the
fate of the day,” the real meaning of these dignified phrases is,
that Napoleon saw that one chance only remained to him, and that
he must break the British line by the whole force of the Imperial
Guard, or retire from the field a discomfited commander; to sustain
in his turn an attack from the united armies the very next day.
His strongest army-corps, the first and second, had both been cut
up and crippled; his splendid cavalry were at that moment being
“massacred” by the English grapeshot and musket-firing; and the
only weapon of power that remained to him was this noble body of
men, who had triumphed in fifty battles--his invincible phalanx,
the Imperial Guard. At seven o’clock, therefore, or about that
hour, he turned to this, his last resource, and ordered to the
front this chosen and favourite arm, the right employment of which
had given him so many victories.


  SEVEN O’CLOCK.

It is not easy, amidst the various and contradictory accounts of
the different French historians, to ascertain with exactness the
real force employed in this attack. The Young Guard, under General
Duhesme, had been partly employed in the defence of Planchenoit.
The Old Guard, and the Middle Guard, had not up to this period of
the battle drawn a trigger. Their strength is stated by Gourgaud to
have been on this day 4400 and 4200, or, united, 8600 men.[37] This
force far exceeded any strength which the Duke could bring to bear
upon any given point. In fact the two brigades of General Maitland
and General Adam had to sustain this attack. The first, consisting
of two battalions of Foot-guards, had marched forth two days before
1997 strong. On the evening of Waterloo it numbered only 1027; and
doubtless, when this attack of the Imperial Guard came, it had not
more than 1100 or 1150 bayonets. The other, General Adam’s brigade,
consisting of the 52nd, 71st, and 95th regiments, had been 2621
strong, but it was now reduced to about 2000. Such was the force on
either side which was now to engage in the last terrible encounter
of this great contest.

But, while he was preparing for what he hoped would be the
decisive blow, Napoleon sent orders to both his wings to prepare
for a renewed attack, simultaneously, on Hougoumont and on the
British left and centre. The chateau defended itself bravely and
successfully, as it had done throughout the day. But the possession
of La Haye Sainte gave the first corps of the French army great
advantages, and the pressure on the British line at this point
became fearfully severe. A German battalion was cut up by a charge
of French cuirassiers: a body of Brunswick infantry, which the Duke
had moved up to strengthen the line, gave way, and retired about
100 paces, and it required all the Duke’s personal exertions to
bring them to reform and stand their ground. The Prince of Orange
had been wounded, and the Nassau troops under his command were with
great difficulty induced to keep their ground. The British line had
never been in so much danger of being broken as at this moment. But
scarcely an hour of the day now remained, and the contest which was
just taking place on the right centre was to be decisive of the
fate of the day.

The grand attack of the Imperial Guard, to which Napoleon looked
to decide the fate of his empire, was now beginning. Captain
Siborne states the two columns of attack to have consisted of ten
battalions, besides two battalions left as a reserve. If these
battalions consisted of 600 men each, they would amount to 6000;
but if of 720 men each, they would amount, on the whole, to 7200
men, and these were unquestionably the first soldiers in France.

These columns were formed in front of La Belle Alliance, and began
their advance with that kind of mismanagement which had marked many
of the movements of the French leaders throughout the day; they
did not advance simultaneously, but the first column preceded the
second, although the two took different courses. Neither did they
assail that part of the Duke’s line which was the weakest, but
threw themselves upon two brigades of the British infantry.

Of the two columns,--one of which skirted the enclosures of
Hougoumont, and aimed at the right of the British line, while the
other made its onset nearer to the centre,--the latter gained
the precedence. As it descended into the valley, and allowed the
French artillery on the heights behind an opportunity for action,
the whole of these guns opened fire with a rapidity and weight
which had not been experienced before throughout the day. Wherever
a regiment was visible in the British line, there the round-shot
and howitzer shells rained death upon it. But by degrees the
attacking columns passed through the hollow ground, and began
to ascend the opposite heights. Now they became visible to the
British artillery, and the cannon-shot plunged into their masses
with tremendous effect. The horse of Marshal Ney was killed;
General Friant was wounded, and General Michel was killed. On the
fall of the latter, a battalion of grenadiers came to a halt; but
another General succeeded in inspiring it with new courage. The
column moved forward, sorely shaken by its losses; but at last it
crowned the height, and to its astonishment saw nothing before it
but a small battery of field-pieces, and a few mounted officers in
the rear. But one of these was the Duke, and the next moment the
word of command was heard, “Up, Guards, and at them!” The British
Guards, who had been ordered to lie down, sprang to their feet, in
a compact line of four deep, and in a few seconds, a volley was
heard, and then another, and a third; and in the first minute 300
of the attacking column fell. The French officers rushed to the
front, and called upon the men to deploy into line. Lord Saltoun
exclaimed to the English Guards, “Now’s your time, my boys!”--and
the Duke exclaimed, “Charge!” The brigade sprang forward, with a
cheer, to the charge. All was disorder in the French ranks. Many
flung down their arms and knapsacks and dispersed; the mass, in
dire confusion, rushed down the slope, with the English Guards in
full pursuit.

But the English were instantly called back, for now appeared in
sight the second column, which, shrinking from the fire of the
batteries which had so crushed the first, diverged to the right,
and by this mistaken move, presented its flank to General Adam’s
brigade. The brigade of Guards was formed in its front, while the
52nd and 71st regiments were on its flank. The three regiments
poured such a fire into the mass, that it melted like snow in
the sunshine. Soon was repeated the order, “Charge!” and the two
brigades assailing the devoted column at once in its front and on
its flank, swept it from the field. In a few moments the hollow
ground was crowded with fugitives; Napoleon’s last stake was lost;
the battle of Waterloo was, practically, ended.

Of this terrible conflict, Lamartine rapidly sketches the progress,
in a few glowing lines,--a summary of various French narratives:

“These 6000 grenadiers advanced with shouldered arms, amidst cries
of ‘Vive l’Empereur!’ Wellington awaited them with forty pieces of
cannon, with the matches lighted. As they ascended and approached,
the battery fired a volley point-blank into the advancing mass,
which, as the smoke arose, was seen to waver for a moment; then
to close up and advance as compact as ever. On a second discharge
the same oscillation took place, the same closing up. On the third
discharge the English saw the column reduced to a block of men,
decimated by grape-shot:--two of the battalions had been struck
down, the other two hesitated, and recoiled to seek another means
of access to these impregnable heights. Napoleon turned pale, and
at length doubted of victory.”

This may be said to be the language of a florid writer, depicting
the event long after its occurrence. But Count Drouet, who
witnessed the whole scene, thus described it in the Chamber of
Peers, just six days after the battle:--

“The (first) four battalions of the Guard, when they arrived on
the plateau, were received by the most terrible fire of musquetry
and grape. The _great number of wounded men_ who separate from the
column, cause it to be believed that the Guard is routed. A panic
terror communicates itself to the neighbouring (or second) column,
which precipitately takes flight.”

Count Drouet, witnessing the repulse of both the columns, from
the height behind, might suppose that the dispersal of the second
arose from panic; but in so thinking, he did injustice to his
countrymen. The second column came into action as gallantly us the
first; but, although it was the stronger of the two, it had to
contend with two English brigades instead of one; and its chance
of success was therefore proportionally smaller. Clearly, it was
bad generalship to send the two columns, one after the other, to
be beaten separately. Had they reached the British position at
the same moment, they would have brought against the two British
brigades a force outnumbering them by two to one. Gourgaud thus
describes the fate of this second column: “The eight battalions
of the Guard which were in the centre, after having withstood for
a long time all the attacks of the enemy, and contended for every
foot of ground, were at last completely disorganized by the mass of
the fugitives, and overwhelmed by the numbers of the enemy.”

With the failure of this, his last attack, Napoleon’s hopes, and
his empire, ended. His fall, when it came at last, proved a crash
which left nothing for destruction to do. At the moment when the
Imperial Guards were sent back in confusion, the Prussians under
Marshal Blucher had come into action. His cavalry had supported the
English left, and two brigades of English cavalry, which guarded
the extreme left of the Duke’s position, had been released from
this duty, and had moved to the support of the British centre.
And now, the Prussian infantry of the first corps, commanded by
General Zieten, rushed upon the villages of La Haye and Smohain,
and instantly carried them at the bayonet’s point. A third column
renewed the attack on Planchenoit, which was almost in the centre
of the French position. The moment was come for a general advance,
and the Duke, with that wonderful perception which distinguished
his whole career, instantly seized it. He himself describes this
critical moment, in the account written the very next day. He
says:--

“Having observed that the troops (Imperial Guard) retired from this
attack in great confusion, and that the march of the Prussians
on Planchenoit had begun to take effect, I determined to attack
the enemy, and immediately advanced the whole line of infantry,
supported by the cavalry and artillery.”

An eye-witness thus described the scene at the time, “The Duke, who
had been attentively observing what was passing in the French and
Prussian armies, suddenly shut up his telescope, and exclaimed to
the officers near him, ‘Now, every man must advance!’”

Long had this order been eagerly expected. The British troops
had stood for more than eight hours under a terrible fire. They
had seen more than one-fourth of their numbers struck down by
cannon-shot, and they longed for one final struggle, which should
end the whole contest. The order flew to the right and to the left,
and loud were the shouts with which it was received. Everywhere the
lines of infantry were formed, the cavalry mounted and rode on, and
a scene of triumph and exultation commenced, of which none who
witnessed it could ever lose the memory.

We have observed, a few sentences back, that only half an hour
before, two brigades of light cavalry, Vivian’s and Vandeleur’s,
had been moved from the extreme left of the English line, and
brought nearer to the centre. These six regiments, numbering
about 2000 sabres, were now of the greatest possible service, in
driving before them the broken and scattered French. They charged
and dispersed various bodies of cavalry which attempted to form
and make a stand, and continued pressing upon the fugitives of
the infantry till the whole mass of Napoleon’s army melted into
a chaotic crowd. And now were seen, on all sides, “unfurled
colours raised aloft, bands striking up, the soldiers cheering
tumultuously, as, with one simultaneous movement, they quitted the
height on which they had so long stood, and descended joyfully into
the plain, over which the French, on all sides, were now retreating
in disorder.”

Their great commander himself was naturally among the foremost in
this magnificent advance. Napier says, “The Duke, who was stationed
on the left of the guns and the right of the Guards, gave the order
to advance, and like lightning rode to the rear, and brought up the
light cavalry, cheering them on, with his hat off--his cheers most
cordially echoed by my brave fellows and myself.” He rode in front
of Adam’s brigade, cheering it forward, speaking joyously to the
men, and receiving their hearty shouts of congratulation. At last
one of his staff ventured to hint to him that they were getting
into the enemy’s lines, and that his life ought not to be thrown
away. “Never mind,” was the reply, “the battle’s won, and my life
is of no consequence now.”

Down the slope of their own heights, across the valley, up the
face of the enemy’s hill, marched the British line triumphantly.
Here and there a remnant of a French battalion or squadron offered
a brief resistance; but the cry of “_Sauve qui peut!_” had been
heard, and the French knew that the battle was lost, and that the
Prussians were already in their rear. Hence Fleury de Chaboulon,
Napoleon’s own secretary, thus describes the close:--

“Wellington did not allow our grenadiers time to recollect
themselves. He caused them to be attacked in flank by his cavalry,
and compelled them to retire in the greatest disorder. At the
same moment the Prussians carried the village of La Haye; and our
cavalry, our infantry, already staggered by the defeat of the
Guard, were afraid of being cut off, and precipitately retreated.
The other troops of the right, seeing some of our squadrons
pell-mell, and some of the Guards running away, thought all
was lost, and quitted their position. This contagious movement
was communicated in an instant to the left, and the whole army
abandoned its strongest posts as eagerly as they had previously
assailed them. Soon the whole army was nothing but a confused
crowd, which the English and Prussians routed without effort, and
massacred without pity.”[38]

“Napoleon,” says Lamartine, “saw that army which a few hours
before was his only hope, now returning in broken fragments,
and exclaimed, ‘All is lost!’ For a moment he contemplated the
disastrous scene, turned pale, stammered, and shed some tears, the
first he had ever shed upon a field of battle.”

On marched the English, seized at every step the artillery which
had so long poured its iron hail upon them, and driving before them
the crowds of dismayed and disordered French. Up the heights on
which Napoleon and his army had stood, they now exultingly pressed,
and here the two Generals met, with mutual congratulations.
Marshal Blucher had well performed his part, though the state of
the roads had hindered his arrival until the very close of the
battle. In less than an hour he had driven in the whole right wing
of the French army, and now reached the very centre of Napoleon’s
position, at the same moment when the Duke had penetrated to the
same point with his attack in front. After a few moments of hearty
rejoicing, the English commander gladly resigned to the Prussian,
the remaining duty of a vigorous pursuit. The British troops, after
a long day’s work, were physically unable to chase their enemies
far. The Prussian General, therefore, to quote their own accounts,
assembled his officers, and gave orders to send the last horse and
the last man in pursuit of the enemy.”

Well and earnestly was this duty performed. All night long were the
wretched French pursued. Nine times did they attempt to halt for
rest, and nine times was the Prussian drum heard, and the flight
was again to be resumed. A French officer[39] thus describes the
scene:--

“Near one of the hedges of Hougoumont, without even a drummer to
beat the rappel, we succeeded in rallying 300 men; these were
nearly all that remained of our splendid division. Thither came
also a band of Generals. Here was Reille,[40] D’Erlon, Bachelor,
Foy, and others. All were gloomy and sorrowful. They said,
one to another, ‘Here is all that is left of my corps,--of my
division,--of my brigade!--I myself!’

“The enemy’s horse approached, and we were obliged to retreat. The
movements of the English cavalry had demoralized our soldiers,
who, seeing all regular retreat cut off, strove each man to save
himself. Infantry, cavalry, artillery, all jammed together, were
pressing along pell-mell. Figure to yourself 40,000 men all
struggling along a single causeway. We could not take that way, so
we struck across the fields. We were humiliated, we were hopeless;
we walked like a troop of mourners.

“We passed through Thuin, and finding a little copse, we gladly
sought its shelter. While our horses grazed, we lay down and slept.
We rested in the little copse till noon, and sat watching the
wrecks of our army defile along the road. It was a soul-harrowing
sight!

“We drew near to Beaumont, when suddenly a regiment of horse
was seen debouching from a wood on our left. The column that we
followed cried out, ‘The Prussians! the Prussians!’ and hurried off
in utter disorder.

“I was trying to return to General Foy, when another horde of
fugitives burst into Beaumont, swept me into the current of their
flight, and hurried me out of the town with them. I reached
Landrecy, though I know not how or when.”

Such is the description given by one of the fugitives, and it
exactly corresponds with the official report of the Prussian
General, Gneisenau, who says, “The French army, pursued without
intermission, was absolutely disorganized. The highway presented
the appearance of an immense shipwreck; it was covered with an
innumerable quantity of cannon, caissons, baggage, arms, and goods
of every kind. As soon as the enemy heard the sound of our drums,
they fled, while the moonlight favoured the pursuit, for the whole
march was a continued chase, whether in the corn-fields or in the
houses.”

“At three o’clock Napoleon had despatched a courier to Paris with
the news that victory was certain: a few hours afterwards he had no
longer an army.”

The French accounts, Gourgaud’s, Napoleon’s, &c., written long
after, endeavour to diminish the defeat by representing that within
a week as many us 60 or 65,000 men were re-assembled at Laon. Some
one attempted to make a representation of this sort in the French
Chamber of Peers, on the 24th of June; when Marshal Ney rose in his
place, and declared all such accounts to be deceptive. “It is a
mere illusion to suppose that 60,000 men can be collected. Marshal
Grouchy,” said he, “cannot have more than 20,000, or 25,000 at the
most.”

Fortunately, however, the question is set at rest by Fleury de
Chaboulon, Napoleon’s secretary, who describes very vividly what
followed immediately after the battle. He tells us, how, in his
flight, on meeting Maret, “the Emperor could not repress his
emotion; a large tear, escaping from his eyes, betrayed the efforts
of his soul.” Again he says, “The Emperor stopped beyond Rocroi to
take some refreshment. We were all in a pitiable state: our eyes
swelled with tears, our countenances haggard, our clothes covered
with dust or blood.” And, on arriving at Paris, when one of his
ministers spoke of the army, Napoleon exclaimed, “_I have no longer
an army!_ I have nothing but fugitives!”[41]

It was this absolute destruction of the French army which made
Waterloo one of the greatest and most important of all victories.
Thus, Jules Maurel, a French historian, says:--

“From a comparison of all the documents, it appears, that Bonaparte
was already beaten when the mass of the Prussian army appeared on
the field; but the arrival of Bulow had powerfully assisted the
British, and the arrival of Blucher changed the defeat into _an
unparalleled disaster_.”

Lamartine, another Frenchman, adds:--

“This defeat left nothing undecided,--nothing for the future to do.
Victory had given judgment: the war began and ended in a single
battle.”

But let us return for a moment to the great victor of the day.
At a road-side house, near Rossomme, he left Blucher, who gladly
undertook the pursuit, and after twelve hours of constant exertion,
he turned his charger’s head once more towards Mont St. Jean and
Waterloo. Darkness now shrouded a thousand scenes of horror, over
which it had been useless to pause. At his quarters the Duke found
assembled the survivors of his staff, the representatives of the
allied powers, and a few other friends. All sorely needed rest
and food, and the meal was ready. On leaving his quarters in the
morning, he had desired his domestics to have dinner ready to place
on the table “whenever it might be wanted” and his cook excited
amusement by the confidence with which he asserted, that “his
master had ordered dinner, and would certainly return to eat it.”
But the thoughts which would throng into the conqueror’s mind, at
that moment, must have been such as few men have ever experienced.

The foremost considerations with the Duke of Wellington always
were, _his country, and his duty_. But besides these there was a
personal question, little spoken of by him, but which could not be
excluded from his thoughts.

“I go to measure myself with Wellington,” exclaimed Napoleon,
when he flung himself into his carriage, only a few days before,
to join his army on the Belgian frontier. The Duke spoke not of
such matters, but he could not possibly forget that the muse of
history was waiting all that day, to know _which_ of the two great
names was to take the highest place among the many able commanders
of the nineteenth century. The one had defeated, in turn, nearly
every general in Europe, except Wellington. The other had triumphed
over almost all the Marshals of France, but had not yet confronted
Napoleon.

Captain Moyle Sherer thus writes:--

“Upon the night of that memorable battle, the words and emotions of
the conqueror will long be remembered by those who sat with him at
supper, after the anxious and awful day had closed. The fountain
of a great heart lies deep, and the self-government of a calm mind
permits no tears. But, this night, Wellington repeatedly leaned
back in his chair, and rubbing his hands convulsively, exclaimed,
“Thank God! I have met him: Thank God! I have met him.”[42] And,
ever as he spoke, the smile that lighted up his eye was dimmed by
those few tears that gush warm from a grateful heart.

“His many and deep anxieties; his noble desire to defeat his
country’s implacable enemy; his rational doubts of success against
so great a general;--these and many other fears and hopes,
undisclosed to any one, all were now resolved and dissipated by
a result more sudden, full, and glorious than any expectation he
could have formed, or any hope he could have admitted. England was
placed on the very pinnacle of glory; her foe was prostrate, his
legions fugitives, and her general might joyfully look around and
say, ‘This work was mine!’”

But after necessary food, and the writing of despatches and
letters, came such rest as the excited mind and body could take.
The Duke threw himself, unwashed but exhausted, on his bed long
after midnight. He had desired Dr. Hume to bring him the report of
the surgeons at seven in the morning. The doctor was punctual,
but the claims of nature were not satisfied, the Duke’s sleep was
still sound. Knowing that, with him, duty was paramount to all
other considerations, the doctor at once awakened him. The list was
produced, and the doctor began to read; but as name after name came
forth--this one as dying, that as dead--the voice failed, and Hume,
looking up, perceived the tears rapidly chasing each other down the
victor’s blackened cheeks;--he laid down the list and instantly
left the apartment.

The British loss was indeed great. Of the Duke’s staff twelve were
killed and forty-six wounded. The number of British officers killed
and wounded in these three days exceeded 700, and of privates it
was more than 10,000, so that about every third man in the British
ranks had been struck down in this terrible battle. The loss of
Dutch, Hanoverians, &c., had been 7,000; and that of the Prussians
exceeded 6,000. As to the French, their loss in killed and wounded
never could be ascertained; but it is certain that of 150,000 men
who crossed the frontiers, not 50,000 were ever re-assembled under
their colours.

The utter loss of his army sent Napoleon back to Paris. But the
news of his total defeat arrived along with him. His fame, his
“glory,” and his power perished together. The Chambers rose in
rebellion against him; and his abdication was demanded. The English
and Prussian armies, meanwhile, rapidly advanced; and on their
arrival before Paris the city capitulated; the King returned to his
palace; and Napoleon gave himself up to the Captain of an English
ship of war. On the 15th of June one of the finest armies that he
had ever led into the field entered Belgium to take advantage of
the Duke of Wellington’s unprepared state;--on the 3rd of July,
just fifteen days after, _Paris itself capitulated_! Such were the
vast results of Waterloo.

Napoleon, indeed, had been in some peril, for the Prussian general
showed a particular anxiety to get hold of him, in order that
he might hang him! The Duke had no fondness for him,--always
designating him in his despatches, merely as “Bonaparte;” but the
old Prussian field-marshal, remembering the cruel treatment of his
country by the French in 1807, felt, and constantly expressed,
sentiments of positive hatred. The Duke, however, with that
loftiness of aim and of feeling which had forbidden his officers
to fire upon Napoleon during the action, firmly resisted Blucher’s
desires on this point. General Muffling, the Prussian commissioner,
tells us, that the Duke said to him, “I wish my friend and
colleague to see this matter in the light I do: such an act would
give our names to history stained with a crime; and posterity would
say of us, “They were not worthy to be his conquerors; the more so,
as such a deed would be useless, and can have no object.”

In the same tone the Duke wrote to Sir Charles Stuart, telling him,
“I said, that as a private friend, I advised him to have nothing
to do with so foul a transaction; that he and I had acted too
distinguished parts in these transactions to become executioners;
and that I was determined that if the Sovereign put him to death,
they should appoint an executioner, _which should not be me_.”

In a similar spirit, the Duke succeeded in preventing the Prussians
from executing other plans of vengeance, such us the blowing
up the bridge of Jena, pulling down the column of Austerlitz,
and the like. In fact, had the old marshal been alone in these
transactions, he would gladly have indulged his troops with the
plunder of Paris.

Indeed, such an utter overthrow as France had received, and
that in the course of a few days, was hardly to be paralleled
in history. Sufficient stress has seldom been laid upon that
wonderful working of the Divine Providence by which this great
contest, expected by all men to be so long, so desperate, and so
sanguinary, was suddenly brought to a close on the fourth day after
its commencement. All the great powers of Europe had agreed upon a
united effort. They had pledged their faith to one another to place
600,000 men on the soil of France in July, 1815.

All at once, in the middle of June, while the bulk of these armies
were moving up from Poland, Bohemia, Hungary, and other distant
lands, they hear that the war is begun. And in four days after,
they hear that it is _finished_! Such is not the ordinary course of
human history.

All, however, is easily accounted for. Napoleon saw in England the
most resolute, consistent, and indomitable of his foes, and in
England’s Great General, the only Captain whom he could hold in
no light esteem. He said, and not unwisely, “If the Anglo-Belgian
army had been destroyed at Waterloo, what service could the Allies
derive from the number of armies which were preparing to cross the
Rhine, the Alps, and the Pyrenees?”[43]

And acting upon this sound view of the case, and knowing that one
or two more weeks would elapse before Wellington could have his
veteran battalions around him, he resolved to throw himself like
an avalanche upon the Duke’s army in its unreadiness; in the hope
that a campaign beginning with a defeat of this his chief opponent
would alarm England, terrify the other powers, and so make peace,
with his continued retention of the throne of France, attainable.

This plan was a sagacious as well as a bold one. It grappled at
once with the grand difficulty of the case. But the difficulty,
when grappled with, overmastered him. Still, the peculiar
characteristics of this momentous struggle deserves to be carefully
remarked. A judicious writer has well observed, that:--

“Waterloo seemed to bear the features of a grand, immediate
interposition of Providence. Had human judgments been consulted,
they would have drawn a different plan. The Prussians would have
joined the English and have swept the enemy before them; or, the
British would have been in force enough to have beaten the French
long before the set of sun, &c., &c. But if the French had suffered
a common defeat, with consummate generals at their head they would
have rallied; or, retiring in force, would have called in all
available aids, and have renewed the struggle. So the conflict
held on till the last moment, when they could neither escape nor
conquer. If they had retreated an hour before nightfall they might
have been saved; if they could have fought an hour after it,
darkness would have covered them. But the crash came on the very
edge of darkness. The Prussians came up unfatigued by battle and
fresh for pursuit. The night was to be a night of slaughter. ‘Thou,
moon, in the valley of Ajalon.’”

Such was one of the grand events of modern history,--the victory
which gave all Europe peace for forty years. Ascribing, as we most
unreservedly do, the whole ordering of this momentous struggle
to an overruling Providence, it still seems a duty to add a few
words on the respective merits, or demerits, connected with this
tremendous contest, of the two great commanders, who for the first
and last time met at Waterloo. Let us first glance at the great
deeds achieved, and the great mistakes committed, by Napoleon in
the course of these three eventful days.

He carried his magnificent army over the frontier, and threw it
upon the allied armies in a manner exhibiting the most consummate
skill. Twenty years spent in the practice of war had given him an
expertness in the handling of large bodies of troops which few
generals have ever possessed. He showed also on the 16th that he
was a better general than Blucher, and that his army was a better
army than that of the Prussians. But here our commendation must
close; for a variety of faults and errors have been pointed out
by military critics, of which we shall only mention a few of the
chief. Napoleon was guilty of two great miscalculations, and of
three important practical mistakes. These were:--

1. He rashly and erroneously assumed that his appearance in Belgium
at the head of a fine army would force his opponents, Wellington
and Blucher, out of mere awe and terror, to fall back, to evacuate
the country, and so to give him a triumph at the opening of the
campaign. In his ixth Book he seriously argues that they _ought_
to have done so: but this was a strange miscalculation. When had
either Wellington or Blucher showed any alacrity in running away?
And what right had he to assume that a force amounting, when
united, to nearly 200,000 men, would act as if terror-stricken,
on the mere appearance of a French army of only 150,000? Yet he
constantly tells us that they ought to have retreated, and that his
calculations always rested on the presumption that they certainly
would retreat.

2. In like manner was he disappointed when he sent Grouchy with
35,000 or 40,000 men, to occupy and keep employed the whole
Prussian army. Again did he absurdly overlook the real character
of Blucher, who was not one to be easily duped. Napoleon might
speculate, if he pleased, on the chance of keeping Blucher at Wavre
while he was overpowering and crushing Wellington at Waterloo;
but Blucher was equally at liberty to despise all such devices,
and to leave Napoleon’s lieutenant in order to seek for Napoleon
himself. This was what actually took place, and hence we see that
again Napoleon is exposed to the imputation of having fatally
miscalculated.

3. But as in his plans there were these two errors, so in actual
execution we meet with three egregious faults. Having found
Wellington with his weak army apart from Blucher, why did he allow
several hours to elapse before he seized the opportunity for which
he had been hoping? He speaks of the softened state of the ground
after several hours’ rain. But, as we have seen, when Grouchy
advances the same excuse for inaction at Wavre, he styles it
“ridiculous!” and who can say that the movements which he actually
made at eleven o’clock, _could not_ have been made at ten, or even
at nine o’clock? Meanwhile, although Napoleon was _waiting_, the
Prussians were _marching_. They found the task _difficult_, while
he deemed it _impossible_. In earlier days he would have replied
that “there was no such word in his vocabulary.”

4. Again, to what strange hallucination was it owing, that, all
through the day, attacks which might have been made simultaneously
were only discharged in succession? Thus, at three or four
o’clock, he sorely tried the nerve and pluck of the English
infantry by pouring in upon them “twelve thousand select horse.”
It took them three hours to kill or drive away these formidable
intruders. And _then_, when the French cavalry had been destroyed,
Napoleon next attacked the English line with six or eight
thousand of his Imperial Guard. But what prevented his moving
this formidable column up the heights of Mont St. Jean, while the
cuirassiers were already in possession of the plateau? They had
seized or silenced the English artillery; they had compelled the
infantry to throw themselves into squares. If a mass of the finest
infantry in France had then been thrown upon the British centre,
how fearful would have been the trial? But Napoleon still delayed.
He sent on his cavalry, unsupported by any infantry; and then,
when the cavalry had been “massacred,” he sent on a column of
infantry, unsupported by any cavalry. Will the greatest admirer of
his genius hesitate to admit that his practical generalship, his
excellence as a leader in battle, was not conspicuous at Waterloo?
Yet, wherefore was he less vigorous, less audacious at Waterloo,
than at Austerlitz or Jena? He was still in the very prime of life.
Must we suppose that the toils and troubles and disappointments
of 1812-1814 had prematurely worn out his mind; and that he was
already, at only forty-six years of age, mentally decrepit?

5. The most singular exhibition of defect in generalship, however,
and of blindness to that defect, is seen in this,--that he could
not lose a battle without utterly losing his army also!

The general who can bear a defeat well, and can carry off his army
with only a moderate loss, is entitled to take a high rank amongst
commanders. He who cannot do this is only a fair-weather general.

The Prussian commander was attacked on the 16th before his army was
all assembled. He placed his men badly,--so badly that Wellington
predicted their certain defeat. Yet, when that defeat fell upon
him, he rallied his army at a distance of a quarter of a league,
and was ready and eager to fight another battle on the second day
after. It was this unconquerability which made Blucher one of the
most formidable antagonists of his time.

But let us turn to Napoleon. He invites us to do this, by the
pertinacity with which he assails Wellington on this very point.
Again and again he brings the charge vehemently against him, that
at Waterloo he had made no provision for a retreat. Thus, in Book
ix, p. 124, he says:--

“He had in his rear the defiles of the forest of Soignes, so that,
if beaten, retreat was impossible.”

And again, at p. 158--

“The enemy must have seen with affright how many difficulties the
field of battle he had chosen was about to throw in the way of his
retreat.”

And again, at p. 207--

“The position of Mont St. Jean was ill-chosen. The first requisite
of a field of battle, is, to have no defiles in its rear. The
injudicious choice of his field of battle, rendered all retreat
impossible.”

Thus Napoleon challenges our criticism on this very point. All
military authorities are agreed that he was wrong in his censure on
Wellington. It is conceded even by Frenchmen like Lamartine, that
the forest of Soignes, instead of being a source of peril, was an
element of safety. But he who assails his rival on this especial
point, of a provision for retreat, must expect to be asked,
himself, “How his own retreat was conducted?”

There is no parallel to its disastrous character. An army of nearly
90,000 fine soldiers, not 40,000 of which could have been killed or
wounded, was nothing the next day but a vast horde of fugitives. We
notice, with contemptuous pity, how the Spanish generals, in 1809,
managed to incur such a disgraceful defeat at Ocana, that out of
50,000 men, not 1,000 kept the field a week after. But here was
one of the finest armies that ever France sent forth, commanded
too, by the conqueror, of Europe; and even the very day after the
battle, not a single thousand men were to be found in the field!
All were utterly scattered and broken up. And yet their general has
the assurance, in criticising the general who has beaten him, to
censure him, especially, because “he had taken no precautions to
secure his retreat!”

