Cassell's Natural History, Vol. 3 (of 6)

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Title: Cassell's Natural History, Vol. 3 (of 6)
Author: Dallas, W. S. (William Sweetland), Duncan, P. Martin (Peter Martin), Sharpe, R. Bowdler, Garrod, A. H. (Alfred Henry)
Language: English
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*** Start of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "Cassell's Natural History, Vol. 3 (of 6)" ***

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Transcriber’s Notes

This e-text is based on ‘Cassell’s Natural History, Vol. III,’ from
1893. Inconsistent and uncommon spelling and hyphenation have been
retained; punctuation and typographical errors have been corrected.

The spelling of toponyms might differ slightly from today’s
orthographical conventions.

_Underscores_ have been used to indicate italic text in the
original. Small capitals have been converted to UPPERCASE LETTERS.

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[Illustration:

CASSELL & COMPANY, LIMITED, LITH. LONDON.

DEER FAMILY.

1. Indian Muntjac (_Cervulus muntjac_).
2. Reindeer (_Rangifer tarandus_).
3. Javan Deerlet (_Tragulus napu_).
4. Fallow Deer (_Dama vulgaris_).
5. Wapiti Deer (_Cervus strongyloceros_).
6. Porcine Deer (_Hyelaphus porcinus_).
7. Roebuck (_Capreolus caprea_).
8. Elk (_Alces machlis_).
9. Chinese Water Deer (_Hydropotes inermis_).
]

CASSELL’S

NATURAL HISTORY

EDITED BY

P. MARTIN DUNCAN M.B. (LOND.) F.R.S. F.G.S.

PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY IN AND HONORARY FELLOW OF KING’S COLLEGE LONDON
CORRESPONDENT OF THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES PHILADELPHIA

VOL. III.

_ILLUSTRATED_

CASSELL AND COMPANY LIMITED
_LONDON PARIS & MELBOURNE_
1893

UNGULATA:--
RUMINANTIA.

A. H. GARROD, M.A., F.R.S.

RODENTIA.

W. S. DALLAS, F.L.S.

EDENTATA.

P. MARTIN DUNCAN, M.B. (LOND.), F.R.S., F.G.S.

MARSUPIALIA.

P. MARTIN DUNCAN, M.B. (LOND.), F.R.S., F.G.S.

AVES.

R. BOWDLER SHARPE, F.L.S., F.Z.S.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

ARTIODACTYLA--RUMINANTIA:

BOVIDÆ--SHEEP, GOATS, AND GAZELLES. PAGE

Ruminantia--Chewing the Cud--Metaphorical Expression--The
Complicated Stomach: Paunch, Honey-comb Bag, Manyplies,
Reed--Order of Events in Rumination--Feet and
Dentition of Ruminants--Brain--Classification--HORNED
RUMINANTS--Divided into two Groups--Difference
between them--BOVIDÆ--Horns--Aberrant Members--SHEEP
AND GOATS--General Characteristics--Sheep of
South-Western Asia--Merino Sheep--Breeds of Great
Britain--Dishley, or Improved Leicesters--Mr. Bakewell’s
Description--Southdowns, Cheviots, Welsh, and other
British Breeds--Table of the Importation of Colonial
and Foreign Wool into the United Kingdom--MARCO POLO’S
SHEEP--OORIAL--SHAPOO--MOUFLON--AMMON--BURHEL--AMERICAN
ARGALI--WILD SHEEP OF BARBARY--THE GOAT--Compared with
the Sheep--Descent--Cashmere Goat--IBEXES--PASENG--Their
remarkable Horns--Old Theories as to the Use of
the Horns--MARKHOOR--TAHR--GAZELLES--General
Characteristics--Sir Victor Brooke’s Classification--THE
GAZELLE--Appearance--Habits--ARABIAN GAZELLE--PERSIAN
GAZELLE--SOEMMERRING’S GAZELLE--GRANT’S
GAZELLE--SPRINGBOK--SAÏGA--CHIRU--THE PALLAH, OR IMPALLA--THE
INDIAN ANTELOPE, OR BLACK BUCK 1

CHAPTER II.

ARTIODACTYLA--RUMINANTIA:

BOVIDÆ: (_continued_)--ANTELOPES.

THE STEINBOKS: KLIPSPRINGER, OUREBI, STEINBOK, GRYSBOK,
MADOQUA--THE BUSH-BUCKS--Appearance--Distinctive
Marks--THE FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPES--Peculiarity in
the Chikarah--THE WATER ANTELOPES: NAGOR, REITBOK,
LECHÈ, AEQUITOON, SING-SING, WATER-BUCK, POKU,
REH-BOK--THE ELAND--Beef--Appearance--Captain
Cornwallis Harris’ Description--Hunting--Scarcity--THE
KOODOO--Appearance--King of Antelopes--ANGAS’ HARNESSED
ANTELOPE--THE HARNESSED ANTELOPES: GUIB--BUSH BUCK, OR
UKOUKA--Appearance--Pluck--THE BOVINE ANTELOPES--THE
BUBALINE--HARTEBEEST--BLESBOK--BONTEBOK--SASSABY--THE
GNU--Grotesque Appearance--Habits--BRINDLED
GNU--THE CAPRINE ANTELOPES--SEROW--Ungainly
Habits--GORAL--CAMBING-OUTAN--TAKIN--MAZAMA--THE
CHAMOIS--Distribution--Appearance--Voice--Hunted--THE
ORYXES--BLAUBOK--SABLE ANTELOPE--BAKER’S
ANTELOPE--ORYX--BEISA--BEATRIX--GEMSBOK--ADDAX 17

CHAPTER III.

ARTIODACTYLA--RUMINANTIA:

BOVIDÆ (_concluded_)--OXEN, PRONGHORN ANTELOPE, MUSK [DEER],
AND GIRAFFE.

THE NYL-GHAU--Description--Habits--THE MUSK OX--Difficulties
in associating it--Distribution--Habits--THE
OX--Chillingham Wild Cattle--Their Habits--Domestic
Cattle--The Collings, Booth, and Bates Strains--American
Breeding--Shorthorns, and other Breeds--Hungarian
Oxen--Zebu--Gour--Gayal--Curious mode of Capturing
Gayals--Banting--THE BISONS--Description--European Bison,
or Aurochs--Almost extinct--Cæsar’s Description of
it--American Bison--Distribution--Mythical Notions regarding
it--Their Ferocity and Stupidity--“Buffalo” Flesh--THE
YAK--Habits--THE BUFFALOES--Varieties--Description--Fight
between two Bulls--THE ANOA--THE PRONGHORN
ANTELOPE--Peculiarity as to its Horns and Skull--Professor
Baird’s and Mr. Bartlett’s Independent Discovery of
the Annual Shedding of the Horns--Habits--Peculiarity
about its Feet--Colour--Difficulties as to its
Position--THE MUSK [DEER]--Its Perfume--Where is it to be
placed?--Description--Habits--Hunters for the Perfume--Their
Sufferings--THE GIRAFFE--Peculiarities--Skull processes--Its
Neck--Habitat--Running power--Habits--Hunting 29

CHAPTER IV.

THE CERVIDÆ, OR ANTLERED RUMINANTS:

THE ELK, ELAPHINE, SUB-ELAPHINE, AND RUSINE DEER.

The Deer Tribe--Distinguishing Characters--Exceptions to
the rule--The Musk (Deer) and Chinese Water Deer--Other
Characters of the Cervidæ--Antlers, their Nature,
Growth, and Shedding--The Knob--“Velvet”--Getting rid
of the “Velvet”--Full equipment--Contests--Interlocking
Antlers--Distribution--Classification--Development
of Antlers in the Common RED DEER--Explanation of
the various stages--Splendid “Heads”--Simple and
Complex Antlers--Types of Antlers--THE ELK, OR MOOSE
DEER--Appearance--Antlers--Habits--Hunting--THE ELAPHINE
DEER--THE RED DEER--Distribution--Appearance--Hunting--THE
WAPITI--Acting of the Fawns--THE PERSIAN DEER, OR
MARAL--THE CASHMERIAN DEER, OR BARASINGHA--Habits and
General Appearance--BARBARY DEER--SUB-ELAPHINE DEER--THE
JAPANESE, FORMOSAN, AND MANTCHURIAN DEER--THE FALLOW
DEER--Peculiarity of its Antlers--THE PERSIAN FALLOW
DEER--THE RUSINE DEER--THE SAMBUR, OR GEROW--Habits--Species
of Java, Formosa, Sumatra, Borneo, Timor, Ternate, and The
Philippines--THE HOG DEER--THE AXIS DEER--PRINCE ALFRED’S
DEER--THE SWAMP DEER--SCHOMBURGK’S DEER--ELD’S DEER, OR THE
THAMYN--Description--Habits--Hunting--Shameful havoc 46

CHAPTER V.

THE MUNTJACS--THE ROEBUCK--CHINESE DEER--REINDEER--AMERICAN
DEER--DEERLETS--CAMEL TRIBE--LLAMAS.

THE MUNTJACS--Distribution--Characters--THE INDIAN MUNTJAC,
OR KIDANG--Hunting--THE CHINESE MUNTJAC--Habits--DAVID’S
MUNTJAC--“Shanyang”--THE ROEBUCK--THE CHINESE WATER
DEER--Peculiarity--Chinese Superstition regarding it--THE
CHINESE ELAPHURE--Peculiarity of its Antlers--THE
REINDEER--Distribution--Character--Colouration--Antlers--Canadian
Breeds--Food--THE AMERICAN DEER--THE VIRGINIAN DEER--THE
MULE DEER--THE BLACK-TAILED DEER--THE GUAZUS--THE
BROCKETS--THE VENADA, OR PUDU DEER--THE CHEVROTAINS,
OR DEERLETS--Antlerless--Their Position--Bones of
their Feet--General Form and Proportions--Species--THE
MEMINNA, OR INDIAN DEERLET--THE JAVAN DEERLET--THE
KANCHIL--THE STANLEYAN DEERLET--THE WATER DEERLET--THE
CAMEL TRIBE--Their Feet--Stomach--Its Peculiarity--The
Water Cells--THE (TRUE) CAMEL--Description--The Pads of
Hardened Skin--Its Endurance--Its Disposition--Anecdote
of its Revengeful Nature--THE BACTRIAN CAMEL--THE
LLAMAS--Description--Habits--Used as Beasts
of Burden--Wild and Domesticated Species--THE
HUANACO--THE LLAMA--THE VICUNA--THE ALPACA--The Alpaca
Industry--FOSSIL RUMINANTIA--Strata in which they are
Found--_Chœropotamus_--_Hyopotamus_--_Dichobune_--_Xiphodon_
--_Cainotherium_--_Oreodon_--_Sivatherium_--Fossil
Deer, Oxen, Goats, Sheep, Camels, Llamas, Antelopes,
Giraffes--The Irish Elk--Its huge Antlers--Its
Skeleton--Ally--Distribution 61

ORDER RODENTIA.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTION--THE SQUIRREL, MARMOT, ANOMALURE, HAPLODONT, AND
BEAVER FAMILIES.

Character of the Order--A well-defined Group--Teeth
Evidence--Kinds and Number of Teeth--The Incisors: their
Growth, Renewal, and Composition--The Molars--The Gnawing
Process--Skeleton--Brain--Senses--Body--Insectivora
and Rodentia--Food of Rodents--Classification--THE
SIMPLE-TOOTHED RODENTS--Characteristics--THE SQUIRREL-LIKE
RODENTS--SCIURIDÆ--Distinctive Features--THE
COMMON SQUIRREL--Form--Distribution--Food--Bad
Qualities--Habits--THE GREY SQUIRREL--THE FOX
SQUIRREL--Flying Squirrels--Their Parachute Membrane--THE
TAGUAN--Appearance--Habits--Other Species--THE
POLATOUCHE--THE ASSAPAN--The Genus _Xerus_--THE GROUND
SQUIRRELS--THE COMMON CHIPMUNK--THE MARMOTS--Distinguishing
Features--THE SPERMOPHILES--THE GOPHER--THE SISEL,
OR SUSLIK--THE BARKING SQUIRRELS--THE PRAIRIE
DOG--Description--Species--Habits--Burrows--Fellow-inmates
in their “Villages”--THE TRUE MARMOTS--THE BOBAC--THE
ALPINE MARMOT--THE WOODCHUCK--THE HOARY MARMOT, OR
WHISTLER--ANOMALURIDÆ--Tail Peculiarity--Distinctive
Features--HAPLODONTIDÆ--Description--THE
SEWELLEL--CASTORIDÆ--THE BEAVER--Skeletal
Peculiarities--General Form--Appearance--Distribution--The
Beavers of the Old and New World--Habits--Wonderful
Sagacity--The Building Instinct--Their Method of Working--The
various Stages--Their Lodges--Their Dams--Activity by
Night--Flesh--Hunted--The _Castoreum_ 81

CHAPTER II.

THE DORMOUSE, LOPHIOMYS, RAT, AND MOUSE FAMILIES.

THE MOUSE-LIKE RODENTS--MYOXIDÆ--Characteristics--THE
DORMOUSE--Description--Habits--Activity--Food--Winter
Condition--THE LOIR--THE GARDEN DORMOUSE--LOPHIOMYIDÆ--How
the Family came to be Founded--THE LOPHIOMYS--Milne-Edwards’
Opinion--Skull--General Form--Habits--MURIDÆ--Number of
Species--Characteristics--Variety of Forms--Distribution--The
Murine Sub-Family--THE BROWN RAT--History--Fecundity
and Ferocity--Diet--At the Horse Slaughter-houses of
Montfaucon--Shipwrecked on Islands--Story of their
Killing a Man in a Coal-pit--In the Sewers of Paris
and London--THE BLACK RAT--THE EGYPTIAN RAT--THE
COMMON MOUSE--Habits--Destructiveness--Colours--THE
LONG-TAILED FIELD MOUSE--Description--Food--THE HARVEST
MOUSE--Description--Habits--In Winter--Agility--Their
Nest--THE BANDICOOT RAT--THE TREE RAT--THE STRIPED
MOUSE--Allied Genera--THE WHITE-FOOTED HAPALOTE--The
American Murines--THE WHITE-FOOTED, OR DEER MOUSE--THE
GOLDEN, OR RED MOUSE--THE RICE-FIELD MOUSE--THE AMERICAN
HARVEST MOUSE--THE FLORIDA RAT--Description--Their
Nest--Food--Mother and Young--THE BUSHY-TAILED WOOD
RAT--THE COTTON RAT--THE RABBIT-LIKE REITHRODON--THE
HAMSTERS--Characteristics--Appearance--Distribution--
Burrows--Disposition--Food--Habits--THE
TREE MICE--THE BLACK-STREAKED TREE MICE--THE
GERBILLES--Characteristics--Habits--Other Genera--THE
WATER MICE--Characteristics--Species--THE
SMINTHUS--THE VOLES--Characteristics--THE WATER
VOLE--Appearance--Distribution--Food--THE
FIELD VOLE--THE BANK VOLE--THE SOUTHERN FIELD
VOLE--THE SNOW MOUSE--THE ROOT VOLE--THE MEADOW
MOUSE--THE PINE MOUSE--THE MUSQUASH, MUSK RAT, OR
ONDATRA--Distinguishing Features--Habits--His House--THE
LEMMING--Description--Food--Habits--Disposition--Their
Extraordinary Migrations--Other Lemmings--THE ZOKOR 101

CHAPTER III.

MOLE RATS, POUCHED RATS, POUCHED MICE, JERBOAS, AND
OCTODONTIDÆ.

SPALACIDÆ, OR MOLE RATS--Characteristics
of the Family--Habits--Food--THE MOLE
RAT--Distribution--Description--THE CHESTNUT MOLE RAT--THE
NAKED MOLE RAT--THE STRAND MOLE RAT--Description--Habits--THE
CAPE MOLE RAT--GEOMYIDÆ, OR POUCHED RATS--Characteristics
of the Family--The Cheek-pouches--THE COMMON POCKET
GOPHER--Distribution--Description--Burrowing--Runs--Subterranean
Dwelling--THE NORTHERN POCKET GOPHER--HETEROMYINÆ,
OR POUCHED MICE--Difficulties as to
Position--Characteristics--PHILLIPS’ POCKET MOUSE--Where
Found--Description--THE YELLOW POCKET MOUSE--THE LEAST
POCKET MOUSE--DIPODIDÆ, OR JERBOAS--Organisation for
Jumping--Characteristics--Distribution--THE AMERICAN
JUMPING MOUSE--Description--Characters peculiar to
itself--Habits--THE TRUE JERBOAS--Characters--THE
JERBOA--Distribution--Habits--Mode of Locomotion--THE
ALACTAGA--THE CAPE JUMPING HARE--THE PORCUPINE-LIKE
RODENTS--OCTODONTIDÆ--Characteristics--Sub-Family
CTENODACTYLINÆ--THE GUNDI--THE DEGU--Description--Habits--THE
BROWN SCHIZODON--THE TUKOTUKO--THE CURURO--THE ROCK
RAT--Sub-Family, ECHINOMYINÆ--THE COYPU--One of the Largest
Rodents--Description--Burrows--Habits--Mother and Young--THE
HUTIA CONGA--THE HUTIA CARABALI--THE GROUND RAT 120

CHAPTER IV.

PORCUPINES--CHINCHILLAS--AGOUTIS--CAVIES--HARES AND
RABBITS--PIKAS.

HYSTRICIDÆ, THE PORCUPINES--Conversion of Hairs into
Spines--Skull--Dentition--Tail--Sub-families--The
True Porcupines--The Tree Porcupines--THE COMMON
PORCUPINE--Distribution--Description--The Crest of
Bristles--Nature of the Spines--Habits--Young--Flesh--On
the Defensive--Other Species--Species
of Tree Porcupines--THE COUENDOU--THE
COUIY--Description--Habits--THE URSON, OR CANADA
PORCUPINE--Description--Habits--Food--CHINCHILLIDÆ, THE
CHINCHILLAS--Characteristics--THE VISCACHA--Description--Life
on the Pampas--Their Burrows--Habits--The Chinchillas
of the Andes--THE CHINCHILLA--THE SHORT-TAILED
CHINCHILLA--CUVIER’S CHINCHILLA--THE PALE-FOOTED
CHINCHILLA--DASYPROCTIDÆ, THE AGOUTIS--Characters--THE
AGOUTI--Distribution--Appearance--Habits--AZARA’S
AGOUTI--THE ACOUCHY--THE
PACA--Appearance--Distribution--Habits--DINOMYIDÆ--Founded
for a Single Species--Description--Rarity--CAVIIDÆ,
THE CAVIES--Characteristics--THE RESTLESS
CAVY--Appearance--Habits--The Guinea-Pig
Controversy--THE BOLIVIAN CAVY--THE ROCK CAVY--THE
SOUTHERN CAVY--THE PATAGONIAN CAVY, OR MARA--Peculiar
Features--Its Burrows--Mode of Running--THE
CAPYBARA--Its Teeth--Where Found--Habits--THE
DOUBLE-TOOTHED RODENTS--Characteristics--LEPORIDÆ,
THE HARES AND RABBITS--Structural
Peculiarities--Distribution--Disposition--THE
COMMON HARE--Hind Legs--Speed--Its “Doubles”--Other
Artifices--Its “Form”--Habits--Food--Pet Hares--THE
RABBIT--Distribution--Habits--Domesticated--THE
MOUNTAIN HARE--LAGOMYIDÆ, THE
PIKAS--Characteristics--Distribution--THE ALPINE PIKA--THE
ROCKY MOUNTAIN PIKA 133

CHAPTER V.