But now of his great rival and conqueror:--The Duke of Wellington
had not the same opportunity for displaying his skill and talent
in 1815, which he had enjoyed in 1813. His proposed campaign was
to open on the 1st of July, and it had been the favourite object
of Napoleon to take the initiative, to open the campaign before
the British troops from America had arrived, and thus to lead the
campaign himself without waiting for the Duke to open it. Hence,
during these three days, Napoleon was always advancing, attacking,
while Wellington, with his weak army was making the best defence
he could. And, accordingly, at Waterloo, the Duke knowing the
disparity of his force, could only hope to “keep his ground” till
the Prussians should arrive. He was in the position of a small
man attacked by a giant. He could only parry his blows and allow
the assailant to exhaust his strength, in the hope that, at last,
by a well-aimed thrust he might lay his enemy prostrate. For nine
long hours, therefore, the Duke’s whole business was to meet and
repel the powerful attacks of Napoleon; and he had to do this with,
according to Napoleon’s own admission, “less than 40,000 good
troops.” In fact, his infantry, British and of the German Legion,
were only 18,485, his British and German Legion cavalry 7,834,
while Napoleon had very nearly 70,000 excellent infantry, and more
than 18,000 splendid cavalry. Yet for these nine hours did the Duke
meet and repel all his assaults. This sort of soldiership is less
showy than daring manœuvres, but it is equally valuable; and in the
present instance, when the materials the Duke had to work with are
considered, the merit of it is not at all inferior. One of the best
generals commanding under the Duke, when acknowledging the thanks
of the House of Commons, said, “An army hastily drawn together,
composed of the troops of various nations, and amongst which were
counted several brigades of inexperienced militia, was the force
which the Duke had to oppose to one of the most formidable and
best-appointed armies that France ever produced. No other man
living could have rendered the service which he performed, with an
army so composed.”

The chief point, however, in the character of a great general is
the possession of that “eagle eye” which enables him, amid all the
din and turmoil of a horrible contest, to perceive exactly the
right moment for vigorous action, and the right place at which
to aim an attack. It was this, especially, which gave the Duke
his first signal victory over the French at Salamanca; and it was
this which turned the repulse of the French at Waterloo into a
disastrous defeat.

Narrative-writers, collecting, long after, the best available
testimony from all quarters, and carefully comparing and sifting
the whole, are able to arrive at probable conclusions as to the
order and date of the leading events. But this sort of calm
investigation is wholly different from the horrible din, the
ceaseless clamour, and the almost impervious smoke which obscures
everything on the battle-field. We, for instance, comparing the
accounts of the French, the Prussians, and the Austrians, are
able to arrive at the conclusion, with absolute certainty that
General Bulow’s corps first showed itself on the right of the
French line about half-past four, and began to take part in the
engagement about half-past five. But it is quite certain that the
Duke, fully occupied just then with the French cavalry, who were
riding round his squares, knew nothing of the actual arrival of the
long-expected succour until long after. It was nearly two hours
after this, when, by carefully examining every part of the left
of his line, the Duke was able to perceive the rising of smoke
over Planchenoit. This was not until seven o’clock; but it assured
him of this, that some part of the promised Prussian support had
arrived, and that more must be coming up. And this was sufficient
to give him new hopes of ultimate success, though he could be
certain, as yet, of very little more than that some aid was at hand.

It was shortly after this, and about the time of the movement of
the Imperial Guard, when news reached him from Marshal Blucher
himself that he was then actually joining the extreme left of
the British line. It was this support which enabled the British
light cavalry to move from the left of the line, and to take a
position nearer the centre. And hence, when the English and the
French Guards had tried each other’s mettle, and the latter had
retired in disorder, the Duke saw at one comprehensive glance the
arrival of that moment for which he had been longing,--the defeat
and confusion of Napoleon’s last reserve; the presence of the
long-promised Prussian succours, at that last moment of daylight,
which just allowed time for one daring movement and no more. And
the decision and boldness with which the Duke seized this golden
opportunity are among the finest traits in the whole history of
great military deeds. A brief hesitation, if only of a quarter of
an hour, would have allowed the French, although beaten, to retire
at leisure. A renewal of the contest might have followed after the
lapse of a couple of days, but how different would have been the
whole history of such a campaign from that of Waterloo! It was
this clear perception of the right moment for an attack, and the
fearlessness with which fewer than 30,000 men were led forward to
assault at least twice their numbers, commanded by Napoleon, Soult,
and Ney,--it was this wonderful union of prudence, decision, and
the highest kind of valour, which made the Duke of Wellington the
first of all the generals of his day.

And, united with those lofty endowments, there was the patient,
enduring, untiring discharge of every duty of a commander. In this,
as in every other of his battles, the Duke was constantly wherever
his presence was needed. There could not be a pressure felt at
any portion of the line,--there could not be an anxious moment
when even the bravest might look around him and begin to think
of the possibility of an overthrow, but presently the well-known
chestnut-horse would be seen, and the whisper would run through the
ranks, “Here’s the Duke! stand fast!” This might seem to some to be
merely a matter of course; but it is the being always in the right
place at the right time; it is the union of the commonest duties
with the highest which fills up the outline of a great character,
and leaves to posterity not only a brilliant name, but a really
bright example.”[44]


WAWZ, BATTLE OF.--Fought, March 31st, 1831, between the Poles and
the Russians. After two days of hard labour in fighting, the Poles
carried the Russian works, who were obliged to retreat, with the
loss of 12,000 men and 2000 prisoners. This triumph of the Poles
was shortly after followed by defeat and massacre.


WHITE PLAINS, BATTLE OF.--Between the revolted American Provinces
and the British, under Sir William Howe. Fought, November 30th,
1776. This was the most serious of the early battles of that
unfortunate war, and terminated in the defeat of the Americans, who
suffered considerable loss in killed, wounded, and prisoners.


WIGAN, BATTLE OF.--In the civil war of England, fought between
the King’s troops and the Parliamentary forces. The former were
defeated, 1643. Another battle, between the same parties, was
fought here, 1651.


WITEPSK, BATTLE OF.--Between the French and Russians. The
former commanded by Marshal Victor, and the latter by General
Wittgenstein. The French were defeated, after a desperate
engagement, having lost 3000 men. Fought, November 14th, 1812.


WORCESTER, BATTLE OF.--In the civil war fought between the Royalist
army and the forces of the Parliament, the latter commanded by
Cromwell, a large body of Scots having marched into England to
reinstate Charles II, Cromwell signally defeated them, and it
afforded to him what he called his _crowning mercy_; more than 2000
of the Royalists were slain, and of 8000 prisoners, nearly all were
sold as slaves to the American Colonies. Fought, September 3rd,
1651. The following is an account of the flight of the young King,
after the disastrous day of battle:--

“Charles, in his progress towards Bristol, was pursued by a party
of the enemy to the new ferry over the Severn. He rode through
Shire Newton, and crossed the Severn at Chiswell Pit, on the
Gloucestershire side. The boat had scarcely returned, before a body
of the republicans, amounting to 60 men, followed him to the Black
Rock, and threatening them with instant death if they refused,
compelled the ferrymen to take them across. The boatmen were
royalists, and left them on a reef called English Stones, which
is separated from the Gloucestershire side by a lake, fordable at
low water; but the tide, which had just turned, flowed in with
great rapidity, and they were all drowned in attempting to cross.
Cromwell, when informed of this disaster, abolished the ferry, and
it was not renewed until the year 1748. The renewal occasioned a
law-suit between the family of St. Pierre and the guardians of
the Duke of Beaufort. In the course of the suit, documents were
produced which tended to confirm this anecdote.”


WRECKS.--The most remarkable shipwrecks of British men of war or
transports, or of ships, connected with military events, are the
following which have happened within the last 85 years:

A tremendous storm occurred in October, 1780, in the West Indies,
and the following vessels of war were all lost.

_Thunderer_, of 74 guns; _Stirling Castle_, of 64 guns; _Phœnix_,
of 44 guns; _La Blanche_, of 42 guns; _Laurel_, of 28 guns;
_Andromeda_, of 28 guns; _Deal Castle_, of 24 guns; _Scarborough_,
of 20 guns; _Barbadoes_, of 14 guns; _Cameleon_, of 14 guns;
_Endeavour_, of 14 guns; and the _Victor_, of 10 guns.

_The Royal George_--June 28th, 1782,--1000 persons and brave
Admiral Kenpenfeldt perished by the sinking, or rather oversetting
of this 100 gun man-of-war. The guns on one side all rolled over
to the other, and with the extra weight immediately overset the
ship riding at anchor at Spithead.

_Ramilies_, of 74 guns, off Newfoundland, September 21st, 1782. 100
souls perished.

_Pandora Frigate_, on a reef of rocks, August 28th, 1791. 100 souls
perished.

_Droits de l’Homme_--A British ship of the line, and the _Amazon_,
a frigate, lost off Hodierne Bay. Many hundreds perished, January
14th, 1797.

_Nassau_, of 64 guns, October 25th, 1799. 100 of the crew and
marines perished.

_Queen_, transport on Trefusis Point, January 14th, 1800. 369 souls
lost.

_Queen Charlotte_, of 110 guns, lost March 17th, 1800. This was
the flag ship of Lord Keith, commanding in the Mediterranean
Sea, burnt by accidental fire off the harbor of Leghorn. More
than 700 perished. The ship took fire just before day break. It
was occasioned by a match kept burning for the purpose of firing
salutes, having communicated itself to some hay, &c., and so
rapidly did the fire rage, that nothing could save the noble
vessel. She burned rapidly to the water’s edge, and then blew up.

_Invincible_, of 74 guns, March 20th, 1801. 400 souls perished.

_Apollo_, frigate, lost April 2nd, 1804, in a heavy gale off Capo
Mondego. 61 of her crew and her commander, perished, and with her
40 sail of the outward-bound West India fleet, lost.

_Venerable_, of 74 guns, Nov. 24th, 1804. Crew saved.

_Tartarus_, of 74 guns, December 20th, 1804. Crew saved.

_Æneas_, transport, off Newfoundland, lost October 23rd, 1805. 340
perished.

_Aurora_, transport, lost on the Godwin Sands, December 21st, 1805.
300 perished.

_Athenienne_, of 64 guns lost off Sardinia, October 20th, 1806. 347
perished.

_Ajax_--Lost by fire off the Island of Tenedos, February 14th,
1807. 300 perished.

_Boreas_, man-of-war, lost upon the Hannois Rock in the Channel,
November 28th, 1807.

_Anson_, frigate, lost near Land’s End, December 29th, 1807. 125
persons drowned.

_Magicienne_, frigate, August 16th, 1810. She ran aground at the
Mauritius, and was abandoned and burnt by her crew.

_Satellite_, sloop-of-war of 16 guns, December 14th, 1810. Upset
and all on board perished.

_Minotam_, of 74 guns, wrecked on the Haak Bank, December 27th,
1810. Of 600 persons on board, about 480 were drowned.

_Amethyst_, frigate of 36 guns, lost in the Sound, February 15th,
1811.

_Barham_, of 74 guns. Foundered July 29th, 1811, on the coast of
Corsica.

_Saldanha_, frigate, lost on the Irish coast, December, 1811. 300
souls perished.

_St. George_, of 98 guns, and the _Defence_, of 74 guns, stranded
on the coast of Jutland, and all souls perished, except 16 seamen,
December 24th, 1811.

_Seahorse_, transport, near Tramore Bay, January 30th, 1816. 365
souls, chiefly soldiers of the 59th Regiment, and most of the crew,
lost.

_Lord Melville_, and _Boadicea_, two transports lost near Kinsale,
Ireland, when several hundred of the 82nd Regiment, and almost all
the crew perished, January 31st, 1816.

_Harpooner_, transport, off Newfoundland, November 10th, 1816. 100
persons drowned.

_Kent_, shattered by a dreadful storm, February 28th 1825.
Afterwards she caught fire; but the passengers and crew were
providentially saved by the _Cambria_. There were on board 301
officers and men of the 31st regiment, 66 women, 45 children, and
139 seamen.

“The _Kent_, _Indiaman_, was making her way in the Bay of Biscay
on the morning of the 1st of March, 1825, across the heavy swell
common in that stormy entrance to the Atlantic, when her progress
was arrested by a fatal accident. An officer, who was sent into
the hold to see whether the rolling of the vessel had disturbed
the stowage, perceiving that a cask of spirits had burst from its
lashings, gave the lamp he had in his hand to a seaman to hold,
while he should replace the cask. Unfortunately, in the continued
rolling of the vessel, the man let the lamp fall near the spirits,
to which it set fire in a moment. The flames spread; attempts were
made to smother them by wet blankets and hammocks, but all was in
vain, and they soon assumed an aspect so tremendous, as to show
that it would be impossible to subdue them.

At this moment of despair, the man at the mast-head exclaimed that
a sail was in sight; guns were fired, and a signal of distress
hoisted. The gale, however, was so heavy, that it was for some time
doubtful whether the strange vessel perceived the signals, or was
likely to turn aside from her course; but this painful suspense was
soon removed by her approach. The boats of the _Kent_ were now got
out and placed, not alongside, on account of the flames and the
danger of staving the boats, but a-head and a-stern. In the latter
many got out from the cabin-windows, but the chief part were let
down from the bowsprit into the boat a-head, and the men sliding
down by a rope, while the soldiers’ wives were lowered into the
boat slung three together.

The fire had burst out about ten o’clock, and about twelve the
signal of distress had been perceived by the strange sail, which
proved to be the _Cambria_, outward-bound to Mexico, with mining
workmen and machinery, shipped by the Anglo-Mexican company. It
was two o’clock when the _Cambria_ received the first boat-load of
passengers, consisting of ladies and children, half clothed, and
pale with fright and fatigue. The whole afternoon was passed in
exertions on board the one vessel in sending off the sufferers,
and in the other in receiving them. The _Cambria_ had amongst her
passengers several stout workmen, who took their station at the
ship’s side, and were indefatigable in hoisting the poor sufferers
on board; so that, out of 642 persons in the _Kent_, no less than
547 were safe in the _Cambria_ before midnight. The remainder (95
in number) were lost, chiefly in getting out and in of the boats,
the swell of the sea being very great all the time. The captain
of the _Kent_ was the last man to leave her. She blew up at a few
minutes before two o’clock on Wednesday morning.

It may naturally be asked how the vessel could keep so long
together amid so destructive a conflagration? She could not have
kept together two hours, had not the officers, to avoid one danger,
encountered another by opening the ports and letting in the water,
when she shipped such heavy seas as to become water-logged, which
of course prevented her burning downwards.

The _Cambria_, a vessel of little more than 200 tons, was
previously sufficiently filled, having goods in her hold, and about
50 persons in passengers and ship’s company. How great then must
have been the pressure and confusion caused by the influx which
carried the total on board to more than 600! The progress of the
fire in the _Kent_ had been so rapid, as to prevent the sufferers
from saving any clothes, except what was on their persons, and both
officers and soldiers were thus ill prepared to encounter the wet
and cold of the deck. The cabin and the ’tween decks (the space for
the steerage passengers) were thus crowded beyond measure, and most
fortunate it was that the wind continued favourable for the return
of the _Cambria_ to an English port. She reached Falmouth in 48
hours after quitting the wreck, and landed her unfortunate inmates
on the 4th of March.”

_Lord William Bentinck_, lost off Bombay; 58 recruits, 20 officers,
and seven passengers perished. This lamentable occurrence happened
June 17th, 1840.

_Abercrombie Robinson_, and _Waterloo_, transports, in Table Bay,
Cape of Good Hope; of 330 persons on board the last named vessel,
189, principally convicts, were drowned, August 28th, 1842.

_H.M.S. Fantome_, of 16 guns, lost off Montevideo, June 25th, 1843.

The troop ship _Albert_ from Halifax with the 64th Regiment on
board which was miraculously saved July 13th, 1843.

_H.M. Frigate Wilberforce_, lost on the coast of Africa, February
2nd, 1844.

_Birkenhead_, troopship, from Queenstown to the Cape of Good Hope,
with detachments of several regiments on board. She struck on a
pointed rock off Simon’s Bay, and 454 of the crew and soldiers were
drowned; 184 only were saved by the ship’s boat.

The _Trent_, and a great number of other ships of all capacity,
wrecked off the Crimea during the war. A tremendous tornado swept
the Black Sea and literally dashed many of the brave ships of
England and France to pieces.


WURTZCHEN, BATTLE OF.--One of the most bloody and fiercely
contested battles of the campaign of 1813. Fought between the
allied Russian and Prussian armies, and the French, commanded by
Napoleon himself. The carnage was dreadful on each side, but the
Allies retreated from the field. Fought, May 21st, 1813.



X AND Y.


XIMERA, BATTLE OF.--Between the Spanish army, under the command of
General Ballasteros, and the French corps, commanded by General
Regnier. The Spaniards were defeated with great loss; the French
also lost very much. Fought, September 10th, 1811.


XERXES’ BRIDGE. See Bridge of Xerxes.


YEAVERNY, BATTLE OF.--Between the Scots and the Earl of
Westmoreland. Fought, 1415. In this memorable engagement, 430
English discomfited 4000 Scots, and took 160 prisoners; also called
the battle of Geteringe.


YPRES, BATTLE OF.--Between Henry IV of France, and the Generals of
the Roman Catholic League, over whom he obtained a complete victory.



Z.


ZAMA, BATTLE OF.--Between the two greatest Generals of the age,
Hannibal and Scipio Africanus. The Romans lost 2000 in killed and
wounded, whilst the Carthaginians lost, in killed and prisoners,
more than 40,000. Fought B.C. 202.

“These two generals, who were not only the most illustrious of
their own age, but worthy of being ranked with the most renowned
princes and warriors that had ever lived, meeting at the place
appointed, continued for some time in a deep silence, as though
they were astonished, and struck with a mutual admiration at the
sight of each other. At last Hannibal spoke; and, after having
praised Scipio in the most artful and delicate manner, he gave
a very lively description of the ravages of the war, and the
calamities in which it had involved both the victors and the
vanquished. He conjured him not to suffer himself to be dazzled by
the splendor of his victories. He represented to him, that how
successful soever he might have hitherto been, he ought, however,
to tremble at the inconstancy of fortune: that without going far
back for examples, he himself who was then speaking to him, was a
glaring proof of this: that Scipio was at that time what himself,
Hannibal, had been at Thrasymene and Cannæ: that he ought to make
a better use of opportunity than himself had done, and consent to
peace, now it was in his power to propose the conditions of it. He
concluded with declaring, that the Carthaginians would willingly
resign Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, and all the islands between Africa
and Italy to the Romans. That they must be forced, since such was
the will of the gods, to confine themselves to Africa; whilst they
should see the Romans extending their conquests to the most remote
regions, and obliging all nations to pay obedience to their laws.

Scipio answered in few words, but not with less dignity. He
reproached the Carthaginians for their perfidy, in plundering the
Roman galleys before the truce was expired. He imputed to them
only, and to their injustice, all the calamities with which the two
wars had been attended. After thanking Hannibal for the admonition
he gave him, with regard to the uncertainty of human events, he
concluded with desiring him to prepare for battle, unless he chose
rather to accept of the conditions that had been already proposed;
to which he observed some others would be added, in order to punish
the Carthaginians for their having violated the truce.

Hannibal could not prevail with himself to accept these conditions
and the generals left one another, with the resolution to decide
the fate of Carthage by a general battle. Each commander exhorted
his troops to fight valiantly. Hannibal enumerated the victories
he had gained over the Romans, the generals he had slain, the
armies he had cut to pieces. Scipio represented to his soldiers,
the conquests of both the Spains, his successes in Africa, and the
tacit confession their enemies themselves made of their weakness,
by thus coming to sue for peace. All this he spoke with the tone
and air of a conqueror. Never were motives more prevalent to prompt
troops to behave gallantly. This day was to complete the glory of
the one or the other of the generals; and to decide whether Rome or
Carthage was to prescribe laws to all other nations.

I shall not undertake to describe the order of the battle, nor
the valour of the forces on both sides. The reader will naturally
suppose, that two such experienced generals did not forget
any circumstance which could contribute to the victory. The
Carthaginians, after a very obstinate fight, were obliged to fly,
leaving 20,000 men on the field of battle, and the like number of
prisoners were taken by the Romans. Hannibal escaped in the tumult,
and, entering Carthage, owned that he was irrecoverably overthrown,
and that the citizens had no other choice left, but to accept
of peace on any conditions. Scipio bestowed great eulogiums on
Hannibal, chiefly with regard to his capacity in taking advantages,
his manner of drawing up his army, and giving out his orders in the
engagement; and he affirmed that Hannibal had this day surpassed
himself, although the success had not answered his valour and
conduct.

With regard to himself, he well knew how to make a proper advantage
of the victory, and the consternation with which he had filled the
enemy. He commanded one of his lieutenants to march his land army
to Carthage, whilst himself prepared to sail the fleet thither.

He was not far from the city, when he met a vessel covered with
streamers and olive branches, bringing ten of the most considerable
persons of the state, as ambassadors to implore his clemency.
However, he dismissed them without making any answer, and bid
them come to him at Tunis, where he should halt. The deputies of
Carthage, being 30 in number, came to him at the place appointed,
and sued for peace in the most submissive terms. He then called
a council there, the majority of which were for razing Carthage,
and treating the inhabitants with the utmost severity. But the
consideration of the time which must necessarily be employed before
so strongly fortified a city could be taken, and Scipio’s fear lest
a successor might be appointed him whilst he should be employed in
the siege, made him incline to clemency.”


ZARAGOZA, SECOND SIEGE OF.--“The sufferings of the gallant
Zaragozans, during the former siege, had not subdued the spirit
of heroic devotion by which they had been animated. Another
trial awaited them, not less memorable and glorious, though less
fortunate in its result.

After the defeat of Tudela, Palafox retired to Zaragoza, to make
preparations for a second siege. He was not present in the action.
The intelligence of its issue came upon him like a thunderbolt; and
the refusal of Castanos to throw his troops into Zaragoza, instead
of retreating on Madrid, put an end to those feelings of confidence
and frankness which had hitherto existed between the generals.

The multiplied disasters of the Spanish armies, however, so far
from shaking the resolution of Palafox or the Zaragozans, appear
only to have stimulated them to redoubled exertions in the service
of their country. Proclamations were issued, commanding all women,
old men, and children, to quit the city. Every inhabitant was
imperatively called upon to make sacrifice, if necessary, of his
life and property, in the common cause; and the whole population
were required, by their personal exertions, to contribute to the
completion of the fortifications of the city.

The approach of the enemy cut short the preparations for defence.
Neither women nor children left the place. Even these refused to
seek safety at a distance from their fathers and husbands, and
preferred participating in the danger and the glory which awaited
them in Zaragoza, to wandering unprotected through a troubled and
a suffering country.

During the former siege, the defenders had been embarrassed by the
presence of French residents in the city. These had been strictly
guarded, with the double object of preventing any intercourse
between them and the besiegers, and of protecting them against
the fatal effects of popular suspicion, to which, without such
precaution, it is more than probable they would have fallen
victims. In order to prevent the repetition of such danger and
inconvenience, Palafox determined that these unfortunate persons
should be removed from the city to other places of confinement.
This was done, notwithstanding the hostility of the populace,
though not until Palafox had issued a proclamation appealing to
Spanish honour and humanity, and imploring the gallant Zaragozans
not to stain the sacred cause of liberty and justice by the foul
murder of these defenceless victims.

The aid of superstition was not wanting to strengthen the
confidence of the Zaragozans. They relied on the miraculous
protection of Our Lady of the Pillar, who had made their favoured
city the seat of her peculiar worship. The successful termination
of the former siege had given strength to their belief in the
beneficent regards of the patron saint. Omens, too, had been
observed in the sky. Approaching victory had been prefigured
by unwonted conformations of the clouds; and celestial voices
were heard in the elements, offering divine promise of glory and
protection.

Fortunately, the Zaragozans were not induced, by their belief in
these flattering portents, to disregard any of the human means of
safety in their power. A continued line of exterior defensive works
had been planned and executed, as far as time and circumstances
permitted. Yet this, imperfect as it was, added little to the real
strength of the city; and, in forming a just estimate of the zeal
and courage of the defenders, Zaragoza should almost be considered
as an unfortified town. The walls, originally built rather for
the purpose of civic impost than defence, were surmounted by 150
pieces of cannon. Large stores of provisions had been formed. Arms
and ammunition were in abundance; and the town contained upwards of
20,000 regular troops, besides 15,000 armed peasants.

All the houses within 700 toises of the place were demolished, and
the materials employed to strengthen the fortifications. The trees
around the city were cut down. The greatest activity reigned on all
hands; the women were employed in making clothes for the soldiers;
the monks made cartridges: and all those not employed in labouring
at the works, practised the use of arms.

Measures were likewise taken for the defence of the city, in
case the enemy, which was scarcely to be doubted, should effect
an entrance. Traverses were cut across the streets. The doors
and windows on the ground-floor were strongly barricaded.
Communications were made between the houses; and parapets were
constructed on the roofs. Every householder had in his dwelling an
ample store of provisions, to enable him to continue his resistance
when the enemy should gain possession of the streets. Thus
prepared, the Zaragozans awaited the approach of the besiegers.

In the meanwhile, the corps of Marshal Moncey, which had been
ordered to blockade the city, remained at Alagon, collecting
materials, and awaiting the arrival of his heavy artillery from
Pamplona. On the 19th of December it was joined by the corps of
Mortier, and on the 20th the united army appeared before Zaragoza.
It consisted of about 35,000 infantry, and was accompanied by a
battering train of sixty pieces. A corps of cavalry was stationed
at Fuentes, to keep the surrounding country in a state of
subjection.

The city was approached on both sides of the Ebro. Gazan’s
division, having passed the river at Tauste, marched, by the road
of Castejon, to Cuera and Villa Nuevo. That of Suchet took post on
the right of the Ebro, near a convent, about a league distant from
Zaragoza, after driving in the Spanish outposts.

During the night, the enemy erected a battery, which commanded
the Torrero, and, in the morning, opened fire on the fort.
Unfortunately, a quantity of ammunition was blown up, by the
bursting of a shell, which occasioned considerable disorder in the
garrison. The French took advantage of this. A column crossed the
canal by an aqueduct, of which on the evening before, they had
become masters, and entering the fort by the gorge, succeeded in
maintaining the place against the efforts of the garrison. At the
same time, a brigade of Morlot’s division advanced up the ravine
of the Huerba, and, passing the canal under the aqueduct on which
it crosses that river, gained possession of a work commanding the
sluices of the canal. Two guns were taken in this work. Three
guns and 100 prisoners in the fort. General St. Mark succeeded in
withdrawing the rest of the garrison.

On the 22nd, General Gazan advanced against the suburb, on the left
of the river. He was encountered by about 4000 of the garrison,
posted in the woods and gardens, from which, after a warm contest,
he succeeded in dislodging them. Gazan then attempted to carry the
suburb by a _coup-de-main_. In this he failed. Repulsed in all
his efforts, after a long and fruitless contention, he at length
withdrew, pursued by the garrison, and with the loss of near 1000
men. The chief loss of the besieged consisted of a corps of Swiss,
almost all of whom were killed or taken prisoners in a large
building considerably in advance of the suburb.

For several days all was quiet. The enemy were now aware that it
was necessary to make a regular investment of the place; and the
works in all quarters, were pushed on with vigour. The besieged on
their part endeavoured, by incessant labour, to complete the works
of defence; batteries were constructed, to enfilade the principal
approaches--the magazines were rendered bomb-proof--every outlet
was palisaded and traversed; and, thus prepared, they waited with
calm fortitude for the approaching struggle.

On the 30th, Marshal Moncey addressed a letter to Palafox,
summoning him to surrender the city, now entirely invested, and
to spare the effusion of blood which must necessarily follow any
further attempt at hopeless resistance. Moncey likewise informed
him that Madrid had fallen; and that Napoleon, at the head of a
great army, was then in the act of chasing the English to their
ships.

To this Palafox replied, that if Madrid had fallen, Madrid had
been _sold_. The works of Zaragoza were yet entire; but, were they
levelled with the ground, the people and the garrison would rather
be buried in the ruins of their city, than disgraced by surrender.

In the meanwhile, General Gazan succeeded in effecting the blockade
of the suburb.

On the 29th, the trenches were regularly opened against the Chateau
of the Inquisition on the left, the bridge of the Huerba in the
centre, and the convent of St. Joseph on the right. The last of
these was the principal object of the enemy, because the works in
rear were destitute of a rampart, and it was intended to connect
the attack with a simultaneous attempt to gain possession of the
suburb.

The garrison, however, were not idle. The communication between the
convent and the city could not be interrupted; and the garrison of
the former, being daily relieved, made frequent sallies, by which
the progress of the besiegers was materially retarded. On the 31st,
a general sortie, supported by the whole guns of the place, was
made against the enemy’s line. Though gallantly supported, it was
unattended by any successful result. The repeated attacks of the
garrison were repulsed; and, baffled in their efforts, they again
entered the city. The loss on both sides was nearly equal.

On the 2nd of January, Moncey was superseded by Marshal Junot in
the command of the besieging army. The latter was the bearer of an
order to Mortier, to move on Calatayud with Suchet’s division, in
order to keep open the communication with Madrid. This arrangement
occasioned a material diminution of the besieging force, but no
cessation of hostile operations. The works against the convent of
St. Joseph still went on, and between the 3rd and 6th of January
the second parallel was completed. Till the 10th no action took
place; but on that day a tremendous fire from thirty guns was
opened on the convent. It was soon rendered untenable. But, amid
the ruins, the gunners covered by bags of wool, still continued
to exercise their vocation, and fired on the enemy, till the
walls were levelled with the ground. Even then the post was not
relinquished without a gallant effort. At midnight a sortie was
made against one of the batteries, in ignorance that two guns
had been planted for its protection. The intention of the brave
assailants was thus defeated; and, having suffered heavy loss from
a murderous fire, both in front and flank, they again retreated to
the city.

Even in the dilapidated condition of the convent, it was not till
the evening of the next day that the enemy attempted to carry it
by assault. At the same time a party, having turned the convent,
succeeded, by means of a wooden bridge which the besieged had
omitted to destroy, in effecting an entrance; and thus did the
French at length become masters of a heap of ruins, and of about
100 gallant men by whom they were defended.

No sooner were the enemy in possession of St. Joseph, than they
employed themselves in repairing the works, and completing the
communication between the second and third parallels, the latter of
which they established on the right and left of the convent. The
garrison on that side were now compelled to remain within their
walls; for the besiegers were secured against their efforts by the
double obstacle of a river and an escarpment eight feet high.

On the 15th a second parallel was opened against the town; and
batteries were commenced in it, to enfilade the defences of the
Augustine and Capuchin convents, and that of Sta. Engracia. Yet
neither the loss of their outworks, nor a tremendous bombardment,
which the French kept up for several days, had the effect of
diminishing the ardour of the inhabitants. The Zaragozans were not
only actuated by that active and living energy which stimulates to
deeds of high enterprize, but they possessed, likewise, that calm
and passive fortitude, that buoyant upbearing of the spirit, which
suffering cannot depress, nor misfortune overthrow.

But their cup was not yet full. The inhabitants of the part of the
city most injured by the bombardment, were driven into the other
quarters, where many of them took up their abode in cellars, which
afforded comparative security from the shells. The consequence
was, that these dark and miserable receptacles became the focus of
infectious fever. The disease spread rapidly among a crowded and
redundant population. Thus did death, on all hands, present itself
to the unshrinking Zaragozans; and the greater part preferred
exposing themselves on the ramparts, to breathing the infected air
which pervaded the dark and noisome retreats in which they had
sought refuge from the shells.

From the 17th to the 21st, the besiegers were occupied in the
construction of new batteries to overcome the defences of the
garrison; and the third parallel was extended to command two sides
of the convent of Sta. Engracia. In these circumstances, a sortie
was made, in the hope of spiking the enemy’s artillery. The fire
of a battery of four mortars was found peculiarly annoying: and
eighty men, commanded by Don Mariano Galindo, volunteered to attack
it. They boldly precipitated themselves on the guard of the third
parallel, put them to the sword, and succeeded in entering the
battery. At the same moment the enemy’s reserve came up. There was
no retreat; all perished except the officers and a few wounded
soldiers, who were made prisoners.

The movements of the numerous bodies of armed peasantry, in
the surrounding country, occasioned great inconvenience to the
besiegers. Bands were formed on all hands; which, though unable
to resist the attack of disciplined troops, yet were sufficiently
formidable to require perpetual vigilance, and numerous enough to
narrow the supplies of the besieging army, in a very considerable
degree.

About this time, Napoleon, dissatisfied with the slow progress of
the siege, sent Marshal Lannes to assume the command. This officer
directed Mortier, with his division, to leave Calatayud, and to act
on the left of the Ebro. Mortier attacked the force of Francisco
Palafox, and succeeded in dispersing it with very considerable
loss. Lannes, in order to depress the hopes of the garrison of
external assistance, addressed a letter to Palafox, communicating
this circumstance, and all the other disasters which had befallen
the Spanish armies. But the mortifying intelligence thus conveyed,
did not shake the firmness of the undaunted leader. He rejected
all compromise, and continued, with undiminished vigour, to oppose
every possible obstacle to the progress of the enemy.

All the outworks of the place had now fallen, except the castle of
the Inquisition, which had been subjected to no serious attack.
The newly-raised works of the _Enceinte_ had been battered by
fifty-five guns, and, on the 27th January, three breaches were
declared practicable. One was near an oil-mill, which stood
without the walls of the place, though but little removed from
them. The second was to the left of this, between the convent of
St. Joseph and the town. The third was in the convent of Sta.
Engracia. All these were attacked. At mid-day, a column issued from
the oil-mill, which had been occupied over-night, and, rapidly
clearing the short distance which divided it from the walls,
entered the breach, unbroken by the heavy fire to which they were
exposed, and the explosion of two _fougasses_. Having reached the
summit, the assailants found an interior retrenchment armed with
two guns, which the garrison had unexpectedly erected to obstruct
their progress. They attempted, without success, to surmount this
obstacle, under a shower of grape, musketry and grenades. Forced to
retire, the besiegers took advantage of the cover afforded by the
exploded _fougasses_ to effect a lodgment on the breach.

The breach in face of St. Joseph presented fewer obstacles to be
overcome. The column of attack having reached the summit, succeeded
in occupying the opposite house, which the artillery, in firing on
the wall, had laid open. The houses adjoining were then gained;
and on the right of the breach they found a gate which afforded
another entrance into the town. Here, however, their progress was
arrested by a battery of the enemy, commanding a court which it was
necessary to pass. On the left, a double _caponnier_, which the
garrison had used to communicate with St. Joseph’s, was repaired
and lengthened to the breach.

The attack on Sta. Engracia was yet more successful. After a
severe struggle, the assailants gained the breach of the convent,
but in attempting to advance further, they met a spirited repulse.
Another effort was made, which terminated in their gaining
possession of the building. The curtain leading from Sta. Engracia
to the bridge of the Huerba was then enfiladed, and, taking the
_tête-de-pont_ in reverse, the enemy at once became masters of
that important post. Here they were joined by fresh troops, and,
pushing on within the curtain of the convent of Mount Carmel, made
an effort to gain possession of it, which met with a repulse.

From thence they advanced rapidly to the Capuchin convent, putting
forty artillerymen, who constituted the whole of its garrison, to
the sword, The assailants then established themselves along the
rampart, in order to guard the posts they had been successful in
acquiring.

A dreadful fire was soon opened on the besiegers from the houses
commanding the rampart. From this they in vain sought shelter among
the ruins of the half-demolished walls. Retreat became necessary,
and the column was directed to retire on the Puerta del Carmen. The
garrison, by a bold attack, regained possession of the Capuchin
convent; but two battalions coming up to reinforce the assailants,
it was again taken, and maintained, though at a dear price, by the
enemy.

During the night, a strong but unsuccessful effort was made by the
besieged to regain possession of the convents of Sta. Engracia and
the Capuchins. The result of these operations were the loss to the
besieged of fifteen guns and 200 prisoners, and that the enemy
gained footing in the city at two different points. The loss in
killed and wounded, by the French accounts, was nearly equal on
both sides. It amounted to about 600.

The misfortunes of the Zaragozans were hourly accumulating. The
fever demon stalked through the city like a destroying angel,
conquering and to conquer. The number of dead per day amounted to
350, without including those who fell the more immediate victims of
war. The hospitals were too small to contain the host of patients,
and the medicines were exhausted. The burying grounds were choked
with corpses; and large pits were dug in the streets, into which
the dead were tossed indiscriminately. Heaps of bloated and
putrescent bodies were piled before the churches, which were often
struck by the shells; and the maimed and ghastly carcasses lay
dispersed along the streets, a frightful spectacle of horror. Even
under such evils the courage of the Zaragozans did not quail.

The city was now open to the invaders, and the war, as formerly,
was carried on in the streets and houses. Not one inch of ground
was yielded by the besieged without a struggle; and when finally
driven from a building, they frequently, by a desperate offensive
effort, recovered it; and an equal resistance had again to be
encountered by the assailants. Traverses were cut around the
portions of the city occupied by the enemy; and at the sound of the
tocsin, the garrison were ever ready to rush to any quarter where
hostilities had commenced.

Palafox, however, did not limit his efforts to obstructing the
progress of the enemy; he made vigorous efforts to recover the
ground already lost, and drive the assailants from their stations.
Two attempts were made to regain the convent of the Capuchins. Both
failed. A third more powerful effort was made on the 31st. A breach
was effected during the day, and at night the assault took place.
The besieged advanced with signal resolution towards the breach,
but owing to a ditch sunk by the enemy, it was found impossible to
mount it. They then threw themselves on the floor of the church,
and endeavoured to force it. In spite of the fire from the windows,
and the grenades showered from the steeple, they maintained their
ground, and forced the door; but an epaulement within obstructed
their progress; and fresh troops being brought up by the enemy, the
project was at length renounced.

Priests and women bore part in these operations. The former carried
munitions, and gave ghostly succour to the dying, animating the
soldiers at once by their words and their example. The latter
bore refreshments to their sons, or husbands, or fathers; and
sometimes, when one of those dear relatives fell by their side,
they seized his arms, determined to revenge his death or perish in
the same glorious cause. In truth, the contest lay between skill
and enthusiasm--mingled, indeed, with superstition, yet active,
firm, vigorous, and unshrinking; skill exerted in a struggle as
unjust and degrading, as any by which the pages of history are
contaminated and defaced.

Notwithstanding the utmost efforts of the garrison, the French
gained ground. The 1st of February was marked by the capture of
the convents of St. Augustin and St. Monica. Having been repelled
in assaulting the breaches, the assailants sprung a mine, and by
that means effected an entrance, and took in reverse the works
erected for their defence. A deadly struggle took place in the
church. Every chapel, every column, every altar, became a point
of defence--the pavement was strewed with blood, and the aisles
and nave of the church were covered with the dead. During this
terrific conflict, the roof, shattered by bombs, fell in. Those
who escaped, renewed the contest on the bodies of the dead and
dying. The French were at last successful, and advancing on the Rua
Quemada, gained possession of several houses. From these, however,
they were eventually compelled to retreat, with a loss of above 100
men.

At the same time, an attack was made on the houses near Sta.
Engracia. Two mines, one on the left, the other on the right,
of the convent, were sprung by the besiegers; after which two
columns of Polish infantry succeeded in gaining possession of
the ruins caused by the explosion. The loss of the besiegers was
very considerable, and General Lacoste, commandant of engineers,
was killed. He was an officer of great professional eminence, and
untarnished character.

During four days, the besiegers were employed in constructing
three galleries to cross the Rua Quemada. Two of these failed. By
means of the third they succeeded in establishing themselves in
the ruins of a house which formed an angle of the Cozo, and of the
Rua del Medio. A building, called the Escuelas Pias, commanded
several traverses, made for the defence of the Cozo. Aware of the
importance of this post, the assailants made several unsuccessful
efforts to gain possession of it. They then attempted the adjoining
houses; but in this also they failed. The system of blowing up the
houses, now adopted, was favourable to the besieged; for the enemy,
who established themselves on the ruins, were thus exposed to the
fire of the surrounding buildings. In the meanwhile the continual
succession of formidable and unforeseen obstacles, which presented
themselves to the French soldiers, had damped their ardour; while
the spirits of the besieged, who had to contend against famine,
fever, and the French army, were yet unbroken.

The inner town is encircled by the Cozo, which reaches at both
extremities to the river; and the French, in order to connect
their operations with those of Gazan, on the left of the Ebro,
determined, at all risks, to gain possession of it. The convent of
St. Francisco, therefore, became their immediate object. A mine was
exploded, which brought down part of the building; and a severe
contest ensued, which lasted for two days. The Spaniards were at
length driven out by the bayonet--the superiority of physical, as
well as of numerical strength, being on the side of the assailants.

From the tower of this building, the French now commanded the
street, for a musket-shot on either side. There, however, their
progress was for a time arrested. The buildings in the Cozo were
large and massive; and from their construction with roofs of
arched masonry, nearly incombustible. Experience had perfected
the Zaragozans in their defensive warfare; and the contest was
continued with, if possible, augmented pertinacity. Three days
were the French sappers successfully opposed in their endeavours
to cross the Cozo. The university was partially breached by the
explosion of two small mines. The besiegers then endeavoured to
carry the building by assault; but they were met by a fire so
destructive as to compel them to retreat.

Hitherto the suburb on the left of the Ebro had been exempted from
attack, since Gazan’s failure on the first night of the investment.
That officer, availing himself of some ambiguity in his orders,
had declined to re-engage in active operations; nor was it till
Lannes arrived, with authority to enforce his orders, that Gazan
was induced to resume the offensive.

On the 7th, the convent of Jesus, on the left of the road to
Lerida, was attacked. Trenches were opened against it; and twenty
battering pieces having effected a breach, it was carried with
little loss, the building not being considered by the besieged as
of material importance. The enemy then succeeded in establishing a
lodgment to the right and left.

On the 18th, the suburb, after two unsuccessful efforts, was
carried by assault. A tremendous fire from fifty guns soon laid
open the way to the assailing columns. By mid-day a breach was
effected in the convent of St. Lazarus, commanding the bridge; and
the defenders, after a strenuous resistance, were driven from the
building. All communication between the suburb and the city was now
cut off; and the French advancing to the river, intercepted the
retreat of about 1500 men, who, enfeebled by disease and suffering,
were made prisoners. The capture of St. Lazarus necessarily
involved that of the suburb, which was without ammunition or
provisions, yet many of its defenders continued to wage a fierce
but hopeless war in the streets. The loss of the besieged amounted
to about 2000. The brave Baron de Versage, who commanded on the
Ebro, was killed.

The besiegers, imagining that the courage of the garrison had been
abated by this irreparable misfortune, continued their operations
with vigour. By means of mining, two enormous breaches were made in
the university--both of which were attacked and carried; and the
traverses of the Cozo were at length abandoned by the Spaniards. In
the mean time, Palafox had been smitten with the dreadful disease,
whose ravages had been more widely spread than even those of famine
and the sword. This admirable and heroic leader, who, for above a
month, had been unable to quit the vault where he lay stretched on
a bed of suffering, at length saw the necessity of resigning the
command.

On the 19th he transferred his authority to a junta, of which
Don Pedro Ric was appointed president. A council was immediately
assembled, to deliberate on the condition of the city, and the
measures most proper to be adopted. At this meeting it was stated,
by the general of cavalry, that only 62 horses remained, the rest
having died of hunger. Of the infantry it appeared there were
little more than 2800 men fit for service. Ammunition was nearly
exhausted; and should a shell penetrate the Inquisition, their
only manufactory of powder would be destroyed. The fortifications
were stated, by the chief engineer, to have been almost utterly
demolished. There were neither men nor materials necessary for
repairing them; and bags of earth could no longer be formed from
want of cloth.

With regard to the measures to be adopted, the junta were divided
in opinion. Twenty-six voted for capitulation; eight against it.
The latter were averse to surrender, while even a possibility of
succour remained. With proud gallantry of spirit, the opinion of
the minority was adopted by the junta. A flag of truce was sent to
the enemy, proposing a suspension of hostilities, with the view
of ascertaining the situation of the Spanish armies; it being
understood, that should no immediate succour be at hand, the junta
would then treat for a surrender. This proposal was peremptorily
declined by Marshal Lannes; and the bombardment recommenced.

On the 20th, the garrison made a last and unsuccessful effort to
recover two guns which the enemy had captured on the preceding day.
Affairs were now desperate. The fifty guns which had been employed
in the attack of the suburb, now opened fire on the city; and the
streets of the quay were laid in ruins.

Thus situated the junta ordered measures to be taken to ascertain
the sentiments of the people with regard to the situation of their
city. Two-thirds of it were in ruins. Fire, famine, and slaughter,
had done their work; and from 300 to 400 persons were daily dying
of the pestilence. Under such circumstances, the junta declared
that they had fulfilled their oath of fidelity--and that _Zaragoza
was destroyed_. A flag of truce was dispatched to the French
head-quarters, followed by a deputation of the junta, to arrange
the terms of capitulation. Marshal Lannes was at first disposed to
insist on unconditional surrender. The proposal was indignantly
rejected by the deputies; and Ric declared, that rather than submit
to it the Zaragozans would die beneath the ruins of their city.
“I, and my companions,” said this noble patriot, “will return
there, and defend what remains to us as best we may. We have yet
arms and ammunition, and if these fail we have daggers. Should the
Zaragozans be driven to despair, it yet remains to be proved who
are to be victorious.”

In this temper of the garrison, Lannes did not think it prudent to
refuse granting terms. It was accordingly conceded that the troops
should march out with the honours of war: that the heroic Palafox
should be suffered to retire to any place where he might think
proper to fix his residence, and that all persons, not included in
the garrison, should be suffered to quit the city, to avoid the
contagion.

On the 21st of February, 1809, the city was delivered up to
the French; and thus terminated one of the most strenuous and
extraordinary struggles of which history bears record. The
resistance continued for 52 days with open trenches; 29 of these
were consumed by the enemy in effecting an entrance--23 in the war
subsequently carried on in the streets and houses. By their own
account, the French threw above 17,000 bombs into the city, and
expended above 160,000 pounds weight of powder. More than 30,000
men and 500 officers perished in the defence, exclusive of a vast
number of women and children. The amount of loss sustained by the
besiegers was studiously concealed--that it was very great, cannot
be doubted; and the contemplated operations on Lerida and Valencia,
for which the army was destined, were in consequence given up.

When the garrison quitted the city, only 2400 men were capable of
bearing arms; the rest were in the hospitals.

Among the prisoners, was Augustina Zaragoza, who had distinguished
herself in the former siege. At the commencement, she had resumed
her station at the Portillo gate. When Palafox visited the battery,
she pointed to the gun she had formerly served with so much effect,
and exclaimed, “See, general, I am again with my old friend.”
Once, when her wounded husband lay bleeding at her feet, she
discharged the cannon at the enemy, in order to avenge his fall.
She frequently led the assaulting parties, and with sword in hand
mingled in the daily conflicts which took place in the streets.
Though exposed, during the whole siege to the most imminent danger,
Augustina escaped without a wound. On the surrender of the city,
she was too well known to escape notice, and was made prisoner.
But she had already caught the contagion; and being taken to the
hospital, she subsequently succeeded in effecting her escape.

The terms of capitulation were shamefully violated by Lannes.
Palafox was sent a prisoner into France; and the city became
a scene of pillage and atrocity. Nothing was to be heard but
the drunken shouts and cries of the French soldiery. Even the
convents were not spared; their gates were beaten in, the costly
plate seized, and the decorations torn down; while the monk, with
uplifted hand and scowling brow, listened to the drunken revelry
and obscene jests of the heavy mailed cuirassier.”


ZEALAND, NEW.--Discovered by Tasman in 1642. Captain Cook planted
several spots here in 1773. Great Britain’s right to this
island recognized at the general peace of 1814. Since then it
has continued slowly developing its inland resources. A rather
disastrous war was waged against the British forces by the New
Zealanders not long ago; but after some months of continual
annoyance the Aborigines were subdued and the island quieted, with
every prospect of commercial development.


ZELA, BATTLE OF.--In which Julius Cæsar defeated Pharnaces, King of
Pontus, and sent the Senate the well-known laconic letter of three
words: “_Veni, Vidi, Vici._” Fought B.C. 47.


ZELICHON, BATTLE OF.--Fought, April 6th, 1831, between the Poles
and Russians. The Russians were terribly defeated, with the loss
of 12,000 men, killed, wounded and prisoners, and Deibitsch, the
Russian General, narrowly escaped being taken prisoner in the rout.


ZEUTA, BATTLE OF.--Fought, between the Germans and Turks, the
former commanded by Prince Eugene; and it is memorable for the
tremendous slaughter of the enemy, A.D. 1697.


ZORNDORFF, BATTLE OF.--Fought between the Prussian and Russian
armies: the Prussian commanded by their King. They gained a great
victory over the forces of the Czarina of Russia--21,529 men being
lost to the Russians, while the Prussians lost 11,000. Fought,
August 25th and 26th, 1758.


ZOUAVE OR ZOU-ZOU.--“The _gamins_ of Paris, we believe, first
applied to the world-renowned Zouaves the pet name of _Zou-Zous_;
and France has confirmed the pleasant diminutive. We know well
enough that Zou-Zou has certain faults; but we also know that
he possesses some estimable qualities. On the whole, we gaze
at his scarred bronzed face and long shaggy beard with respect,
and do not shrink from cordially clasping his horny brown hand,
powder-begrimed though it be. We read all about his valorous
doings, and his somewhat ludicrous and not unpardonable misdoings,
during the late Italian campaign, as chronicled daily by his own
countrymen, and we shall now compile some interesting examples of
his exploits and racy peculiarities, which have fallen under our
notice.

When the Zou-Zous embarked at Marseilles, they leapt on board the
vessels as though charging a column of Croats, crying to their
comrades, “Come, gentlemen, take your tickets for Austria!” Arrived
at Genoa, they received their fair share of flowers and kisses from
the enraptured signoras, and embracements and orations from their
lords and fathers.

M. Achard visited the camp of the famous 3rd Zouaves, and gives us
a graphic sketch of the fire-eaters reposing. We must premise that
they had only arrived four or five days from Algeria. “It was,”
says he, “like a little corner of a great war picture. The canvas
town possessed regularity, animated order, picturesque and lively
movement, and one felt the presence of discipline, and a pleasing
sense of gaiety and fearlessness. Behold the little, narrow, short
tents reserved for the sub-officers; their neighbours large, and
similar to a squab coffee-pot, for the captains and commandants;
others ample and conical, each for five soldiers, ranged in ranks;
groups of Zouaves round a candle, in a low tone chatting about
their African campaigns; some silently smoking a pipe apart; two or
three lying on the ground in corners, reading letters and dreaming,
their comrades singing the chorus of songs; the evening dies away
and sleep succeeds. Here and there, under the canvas, a little
lamp gives light to an officer, who writes in haste a last letter.
Little noise, great order; each battalion has its place. As the
darkness increases, we see red sparks in the air along the tents.
The cigar enlivens the promenade, then the sparks disappear one by
one; the bivouac fires are extinguished; the mules of the regiment
bite at each other, and endeavour to break their straps; close
by, the Arab horses of the officers, digging the earth with their
hoofs, snuffing the air, devoid of the warm odour of the desert,
and shaking their manes. * * * The next day, at seven o’clock in
the morning, the regiment, containing three battalions on a war
strength--2700 men, exclusive of officers--was reviewed by Prince
Napoleon. They looked models of hardy active soldiers. Their faces,
which appeared cut out of Florentine bronze, had the manly ardour
and the confidence resulting from habitual acquaintance with
danger. They were in marching order. At eight o’clock they started,
clarions at their head and tarbouch in front for their first _étape
de guerre_, twenty-seven kilometres, and in the evening they
encamped in the mountain, at Toreglia, very near the Austrians!”

We may remark that one great reason for the very singular celerity
with which the Zouaves encamp, provide their food, etc., is the
fact, that each company, or portion of a company, or “tribe,” as
it is called by the men themselves, is subdivided for what we may
term domestic duties, each individual being charged with a distinct
and special function; and constant practice naturally renders them
amazingly expert at doing whatever they are called upon to daily
and nightly perform.

The Zou-Zous, and their African friends the Turcos, are said to
have an invincible preference for fighting at close quarters with
the bayonet. A certain quantity of cartouches were served out at
the moment of departure, but these cartridges were not forthcoming
at Genoa. The officers were angry, and required the production
of the missing ammunition. “Be not troubled,” said the Zou-Zous;
“leave us alone, and we will return you ten for one at the first
battle.” A stubborn old sergeant added, “We wish to see if the
Austrians are like the Kabyles.” In fact, their point of honour
is to charge with the bayonet, and to charge at a swift run.
Their activity is incredible; and they have been aptly called
“foot cavalry,” which is hardly a paradoxical jest like our own
time-honoured sneer of “horse marines.”

The Zou-Zous have a marvellous capacity for physical endurance.
Some black coffee, and a biscuit or piece of hard ammunition bread
steeped in it, generally formed their breakfast, and then they were
able and willing to march with their very heavy knapsacks a whole
day in the broiling sun before dining. A Zouave’s knapsack is full
of a wonderful variety of articles, and, when in marching order, he
actually carries the enormous weight of sixty pounds! But Zou-Zou
is not an anchorite; he does not voluntarily endure hunger when
he can lawfully, or (as some whisper) even unlawfully, obtain an
appetizing addition to his rations. At Palestro, the Zouaves drolly
distinguished themselves, by marching with a pleasing variety of
edible prizes secured about their persons. They bore quarters of
lamb, immense pieces of raw meat, salad, cabbage, and all kinds
of vegetables; upon the shoulder of one was perched an old cock,
tied by the foot by way of precaution! All the world knows how
omnivorous Zouaves are; and, by way of illustration, we will only
mention the astounding fact, that at Solferino they daintily
feasted on fillets cut from the backs of the horses killed in that
tremendous battle!

The Austrians sent some daring spies into the Zouave camp, fully
and carefully dressed as Zou-Zous, speaking French, and affecting
in all respects the habits and language of the men among whom they
treacherously stole. But, as an old soldier observed, “the asses
who wear lions’ skins are recognized, not by the dress, but by the
language.” So it was with these Austrian spies. The touch-stone
which infallibly detected them was the Arab, or rather the Sabir
tongue. The Sabir is a dialect used by the Zouaves and the Turcos,
and is a singular mixture of French, Italian, Maltese, Spanish and
Arabian. Let us see what the Sabir can do with the wicked hawk who
has stolen into the Zouave dovecot, disguised in innocent plumage
like their own.

“A spy, dressed as a Zouave, holding his cap behind him, accosts
other Zouaves, (true ones these). They talk of war, ambuscades,
battles; they drink and sing. An old Zouave addresses the spy:
‘Didou, camarade, gib el touchran; j’ai laisse mon sipsi dans la
gitoun.’ This, in Sabir, signifies, ‘Comrade, hand me some tobacco;
I have forgotten my pipe in the tent.’ The spy, surprised, does not
reply. ‘Enta machache narl el Arabi?’ (Dost thou not understand
Arabian?) continues the Zouave. The same silence. Suspicions
are aroused: the pretended Zouave is closely questioned. He is
confused; he confounds Blidah with Orléansville: finally he is
seized, and duly shot.”

No body of men attracted more notice, on first landing in Italy,
than the 3rd Zouaves. Nearly all the officers had risen from the
ranks, or, at any rate, all had been sub-officers, and had won
their epaulettes and crosses in Africa. The men could reckon a
number of years’ service, both in Africa and the Crimea. Their flag
was in tatters, and tied together with shoemaker’s thread.

At Palestro, these 3rd Zouaves performed a brilliant feat of arms.
A wounded Zou-Zou subsequently described it most graphically. “We
were,” said he, “very tranquilly opposite a rivulet; we beheld
five or six horsemen upon an eminence; it was said that they must
be enemy’s hussars, watching us, and the word passed to prepare
to have a chat with them. But all in a moment, and without a note
of warning, a parcel of bullets, accompanied by a hail of cannon
balls, saluted us. The rogues had mounted cannon on the hills,
and their tirailleurs skulked in the corn, where one could not
see them. Whilst we looked out, the _mitraille_[45] mingled in
the conversation. The colonel saw whence it came by the smoke.
The officers turned towards us. ‘Eh Zouaves!’ cried they, ‘to the
cannon!’ We leapt in the stream. There was water up to our elbows,
and so our cartridge boxes took a bath; we were no longer able to
fire a single charge. From the stream to the batteries we had to
run about 300 metres. Ah, we already surpass the _pas gymnastique_!

The _mitraille_ mowed the grass around our feet. In the twinkling
of an eye we carried the guns!”

Among the wounded Austrians taken prisoners, was a young man of
twenty-two, who had previously studied at Paris five or six years.
He fought at Palestro, and when he saw the Zouaves running and
leaping with bayonets in advance, he cried, “Comrades! they are
Zouaves! We are lost!”

An Austrian officer related that General Jellachich, struck with
astonishment at sight of the Zouaves in action, exclaimed, “They
are not men, they are tigers!” And then he muttered, “They told me
so, but I did not believe it.” A good many others of his countrymen
had reason to think and speak very much the same. Yet, even among
the Zouaves there are some who pre-eminently distinguish themselves
by their surpassing activity, daring, and successful valour.

Zou-Zou has a humour of his own even in the heat of
battle--grimmest of all grim humours! Endless anecdotes are told of
their strange speeches and stranger deeds in the midst of the storm
of battle. Many of these would be painful to our readers, but the
following give relief to the stern cruelties of war. Would that the
kindly or generous feelings which they record could be displayed on
more peaceful scenes!

During a bayonet fight, a Zouave fought against an Austrian, and
broke his thigh with a violent butt-end blow; the Austrian, in
falling, broke the arm of the Zouave. There they lay side by side,
their mutual fury extinguished. The Zouave, who had a smattering
of Italian, said to the Austrian, “Thou art brave, and I will
not leave thee to die like a dog. I have yet an arm and a pair
of good legs, and I will carry thee to the ambulance.” He was as
good as his word. When he arrived with his burthen, he said to the
surgeon-major. “You see, major, that we are on a level; cure us
quickly, that we may do our duty afresh.” We will add, that the
compassion and kindness manifested after a battle by the erewhile
fierce Zouaves towards their wounded enemies, is a fine trait in
their character. Like our own matchless seamen, the Zouaves, are
lions whilst the battle rages, and lambs after it is ended.

Here is a touching incident. The day after the battle of Palestro,
the Zouaves buried their dead comrades in a great pit dug on a
little eminence. When the earth was levelled, they bid adieu, with
emotion, to their slain brothers-in-arms. “Comrades!” cried a
sergeant, “may God receive you! ’Tis your turn to-day--to morrow it
may be ours!” With these simple words the Zou-Zous left their dead
brethren to repose on the field of their victory.

And the wounded Zou-Zous, how bear they the agony of musket ball,
or bayonet thrust, or sabre gash, when the excitement of the actual
combat is over? When Commandant de Bellefonds, of the Zouaves of
the Guard, was wounded at Magenta, his men wished to carry him
to the ambulance. “Remain in your place,” said he. “Leave me, my
friends; I forbid you to remove me: continue to fight.” After the
Austrians were repulsed, the Zou-Zous sought their brave officer
and bore him away. He eventually recovered.

The Zouaves being by far the most popular and brilliant corps in
the army, it is considered, both by officers and privates, an
absolute privilege to wear their uniform, and both sub and superior
officers have been known to refuse to exchange into line regiments
even with prospect of higher rank.

Some of the Zouaves were themselves taken prisoners and sent to
Vienna, where they attracted extraordinary notice. On their arrival
they were surrounded by Hungarian and Polish soldiers, who examined
their uniform and criticized their personal appearance with lively
curiosity, making each poor Zou-Zou exhibit himself and explain
the use of every portion of his equipments--which, it is said, he
did with great good humour. By way of contrast to the above, we
present the following. A number of Austrian prisoners arrived at
Toulouse. A sub-officer of the 3rd Zouaves, whose family lived
there, and who was himself _en route_ to Paris, happened to be at
the railway station when the prisoners arrived, and he recognized
three Austrians whom he had made prisoners at the battle of
Magenta, where he was wounded by one of them. He now shook hands
with his ex-captives, and having obtained permission to defer his
own departure, he took all three home with him, and treated them
with the utmost hospitality.”


ZURICH, BATTLES OF.--The French were defeated here, losing 4000
men, June 4th, 1799. The Imperialists were also defeated here by
the French, under Messina, and lost the great number of 20,000 men
in action. September 24th, 1799.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] In the Register of the Convent of the Friars Minors in
Poictiers, there appear the names of the knights and great men
buried there after this battle. Among these we find, the Constable
of France, the Bishop of Chalons, the Viscount of Chauvigny, the
Lords of Mailly, of Rademonde, of Rochecheruire, of Chaumont, of
Hes, of Corbon, and a great number of knights. In the church of
the Frères Prescheurs there were buried the Duke of Bourbon, the
Marshal de Clermont, the Viscount de Rochechouart, the Lord de la
Fayette, the Viscount d’Aumale, the Lord St. Gildart, and more than
fifty knights.

[2] The rocket consisted of an iron tube, about two foot long, and
three inches in diameter, attached to a bamboo cane of fifteen or
twenty feet in length. The tube is filled with combustible matter;
and this dreadful missile entering the head of a column, passes
through a man’s body, and instantly resumes its original force;
thus destroying or wounding twenty men, independent of innumerable
lacerations caused by the serpentine motion of the long bamboo,
which in its irresistible progress, splinters to atoms, when the
iron tube assumes a rapid rotary motion, and buries itself in the
earth.

[3] It is a curious and interesting literary fact, that Campbell
wrote this in a foreign land, viz., at Ratisbon, on hearing of war
being declared against Denmark. Some portion of it is said to have
been previously roughly sketched out, owing to his admiration of
the music of “Ye Gentlemen of England.” His splendid lyric, “The
battle of the Baltic,” soon followed.