FOSSIL RODENTIA.

Families of Rodents represented by Fossil
Remains--State of the “Record of the Rocks”--THE
SCIURIDÆ--Sciurine Genera now Extinct--No Fossil
ANOMALURIDÆ and HAPLODONTIDÆ--ISCHYROMYIDÆ--_Pseudotomus
hians_--_Gymnoptychus_--CASTORIDÆ--Mr.
Allen’s CASTOROIDIDÆ--THE MYOXIDÆ--No Fossil
LOPHIOMYIDÆ--THE MURIDÆ--THE SPALACIDÆ--THE
GEOMYIDÆ--THE DIPODIDÆ--THE THERIDOMYIDÆ--THE
OCTODONTIDÆ--THE HYSTRICIDÆ--THE CHINCHILLIDÆ--THE
DASYPROCTIDÆ--THE CAVIIDÆ--THE LEPORIDÆ--THE
LAGOMYIDÆ--_Mesotherium cristatum_--Difficulties
concerning it--Mr. Alston’s Suggestion--THE
HEBETIDENTATA--Teeth--Skull--Skeleton--Conclusions regarding
it--Table of Rodent Families--Concluding Remarks 151

ORDER EDENTATA, OR BRUTA (ANIMALS WITHOUT FRONT TEETH).

CHAPTER I.

SLOTHS.

The South American Forests--Discovery of the Sloth--How it
derived its Name--Peculiarities of Dentition--Food--Fore
Limbs and Fingers--Hind Limbs and Heel--Other
Modifications of Structure--Kinds of Sloth--Waterton’s
Captive Sloth--Habits of the Animal--Burchell’s Tame
Sloths--Manner of Climbing Trees--Disposition--Activity among
Trees--Naturalists’ Debate about Anatomy--Probable Conclusion
regarding it--Skeleton--Vertebræ--the Rudimentary Tail--Most
Distinctive Skeletal Characters--Arm, Wrist, Hand, Fingers,
Claws--Mode of Walking--Great Utility of the Claws--Face of
Sloth--Skull--Teeth--Classification--_TARDIGRADA_--BRADIPODIDÆ--Genus
BRADYPUS--Characteristics--Genus
ARCTOPITHECUS--Characteristics--CHOLŒPODIDÆ--THE COLLARED
SLOTH--Description--Skull Bones--Habits--Circulation of the
Blood--_Rete Mirabile_--THE AI--THE UNAU--Appearance--Skull
and Teeth--Skeleton--Interesting Anatomical
Features--Stomach--HOFFMANN’S SLOTH--Description--Habits 158

CHAPTER II.

THE ANT-EATERS.

THE CAPE ANT-EATER--The Cage at “the Zoo”--Appearance
of the Animal--Its Prey--The Ant-hills-How the
Orycteropus obtains its Food--Place in the
Order--Teeth--Skull--Tongue--Interesting Questions concerning
the Ant-eater--THE PANGOLINS, OR SCALY ANT-EATERS--THE
AFRICAN SCALY ANT-EATERS--Differences between the Pangolins
and Cape Ant-eaters--Their Habitat--Description--TEMMINCK’S
PANGOLIN--Habits--Food--How it Feeds--Superstitious Regard
for it shown by the Natives--Scarcity--Appearance--THE
LONG-TAILED, OR FOUR-FINGERED PANGOLIN--THE
GREAT MANIS--THE ASIATIC SCALY ANT-EATERS--THE
SHORT-TAILED, OR FIVE-FINGERED PANGOLIN--The Species of
_Manis_--Skull--Stomach--Claws fitted for Digging--Other
Skeletal Peculiarities--THE AMERICAN ANT-EATERS--General
Appearance--Genera--THE GREAT ANT-BEAR--Habits--Diet--How
it Procures its Food--Distribution--Mode and Rate of
Locomotion--Stupidity--Manner of Assault and Defence--Stories
of its Contests with other Animals--Appearance--THE
TAMANDUA--Description--Where Found--Habits--Odour--THE
TWO-TOED ANT-EATER--Appearance--Two-clawed Hand--Habits--Von
Sach’s Account of his Specimen 169

CHAPTER III.

THE ARMADILLO FAMILY.

The Armour-plates--How the Shields are formed--Their
connection with the Body--Description of the
Animals--Mode of Walking--Diet--Skeleton--Adaptation of
their Limbs for Burrowing--Classification--THE GREAT
ARMADILLO--Appearance--Great Burrower--THE TATOUAY--THE
POYOU, OR YELLOW-FOOTED ARMADILLO--THE PELUDO, OR HAIRY
ARMADILLO--THE PICHIY--THE PEBA, OR BLACK TATOU--THE MULE
ARMADILLO--THE BALL ARMADILLO--Dr. Murie’s Account of its
Habits--Description--The Muscles by which it Rolls itself
up and Unrolls itself--THE PICHICIAGO--Concluding Remarks:
Classification of the Order, Fossil Edentates, the Allied
Species of _Manis_ in South Africa and Hindostan 181

ORDER MARSUPIALIA, MARSUPIAL OR POUCHED ANIMALS.

SUB-ORDER MARSUPIATA.

CHAPTER I.

THE KANGAROO AND WOMBAT FAMILIES.

THE GREAT KANGAROO--Captain Cook and the Great
Kangaroo--Habitat--Appearance of the Animal--Marsupials
separated from the other Mammalian Orders, and why
(Footnote)--Gestation and Birth of Young (Footnote)--Mode
of Running--The Short Fore Limbs--The _Marsupium_, or
Pouch--Head--Dentition--Peculiarities in the Teeth--Hind
Extremities--Foot--Great Claw--How the Erect Position is
maintained--Whence their Jumping Power is derived--Other
Skeletal Peculiarities--Kangaroo Hunts--Becoming
Rarer--Mode of Attack and Defence--Hands--Bones of the Fore
Limbs--Skull--Stomach--Circulation of Blood--Peculiarity
in Young--Nervous System not fully developed--Brain--The
Baby Kangaroo in the Pouch--THE HARE KANGAROO--THE
GREAT ROCK KANGAROO--THE RED KANGAROO--THE BRUSH
KANGAROO--THE BRUSH-TAILED ROCK KANGAROO--THE COMMON
TREE KANGAROO--THE KANGAROO-RATS--Characteristics--THE
RAT-TAILED HYPSIPRYMNUS--Description--THE WOMBAT FAMILY--THE
WOMBAT--Peculiarities--Description--Habits--Teeth--Skeleton 191

CHAPTER II.

THE PHALANGER, POUCHED BADGER, AND DASYURE FAMILIES.

THE PHALANGER FAMILY--THE KOALA--Habits--Characteristics--THE
CUSCUS--THE VULPINE PHALANGER--THE DORMOUSE
PHALANGER--Habits--Remarkable Characters--THE FLYING
PHALANGERS--Its Flying Machine--Habits--THE SQUIRREL FLYING
PHALANGERS--Habits--The Parachute-like Membrane--Exciting
Scene on board a Vessel--Characteristics--THE OPOSSUM
MOUSE--THE NOOLBENGER, OR TAIT--A Curiosity among
Marsupials--Distinctive Features--THE POUCHED BADGER
FAMILY--Characteristics--THE RABBIT-EARED PERAMELES--THE
BANDICOOT--THE BANDED PERAMELES--THE PIG-FOOTED
PERAMELES--Discussion regarding it--Characteristics--THE
DASYURUS FAMILY--Characteristics--THE POUCHED
ANT-EATERS--THE BANDED MYRMECOBIUS--Description--Great
number of Teeth--History--Food--Habits--Range--THE URSINE
DASYURE--Appearance--“Native Devil”--Ferocity--Havoc
among the Sheep of the Settlers--Trap to Catch them--Its
Teeth--A True Marsupial, though strikingly like the
Carnivora--Skeletal Characters peculiar to itself--MAUGE’S
DASYURE--THE DOG-HEADED THYLACINUS--Description--Resemblance
to the Dog--Habits--Peculiarities--THE BRUSH-TAILED
PHASCOGALE--Description--Other Varieties 203

CHAPTER III.

THE OPOSSUMS.

Prehistoric Opossums--Description of the Animal--Their
Teeth--Habits--THE COMMON OPOSSUM--Appearance--Use of its
Tail--Food--The Young--How they are Reared--D’AZARA’S
OPOSSUM--THE CRAB-EATING OPOSSUM--THE THICK-TAILED
OPOSSUM--MERIAN’S OPOSSUM--Pouchless Opossums--Their
Young--THE MURINA OPOSSUM--THE ELEGANT OPOSSUM--THE
YAPOCK--Classification of Marsupial Animals--Geographical
Distribution of the Sub-Order--Ancestry of the
Marsupials--Fossil Remains 219

SUB-ORDER--MONOTREMATA.

CHAPTER IV.

THE PORCUPINE OR LONG-SPINED ECHIDNA AND DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.

Why the Monotremata are formed into a Sub-order--The lowest
of the Mammalian Class--THE PORCUPINE OR LONG-SPINED
ECHIDNA--An Ant-eater, but not an Edentate--Its
Correct Name--Description of the Animal--Habits and
Disposition--Manner of Using the Tongue--Where it is
Found--Anatomical Features: Skull, Brain, Marsupial
Bones--The Young--Species of Van Diemen’s Land and New
Guinea--THE WATER-MOLE, OR DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS--The
most Bird-like Mammal--Various Names--Description--Their
Appearance and Movements in Water--Their Burrows--Habits
of an Individual kept in Confinement--Used by Natives
as Food--How they are Captured--The Young--A Family in
Captivity--The Snout--Jaws--Teeth--Tongue--Fore and Hind
Feet--Heel--Spur--The Shoulder Girdle--Breastbone--Concluding
Remarks on the Sub-orders--Postscript 227

THE CLASS AVES.--THE BIRDS.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTION--WING STRUCTURE AND FEATHERS--DISTRIBUTION.

Introduction--Distinctive Characters of the Class Aves--Power
of Flight--The Wing--Its Structure--The Six Zoo-geographical
Regions of the Earth--Birds peculiar to these Regions 235

CHAPTER II.

THE ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

The Three Divisions of the Class Aves--ANATOMY OF A
BIRD--The Skeleton--Distinctive Features--Peculiar Bone
Character--The Skull--Difference between the Skull of
Birds and that of Mammals--The Jawbones--Vertebral
Column--Sternum--Fore-limbs--Hind-limbs--Toes--The
Muscular System--How a Bird remains Fixed when Asleep--The
Oil-gland--The Nervous System--The Brain--The Eye--The
Ear--The Digestive System--The Dental papillæ--The
Beak--Tongue--Gullet--Crop--Stomach--Uses of the
Gizzard--Intestine--The Liver, Pancreas, and Spleen--The
Blood and Circulatory System--Temperature of Blood of
a Bird--Blood Corpuscles--The Heart--The Respiratory
System--Lungs--Air-sacs--The Organs of Voice--The
Egg--Classification of the Class Aves 239

CHAPTER III.

DIVISION I.--THE CARINATE BIRDS (CARINATÆ).

THE ACCIPITRINE ORDER--BIRDS OF PREY.

VULTURES AND CARACARAS.

The Birds of Prey--Distinctive Characters--The Cere--How
the Birds of Prey are Divided--Difference between a
Hawk, an Owl, and an Osprey--The Three Sub-orders of the
Accipitres--Sub-order FALCONES--Difference between the
Vultures of the Old World and the Vultures of the New
World--THE OLD WORLD VULTURES--Controversy as to how the
Vultures reach their Prey--Waterton on the Faculty of
Scent--Mr Andersson’s, Dr. Kirk’s, and Canon Tristram’s
Views in Favour of Sight--THE BLACK VULTURE--THE
GRIFFON VULTURE--Its Capacity for Feeding while on the
Wing--THE EARED VULTURE--One of the Largest of the
Birds of Prey--Whence it gets its Name--THE EGYPTIAN
VULTURE--A Foul Feeder--THE NEW WORLD VULTURES--THE
CONDOR--Its Appearance--Power of Flight--Habits--THE KING
VULTURE--THE TURKEY VULTURE--THE CARACARAS--Distinctive
Characters--Habits--THE SECRETARY BIRD--How it Attacks
Snakes--Habits--Appearance--THE ÇARIAMA 254

CHAPTER IV.

THE LONG-LEGGED HAWKS AND BUZZARDS.

THE BANDED GYMNOGENE--Habits--Its Movable Tarsi--THE
HARRIERS--Distinctive Features--THE MARSH
HARRIER--Habits--Its Thievish Propensities--THE
HARRIER-HAWKS--Colonel Greyson’s Account of
their Habits--THE CHANTING GOSHAWKS--Why so
Called--Habits--THE TRUE GOSHAWKS--Distinctive
Characters--THE GOSHAWK--Distribution--In Pursuit of
its Prey--Appearance--THE SPARROW-HAWKS--Distinctive
Characters--THE COMMON SPARROW-HAWK--Habits--Appearance--THE
BUZZARDS--Their Tarsus--THE COMMON BUZZARD--Where
Found--How it might be turned to Account--Food--Its
Migrations--Habits--Appearance--THE HARPY 267

CHAPTER V.

EAGLES AND FALCONS.

THE EAGLES--THE BEARDED EAGLE, OR LÄMMERGEIER--A Visit
to their Nest--Habits--A Little Girl carried off
Alive--Habits in Greece--Appearance--Von Tschudi’s and
Captain Hutton’s Descriptions of its Attacks--THE TRUE
EAGLES--THE WEDGE-TAILED EAGLE--Eye--Crystalline Lens--How
Eagles may be Divided--THE IMPERIAL EAGLE--THE GOLDEN
EAGLE--In Great Britain--Macgillivray’s Description of its
Habits--Appearance--THE KITE EAGLE--Its Peculiar Feet--Its
Bird’s-nesting Habits--THE COMMON HARRIER EAGLE--THE INDIAN
SERPENT EAGLE--THE BATELEUR EAGLE--THE WHITE-TAILED EAGLE--A
Sea Eagle--Story of Capture of some Young--THE SWALLOW-TAILED
KITE--On the Wing--THE COMMON KITE--THE EUROPEAN HONEY
KITE--Habits--ANDERSSON’S PERN--THE FALCONS--The Bill--THE
CUCKOO FALCONS--THE FALCONETS--THE PEREGRINE FALCON--Its
Wonderful Distribution--Falconry--Names for Male, Female,
and Young--Hawks and Herons--THE GREENLAND JER-FALCON--THE
KESTRELS--THE COMMON KESTREL--Its Habits and Disposition 277

CHAPTER VI.

THE OSPREYS AND OWLS.

THE OSPREY--Distribution--Food--How it Seizes its
Prey--Nesting Communities--STRIGES, or OWLS--Distinctions
between Hawks and Owls--Owls in Bird-lore and
Superstition--Families of the Sub-order--THE FISH OWL--PEL’S
FISH OWL--THE EAGLE OWL--Dr. Brehm’s Description of its
Appearance and Habits--THE SNOWY OWL--HAWK OWLS--PIGMY
OWLETS--THE SHORT-EARED OWL--THE LONG-EARED OWL--THE BARN
OWL--The Farmer’s Friend--Peculiar Characters--Distribution 296

THE SECOND ORDER.--PICARIAN BIRDS.

CHAPTER VII.

THE PARROTS.

Characteristics of the Order--The
Sub-orders--ZYGODACTYLÆ--THE PARROTS--Their Talking
Powers--Sections of the Family--THE GREAT PALM COCKATOO--THE
PYGMY PARROTS--THE AMAZON PARROTS--THE AMAZONS--THE
GREY PARROT--Court Favourites--Historical Specimens--In
a State of Nature--Mr. Keulemans’ Observations--THE
CONURES--THE ROSE-RINGED PARRAKEET--Known to the
Ancients--Habitat--Habits--THE CAROLINA CONURE--Destructive
Propensities--THE PARRAKEETS--THE OWL PARROT--Chiefly
Nocturnal--Incapable of Flight--How this Fact may be
accounted for--Dr. Haast’s Account of its Habits--THE
STRAIGHT-BILLED PARROTS--THE BRUSH-TONGUED PARROTS--THE
NESTORS--THE KAKA PARROT--Skull of a Parrot--The Bill 308

THE SECOND ORDER.--PICARIAN BIRDS. SUB-ORDER I.--ZYGODACTYLÆ.

CHAPTER VIII.

CUCKOOS--HONEY
GUIDES--PLANTAIN-EATERS--WOODPECKERS--TOUCANS--BARBETS.

THE CUCKOOS--THE BUSH CUCKOOS--THE LARK-HEELED CUCKOOS,
OR COUCALS--THE COMMON CUCKOO--Its Characteristics--Mrs.
Blackburn’s Account of a Young Cuckoo Ejecting a
Tenant--Breeding Habits--The Eggs--The Call-notes of
Male and Female--Food--Its Winter Home--Its Appearance
and Plumage--THE HONEY GUIDES--Kirk’s Account of their
Habits--Mrs. Barber’s Refutation of a Calumny against
the Bird--THE PLANTAIN-EATERS--THE WHITE-CRESTED
PLANTAIN-EATER--THE GREY PLANTAIN-EATER--THE COLIES--THE
WHITE-BACKED COLY--THE WOODPECKERS--How they Climb and
Descend Trees--Their Bill--Do they Damage Sound Trees?--THE
WRYNECKS--THE YAFFLE--THE RED-HEADED WOODPECKER--THE SPOTTED
WOODPECKER--THE TOUCANS--Mr. Gould’s Account of their
Habits--Mr. Waterton’s Account--The Enormous Bill--Azara’s
Description of the Bird--Mr. Bates’ History of a Tame
Toucan--THE BARBETS--Messrs. Marshall’s Account of the
Family--Mr. Layard on their Habits 323

THE SECOND ORDER.--PICARIAN BIRDS. SUB-ORDER
II.--FISSIROSTRES.

CHAPTER IX.

THE JACAMARS, PUFF BIRDS, KINGFISHERS, HORNBILLS, AND HOOPOES.