[4] Herod. 1. vii. c. 175, 177.

[5] Herod. 1. vii. c. 103, 132.

[6] Ibid. 1. viii. c. 116.

[7] Paus. 1. x. p. 645.

[8] Herod. 1. vii c. 207-231. Diod. 1. xi. p. 5-10.

[9] Plut. in Lacon. Apoph. p. 225.

[10] Ἀντεγραψε, μολων λαβε.

[11] Οτι πολλοι μεν ανθρωποι ειεν, ολιγοι δε ανδρες. Quod multi
homines essent, pauci autem viri.

[12] When the Gauls 200 years after this, came to invade Greece,
they possessed themselves of the Straits of Thermopylæ by means of
the same by-path, which the Grecians had still neglected to secure.
Pausan. 1. i. p. 7. et 8.

[13] Polyb. 1. iii. p. 231-238.

[14] Apparebat ferociter omnia ac præpropere acturum. Quoque
pronior esset in sua vitia, agitare eum atque irritare Pœnus parat.
Liv. 1. xxii. n. 3.

[15] Napier, vol. v. p. 132.

[16] A French writer tells us, that when he had dictated, at Paris,
the bulletin of this battle, he finished, by exclaiming with a
groan, “It was lost, and _my glory_ with it!”

[17] Hist. Memoirs, book ix, p. 209.

[18] “Information which might be depended upon had made known the
position of the Allies in all particulars.--_Fleury_, vol. ii, p.
161.

“To anticipate the Allies, and to commence hostilities _before
they were ready_, it was necessary to take the field on the 15th
June.”--_Hist. Memoir_, Book ix, p. 59.

“The period of the arrival of the English army from America
was known. The Allied armies could not be in readiness to act
simultaneously until July.”--_Gourgaud’s Campaign_, p. 29.

[19] Hist. Memoir, Book ix, p. 127.

[20] Gourgaud, p. 38; Fleury, vol. ii, p. 167.

[21] Junot, at Rolica and Vimiera; Victor at Talavera; Massena at
Busaco; Ney, after Torres Vedras; Marmont at Salamanca; Jourdan at
Vittoria; and Soult in the Pyrenees, Toulouse, &c. &c.

[22] History of the Restoration, vol. ii, p. 377, 388.

[23] Despatches, vol. viii, p. 168.

[24] O’Meara, vol. i, p. 464.

[25] Brialmont’s Wellington, vol. ii, p. 440.

[26] Gourgaud’s Waterloo, p. 96.

[27] The first French attack was repulsed about two o’clock: but
Bonaparte renewed it five or six times, until about seven o’clock
in the evening.--_Austrian Account._

[28] Hist. Memoir, book ix, p. 143.

[29] Lamartine, b. xxv, § 34.

[30] Gourgaud’s Campaign of Waterloo, p. 97.

[31] Page 151. This attack on the centre was made at one o’clock,
and La Haye Sainte was not evacuated by the English till six in the
evening. Of what occurred in the five hours which intervened the
French accounts are ominously silent.

[32] Fleury, vol. ii, p. 217.

[33] At St. Helena, he told O’Meara, “When the English advanced, I
had not a single corps of cavalry in reserve to resist them. Hence
the English attack succeeded, and all was lost,”--_O’Meara_, vol.
i, p. 465.

[34] “It was _noon_, the troops of General Bulow were stationary
beyond the extreme right: they appeared to form and wait for their
artillery.”--_Hist. Mem._ b. ix, p. 150.

[35] The Austrian account says “About five o’clock, the first
cannon-shot of the Prussian army was fired from the heights of
Aguiers.”

[36] Gourgaud’s Campaign of 1815, p. 113.

[37] They are described, both in Count Drouet’s speech and in “Book
ix,” as “sixteen battalions.” If the battalions consisted of 600
men, this would give a total of 9600.

[38] Vol. ii, p. 192.

[39] Colonel Lemonnier de Lafosse: Memoirs, p. 385.

[40] Reille had commanded the second corps, D’Erlon the first--each
of which had consisted of about 20,000 men! Can there be a more
striking proof of the utter dissolution of the French army, than
this fact, narrated by a French officer?

[41] Fleury de Chaboulon, vol. ii, pp. 203, 206, 218.

[42] The modesty,--the singular abstinence from a boast or a
vaunt,--which is perceptible in this exclamation, is wonderfully
characteristic of the man. The same quietness of manner
distinguished him through life; and it contrasts strongly with the
constant strut and proud assumption of Napoleon.

[43] Hist. Memoir, book ix, p. 203.

[44] I cannot conclude this article on Waterloo without inserting
the following: Many years ago a prize poem on the Duke of
Wellington was announced at one of the English Universities, I
forget which. The gainer took for his subject the life of Napoleon,
and finished an elaborate description of that great commander, in
the following couplet, which gained him the prize:

      “So great a man, the world scarce ever knew,
      Bent to THY GENIUS, CHIEF OF WATERLOO.”
                                         J. D. B.

[45] “Mitraille,” grape shot, with scraps of metal, and all sorts
of small missiles.



CHRONOLOGY.


Chronology is the science of computing and adjusting the periods of
time. It ascertains when events occurred, and assigns to each its
correct date. Thus we learn from it that the world was created 4004
years before Christ, and that the flood took place 1656 years after
the creation; and so of all other known and ascertained events,
each one is placed in connection with its proper period or year.
Of the transactions between the Creation and the Flood, we know
nothing except from Scripture, and of many of those which occurred
after the flood, and before the time of Christ, we know nothing
with certainty, except from the same source; but about 800 or 900
years before our Saviour’s time, a succession of profane historians
arose, from whom, especially those of Greece and Rome, numerous
facts in Chronology have been obtained. Various Eras, Epochs, or
methods of Chronology, have been adopted by different nations. The
Greeks reckoned time by Olympiads of four years each, commencing
from the year 776 before Christ. In marking a date by this method,
the year and Olympiad were both given; for example, the year 1845
is the first of 656th Olympiad. The Romans reckoned time from the
founding of Rome, 753 years before Christ. Dates reckoned from this
Era are designated by the initials A. U. C. (ab urbe condita; that
is, from the building of the city). The year 1845 is the 2598th
year of the Roman Era. The Christian Era, now in use amongst all
Christian nations, was first introduced in the sixth century, but
was not very generally adopted for some centuries after. This
begins 4004 years after the creation of the world, and four years
after the birth of our Saviour. Dates reckoned backwards are
usually marked B.C., or before Christ, but those reckoned forward
are distinguished by the prefix A.D., signifying Anno Domini,
or in the year of our Lord. The Mahomedans reckon time from the
Hegira, or flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, in the year 622
after Christ; but they use the lunar year of 354 days; so that
thirty-two of our years make thirty-three of theirs. The year 1845
is the 1260th year of the Hegira. Many other epochs or eras have
been used in different countries, and at different periods. The
Jews, Egyptians, Tyrians, Babylonians, Persians, and other ancient
nations, have each had their eras. The Hindoos and Chinese of the
present day have modes of reckoning time which differ from each
other, as well as from our method. In the United States, public
documents, proclamations, &c. have often, besides the date in
common use, the year of the national independence attached to them.
This is computed from July 4th, 1776, and hence may be reckoned a
national era or chronological period.


ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY

                            B.C.
  From the Creation         4004 to the Deluge
                                   1656 yrs elapsed.--Antediluvian P.*
  From the Deluge           2348 to the Call of Abraham
                                   427 yrs elapsed.--Dispersion P.
  From the Call of Abraham  1921 to the Exode from Egypt
                                   430 yrs elapsed.--Patriarchal P.
  From the Exode            1491 to the Kingdom of Saul
                                   396 yrs elapsed.--Theocratic P.
  From Saul                 1092 to the Captivity of Israel
                                   507 yrs elapsed.--Monarchical P.
  From the Captivity         588 to Alexander the Great
                                   258 yrs elapsed.--Persian P.
  From Alexander the Great   330 to Subjugation of Greece
                                   184 yrs elapsed.--Grecian P.
  From Subjugation of Greece 146 to the birth of Christ
                                   146 yrs elapsed.--Roman P.
       * P = Period.


MODERN CHRONOLOGY.

                                                     A.D.
  From the Birth of Christ
            to the Reign of Constantine the Great    306 years elapsed
            to the Extinction of the Western Empire  476   “     “
            to the flight of Mahomet                 622   “     “
            to the Crowning of Charlemagne at Rome   800   “     “
            to the Battle of Hastings               1066   “     “
            to the Founding of the Turkish Empire   1299   “     “
            to the Taking of Constantinople         1453   “     “
            to the Edict of Nantes                  1598   “     “
            to the Death of Charles XII of Sweden   1718   “     “
            to the Battle of Waterloo               1815   “     “
            to the Present time                     1866   “     “



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.


  B.C.

  4004 CREATION OF THE WORLD.

  2944 Birth of Noah.

  2348 The _Flood_ or _Deluge_ covers the whole earth--lasts about
  a year.

  2347 Noah quits the Ark; offers sacrifices of thanksgiving; God
  appoints the rainbow as a pledge that he will never again destroy
  the earth by the waters of a flood. (Gen. ix. 11.)

  2300 The Tower of Babel built; confusion of languages; dispersion
  of mankind.

  2233 Babylon founded by Nimrod; Nineveh founded by Asshur;
  commencement of the Assyrian monarchy.

  2188 The Egyptian monarchy founded by Mizraim; continues 1663
  years.

  2059 Age of Ninus and Semiramis, Assyrian monarchs.

  2000 Sicyon founded--the earliest town in Greece; Sidon founded.

  1996 Birth of Abram, in Ur of the Chaldees; 1998 Noah dies.

  1921 CALL OF ABRAM; he leaves Ur; comes to Haran, where his
  father, Terah, dies, aged 205 years; emigrates to Canaan, with
  Sarai his wife, and Lot his nephew, and dwells at Shechem.

  1920 Abram removes to Egypt; returns the same year.

  1912 Abram defeats Chedorlaomer and the confederate kings;
  rescues Lot.

  1910 Birth of Ishmael, the son of Abram and Hagar. (Gen. xvi. 16.)

  1897 Destruction of Sodom, Gomorrah, &c.; Lot retires to Zoar;
  Abram’s name changed to Abraham; Sarai’s changed to Sarah.

  1896 Isaac born at Beersheba; 1871 Offered up as a sacrifice by
  his father.

  1836 Birth of Esau and Jacob; 1821 Abraham dies.

  1800 Argos founded by the Pelasgians, under Inachus.

  1759 Jacob retires to his uncle, Laban, in Padan Aram; 1745
  Joseph born.

  1739 Jacob returns to Canaan; resides at Shechem.

  1728 Joseph sold by his brethren; 1716 Isaac dies.

  1706 Jacob removes to Egypt; 1689 his death.

  1705 Joseph raised to distinction in Egypt; 1635 Joseph dies.

  1600 Hyksos or shepherd kings conquer Egypt; they oppress the
  Israelites.

  1577 Age of Job; 1575, Birth of Aaron; 1571, Birth of Moses.

  1550 Athens founded by Cecrops; 1531 Moses leaves Egypt.

  1500 Tyre founded; Gades founded; 1493 Thebes founded by Cadmus.

  1491 Moses returns to Egypt; _Exodus_ or _departure_ of the
  Israelites from Egypt cross the Red Sea; law given on Mount Sinai.

  1452 Death of Aaron, aged 123 years; buried on Mount Hor.

  1451 Sihon defeated at Jahaz; Death of Moses, aged 120 years; Og
  defeated at Edrei; the Israelites cross Jordan; capture Jericho;
  sun and moon stand still at the command of Joshua; 1445, 1444 the
  _Land of Canaan_ divided among the Twelve Tribes.

  1443 Death of Joshua, aged 110 years; 1423 Tribe of Benjamin
  destroyed.

  1406 Age of Minos, the Cretan lawgiver; 1405 Othniel first judge
  of Israel.

  1400 Troy founded; Pelasgians expelled from Greece by the
  Hellenes.

  1365 Age of Sesostris, king of Egypt; a great conqueror; built
  magnificent cities in his dominions.

  1329 Amphictyonic council established.

  1300 Voyage of the Argonauts from Aphetæ, in Thessaly, to
  Colchis, under the command of Jason; Hercules, Theseus, and his
  other companions were called Argonauts.

  1290 Age of Mœris, king of Egypt; he causes lake Mœris to be dug,
  to receive the surplus waters of the Nile.

  1285 Barak and Deborah defeat Jabin.

  1245 Age of Gideon; defeats the Midianites and Moabites.

  1187 Jephtha, the tenth judge of Israel, sacrifices his daughter.

  1184 Troy captured, after a siege of ten years; Age of Agamemnon,
  Achilles, Diomedes, Nestor, Ulysses, Helen, Priam, Hector, Æneas,
  Andromache, &c.; Æneas sails for Italy.

  1156 Age of Eli; 1155 Birth of Samuel; 1150 Utica, in Africa,
  founded.

  1124 Æolian colonies established in Asia Minor.

  1107 Age of Samson; judged Israel twenty years; betrayed to the
  Philistines by Delilah; buries himself under the ruins of the
  temple of Dagon, with a great number of his enemies.

  1100 Salamis founded by Teucer.

  1095 Saul first king of Israel; 1085 Birth of David; 1062 slays
  Goliath.

  1055 Death of Saul; succession of David; 1048 crowned king of all
  Israel; 1047 takes Jerusalem from the Jebusites.

  1044 Settlement of the Ionian colonies in Asia Minor; Age of
  Homer; the cities of Smyrna, Chios, Colophon, Salamis, Rhodes,
  Argos and Athens afterwards contend for the honour of his birth.

  1037 The Moabites and Ammonites conquered by David.

  1035 Rabbath Ammon taken by Joab; Uriah killed at the siege.

  1033 Birth of Solomon; Age of Hiram king of Tyre.

  1014 Death of David; succeeded by Solomon; Most flourishing
  period of the kingdom of Israel.

  1003 Temple at Jerusalem built and dedicated by Solomon.

  994 Dorians establish colonies in Asia Minor.

  975 _Death of Solomon_; Rehoboam succeeds him; his tyranny causes
  a division of the realm into the kingdom of Judah and Israel;
  Jeroboam king of Israel; Rehoboam king of Judah.

  971 Shishak, king of Egypt, plunders the temple at Jerusalem.

  907 Age of the poet Hesiod; 900 Pygmalion, brother of Dido.

  897 Ahab, king of Israel, slain; Ahaziah, king of Judah; Elisha
  taken up to heaven; 884 Jehu king of Israel.

  880 Lycurgus, the Spartan lawgiver.

  878 Carthage founded by Dido, a Tyrian Princess.

  827 Ethiopians conquer Egypt; 825 Jonah visits Nineveh; the
  people repent.

  820 Death of Sardanapalus; First Assyrian empire destroyed;
  Median empire founded; Kingdom of Macedonia founded.

  810 Uzziah, king of Judah, takes the cities of the Philistines.

  800 Persepolis built; 776 Era of the Olympiads begins.

  772 Pul invades Israel.

  753 Rome founded, April 20; 743 First Messenian war lasts 19
  years.

  740 Damascus taken by Tiglath-pileser.

  732 Syracuse founded; 730 Tarentum founded.

  729 Samaria taken by Shalmanezer; End of the Kingdom of Israel;
  Captivity of the Ten Tribes.

  713 Sennacherib threatens Hezekiah; his army miraculously
  destroyed.

  685 Second Messenian war; lasts fourteen years; Ira besieged
  eleven years; its capture ends the war.

  657 Holofernes slain by Judith, near Bethulia.

  650 Naval battle between the Corcyreans and Corinthians--the
  first sea-fight on record.

  641 Josiah king of Judah reforms abuses; restores the worship of
  God.

  630 Cyrene founded; 627 Nabopolazzar king of Babylon.

  616 Age of Pharaoh Necho; Tyrians in his service sail round
  Africa.

  607 Nineveh taken by the Medes and Babylonians.

  604 Age of Pittacus (general of Mitylene); Sappho (Greek poetess).

  594 Age of Ezekiel.

  591 Pythian Games begin; Age of Thales (philosopher); Æsop
  (fabulist).

  588 Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem; End of the kingdom of Judah;
  Beginning of the Babylonish captivity; 572 Nebuchadnezzar takes
  Tyre after a siege of thirteen years.

  570 Voyage of Hanno along the west coast of Africa; about the
  same time Himilco sails to Britain.

  560 Union of the Medes and Persians; Cyaxares king of the Medes.

  559 Persian empire founded by Cyrus; Age of Anaximander, inventor
  of globes and charts.

  548 Cyrus defeats Crœsus at Thymbra; Takes Sardis; Conquers Lydia.

  539 Massilia founded; Age of Pythagoras (philosopher); Anacreon
  (poet).

  538 Cyrus takes Babylon; Age of Daniel; 525 Cambyses conquers
  Egypt.

  521 Age of Darius Hystaspes; 518 End of the Babylonish captivity.

  516 Age of Artaxerxes Longimanus or Ahasuerus; Queen Esther.

  515 The Temple of Jerusalem rebuilt; 510 Sybaris, in Italy,
  destroyed.

  509 Consular government established in Rome.

  504 Athenians burn Sardis; Age of Heraclitus (naturalist);
  Democedes (physician); 500 Milesians emigrate from Spain to
  Ireland.

  500 First Persian war against Greece; 490 Battle of Marathon; the
  Greeks commanded by Miltiades, defeat the Persians, under Dates
  and Artaphanes; 480 Xerxes crosses the Hellespont at Abydos;
  invades Greece; Battle of Thermopylæ; Naval battles of Artemisium
  and Salamis; Age of Themistocles (Athenian statesman); Anaxagoras
  (philosopher); Pindar (poet); Æschylus (tragic writer); Corinna
  (poetess).

  479 Battles of Platæa and Mycale on the same day.

  470 The Athenians, under Cimon defeat the Persians, on the
  Eurymedon river, twice in one day, first on water and then on
  land.

  465 Third Messenian war; lasts ten years.

  457 Battle of Tanagra; Age of Pericles (Athenian statesman).

  445 Age of Herodotus (historian); Phidias (sculptor).

  431 First Peloponnesian war commences; continues twenty-seven
  years; Age of Hippocrates (physician); Democrates (philosopher,
  &c.)

  424 Bœotians defeat the Athenians at Delium.

  406 Naval battle of Ægos Potamos; Athenian fleet defeated by the
  Spartans; Age of Protagoras (philosopher); Parrhasius (painter).

  401 Battle of Cunaxa; Death of Cyrus the younger; Retreat of the
  ten thousand under Xenophon.

  400 Death of Socrates; 396 Age of Zeuxis (painter); Aristippus
  (philosopher).

  395 Veii besieged by the Romans for ten years.

  394 Spartans defeat the Thebans at Coronæa; Falerii taken by
  Camillus; Age of the Cyrenaic philosophers.

  389 Battle of the Allia; Gauls defeat the Romans; burn Rome;
  inhabitants fly to Cære or Agylla; Gauls defeated near Cabii by
  Camillus.

  379 Age of Plato (philosopher); Conon (Athenian commander);
  Epaminondas and Pelopidas (Theban generals); Diogenes (Stoic).

  371 Epaminondas defeats the Spartans at Leuctra; 370 builds
  Messene in eighty-five days; Founds Megalopolis; Age of Eudoxius
  (astronomer).

  362 Battle at Mantinea; death of Epaminondas.

  360 Methone captured; Philip of Macedon loses his right eye.

  357 Phocian war begins; lasts ten years; 355 Alexander born.

  351 Capture of Sidon by Artaxerxes Ochus.

  343 Age of Aristotle (philosopher), Demosthenes (orator), Phocion
  (Athenian general).

  338 Battle of Chæronea; Philip defeats the Athenians and their
  allies.

  336 Philip assassinated; Archidamus, King of Sparta, killed in
  battle at Manduriæ.

  335 Alexander the Great destroys Thebes; 334 conquers Greece;
  begins his Persian expedition; battle of the Granicus; 333 battle
  of Issus; siege of Tyre; 332 conquers Egypt; founds the city of
  Alexandria; visits the temple of Jupiter Ammon; 331 crosses the
  Euphrates at Thapsacus; battle of Arbela; fall of the Persian
  Empire; death of Darius Codomanus; 326 Defeat of Porus by
  Alexander; the latter afterwards descends the Indus to the sea;
  his Admiral, Nearchus, navigates a fleet from the Indus to the
  Tigris; Age of Apelles (painter); Antipater (Macedonian General,
  &c.)

  323 Death of Alexander, May 21; his empire divided between
  Ptolemy, Cassander, Lysimachus and Seleucus.

  320 Samnites defeat the Romans near Caudium; their army pass
  under the Caudine Forks; Age of Praxiteles (sculptor); Demetrius
  (orator); Phalerius Theopompus (historian); Apollodorus (poet.)

  312 Seleucus takes Babylon; dynasty of the Selucidæ begins.

  310 Pytheas, the navigator, sails from Gades to Thule.

  301 Battle of Ipsus, between Antigonus and Ptolemy, Seleucus,
  Lysimachus and Cassander; Age of Zeno (philosopher).

  292 The Sabines conquered by Curius Dentatus; Age of Euclid
  (mathematician).

  284 The Pharos, or light-house of Alexandria, built.

  281 The Achæan League formed, by the chief cities of the
  Peloponnesus, for mutual defence.

  280 The Romans defeated at Pandosia by Pyrrhus King of Epirus;
  Age of Antiochus 1st, surnamed Soter, King of Syria.

  274 Romans defeat Pyrrhus; 272, conquer Samnium, after a seventy
  years’ war.

  262 First Punic war begins; continues twenty-six years; 260
  Duillius obtains the first naval victory gained over the
  Carthaginians by the Romans; 256 Regulus defeated by Xantippus;
  Age of Diodatus.

  251 Age of Eratosthenes (mathematician); Callimachus (poet).

  249 Asdrubal defeated at Panormus, in Sicily, by Metellus.

  246 Arsaces founds the Parthian empire; Age of Hamilcar, a noted
  Carthaginian General, and father of Hannibal.

  242 The Romans defeat the Carthaginians at sea, near the Ægades
  islands; ends the first Punic war.

  231 The Romans take Corsica and Sardinia.

  224 The Spartan king Cleomenes III defeated by Antigonus Doson;
  Colossus, at Rhodes, overthrown by an earthquake; Age of
  Apollonius (poet), Philopæmen (Achæan General.)

  219 Hannibal takes Saguntum; originates the second Punic war,
  which lasts seventeen years; 218 Crosses the Alps; defeats the
  Romans, first on the river Ticinus, then on the Trebia; 217
  Battle of Thrasimene--his third victory; 216 Battle of Cannæ--his
  fourth victory; 50,000 Romans slain; Capua declares in his favour.

  212 Marcellus takes Syracuse, after a three years’ siege; death
  of Archimedes, the noted geometrician.

  206 Asdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, defeated and slain by
  the Romans; Age of Syphax (Latin poet); Ennius (Latin poet);
  Masinissa, King of Numidia.

  202 Sicily becomes a Roman province.

  201 Battle of Zama; Hannibal defeated by Scipio Africanus; End of
  the second Punic war.

  200 Romans conquer Illyricum; 197, defeat the Macedonians at
  Cynoscephalæ; 196 Hannibal banished from Carthage.

  190 Antiochus defeated by the Consul Acilius at Thermopylæ; Age
  of Cato the elder.

  187 Scipio Asiaticus defeats Antiochus I at Magnesia and Sipylum.

  186 Scipio Africanus banished to Liturnum.

  183 Death of Hannibal in Bithynia, by poison, aged sixty-five.

  168 Insurrection of the Maccabees against Antiochus, King of
  Syria.

  168 Paulus Æmilius defeats Perseus at Pydna; Macedonia becomes
  a Roman province; Age of Hipparchus (philosopher); Polybius
  (historian), &c.

  167 Epirus conquered by the Romans; 165 Age of Judas Maccabæus.

  149 Third Punic war begins; 146 Scipio destroys Carthage, Mummius
  destroys Corinth; Agatharchides (Greek geographer).

  137 Demetrius Nicator defeated at Damascus by Alexander Zebina.

  133 Numantia destroyed by the inhabitants; Spain becomes a Roman
  province; The kingdom of Pergamus bequeathed to the Romans by
  Attalus, its last king.

  131 Tiberius Gracchus treacherously slain at Potentia.

  109 Jugurthine war begins; lasts five years; 106 Jugurtha
  betrayed by Bocchus to the Romans; Armenia Major becomes a Roman
  province.

  105 Aristobulus crowned king of the Jews; 106 Pompey born at Rome.

  102 Marius defeats the Cimbri and Teutones at Aquæ Sextæ; 101
  defeats the Cimbri on the Raudian Plains.

  100 Birth of Julius Cæsar, July 12; this month was named after
  him.

  92 Bocchus sends Sylla a present of 100 lions from Africa.

  89 The Mithridatic war begins; lasts twenty-six years; 86 Sylla
  defeats the consuls Carbo and Cinna; Metellus (consul); Sertorius
  (Roman General); 78 death of Sylla; 76 Calaguris besieged by
  Pompey; the inhabitants, reduced to extremity, feed on their
  wives and children.

  75 Bithynia bequeathed to the Romans by Nicomedes.

  73 Sertorius assassinated by Perpenna and others at Osca.

  73 Servile war begins; Roman slaves revolt against their masters,
  under Spartacus; defeated, two years afterwards, by Pompey and
  Crassus.

  72 Lucullus defeats Mithridates the Great at Cabira; 69 defeats
  Tigranes; captures Tigranocerta; 68 defeats Mithridates at Zela;
  66 again at Nicopolis.

  67 Pompey takes Coracesium; 65 dethrones Antiochus Asiaticus.

  64 Pontus annexed to Rome; Death of Mithridates the Great.

  63 Palestine conquered by Pompey; Cataline defeated and killed at
  Pistoria.

  60 First triumvirate of Cæsar, Pompey and Crassus; Age of
  Catullus (poet); Cicero (orator); Sallust (historian); Roscius
  (actor), &c.

  57 Gaul becomes a Roman province; 55 Cæsar invades Britain.

  53 Crassus plunders the Temple of Venus at Hierapolis; his defeat
  and death, by the Parthians, near Carrhæ.

  51 Siege and capture of Pindenissus by Cicero.

  50 Civil war between Cæsar and Pompey; 49 Cæsar crosses the
  Rubicon; takes Ariminum; 48 defeats Pompey at Pharsalia, July
  30th, death of Pompey.

  47 Cæsar defeats Pharnaces at Zela; writes from thence his famous
  letter of three words, “Veni, vidi, vici;” I came, I saw, I
  conquered; 46 Victorious at Thapsus; Death of Cato; 45 Battle of
  Munda; the last in which Cæsar commanded.

  44 Cæsar killed in the Senate-house, March 15th, by Brutus,
  Cassius, &c.

  43 Antony defeats the Consul Pansa, and is defeated the same day
  by Hirtius; Cicero murdered by order of Antony; Age of Varro
  (historian and philosopher); Diodorus Siculus and Pompeius
  (historians).

  42 Antony and Octavius defeat Brutus and Cassius at Philippi.

  37 Herod, an Idumean, placed on the Jewish throne.

  31 Naval battle at Actium; Octavius defeats Antony; _Ends the
  Commonwealth of Rome_.

  30 Death of Antony and Cleopatra; Egypt becomes a Roman province.

  28 _Roman Empire begins_.

  27 Title of Augustus given to Octavius; Augustin age; Virgil,
  Livy, Ovid, Propertius (poets); Horace (historian); Dionysius
  Halicarnassus (antiquarian).

  20 Roman standards taken from Crassus restored to Augustus, by
  Phraates, king of Parthia; death of Virgil.

  19 Noricum and Pannonia conquered by the Romans; Candace, queen
  of Meroe, in Ethiopia, blind of an eye, invades Egypt, but is
  repelled.

  15 Rhætia and Vindelicia conquered by Drusus.

  6 Archelaus, surnamed Herod, banished to Vienna, in Gaul.

  4 JESUS CHRIST, our SAVIOUR, born four years before the vulgar
  era, December 25th.

  2 Massacre of the Innocents at Bethlehem, by order of Herod; his
  death; Archelaus succeeds him.


_A.D. First year of the Christian Era, 4004 years after the
Creation._

  2 Silk first introduced into Rome.

  6 Procurators or governors appointed over Judea.

  8 Christ, at twelve years of age, is three days in the temple.

  9 Arminius or Herman, a German chief, destroys the army of Varus;
  this defeat causes a great sensation at Rome; Ovid banished to
  Tomi.

  14 Augustus dies at Nola, after a reign of forty-five years;
  succeeded by Tiberius; Age of Germanicus (Roman general).

  20 Jews expelled from Italy by Tiberius; 28 Age of Strabo
  (geographer).

  29 John the Baptist commences preaching: 30 Baptizes our Saviour.

  31 Our Saviour delivers the Sermon on the Mount.

  32 Feeds the 5000: his transfiguration; John the Baptist beheaded.

  33 Our Saviour’s death; First Christian Church at Jerusalem.

  37 Conversion of St. Paul; Death of Tiberius; succeeded by
  Caligula; 40 Caligula assassinated.

  41 Seneca banished to Corsica; is recalled eight years
  afterwards; Age of Pomponius Mela (geographer).

  43 Expedition of Claudius into Britain; 51 Caractacus, British
  king, taken as a prisoner to Rome.

  52 Paul visits Athens; 54 preaches the Gospel at Ephesus; Age of
  Persius (satirist); Age of Lucan the poet.

  60 St. Paul arrested; 62 voyage to Rome; 63 arrives in that city.

  61 Boadicea defeated by Suetonius Paulinus at Camulodunum.

  68 Nero dies: Josephus (historian); Pliny (naturalist); Petronius
  (poet).

  69 Galba slain; Suicide of Otho; Vitellius slain.

  70 Jerusalem taken and destroyed by Titus, September 8th;
  Agricola’s fleet sails around Britain; Agricola promotes useful
  arts among the Britons.

  76 Agricola defeats Galgacus at the foot of the Grampian Hills.

  79 Herculaneum, Pompeii, and other cities, overwhelmed by an
  eruption of Mount Vesuvius; Death of the elder Pliny.

  81 Titus dies, aged 40; Age of Martial (poet); Quintilian
  (rhetorician).

  96 Domitian slain; Age of Tacitus (historian); Juvenal (satirist).

  103 Dacia conquered by Trajan; 106 Age of Pliny the younger;
  Plutarch.

  117 Death of Trajan, at Selinus, in Cilicia; succeeded by Adrian.

  120 Wall built by Adrian across Britain.

  139 Death of Adrian, aged 71; Antoninus (emperor); Ptolemy
  (geographer).

  140 Wall built by Antoninus across Britain.

  169 Death of Polycarp the Martyr; Age of Galen (physician).

  180 Marcus Aurelius (emperor) dies at Sirmium.

  192 The Emperor Commodus slain; Pertinax succeeds him.

  194 Severus defeats Niger at Issus; becomes emperor.

  210 Wall built across Britain by Severus; 218 Heliogabalus
  emperor.

  226 Artaxerxes founds second Persian empire; Dynasty of the
  Sassanides begins.

  238 Maximinus killed by his own soldiers before the walls of
  Aquileia. This emperor was a monster of cruelty, and of gigantic
  size and strength, being eight feet high.