THE JACAMARS--THE PUFF BIRDS--THE
KINGFISHERS--Characters--THE COMMON
KINGFISHER--Distribution--Its Cry--Habits--After its
Prey--Its own Nest-builder--Mr. Rowley’s Note on the
Subject--Nest in the British Museum--Superstitions
concerning the Kingfisher--Colour--Various Species--CRESTED
KINGFISHER--PIED KINGFISHER--Dr. Von Heuglin’s Account
of its Habits--New World Representatives--OMNIVOROUS
KINGFISHERS--THE AUSTRALIAN CINNAMON-BREASTED
KINGFISHER--Macgillivray’s Account of its Habits--THE
LAUGHING JACKASS of Australia--Its Discordant
Laugh--The “Bushman’s Clock”--Colour--Habits--THE
HORNBILLS--Character--Their Heavy Flight--Noise
produced when on the Wing--Food--Extraordinary Habit of
Imprisoning the Female--Native Testimony--Exception--Fed
by the Male Bird--Dr. Livingstone’s Observations on
the point, and Mr. Bartlett’s Remarks--Strange Gizzard
Sacs--Dr. Murie’s Remarks--Mr. Wallace’s Description
of the Habits of the Hornbills--Capture of a Young
One in Sumatra--THE GROUND HORNBILLS--South African
Species--Kaffir Superstition regarding it--Habits--Mr.
Ayres’ Account of the Natal Species--How it Kills
Snakes--The Call--Habits--Mr. Monteiro’s Description of
the Angola Form--Turkey-like Manner--Wariness--Food--THE
HOOPOES--Appearance--Distribution--THE COMMON
HOOPOE--Habits--The Name--How does it produce its Note?--THE
WOOD HOOPOES--Habits 343

CHAPTER X.

THE BEE-EATERS--MOTMOTS--ROLLERS--TROGONS--NIGHTJARS, OR
GOATSUCKERS--SWIFTS--HUMMING-BIRDS.

THE BEE-EATERS--Their Brilliant Plumage--Colonel Irby’s
Account of the Bird in Spain--Shot for Fashion’s
sake--THE MOTMOTS--Appearance--Mr. Waterton on the
Houtou--Curious Habit of Trimming its Tail--Mr. O.
Salvin’s Observations on this point--Mr. Bartlett’s
Evidence--THE ROLLERS--Why so called--Canon Tristram’s
Account of their Habits--Colour--Other Species--THE
TROGONS--Where found--Peculiar Foot--Tender Skin--Inability
to Climb--Their Food--THE LONG-TAILED TROGON, OR
QUESAL--Mr. Salvin’s Account of its Habits--Its
Magnificent Colour--How they are Hunted--THE NIGHTJARS,
OR GOATSUCKERS--Appearance--Distribution--The Guacharo,
or Oil Bird--“Frog-mouths”--Mr. Gould’s Account of the
Habits of the Tawny-shouldered Podargus--How it Builds its
Nest--Mr. Waterton’s Vindication of the Goatsucker--What
Services the Bird does really render Cattle, Goats, and
Sheep--Its Cry--THE COMMON GOATSUCKER--THE SWIFTS--THE
COMMON SWIFT--Migration--Their Home in the Air--When they
Breed--Nest--TREE SWIFTS--The Edible-Nest Swiftlets--Mr. E.
L. Layard’s Visit to the Cave of the Indian Swiftlet--THE
HUMMING BIRDS--Number of Species--Distribution--Professor
Newton’s Description of the Bird--Mr. Wallace on their
Habits--Wilson on the North American Species 360

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE

The Chamois _Frontispiece._

The Water Deerlet, or Chevrotain 1

Stomach of a Ruminating Animal: exterior and interior 2

Brain of a Sheep 3

Merino Sheep 5

The Ammon 8

The Ammon 9

The Barbary Wild Sheep 10

The Ibex 11

The Markhoor 12

The Dorcas Gazelle 14

The Saïga 15

The Indian Antelope 16

Head of Female Bush-buck 18

The Water-buck 19

The Eland 20

The Koodoo 22

The Bubaline Antelope 24

The Gnu 25

The Goral 26

Head of the Chamois 27

The Oryx 28

The Nyl-ghau 30

Musk Oxen 31

Chillingham Cattle 32

The Hungarian Bull 33

The European Bison 36

The American Bison 37

The Yak 38

The Anoa 39

Skull of the Pronghorn Antelope 40

The Pronghorn Antelope 41

Skull of the Musk [Deer] 42

The Musk [Deer] 43

Skeleton of the Giraffe 44

Giraffes 45

Head of Red Deer, in which the growing Antlers are seen
covered with “velvet” 46

Head of Red Deer, in which the Antler is fully developed and
the “velvet” has disappeared 47

Various Types of Antlers 49

Elk Hunt 50

Young Elk 51

The Red Deer 53

Red Deer and Fallow Deer in Winter 54

Red Deer Fighting 55

The Fallow Deer 56

The Sambur Deer 57

The Borneo Rusine Deer 58

The Axis Deer _To face page_ 59

Schomburgk’s Deer 60

The Indian Muntjac 62

The Roebuck: Male, Female, and Young 63

The Chinese Water Deer 64

The Chinese Elaphure 65

Reindeer at a Lapp Encampment 66

The Reindeer 67

The Guazuti Deer 69

The Javan Deerlet 70

The Stanleyan Deerlet--Foot of Camel 71

Stomach of the Llama--Water Cells of the Camel 72

Head of the (true) Camel 73

The (true) Camel 74

The Bactrian Camel 75

Huanaco attacked by a Puma 76

The Alpaca _To face page_ 77

The Llama 77

Skeleton of the Irish Elk 79

The Irish Elk (_Restored_) 80

The Prairie Dog 81

Skull of the Taguan, a Flying Squirrel--Dentition
of the Hare 82

Skeleton of the Rabbit 83

Brain of Beaver, from above and in profile 84

Teeth of the Taguan 85

The Common Squirrel 86

The Black Fox Squirrel 88

The Taguan 89

The Polatouche 90

The Common Chipmunk 91

Molar Teeth of the Marmot--The Striped Spermophile, or Gopher 92

Burrows of the Prairie Dog 93

The Alpine Marmot 95

The Fulgent Anomalure--Molar Teeth of the Anomalure 96

Molar Teeth of the Beaver 97

The Beaver 98

Molar Teeth of the Dormouse--The Dormouse 102

The Garden Dormouse 103

Skull of Lophiomys--The Lophiomys 104

Molar Teeth of the Black Rat 105

The Brown Rat 106

The Black Rat 107

Harvest Mice 109

Molar Teeth of the Hapalote 111

Head of the Rabbit-like Reithrodon 112

Hamster _To face page_ 113

Molar Teeth of the Hamster 113

Molar Teeth of the Gerbille--Skull of the Water Mouse--Teeth
of Sminthus 114

Molar Teeth of the Water Rat 115

The Southern Field Vole 116

The Musquash 118

The Lemming 119

Skull of Mole-Rat--The Mole-Rat 121

Molar Teeth of the Mexican Pouched Rat--Under Surface of the
Head of Heteromys 122

Skull of the Mexican Pouched Rat 123

Skull of the Cape Jumping Hare 124

The American Jumping Mouse--Molar Teeth of the Jerboa 125

The Jerboa 126

The Alactaga--Molar Teeth of the Jumping Hare 127

The Cape Jumping Hare 128

The Degu 129

Dentition of the Rock Rat--Teeth of the Spiny Rat 130

The Coypu 131

The Hutia Conga--Teeth of Plagiodon--Molar Teeth of
Loncheres 132

Skull of Loncheres 133

Skull of the Porcupine--The Common Porcupine 134

The Tree Porcupine 136

Mexican Tree Porcupines 137

Viscachas _To face page_ 139

Molar Teeth of the Chinchilla--The Chinchilla 139

Molar Teeth of the Agouti--Azara’s Agouti 140

Skull of the Paca--The Paca 141

The Dinomys 142

The Patagonian Cavy 144

Molars of the Capybara 145

The Capybara 146

The Common Hare 148

The Alpine Pika 150

Side View of Skull and Lower Jaw of Mesotherium
Cristatum--Dentition of Mesotherium Cristatum 155

Group of Sloths 158

Skeleton of the Sloth 161

Bones of Hand of Three-toed Sloth 162

Skull of Sloth 163

The Collared Sloth 164

The Ai 165

Skull of Ai 166

Stomach of Sloth 167

Hoffmann’s Sloth 168

The Cape Ant-eater 170

Skull of the Cape Ant-eater 171

Temminck’s Pangolin 172

The Four-fingered Pangolin 173

The Five-fingered Pangolin 175

The Great Ant-Bear 177

The Two-toed Ant-eater 180

Bones of Claw of Great Armadillo 181

Skeleton of the Armadillo--Skull of the Armadillo 182

The Great Armadillo--Brain of the Armadillo 183

The Poyou 185

The Ball Armadillo 188

The Pichiciago 189

The Great Kangaroo _To face page_ 191

Skeleton of the Great Kangaroo 192

Teeth of the Great Kangaroo 193

Stomach of the Great Kangaroo 195

Brain of the Great Kangaroo 196

The Brush-tailed Rock Kangaroo 197

The Common Tree Kangaroo 198

The Kangaroo Rat--Teeth of the Kangaroo Rat 199

Fore and Hind Foot of Hypsiprymnus 200

Skeleton of the Wombat 201

The Wombat--Lower Jaw of the Wombat 202

Teeth of the Wombat 203

The Koala 204

The Cuscus 205

The Vulpine Phalanger 206

The Squirrel Flying Phalanger 208

The Banded Perameles 210

The Dasyure 213

Teeth of the Dasyure--Brain of the Dasyure 214

Upper and Under View of Skull of Dasyure 215

The Dog-headed Thylacinus 216

Skeleton of the Dog-headed Thylacinus 217

The Brush-tailed Phascogale--The Antechinus 218

Opossum and Young _To face page_ 219

Teeth of the Opossum 219

Skeleton of the Crab-eating Opossum 220

The Crab-eating Opossum 221

Merian’s Opossum 222

The Yapock 223

Pelvic Arch of the Echidna 227

The Porcupine Echidna 228

Mouth and Nose-snout of Echidna 229

Jaws of the Duck-billed Platypus 231

Fore and Hind Foot of the Duck-billed
Platypus--Shoulder-girdle and Sternum of the Echidna 232

The Duck-billed Platypus 233

The Imperial Eagle 235

Bones of Wing of Bird--Feathers of Wing of Bird 237

Parts of a Feather 238

Skeleton of Eagle 241

Skull of Young Ostrich from above and from below 242

Sternum of Fregilupus varius--Pelvis of an Adult Fowl, side
view 243

Section of the Eye of the Common Buzzard 246

Digestive Organs of the Kingfisher 248

Front View and Section of Inferior Larynx of
Peregrine Falcon 251

Diagrammatic Section of a Fowl’s Egg 252

Head and Bill of Sea Eagle 255

Bill of Egyptian Vulture, to show form of Nostril--Bill of
Turkey Vulture, to show the perforated Nostril 256

The Griffon Vulture 259

The Egyptian Vulture 261

The Condor 262

The Brazilian Caracara 264

The Secretary Bird 266

The Marsh Harrier 269

The Goshawk 272

The Sparrow-Hawk 273

Hind View of Tarsus of Buzzard, showing the plated
arrangement of Scales--Hind View of Tarsus of Serpent Eagle,
showing the reticulated arrangement of Scales 274

The Common Buzzard 275

The Harpy 276

The Bearded Eagle, or Lämmergeier 279

Eye of Eagle, showing Crystalline Lens 280

The Golden Eagle 282

The Bateleur Eagle 285

The White-tailed Eagle 287

The Common Kite 289

The Peregrine Falcon 292

A Hooded Falcon--Falcon’s Hood 293

The Common Kestrel 295

The Osprey 296

Skull of Tengmalm’s Owl 297

The Little Owl 298

The Eagle Owl _To face page_ 301

The Snowy Owl 303

The Short-eared Owl 304

Face of the Barn Owl 305

Breast-bone of the Barn Owl 307

Cockatoos _To face page_ 309

The Amazon Parrot 311

Great Macaws _To face page_ 313

The Grey Parrot 313

The Rose-ringed Parrakeet 314

The Rosella 316

The Owl Parrot 317

The Lorikeet 319

Tongue of Nestor 320

The Kaka Parrot 321

Skull of the Grey Parrot 323

The Common Cuckoo 326

The Great Spotted Cuckoo 328

The Honey Guide 329

The White-crested Plantain-eater 331

Colies 333

“Hyoid” Bone of Adult Fowl--Side View of Dissection of Head
of Common Green Woodpecker 334

Upper View of Skull of Green Woodpecker--Dissection of Head
of Green Woodpecker, viewed from below 335

The Wryneck 336

The Great Black Woodpecker and Great Spotted Woodpecker _To
face page_ 337

The Green Woodpecker 337

The Toucan 340

Bill of Toucan 341

The Pearl-spotted Barbet 342

The Common Kingfisher 345

The Pied Kingfisher 348

The Laughing Jackass 350

The Great Hornbill 352

The Ground Hornbills of Abyssinia 355

The Common Hoopoe 358

The Australian Bee-eater--Bill of Motmot 361

The Motmot 362

Tail-feathers of Motmot 363

The Blue Roller 365

The Long-tailed Trogon, or Quesal _To face page_ 367

Mouth of Goatsucker--The Oil-bird 368

The Common Goatsucker 369

The Whip-poor-will 370

The Lyre-tailed Nightjar 371

Foot of the Common Goatsucker 372

The Common Swift 373

The Tree Swift 374

The Edible-nest Swiftlets 375

The White-throated Spine-tailed Swift 376

The Sword-bill Humming Bird 377

The White-booted Racket Tail 378

The Common Topaz Humming Bird 379

The Crested Humming Bird 380

[Illustration: CHAMOIS.]

CASSELL’S NATURAL HISTORY.

[Illustration: WATER DEERLET, OR CHEVROTAIN.]

CHAPTER I.

ARTIODACTYLA--RUMINANTIA: BOVIDÆ--SHEEP, GOATS, AND GAZELLES.

Ruminantia--Chewing the Cud--Metaphorical Expression--The
Complicated Stomach: Paunch, Honey-comb Bag, Manyplies,
Reed--Order of Events in Rumination--Feet and Dentition of
Ruminants--Brain--Classification--HORNED RUMINANTS--Divided into
two Groups--Difference between them--BOVIDÆ--Horns--Aberrant
Members--SHEEP AND GOATS--General Characteristics--Sheep of
South-Western Asia--Merino Sheep--Breeds of Great Britain--Dishley,
or Improved Leicesters--Mr. Bakewell’s Description--Southdowns,
Cheviots, Welsh, and other British Breeds--Table of the Importation
of Colonial and Foreign Wool into the United Kingdom--MARCO
POLO’S SHEEP--OORIAL--SHAPOO--MOUFLON--AMMON--BURHEL--AMERICAN
ARGALI--WILD SHEEP OF BARBARY--THE GOAT--Compared with
the Sheep--Descent--Cashmere Goat--IBEXES--PASENG--Their
remarkable Horns--Old Theories as to the Use of the
Horns--MARKHOOR--TAHR--GAZELLES--General Characteristics--Sir Victor
Brooke’s Classification--THE GAZELLE--Appearance--Habits--ARABIAN
GAZELLE--PERSIAN GAZELLE--SOEMMERRING’S GAZELLE--GRANT’S
GAZELLE--SPRINGBOK--SAÏGA--CHIRU--THE PALLAH, OR IMPALLA--THE INDIAN
ANTELOPE, OR BLACK BUCK.

The Swine, together with those animals which most nearly approach them,
namely, the Peccaries and Hippopotami, form but a small division of the
cloven-hoofed order of the Mammalian animals; by far the greater number
of the species of the Artiodactyla being included in a group known
familiarly as that of the Ruminantia, because, as part of the digestive
process, they chew the cud.

This chewing the cud is a phenomenon restricted to the group of animals
now under consideration, although it may be mentioned that some
naturalists have thought that the Kangaroos among the Marsupials do the
same to a certain extent.

As to the details of the process, the individual, a Cow, for instance,
whilst grazing, nips off the grass between the large cutting teeth
in the front of the lower jaw, and the tough pad which replaces in
these creatures the similarly situated teeth of the upper jaw. After
each mouthful it does not proceed to masticate the food, but swallows
it forthwith, and continues thus to graze until it has satisfied its
appetite. Seeking a quiet and shaded spot, it then seats itself that
it may ruminate, or chew the cud, at leisure. If watched it will be
seen that it commences shortly to perform a slight hiccough action, in
which some contraction of the flanks is to be noticed. Its mouth, which
was previously empty, is found to be full of what it is not difficult
to recognise to be coarsely-masticated grass, which has been forced up
into it; and this it immediately proceeds to chew between its back or
grinding teeth, in a slow and continuous manner, moving its lower jaw
uniformly from one side to the other--from right to left. When this
chewing process has lasted for a time sufficient to convert the food
into a pulpy state, it is again swallowed, after which another bolus
is brought up to undergo a similar operation. And this is repeated at
frequent intervals until most of the food swallowed has been masticated.

A complicated stomach is necessary for the operation of this elaborate
chewing process, the undisturbed duration of which has led to the word
by which it is designated being applied metaphorically to a brooding
condition of mind. Thus the poet of the “Night Thoughts” says:--

[Illustration: STOMACH OF A RUMINATING ANIMAL: (A) EXTERIOR, (B)
INTERIOR.]

“As when the traveller, a long day past
In painful search of what he cannot find,
At night’s approach, content with the next cot,
There ruminates awhile his labour lost.”

This complicated stomach is not identical in all the Ruminantia. In the
Camels and the Llamas it presents many points of difference from that
of all the other members of the group, and in the Chevrotains it has
slight peculiarities of its own.

This organ, as found in the Ox--and it is almost identically the same
in the Giraffes, the Antelopes, the Sheep, and Deer--is seen to be
divided into four well-defined compartments, as represented in the
accompanying figures. These are known as--

1. The Rumen, or Paunch (_b_).
2. The Reticulum, or Honey-comb Bag (_c_).
3. The Psalterium, or Manyplies (_d_).
4. The Abomasum, or Reed (_e_).

The paunch (_b_) is a very capacious receptacle, shaped like a
blunted cone bent partly upon itself. Into its broader base opens the
œsophagus, or gullet (_a_), at a spot not far removed from its wide
orifice of communication with the second stomach, or honey-comb bag
(_c_). Its inner walls are nearly uniformly covered with a pale skin
(known as mucous membrane), which is beset with innumerable close-set,
short, and slender processes (known as villi), resembling very much
the “pile” on velvet. It is this organ, together with its villi, which
constitutes the well-known article of food termed “tripe.”

The honey-comb bag (_c_) is very much smaller than the paunch. It
is nearly globose in shape, and receives its name on account of the
peculiar arrangement of the ridges on the mucous membrane which lines
it, these being distributed so as to form shallow hexagonal cells all
over its inner surface, as seen in the figure on the previous page.

It is situated to the right of the paunch, with which, as well as with
the manyplies (_d_), it communicates. Running along its upper wall
there is a deep groove coursing from the first to the third stomach.
This groove plays an important part in the mechanism of rumination; its
nature must therefore be fully understood.

Its walls are muscular, like those of the viscus with which it is
associated, which allows its calibre to be altered. Sometimes it
completely closes round so as to become converted into a tube by the
apposition of its edges. At others it forms an open canal.

The manyplies (_d_) is a very peculiar organ. It is globular, but most
of its interior is filled up with folds, or laminæ, running between its
orifices of communication with the second and fourth stomachs. These
folds are arranged very much like the leaves of a book, and very close
together. They are, however, not of equal depth, but form series of
greater or less breadth. Their surfaces are roughened by the presence
of small projections or papillæ.

The reed (_e_) is the stomach proper, corresponding with the same
organ in man. Its shape is somewhat conical. The valve which partially
obstructs its communication with the intestine is at the left of the
foregoing figure. Its walls are formed of a smooth mucous membrane,
which secretes gastric juice, and it is this stomach that, in the
manufacture of cheese, is employed to curdle the milk.

Whilst grazing, the possessor of this complicated stomach fills its
paunch with the imperfectly masticated food, and it is not until it
commences to chew the cud that any of the other parts are brought into
play.

In the act of rumination, the following is the probable order of
events:--The paunch contracts, and in so doing forces some of the
food into the honey-comb bag, where it is formed into a bolus by the
movement of its walls, and then forced into the gullet, from which,
by a reverse action, it reaches the mouth, where it is chewed and
mixed with the saliva until it becomes quite pulpy, whereupon it
is again swallowed. But now, because it is soft and semi-fluid, it
does not divaricate the walls of the groove communicating with the
manyplies, and so, continuing on along its tubular interior, it finds
its way direct into the third stomach, most of it filtering between
the numerous laminæ on its way to the fourth stomach, where it becomes
acted on by the gastric juice. After the remasticated food has reached
the manyplies, the groove in the reticulum is pushed open by a fresh
bolus; and so the process is repeated until the food consumed has all
passed on towards the abomasum, or true digestive stomach.

[Illustration: BRAIN OF A SHEEP.]

There are other features also which are characteristic of the
ruminating animals. Their symmetrical four-toed feet (in which the
thumb on the fore and the great toe on the hind are entirely absent)
have the toes so proportioned that the axis of the limb runs down
between the two middle toes at the same time that both the inside and
outside toes are much reduced in size, and lost entirely in the Camel
tribe, the Giraffe, and the Cabrit.

Another peculiarity which exists in all ruminating animals is the
absence of cutting-teeth in the middle of the upper jaw; and it is only
in the Camels and their intimate allies, the Llamas, that there are any
upper cutting-teeth at all, they being replaced in all the others by a
callous pad, on which the lower cutting-teeth impinge in mastication.

The canine teeth, which correspond to the tusks of the Lion and Dog,
also deserve attention. Those of the lower jaw are always present, and
are modified so as to appear like lateral cutting-teeth. In the upper
jaw they are most often absent, but are enormous, projecting far down
outside the lip, in the Musk, the Chinese Water Deer, and the Muntjacs.
In some other Deer they are present, but small, and generally they are
wanting.

The grinders are six on each side of each jaw, and are so formed that
their surfaces wear down unevenly by the lateral movement to which
they are subject during mastication. As in the Elephant, this depends
upon each tooth being made up of alternate layers of enamel, dentine,
and cementum, which, being of different degrees of hardness, are
differently affected by the grinding action.

The ruminating animals exhibit a fair amount of intelligence, never,
however, attaining that power of perception and memory exhibited by
the Carnivora and other higher forms. The figure of the surface of the
brain of the Sheep indicates that the convolutions of the brain are far
from inconsiderable in number, and its allies of the same size agree
with it in this respect, whilst larger species have more, and smaller
less elaborate brain-markings, as is nearly always found to be the case
in every group.

The accompanying table gives an outline sketch of the classification of
the ruminating animals which has been adopted by zoologists:--

_Sub-order._ _Section._ _Division._ _Group._

{ Ox-tribe
{ (_Bovidæ_).
{ HORNED RUMINANTS. {
{ { Deer-tribe
{ TRUE RUMINANTS. { { (_Cervidæ_).
{ { CHEVROTAINS OR
RUMINANTIA. { { DEERLETS
{ CAMEL TRIBE. { (_Tragulidæ_).
{ (_Tylopoda_).

The large sub-order of the Ruminantia is seen to be primarily divided
into two sections, namely, the typical Ruminants and the aberrant
Ruminants (the _Tylopoda_). The typical Ruminants, in which the stomach
is formed upon the plan of that described above in the Oxen, fall
into two divisions, the smaller of which--that of the Chevrotains
or Deerlets--possesses no psalterium, or third stomach, except in
a rudimentary condition. The Horned Ruminants, including the Deer,
Muntjacs, Elk, Oxen, and Antelopes, compose by far the largest number
of the whole sub-order, and will be first described.

HORNED RUMINANTS.

The Horned Ruminants--with which, anomalous as it may at first
seem, have to be included one or two hornless species, on account
of their so closely resembling them in other respects--have their
_cranial appendages developed after one or other of two principles_.
In one group, which, from the fact that the Oxen are included with
them, are named the _Bovidæ_, the horns are hollow, straight, or
variously-twisted cones, supported upon bony prolongations from the
forehead, resembling them in shape upon a smaller scale. These horns
are permanent, except in the American Antelope, increasing in size each
year, at the same time that they often exhibit transverse markings,
which indicate the annual increase. In the other group--the _Cervidæ_,
or Deer Tribe--the horns or antlers are deciduous, being cast off each
year, to be shortly replaced by others, which share the fate of their
predecessors. These antlers are entirely made of bone, and when fully
grown are not covered with any less dense investment.

To commence, then, with the _Bovidæ_, or Oxen, and their allies.

THE BOVIDÆ, OR HOLLOW-HORNED RUMINANTS.

In these ruminating animals the permanent bone-cones on the forehead
are covered with a black horny coating, which is not shed during the
whole life of their owners, and in which, as they continue to grow
until adult life at least, the tips are the oldest parts. The females
in some species have horns like their mates, but smaller, as in the
Ox and Eland; while in others--the Koodoo and the Sing-Sing Antelope,
for example--the males alone are horned. The most aberrant members of
this group are the Giraffe, the Cabrit, and the Musk, which will be
considered after the less peculiar genera have been discussed. These
include the Oxen, Bush-Bucks, Antelopes, Koodoos, Goats, Sheep, &c.,
which will be referred to more in detail.

[Illustration: MERINO SHEEP.]

THE SHEEP AND GOATS.[1]

Between the bearded Goat and the beardless Sheep there exist
intermediate species, which so completely fill up the gaps that it
is almost impossible to separate the two into different genera. With
triangular, curved, and transversely-ridged horns in both sexes,
a characteristic general appearance, and feet formed for mountain
climbing, the species present differences which are recognised with
facility.

With reference to the domestic Sheep, it is the opinion of most
naturalists that it has descended from several distinct species. “Abel
was a keeper of Sheep,” is a Biblical statement from which the immense
antiquity of a domestic breed may be inferred, whose origin cannot
be better studied than by a comparison of the different forms found
wild in Asia, the head-quarters of the genus. That no Sheep existed
in Australia when that continent was first discovered is a well-known
fact.

“Endowed by nature,” as Mr. Spooner, in his work on the Sheep aptly
puts it, “with a peaceable and patient disposition, and a constitution
capable of enduring the extremes of temperature, adapting itself
readily to different climates, thriving on a variety of pastures,
economising nutriment where pasturage is scarce, and advantageously
availing itself of opportunities where food is abundant,” it is not to
be wondered at that the animal has become the companion of man from the
earliest times.

The fleece of the wild species of Sheep is composed of hair with wool
at its roots, in the same way that in the Duck there is a covering of
feathers and down. In the domesticated species the hair, by selection,
has been reduced to a minimum, so that the wool forms the only coat.

In the southern parts of Western Asia many of the Sheep have a curious
tendency to the deposition of fat on the tail rather than under the
skin of the body generally, and this may occur to such an extent that
the thus loaded caudal appendage may contain a large part of the entire
weight of the body.

The Astracan breed, of small size, has a fine spiral black and white
wool, sometimes entirely black, which is obtained from the lamb when
the finest furs are required.

Of all the breeds of Sheep the Merino of Spain is one of the most
important, on account of the excellence of its wool. In England the
breed can hardly be said to exist, because the dampness of the climate
does not suit its constitution. It is extensively found in Germany,
and is _the_ Sheep of Australia. The animal is small, flat-sided, and
long-legged. The males have long horns, these appendages being absent
in the females. The face, ears, and legs are dark, and the forehead is
woolly, at the same time that the skin about the throat is lax. The
body-wool is close-set, soft, twisted in a spiral, and short.

In Great Britain the breeds of Sheep are very numerous, some of the
best being of quite recent origin. First among the heavy breeds are
the Dishley, or Improved Leicesters, which, from their early maturity,
aptness to fatten, smallness of bone, and gentle disposition, well
deserve the high repute in which they stand. It is to the persevering
energy and acuteness of Mr. Bakewell that we are indebted for the
present animal, which in origin is far from pure bred. His aim was
entirely in the direction of the carcass, and in his object he and
his followers have quite succeeded, notwithstanding an inherent
delicacy in constitution and an inferiority of the wool. “The head of
this breed,” we are told, “should be hornless, long, small, tapering
towards the muzzle, and projecting horizontally forwards; the eyes
prominent, and with a quiet expression; the ears thin, rather long,
and directed backwards; the neck full and broad at its base, where it
proceeds from the chest, but gradually tapering towards the head, and
being particularly fine at the junction of the head and neck; the neck
seeming to project straight from the chest, so that there is, with the
slightest possible deviation, one continuous horizontal line from the
rump to the poll; the breast broad and full; the shoulders also broad
and round, and no uneven or angular formation where the shoulders join
either the neck or the back, particularly no rising of the withers or
hollow behind the situation of these bones; the arm fleshy through its
whole extent, and even down to the knee; the bones of the leg small,
standing wide apart, no looseness of skin about them, and comparatively
bare of wool; the chest and barrel at once deep and round; the ribs
forming a considerable arch from the spine, so as in some cases--and
especially when the animal is in good condition--to make the apparent
width of the chest even greater than the depth; the barrel ribbed
well home; no irregularity of line on the back or the belly, but on
the sides, the carcass very gradually diminishing in width towards
the rump; the quarters long and full, and, as with the fore-legs, the
muscles extending down to the hock; the thighs also wide and full;
the legs of a moderate length; the pelt moderately thin, but soft and
elastic, and covered with a good quantity of white wool, not so long as
in some breeds, but considerably finer.”

The large-sized Lincoln Sheep, with lengthy fleece, those of the
Cotswold Hills, the Teeswater, and Romney Marsh, are also heavy breeds,
not equal in the totality of their points to the Improved Leicesters,
although excelling them either in quantity of wool or hardiness of
constitution.

The Short-woolled Southdowns, with close-set fleece of fine wool, face
and legs dusky brown, curved neck, short limbs, and broad body, is one
of the oldest and most valuable unmixed breeds that we possess. Their
mutton greatly excels that of the Improved Leicesters, which, taken
in association with their other good qualities, has caused them to
extend to nearly every county. In parts of Hampshire, Shropshire, and
Dorsetshire there are local breeds of Short-woolled Sheep which replace
the Southdowns.

The Cheviot and the Black-faced, or Heath breed of our northern
counties are mountain Sheep, of small size and hardy constitution, the
former horned, the latter hornless and with a white face.

Welsh mutton is obtained from the small, soft-woolled Sheep with a
white nose and face. The rams alone have horns, wherein the breed
differs from that of the higher mountains, in which the ewes also are
horned, at the same time that a ridge of hair is present along the top
of the neck.

As wool forms so important an element of the mercantile transactions
of Great Britain, and as Sheep-farming has so rapidly increased in
Australia and New Zealand, a few words with reference to the statistics
of the subject will not be out of place.

In 1788, when Governor Phillip landed at Port Jackson, there was not a
Sheep in all Australia, and it was not until 1793 that about thirty of
the Indian breed reached Sydney, their number being shortly augmented
by the importation of breeding-stock from England and the Cape of
Good Hope, principally Merinos. The progeny soon spread towards the
interior, where the growing of wool became a lucrative pursuit. Sheep
were first imported into New Zealand in 1840. It is estimated there are
now one hundred million sheep in Australia, and nearly thirty million
in New Zealand.

The following table of the number of bales of wool imported into Great
Britain at twenty-year intervals, that is, in 1836, 1856, and 1876,
gives a better idea than can be otherwise obtained as to the changes
in the sources of wool as well as to the richness of each colonial
district:--

IMPORTATION OF COLONIAL AND FOREIGN WOOL INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM
(IN BALES).

-------------------------------+----------+---------+----------
| =1836.= | =1856.= | =1876.=
-------------------------------+----------+---------+----------
New South Wales and Queensland | 19,066 | 59,342 | 169,874
Victoria | None | 64,843 | 306,803
Tasmania | 15,449 | 17,951 | 20,480
South Australia | None | 16,618 | 102,067
West Australia | None | 1,267 | 7,510
New Zealand | None | 6,840 | 162,154
+----------+---------+----------
_Total Australasian_ | 34,515 |166,861 | 768,888
Cape of Good Hope | 1,740 | 50,607 | 169,908
+----------+---------+----------
_Total Colonial_ | 36,255 |217,468 | 938,796
+----------+---------+----------
German | 90,426 | 22,272 | 29,580
Spanish and Portuguese | 20,451 | 8,106 | 7,906
East Indian and Persian | 1,981 | 45,236 | 86,678
Russian | 15,072 | 4,181 | 34,511
River Plate } | | 5,151 }|
Peru, Lima, and Chili } | 16,653 } | 52,477 }|
Alpaca } | } | }| 118,593
Mediterranean and Africa | 14,714 | 13,665 }|
Mohair |No returns| 13,515 }|
Sundry | 12,784 | 10,735 }|
+----------+---------+----------
_Total Foreign_ |172,081 | 175,338 | 277,268
+----------+---------+----------
TOTAL IMPORTATION |=208,336= |=392,806=|=1,216,064=
-------------------------------+----------+---------+----------

So much for the domestic Sheep; of other species of the genus _Ovis_
we have Marco Polo’s Sheep.[2] This splendid Sheep, one of the finest
species of the genus, has horns, describing a spiral of about a circle
and a quarter when viewed from the side, pointing directly outwards,
and sometimes measuring as many as sixty-three inches from base to tip
along their curve, and as much as four and a half feet from tip to tip.
At the shoulder the animal measures just under four feet. It inhabits
the high lands in the neighbourhood of the lofty Thian Shan mountains,
north of Kashgar and Yarkand, not descending below an elevation of
9,000 feet above the sea level, often ascending much higher. It is on
account of the rarefaction of the air in these regions that there is
considerable difficulty in obtaining specimens which have been wounded,
because Horses at these heights are much distressed in their breathing,
whilst the Sheep are not so. Mr. N. A. Severtzoff, an eminent Russian
naturalist, has described three or four other species closely allied to
Marco Polo’s Sheep, which are smaller than it, from Turkestan and the
district east of it. In this Sheep, during the winter, the sides of the
body are of a light greyish-brown, changing to white below. There is a
white mane all round the neck and a white disc round the tail. A dark
line runs the whole length of the middle of the back. In summer the
grey changes to dark brown.

[Illustration: AMMON.]

The OORIAL and the SHAPOO are bearded Sheep, from Ladakh and the
Suliman range of the Punjab respectively, with large horns, which form
not more than half a circle in the Shapoo and nearly a complete one in
the Oorial. The colour of the Oorial is a reddish-brown above, paler
beneath, the abdomen being white. A lengthy dark beard, reaching to the
knees, fringes the whole length of the neck from the chin to the chest.
The points of the horns are directed inwards. It is found at altitudes
of 2,000 feet. The Shapoo is brownish-grey, white below, with a short
brown beard. Its horns turn outwards at the tips. It is never found at
altitudes lower than 12,000 feet.

The MOUFLON at one time abounded in Spain, but is now restricted to
the islands of Corsica and Sardinia. The species is a small one, of a
brownish-grey colour, with a dark streak along the middle of the back,
at the same time that there is a varying amount of white about the face
and legs. The horns, present in the males only, are proportionately not
large, curve backwards and then inwards at the tips. The tail is very
short, in which respect they differ strikingly from the domestic Sheep,
to which otherwise they are intimately related. The Mouflon frequents
the summits of its native hills in small herds, headed by an old ram.
Its skin is used by the mountaineers for making jackets. It breeds
freely with the domestic species.

[Illustration: AMMON.]

The AMMON of Tibet has been known to measure as much as four feet and
an inch at the shoulder, and has a most imposing appearance on account
of the erect attitude in which it holds its head. Its horns attain a
great size, being sometimes as much as four feet long and twenty-two
inches in circumference at their bases, forming a single sweep of
about four-fifths of a circle, their points being turned slightly
outwards and ending bluntly. Its body colour is dark brown above, paler
posteriorly and below. A mane surrounds its neck, white in the male,
dark brown in the female. The tail measures only an inch in length. In
the female the horns do not exceed twenty-two inches in length.

The BURHEL, or Himalayan “blue wild Sheep,” stands three feet at the
shoulder, and has horns which, commencing very close together on the
forehead, describe a half circle of two feet or so, and are directed
very much outwards and backwards. In the female the horns do not exceed
eight inches in length, and stand backward instead of diverging. The
coarse fleece of winter is of an ashy-blue colour, which, in summer, is
replaced by one that is much darker. The abdomen is white, and a black
stripe runs along each side of the body, the front of the legs and the
chest being also black. It has no beard.

The AMERICAN ARGALI, or BIG-HORN, inhabits the range of the Rocky
Mountains. Its height is three and a half feet at the shoulder. The
horns form a complete circle, and are nearly three feet long in the
male. They are said to come so far forward and downward that old rams
find it impossible to feed on level ground. Its flesh is peculiarly
well flavoured.

The WILD SHEEP OF BARBARY, known also as the TRAGELAPHUS, is a large
and handsome species, with a comparatively lengthy tail, tufted at
its end. The hair on the chin is short, whilst that along the lower
margin of the neck, as well as on the front of the knees, attains a
great length. The horns are not massive, and hardly exceed two feet in
length. They are black, and are directed outward as well as backward.

THE GOATS.[3]

Modern naturalists, as intermediate forms become more numerous, find
much difficulty in separating off the Goats (which constitute the genus
_Capra_ of earlier authors) from the Sheep (_Ovis_). In the Goats the
horns are flattened from side to side, and rough in front and arched
backwards, whilst in the Sheep they are more uniformly cylindrical,
turned laterally, curling downwards, and often cork-screwed. A beard is
a common addition to the former animal, and a most unpleasant odour is
emitted by them.

[Illustration: BARBARY WILD SHEEP.]

The domestic Goat is almost certainly descended from the Paseng, or
Ibex, of the mountains of Asia, with little or no admixture of other
blood. In it, however, the female is bearded as well as the male, which
is not the case with the Paseng. It has been subjugated from time
immemorial, when the flesh of the kid was considered a delicacy. Its
sure-footedness and its boldness are proverbial, as is its unpleasant
odour. The power possessed by the species of ascending precipitate
heights is marvellous. On more than one occasion it has been
recorded--contrary to the teaching of Æsop--that whilst two individuals
have met on a path too narrow for both to pass, one has lain down in
order that the other might go over its back. With no great bulk of
body; coarse hair of different lengths and tints, springing from out
of a mass of much shorter wool; horns of varying size, but always
out-turned at the tips; narrow ears, an almost entirely hair-covered
nose; sight, hearing, and smell all acute; powerful thick-set legs, and
a short tail naked below, it stands its own in mountainous and less
civilised districts. Varieties occur with large pendulous instead
of upright ears; others with extra horns, occasionally spiral as in
Nepaul, or none at all. In the Angora and Cashmere breeds the hair is
white.