  259 Sapor I captures the emperor Valerian, and flays him alive;
  Odenatus king of Palmyra; Gallienus succeeds Valerian.

  267 Odenatus dies; Zenobia, his wife, assumes the title of Queen
  of the East.

  270 Death of Claudius; Aurelian succeeds; regards Zenobia as
  a usurper; 272 defeats her at Antioch and Emesa; 273 captures
  Palmyra; takes Zenobia prisoner; puts Longinus, her secretary to
  death.

  275 Emperor Tacitus; 282 Emperor Probus killed, near Sirmium.

  286 Age of the emperors Diocletian and Maximianus.

  305 Both resign their authority to enjoy private life; the first
  retires to Salona in Illyricum, and the other to Lucania.

  306 Constantine the Great proclaimed emperor; 313 establishes
  Christianity as the religion of the empire; 315 defeats Licinius
  at Cibalis; 324 again at Adrianopolis; 328 removes the government
  from Rome to Byzantium.

  338 Death of Constantine; succeeded by his sons Constantinus,
  Constantius and Constans.

  348 Sapor defeats Constantius at Singara; 350 Constantius sole
  emperor; 351 defeats Magnentius at Mursa; 353, again at Mons
  Seleucus.

  360 Julian the Apostate (emperor); 363 dies; next year Jovian
  dies.

  367 Age of Ausonius (poet); 375 Emporor Gratian.

  378 Valens defeated by the Goths at Adrianopolis. This was the
  most disastrous defeat experienced by the Romans since the battle
  of Cannæ.

  380 Age of St. Augustine, one of the fathers of the Church.

  395 Theodosius, emperor, divides the Roman empire between his
  sons Arcadius and Honorius, into Eastern and Western.

  403 Stilicho defeated by the Goths at Pollentia.

  407 The Alans, Vandals and Sueves invade Gaul and Spain.

  408 Alaric takes Rome first time; 409, second time; 410, third
  time; the city given up to plunder for six days; Death of Alaric;
  Kingdom of Burgundy founded.

  441 Age of St. Patrick; 448 Romans leave Britain; next year
  Angles and Saxons land under Hengist and Horsa.

  451 Attila defeated at Durocatalaunum; 452 destroys Aquileia; 453
  Dies.

  455 Rome captured by Genseric, king of the Vandals; Heptarchy
  established in Britain.

  474 Romulus Augustulus, last emperor of the west.

  476 _End of the Roman Empire_.

  489 Odoacer, chief of the Heruli, becomes king of Italy;
  Ostrogoths invade Italy and defeat Odoacer.

  496 Clovis the Great, king of France; Feudal system begins.

  529 Age of Justinian; Belisarius (Roman general).

  622 Mahomet, aged 53, flies from Mecca to Medina, which forms the
  first year of the Hegira or Mahometan Era.

  632 Death of Mahomet; Abubeker, his successor or first Caliph.

  636 Saracens conquer Egypt; destroy the Alexandrian Library.

  712 The Moors invade Spain; 713 conquer the Visigoths.

  742 Charlemagne, son of Pepin the Short, born; 768 crowned king
  of the Franks; 774 crowned king of Italy; 800 crowned emperor of
  the West, by Pope Leo III; 814 Charlemagne dies. Charlemagne was
  the most powerful Christian monarch of the middle ages; he was a
  renowned warrior, he also encouraged learning and religion, and
  collected around him the most noted scholars of his time.

  827 The Heptarchy united under Egbert, king of England.

  843 Kenneth Macalpine first king of Scotland.

  849 Alfred, King of England, born; 872 ascends the throne; 901
  dies. This monarch rescued his country from the power of the
  Danes; encouraged learning and religion; enacted wise laws, and
  laid the foundation of the naval power of Britain.

  853 Tithes of all England granted to the church.

  856 The English crown first disposed of by will.

  862 Winchester burnt by the Danes.

  867 The monasteries ravaged by the Danes.

  886 Ships first built to secure the coasts. Learning restored at
  Oxford, by Alfred the Great.

  890 Brick and stone first used in building. Time calculated by
  wax candles marked.

  897 A plague happened which caused great desolation among the
  inhabitants.

  900 Athelstan created knight, and the first who enjoyed this
  title in England.

  937 A severe frost, which continued 120 days. The Bible
  translated into the Saxon. Colebrand, the Danish giant, killed by
  Guy, Earl of Warwick.

  944 A storm blew down 1500 houses in London.

  945 The first tuneable bells in England were this year hung in
  Croyland Abbey.

  946 Stealing first punished with death.

  955 Edred enjoyed the honor of being the first who was styled
  King of Great Britain.

  960 Laws to prevent excessive drinking. Wolves’ heads made a
  tribute. Eight princes rowed Edgar over the river Dee.

  979 Juries instituted.

  982 A fire destroyed the King’s palace and a great part of London.

  991 The land-tax first levied.

  999 Danegelt first levied, to bribe the Danes to leave the
  kingdom.

  1002 November 13, a general massacre of the Danes began at Welwin
  in Hertfordshire.

  1012 The priests first inhibited from marrying.

  1014 Selling English children and kindred to Ireland, prohibited.

  1017 Canute caused the assassins of Edmund, and the traitor Edric
  who by a plot of regicide had advanced him to the throne, to be
  hanged.

  1040 Macbeth murders Duncan king of Scotland.

  1058 Edward the Confessor began to cure the King’s evil. Godiva
  relieved Coventry from some heavy taxes by riding naked through
  the town.

  1060 The cross of Waltham erected.

  1065 The Saxon laws written in Latin.

  1066 William Fitzosborne created earl of Hereford, being the
  first Earl created in this kingdom.

  1068 The tax of Danegelt was re-established; and the curfew-bell
  ordered to be rung at eight every evening, when the people were
  obliged, on pain of death, to extinguish their fire and candle.

  1072 Surnames first used in England.

  1075 William was reconciled with his son Robert, who had rebelled
  against him. Waltheof, earl of Northumberland, was beheaded for
  rebellion, and was the first English nobleman thus executed.

  1076 William refused to pay homage to the see of Rome for the
  possession of England, and forbade his bishops to attend the
  council that Gregory had summoned. He however sent to Rome the
  tribute of Peter-pence. A great earthquake in England, and a
  frost from November to the end of April.

  1078 William laid the foundation of London.

  1079 The Norman laws and language introduced.

  1085 Thirty-six parishes, containing a circuit of sixty miles
  in Hampshire, were depopulated and destroyed without any
  compensation to the inhabitants, in order to make New-Forest for
  William’s diversion of hunting. The tyrannical laws of the Forest
  were made.

  1087 A dreadful famine in England. William went to France and
  destroyed the country with fire and sword. He died at Rouen by a
  fall from his horse, and was buried at Caen, in Normandy, in the
  monastery he had himself founded, but was denied interment by the
  proprietor till the fees were paid.

  1088 An earthquake in London. A great scarcity this year, and
  corn not ripe till the end of November. William II embarked
  for Normandy, and made war against his brother Robert. William
  returned to England; and Henry his brother, was forced to wander
  without a residence.

  1091 A tempest which destroyed 500 houses. Great part of London
  consumed by fire.

  1092 Malcolm, king of Scotland, killed at Alnwick, by the Earl of
  Northumberland.

  1094 Man and beast destroyed by a great mortality.

  1095 Peter the hermit preached up a crusade to the Holy Land.

  1096 The Christian princes raised 700,000 men, and began the holy
  war. The first single combat for deciding disputes between the
  nobility.

  1097 The Voyage for the Holy War, was first undertaken. Being
  a contrivance of Pope Urban, to compose the divisions of the
  church, the whole Christian world being then at discord among
  themselves. This war lasted almost three hundred years.

  1098 Tower surrounded with a wall. Westminster Hall built. Its
  dimensions are 224 feet by 74.

  1099 Jerusalem taken by storm, and forty thousand Saracens put to
  the sword.

  1100 Godwin-Sands, the property of Earl Godwin, first overflowed
  by the sea, destroying four thousand acres of land. King Henry
  married the lady Maud, daughter of Margaret, late queen of Scots,
  and niece to Edgar Atheling, descended from Edmund Ironside. The
  use of fire and candle, after eight o’clock at night restored to
  the English.

  1106 King Henry subdues Normandy, takes Robert prisoner, and
  orders his eyes to be put out.

  1109 Three shillings levied on every hide of land, which tax
  produced £824,000.

  1110 Arts and sciences taught again at Cambridge.

  1112 A plague in London.

  1114 The Thames dry for three days.

  1116 A council called of the nobility, which is supposed by some
  to be the first parliament.

  1122 The order of the Knights Templars founded.

  1123 The first park (Woodstock) made in England.

  1129 The revenue of the royal demesne altered from kind to specie.

  1132 London mostly destroyed by fire.

  1134 Duke Robert, having been imprisoned and blinded twenty-eight
  years, ended his miserable existence. Wheat sufficient to subsist
  100 men one day, sold at one shilling--a sheep 4d.

  1136 The distance from Aldgate to St. Paul’s (included),
  destroyed by fire in London.

  1136 The Empress Maud besieged in Oxford, and made her escape
  from thence on foot, being disguised in white, on a snowy night,
  to Abingdon. The tax of Danegelt entirely abolished. No less than
  fifteen hundred strong castles in the kingdom.

  1139 The Empress Matilda lands at Arundel, and claims the crown.
  Makes her natural brother, Robert, Earl of Gloucester, her
  general.

  1141 Stephen taken prisoner at the battle of Lincoln, and
  confined in chains by Maud, in Gloucester gaol. Stephen released.

  1148 A new Crusade undertaken.

  1151 Gratian of Bologna, the monk, collects the canon laws after
  twenty-four year’s labour.

  1153 Agreed, between Henry and Stephen, that eleven hundred of
  the castles, erected by permission of the latter, should be
  abolished. Appeals were first made to the Pope, and canon laws
  instituted. There was no regular mode of taxation. Contending
  parties supported themselves by plundering each other’s tenants.
  There were more abbeys built, than in the hundred years preceding.

  1155 The castles demolished, agreeably to the treaty of 1153.

  1157 The Welsh, subdued, do homage, and swear allegiance. A sect,
  called Publicans, rejecting baptism and marriage, came into
  England from Germany. The bishops pronounced them heretics; they
  were branded in the forehead and whipped.

  1174 Henry scourged for the supposed murder of Becket. The
  bishops and abbots of Scotland swore fealty to England and its
  church. The earls and barons of Scotland swore allegiance to
  Henry and his son.

  1176 London bridge begun by Peter Colmar, a priest. It was
  thirty-three years in building.

  1177 Glass windows in private houses first used. Debasers of coin
  first severely punished. A new coinage.

  1185 A total eclipse of the sun; and, at the same time, an
  earthquake, which destroyed Lincoln and other churches.

  1186 Near Oxford in Suffolk, was a sort of wild-man caught in
  a fisherman’s net. Trial by jury established, or the verdict
  of twelve men, to punish offenders with the loss of a leg or
  banishment. Henry secreted his concubine (Rosamond, daughter of
  Walter, lord Clifford) in a labyrinth at his palace at Woodstock,
  who being discovered by his queen Eleanor, was poisoned by her,
  and buried at Godstow nunnery near Oxford.

  1189 The castles of Berwick and Roxburgh delivered up to William,
  king of Scotland, who was, at the same time relieved from
  subjection to England. Richard began, with Philip of France, his
  expedition to the Holy Land. About this time were those famous
  robbers and outlaws, Robin Hood, and Little John. Upon Richard’s
  coronation-day, (3rd September,) was a great slaughter of the
  Jews in London, who coming to offer their presents to the new
  king, were set upon by the mob, to the loss of their lives and
  estates; and the example of London was followed by other towns,
  as Norwich, St. Edmunds-Bury, Lincoln, Stamford and Lynn.

  1190 King Richard marries the Lady Berengaria, daughter to the
  king of Navarre, and goes to the Holy Land, having sold some of
  the crown lands to raise the money for that expedition. In which
  voyage he took the Island of Sicily and Cyprus.

  1191 Richard obtained a great victory over Saladin, at Jerusalem,
  September 3. He soon after defeated a Turkish troop of 10,000,
  who were guarding a caravan to Jerusalem. He took, on this
  occasion, 3,000 loaded camels, 4,000 mules, and an inestimable
  booty which he gave to his troops.

  1192 Multitudes destroyed by a raging fever, which lasted five
  months. Two suns appeared on Whitsunday, so resembling each
  other, that astronomers could scarcely distinguish which was the
  centre of our system, according to Copernicus.

  1194 Richard having been absent four years, returned to England,
  March 20. He made war with France, and having obtained a great
  victory over the French at Gysors “Not we” says he, “but _Dieu et
  mon Droit_,” i.e. God and my Right, has obtained this victory.
  Ever since, the kings of England have made it their motto.
  The king of Scotland carried the sword of state at the second
  coronation of Richard.

  1197 Robin Hood, being indisposed, and desiring to be blooded,
  was purposely and treacherously bled to death. In this reign,
  companies and societies were first established in London. Three
  lions passant first borne in the king’s shield.

  1199 Surnames first used.

  1200 The king of Scotland performed public homage to John, at the
  parliament held in Lincoln. Assize of bread first appointed.

  1204 The Inquisition established by Pope Innocent III. The most
  ancient writ of parliament directed to the bishop of Salisbury.
  Five moons seen at one time in Yorkshire.

  1205 A fish resembling a man taken on the coast of Suffolk, and
  kept alive six months.

  1207 The first annual mayor and common council of London chosen.

  1208 Divine service throughout the kingdom suspended by the
  Pope’s interdict.

  1209 John excommunicated.

  1210 Twenty Irish princes do homage to John at Dublin. The clergy
  taxed to the amount of £100,000.

  1211 England absolved by the Pope from its allegiance to John.

  1212 Great part of London burnt down by a fire which began in
  Southwark in Middlesex, and consumed the Church of St. Mary
  Overy, went on to the bridge; and whilst some were quenching the
  flames, the houses at the other end took fire, so that numbers
  were inclosed; many were forced to leap into the Thames, whilst
  others, crowding into boats that came to their relief, were the
  cause of nearly 3,000 people perishing, partly by water, and
  partly by fire.

  1213 John resigned his dominions to the Pope, and was absolved.
  In this reign, sterling money was first coined.

  1216 Wheat was sold for twelve-pence a quarter, and beans and
  oats for four-pence a quarter.

  1222 The ward-ship of heirs and their lands was granted to king
  Henry.

  1226 The Pope demanded a sum annually from every cathedral church
  and monastery in Christendom. This demand was refused. Thomas à
  Becket’s bones were enshrined in gold and precious stones. Two
  imposters executed, the one for pretending to be the Virgin Mary,
  the other Mary Magdalen.

  1228 The Jews obliged to pay a third part of their property to
  the king.

  1236 Water first conveyed to London with utility. The Pope’s
  ambassador going to Oxford, was set upon by the students, and
  his brother slain, himself hardly escaping; whereupon the Pope
  excommunicated the University, and made all the bishops who
  interceded in the University’s behalf, and the students, go
  without their gowns, and barefooted from St. Paul’s church to his
  house, being about a mile, before he would revoke the sentence.

  1246 Titles first used.

  1251 Wales entirely subdued and subjected to English laws.

  1253 Fine linen first made in England.

  1255 All possessing £15 per annum, obliged to be knighted, or pay
  a fine. Tapestry introduced by Eleanor, wife of prince Edward.

  1264 There were 700 Jews slain in London, because one of them
  would have forced a Christian to have paid more than two-pence,
  for the use of twenty shillings a week.

  1269 About this time, Roger Bacon, a divine of Merton College in
  Oxford, was imprisoned by the Pope, for preaching against the
  Romish church.

  1273 The Scots swear fealty to Edward, June 12.

  1275 Jews obliged to wear a badge; usury restrained by the same
  act of parliament, October 6.

  1279 The first statute of Mortmain. 280 Jews hung for clipping
  and coining.

  1282 The Rolls in Chancery-lane given to the Jews. Wales reduced,
  after having preserved her liberties 800 years.

  1284 Edward II born at Caernarvon, and created first prince of
  Wales, April 25.

  1285 The abbey Church of Westminster finished, being sixty years
  in building.

  1286 The Jews seized, and £12,000 extorted from them by order of
  the king. He likewise laid great fines upon his judges, and other
  ministers, for their corruption; the sum imposed upon eleven of
  them was 236,000 marks.

  1289 15,000 Jews banished.

  1291 Charing, Waltham, St. Albans, and Dunstable crosses erected,
  where the corpse of queen Eleanor was rested on its way from
  Lincoln to Westminster for interment.

  1295 The Scots confederate with the French against the English.

  1296 Baliol, king of Scotland, brought prisoner to London.

  1298 40,000 Scots killed by the English at the battle of Falkirk.
  Sir William Wallace defeated at Falkirk. Baliol released.
  Spectacles invented.

  1301 Parliament declared Scotland subject to England.

  1302 The treasury robbed of property to the amount of £100,000.
  Magnetic needle first used.

  1308 Crockery ware invented.

  1314 The king defeated at Bannockburn, in Scotland.

  1319 Dublin University founded.

  1322 Knights templar order abolished. Under the accusation of
  heresy and other vices, all the knights templar were seized by
  order of the king, in one day. The knights templar were an order
  instituted by Baldwin, king of Jerusalem, for the defence of the
  Holy City, and of the pilgrims that travelled thither, and were
  afterwards dispersed through all the kingdoms in Christendom.
  They were so enriched by the superstitious world, that they
  possessed no less than 14,000 lordships, besides other valuable
  lands.

  1325 The queen and her adherents declared enemies to the kingdom.

  1326 The nobility renounce all fealty to Edward. The king resigns
  his crown to his son Edward III.

  1327 The first general pardon granted at a coronation, which was
  afterwards imitated by succeeding kings.

  1330 Gunpowder invented. The use of guns by Berthold Swartz of
  Cologne in Germany, a monk, who being addicted to the study
  of Chemistry, and making up a preparation of Nitre, and other
  things, a spark of fire fell into it and caused a quick and
  violent explosion; whereupon he made a composition of powder,
  and inclosing it in an instrument of brass, found it answer his
  intention, and by this accident came the invention of Guns.

  1331 The art of weaving cloth brought from Flanders.

  1340 Copper money first used in Scotland and Ireland. Thomas
  Blanket and some other inhabitants of Bristol, set up looms for
  weaving those woollen cloths that yet bear that name.

  1341 Gold first coined in England.

  1346 Cannon first used by the English at Cressy.

  1347 So great a plague in England, that in one year there was
  buried in London 50,000; and there succeeded a famine and
  murrain. August 3rd, king Edward took the City of Calais, which
  he filled with English inhabitants; and it remained in the
  possession of the Crown of England 210 years after.

  1348 The Order of the Garter instituted by Edward the Black
  Prince, April 3. The plague destroyed one-half of the people.

  1352 The largest silver coin in England was groats.

  1357 Coals first imported into London.

  1362 Council obliged to plead in English.

  1364 Four kings entertained at one time, by Sir Henry Picard,
  lord mayor of London.

  1377 The first champion at coronation. Orders to arm the clergy.

  1378 The plague in the north of England. In this year Greenland
  was discovered.

  1379 Every person in the kingdom taxed, April 25.

  1381 Bills of Exchange first used. Wat Tyler’s rebellion begun
  May 3. 1506 rebels hung, July 2.

  1385 The French land in Scotland, in order to invade England,
  whereupon king Richard went to fight them, and put Edinburgh into
  flames, but they refusing to fight, he returns.

  1386 Linen-weavers company first settled.

  1387 The first high-admiral of England appointed. William of
  Wickham, bishop of Winchester, and lord treasurer, and chancellor
  of England, laid the foundation of the college in Winchester, as
  a nursery for his college in Oxford.

  1388 Bombs invented.

  1391 A great plague and famine. Cards invented for the King of
  France. Charles VI.

  1392 Thirteen counties charged with treason, and obliged to
  purchase their pardons. Provision seized, without payment, for
  the army. Duke of Lancaster landed, and declared his pretensions
  to the crown, July 4. Richard confined in the tower, August 20.
  Resigned his crown, September 29. In this reign piked shoes were
  worn tied with ribands and chains of silver to the knees. Ladies
  began to ride on side saddles, before which time they used to
  ride astride like men.

  1399 Geoffrey Chaucer, the poet, died. A conspiracy formed to
  restore Richard.

  1400 Richard II murdered in Pontefract Castle. Emperor of
  Constantinople visited England.

  1403 The battle of Shrewsbury, July 22, gained by Henry and the
  valour of his sons.

  1405 Great guns first used in England, at the siege of Berwick.

  1407 A plague destroyed 30,000 persons in London.

  1409 Wickliffe’s doctrine condemned.

  1414 King Henry sends his brother, the Duke of Bedford, &c.,
  with 200 sail of ships, who fell upon the French fleet, sunk 500
  French vessels, and took three great Carricks of Genoa; relieved
  Harfleur, and so forced the French to raise the siege. In this
  action many thousands of the French were killed.

  1415 The battle of Agincourt gained by Henry, with a loss of
  10,000 men to the French, killed, and 14,000 prisoners, October
  25th. Henry sent David Gam, a Welsh captain, to view the strength
  of the enemy, who reported, “There were enough to be killed,
  enough to be taken prisoners, and enough to run away.”

  1418 Sir John Oldcastle burnt for heresy in St. Giles’s fields.

  1419 Vines and sugar-cane first planted in Madeira.

  1420 Henry assumes the title of King of France, on a new coin,
  April 18th. Kings of France and England make a magnificent entry
  into Paris.

  1421 The Duke of Clarence, making an inroad into Anjou, in an
  unhappy engagement with the French, he and about 2,000 English
  were slain.

  1422 The two Courts of England and France held at Paris, on
  Whitsunday: the two Kings and Queens dined together in public,
  May 21st. In this reign it was enacted that knights, citizens,
  and burgesses, should be resident in the place for which they
  were chosen. The crown and jewels were pawned to raise money for
  maintaining the war with France.

  1422 The French King enlisted 15,000 Scots.

  1424 The King of Scotland ransomed.

  1430 Every person possessed of £40 per annum, obliged to be
  knighted.

  1436 Paris taken by the English.

  1437 James, King of Scotland, murdered, February 19th. So great
  a dearth, that bread was made of fern roots and ivy berries.

  1447 The Bodleian library at Oxford founded.

  1448 Duke of York asserts his title to the crown.

  1449 A rebellion in Ireland.

  1450 The King and his forces defeated at Seven-oaks, by Jack
  Cade, in May. Cade killed, and his followers dispersed, in June.

  1453 The first Lord Mayor’s show. Richard Plantagenet, Duke of
  York, encounters the Queen’s army, near Wakefield in Yorkshire,
  in which he was killed, and his army routed. Edward Plantagenet,
  Earl of March, hearing of his father’s death, took upon him the
  title of Duke of York, and in a battle, at Mortimer’s-cross, near
  Ludlow, overthrew the Earls of Pembroke, Ormond, and Wiltshire,
  and beheaded Owen Tudor, the King’s father-in-law. And in another
  battle with the Queen, he killed the Earls of Northumberland, and
  Westmoreland; the Lords Dacres, Wells, Clifford, Beaumont, and
  Grey. This was the bloodiest battle that England ever knew, for
  there were killed that day 36,776 men.

  1454 The king defeated by the Duke of York, at Barnet.

  1459 Engravings and etchings invented.

  1460 The King taken prisoner at the battle of Northampton.

  1461 Edward, the Duke of York, proclaimed King. Richard
  Plantagenet, brother to Edward IV, created Duke of Gloucester.
  Henry, Margaret, their sons, and adherents, attained by
  parliament, November 6th.

  1463 Woollens, laces, ribands, and other English manufactures,
  prohibited exportation.

  1464 Henry, in disguise, taken prisoner, and conveyed to the
  Tower.

  1469 5,000 Welsh slain at the battle of Branbury.

  1470 Warwick, being offended at the marriage of Edward IV, landed
  September 13th, with 60,000 men from France. Edward IV flies to
  the Duke of Burgundy, his brother-in-law, in Holland.

  1471 King Edward, endeavouring to re-obtain the crown, encounters
  King Henry in a bloody battle, upon Gladmore heath, near Barnet,
  and King Henry taken prisoner a second time. On both sides were
  slain 10,000 men. King Henry’s Queen, in a battle with King
  Edward, was taken prisoner, 3,000 on her side were slain, and
  her son Edward killed; and soon after, King Henry himself was
  murdered by the hand of the crook-back’d Duke of Gloucester.

  1472 A plague in England destroyed more than preceding fifteen
  year’s war.

  1475 Margaret of Anjou, ransomed for £12,500.

  1481 James, King of Scotland, caused one of his brothers to be
  murdered. Thomas Parr born this year, and lived 152 years. A
  remarkable act was passed in this reign, which enacted what sort
  of dress each class of men should wear. Another enacted that no
  peaked shoes should be worn.

  1483 Gloucester conveyed the King to Northampton. Lords
  Hastings, Rivers, and Grey beheaded. The Lord Mayor, &c., at the
  instigation of the Duke of Buckingham, offered the crown to the
  Duke of Gloucester, who, with affected hesitation, accepted it,
  June 17th. King Edward V, and his brother, the Duke of York,
  murdered in the Tower. Jane Shore, concubine to King Edward
  IV, and afterwards to Lord Hastings, was obliged to do penance
  publicly in St. Paul’s. She was afterwards starved to death, no
  person being allowed to relieve her, and died in a ditch; to
  which circumstance, Shoreditch is said to owe its name. Edward V
  was born in Westminster Abbey, November 4th, 1470; reigning two
  months and eighteen days, was murdered in the Tower, and buried
  there privately. His remains were afterwards found in 1674,
  and removed to Westminster. Richard, Duke of Gloucester, (the
  English Nero,) proclaimed King of England. Post-horses and stages
  established. Earl of Richmond landed at Pool in Dorsetshire.
  Being nearly surprised by Richard, he embarked again, and
  returned to Picardy.

  1484 Anne, the Queen of Richard, died March 16th. Richard treats
  with Laudais, the Duke of Bretagne’s prime minister, for
  surprising and delivering up the Earl of Richmond. Richmond,
  escaping from Bretagne, went to Angers, in Anjou.

  1485 Lord Stanley raises 5000 men, and his brother 2000, with
  whom they joined Richmond. The sweating sickness, raged in London.

  1486 King Henry, to balance the power of the Lords, found a way
  to raise that of the Commons, which ever since has carried a much
  greater sway than formerly in the government.

  1487 Lambert Simnel, who personated the Duke of York, was made a
  scullion in the King’s kitchen. The star chamber instituted.

  1488 The King of Scotland, James III, killed by his subjects.
  Cape of Good Hope discovered.

  1489 Maps and sea charts first brought into England by
  Bartholomew Columbus.

  1491 The Greek language first introduced into England.

  1492 3rd August, Columbus set sail from Palos, a port of Spain,
  and on the 12th of October, to his unspeakable gratification,
  he made his first discovery in the New World. This was one of
  the Bahama Islands, called by the natives Guanahani, named by
  Columbus St. Salvador, and afterwards, by some unpardonable
  caprice, called by the English Cat Island. He landed the same
  day, took possession of it in the name of the Spanish sovereigns,
  and assumed the titles of Admiral and Viceroy, which had been
  awarded to him before he sailed from Europe.

  1493 15th March. Columbus arrived in Spain after a stormy and
  dangerous voyage, having taken not quite seven months and a-half
  to accomplish this momentous enterprize.

  1494 Poyning’s law, which enacted that the statutes in England,
  respecting the English, should be observed in Ireland likewise,
  first instituted by Sir Edward Poyning.

  1495 Cicely, Duchess of York, mother to King Edward IV, died,
  being very old, who had lived to see three Princes born of her
  body, crowned, and four murdered.

  1497 Perkin Warbeck besieged Exeter. The passage to the Indies by
  the way of the Cape of Good Hope discovered. 3rd July, John Cabot
  discovered Newfoundland. He sailed from the Port of Bristol, in
  the spring of 1497, and, on the 3rd of July, discovered the coast
  of Labrador. The opposite Island, now called Newfoundland, they
  called St. Johns, having landed there on St. John’s day. To the
  mainland they gave the name of _Terra prima vista_--or Primavista
  (first seen). The English navigators thus reached the continent
  of North America only five years after Columbus had discovered
  the West Indies, and more than a year before he had landed on the
  continent or main land.

  1499 Perkin Warbeck taken and hung at Tyburn, and the last Earl
  of the Plantagenet line was beheaded on Tower-hill, November
  28th.

  1500 A plague in London, which destroyed 30,000 of its
  inhabitants. A marriage was concluded between James IV, King of
  Scotland, and Margaret, the daughter of King Henry VII, which
  afterwards united England and Scotland under one King.

  1505 Shillings first coined in England.

  1513 Earl of Surrey gained the battle of Flodden-field, over the
  Scots, whose King, James IV, fell in the contest. King Henry
  invades France in person, takes Terwin and Tournay, at the siege
  of which, the Emperor Maximilian served under the King’s pay. At
  which siege likewise, was fought that battle called the battle
  of Spurs, because the English put some of the French troops to
  flight who made great use of their spurs.

  1514 Enacted that surgeons should not sit on juries, nor be
  employed in parish offices.

  1517 Oxford depopulated by stagnated waters. Martin Luther began
  the reformation in Germany.

  1521 King Henry derived the title to him and his successors
  of Defender of the Faith, from writing a book against Luther.
  Musquets first invented. Mexico city yielded, after a prolonged
  siege, to Cortez, in August.

  1522 Magellan performed his voyage under the auspices of Charles
  V, of Spain. He set sail from Seville, in Spain, in August, 1519.
  After spending several months on the coast of South America,
  searching for a passage to the Indies, he continued his voyage
  to the South, passed through the strait that bears his name,
  and after sailing three months and twenty-one days, through
  an unknown ocean, he discovered a cluster of fertile islands,
  which he named the Ladrones, or the Islands of Thieves, from
  the thievish disposition of the natives. The fair weather and
  favourable winds which he experienced induced him to bestow
  on this the name of the Pacific, which it still retains.
  Proceeding from the Ladrones, he discovered the islands which
  were afterwards called the Philippines in honour of Philip,
  King of Spain, who subjected them forty years after the voyage
  of Magellan. Here, in a contest with the natives, Magellan was
  killed, and the expedition was prosecuted under other commanders.
  After taking in a cargo of spices at the Moluccas, the only
  vessel of the squadron then fit for a long voyage, sailed for
  Europe by the way of the Cape of Good Hope, and arrived in Spain
  in September, 1522.