The Goat of Cashmere is famous on account of the long and very fine
wool with which it is covered, which is employed in the manufacture
of Cashmere shawls. It is said that the wool of ten of these Goats is
required for the material of a single shawl.

[Illustration: IBEX.]

The IBEX is found in the Alpine heights of Europe and of Western Asia,
including the Himalayas. The large scythe-blade-shaped horns of the
male curve boldly upwards and backwards, diverging all the way. Along
the front of their convex surfaces there is a series of protuberances
or partial rings, which are only just indicated laterally. The largest
specimens reach three feet and a half in height at the shoulder, which
is a little less than the length their horns sometimes attain. The body
colour is a yellowish-grey, white below, with a dark brown line along
the middle of the back. The soft and close-set hair hides an under-fur
still finer. The beard is black. European specimens are smaller than
those from Asia, rarely exceeding two feet and a half in height, with
horns three feet in length. The species inhabits the most precipitous
and dangerous parts of mountain regions, and is wonderfully sure-footed.

The PASENG is the wild Goat of Western Asia; it is also found on the
northern side of the Caucasus and in some of the islands of the Ægean.
In height the male measures two feet and three-quarters at the withers,
the female being nearly six inches less. In the male the horns may
measure as much as four feet in length. They are flattened, slender,
curved backwards as part of a large circle, having their points turned
sometimes inwards, so much so as now and again to cross, whilst at
others they are directed outwards. Along their anterior edges are
protuberances, separated by a greater distance as they approach the
tips, indicative of the age of the animal, as after the third year a
fresh knob is formed in each succeeding one. Mr. Danford, who has made
a special study of the species, remarks, with reference to the reputed
use to which their owners turn their immense cranial appendages, that
“regarding the use of the great horns carried by the Ibex family,
the general idea among the older authors was that they were employed
to break the animal’s fall in leaping from a height. Pennant relates
that Monardes was witness to the wild Goat saving itself in this way;
and Gesner says: ‘Cadens ab alto totum corpus inter cornua protegit a
collisione et ictus lapidum magnorum excipit cornibus!’[4] This view
is confirmed by Mr. Hutton, whose tame Aegagrus [Paseng] repeatedly
used his horns for this purpose. I made many inquiries among the
native hunters, and they all agreed in saying that the horns were
never so used, or for any purpose except fighting; and the result of
my own observations is, that during the leap the head is carried as
far back as possible, though it may be that the situations in which I
observed the animals did not necessitate the employment of the horns
in the way referred to.” The horns of the female are not more than a
foot long, the knobs being almost obsolete. Unlike its consort, also,
it has no beard. The general colour of the species is grey, shaded
with reddish-brown. A blackish-brown line extends from the similarly
coloured forehead along the spine.

[Illustration: MARKHOOR.]

The MARKHOOR, or “Serpent Eater,” of North-east India and Cashmere,
is a fine Goat of larger size than the Ibex, with much-flattened
triangular horns, which, while running upwards from the head, are
spiral and attain an immense size, sometimes as much as five feet along
their curve. The spiral twist is much more open in some specimens than
in others, depending on the locality in which they are found. The body
colour is a dirty light blue-grey, the lengthy beard being of a darker
colour. It inhabits very similar localities to the Ibexes and is very
shy.

The TAHR of the Himalayas is a not common Goat, with small horns curved
directly backwards, not much more than a foot in length, flattened
from side to side, with a notched anterior margin. The body colour
is a fawn-brown; the hair of the neck, chest, and shoulders being of
great length and reaching to the knees. In the female the horns are
much smaller and of lighter colour. According to Captain Kinloch,
“the Tahr is, like the Markhoor, a forest-loving animal, and although
it sometimes resorts to the rocky summits of the hills, it generally
prefers the steep slopes which are more or less clothed with trees.
Female Tahr may be frequently found on open ground, but old males hide
a great deal in the thickest jungle, lying during the heat of the day
under the shade of trees or overhanging rocks. Nearly perpendicular
hills, with dangerous precipices, where the forest consists of oak and
ringall cane, are the favourite haunts of the old Tahr, who climb with
ease over ground where one would hardly imagine that any animal could
find a footing. Tahr ground, indeed, is about the worst walking I know,
almost rivalling Markhoor ground; the only advantage being that, bad as
it is, there are generally some bushes or grass to hold on to.”

THE GAZELLES.[5]

Under the title of Gazelles are included several strikingly elegant,
small, slender, sandy-coloured species of ruminating animals, in which
the males always, and the females in most cases, carry horns, which
are transversely ringed, and vary considerably in the direction which
they take, many having them curved in such a way that the two together
form a lyre-shaped figure, at the same time that in others they are
nearly straight, turned slightly backwards or forwards, and diverging
or converging at the tips. Where present, the horns of the females are
more slender than in the corresponding males.

The Gazelles inhabit Africa, Arabia, Persia, India, and Central Asia
only. They rarely exceed thirty inches in height at the shoulder; the
largest, the Swift Antelope of Pennant (_Gazella mohr_), reaching
nearly three feet. In all the Gazelles the face is marked with a white
band running from the outer side of the base of each horn nearly down
to the upper end of each nostril, cutting off a dark triangular central
patch, and bordered externally by a diffused dark line. The under
surface of the abdomen is white, and there is a dark line traversing
the flank which bounds this. The rump is also white, which in many
cases encroaches more or less upon the haunches.

Of the twenty species of Gazelles known to naturalists, only a few
of the best known will be specially mentioned here. By Sir Victor
Brooke they have been thus arranged, in accordance with certain easily
ascertained distinctive features in coloration and shape of horn:--

I.--BACK UNSTRIPED.

A. _The white colour of the rump not encroaching on the fawn colour
of the haunches._

_a. Both sexes bearing horns._

1. HORNS LYRATE OR SEMI-LYRATE.

The Gazelle (Arabia and N.E. Africa).
Isabelline Gazelle (Kordofan).
Korin (Senegal).
Sundevall’s Gazelle (Sennaar).
Black-tailed Gazelle (Bogosland).

2. HORNS NOT LYRATE.

Cuvier’s Gazelle (Morocco).
Small-horned Gazelle (Sennaar).
Speke’s Gazelle (Somali Country).
Muscat Gazelle (Muscat).
Arabian Gazelle (S. Arabia).
Bennett’s Gazelle (India).
Dusky-faced Gazelle (Persia).

_b. Females hornless._

Persian Gazelle.
Mongolian Gazelle.
Ladakh Gazelle.

B. _The white colour of the rump projects forward in an angle into
the fawn colour of the haunches._

Dama Antelope (S. Nubia).
Swift Antelope (Senegal).
Soemmerring’s Antelope (E. Africa).
Grant’s Gazelle (Ugogo).

II.--BACK WITH A MEDIAN WHITE STRIPE.

Spring-bok (S. Africa).

The GAZELLE _par excellence_, from Syria, Egypt, and Arabia, stands
scarcely two feet high. The elegance of its proportions are too well
known to need description. The beauty of its eyes is not to be
compared with that of some of the other ruminating animals, the whole
face being far too sheep-like, and this remark equally applies to all
its near allies. The Dorcas Gazelle is a name by which it is also
known. Like many other members of the genus, it has a tuft of hair
upon each knee. The tail is long and tapering; the body hair rather
coarse and of a pale fawn colour. The hips, as well as the breast and
the abdomen, are white. As to their habits, Mr. Blanford, in his work
on Abyssinia, tells us that, so far as his observation went, “neither
the Dorcas nor Bennett’s Gazelle is ever seen in large flocks, like
the animals of the Spring-bok group. Usually both are seen solitary,
or from two to five together, inhabiting thin bushes generally on
broken ground. They feed much upon the leaves of bushes. The male has a
peculiar habit, when surprised, of standing still and uttering a short,
sharp cry. Like most Antelopes, they keep much to the neighbourhood
of some particular spot. After long observation, I am convinced that
Bennett’s Gazelle never drinks; and all that I could ascertain of the
Dorcas Gazelle leads to the same conclusion in its case.”

[Illustration: DORCAS GAZELLE.]

Captain Baldwin says that, “like other Antelopes, the little Ravine
Deer [by which is meant Bennett’s Gazelle] has many enemies besides
man. One day, when out with my rifle, I noticed an old female Gazelle
stamping her feet, and every now and then making that ‘hiss’ which
is the alarm-note of the animal. It was not I that was the cause of
her terror, for I had passed close to her only a few minutes before,
and she seemed to understand by my manner that I meant no harm. No;
there was something else. I turned back, and on looking down a ravine
close by, saw a crafty Wolf attempting a stalk on the mother and young
one. Another day, at Agra, a pair of Jackals joined in the chase of a
wounded Buck.

“The Chikarah [again another name for Bennett’s Gazelle] is as easily
tamed as the common Antelope; they are favourite pets, and become
strongly attached to those who rear and feed them. I have seen tame
ones driven out with a herd of Goats to graze, and never attempt to
make their escape. It is not at all unusual to find the wild Gazelles
feeding close to, sometimes almost mingling with, herds of Goats, when
the latter have been driven out to pasture.... Like all Antelopes, the
eyesight of the Chikarah is very acute, and the animal is perpetually
on the watch against danger. It, however, appears to be gifted with
only a moderate sense of hearing, and still less so of smell.”

THE ARABIAN, OR ARID GAZELLE, is the same size as the preceding,
differing, as may be gathered from the table given on page 13, in the
shape of its horns, which, from being directed upwards and outwards,
turn at their tips more outward and also forward. The speed of the
Gazelle, like that of most of its allies, is very great; its eyes are
large and lustrous, and its general colour a rich yellowish-brown.

The PERSIAN GAZELLE stands twenty-six inches. Its body colour is grey
fawn colour, the breast and abdomen being white. Of its habits, Major
St. John says that, “like the wild Ass, it especially affects the
neighbourhood of the salt deserts. It appears to retire generally to
the valleys at the base of hills to breed, and is most commonly seen in
small parties of three to half a dozen. The fleetest Greyhound cannot
come up with the Gazelle when it gets a fair start; but when suddenly
roused from a hollow, or when the ground is heavy after rain, good Dogs
will often pull down males. The does are more difficult to catch.”

[Illustration: SAÏGA.]

SOEMMERRING’S GAZELLE stands two feet and a half high. The body colour
is sandy fawn above; the horns are massive and lyrate, more slender in
the female. It lives in pairs, and is a powerful species.

The horns of GRANT’S GAZELLE are larger than in any other of the
species.

The SPRING-BOK derives its name from the habit it has of leaping
straight up in the air for several feet when alarmed or whilst running.
Its height is two feet and a half. The horns are lyrate, being very
small in the females. Its colour is yellow dun, with the under parts,
as usual, white. A peculiar white line along the middle of the back can
be varied in extent within certain limits by the animal at pleasure.
Major C. Hamilton Smith, when writing of this species, tells us that
it assembles in South Africa in vast herds, “migrating from north to
south and back with the monsoons. These migrations, which are said to
take place in the most numerous form only at the interval of several
years, appear to come from the north-east, and in masses of many
thousands, devouring, like locusts, every green herb. The Lion has been
seen to migrate and walk in the midst of the compressed phalanx, with
only as much room between him and his victims as the fears of those
immediately around could procure by pressing outwards. The foremost of
these vast columns are fat, and the rear exceedingly lean while the
direction continues one way; but with the change of the monsoon, when
they return towards the north, the rear become the leaders, fattening
in their turn.”

The SAÏGA[6] and CHIRU[7] differ from the Gazelles but slightly, and
approach the Sheep; the former belonging to Eastern Europe and Western
Asia, the latter to Tibet.

The Saïga is as large as a Fallow Deer, tawny yellow in summer, light
grey in winter; being specially peculiar about the nose which is much
lengthened, at the same time that the nostrils are expanded to such a
degree that in feeding they have to walk backwards. The horns, found
only in the males, are not a foot long, slightly lyrate, and annulated.
In its native haunts--which are barren, sandy, and salt--it assembles
frequently in vast herds. It runs rapidly when pursued, but is soon
exhausted.

[Illustration: INDIAN ANTELOPE.]

The CHIRU is slightly smaller, of a reddish fawn colour, with the face
and front of the limbs black. The slender jet-black horns, very small
in the female, are ringed nearly to the tips, curved forward, and about
two feet long. From Captain Kinloch’s account we learn that “in the
early part of the summer the Antelope appears to keep on the higher and
more exposed plains and slopes where snow does not lie; as the season
becomes warmer, the snow which has accumulated on the grassy banks
of the streams in the sheltered valleys begins to dissolve, and the
Antelope then comes down to feed on the grass which grows abundantly
in such places, and then is the time that they may most easily be
stalked and shot. They usually feed only in the mornings and evenings,
and in the day-time seek more open and elevated situations, frequently
excavating deep holes in the stony plains in which they live, with only
their heads and horns visible above the surface of the ground.”

THE PALLAH.[8]

THE PALLAH, OR IMPALLA, of South and South-east Africa, is another
closely-allied form of large size, being more than three feet high at
the shoulder. Its colour is dark red above, yellow dun on the sides,
and white below. There are no false hoofs in the usual situation on
the lengthy legs: a peculiarity which it shares with the Cabrit and
the Giraffe. The eyes are very large and liquid. The horns, wanting in
the female, are twenty inches long in the male, and lyrate; they are
ringed nearly to their tips. They are abundant on or near to hills,
and collect in herds of from twenty to thirty. Mr. Drummond, vividly
describing his South African experience, on an occasion whilst hunting
Buffalo, “saw something red moving among the trees, and stopped to
watch it. It turned out to be a troop of Impalla coming back from water
and making for some of the grassy glades. There might have been seventy
or eighty of them, picking their way along in Indian file, nibbling
here and there, but always moving, and seeming like a troop of ghosts
in the dim twilight and silence.”

THE INDIAN ANTELOPE.[9]

THE INDIAN ANTELOPE, OR BLACK BUCK.--This species differs but little
from the Gazelles in many respects, whilst its peculiarities are
striking. Like the Nylghau, the male differs greatly from the female in
its colour. The female has no horns; those in the male are black and of
great size, spirally twisted for three or four turns like a corkscrew,
slightly divergent, and often reaching thirty inches in length. It
stands a little over two feet and a half at the shoulder. The colour of
the males is deep brown-black above, with an abrupt line of separation
from the pure white of the belly. This dark colour extends down the
outer surface of each limb. The face is also black, with a white circle
round the eyes and nose. In the females and young of both sexes the
black and brown are replaced by a light fawn colour. The tail is very
short and white below. At certain seasons of the year the glands below
the eyes are much enlarged and form a prominent feature in the face of
the male.

The Black Buck is one of the swiftest of the Antelopes, no Greyhound
having any chance against it. Its flesh, being dry and unsavoury, is
rarely eaten. The species falls a frequent prey to the Tiger, and is
generally found in herds, fifty does, or so, accompanied by a single
buck. The height to which they can bound is very great. According to
Major C. Hamilton Smith, the native Indians “have raised the common
Antelope among the constellations, harnessed it to the chariot of the
moon, and represented it as the quarry of the gods. In the opinion of
Hindoos the animal is sacred to Chandra, female devotees and minstrels
lead it, domesticated, by the harmony of their instruments, or the
power of their prayers, and holy Brahmins are directed to feed upon
their flesh, under certain circumstances prescribed by the _Institutes
of Menu_.”

CHAPTER II.

RUMINANTIA: BOVIDÆ (_continued_)--ANTELOPES.

THE STEINBOKS: KLIPSPRINGER, OUREBI, STEINBOK, GRYSBOK, MADOQUA--THE
BUSH-BUCKS--Appearance--Distinctive Marks--THE FOUR-HORNED
ANTELOPES--Peculiarity in the Chikarah--THE WATER ANTELOPES:
NAGOR, REITBOK, LECHÈ, AEQUITOON, SING-SING, WATER-BUCK, POKU,
REH-BOK--THE ELAND--Beef--Appearance--Captain Cornwallis Harris’
Description--Hunting--Scarcity--THE KOODOO--Appearance--King of
Antelopes--ANGAS’ HARNESSED ANTELOPE--THE HARNESSED ANTELOPES:
GUIB--BUSH BUCK, OR UKOUKA--Appearance--Pluck--THE BOVINE
ANTELOPES--THE BUBALINE--HARTEBEEST--BLESBOK--BONTEBOK--SASSABY--THE
GNU--Grotesque Appearance--Habits--BRINDLED
GNU--THE CAPRINE ANTELOPES--SEROW--Ungainly
Habits--GORAL--CAMBING-OUTAN--TAKIN--MAZAMA--THE
CHAMOIS--Distribution--Appearance--Voice--Hunted--THE
ORYXES--BLAUBOK--SABLE ANTELOPE--BAKER’S
ANTELOPE--ORYX--BEISA--BEATRIX--GEMSBOK--ADDAX.

THE STEINBOKS.

THE KLIPSPRINGER, the OUREBI, the STEINBOK, and the GRYSBOK form a
small section of the African Antelopes, elegant and small, with horns
only in the males, these being straight, or nearly so. Their body hair
is harsh. The Klipspringer stands a little under two feet high; it is
the heaviest in build of the four; its horns are four inches long and
curved a little forward. Its colour is olive. It lives singly or in
pairs, in mountainous districts, and it was at one time so abundant in
the neighbourhood of the Cape of Good Hope that its hair was employed
to stuff saddles with.

The Ourebi, in height and length of horn, resembles the last-mentioned
species. Its build is very delicate, its general colour being a
tawny yellow, white below. Its speed is very great. According to Mr.
Drummond, “its peculiar colour so much resembles the soil on which
it lies that, trusting to remain unobserved, it often allows you to
get within fifteen or twenty yards of where it is squatting. It is a
handsome and peculiarly graceful Antelope, extremely good eating, and
well worth the hunter’s attention. One thing he should bear in mind is,
that however slightly they may be wounded, they will go and lie down
within a few hundred yards, if not chased by a Dog, and will in such
cases very generally allow him to get within shot again.” The Steinbok
is twenty inches high, with straight horns four inches long, large
ears, and a mere stump of a tail. Its colour is red-brown, white below.

[Illustration: HEAD OF FEMALE BUSH-BUCK.]

The Grysbok, with the same measurement, is chocolate-red.

The MADOQUA of Abyssinia is not bigger than a Hare, standing fourteen
inches high, the slender legs being comparatively long. The horns,
present only in the males, are not more than half the length of the
head, being nearly straight, and curved a little forward. The tail is
a mere stump. The back is reddish-brown, the sides grey; the face,
together with a peculiar tuft between the horns, is red, as are the
legs. The under parts are white.