  1530 The palace of St. James built.

  1535 Brass cannon first cast in England by John Owen. Jacques
  Cartier discovered the St. Lawrence on that Saint’s day. He
  explored the north-east coast carefully, and, passing through
  the Strait of Belleisle, traversed the great Gulf of the St.
  Lawrence, and arrived in the Bay of Chaleurs in July. He was
  delighted with the peaceable and friendly conduct of the natives,
  “who,” says Hakluyt, “with one of their boats, came unto us,
  and brought us pieces of seals ready sodden, putting them upon
  pieces of wood: then, retiring themselves, they would make signs
  unto us, that they did give them to us.” From this hospitable
  place, where the natives seem to have displayed some of the
  politeness of modern society, Jacques Cartier proceeded to Gaspé
  Bay, where he erected a cross thirty feet high, with a shield
  bearing the three fleurs-de-lis of France, thus taking possession
  in the name of Francis the First. He carried off two natives from
  Gaspé, who were of great use to him on his succeeding voyage.
  It appears, however, that it was with their own consent, as
  they allowed themselves to be clothed in shirts, coloured coats
  and caps, and to have a copper chain placed about their neck,
  “whereat they were greatly contented, and gave their old clothes
  to their fellows that went back again.” Cartier coasted along
  the northern shores of the Gulf, when, meeting with boisterous
  weather, he made sail for France, and arrived at St. Malo on the
  5th of September. This celebrated navigator deserves especial
  notice, inasmuch as he was the first who explored the shores
  of Canada to any considerable extent, and was the very first
  European who became acquainted with the existence of Hochelaga,
  and in 1535 pushed his way through all obstacles till he
  discovered and entered the village which occupied the very spot
  on which now stands the city of Montreal.

  1536 376 monasteries suppressed.

  1539 Leaden pipes to convey water invented.

  1540 645 religious houses seized, and their property, amounting
  to £161,000, given to the King. The number of monasteries
  suppressed in England and Wales, were 313, Priories 290, Friaries
  122, Nunneries 142, Colleges 152, and Hospitals 129; in all 1148.

  1541 1st voyage to India by an English ship.

  1543 Mortars and cannon first cast in iron.

  1544 Pistols first used.

  1545 William Foxley slept fourteen days, and lived forty-one days
  after.

  1547 The vows of celibacy before taken by priests, annulled, and
  the communion ordered to be administered in both kinds. Evening
  prayers began to be read in English in the King’s chapel, April
  16th. The Scots refusing to marry their young Queen to King
  Edward (according to their promise in his father’s life-time),
  the protector enters Scotland with an army of 12,000 foot, and
  600 horse, and fights them in Pinkey-field, near Musselburgh, and
  kills 14,000 Scots, and takes 1500 prisoners, having lost but
  sixty of his own men.

  1548 Some ceremonies were now abrogated, and an order of council
  against the carrying of candles, on Candlemas-day, ashes on
  Ash-Wednesday, and palms on Palm-Sunday.

  1549 Telescopes invented.

  1551 The sweating-sickness broke out this year In England with
  such contagion, that 800 died in one week of it in London. Those
  that were taken with it were inclined much to sleep, and all
  that slept died; but if they were kept awake a day, they got
  well. A college founded in Galway in Ireland. Common-prayer
  books established by act of parliament. Monks and nuns allowed
  inheritances. Sternhold and Hopkins translated and put the Psalms
  into verse.

  1553 There was so great a plenty of malt and wheat, that a barrel
  of beer with the cock sold for six-pence, and four great loaves
  for one penny. The King founded St. Bartholomew’s Hospital,
  Bridewell, improved the Hospital of Christchurch and St. Thomas’
  Hospital, Southwark. Judge Hales, in his circuit into Kent,
  required the justices to see to the execution of King Edward’s
  laws: for which he was committed, and removed from prison to
  prison, and threatened so, that he attempted to cut his own
  throat, and at last drowned himself.

  1553 Spitzbergen, the White Sea, and Nova Zembla, discovered by
  the English.

  1554 The laws against Lollards and Heretics were revived, and
  the statutes of Mortmain repealed. There was at this time a
  discovery in London of the imposter of the Spirit of the Wall,
  who, by the help of a whistle, uttered several things relating to
  religion, and the state, through a hole in a wall. It was found
  to be Elizabeth Croses, and one Drake, her accomplice, who were
  both made to do penance for it publicly at St. Paul’s. Scory,
  bishop of Chichester, renounced his wife, and did penance for his
  marriage. It is supposed there were 12,000 of the clergy deprived
  for being married, and most of them were judged upon common fame,
  without any process, but a citation.

  1555 The church lands, in the Queen’s possession, restored.
  Coaches first used in England.

  1556 300 Protestants burnt for heresy.

  1557 This year began with a visitation of the Universities.
  Commissioners were sent to Oxford, where they burnt all the
  English Bibles and heretical books they could find; and took up
  the body of Peter Martyr’s wife, who they said was a heretic,
  and buried it in a dunghill. And at Cambridge, they dug up the
  bodies of Bucer and Fagius, two heretics, and tied their coffins
  to stakes, and burnt them and their heretical books together.
  Cardinal Pole died November 15th.

  1576-77-78 Three voyages by Frobisher in search of a North-west
  passage. Greenland explored.

  1580 Drake, the first English circumnavigator.

  1584 Virginia discovered by Sir Walter Raleigh.

  1587 Davies’ Straits discovered by Davies, an English navigator.
  February 9th. Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, at Fotheringay
  Castle.

  1588 Destruction of the Spanish Armada.

  1595 Falkland Islands, discovered by Hawkins.

  1596 The first trading expedition to the East Indies.

  1599 East India Company. Chauvin made two voyages to Tadousac.

  1603 Death of Queen Elizabeth on 24th March, and accession of
  James VI.

  1604 The present translation of the Bible made.

  1605 The gun-powder plot discovered. The channel for the New
  River allowed to be cut. 97,304 person died in London, this year,
  whereof 68,596 died of the plague.

  1608 Virginia planted by the English. Champlain returned to
  Canada, and Quebec founded 3rd July.

  1609 East India company’s patent removed. Chelsea college
  founded. Alum brought to perfection by Sir J. Bouchier.
  Silk-worms first brought into England.

  1610 Thermometers invented. King Henry IV of France murdered at
  Paris, by Ravillac, a Romish priest.

  1611 Bartholomew Legat was condemned by the convocation for an
  Arian heretic. Legat was burnt at Smithfield for an Arian.

  1612 Edward Wightman of Burton, burnt at Lichfield for a heretic.

  1614 Sir Thomas Overbury poisoned in the Tower. The New River
  brought to London. Champlain returned to France. An inundation
  of the sea overflowed an extent of twelve miles in Norfolk and
  Lincolnshire.

  1618 Sir Walter Raleigh is executed for high treason, at the
  instigation of the Spanish ambassador. The poet Shakspeare
  flourished during the beginning of this and the latter part of
  the preceding reign. Synod of Dort began: who generally agreed
  to condemn the doctrines of Arminius, concerning election,
  reprobation, and the universality of Christ’s death, and man’s
  redemption by it.

  1623 The fatal Vespers at Black-Friars.

  1625 A plague in London destroyed 35,417 of its people.

  1626 The king raised money by sale of the crown lands, loans, and
  ship-money.

  1628 Dr. Lamb murdered in the streets of London. The city fined
  for Dr. Lamb’s death, £6,000.

  1629 Quebec surrendered to Sir David Kirkt.

  1635 Thomas Parr, reported to be aged 152 years, died November 15.

  1640 The fatal Long Parliament, began November 3. An act to
  abolish the Star-chamber.

  1641 The princess Mary married to William of Nassau, prince of
  Orange, at Whitehall. The earl of Strafford attained, May 8:
  executed May 12. A bill passed for pressing soldiers.

  1642 Edge-Hill fight: the number of the slain amounted to
  above 5,000, whereof two-thirds were conceived to be of those
  of the parliament party, and a third part of the king’s. June
  17th, Montreal founded by Champlain. In the year 1640 the King
  ceded the whole Island of Montreal to the St. Sulpicians and
  in the following year M. de Maisonneuve brought out several
  families from France, and was appointed governor of the island.
  On the 17th of June, 1642, the spot destined for the city was
  consecrated by the Superior of the Jesuits, the “Queen of Angels”
  was supplicated to take it under her protection, and it was named
  after her “la Ville Marie.” On the evening of this memorable
  day, Maisonneuve visited the mountain. Two old Indians who
  accompanied him, having conducted him to the summit, told him
  that they belonged to the nation which had formerly occupied the
  whole of the country he beheld, but that they had been driven
  away, and obliged to take refuge amongst the other tribes, except
  a few who, with themselves, remained under their conquerors.
  The governor kindly urged the old men to invite their brethren
  to return to their hunting-grounds, assuring them they should
  want for nothing. They promised to do so, but it does not appear
  that they were successful. In the year 1644, the whole of this
  beautiful domain became the property of the St. Sulpicians of
  Paris, and was by them afterwards conveyed to the Seminary of the
  same order at Montreal, in whose possession it still remains.

  1644 York relieved by Prince Rupert, after which happened the
  fight on Marston-Moor, in which action about 7000 were slain, and
  3000 of the King’s party taken prisoners, with all their baggage.

  1645 The fatal battle of Naseby, in which 600 private soldiers
  were killed on the King’s side, and 4500 were taken prisoners;
  3000 horse, &c. Montrose defeated the Scotch army at Ketsith,
  near Glasgow, in Scotland. Cromwell made lieutenant-general.

  1646 The whole order of archbishops and bishops abolished,
  October 9th.

  1646-7 Charles delivered up by the Scotch to the English for the
  consideration of £400,000, January 30th.

  1648-9 The King sentenced to be beheaded as a tyrant, traitor,
  murderer, and public enemy.

  1649 Oliver Cromwell made Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, August 13th.

  1650 The Marquis of Montrose defeated in Scotland, taken
  prisoner, sentenced, and barbarously murdered.

  1651 Oliver Cromwell invaded Scotland, July 22nd. Charles II
  defeated at Worcester by Oliver, September 3rd.

  1653 Oliver chosen protector of England, December 16th. The Rump
  parliament turned out by the army, which had sat twelve years
  six months and thirteen days. Scotland and Ireland united in
  one commonwealth with England, April 12th. Jamaica taken by the
  English.

  1655 Cromwell dissolved the parliament.

  1656 Oliver would not suffer the French King to call himself the
  King of France.

  1656-7 A plot to destroy Oliver discovered.

  1657 Doctor William Harvey, the first discoverer of the
  circulation of the blood, died January 5th.

  1659 The House of Commons shut up, and entrance denied its
  members. The Rump sat again, May 7th. The Rump parliament
  turned out again by Lambert, October 18th. The Rump parliament
  re-admitted, December 26th.

  1660 Oliver Cromwell’s corpse hung at Tyburn, December 2nd. The
  Long parliament dissolved, and another called, to be holden at
  Westminster, April 25th.

  1661 The body of the noble Marquis of Montrose taken up, and
  interred in great state.

  1662 152 slaves redeemed from Algiers.

  1663 Laird Warreston executed at Edinburgh, according to a
  sentence in parliament, on a gibbet twenty-two feet high.

  1665 90,000 people destroyed by the plague in London.

  1666 Great fire in London, September 2nd, when 13,200
  dwelling-houses were destroyed. The Dutch and English fleets
  fight for four days, neither party having the advantage. They
  engage again, and the English obtain the victory.

  1669 Death of the poet Sir John Denham.

  1670 The church of Quebec constituted a bishopric.

  1671 The exchequer shut for want of money. Blood attempted to
  steal the crown from the Tower.

  1674 King Charles received from France a pension of £100,000 per
  annum. Milton, the poet, and the Earl of Clarendon died.

  1676 Carolina planted by English merchants.

  1678 Statue at Charing-Cross erected.

  1679 The meal-tub plot.

  1683 The charter of London taken away by Charles. The Rye-house
  plot. Lord Russel beheaded on a charge of high treason. Algernon
  Sidney beheaded, for writing a libel never published, November
  21st.

  1684 The Buccaneers of America, about 100 in number, with the
  assistance of some Indians, went into the South seas, and made
  a bold attack on the Spaniards. Bombay, in the East-Indies, was
  surrendered to Sir Thomas Grantham, for the use of the East-India
  company.

  1685 Duke of Monmouth proclaimed King at Taunton Dean, defeated
  at Sedgemore, taken and beheaded.

  1685 Justice Jeffries and General Kirk exercise great cruelties
  on the adherents of Monmouth.

  1686 The Newtonian philosophy published. Kirk, at Taunton, while
  at dinner with his officers, ordered 30 condemned persons to be
  hanged, namely, 10 in a health to the King, 10 to the Queen, and
  10 to Jeffries; but one action the most cruel, was, a young girl
  throwing herself at his feet to beg her father’s life, he made
  her prostitute herself to him, with a promise of granting her
  request; but having satisfied his lustful desire, was so inhuman
  as out of the window to show the poor unfortunate girl her father
  hanging on a sign-post: the spectacle so affected her, that she
  went distracted. The King encamped 15,000 men on Hounslow heath.

  1688 Seven bishops committed to the Tower for not countenancing
  popery. The city of London lent the Prince of Orange £20,000,
  January 10. The parliament declared James’s abdication. James
  escorted to Rochester by a Dutch guard, and sailed to France.
  James landed in Ireland with an army, and assembled a parliament.
  Brass money coined by James in Ireland. Bill of rights passed.
  Every hearth or chimney paid two shillings per annum. King
  William and Queen Mary crowned at Westminster, April 11. The
  Hanover succession first proposed, May 31.

  1690 The battle of the Boyne in Ireland, where James was finally
  defeated by William, and obliged to embark for France, July 1.

  1691 William III took his seat as Stadtholder in Holland. The
  Queen issues out her royal proclamation for the more reverend
  observing the Sabbath day, and against profane cursing and
  swearing. A terrible battle between the Imperialists and Turks,
  near Salenkemen, in the principality of Sclavonia: in which the
  Imperialists had about 7,000 killed and wounded, and a great many
  good officers; but the Turks lost 18,000 men, and almost all
  their officers killed, wounded, or taken prisoners. Five captains
  of Admiral Benbow’s squadron in the West-Indies, were tried
  on board the Breda, at Port-Royal, in Jamaica, for cowardice
  and breach of orders, in an engagement with Ducasse. The Irish
  defeated at the battle of Aughrim, in Ireland.

  1692 The French fleet destroyed at La Hogue and other places by
  Admiral Russell. A terrible earthquake in the island of Jamaica
  in the West-Indies, which almost entirely ruined the town of
  Port-Royal, the best of all the English plantations.

  1692 37 cities, towns, and large villages, and about 130,000
  people destroyed in the kingdom of Naples, by an earthquake,
  February 11. The massacre of Glencoe, in Scotland.

  1692 James’s descent on England frustrated; the destruction of
  the French fleet, May 19.

  1693 The English fleet defeated by Tourville.

  1694 Queen Mary died of the small-pox. The bank of England
  incorporated.

  1694-5 Discipline of the Church restored. Commissioners appointed
  to direct the building and endowment of Greenwich hospital.

  1695 Duties imposed on births, marriages, burials, bachelors, and
  widowers.

  1695-6 Guineas went at the rate of thirty shillings. Six-pence
  per month deducted out of every seaman’s wages, for the support
  of Greenwich hospital.

  1696 Czar of Muscovy, Peter the Great, came into England, and
  remained incognito. The window tax first levied.

  1700 The New-Style introduced by the Dutch and Protestants in
  Germany.

  1700-1 Earl John, of Marlborough, appointed General of the
  foot, June 1, and Commander-in-Chief of His Majesty’s forces in
  Holland. King James II died of a lethargy at St. Germain’s in
  France, in the sixty-eighth year of his age, September 6.

  1702 King William died at Kensington in the fifty-second year of
  his age, and the fourteenth of his reign, March 8.

  1702 Captain Kirby and Captain Wade were condemned to die, and
  being sent to England, were shot on board a ship at Plymouth, not
  being suffered to go on shore. Admiral Benbow, who had his leg
  shattered with a great shot in the engagement with Ducasse, died
  of his wounds soon after he had the Captains condemned.

  1703 The Earl of Marlborough chosen Captain General of Queen
  Anne’s army. A dreadful tempest in England. The old and new
  East-India companies united.

  1704 Gibraltar taken in three days, by Admiral Rook. The battle
  of Blenheim gained by the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene.
  The French fleet defeated at Malaga, by the English.

  1705 The colours and standards taken at Blenheim, hung in
  Westminster Hall. The English take Barcelona from the Spanish.

  1706 The battle of Ramillies gained by Marlborough. The colours
  and standards hung at Guildhall.

  1707 England and Scotland united. An interview between the Duke
  of Marlborough and Charles XII. Sir Cloudesly Shovel shipwrecked
  on the rocks of Sicily.

  1708 The battle of Malplaquet gained by the Duke of Marlborough
  and Prince Eugene. The French defeated at Oudenarde by
  Marlborough and Prince Eugene. The first parliament of Great
  Britain met April 24. Dr. Sacheverel impeached by the Commons for
  high crimes and misdemeanors.

  1709 Charles XII defeated by the Russians at Pultowa.

  1712 Robert Walpole committed to the Tower for bribery. Richard
  Cromwell, son of Oliver Cromwell, died, aged ninety.

  1714 Mr. Steele expelled the House of Commons for writing the
  Englishman and the Critic. £5,000 offered to apprehend the
  Pretender.

  1714 George I arrived at Greenwich from Hanover.

  1715 The Pretender proclaimed as James VIII in Scotland, by the
  Earl of Mar, who assembles forces.

  1716 The tide forced back by a strong westerly wind for one day
  and night, and the Thames lay perfectly dry both above and below
  the bridge. A dreadful fire happened in Thames street, near
  Bear-key, by the imprudence of a boy who was making squibs and
  rockets, which consumed upwards of 120 houses.

  1717 The Prince of Wales banished the court.

  1718 James Shepherd, a lad of eighteen, executed for conspiring
  the King’s death. Charles XII of Sweden killed at the siege of
  Frederickshall.

  1719 The Pretender received at Madrid as King of Great Britain.
  The Mississippi scheme at its height in France. The English and
  French invaded Spain by land, and took the towns of Fontarabia,
  St. Sebastian, and St. Antonio, and reduced the province of Gui
  Puocoa.

  1720 South-sea stock rose 400 per cent, and continued to rise
  until July, when it rose to 1,000 per cent.

  1721 Several persons ruined by the South-sea stock falling to
  150 per cent. Several members of parliament expelled for being
  concerned in the South-sea bubble, and their estates confiscated
  for the use of the sufferers.

  1725 The Lord Chancellor (Earl of Macclesfield) displaced,
  impeached, and fined £30,000 for corruption. Jonathan Wild, a
  notorious thief-taker, executed.

  1727 The Spaniards besiege Gibraltar. Sir Isaac Newton died, aged
  85.

  1729 Deaths of Dr. S. Clarke, Sir Richard Steele, Congreve the
  poet, and the noted John Law.

  1731 Deaths of Dr. Atterbury, and Defoe.

  1732 Death of Gay, the poet and fabulist.

  1737 A comet appeared. Death of Howe.

  1739 Admiral Vernon takes Porto Bello.

  1742 Sir Robert Walpole resigned, after holding his places
  twenty-one years.

  1743 King George defeated the French at Dettingen.

  1744 Admiral Anson returned with £1,500,000 which he had taken
  in the Acapulca ship. Deaths of Pope the poet, and Roger Gale.
  Prague taken by the King of Prussia.

  1745 The Duke of Cumberland defeated at Fontenoy. Battle of
  Preston-Pans. Death of Dean Swift.

  1746 The rebels defeat the royal army at Falkirk. The Pretender
  totally defeated by the Duke of Cumberland at Culloden. Several
  Lords and others executed for rebellion.

  1747 The French fleet defeated by Admiral Hawke.

  1748 Death of Thompson, the poet.

  1752 The style altered.

  1755 General Braddock defeated.

  1757 Admiral Byng shot for cowardice.

  1758 100 French ships destroyed at St. Maloes, by the Duke of
  Marlborough, called by his soldiers, _Corporal John_.

  1759 The French defeated at Minden. Quebec taken by General
  Wolfe, and death of Wolfe on the Heights of Abraham. Boscawen
  defeats the French off Gibraltar, (Gabel-el-Tarifa) hence
  Gibraltar, which is also called the Babel of Nations, and the Key
  of the Mediterranean. Guadaloupe surrendered to the English.

  1760 General Lally defeated in the East Indies. Canada
  surrendered to the English.--Capitulation signed 8th September.

  1762 War declared against Spain. The Hermione, a Spanish ship
  taken, valued at near £1,200,000. Manilla taken from the
  Spaniards. Havana taken from the Spaniards. Preliminaries of
  peace between England and France signed at Fontainbleau, November
  3. Martinico and Guadaloupe taken by the French.

  1763 Peace proclaimed between England, France, and Spain.

  1764 The longitude found at sea by means of Harrison’s
  time-piece. The massacre of Patna in the East Indies, where
  4,000 of the garrison and inhabitants were put to the sword.

  1765 Otaheite discovered by Captain Willis.

  1766 The American Stamp Act repealed. Gibraltar nearly destroyed
  by a storm.

  1769 New Zealand explored by Captain Cook. Electricity of the
  Aurora Borealis discovered. Stratford Jubilee held in honour of
  Shakspeare.

  1771 Falkland islands seized by the Spaniards.

  1772 Negroes adjudged free, in England. Solway moss began to flow.

  1773 A large quantity of tea belonging to the East India Company,
  destroyed at Boston by the citizens.

  1774 The port of Boston shut up by an act of parliament. Civil
  war commences in America. A violent storm, by which 40 ships were
  lost near Yarmouth. Humane Society for the recovery of drowned
  persons instituted.

  1775 Trade with America prohibited. The battles of Lexington and
  Bunker’s hill. The Americans invade Canada and besiege Quebec.

  1776 America declared itself independent.

  1777 General Burgoyne and his army surrender to the Americans at
  Saratoga.

  1778 War declared against France. Pondicherry taken from the
  French. Admiral Keppel fights the French fleet off Ushant. The
  Earl of Chatham died, and interred in Westminster Abbey.

  1779 Ireland admitted to a free trade. The French make a
  fruitless attempt on the island of Jersey. Their shipping
  destroyed in Concale Bay. An American fleet totally destroyed off
  Penobscot. Pitch and tar made from pit-coal at Bristol.

  1780 Admiral Rodney defeats the Spanish fleet near Cape St.
  Vincent, and takes their Admiral Laugara prisoner. Dreadful
  riots in London. War with Spain and Holland. Torture abolished
  in France. His Majesty’s ships Andromeda, Laurel, Deal-Castle,
  Thunderer, Stirling-Castle, Cameleon, and many others, lost in a
  dreadful hurricane in the West Indies.

  1781 Lord Cornwallis and his army surrender to the Americans
  and French at York-Town. Sir Eyre Coote defeats Hyder Ally.
  Ceylon taken from the Dutch. Florida conquered by the Spaniards.
  Engagement between Admiral Parker and the Dutch fleet off Dogger
  Bank. St. Eustatius, St. Martin, and other Dutch settlements,
  captured.

  1782 Batavia taken by the English. The memorable attack of
  Gibraltar by the French and Spaniards;--their gun-boats totally
  destroyed, and the garrison relieved by a squadron of 33 ships of
  the line, under Lord Howe, in the face of the combined fleets of
  France and Spain, consisting of 47. Admiral Rodney defeats the
  French fleet in the West Indies; takes Admiral Count de Grasse
  and five ships of the line. The Ville de Paris and other French
  prizes lost at sea.

  1783 Great Britain declares the United States of America
  independent. A new planet discovered by Mr. Herschell, and called
  the Georgium Sidus. A new island rose out of the ocean near
  Iceland.

  1784 The great seal stolen. Mail coaches first established, by
  Mr. Raikes, of Gloucester. Slave trade abolished in Pennsylvania,
  and in New England.

  1785 Blanchard and Dr. Jefferies cross the English Channel, in a
  balloon, from Dover, and land near Calais. M. Pilatre de Rosiere,
  and M. Romain, ascend in a balloon, which takes fire and they are
  dashed to pieces.

  1786 Margaret Nicholson attempts to assassinate the King.
  Frederick the Great, King of Prussia, died. Convicts first sent
  to Botany Bay, and Sierra Leone. The young Lord Gormadston
  clandestinely carried abroad, in order to force him to embrace
  the Romish persuasion.

  1787 Three American priests ordained bishops by the Archbishop
  of Canterbury, The house of Peers commenced the trial of Warren
  Hastings, Esq., on a charge of high crimes, &c., committed by him
  in the East Indies, of which he was impeached.

  1789 The abolition of the Slave trade proposed in Parliament.
  Beginning of the French Revolution.

  1790 War commenced in India with Tippoo Sultan.

  1791 Riots at Birmingham.

  1793 The Alien-bill passed in the British House of Commons. The
  English evacuate Toulon.

  1794 The Habeas Corpus Act suspended. Lord Howe defeats the
  French fleet off Ushant.

  1795 Mr. Hastings’ trial ended by his acquittal. The Cape of Good
  Hope taken by the British forces. Ceylon taken by the British.

  1796 The East India Company votes an indemnification and
  recompense to Mr. Hastings.

  1797 A mutiny of the British fleet at Portsmouth and the Nore
  suppressed. The Dutch fleet beaten and captured by Lord Duncan.

  1798 Ireland in open rebellion. Lord Nelson totally defeated the
  French fleet in the battle of the Nile. The French fleet defeated
  by Sir J. B. Warren.

  1799 Seringapatam taken by General Harris and Sir David Baird,
  and Tippoo Sultan killed. The French under Bonaparte defeated by
  Sir Sidney Smith at Acre. The expedition of the British against
  Holland. The British troops evacuate Holland.

  1800 Vote of the Irish House of Commons agreeing to the Union of
  Great Britain and Ireland.--Similar vote of the House of Lords.
  Malta taken by the British forces.

  1801 Mr. Pitt resigns, after being minister 18 years. Battle
  of Alexandria,--the French defeated and Sir Ralph Abercrombie
  killed. Battle of Copenhagen, the Danish fleet taken and
  destroyed by Lord Nelson. Taking of Cairo and Alexandria, by the
  British troops.

  1802 Definitive treaty with France signed at Amiens.

  1803 Execution of Col. Despard for high treason. Dissolution of
  the peace with France, May. Insurrection in Dublin; Habeas Corpus
  suspended, and Martial Law proclaimed. Defeat of Row Scinda and
  Berar Rajar at Ajunty, by General Arthur Wellesley. The British
  troops enter Delhi and the Great Mogul puts himself under their
  protection.

  1804 Mr. Pitt resumes his situation as Prime Minister.

  1806 The Spaniards declare war against Great Britain. Lord Nelson
  defeats the combined fleets of France and Spain at Trafalgar;
  takes twenty sail of the line, and is killed in the engagement.
  Sir R. Strachan takes four French ships of the line, off Cape
  Ortegal.

  1806 Death of William Pitt; his debts discharged at the public
  expense, and a statue decreed to his memory. Admiral Duckworth
  captures and destroys five French ships of the line. Sir John
  Stuart defeats the French under Regnier at Maida in Calabria.
  Surrender of Buenos Ayres to General Beresford and Sir Home
  Popham. French squadron of five frigates captured by Sir Samuel
  Hood. Death of Charles James Fox. Rupture of a negotiation for
  peace with France, and return of Earl Lauderdale. Recapture of
  Buenos Ayres by the Spaniards. The slave trade abolished by act
  of Parliament.

  1807 Copenhagen bombarded, and the Danish fleet surrendered to
  the British, under Lord Cathcart and Admiral Gambier. South
  America evacuated by the British. The British troops evacuate
  Egypt. The island of Madeira surrendered to Great Britain in
  trust for Portugal.

  1808 The French prohibit all commerce with Great Britain. Battle
  of Vimiera in Portugal; the French under Junot defeated by Sir
  Arthur Wellesley.

  1809 The French defeated at the battle of Corunna; Sir John
  Moore killed. The French fleet in Basque roads destroyed by Lord
  Cochrane. Senegal surrendered to the British. The battle of
  Talavera; the French defeated by Sir Arthur Wellesley. The 50th
  anniversary of the King’s reign celebrated as a jubilee. The
  French fleet in the Mediterranean defeated by Lord Collingwood.

  1810 An attempt made to assassinate the Duke of Cumberland;
  Sellis, the Duke’s valet, found with his throat cut. Murat’s army
  in Sicily defeated by General J. Campbell. Battle of Busaco; the
  French defeated by Lord Wellington. Capture of the Isle of France
  by the British. This island has ever since remained in the hands
  of the British. Its other name is Mauritius, famous for Peter
  Botte Mountain and its fine sugar.

  1811 The Prince of Wales appointed Regent. Battles of Barossa,
  Albuera, &c. in which the French were beaten with great loss.
  Isle of Java capitulated to the British arms.

  1812 Ciudad Rodrigo taken by storm, by Lord Wellington. Right
  Honorable Spencer Percival, prime minister of Great Britain,
  assassinated by John Bellingham. Battle of Salamanca, and defeat
  of the French.

  1813 Great battle of Vittoria in Spain, in which Lord Wellington
  totally defeats the French under Joseph Bonaparte and Marshal
  Jourdan. Defeat of Marshal Soult, in Spain, with the loss of
  15,000 men, by Lord Wellington.

  1814 A fair on the Thames, it being frozen over above the London
  bridges, Feb. 2. Bourdeaux surrenders to Lord Wellington. Peace
  between England and France. The allied Sovereigns visit London.
  City of Washington taken by the British army under General Ross.
  Treaty of peace between England and America, Dec. 24. Joanna
  Southcott an impostor, died; and, with her, the hopes of the
  promised Shiloh, and all her other prophecies.

  1815 Bonaparte sailed from Elba, and landed with 1,000 men at
  Cannes, in France. Bonaparte enters Paris, March 21. An attempt
  made by Margaret Moore to steal the Crown from the Tower.
  Memorable battle of Waterloo, June 17, 18; Bonaparte fled; the
  Duke of Wellington’s horse killed under him. Bonaparte sailed
  for St. Helena, August 7. Submission of the island of Ceylon to
  Britain. Bonaparte landed at St. Helena, October 16. The English
  repulsed at New Orleans, with the loss of several thousand in
  killed and wounded, including several generals. General Jackson
  commanded the Americans. General Packenham was killed. A column
  of light appeared in the north-east, so vivid as to alarm many
  persons. By the explosion of a coal-pit near Newbattle, in
  the county of Durham, 70 persons perished. Bonaparte resigns
  the government to a provisional council. In the colliery
  above-mentioned at Newbattle, a steam engine burst, and 57
  persons were killed or wounded.

  1816 Princess Charlotte of Wales married, to Prince Leopold of
  Saxe Coburg, May 2. Sir Humphrey Davy invented a Safety Lamp to
  prevent the accidents which happen in coal-mines from fire damp.

  1817 The Princess Charlotte died in child-birth, having been
  delivered of a still-born child. Steamboats generally adopted
  for river navigation in America and Europe. The magnetic needle,
  which had for many years taken a western declination from the
  meridian, returned towards the north.