THE BUSH-BUCKS.[10]

The Bush-bucks form a clearly-defined group of small Antelopes peculiar
to tropical and Southern Africa. They are also known by sportsmen as
Duykers, or Bush-goats. They are characterised by the possession of
horns in the male sex, which are short, straight, and simple cones,
very much depressed, or slanting backwards, and rising some distance
behind the eyes; at the same time that there is a tuft of lengthy
hair, directed backwards, which is arranged in a kind of horseshoe
shape between the ears. The crumen or gland in front of each eye is
also peculiar. Instead of it being a sac with a circular opening, it
is spread out in the form of a curved line, and not contracted to form
an orifice at all. This feature, which is not observed in any other
animal, may be seen in the drawing of the head of the female Bush-buck.
The muffle, or extremity of the nose, is much like that of the Ox,
comparatively large and always moist. The tail is very short, whilst
the ears are of a fair size and oval in form. The legs are particularly
slender and delicate, terminated by minute hoofs. In most the forehead
is strongly convex. The coloration of the many species is not striking,
being a uniform red-brown, dark bluish-grey, or sooty-black. The
smallest of the species, the Pigmy Bush-buck, is not bigger than a
Rabbit, and might at first sight, especially the female, be mistaken
for a Deerlet. According to Mr. Drummond, “it feeds principally on
certain berries and shrubs found growing in the jungles, and seems to
be on the move, more or less, the whole day, though, in common with
the rest of the animal creation, it is most often to be seen at early
morning and evening.”

Of the Bush-bucks, the Philantomba, of West Africa, is grey-brown; the
Blau-bok, of Southern Africa, a bluish-grey; the Duyker-bok, of South
Africa, a yellowish-brown; the Coquetoon, a deep reddish-bay; the Bay
Antelope, of West Africa, a dark bay, whilst there are other species
black, brown, &c.

[Illustration: WATER-BUCK.]

THE FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPES.[11]

In India and Tibet there are two peculiar species of small Antelopes,
the true Four-horned and the Brown Indian Antelope. In the former of
these, known also as the Chikarah, different from what is found as a
natural condition in any other living animal, there are two pairs of
well-developed horns; the hinder, which are the larger, being five
inches long, in the usual situation; the smaller, an inch and a half
long, are close together not far behind the eyes. In the Brown Indian
Antelope the anterior pair of horns are rudimentary, and nothing more
than knobs. All these horns are straight and conical. Neither species
is common. Their size is about that of the Arabian Gazelle; their
colour a reddish-brown, becoming lighter below; the hair is coarse;
the female is hornless. Captain Kinloch says of them that “four-horned
Antelopes are generally found alone, or frequently in pairs; they
conceal themselves in long grass or among low bushes, and somewhat
resemble hares in their habits. They are seldom to be seen out feeding,
but usually jump up at the feet of the hunter and bound away at a great
pace.”

THE WATER ANTELOPES.[12]

The NAGOR, the REITBOK, the LECHÈ, the AEQUITOON, the SING-SING, and
the WATER-BUCK are closely allied African Antelopes, with good-sized
horns (only present in the males), which are transversely wrinkled,
curved forwards, and a little inwards at the tips. Most of them are
water-loving animals, and abound in marshy districts on the banks of
rivers.

The Nagor is a little more than two feet and a half in height at the
shoulder, the horns being six inches long, and the tail ten inches. The
colour of the long, loose hair is fulvous-brown above, white below. The
Reitbok is of a grizzly ochreate colour. Its height is nearly three
feet, the horns being twelve inches long. According to Dr. Kirk, the
species is “commonly found feeding in small herds; in the heat of the
day it rests in long grass, and may be approached within fifty yards
before starting. It seldom runs far without stopping to look round.
Before again making off it gives a shrill whistle, as it does often
when first started. Should the female have young unable to run far, and
danger near, she places her foot on the shoulder and presses it to the
ground; after which it never moves until almost trodden upon, and is
expected to remain in the same spot until the return of the mother.”
The Lechè is of a pale brown colour above and white below. Sir John
Kirk says it “is a water Antelope, frequenting damp, marshy places,
and taking to impassable swamps, among reeds and papyrus. It goes in
considerable herds, accompanied by several males, mingling often with
the ‘Poku,’ another Antelope peculiar to that region (the valley of
the Zambesi). In the distance the Lechè may be known by the peculiar
way in which it allows its horns to recline back, almost touching the
withers.” The POKU, Vardon’s Antelope of Livingstone, is smaller than
the Lechè, and thicker in the neck; otherwise it closely resembles it.

[Illustration: ELAND.]

The Sing-sing Antelope and Water-buck are much alike, the former
wanting a white elliptical patch, which is found near the base of the
tail in the latter. The body colour is a greyish-brown. Long hair on
the neck produces a mane. At the shoulder they stand four feet six
inches, and the pale horns are two feet and a half long. “The Water
Antelope,” says Mr. Drummond, “is an extremely fine animal, and so
plentiful that there are, perhaps, more of them shot than of any of
the other large Antelopes. The large ringed horns which, in the male,
crown its brow, bear a strong resemblance to those of the Reedbuck
[Reitbok], while the habits and general appearance of both species are
almost identical. Both frequent thickets and reedy places near water,
and are principally found in pairs or small groups. The hair of the
species [of Water-buck] inhabiting Eastern Africa is very long and
coarse, though that of the one found in Central Africa [the Sing-Sing]
is remarkably soft, and is highly prized by the natives as being so.”

The REH-BOK of South Africa, “though almost approaching a Fallow Deer
in size, more nearly,” says Mr. Drummond, “resembles a Chamois in
other particulars; indeed, it has been called the African Chamois,
and so far deserves the title, that it certainly possesses many of
the characteristics and habits of the European species--decidedly
more so than any other of the Antelope genus found in South Africa,
with the exception of the Klipspringer. Their colour is light grey,
the hair being somewhat long and coarse, and the horns are straight
[bent forwards at the tips], and by no means unusually large for the
animal’s size. They are never found but on the bare hills, among rocks
and stones, and their powers of springing are wonderful. It seems
extraordinary how their delicate limbs escape injury, when they take
bound after bound like an indiarubber ball, in places that a Cat would
shudder at.” According to Major C. H. Smith, “it is an animal of great
swiftness, moving with wonderful rapidity by lengthened stretches,
close to the ground, so as to seem to glide over the desert like a mist
driven by the winds, and, favoured by the indistinct colours of the
fur, is immediately out of sight. The Bushmen and western tribes [of
South Africa] make lance-heads, awls, and other tools of the horns, and
occasionally cloaks of their skins for the women.”

THE ELAND.[13]

This fine species attains to the size of an Ox, the bull standing six
feet and a half at the withers. Attempts have within the last few years
been made to breed it in England for the sake of its flesh, which is
as good as the best beef. It is, however, found to be impossible to
get the price sufficiently low for market purposes. Two varieties are
known, one of a pale fawn colour from Central Africa, the other, from
South Africa, of a bright yellow tan colour, marked transversely with
narrow white lines, about fifteen in number, running from a black
line which goes along the back, to the belly. These marks are present
in all young individuals, and disappear or fade considerably in the
adults. The full-grown bull has a broad tuft of lengthy slight brown
hair on the forehead, between and in front of the horns, which are
situated some distance behind the eyes, being straight, a foot and a
half in length, and at their bases carrying a thick and conspicuous
screw-like ridge which extends in some cases nearly to their ends. In
the females the horns are never quite so large as in the males. A large
dewlap hangs from the throats of the bulls, whilst a dark, short mane
continues from the forehead backwards. The tail is about two feet and a
quarter in length, with a large tuft of brown hair at its end.

According to Captain W. Cornwallis Harris, “in size and shape the body
of the male Eland resembles that of a well-conditioned Guzerat Ox,
not unfrequently attaining the height of nineteen hands, and weighing
two thousand pounds. The head is strictly that of an Antelope, light,
graceful, and bony, with a pair of magnificent straight horns, about
two feet in length, spirally ringed, and pointed backwards. A broad and
deep dewlap fringed with brown hair reaches to the knee. The colour
varies considerably with the age, being dun in some, in others an ashy
blue with a tinge of ochre; and in many also sandy-grey approaching
to white. The flesh is esteemed by all classes in Africa above that
of any other animal; in grain and colour it resembles beef, but is
better tasted and more delicate, possessing a pure game flavour, and
the quantity of fat with which it is interlarded is surprising, greatly
exceeding that of any other game quadruped with which I am acquainted.
The female is smaller and of slighter form, with less ponderous horns.”

When writing on the hunting of these creatures, known in South Africa
as the _Impoofo_, the same author remarks that, “notwithstanding the
unwieldy shape of these animals, they had at first greatly exceeded the
speed of our jaded horses, but being pushed they soon separated; their
sleek coats turned first blue and then white with froth; the foam fell
from their mouths and nostrils, and the perspiration from their sides.
Their pace gradually slackened, and with their full brilliant eyes
turned imploring towards us, at the end of a mile, each was laid low by
a single bullet.”

With reference to these animals, the Hon. W. H. Drummond tells us
that “more Eland are killed from horseback than on foot; for as it is
utterly out of the question to make a practice of running them down,
and as they generally inhabit the treeless flats, where they cannot,
except by chance, be stalked, while the uncertainty of their movements
and their keeping out of cover render it impossible to find them, like
the large animals, by the aid of their spoor, some more certain method
is needed than the chance meetings which occur to the hunter when in
pursuit of other game, more especially as their hide is held in great
repute by the Dutch colonists, who make trek-tows for their wagons, and
reins for their oxen from it, even preferring it to that of a Buffalo.
The demand thus induced has so diminished their numbers as to have
restricted this noble Antelope to a few favoured localities, even in
which it is becoming more scarce every day, while not many years ago it
formed a component part of almost every landscape in the southern and
eastern portions of Africa.”

THE KOODOO.[14]

[Illustration: KOODOO.]

This is one of the handsomest of all the Antelopes. It is more slender
in build and smaller than the Eland, which it somewhat resembles. The
horns are about four feet long, and form most graceful open spirals
like corkscrews, there being a ridge along their whole length. The
females are hornless. The ear is large and trumpet-shaped, moved at
the slightest noise towards its source. The eyes are large and liquid.
The body colour is slaty-grey, with transverse white markings, like
those on the striped variety of the Eland. A small mane extends along
the neck and withers, and another from the chin to the throat and
breast. The tail is of moderate length, and hairy. This species is most
abundant in Southern Africa, but it extends as high as Abyssinia. It is
able to travel with very great speed, and makes prodigious bounds. It
stands about five feet in height at the shoulders.

“Majestic in its carriage,” writes Captain Harris, with all the
enthusiasm of a true sportsman, “and brilliant in its colour, this
species may with propriety be styled the king of the tribe. Other
Antelopes are stately, elegant, or curious, but the solitude-seeking
Koodoo is absolutely regal! The ground colour is a lively French grey
approaching to blue, with several transverse white bands passing over
the back and loins: a copious mane, and deeply fringed, tricoloured
dewlap, setting off a pair of ponderous yet symmetrical horns,
spirally twisted, and exceeding three feet in length. These are thrown
along the back as the stately wearer dashes through the mazes of the
forest or clambers the mountain-side. The old bulls are invariably
found apart from the females, which herd together in small troops, and
are destitute of horns.”

ANGAS’ HARNESSED ANTELOPE.[15]

This elegant animal, much like the Koodoo in its proportions, stands
three feet four inches high at the shoulders. In the male, which alone
bears horns, these appendages are nearly two feet long, twisted and
sub-lyrate, having sharply-pointed tips of a pale straw colour, their
other parts being of a brownish-black, deeply ridged for half their
length from their bases. The colour of the body is greyish-black,
tinged with purplish-brown and ochre, white transverse stripes, like
those of the Koodoo, being present on the neck, flanks, and cheeks.
A black mane courses down the neck, whilst from the neck and belly
depends long shaggy hair in abundance, reaching to the knees. The ears
are large, and the face is of a bright sienna-brown. The tail is one
foot eight inches long, black above, with under side and tip white. The
female is small, and of a bright rufous colour, with transverse stripes
more numerous than in the male.

This species is found in troops of eight or ten together, feeding on
the mimosa bushes in the Zulu country. Closely allied to it is a second
from Central Africa, which is of a dull bay, nearly uniform, colour,
the horns reaching thirty inches in length. It is known as Speke’s
Antelope.

THE HARNESSED ANTELOPES.[16]

The HARNESSED ANTELOPES proper are all of small size, the elegant GUIB
not being larger than a Goat, its proportions being infinitely more
delicate. It is of a pale bay colour, and the distinct transverse white
streaks, running down from the middle of its back with connecting
bands, have given the origin to its name.

The BUSH BUCK differs in wanting any body stripes. It is also African.
Writing of it, Mr. Drummond remarks that the Bush Buck, “the male of
whom is known as the ‘Ukouka,’ and the female as the ‘Umbabala,’ and
which differ so greatly that experience is necessary to teach one that
they are of the same species, is undoubtedly the finest in every way of
all the Antelopes, whether found in the [Cape] Colonies or interior,
that are known to the hunter as ‘small game.’ In size it resembles
a full-grown Fallow Buck, weighing, according to age and condition,
from nine to thirteen stone; its colour is a dark reddish-brown,
often verging into black, and with indistinct markings on the sides,
haunches, and legs; it has a great deal of hair, and a considerable
mane, while the neck, which is thick out of all proportion, is nearly
bare. The last mentioned peculiarity detracts from the otherwise
graceful outlines of its body, the more so, perhaps, from the head
being so finely shaped and small. The horns are nearly straight, rough,
and ringed for about three inches from their base, and then taper away,
smooth and polished, to an almost invisible point; they vary from nine
inches to a foot long, and from the way in which they are set on the
skull, the immense strength in the neck and shoulders of the animal,
and their extreme sharpness, form about as formidable weapons as
could well be imagined, especially as their owner is the most plucky
Antelope, without exception or consideration of size, with which I have
become acquainted in Africa. I do not think that in all my experience
... I remember a single instance in which a Ukouka has not tried to
charge when wounded and brought to bay; and no one, even after a very
moderate experience, would ever allow any Dog on which he placed any
value to attack them.”

THE BOVINE ANTELOPES.[17]

The BUBALINE ANTELOPE, together with the HARTEBEEST, has a peculiarly
elongated and narrow head, at the same time that the body is not
elegant in its proportions, being triangular in form, heavy in the
shoulders, and falling away behind. The horns, which are smaller in
the females, are turned abruptly backwards at their tips after having
been directed forwards and upwards in a lyrate manner. The Bubaline of
North Africa is of a uniform bay colour, and the much more recently
discovered TORA ANTELOPE of Eastern Africa resembles it in this
respect, whilst its horns differ slightly in their direction and size,
being more divergent and slender. The Hartebeest is grey-brown, and
black on the outer sides of the limbs, with large, triangular white
spots on the haunches; a black line also runs down the middle of the
face from between the horns.

Mr. Pringle, when writing on the Hartebeest, says of it that it “is one
of the largest and handsomest of the Antelope family.... In the nooks
of the narrow ravines, through which the game are wont to descend from
the steep and stony mountains, for change of pasturage, or to drink at
the fountains that ooze from their declivities, I have frequently found
fresh skulls and horns of the Hartebeest, those slight relics being all
that remained to indicate that there the Lion had surprised and rent
his prey, and that the ferocious Hyæna had followed and feasted on the
fragments, devouring even the bones, except the skull and a few other
unmanageable portions.”

[Illustration: BUBALINE ANTELOPE.]

The BLESBOK, BONTE-BOK, and SASSABY are about the size of a calf three
months old. Their horns are lyrate and ringed at their bases. The two
former are of a purple-red colour, white faces and white rumps. Of the
Blesbok, Mr. C. J. Andersson remarks--“It is of a beautiful violet
colour, and is found in company with black wilde-beests and Spring-boks
in countless thousands, on the vast green plains of short, crisp,
sour grass occupying a central position in South Africa. Cattle and
Horses refuse to pasture on the grassy products of these plains, which
afford sustenance to myriads of this Antelope, whose skin emits a most
delicious and powerful perfume of flowers and sweet-smelling herbs.”

The Sassaby, or Bastard Hartebeest of the Cape colonists, stands four
feet and a half in height. It has strong horns a foot in length,
crescentic, with the points directed inwards. Its body colour is a
dark purple-brown above, which changes into dusky-yellow underneath, a
slate-coloured patch extending from the shoulder and the hip down to
the knee and hock, at the same time that the rump is fawn-coloured. The
tail is nearly two feet long.

THE GNUS.[18]

The GNU and the BRINDLED GNU are two of the most grotesque of
creatures. With the head not unlike that of a small Cape Buffalo,
it has the limbs and hind-quarters not unlike those of a pony, in
proportions as well as size. The nose is broad and flattened, with a
bristly muzzle. The horns are broad at the base, where they nearly
meet, and after turning downward as well as forward, they again turn up
abruptly in a hook-like manner. They are found abundantly in Southern
Africa, where, as their flesh is worthless, they are not much hunted.
They are extremely wild and fearless, and remarkably tenacious of life.
Their speed is great, and they have a habit of prancing about and
kicking out furiously when suspecting danger. Both species have a mane
along the neck, and lengthy hair between the forelegs. In both the tail
is long, covered with a mass of hair not unlike that of the Horse.

[Illustration: GNU.]

The Common Gnu is of a deep brown-black, the tail and mane being white,
whilst the bushy beard, running back to the chest and between the
forelegs, is black. Lengthy black hairs, diverging and ascending from
a median line, cover the upper part of the nose, at the same time that
other smaller tufts under the eyes help to give a most ferocious aspect
to the face. From Captain Harris’s description of the animals of South
Africa, an excellent idea of the peculiarities of the creature may
be gained. “Of all quadrupeds,” he writes, “the Gnoo is probably the
most awkward and grotesque. Nature doubtless formed him in one of her
freaks, and it is scarcely possible to contemplate his ungainly figure
without laughter. Wheeling and prancing in every direction, his shaggy
and bearded head arched between his slender and muscular legs, and his
long white tail streaming in the wind, this ever-wary animal has at
once a ferocious and ludicrous appearance. Suddenly stopping, showing
an imposing front, and tossing his head in mock defiance, his wild red
sinister eyes flash fire, and his snort, resembling the roar of a Lion,
is repeated with energy and effect. Then lashing his sides with his
floating tail, he plunges, bounds, kicks up his heels with a fantastic
flourish, and in a moment is off at speed, making the dust fly behind
him as he sweeps across the plain.”

In the Brindled Gnu the front of the face lacks the lengthy hair of its
ally; the tail is also black instead of white. Its body colour is a
dirty dun, variegated with obscure pale streaks. This species, as well
as the Common Gnu, is the constant companion of the equally abundant
Quaggas of the same region.

THE CAPRINE ANTELOPES.

The SEROW (sometimes written Surrow) of India, the CAMBING-OUTAN
of Sumatra, with the GORAL of North India, form a small group of
strongly-built Goat-like Antelopes, with short, conical, upright horns,
ringed at the base, and of nearly equal size in both sexes. The feet
are large, and the tapering tail short.

Captain Kinloch gives us the following account of the Serow. He says
it “is an ungainly-looking animal, combining the characteristics of
the Cow, the Donkey, the Pig, and the Goat! It is a large and powerful
beast.... The body is covered with very coarse hair, which assumes
the form of a bristly mane on the neck and shoulders, and gives the
beast a ferocious appearance, which does not belie its disposition.
The colour is a dull black on the back, bright red on the sides, and
white underneath, the legs also being dirty white. The ears are very
large; the muzzle is coarse.... The Serow has an awkward gait; but
in spite of this can go over the worst ground; and it has, perhaps,
no superior in going down steep hills. It is a solitary animal, and
is nowhere numerous; two or three may be found on one hill, four or
five on another, and so on. It delights in the steepest and most rocky
hillsides, and its favourite resting-places are in caves, under the
shelter of overhanging rocks, or at the foot of shady trees.”