  1818 The Queen of Great Britain, Charlotte of
  Mecklenburg-Strelitz, died Nov. 21. Two expeditions to penetrate
  the North-pole sailed, one to the north-east, and the other to
  the north-west, but neither succeeded. The kaleidoscope, a new
  optical instrument, invented by Dr. Brewster of Edinburgh. Three
  systems of education in this year claimed public attention: that
  of mutual instruction propagated by Dr. Bell and Mr. Lancaster;
  the interrogative or intellectual system of questions without
  answers; and that of Mr. Pestalozzi by oral questions. Belzoni
  transported from Egypt to England the statue of Memnon. The Duke
  of Clarence married to the Princess of Saxe Meiningen; and the
  Duke of Kent to a Princess of Saxe Coburg. For two or three days
  the metropolis, as well as the country round, were enveloped in
  a thick impenetrable fog, which obstructed all travelling, and
  caused a number of fatal accidents. The Duke of Richmond died in
  Canada, from the bite of a rabid fox.

  1819 Messrs. Perkins and Co., of Philadelphia, introduced into
  London a mode of engraving on soft steel, which, when hardened,
  will multiply fine impressions indefinitely. Many distressed
  persons embarked, under the sanction of government, to establish
  a new colony at the Cape of Good Hope. Southwark bridge opened,
  making the sixth metropolitan bridge over the Thames. Forty
  persons killed by the explosion of a mine near Newcastle. A
  shoal of young whales appeared in Dungannan Bay, forty taken by
  the fishermen. A whirlwind at Aldborough, Suffolk, carried up
  a quantity of barley from a field to a great height. Another
  expedition was fitted out to try a north-west passage to the
  Pacific Ocean. Field Marshal Prince Blucher died.

  1820 Lieutenant Parry returned from his voyage to attempt the
  discovery of a north-west passage: he reached the 10th degree of
  west longitude, where he passed one winter in latitude 74, and
  returned for further supplies. Lamented death of H.R.H. the Duke
  of Kent. Death, in Windsor-castle, of George III, in the 82d year
  of his age, and 60th of his reign. George IV held his first court
  in Carlton-house. Takes oath to maintain the Church of England.
  Oaths of allegiance administered. Cato-street conspirators
  arrested. Thistlewood and his associates executed before Newgate.
  Regent’s canal from Paddington to Limehouse opened. Extraordinary
  solar-eclipse; central and annular in the interior of Europe. An
  _Estadfod_, or assembly of Welch bards, in Wrexham, North Wales.
  Lieutenant Parry returns from his voyage of discovery in the seas
  on the north of North America.

  1821 A Pedo-motive machine invented by Dr. Cartwright for
  travelling the public roads without the aid of horses. A
  mammoth’s bones found by Captain Vetch, on the west bank of the
  Medway, near Rochester. Mr. Kent of Glasgow, invented a machine
  for walking on the surface of the water, at the rate of three
  miles an hour. A penknife, containing 2,016 blades, was presented
  to the Queen, by a Sheffield manufacturer; another was afterwards
  made containing 1,821 blades. Duel between Mr. Scott, of the
  London Magazine, and Mr. Christie, of an Edinburgh Magazine,
  in which the former was mortally wounded. News received of a
  dreadful massacre in Manilla, arising from religious fanaticism.
  A gambling-house, in London, entered by the police, and about
  70 individuals held to bail. The Discovery-ships sailed from
  Deptford, for the American Arctic Seas. Sale of a collection of
  Pictures, by Sir Joshua Reynolds, which produced £15,000. A bog
  burst forth from Kilmalady, in Ireland, and in an hour covered
  100 acres from 20 to 60 feet deep; it proceeded to a great
  extent, 200 yards wide, and 80 feet deep, at the rate of two
  yards per hour. Roads and bridges were covered, communications
  cut off, and great damage done. Queen Caroline died at
  Hammersmith, after an illness of eight days. Loss of the Juliana,
  East-Indiaman, in the Margate-roads, in which 38, out of the 40
  individuals on board, perished.

  1822 The King surrendered £30,000 per annum of the civil list.
  A coroner’s jury decided that publicans are legally bound to
  receive into their houses all persons in extremity. Fifteen
  thousand Greeks massacred in the island of Scio, by the Turks. A
  south-west gale so retarded the flow of the tide in the Thames,
  that it was fordable at London bridge. Subscriptions opened
  for the starving Irish peasantry, which amounted to £300,000.
  Dreadful cases of misery and oppression published. Upwards of 800
  Greek virgins exposed in the slave markets, and 20,000 Christians
  slaughtered in various villages. The Marquis of Londonderry,
  cut his throat at his house, North Cray. Mr. Canning appointed
  Secretary of State, in lieu of the Marquis of Londonderry. Grand
  eruption of Mount Vesuvius, the most tremendous since 1794.
  Fonthill abbey purchased by Mr. Farquhar, for £330,000. Sir
  William Herschell, the celebrated Astronomer, died. Canova, the
  celebrated Sculptor, died. Madame Lætitia Bonaparte, mother of
  the late Emperor of France, died.

  1823 George IV presented to the nation the library of his late
  father, at Buckingham House, consisting of 120,000 vols. An
  insurrection of the Negroes at Martinique detected: several
  planters had died by poison. Two hundred Negroes ordered for
  execution. Captain Parry arrived from his exploratory voyage
  to the Polar regions; he had failed in the chief object of the
  expedition. Three grand Musical Festivals held within a month,
  at York, Birmingham, and Gloucester, produced the enormous sum
  of £30,500. By the melancholy accident from fire damp, at the
  William Pitt colliery near Whitehaven, 14 men, 16 boys, and two
  girls, lost their lives; 17 horses were also killed. Dr. Jenner,
  discoverer of Vaccination, died. Mrs. Radcliffe, authoress of the
  Mysteries of Udolpho, &c., died. At Rochetts, Earl St. Vincent
  died. At Kincardine, Admiral Lord Keith, died. At Rome, Pope Pius
  the Seventh, died.

  1824 A subterraneous forest of oak was discovered, on the
  shores of the Solway Frith, beyond Brough, imbedded in a stiff
  blue clay; the trees were of large dimensions, and the wood so
  perfect as to be scarce perceptible from new timber, although
  it must have lain there many thousands of years. Mr. Mantell
  discovered, in the iron sand-stone of Sussex, the teeth of a
  herbivorous reptile of gigantic magnitude, being of the lizard
  tribe; from a thigh bone found, it must have equalled the
  elephant in height, and been more than 60 feet long. The pictures
  of J. J. Angerstein, 38 in number, purchased by Government for
  £57,000 to begin a national gallery; Sir G. Beaumont liberally
  presented his collection to the public for that purpose. The
  Hecla, discovery ship, with Captain Parry left her moorings on a
  voyage of discovery to the Arctic region. Mr. Harris, accompanied
  by Miss Stocks, ascended in a balloon, when the former was
  killed by being thrown from the car. The remains of Lord Byron
  were conveyed from London, amidst a concourse of people, for
  Newstead Abbey. A copy of Columbus’ letter to the King of Spain,
  on the discovery of America, sold for 34 guineas. Particulars
  were received respecting the death of the celebrated traveller
  Belzoni, at Gato on his journey to Timbuctoo. Mr. Sadler, jun.,
  the aëronaut, was killed on descending in his balloon, near
  Blackburn in Lancashire. The enormous timber ship, called the
  Columbus, arrived at Blackwall, from the river St. Lawrence,
  being 300 feet long, 50 broad, and 30 deep. Patrick Grant died,
  aged 111; to this venerable Highlander, His Majesty had granted
  a pension of a guinea a week.

  1825 In January, wool was exported from England to the United
  States of America, being the first instance for two centuries.
  Organic remains of antediluvian animals found in a cave near
  Chudleigh. Steam engines in England, representing the power
  of 320,000 horses, equal to 1,920,000 men, managed by 36,000
  only, now add to the power of our population 1,884,000 men! A
  phenomenon observed on the coast of Kent, being a cloud, resting
  part on the sea, extending as far as the eye could reach,
  reflecting two distinct images of every vessel passing, one
  inverted, the other in its proper position, apparently sailing
  in the air. An earthquake happened in Algiers, when the town of
  Blida, was totally destroyed, and, of a population of 15,000
  persons, scarcely 300 were left alive. £2,000 granted to Mr.
  M‘Adam for improvement of the roads. The Tower of Fonthill-Abbey
  fell, and destroyed great part of that elegant building.

  1826 London was visited by such a dense fog, in the forenoon,
  that candles were burned in all the shops. The abduction of Miss
  Turner by E. G. Wakefield. The death of the celebrated composer,
  Baron Von Weber, occurred, being in his 40th year. Mr. Canning
  dined with the King of France, and Sir Walter Scott with the King
  of England.

  1827 Canal Excavation by the plough in lieu of manual labour.
  It is remarkable, that England, which usually sets the example
  to all Europe in the application of machinery as a substitute
  for manual labour, should have been anticipated by the small
  state of Wurtemberg; an extensive line of canal having been
  projected, and sanctioned by the Government, an eminent engineer
  constructed a set of ploughs of various forms to suit the nature
  of the soil to be intersected, which, by the aid of from eight
  to twelve horses, excavated the line of canal, at less than a
  fourth of the price which would have been expended in manual
  labour. His Royal Highness the Duke of York expired. Will of
  Mr. Rundel, the silversmith, proved, whose personal property
  amounted to £1,200,000. The steam vessel George the Fourth left
  Portsmouth for Africa. Mr. Canning appointed chancellor of the
  Exchequer, April 24. Mr. Canning expired, Aug. 8. Lord Goderich
  appointed Premier. Death of Dr. Good, F.R.S., author of various
  works on Science, &c. Death of Rebecca Fury, of Falmouth,
  Jamaica, aged 140. Clapperton’s second voyage to Africa. Parry’s
  attempt to reach the North Pole over the ice without success.
  Lord Liverpool died, George Canning succeeded. Intervention of
  England, France, and Russia in the affairs of Greece: battle of
  Navarino. Premiership and death of Canning.

  1828 Duke of Wellington premier. Russian invasion of Turkey. Capo
  d’Istria President of Greece: a French army in the Morea. Don
  Miguel usurps the throne of Portugal.

  1829 The Russian Field-Marshal Diebitsch crosses the Balkan.
  Treaty of Adrianople. Independence of Greece recognized by
  Turkey. Catholic emancipation in England.

  1830 Accession of William IV. Algiers taken by the French. July
  25th, revolution at Paris: abdication of Charles X: Duke of
  Orleans called to the throne, by the title of Louis Philippe,
  King of the French, Belgian and Polish revolutions.

  1831 The cholera appears in Europe. Polish insurrection
  suppressed, and the kingdom of Poland incorporated with the
  Russian empire. London conferences: Leopold of Saxe-Coburg chosen
  King of Belgium.

  1832 Civil war in Portugal betwixt Pedro and Miguel. The French
  occupy Ancona, and lay siege to Antwerp. Parliamentary reform in
  England.

  1833 Meeting of the first reformed Parliament. Abolition
  of slavery in the British colonies, with a compensation of
  £20,000,000 to the slave-owners.

  1834 Don Miguel expelled from Portugal. Civil war in Spain.
  Formation of the German Zollverein. Accession of Queen Victoria.
  Buckingham Palace completed. Insurrection in Upper Canada. A
  meeting of the Provincial Convention called at Toronto. Colonel
  Moodie killed. McKenzie, Van Egmont and others invest Toronto.
  Rebels dispersed and leaders flee to the United States.

  1838 Second Insurrection in 1838. In Lower Canada, Mr. and Mrs.
  Ellice of Beauharnois, taken prisoners by the rebels at that
  place and given over for keeping to the Curé. The Caughnawaga
  Indians take 64 prisoners and, tying them with their sashes
  and garters, send them to Montreal. Affairs at Napierville and
  Laprairie. Colonel Prince did, what should have instantly been
  done to the Fenian prisoners in the late raid, viz., condemned
  some of the insurgents by drum head Court Martial, and executed
  them forthwith. Quiet restored.

  1839 Treaty of peace betwixt Holland and Belgium. End of the
  civil war in Spain.

  1840 Intervention of England and Austria in the Egyptian
  question. Thiers minister of France: apprehensions of a general
  war: removed by the overthrow of Thiers: Guizot minister. Union
  of the two Canadas.

  1841 Resignation of Melbourne ministry. Peel becomes premier.
  Death of Lord Sydenham in Canada. Fortification of Paris.
  Bonaparte interred in Paris, 15th December.

  1842 Affghan and Chinese wars: cession of Hong Kong to England:
  opening of Chinese ports. Rising against the English at Cabul:
  murder of Burnes and McNaughton: massacre at the Cabul Pass.
  General Pollock forces the Khugher Pass, 5th April. Ashburton
  Treaty with the United States, August 9th. Great fire at Hamburg.

  1843 Activity of the Anti-Corn Law League. John Bright returned
  for Durham. Queen Victoria and Prince Albert visit the King of
  the French and the King of the Belgians. Repeal meetings in
  Ireland stopped by royal proclamation, and Mr. O’Connell and
  other repealers arrested and tried for conspiracy and sedition.

  1844 French hostilities with Morocco: Mogadore bombarded: King
  of the French visits Queen Victoria at Windsor. Railway mania in
  England. Campbell the Poet died, 15th June.

  1845 Continued activity of the Anti-Corn Law League. Great bazaar
  at London, where the receipts amount to £25,000. Railway mania in
  England attains its height: scrip issued to the nominal amount
  of several hundred millions sterling. Annexation of Texas to the
  United States. Steam established between Liverpool and New York.
  Sir John Franklin set sail 22nd May.

  1846 The Spanish double marriages. Mexico annexed, 25th August.
  Coolness betwixt the courts of St. James and the Tuilleries.
  Abolition of the Corn Laws, followed by resignation of the Peel
  ministry. Austria, in violation of the treaties of Vienna, seizes
  on Cracow, and incorporates it with her own dominions. Louis
  Napoleon escapes from the Castle of Ham, in Normandy. Gregory XVI
  dies, and is succeeded by Cardinal Mastai Ferretti, who takes the
  title of Pius IX. Revolution of Geneva, October 7th.

  1847 Pope Pius introduces some reforms into the Papal States:
  excitement in the rest of Italy. Civil war in Switzerland:
  Sonderbund suppressed. Abd-el-Kader taken prisoner. The Duchy of
  Lucca reverts to Tuscany. Failure of the potato crop in Ireland.

  1848 Upper California and New Mexico ceded to the United States.
  February revolution in Paris: flight of Louis Philippe, 24th
  February: France a Republic: Cavaignac: Revolution at Vienna
  6th October, and Berlin 12th November: Schleswig-Holstein
  insurrection. Arctic ships deserted, 22nd April. Peace Congress
  at Brussels, 20th September. Defeat of Sikhs at Mooltan, 7th
  November. Napoleon III first elected President, 20th December.
  Smith O’Brien defeated in his attempt to raise a resurrection in
  Ireland.

  1849 Death of Queen Adelaide. Punjaub war. Revolutions in
  Rome and Tuscany: Mazzini: French invasion and occupation of
  Rome. Revolutionary movements in Germany and Hungary. Kossuth.
  Revolution in Baden suppressed by Prussia; in Hungary by Russia;
  and Hungarians defeated by Hayman.

  1850 Battle of Idstedt and suppression of the Schleswig-Holstein
  insurrection. Peace between Denmark and Prussia. Louis Philippe
  died 26th August. Sir Robert Peel died.

  1851 Great industrial exhibition in London in Crystal Palace.
  French coup d’état: National assembly broken up, and Napoleon
  declared President of the Republic for ten years. Discovery of
  gold fields in Australia.

  1852 The Earl of Derby forms a protectionist ministry, dissolves
  parliament, but is soon forced to resign: Lord Aberdeen becomes
  Premier. On the 14th September, the illustrious Duke of
  Wellington, the Iron Duke, died at Walmar Castle near Dover, aged
  83. Louis Napoleon proclaimed Emperor of the French, as Napoleon
  III. Amazon steamer burnt at sea, and 100 persons perished, 4th
  January. The steamer Birkenhead with troops on board for the Cape
  of Good Hope wrecked 26th February, and of 638 persons only 184
  were saved; 454 of the crew and soldiers of the 12th Lancers,
  2nd, 6th, 12th, 43rd, 45th, 60th Rifles, 73rd, 74th and 91st
  Regiments perished by drowning or swallowed by sharks which were
  seen swimming around.

  1853 Marriage of Napoleon III to Eugenie de Montejo in January.
  Fire which broke out in Windsor Castle, extinguished March 19th.
  The Queen of Portugal died November 15th. The Porte formerly
  declared war against Russia, October 5th. Russia invades the
  Danubian principalities, crossing the Pruth in July, destroys the
  Turkish fleet at Sinopé, hence called the “Massacre of Sinopé.”
  Battle of Silistria. Death of Captain Butler.

  1854 Great Britain and France declare war against Russia in
  March. The Allies land at Varna. Dreadful attack of Cholera
  in both armies--then the invasion of the Crimea. Battles of
  the Alma, Balaklava, and Inkermann with all the minor sorties
  and engagements, and the scenes of camp life, so graphically
  described by military and civil correspondents. Bomarsund taken
  by the Baltic Expedition, August 16th.

  1855 Sardinia joins the Allies. South side of Sebastopol taken.
  Battle of Tchernaya. Taking of Kertch and Kinburn. Battle of the
  Heights of Kars. Fall of Sebastopol and Kars. Russia proposes
  peace. Napoleon visited England, April 17th. Crimean medals
  distributed, May 18th. Sebastopol evacuated by the Russians,
  September 9th. Dreadful storm in the Black Sea, during which the
  Prince, Resolute, &c., foundered. Insurrection at Madrid. Flight
  of the Queen Mother Christina and dismissal of her favourites.

  1856 Peace of Paris signed, March 31st. Victoria cross
  instituted, January 29th. Lord Dalhousie ceased to be Governor
  General of India, and was succeeded by Viscount Canning. War in
  Persia, and capture by the British of Bushire; Persian King,
  obliged thereafter to sue for peace. Great Britain involved in a
  war with China. Commissioner Yeh made prisoner. Lord Elgin made
  Ambassador to negotiate a settlement of difficulties. Seizure of
  Lorch, October 8th. English Cathedral, Montreal, burnt.

  1857 Shakspeare’s house bought. Kensington Museum opened.
  Victoria cross distributed, and Victoria Asylum commenced. Indian
  Mutiny begun, February 28th. Massacre of Cawnpore, July 16th.
  Relief of Lucknow, November 17th.

  1858 Close of the Mutiny and re-organization of the country.
  Attempt on the life of Napoleon III by Orsini and others. Orsini
  beheaded, March 13th. Princess Royal married to the Prince of
  Prussia.

  1859 Revolution in Tuscany. Victoria Bridge opened, 19th
  December. Earthquake at Quito, 29th March. A Southern Convention
  at Vicksburg, Miss., at which eight States are represented,
  passes resolutions in favor of opening the slave trade. John
  Brown and fifteen white men and five negroes seize the arsenal
  at Harper’s Ferry and kill four of the inhabitants. The militia
  and Federal troops arrive at Harper’s Ferry and besiege Brown
  and his men in the armory buildings. The armory captured by
  Colonel Lee (now General). One marine and twelve of Brown’s men
  killed, Brown and four men taken prisoners, and two escape, but
  are re-captured. The people of Charlestown, Va., excited by the
  rumors of an attempt to rescue John Brown; and Governor Wise
  calms their fears by guarding the place with a Richmond regiment.
  In the House of Representatives of South Carolina a resolution
  is offered that “South Carolina is ready to enter, together with
  other slave-holding States, or such as desire present action,
  into the formation of a Southern Confederacy.” John Brown and
  two negroes hung. The medical students from Southern States in
  Philadelphia colleges resolve to secede and join colleges in
  their own States.

  The following is a chronological table of the war in Italy. It is
  taken from the Journal of Education and compiled by the esteemed
  Superintendent of Education for Lower Canada, and will be found
  valuable for History students.

  “First body of French troops leaves Toulon; Austrian ultimatum
  dispatched from Vienna to Turin. It is received at Turin. The
  limit fixed by the ultimatum (of three days) expires; Count
  Cavour declines the Austrian conditions; statement of the war
  question addressed to the Corps Legislatif by Count Walewski;
  French troops first cross Mont Cenis. Revolution in Tuscany; the
  Grand Duke retires: address of Victor Emmanuel to his army. The
  Austrian declaration of war posted in Vienna; the Austrians,
  under Count Gyulai, pass the Ticino; Marshal Canrobert and
  General Niel reach Turin and assume command of their respective
  corps d’armée; General McMahon arrives at Genoa; death of General
  Bouat; appeal of Victor Emmanuel to the Italian people. The
  Austrians occupy Novara; the French ambassador quits Vienna;
  revolt of Massa and Carrara. King Victor Emmanuel leaves Turin
  to take command of his army; the Austrians occupy Mortara; their
  steamers seize the Sardinian ports on Lake Maggiore; three
  Austrian vessels repulsed on the lake; the Duchess of Parma
  withdraws from the Duchy. Manifesto of Napoleon III, addressed
  to the Corps Legislatif; the Austrians pass the Po at Cambio;
  they are repulsed in an attempted crossing at Frassinetto; they
  burn the bridge over the Scrivia at Piacenza; the Austrian
  vanguard reaches Tronzano. The conflict at Frassinetto continues;
  the Austrians, passing the Po at Vacarizza, advance to Sale;
  a cannonade at Valenza. The Duchess of Parma returns to her
  capital. General Cialdini, issuing from Casale, seizes a convoy
  of the enemy. The Austrians repass the Po at Gerola. Imperial
  decree establishing the Regency in France. The Emperor Napoleon
  III, and the Prince Napoleon Jerome leave Paris for the seat of
  war; the Austrians complete a retrograde movement to the left
  of the Sesia. The Emperor embarks at Marseilles; the Austrians
  pause at Vercelli, and return reconnoitering parties to the
  right bank of the river; they occupy Rivergaro. The Emperor
  lands at Genoa; issues an order of the day to the army. The
  English declaration of neutrality published. The Austrians occupy
  Bobbio, and push their advanced post to Casteggio. The French
  Emperor arrives at Alessandria. The French squadron of Admiral
  Jurieu-Gravier anchors before Venice; the Emperor visits the
  outposts at Valenza. The Austrians threaten the bridge at Stella;
  the Emperor visits the head-quarters of the King at Occimiano;
  the Austrians vainly attempt to take the bridge at Valenza. The
  head-quarters of Count Gyulai transferred in retreat to Gariasco.
  Speech of M. Kossuth on the war, delivered at London Tavern;
  battle of Montebello; the Allies, numbering 6,300, under General
  Forey, defeat 25,000 Austrians under General Count Stadion;
  the Emperor visits Casale. The Piedmontese, under General
  Cialdini, force the passage of the Sesia at Vercelli, routing the
  Austrians; Garibaldi with his corps, leaves Biella, and marches
  for Northwestern Lombardy; the blockade of Venice established.
  Death of the King of Naples. Garibaldi, passing the Ticino at
  Sesto Calende, defeats the enemy and captures Varese. Garibaldi,
  attacked by the Austrians, beats them; Colonel Christoforis,
  with a portion of Garibaldi’s force, beats the Austrians near
  Sesto Calende; the Emperor at Voghera. The Emperor arrives
  at Vercelli; Garibaldi again beats the Austrians at Malmate.
  Garibaldi marches upon Como; rapid movement of the French army
  from the south to the north of the Po; Montebello and Custeggio,
  evacuated by them, occupied by the Austrians. Garibaldi, beating
  the Austrians at San Fermo, occupies Como, Camerlata, and
  Lecco; Austrian vessels bombard Canobbio, on Lake Maggiore;
  the Valtelline rises in insurrection. Battle of Palestro; the
  Allies, commanded by Victor Emmanuel, attack the Austrians; the
  Emperor of Austria, attended by Field-Marshal Baron Hess, arrive
  at Verona. The Allies defeat the Austrians at Palestro; General
  Niel occupies Novara; proclamation of the Emperor Francis Joseph
  to the Tyrolese. Garibaldi retiring before a powerful body of
  the enemy, attacks Laveno unsuccessfully; the Austrians attack
  the allied outposts at Robbio, but speedily retreat; the advance
  of the Allies, under McMahon, enters Lombardy by the bridge
  of Turbigo. The Austrians hastily evacuate Sardinia; severe
  action at Buffalora; Garibaldi again marches upon Varese, beats
  the Austrians, and re-occupies it. The conflict at Buffalora
  concludes in a splendid victory of the Allies at Magenta. Milan
  rises upon the Austrians; the garrison retires; Victor Emmanuel
  proclaimed King; Lombardy annexed to Sardinia; Grand _Te Deum_
  at Paris for the victory at Magenta. The Emperor and King enter
  Milan; the Austrian’s custom-houses on Lake Maggiore seized by
  Garibaldi’s corps. Garibaldi pursues the Austrians, who retreat
  towards Monza; proclamation of Napoleon III to the Italians.
  Marshal Baraguay d’Hilliers attacks the Austrians at Malegnano,
  and after a severe contest carries that post; on the same day
  the Austrian Count d’Urban is beaten by Marshal Canrobert at
  Canonica; the Austrians evacuate Laverno on Lago Maggiore.
  Garibaldi enters Bergamo; the Austrians evacuate Pavia and
  Piacenza; the Duchess of Parma arrives at Verona. The Austrians
  evacuate Lodi; they also evacuate Bologna and Ancona; resignation
  of the Derby Ministry in England; Lord Palmerston invited to form
  a cabinet; head-quarters of the French advanced to Gorgouzola.
  The vanguard of the French army passes the Adda at Cassano;
  the Sardinian army passes the Adda at Vaprio; the Austrians
  complete the evacuation of the Papal territory, and also withdraw
  from Modena; death of Prince Metternich. The Austrians abandon
  Pizzigbettone; Garibaldi at Brescia; Cremona and Brescia declare
  for the King of Sardinia; the Allied army passes the Sesia;
  General d’Urban retires from Coccaglia. The Duke of Modena
  arrives at Mantua; d’Urban occupies Cavriana, but evacuates
  it the same night; revolt at Venice. Garibaldi repulsed by an
  overwhelming force of the Austrians at Castenedolo; he retreats
  towards Lonato. General Count Schlick takes command of the second
  Austrian army, replacing Gyulai; the head quarters of Napoleon
  III removed to Covo; the Austrian Emperor at Travigliato. The
  Austrians occupy Montechiaro and Castiglione; Kossuth leaves
  London for Italy. The Emperor and King enter Brescia; the
  Austrians occupy the pass of the Stelvio; the Emperor Francis
  Joseph reviews a portion of his army at Lonato; he assumes
  supreme command of the army. The third division of the Adriatic
  fleet sails from Toulon. The Austrians abandon Montechiaro,
  Castiglione, and Lonato. The Emperor and King leave Brescia for
  the camp; the Austrians re-occupy Montechiaro and Castiglione;
  Francis Joseph Axes his head-quarters at Villafranca. The French
  pass the Chinese at Montechiaro, and push a reconnaissance as
  far as Goito; the head-quarters of Francis Joseph at Vallegio;
  Kossuth arrives at Genoa. The French Emperor and the King urge
  a reconnaissance as far as Desenzano; the Austrians in full
  force repass the Mincio, and occupy Pozzolengo, Solferino and
  Cavriana. Great battle of Solferino: 250,000 Austrians defeated
  by the Allies, numbering 150,000; the Austrians repass the
  Mincio; the allied head-quarters at Cavriana. Prussia proposes
  in the Diet the mobilization of the Federal army; retreat of
  the French troops at Brescia. Kossuth arrives at Parma, and
  after conferring with Prince Napoleon, proceeds to the Imperial
  head-quarters. A portion of Garibaldi’s troops, under Major
  Medidi, occupy the pass of Tonal, between Val Canonica and the
  Tyrol. The Allies, crossing the Mincio, enter the Venitian
  States. The vanguard of the Allies advances to Villafranca. The
  Imperial head-quarters removed to Volta; the corps of Prince
  Napoleon joins the main body of the allied army at Vallegio;
  the Sardinians commence the siege of Peschiera; the new British
  ministry declares in Parliament its determination to maintain
  an inviolable neutrality. The Emperor removes his head-quarters
  from Volta, and, crossing the Mincio, fixes them at Vallegio. Ten
  thousand French troops landed at Lussin-Piccolo, in the Adriatic;
  Grand _Te Deum_ for the victory of Solferino at Notre-Dame. The
  Austrians retire from Bormio, after a sharp action, in which
  they are defeated by Garibaldi. Armistice concluded between
  the two emperors at VillaFranca; Zara bombarded by the French
  frigate _Impetueuse_. Interview between Napoleon III and Francis
  Joseph; the war terminated by the peace of VillaFranca.” Militia
  Volunteer Association of England established 17th November.

  1860 The principal events of this year are: General rising of the
  Sicilians, March 16th. Annexation of Savoy and Nice to France,
  March 24th. War in China and capture of Pekin. Insurrection
  at Palermo, April 4th. Great Eastern sailed for America, June
  16th. Prince of Wales at Quebec, August 18th. King of Naples,
  Francis II, retired to Gaeta, September 6th. Garibaldi entered
  Naples, September 8th. Ancona taken, September 30th. Battle
  of Volturno, October 2nd. Victor Emmanuel at Naples, November
  7th. Abraham Lincoln elected President of the United States. A
  Secession Convention assembles in Columbia, S.C., but adjourns
  to Charleston, in consequence of the small pox. The Convention
  at Charleston passes the ordinance carrying South Carolina out
  of the Union. Attempted removal of ordnance from the Arsenal
  at Pittsburg, Pa., prevented by the citizens. Fort Moultrie
  evacuated by Major Robert Anderson, who retires with his troops
  to Fort Sumter. Seizure by the citizens of the Arsenal at
  Charleston, S.C.

  1861 Duchess of Kent died, March 16th. Attack on Japanese
  Nussier, September 23rd. The fearful colliery explosion at
  Hartley took place on the 16th January of this year. King of
  Russia died, January 2nd. Taltian gallery destroyed, February
  5th. The principal events of the Great Rebellion this year
  are given under in the order of occurrence:--The Postmaster
  at Charleston refuses to make returns to the United States
  Government. The _Star of the West_ chartered and sent to Fort
  Sumter to reinforce Major Anderson. Mississippi secedes. The
  first gun of the rebellion fired; the forts on Morris Island
  fire on the _Star of the West_, and she puts to sea. Major
  Anderson leaves Fort Sumter in the _Baltic_, after having
  formally surrendered the fort and saluting his flag with the
  honors of war; several men killed by the explosion of a gun while
  saluting; no lives lost in the bombardment. The Army and Navy
  Appropriation Bills pass Congress. Battle at Rich Mountain, Va.,
  in which General McClellan defeats Pegram. The rebels evacuate
  Laurel Hill, Va. General McClellan occupies Beverly, Va.; Garnett
  defeated and killed at Carrick’s Ford, Va.; Pegram surrenders.
  Battle of Bull Run, Va.; the Union army defeated, and falls
  back on Washington in confusion; Union loss, 481 killed, 1011
  wounded, and 700 prisoners; Rebel lose, 269 killed, and 1483
  wounded. General Dix takes command in Baltimore. General Scott’s
  resignation accepted by the President, who appoints General
  McClellan to the chief command of the armies. General Dix issues
  an order regulating the Maryland elections. Floyd defeated by
  Rosecrans at Gauley Bridge. Battle at Belmont, Mo.; the rebels
  under Sidney A. Johnston defeated by Grant. Naval engagement
  in Port Royal Harbour; the rebel forts Beauregard and Walker
  captured. General Buell assigned to the Department of Kentucky.
  James M. Mason and John Slidell, rebel Ministers to England and
  France, seized on board the _Trent_, by Commodore Wilkes, of
  the _San Jacinto_. Rebels defeated at Piketon, Ky., by General
  Nelson. A general bombardment of Pensacola and the navy-yard by
  Colonel Brown at Fort Pickens; the town and navy-yard destroyed.
  The gunboat _Cœur de Lion_ runs the blockade of the Potomac, and
  arrives at Fortress Munro. The _Constitution_ leaves Hampton
  Roads with General Phelps, first part of the Butler expedition to
  New Orleans. General Scott returns to New York from Europe. Mr.
  Seward agrees to surrender Mason and Slidell.