[Illustration: GORAL.]

Of the Goral, the same author remarks that it “is an active little
beast, and much resembles a small Goat, but the back is more arched.
The prevailing colour is a brownish-grey, with a dark stripe along the
back, and dark markings on the legs. Underneath the throat is a large
white spot, which is very conspicuous when the animal is standing
above one, and often betrays its presence when it would otherwise have
escaped observation. The hair is soft but rather coarse, and about two
inches long.” In the male the horns reach nine inches in length.

The Cambing-outan stands about two feet and a quarter at the shoulder.
Its long, coarse hair is brown-black in colour, the mane and throat
alone being white. The horns are not more than six inches in length,
cylindrical, slightly annulated and curved backwards at their lips.
Mountain forests, where it leads a particularly active life, are its
haunts.

Dr. J. Anderson remarks of the TAKIN, or BUDORCAS, another allied
species, “Major Stewart informs me that it is found in all the high
ranges of the north-east of Debrooghur, and is far from uncommon. The
Mishnees, with their very inferior appliances to shoot and catch them,
are, nevertheless, frequently dressed in their skins, or have a part of
a skin with the hair on as an ornament, which would seem to indicate
that they are numerous.... They are seen in pairs, and sometimes in
herds of twenty or more. They are swift of foot and good climbers.”

In Formosa and Japan there are also Goat-like Antelopes, that from
the former locality being named after Mr. Swinhoe, who discovered it.
Its horns are short and conical, its brown fur harsh and crisp. Both
closely resemble the Cambing-outan. There is still another with a long
tail inhabiting Northern China.

The MAZAMA, or Mountain Goat of California and the Rocky Mountains,
is an allied species, with short, thick, conical, recurved horns, and
long, straight, soft hair of a white colour, specially abundant in the
region of the throat, shoulders, sides, and tail. Its size is that of
a large Sheep, which it much resembles in physiognomy. The flesh has
an unpleasant musky flavour, the skin is thick and spongy, at the same
time that the hair is considered of but little value.

THE CHAMOIS.[19]

This well-known Goat-like Antelope inhabits the snow-clad mountains
of Europe, from the Pyrenees to the Caucasus, ascending during the
summer, and in winter going below the line of snow in search of food.
Both sexes possess horns--black, short, and cylindrical--rising
perpendicularly and parallel from the forehead for some distance, then
forming a small hook directed backwards to their pointed tips. These
rarely exceed seven inches in length. The female is slightly smaller
than the male, which stands a little over two feet at the shoulder.
In winter the colour of the lengthy, hairy coat is dark brown, which
becomes a brownish-yellow in the summer, a darker streak along the
back alone remaining. The head is pale yellow, darker from the nose
upwards to between the ears and around the eyes. Behind the horns and
between the ears is a pair of peculiar glands, opening externally, the
function of which is unknown. The voice of the species is a rough bleat
under all ordinary circumstances; but when the one which watches whilst
the others feed--and there is always found to be one such in every
herd--finds cause to fear, it gives a shrill whistle as a danger signal
to its companions.

[Illustration: HEAD OF THE CHAMOIS.]

The senses of sight, hearing, and smell of the Chamois are developed
to a maximum, and this fact, taken in association with the animal’s
great sure-footedness among the lofty, snow-covered Alps, in which it
has its home, makes hunting it a task of no mean difficulty and danger.
Dogs are of no service on the rocky eminences to which the Chamois
will retreat when it is pursued, and the sportsman has to rely upon
his own sure-footedness and courage in climbing the steep and slippery
precipices, whither he is tempted by the sight of game. If so hard
pressed that it is driven to some height beyond which it cannot go, it
is said that it will precipitate itself upon its pursuer, sending him
down into the depths below. Besides man, the eagle is an enemy whose
constant endeavour is to obtain the kids from their watchful mothers.
Its skin is much valued for its toughness combined with its pliability.
Its flesh is also greatly esteemed.

THE ORYXES.[20]

Of the Antelopes there is a fairly well-marked section, distinguished
by the possession of horns in both sexes, at the same time that the
body is peculiarly deep at the shoulder, whilst the lengthy tail is
cylindrical and tufted at the extremity. Among these there is a mane
along the neck in three closely-allied species, the BLAUBOK, or Equine
Antelope of South Africa, the SABLE ANTELOPE of the Transvaal and the
eastern coast of Africa, and BAKER’S ANTELOPE, or the Maarif of Upper
Nubia, as well as in the ORYX, which is found in many parts of Africa,
the BEISA of Abyssinia, the BEATRIX ANTELOPE of Arabia, and the GEMSBOK
of South Africa; whilst in the not distant ADDAX ANTELOPE of North
Africa there is no nape-mane, but a slight one on the throat.

[Illustration: ORYX.]

In the Blaubok, which stands more than four feet and a half at the
shoulder, with a glaucous, grey coat upon a black skin; in the Sable
Antelope, which stands four feet and a half, being black except upon
the abdomen, as well as in streaks upon the face, which are white;
and in Baker’s Antelope, which stands four feet eight inches, being
of a pale fulvous liver colour, the horns are two feet and more in
length, and curved gently backwards, being ringed transversely except
at the tips, where they are smooth. In the Oryx, the Beisa, the
Beatrix Antelope, and the Gemsbok, the lengthy conical horns, although
similarly ringed, are much more slender, starting backwards in a line
with the face, whilst in those previously mentioned they rise at an
angle from it, being straight in the Gemsbok and Beisa, very slightly
curved backwards in the Beatrix, and more so in the Oryx. In the nearly
allied Addax the similarly-constructed horns are gently twisted in
a corkscrew manner. All these last-mentioned Antelopes are pale in
colour, being almost white, with the throat protected by long black
hair.

Whilst speaking of the Beisa Antelope, Mr. Blanford remarks that “the
appearance of a herd of Oryx is very imposing. They are some of the
most elegant and symmetrical of animals, the motions being those of
a Wild Horse rather than of an Antelope. Their favourite pace appears
to be either a steady quick walk or a trot; they rarely break into a
gallop unless greatly alarmed. When frightened they dash off, sometimes
snorting and putting their heads down, as if charging, raising their
long tails, and looking very formidable. They are wary animals, though
far less so than some other Antelopes. It is said that they frequently
attack when wounded, and their long, straight horns are most deadly
weapons.”

Of the Gemsbok, Captain Harris tells us that it “is about the size of
an Ass, and nearly of the same ground colour, with a black list stripe
down the back and on each flank, white legs variegated with black
bands, and a white face, marked with the figure of a black nose-band
and head-stall, imparting altogether to the animal the appearance of
being clad in half-mourning. Its copious black tail literally sweeps
the ground; a mane reversed, and a tuft of flowing black hair on the
breast, with a pair of straight, slender horns (common to both sexes)
three feet in length, and ringed at the base, completing the portrait.”
The resemblance between the Gemsbok, when seen from the side view, and
the Unicorn of heraldry, is sufficiently striking to make it more than
probable that the conception of the latter originated in the former.

The author just quoted says of the Blaubok, or Roan Antelope, by which
name it is also known, that it “is an inhabitant of the elevated
downs and ridges about the source of the river Limpopo [four degrees
to the west of Delagoa Bay, and a little north of it], and being
utterly destitute of speed, may be ridden to a standstill without
difficulty.... It is heavily built, and has an upright mane, long
asinine ears, and robust scimitar-shaped horns.”

CHAPTER III.

ARTIODACTYLA: RUMINANTIA--BOVIDÆ (_Concluded_).--OXEN, PRONGHORN
ANTELOPE, MUSK [DEER], AND GIRAFFE.

THE NYL-GHAU--Description--Habits--THE MUSK OX--Difficulties in
associating it--Distribution--Habits--THE OX--Chillingham Wild
Cattle--Their Habits--Domestic Cattle--The Collings, Booth,
and Bates Strains--American Breeding--Shorthorns, and other
Breeds--Hungarian Oxen--Zebu--Gour--Gayal--Curious mode of
Capturing Gayals--Banting--THE BISONS--Description--European Bison,
or Aurochs--Almost extinct--Cæsar’s Description of it--American
Bison--Distribution--Mythical Notions regarding it--Their
Ferocity and Stupidity--“Buffalo” Flesh--THE YAK--Habits--THE
BUFFALOES--Varieties--Description--Fight between two Bulls--THE
ANOA--THE PRONGHORN ANTELOPE--Peculiarity as to its Horns and
Skull--Professor Baird’s and Mr. Bartlett’s Independent Discovery
of the Annual Shedding of the Horns--Habits--Peculiarity about its
Feet--Colour--Difficulties as to its Position--THE MUSK [DEER]--Its
Perfume--Where is it to be placed?--Description--Habits--Hunters for
the Perfume--Their Sufferings--THE GIRAFFE--Peculiarities--Skull
processes--Its Neck--Habitat--Running power--Habits--Hunting.

THE NYL-GHAU, OR BLUE OX.[21]

This is the largest of the Antelopine animals found in India, the adult
male standing over four feet in height at the shoulders, which are at
a considerably higher level than the haunches. The female is about
one-third smaller than her consort, and without horns, which in the
male are but short, rarely exceeding nine inches in length, and rising
perpendicularly from the head. Each horn is black, smooth, angular, and
turned slightly forward, ending in a sharp point.

The body colour of the male is a slate blue, darker about the head
and under parts of the body, whilst the legs are black; the female
is tawny-red; the aged bull is nearly black. A short mane runs along
the neck and over the highest part of the shoulder, in which latter
situation it is of greater length. There is a considerable tuft of
dark hair hanging from the middle of the front of the neck, over six
inches in length, which is situated just below a conspicuous white,
anchor-shaped throat-patch, the shank of which runs up between the two
halves of the lower jaw almost to the lip. On each cheek also there is
a circular white spot below and behind the eye. A transverse white
line above and below each fetlock stands out conspicuously also. The
inner sides of the thighs are white, this colour extending for some
distance upwards and inwards. There is a white patch also in front
of each pastern joint. The tail is lengthy, and tufted at the end.
The ears are nearly of the same length as the horns. The limbs are
elegantly shaped, though rather heavy, and their proportions show a
tendency towards those of the Giraffe, which animal it also resembles
in the employment of its tongue for seizing food, and not its lips.

The Nyl-Ghau is found only in continental India, where it abounds in
parts, not being a favourite with sportsmen, because its small horns
are so insignificant a trophy, but more so with the larger members of
the Cat tribe--the Tiger and the Leopard--as well as the wild Dog, with
whom it is a frequent meal. Its temper is uncertain, which fact, when
taken in connection with its powerful build, makes it a dangerous pet.
It lives well in confinement. When attacking, it drops on its knees,
and thus advances until it feels itself within a sufficient distance
of its foe to make a sudden leap upon it, which it can do with great
velocity and force. The leather manufactured from its skin is valuable,
but its flesh is never eaten by the Hindoos, on account of their belief
that it belongs to the Ox tribe, which it is not lawful to slay. With
a good Horse in open country, the Blue bull may be hunted successfully
with spears. It is very tenacious of life. The first specimens
introduced into England were brought from Bombay by Lord Clive in 1767.

[Illustration: NYL-GHAU.]

THE MUSK OX[22]

is an animal whose exact affinities it is not easy to determine. By
some naturalists it has been thought to be intermediate between the
Sheep and the Ox, whence its scientific generic name, _Ovibos_. It
is found only in Arctic America north of latitude 60°, and exhales a
strong musky odour at certain seasons of the year, an approach to which
is recognisable in several of the Bovidæ. It is a heavy-built, but not
large creature, with short legs, and a very lengthy brown hairy coat,
which almost reaches to the ground. Its horns are very similar in form
to those of the Cape Buffalo, and in the bulls they meet in the middle
line of the forehead. The tail is very short, being entirely hidden
by the fur of the haunches. The nose is not naked, as in the Oxen,
but is almost entirely covered with hair, as in the Elk and Reindeer,
both Arctic ruminants also. The spread of their feet is considerable,
and they can cover the ground at no little speed. Captain Franklin
describes their habits as follows:--“The Musk Oxen, like the Buffalo,
herd together in bands, and generally frequent barren grounds during
the summer months, keeping near the rivers, but retire to the woods in
winter. They seem to be less watchful than most other wild animals, and
when grazing are not difficult to approach, provided the hunters go
against the wind. When two or three men get so near a herd as to fire
at them from different points, these animals, instead of separating or
running away, huddle closer together, and several are generally killed;
but if the wound is not mortal they become enraged, and dart in the
most furious manner at the hunters, who must be very dexterous to evade
them. They can defend themselves with their powerful horns against
Wolves and Bears, which, as the Indians say, they not infrequently
kill. The Musk Oxen feed on the same substances as the Reindeer; and
the prints of the feet of these two animals are so much alike, that
it requires the eye of an experienced hunter to distinguish them. The
largest killed by us did not exceed in weight three hundred pounds.”

[Illustration: MUSK OXEN.]

THE OX.[23]

It being quite unnecessary to describe the general form and proportions
of this animal, as seen among us in a domesticated state--Shorthorns,
Alderney, Highland, &c.--we will at once proceed to notice the famous
cattle of Chillingham Park, in Northumberland, which are known to have
been in existence in the thirteenth century. The wild cattle there are
all cream white, with a brown muzzle, with the insides and tips of the
ears reddish-brown, at the same time that the horns are white tipped
with black, of which latter colour are the hoofs. Calves more or less
coloured are occasionally born, but these are promptly destroyed by
the keepers. Some of the bulls have a thin, short mane. Their habit,
on strangers approaching them, is to “set off in a full gallop, and
at a distance of about two hundred yards make a wheel round and come
boldly up again, tossing their heads in a menacing manner. On a sudden
they make a full stop at the distance of forty or fifty yards, looking
wildly at the object of their surprise; but upon the least motion being
made, they all again turn round and fly off with equal speed, but not
to the same distance, forming a shorter circle; and again returning
with a bolder and more threatening aspect than before, they approach
much nearer, probably within thirty yards, when they again make another
stand, and then fly off. This they do several times, shortening their
distance, and advancing nearer and nearer, till they come within such
a short distance that most people think it proper to leave them, not
choosing to provoke them further.” They differ from domestic cattle in
that they feed at night, and generally sleep during the day. They also
hide their calves.

[Illustration: CHILLINGHAM CATTLE.]

In all the so-called wild cattle of Great Britain the forehead is flat
or slightly concave, the head is small, the back is straight, and the
legs are short.

It is now almost universally agreed that domestic cattle are descended
from two or three species of the genus Bos, which existed in late
geologic or prehistoric times, the remains being found in Switzerland,
Ireland, and other parts of Europe. The Zebu, Yak, Gayal, and Arni, to
be referred to immediately, have also been domesticated.

Cattle have been so distributed and mixed in breeding that any precise
arrangement of the breeds according to their ancestral affinities
can scarcely be tabulated. Most important of the heavy breeds are
the well-known Shorthorns of the north of England, so carefully and
successfully developed by Charles and Robert Colling between 1780
and 1818, at Ketton and Barmpton, close to Darlington, in Durham, by
a process of in-and-in breeding--“Hubback,” _the_ “Duchess,” “Lady
Maynard,” “Young Strawberry,” “Foljambe,” and “Comet,” the last bull of
which, at Charles Colling’s sale in 1810, fetched a thousand guineas.

[Illustration: HUNGARIAN BULL.]

Following close upon the Collings came the Booths--Richard, Thomas, and
J. Booth--between 1814 and 1864, at Studley, Killerby, and Warlaby,
where “Isabella,” the twin sisters “Necklace” and “Bracelet,” were
parents of goodly herds, “Commander-in-Chief” being one of the latest
gems. On one occasion, it is stated, Mr. Richard Booth, of Warlaby,
refused the unique offer of fifteen hundred guineas for a cow named
“Queen of the May.”

In 1810 Thomas Bates, of Ridley Hall, and afterwards of Kirkleavington,
then a well-known breeder of cattle, purchased at Charles Colling’s
sale “Young Duchess,” daughter of “Comet,” a granddaughter of
“Duchess” by “Daisy” bull, and she became the founder of the famous
“Duchess” tribe. In 1831, with the accession of the bull “Belvidere,”
a descendant of Robert Colling’s “Princess” tribe, the “Duchess” breed
produced “Short Tail” and the renowned “Duke of Northumberland.” The
“Matchem” cow, purchased at the same date, did much to improve the
stock. Mr. Bates died in 1849.

Several enterprising American breeders have, since 1817, introduced
Shorthorns into the United States and Canada, Colonel Lewis Sanders,
of Kentucky, being the first who did so on anything like thorough
principles. Others followed his example with success, especially about
the year 1852, when a fresh impulse was given to their production
because of the rise of price in meat, as well as the foreign demand for
it. The Booth and Bates bloods predominate in these animals, and form
the basis of much of the beef now re-shipped to England.

The great advantage of the Shorthorn breed is that they, together
with a good temper, combine the advantages of great size and aptitude
to fatten, rapidly reaching maturity. For dairy purposes they are
excelled by the Suffolk Duns and Ayrshire cattle, the latter, with
their enormous udders, broad hips, and deep flanks, being the best
as milkers. Hereford, North Devon, and Scottish black Shorthorns
are inferior to those of the northern counties in their slowness of
growth and power of filling out. Those of North Devon are particularly
symmetrical in form. The mountain cattle of the western Highlands,
otherwise known as the Kyloe breed, are best known from the hardiness
of their constitutions, protected as they are by their thick hides
and shaggy coats. The Welsh and Shetland cattle resemble them in many
respects.

In Hungary, Turkey, and Western Asia there is a breed of large cattle
with peculiarly long and slender outward-spreading horns, black-tipped,
and greyish throughout the rest of their length.

In India, the Sacred Cattle, or ZEBUS, with convex forehead, short
horns, large drooping ears, and a short head, possess a high hump upon
the withers, as well as an ample dewlap falling in undulating folds
along the whole length of the neck. Their disposition is mild, as is
indicated by their expression, and the liberty they are allowed in
India is wonderful. They vary greatly in size, some being not bigger
than an average month-old calf. The breed has extended in times gone by
through Persia into Eastern Africa, where it is found with a narrower
and flatter face, at the same time that the hump is smaller.

The introduction of steam, as well as the extension in the employment
of the Horse, has almost entirely superseded the use of cattle as
beasts of burden or draught in highly civilised nations.