  1862 French army in Mexico, January 7th. Mausoleum at Frogmore
  commenced, March 15th. French Victories in Cochin-China, March
  29th. Garibaldi at Catania, August 20th. Battle of Aspromonte,
  August 29th. Mason and Slidell surrendered. Engagements at Port
  Royal Ferry, S.C., and Pensacola, Fla. General Mitchell occupies
  Huntsville, Ala. Fort Puluski surrenders. The siege of Fort
  Macon, N.C., commenced. Pocahantos, Ark., occupied by General
  Curtis. New Orleans surrenders to Commodore Farragut. Battle
  at Warwick Creek, Va. General Banks evacuates Strasburg, Va.,
  in consequence of the advance of Jackson. Commodore Farragut
  shells Grand Gulf, Miss. Battle at Lewisburg, Va. The President
  calls for 300,000 men. Battle of Malvern Hills; end of the seven
  days’ fight. Battle of Catlett’s Station, Va., and retreat of
  Pope. General McDowell evacuates Fredericksburg, Va. General W.
  T. Sherman commences a movement upon Vicksburg in the rear of
  Haine’s Bluff. Stuart makes an unsuccessful foray on Burnside’s
  army at Falmouth, Va.

  1863 Captain Speke discovered the source of the Nile, February
  23rd. Prince of Wales married, March 10th. The President issues
  his Emancipation Proclamation. The rebels estimate their losses
  thus far at 20,898 killed, 59,615 wounded, and 21,169 prisoners.
  Total, 209,116. Battles of Hunt’s Cross Roads, Tenn., and
  Galveston, Texas. Naval engagement in Charleston Harbour; the
  rebel rams attack the fleet. National fast observed by order
  of President Lincoln. Porter’s squadron passes the batteries
  at Grand Gulf, Miss., and General Grant fights the battle of
  Branlinsburg, and lands his troops. Battle of Chancellorsville,
  Va., commenced. Stonewall Jackson mortally wounded. The tracks
  diverging from Gordonsville destroyed by General Buford. General
  Stoneman destroys the railroad at Columbia, Va. Second day of
  the battle of Chancellorsville, Va. Battle of Nansemond, Va.;
  Longstreet reinforces Lee. Fredericksburg, Va., captured by
  General Sedgwick. Battle at Gettysburg, Pa., commenced. General
  Rosecrans occupies Tullahoma, Tenn., and Winchester the next
  day. Negotiations for the surrender of Vicksburg, Miss.,
  opened. Vicksburg surrenders to General Grant. Lee defeated
  at Gettysburg, Pa. Battle at Helena, Ark. Chattanooga, Tenn.,
  evacuated by the rebels. Naval engagement in Charleston Harbour;
  a naval attack on Fort Sumter repulsed. Union forces defeated at
  Sabine Pass, Texas. Chattanooga occupied by General Crittenden.
  Cumberland Gap surrendered to General Burnside--Union forces
  defeated at Tipton, Tenn. Culpepper, Va., occupied by General
  Meade’s advance. Engagements near Culpepper, Va., and at Bird’s
  Gap, Ga. General Hooker’s “battle in the clouds” at Lookout
  Mountain. Engagement at Wauhatchie, Ala. General Blair occupies
  Tuscumbia, Ala. 181 Federal prisoners arrive at Fortress Monroe
  from Libby Prison, in a starving condition. The exchange of
  prisoners stopped. General Butler takes command of the Department
  of Virginia at Fortress Monroe. A furious bombardment of Fort
  Sumter. General Foster announces Longstreet in full retreat from
  Tennessee, whereupon the President orders a Thanksgiving. General
  Grant’s captures during the war announced as 472 cannon and
  90,000 prisoners.

  1864 Tercentenary of Shakspeare, April 10th. Great storm at
  Calcutta, October 5th. General Sherman returns to Vicksburg from
  a successful raiding expedition into Albania and Mississippi,
  having destroyed over $2,000,000 worth of property, and captured
  8000 negroes and 4000 prisoners. The rebels under General Forrest
  enter Paducah, Ky.; the rebels were repulsed and driven from
  the city. Severe gale; several vessels driven ashore along the
  coast. An expedition of Union troops under Colonel Clayton
  to Mount Elba and Longview, Ark., captured 320 prisoners, 300
  horses, about 40 wagons laden with camp and garrison equipments,
  beside 300 contrabands, and killing and wounding about 200
  rebels. United States steamer _Maple Leaf_ blown up in St.
  John’s River, Florida, by a rebel torpedo; four of the crew
  killed. Fight between rebels and Union gunboats at New Falls
  City, near Shreveport, La.; defeat of the rebels; from 500
  to 600 of them killed or wounded. Fight with rebels at Grand
  Ecore, La.; capture of 2000 rebels and twenty cannon by Union
  troops. The rebels attempt to blow up the United States frigate
  _Minnesota_, lying in Hampton Roads, with a torpedo, but fail.
  Capture of Fort Pillow by the rebels under General Forrest; all
  found in the garrison, except about 200, massacred after they had
  surrendered--men, women, and children. Steamer _Golden Gate_,
  laden with United States Government stores, captured by rebels
  near Memphis. Maximilian invested with his new honours as Emperor
  of Mexico at his Castle of Meramar. Battle at Mine Run between
  the rebels, under General Lee, and the army of the Potomac, under
  General Grant; the rebels defeated and driven back; Brigadier
  General Jas. S. Wadsworth and Brigadier Alex. Hays among the
  killed. Dalton, Ga., occupied by Union troops under General
  Thomas. Severe battle between the Union army under General Grant
  and the rebels under General Lee, near Spottsylvania Court-house;
  Major General John Sedgwick killed. The gunboats of General Banks
  and Admiral Porter’s expedition up Red River succeed in getting
  down over the Falls near Alexandria, through the engineering
  skill of Lieutenant Colonel Bailey. Fight between Union troops
  under General Butler and the rebels under the General Hill near
  Petersburg, Va.; the latter defeated. Another terrible battle
  near Spottsylvania Court-house, between the Union and rebel
  armies. General Sheridan completes a successful raid in the rear
  of Lee’s rebel army in Virginia, recapturing 500 Union soldiers,
  and destroying eight miles of railroad, two locomotives and
  three trains. Fight between General Butler’s troops and those of
  General Beauregard, without definite results. The rebel army in
  Georgia driven by General Sherman to Buzzard’s Roost Mountain.
  Major General Hancock captures 7000 rebels and thirty guns in
  a battle near Spottsylvania, Va. Union troops evacuate Little
  Washington, N.C., when rebels enter and burn all the houses in
  the place except about twenty; women robbed and turned adrift
  without food or shelter. The outer line of works of Fort Darling
  carried by Union troops under Generals Gillmore and Smith.
  General Sheridan captures the outer line of fortifications in
  front of Richmond. Dalton, Ga., evacuated by the rebels under
  General Joe Johnston and occupied by Union troops under General
  Sherman. Bombardment of Charleston and Fort Sumter, S.C., renewed
  with vigour. Resaca, Ga., captured by General Sherman’s army,
  with 1200 prisoners, ten guns and six trains going South for
  supplies; Union loss in killed and wounded 2700. General Sigel
  defeated at Rood’s Hill, in the Shenandoah Valley. Successful
  advance of General Grant’s army to Cold Harbour, Va. General
  Fitz Hugh Lee and 500 rebel cavalry captured by General Butler’s
  troops near White House, Va. General Hunter defeats the rebels
  at Staunton, Va.; captures 1500 prisoners, 3000 stand of arms
  and 3 cannon, beside a large amount of stores, &c.; the rebel
  General W. E. Jones, killed. The rebels attack the Union troops
  under General Burnside, and are repulsed. General Kautz, with
  his Union cavalry troops, charges the rebel works in front of
  Petersburg, Va., and enters the place, but not being supported
  by General Gillmore, is compelled to retire. Fight between Union
  cavalry under General Sheridan and the rebels under General J.
  E. B. Stewart; defeat of the rebel troops and death of General
  Stewart; General Hunter burns the Virginia Military institute,
  Governor Letcher’s house, and captures 6 cannon and 600 horses,
  and a large amount of stores. Maximilian makes a triumphant entry
  into the City of Mexico; John Morgan, rebel General, captures
  Cynthiana, Ky., and two Ohio regiments; General Burbridge, with
  Union troops, subsequently arrives, defeats the rebels, captures
  400 prisoners and 1000 horses. Expedition of 8000 Union troops
  under General Sturgis defeated by 10,000 rebels under Generals
  Forrest, Lee and Roddy; wagon and ammunition trains lost.
  Desperate fight between rebel and Union troops on the line of
  the Petersburg and Weldon Railroad; the Union troops driven from
  their position, but afterward regain it; a Union brigade gobbled
  up. Artillery fight in front of Petersburg, Va.; the town set
  on fire by shells from Union guns. Frederick, Md., evacuated by
  Union troops under General Wallace, and occupied by rebels, who
  levy $200,000 on the citizens. Severe fight between the armies
  of General Sherman and General Hood in front of Atlanta; severe
  assaults of Hood successfully repulsed. Peace Conference at
  Niagara Falls; Horace Greeley acts as President Lincoln’s agent,
  and offers the rebel Commissioners a safe conduct to Washington
  and back. A mine exploded under the rebel fortifications at
  Petersburg, Va., which are blown up with the troops in them; a
  terrific battle ensues; the Union storming column is repulsed
  with fearful slaughter; Union loss, 6000. Severe fight between
  the rebels and Union troops under General Warren; the rebels
  repulsed; Union loss 2800. Martinsburg, Va., reoccupied by rebel
  troops. Another battle on the line of the Weldon and Petersburg
  Road, between Union troops under General Warren and the rebels;
  the latter repulsed, with fearful slaughter; Union loss about
  3000. Forrest, with three brigades of cavalry, attacks Memphis,
  and endeavours to capture Generals Washburne and Hurlbut; they
  fail in their object, and are driven out by Union troops. Fight
  between rebel and Union troops near Charlestown, Va., without
  decisive results. The rebels make another desperate effort to
  drive General Warren from the Petersburg and Weldon Railroad,
  but are again repulsed, with heavy loss. General Kilpatrick
  returns from a successful raiding expedition; tears up 14 miles
  of railroad, captures 4 cannon and 200 prisoners. Atlanta,
  Ga., captured by Union troops, under Major General Sherman; 27
  guns and 1000 rebel prisoners taken. Fight in the Shenandoah
  valley, near Berryville, Va.; defeat of the rebels; 20 wagons,
  2 battle flags and many prisoners captured. Fight with rebels
  at Greenville, Tenn.; John Morgan, the notorious guerilla,
  killed, and his force dispersed. Desperate fight with rebels
  at Opequan Creek, Shenandoah valley; the Union troops, under
  General Sheridan, capture 3000 prisoners, 15 battle flags and
  5 guns. Some rebels capture the steamers _Parsons_ and _Island
  Queen_, on Lake Erie, and convert them into pirates. The British
  Government order that no vessel belonging to the Confederates
  or United States shall enter British ports for the purpose of
  being dismantled or sold. General Sheridan gains a great victory
  at Fisher’s Hill, Shenandoah Valley; captures 20 guns, beside
  caissons, horses and 1100 prisoners; Union General Russell
  killed. Great battle in the Shenandoah Valley, between Union
  forces, under General Sheridan, and the rebels, under General
  Early; defeat of the latter, and capture of 43 guns, beside
  caissons, horses and prisoners. General Blunt defeated by the
  rebels under General Price, at Lexington, Mo. The rebel ram
  _Albemarle_ blown up in Roanoke River by a United States torpedo
  boat, under the command of Lieutenant Cushing. Fight between
  General Pleasanton’s Union army and General Price’s rebel army
  at Newton, Mo.; defeat of the latter; 2000 rebels and 7100 stand
  of arms captured. Fight between the Union forces under General
  Sherman and the rebels under General Hood; defeat of the latter.
  Armed bands of rebels appear on the Lakes and occasion great
  excitement and alarm along the Northern frontier. Rebel troops
  under General Price attack Fayetteville, Ark., and are repulsed
  with a loss of about 1000 in killed and wounded. The rebels
  under General Breckinridge attack the Union troops under General
  Gillem at Bull Gap, and capture 400 Union troops. Severe fight
  between rebel and Union troops at Strawberry Plains, Tenn.,
  without decisive results. Forty-five Union scouts captured by the
  rebel General Mosby, near Charlestown, Va. The Senate authorizes
  the construction of six revenue cutters for the lakes. A bill
  authorizing the President to terminate the Reciprocity Treaty,
  passes the House. The Canadian Courts decide that they have no
  jurisdiction in the case of the St. Albans and Lake Erie pirates,
  and release them. General Sherman investing Savannah; Admiral
  Porter’s expedition leaves Fortress Monroe for Wilmington.
  Re-arrest of one of the St. Albans’ raiders in Canada; re-action
  of sentiment.

  1865 American Rebellion still continuing--Principal events
  in order of succession:--Columbia, S.C., captured by General
  Sherman; Fort Anderson, Cape Fear River, shelled by our forces;
  General Schofield advancing from Smithfield, N.C. Rebel dollar
  estimated by the rebels as worth two cents in specie. Charleston
  evacuated. Sheridan pursuing Early and his body guard, all that
  is left of his army. General Sherman leaves Fayetteville, N.C.,
  destroys the arsenal, and moves on Goldsboro. General Sheridan’s
  entire command arrives at White House, Va. Johnston defeated at
  Bentonville, N.C. Goldsboro evacuated, and the rebel forces fall
  back on Smithfield. General Steele leaves Pensacola, Fla., to
  attack Mobile. Captain Kennedy, the spy and incendiary, hung at
  Fort Lafayette. The rebels attack and carry Fort Steadman, but
  the fort is retaken by a vigorous charge of the Ninth Corps;
  the President witnesses the action. General Granger commences a
  co-operating movement against Mobile. General Sherman arrives
  at General Grant’s head-quarters. General Stoneham captures
  Boone, N.C. General Wilson moves on Greenville, Ala. A general
  advance made on Spanish Fort, Mobile Bay. The _Stonewall_ arrives
  at Lisbon, Portugal, having escaped from Ferrol, Spain, and
  is ordered to leave the harbour. Battle of Five Forks, Va.;
  the rebel right doubled up on the centre, and a portion of the
  wing cut off. General Grant orders an attack on the whole line,
  and, after desperate fighting, both wings are rested on the
  Appomattox; the South Side Road is cut, and during the day and
  night Richmond and Petersburg are evacuated, and Lee’s army
  is in full retreat for Danville; the rebel General A. P. Hill
  killed. Selma, Ala., captured by General Wilson’s cavalry,
  together with the greater portion of Forrest’s and Roddy’s
  commands. General Sheridan attacks Lee, West of Burkesville and
  routs him, capturing Ewell and a number of other generals. The
  news of the capture of Richmond announced to Sherman’s army.
  General Grant urges Lee to surrender to save the further effusion
  of blood; Lee asks for terms. General Lee surrenders the Army
  of Northern Virginia to General Grant. The President and Mrs.
  Lincoln return to Washington. Mobile captured; 300 guns and 3000
  prisoners. General rejoicing all over the country. All the St.
  Albans raiders, except Young, released. The President issues
  a proclamation closing certain Southern ports. The President
  makes a speech in which he defines the States of the rebellion
  and hints at plans for restoration. He issues a proclamation
  respecting treatment of our national vessels in foreign ports,
  and threatens retaliation for discourtesy. A _Te Deum_ chanted in
  Trinity Church. Lynchburg, Va., surrenders to a Union scouting
  party, Practical end of the War:--General Grant arrives in
  Washington and advises that the draft be stopped, that recruiting
  cease, and that the military establishment be reduced. Lee
  reported to have advised Johnston to surrender to Sherman. The
  _Europa_ arrives with the news that the American Minister at
  Lisbon has demanded satisfaction for the outrage on the American
  flag. The President assassinated in Ford’s Theatre, Washington,
  by J. Wilkes Booth, who escapes; another assassin proceeds to
  Mr. Seward’s residence and seriously stabs him in the throat,
  also assaulting Mr. Frederick W. Seward. The President dies about
  half past seven o’clock; Andrew Johnson becomes President of the
  United States.

  1866 Death of Lord Palmerston. The Fenian raid into Canada
  with the affairs of Ridgeway and Pigeon Hill. The war in
  Europe, of which the following is a complete table of principal
  events:--Federal execution decreed by the Germanic Diet. Entry
  of the Prussians into Leipsic, Gleasen and Cassel. Occupation of
  Loban. Entry of the Prussian General Vogel into the Hanoverian
  capital. Occupation of Marenthal, Ostritz and Lauban, in
  Bohemia, by two Prussian regiments, and occupation of Bernstadt
  by Prussian cavalry. Occupation of Dresden by the Prussians.
  Evacuation of Fort Wilhelm by the Hanoverian troops. Prince
  William of Hanau made prisoner. Cavalry encounter between the
  Austrians and Prussians upon the Rumburg road. Nixdorf occupied
  by 7000 Prussians. Occupation of Rumburg by the Prussians.
  Armistice between the Prussian and Hanoverian troops. Action near
  Jungbunzlau between the Austrians and the Prussians. The Prussian
  troops occupied Reichenberg, Trautenau and Aicha (Bohemia).
  Engagement near Turnau. The army of the Crown Prince of Prussia
  fought the battle of Nachod. Engagement at Oswiecim. Fight
  between the Prussians and Hanoverians near Langeusalza. General
  Steinmetz throws back the Austrian corps d’armée (Ramming)
  upon Josephstadt. Engagement of the same corps with the 6th
  and 8th Austrian corps under the Archduke Leopold. Action near
  Trautenau. The troops of Prince Frederick Charles engaged near
  Munchengratz. The Hanoverian army surrendered at discretion.
  Capture of Gitschin by the Prussian army. Actions at Kort, near
  Turnau, and at Chwalkowitz, between Kalitz and Konigshof. An
  Austrian army corps under General Clam-Gallus compelled to retire
  upon Koniggratz. Action at Gitschin. Arrival of King William
  at Gitschin. Junction of the Crown Prince’s army with that of
  Prince Frederick Charles. The battle of Sadowa. The laying of the
  Atlantic Cable and the raising of the old one nearly two years
  in water and successfully spliced and working, uniting the two
  continents--the Old and New World--let it be hoped, in the bonds
  of _eternal_ fraternity.


GLORY TO GOD ON HIGH, AND IN EARTH PEACE.--GOOD WILL TOWARDS MEN.


FINIS.



APPENDIX.


I.

EFFECTIVE STRENGTH OF THE FRENCH ARMY AT WATERLOO.

  Infantry of the Line:--
    First Corps                     32 battalions
    Second Corps (3 divisions)      28 battalions[46]
    Sixth Corps (2 divisions)       12 battalions
                                    --
                                    72 battalions.

  Which, at 720 each, (according to the statements in the
  _Moniteur_ and in the portfolio of Napoleon,) would
  amount to                                                   51,840

  Infantry of the Guard, stated by Gourgaud, p. 37, and
  Fleury, p. 167, at                                          14,000

  Cavalry of the Guard, according to Fleury, pp. 165 and 167   4,500

  Cavalry of 1st, 2nd, and 6th Corps, according to Fleury,
  p. 167 and Book ix                                           4,200

  Reserve of Cavalry, 4 Corps, according to Book ix, p. 128    7,400

  Artillery    ditto             ditto                         6,500
                                                              ------
                                                              88,440
  Losses sustained on the 16th, by these Corps, according
  to Book ix                                                   4,250
                                                              ------
                                                              84,190


II.

EFFECTIVE STRENGTH OF THE ANGLO-ALLIED ARMY AT WATERLOO.

  British Infantry                                            15,181
     “    Cavalry                                              5,843
     “    Artillery                                            2,967
  King’s German Legion--Infantry                               3,301
       “       “        Cavalry                                1,997
       “       “        Artillery                                526
                                                              ------
                           Total British and German Legion    29,815

  Hanoverian, Brunswick, and Nassau Infantry                  17,724
       “         “             “    Cavalry                    1,363
       “         “             “    Artillery                    975
  Dutch-Belgian Infantry                                      13,402
    “      “    Cavalry                                        3,205
    “      “    Artillery                                      1,177
                                                              ------
                                 Total                        67,661

  Deduct: Retreated--
    Bylandt’s Belgian Brigade                        3,233
    Tripp’s Dutch-Belgian Carabiniers                1,237
    Hanoverian Cumberland Hussars                      496
    D’Aubreme’s Dutch-Belgian Brigade                3,181     8,148[47]
                                                              ------
                                 Actual Combatants            59,513

FOOTNOTES:

[46] Book ix. tells us, in Table F, that four of the regiments in
this Corps had three battalions.

[47] There was probably the same backwardness in a few other cases;
but _these_ are distinctly recorded.



  TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE

  Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been
  corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within
  the text and consultation of external sources.

  The punctuation after the Battle Name heading (.--) has been made
  consistent, eg ABOUKIR.-- (some headings had ,-- or only -- ).

  The original Table on page 215 was very wide, and has been split
  into two parts; the first column has been duplicated in the second
  part.

  The ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY Table on page 450 has an abbreviation P. This
  has been marked with an asterisk and a note (not a footnote) placed
  under the Table ‘* P = Period.’, in the same manner as the original
  text.

  Both Tables on page 450 have been adjusted, with no loss of text,
  to keep each line width a reasonable size.

  Two items in the CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE which starts on page 451 were
  out of sequence and have been moved to the correct place; 1097 has
  been moved above 1098, and 1207 has been moved above 1208.

  Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text,
  and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained: for example,
  hill-side, hill side, hillside; head-quarters, head quarters,
  headquarters; daybreak, day-break; punctilios; Affghan; cimetars;
  inclosed; rhetorician; debouching.

  Pg 25: ‘men vieing with’ replaced by ‘men vying with’.
  Pg 39: ‘28,000 prisioners’ replaced by ‘28,000 prisoners’.
  Pg 40: ‘The seige is one’ replaced by ‘The siege is one’.
  Pg 47: ‘saw Brigader-General’ replaced by ‘saw Brigadier-General’.
  Pg 49: ‘advance of Balakalava’ replaced by ‘advance of Balaklava’.
  Pg 49: ‘en enchelon’ replaced by ‘en échelon’.
  Pg 52: ‘a lance thurst’ replaced by ‘a lance thrust’.
  Pg 55: ‘gallont promptitude’ replaced by ‘gallant promptitude’.
  Pg 59: ‘and 20 canons’ replaced by ‘and 20 cannons’.
  Pg 60: ‘the kingdon, known’ replaced by ‘the kingdom, known’.
  Pg 64: ‘crashed though’ replaced by ‘crashed through’.
  Pg 68: ‘into thesalient’ replaced by ‘into the salient’.
  Pg 70: ‘Prince Bragration’ replaced by ‘Prince Bagration’.
  Pg 72: ‘Edward III beseiged’ replaced by ‘Edward III besieged’.
  Pg 78: ‘putrified on their’ replaced by ‘putrefied on their’.
  Pg 80: ‘them, and orcing’ replaced by ‘them, and forcing’.
  Pg 81: ‘extreme inclemeny’ replaced by ‘extreme inclemency of’.
  Pg 84: ‘was then siezed’ replaced by ‘was then seized’.
  Pg 86: ‘a dreaful fire’ replaced by ‘a dreadful fire’.
  Pg 90: ‘Gage, Jannuary’ replaced by ‘Gage, January’.
  Pg 100: ‘flag of true, and’ replaced by ‘flag of truce, and’.
  Pg 100: ‘of maze, they’ replaced by ‘of maize, they’.
  Pg 101: ‘tossed of from’ replaced by ‘tossed off from’.
  Pg 104: ‘a capita charge’ replaced by ‘a capital charge’.
  Pg 114: ‘he clapsed him’ replaced by ‘he clasped him’.
  Pg 119: ‘and gallopped off’ replaced by ‘and galloped off’.
  Pg 123: ‘CUSTOZZO, BATTLE OF’ replaced by ‘CUSTOZZA, BATTLE OF’.
  Pg 123: ‘afternoon, June 28th’ replaced by ‘afternoon, June 23rd’.
  Pg 124: ‘but tells us’ replaced by ‘but tell us’.
  Pg 131: ‘EDGEHLL, BATTLE OF’ replaced by ‘EDGEHILL, BATTLE OF’.
  Pg 133: ‘and Montford slain’ replaced by ‘and Montfort slain’.
  Pg 136: ‘Desparing of success’ replaced by ‘Despairing of success’.
  Pg 137: ‘pursuing hostilites’ replaced by ‘pursuing hostilities’.
  Pg 138: ‘in wasting upon’ replaced by ‘in waiting upon’.
  Pg 142: ‘Anstrians, February’ replaced by ‘Austrians, February’.
  Pg 144: ‘Napeleon in person’ replaced by ‘Napoleon in person’.
  Pg 148: ‘to show symptons’ replaced by ‘to show symptoms’.
  Pg 149: ‘to the route’ replaced by ‘to the rout’.
  Pg 151: ‘peaceful posssession’ replaced by ‘peaceful possession’.
  Pg 151: ‘the mottoe of the’ replaced by ‘the motto of the’.
  Pg 160: ‘their minie rifles’ replaced by ‘their Minié rifles’.
  Pg 174: ‘In a vew minutes’ replaced by ‘In a few minutes’.
  Pg 182: ‘seige of Olmutz’ replaced by ‘siege of Olmutz’.
  Pg 184: ‘Brigadier Churchhill’ replaced by ‘Brigadier Churchill’.
  Pg 193: ‘May 2th, 1813’ replaced by ‘May 2nd, 1813’.
  Pg 194: ‘Lewis XIV took’ replaced by ‘Louis XIV took’.
  Pg 202: ‘Canadian Volunters’ replaced by ‘Canadian Volunteers’.
  Pg 208: ‘as if valcanoes’ replaced by ‘as if volcanoes’.
  Pg 211: ‘of General Bettenfeld.’ replaced by ‘of General Bittenfeld.’.
  Pg 219: ‘ship, the _Conqérant_’ replaced by ‘ship, the _Conquérant_’.
  Pg 225: ‘Peninsular hereos’ replaced by ‘Peninsular heroes’.
  Pg 239: ‘Cardinal set of’ replaced by ‘Cardinal set off’.
  Pg 244: ‘the Jacobins, but’ replaced by ‘the Jacobites, but’.
  Pg 254: ‘Van Ransselaer. In’ replaced by ‘Van Rensselaer. In’.
  Pg 257: ‘of every Cananadian’ replaced by ‘of every Canadian’.
  Pg 257: ‘galantry and merit’ replaced by ‘gallantry and merit’.
  Pg 259: ‘It surrended to’ replaced by ‘It surrendered to’.
  Pg 259: ‘soon siezed with’ replaced by ‘soon seized with’.
  Pg 276: ‘be would not allow’ replaced by ‘he would not allow’.
  Pg 287: ‘Alles ist veloren’ replaced by ‘Alles ist verloren’.
  Pg 301: ‘a garrison 1700’ replaced by ‘a garrison of 1700’.
  Pg 301: ‘General Kutosoff’ replaced by ‘General Kutusoff’.
  Pg 303: ‘one his mistresses’ replaced by ‘one of his mistresses’.
  Pg 311: ‘that each man’ replaced by ‘than each man’.
  Pg 313: ‘and exhilirating scene’ replaced by ‘and exhilarating scene’.
  Pg 315: ‘à-ricohet’ replaced by ‘à-ricochet’.
  Pg 320: ‘flying ignominously’ replaced by ‘flying ignominiously’.
  Pg 324: ‘ariving in time’ replaced by ‘arriving in time’.
  Pg 337: ‘18th, August, 1593’ replaced by ‘18th, August, 1513’.
  Pg 344: ‘effect of the suprise’ replaced by ‘effect of the surprise’.
  Pg 353 Footnotes [10] and [11]: small errors in the Greek phrases
           have been corrected.
  Pg 361: ‘I feel someting’ replaced by ‘I feel something’.
  Pg 361: ‘garrison surrended’ replaced by ‘garrison surrendered’.
  Pg 368: ‘until there last’ replaced by ‘until their last’.
  Pg 372: ‘event at a period’ replaced by ‘even at a period’.
  Pg 374: ‘wife of Henry II’ replaced by ‘wife of Henry VI’.
  Pg 375: ‘In many place the’ replaced by ‘In many places the’.
  Pg 386: ‘which proceeded the’ replaced by ‘which preceded the’.
  Pg 404 Footnote [37]: ‘give total of’ replaced by ‘give a total of’.
  Pg 419: ‘own admision’ replaced by ‘own admission’.
  Pg 439: ‘without amunition’ replaced by ‘without ammunition’.
  Pg 442: ‘inland ressources’ replaced by ‘inland resources’.
  Pg 447: ‘personaal ppearance’ replaced by ‘personal appearance’.
  Pg 449: ‘by the initals’ replaced by ‘by the initials’.
  Pg 451: ‘3347 Noah quits’ replaced by ‘2347 Noah quits’.
  Pg 452: ‘a seige of ten’ replaced by ‘a siege of ten’.
  Pg 452: ‘Agamemnon, Achillies’ replaced by ‘Agamemnon, Achilles’.
  Pg 453: ‘727 Nabopolazzar’ replaced by ‘627 Nabopolazzar’.
  Pg 454: ‘Cyrenaic philosopers’ replaced by ‘Cyrenaic philosophers’.
  Pg 458: ‘Age Pomponius’ replaced by ‘Age of Pomponius’.
  Pg 462: ‘aad swear allegiance’ replaced by ‘and swear allegiance’.
  Pg 463: ‘Lady Berengera’ replaced by ‘Lady Berengaria’.
  Pg 472: ‘aad the statutes’ replaced by ‘and the statutes’.
  Pg 476: ‘Augbrim, in Ireland’ replaced by ‘Aughrim, in Ireland’.
  Pg 478: ‘Newton died, aged 35’ replaced by ‘Newton died, aged 85’.
  Pg 488: ‘Alma, Balaclava’ replaced by ‘Alma, Balaklava’.
  Pg 490: ‘evacuted by them’ replaced by ‘evacuated by them’.
  Pg 493: ‘Navy Apropriation’ replaced by ‘Navy Appropriation’.
  Pg 494: ‘Winchester the next next’ replaced by ‘Winchester the
           next day’.





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