The GOUR, the GAYAL, and the BANTING are three species of wild cattle
found in the Oriental world from India to Java, peculiar in possessing
a ridge running along the middle of the back, and horns which, after
running outwards from the head, are directed upwards and not backwards.
Of these the Gour of Central India is the largest, measuring six feet
at the withers, having also a convex profile, very high withers, and
an arched back, which makes the line from the nose to the root of the
tail, along the spine, a fairly continuous curve. Its colour is a deep
brown glossy black, excepting a ring of white encircling the base of
each hoof, and a white tuft on the forehead. There is not any trace of
a dewlap in either sex. The horns are not more than two feet in length,
strong, and curved boldly upwards at their tips. The Gour is found
abundantly in herds of twenty or so around the tablelands, especially
of South Bahar, feeding on the young leaves of the trees and shrubs. It
appears to have resisted all attempts at domestication. The Gayal is
found in the hill-region east of the Brahmaputra. It is much the size
of English cattle. The bull is bold, and the cow easily domesticated.
Its home is the deep jungle, where it can obtain the young leaves and
shoots of the brushwood. According to Mr. Macrae the following is the
method employed by the Kookies of the Chittagong hill-region to catch
the animal:--“On discovering a herd of wild Gayals in the jungle, they
prepare a number of balls, of the size of a man’s head, composed of
a particular kind of earth, salt, and cotton. They then drive their
tame Gayals towards the wild ones, when the two herds soon meet and
assimilate into one; the males of the one attaching themselves to the
females of the other, and _vice versâ_. The Kookies now scatter their
balls over such parts of the jungle as they think the herd most likely
to pass, and watch its motions. The Gayals, on meeting these balls
as they pass along, are attracted by their appearance and smell, and
begin to lick them with their tongues; and relishing the taste of the
salt, and the particular earth composing them, they never quit the
place until all the balls are consumed. The Kookies, having observed
the Gayals to have once tasted their balls, prepare a sufficient supply
of them to answer the intended purpose, and as the Gayals lick them
up they throw down more; and it is to prevent their being so readily
destroyed that the cotton is mixed with the earth and the salt. This
process generally goes on for three changes of the moon, or for a month
and a half, during which time the tame and the wild Gayals are always
together, licking the decoy balls, and the Kookie, after the first
day or two of their being so, makes his appearance at such a distance
as not to alarm the wild ones. By degrees he approaches nearer and
nearer, until at length the sight of him has become so familiar that
he can advance to stroke his tame Gayals on the back and neck without
frightening the wild ones. He next extends his hand to them, and
caresses them also, at the same time giving them plenty of his decoy
balls to lick. Thus, in the short space of time mentioned, he is able
to drive them, along with the tame ones, to his parrah, or village,
without the least exertion of force; and so attached do the Gayals
become to the parrah, that when the Kookies migrate from one place to
another, they always find it necessary to set fire to the huts they are
about to abandon, lest the Gayals should return to them from the new
grounds.”

The Gayal carries its nose forwards, as a rule, like a Buffalo. Its
ears are longer than those of the Ox. It possesses a dewlap smaller
than in the Zebu. The tail is short, not descending below the hock.
Its general colour is a varying and generally dark brown, the abdomen
and the legs being white in parts. Its cry is a shrill, insignificant
lowing. Its horns are conical, turned directly outwards, and a little
upwards at their tips, not exceeding one foot and a half in length.

The Banting extends from Cochin China, through the Indo-Malay
archipelago, to the islands of Bali and Lombok. Its colour and
proportions are almost exactly those of the Gour.

THE BISONS.[24]

Closely related to the Oxen are the Bisons of Europe and of North
America, together with the Tibetan Yak. The two species of Bison agree
closely with one another in general appearance, the American form
being shorter and weaker in the hind-quarters, and a little smaller
altogether.

The hair of the head and neck is very abundant and long, forming a
mane of very dark colour, at the same time that it nearly conceals the
eyes and ears as well as the base of the short conical horns, which
are directed outwards and upwards. Under the chin there is a lengthy
beard. A line of lengthy hair also extends along the back nearly to the
tail, which is itself only covered with short soft hair, except at the
end where there is a lengthy tuft. There is a hump developed on the
shoulders, at which spot the adult male is nearly six feet in height,
the female being smaller.

The European Bison, or Aurochs, is on the verge of extinction,
surviving only in the forests of Lithuania, Moldavia, Wallachia, and
the Caucasus, on account of the severe laws against its destruction.
The horns are longer and more curved than in the American species. The
females are less hairy and smaller than their mates. Its strength is
very great, and an old bull is said to be a match for at least four
Wolves. Its speed is considerable, and it raises its hoofs above the
level of its lowered head whilst galloping.

In his description of the Black Forest (_Sylva Hercynia_) Cæsar
describes the species (the Urus) thus:--“They are but little less than
Elephants in size, and are of the appearance, colour, and form of a
Bull. Their strength as well as their speed is very great. They spare
neither man nor beast that they see. They cannot be brought to endure
the sight of men, nor can they be tamed, even when taken young. The
people, who take them in pitfalls, assiduously destroy them; and young
men harden themselves in this labour, and exercise themselves in this
kind of chase; and those who have killed a great number, the horns
being publicly exhibited in evidence of the fact, obtain great honour.
The horns, in magnitude, shape, and quality, differ much from the horns
of our Oxen. They are much sought for, and after having been edged
with silver at their open ends, are used for drinking vessels at great
feasts.”

According to some authorities, however, it is a mistake to identify the
European Bison with the Aurochs.

To all intents and purposes the American Bison is an extinct animal,
killed off by the rifle and the rail and the encroachment of man upon
its haunts. A few specimens are preserved with what may be described as
laudably jealous care in the Yellowstone Park, and small herds may be
found in Montana, Texas, and Canada.

[Illustration: EUROPEAN BISON.]

Huge herds, numbering millions of individuals, “so numerous as to
blacken the plains as far as they can reach,” were once a common sight
on the prairies, and repeatedly stopped the Kansas Pacific Railway
when first formed. Hunters spread false notions as to the organisation
of these herds, which was of a most simple character, excellently
explained by Mr. Allen, who says that the timidity and watchfulness of
the cows, accustomed as they were to the care of their offspring, led
them to take the initiative in the movements of the herd, and this kept
them near the front, especially when the herd was moving. The popular
belief that the bulls kept the cows and the young in the middle of the
herd, and formed themselves, as it were, into a protecting phalanx,
had some apparent basis; but the theory that the old bulls, the least
watchful of all the members of the herd, were sentinels posted on the
outskirts to give notice of an approaching enemy, was wholly a myth, as
was also the supposition that the herd consisted of small harems.

[Illustration: AMERICAN BISON.]

These “Buffaloes,” as they were generally called, were much like
domestic cattle in their habits. They were, however, fond of wallowing
in the mud, and so coating themselves with a protection from their
insect pests. Their ferocity of appearance was not evident in their
true natures, for their disposition was sluggish and fearful. Colonel
Dodge remarked of them that, “endowed with the smallest possible
amount of instinct, the little he has seems adapted rather for getting
him into difficulties than out of them. If not alarmed at sight or
smell of a foe, he will stand stupidly gazing at his companions
in their death-throes, until the whole herd is shot down. He will
walk unconsciously into a quicksand or quagmire already choked with
struggling dying victims. Having made up his mind to go a certain way
it is almost impossible to swerve him from his purpose.”

The flesh of the “Buffalo” was thought equal to the best beef if from
the young animal, but dry and insipid when from the adult. The tongue
and hump were esteemed great delicacies. Pemmican was made mostly from
the dried flesh, pounded fine and mixed with an equal weight of tallow.

The YAK differs from the Bisons mostly in the distribution of
its long hair, which, instead of being situated on its hump and neck,
forms a lengthy fringe along the shoulders, flanks, and thighs, and
completely invests the tail, which latter is much prized in India,
where it is known as “Chowry,” and is employed as a fly-switch in great
ceremonials.

The Yak is a native of the high ground of Tibet, where it is rigorously
protected by the native government against the foreign sportsman. Its
colour is black, except some spots upon the face, which are white or
grey. Its tail is often white, as is frequently the long hair tuft on
the top of the withers. Its horns reach nearly a yard in length, and
are directed outwards, forwards, and then upwards. Its voice is much
like that of a Pig, whence the name Grunting Ox, by which it sometimes
goes.

As to the habits of the creature, Captain Kinloch tells us that “the
Yak inhabits the wildest and most desolate mountains; it delights in
extreme cold; and is found, as a rule, at a greater elevation than any
other animal. Although so large a beast, it thrives upon the coarsest
pasturage, and its usual food consists of a rough, wiry grass, which
grows in all the higher valleys of Tibet, up to an elevation of nearly
20,000 feet.... Yak seem to wander about a good deal. In summer, the
cows are generally to be found in herds varying in number from ten
to one hundred, while the old bulls are for the most part solitary
or in small parties of three or four. They feed at night or early in
the morning, and usually betake themselves to some steep and barren
hillside during the day, lying sometimes for hours in the same spot.”

[Illustration: YAK.]

THE BUFFALOES.[25]

The BUFFALOES have the horns flattened and triangular in section,
inclined outwards and backwards, turning up at the tips. The Common
Buffalo is found in Southern Europe, North Africa, and the Indian
region. The huge Indian variety, with most lengthy horns, is also known
as the Arni. Its horns are elongated and narrow, sometimes reaching
six feet and a half in length. It stands nearly or quite six feet
at the shoulder, its proportions are bulky, and its general colour
dusky-black. It lives in small herds numbering not more than twenty,
and solitary bulls are often met with which attack sportsmen in a
most vicious manner without provocation. The Cape Buffalo has shorter
horns, expanded at their bases, so that they almost meet in the middle
line of the forehead. It is found all over Central and South Africa,
and is a formidable animal when wounded, as, quite regardless of the
cloud of smoke which follows the shot aimed at it, it charges right
through it, and so does frequent injury to the experienced hunter.
Its general colour is blue-black, but in some cases it has a reddish
tinge. The Hon. W. H. Drummond gives the following account of a fight
between two bulls of which he was an eye-witness. After having had
his attention attracted by a loud clattering noise, he remarks that,
“on looking through the edge of the last thicket which had concealed
them, I saw two Buffalo bulls standing facing each other with lowered
heads, and, as I sat down to watch, they rushed together with all their
force, producing the loud crash I had before heard. Once the horns were
interlocked they kept them so, their straining quarters telling that
each was doing his best to force the other backwards. Several long
white marks on their necks showed where they had received scratches,
and blood dripping over the withers of the one next me proved that he
had received a more severe wound. It was a magnificent sight to see
the enormous animals, every muscle at its fullest tension, striving
for the mastery. Soon one, a very large and old bull, began to yield
a little, going backwards step by step; but at last, as if determined
to conquer or die, it dropped on to its knees. The other, disengaging
its horns for a second, so as to give an impetus, again rushed at him,
but, whether purposely or not I could not tell, it did not strike him
on the forehead, but on the neck, under the hump, and I could see that
with a twist of his horns he inflicted a severe wound. However, instead
of following up his seeming advantage, he at once recoiled, and stood
half facing his antagonist, who, getting on his legs again, remained
in the same position for several minutes, and then with a low grunt of
rage, rushed at him. This time he was not met, and his broad forehead
struck full on his rival’s shoulder, almost knocking it over. The
old bull then went a few yards off and stood watching the other for
fully a quarter of an hour, when he walked slowly away in the opposite
direction.”

The Cape Buffalo, which is found all over Africa south of the equator,
is replaced in the north-eastern portion of the continent by a smaller
variety, of a browner colour, and with much shorter horns, which
are not closely approximated at their bases, at the same time that
they spread out almost horizontally instead of curving downwards and
backwards.

[Illustration: ANOA.]

In western and the western-equatorial parts of Africa there is again
another still smaller variety in which the hair is yellowish-red
instead of nearly black or brown, the short horns being, as well,
directed considerably upwards instead of directly outwards.

In the Island of Celebes the smallest species of Buffalo is found,
which differs but little in appearance from the young of the Cape
species. It is known as the ANOA; is black, with short, wavy
hair, and has short, parallel prismatic horns directed upwards from the
forehead.

THE PRONGHORN ANTELOPE.[26]

This Antelope of North America, one of the few forms of the
Hollow-horned Ruminants which inhabit the New World, is different from
all the other members of the group in two respects at least, namely,
that its horns are branched, as implied in the name, and that they are
annually shed.

The accompanying figure is a side view of the skull of the animal,
whose size is nearly that of a Fallow Deer, although its build is not
so heavy. It is there seen that each horn-core forms a blade-shaped
projection six inches long, with the pointed end behind, situated above
the eyes perpendicular to the line of the face, rounded posteriorly and
sharpened in front. Each horn itself is a foot or so in its greatest
length, is pointed and gently curved backwards, at the same time that
from the front of it, very slightly above the middle of its height,
a short branch arises which is directed forwards, the whole there
dividing into two. Each horn is flattened from side to side, is not
annulated, and in its structure scarcely differs from that of a Sheep
or Goat.

For some years before it was certainly known to be the case, it had
been rumoured by the hunters of Fort Union that the Pronghorn Antelope
shed its horns each year; and in the year 1858 Dr. C. A. Canfield,
of Monterey, California, in writing to Professor Baird, of the
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, informed him that in specimens in
his possession “their horns drop off annually.” This letter remained
unprinted until in England Mr. A. D. Bartlett, Superintendent of the
Zoological Gardens in Regent’s Park, London, in 1865 drew attention to
the same fact, which was observed by him in a male animal living in the
Gardens at the time.

[Illustration: SKULL OF THE PRONGHORN ANTELOPE.]

The horns--not antlers, be it noticed--are, it is now certain, detached
each year from their supporting cores, and subsequently dropped, to be
replaced by others which at the time of shedding have already advanced
some way in growth, although at first they are very pale and soft. In
this respect the Pronghorn is not resembled by any other Antelope, and
differs entirely from the Deer.

Of the species Dr. Canfield, in the letter above referred to, gives
several interesting details as to its habits, from which we may infer
that they are not so cunning or so fleet as their allies in Africa and
India:--“From the 1st of September to the 1st of March they run in
bands, the bucks, does, and kids all together,” shortly after which
time the young are born, upon which the bucks separate and wander about
alone until the following season. “A band of Pronghorn Antelopes, when
frightened, never run directly away from you, but cross over in front
of you, running across your path from one side to the other repeatedly,
and keeping about a hundred yards ahead. On this account it is
sometimes easy, on a smart Horse, to run into a drove of them and catch
one of them with a noose. When one is alone, and is watched by a person
or animal and becomes frightened, it makes a sort of shrill blowing
noise like a whistle, and then commences bounding off. On the neck it
has a heavy, thick, chestnut-coloured mane, five or six inches long,
and on the rump a white patch of coarse hair; and when the animal is
frightened it always erects the mane and the hair and this white spot,
thus giving it a very singular and characteristic appearance as it runs
bounding away from you. The Antelope has a very peculiar odour, strong
and, to some people, offensive.... On the whole, I consider the meat of
the Pronghorn to be very excellent.”

[Illustration: PRONGHORN ANTELOPE.]

There is a peculiarity in the feet of the Pronghorn in which it
resembles the Giraffe, a few Antelopes, and the different members
of the Camel tribe, namely, that the false hoofs, as well as their
supporting bones, are entirely absent, from which it may be inferred,
as is the case, that the number of digits in each foot is only two.

In the females of the species the horns are present, but they are much
reduced in size, and almost hidden in the hairy covering of the head.
The end of the nose--in other words, the muffle--is hairy, and not,
therefore, damp at all times in any part, as is that of the Ox and most
ruminants. The tail is very short; the fur is very short and close set,
being stiff and wavy. Its colour is a pale fawn above and on the limbs,
whilst the breast as well as the abdomen are a yellowish-white, at the
same time that the tail and round about it are pure white, as is the
inside of the ear.

Although the Pronghorn is here described after all the more ordinary
hollow-horned Ruminantia, it is far from impossible that it is much
more intimately related to some one of the above-mentioned families
than to the others. It must either have originated direct from the
earliest type of Bovine Ruminant, and from that time continued
isolated until the present day, or it may have been a straggler from
some already differentiated group, like the Gazelles, for instance,
that, arriving in a land so unlike the haunts of its progenitors,
took on itself from altered circumstances peculiar modifications in
its horn-growth and foot-form which have resulted in its present
characteristics.

THE MUSK [DEER].[27]

This interesting animal, from the male of which is obtained a powder
contained in a pouch about the size of an orange, on the surface of
the abdomen, and which is one of the most fragrant of perfumes, is
generally included among the Cervidæ. Nevertheless, there are many
reasons in favour of its being considered an Antelopine animal. Apart
from the fact that it has a gall-bladder, which is not found in any
Deer, but in almost all Antelopes, its pale grey hair is peculiarly
coarse and Goat-like, and the absence of antlers or horns in both sexes
tells in neither direction, for, as in the Brockets of South America
and the Chinese Muntjac, the antlers are rudimentary, so are the horns
in the Bush-bucks of Africa, and in some domestic Sheep as well as Oxen.

The presence of enormous canine tusks, three inches long, would at
first sight seem to be in favour of its relations with the Deer,
because in the Muntjacs they are also found. Nevertheless there is no
_à priori_ reason why these formidable weapons should not be developed
in a hollow-horned ruminant; for, cropping up independently in genera
so distant as the Deerlets, the Muntjacs, and the Water Deer, why
should they not do so in the Antelopes as well?

[Illustration: SKULL OF THE MUSK [DEER].]

The Musk is twenty inches in height, its ears large, and its tail
rudimentary. Its hoofs are small, but their spread is large, because
of the yielding attachment of the false hoofs, as in the Reindeer. The
coarse and brittle hair is grey and slightly brindled. Its habitat is
Central Asia, from the Himalaya Mountains to Pekin, at elevations above
8,000 feet.

“The Musk Deer,” according to Captain Kinloch, “is a solitary and
retiring animal; it is nearly nocturnal in its habits, remaining
concealed in some thick bush during the daytime, and only coming out
to feed in the mornings and evenings. It frequents the highest parts
of the forest, preferring the birch, rhododendron, and juniper, and is
almost always found alone, rarely in pairs, and never in flocks. No
animal seems more indifferent to cold, from which it is well protected
by its thick coat of hollow hair, which forms as it were a sort of
cushion, which acts as an insulator, and enables the Deer to lie even
on snow without much loss of animal heat. It is amazingly active and
sure-footed, bounding along without hesitation over the steepest and
most dangerous ground. Its usual food seems to be leaves and flowers,
but the natives say that it will kill and eat Snakes.”

The value of the Musk perfume causes the animal to be persecuted beyond
measure. From Chardin we learn that the hunters are obliged to cover
the nose and mouth with linen when removing the scent-sac, to prevent
pulmonary hæmorrhage. “I have,” says he, “gained accurate information
respecting this circumstance, and as I have heard the same thing talked
of by some Armenians who had been to Boutan, I think that it is true.
The odour is so powerful in the East Indies that I could never support
it, and when I trafficked for musk I always kept in the open air, with
a handkerchief over my face, and at a distance from those who handled
the sacs; and hence I know by experience that this musk is very apt to
give headaches, and is altogether insupportable when quite recent. I
add that no drug is so easily adulterated, or more apt to be so.”

[Illustration: MUSK [DEER].]

THE GIRAFFE.[28]

Apart from its unique proportions and its size, the Giraffe presents
peculiarities in its organisation which compel us to separate it from
the Deer on the one hand, and the hollow-horned ruminants on the other.
In both these groups the appendages on the head, whether developed
as antlers or as horns, are distinct prolongations from the forehead
bones themselves. In the Giraffe, however, the three bony appendages,
one median and two lateral, all covered with skin, instead of being
produced as outgrowths from any portion of the skull, are separate
and independent conical bony “processes” which stand upon the skull,
capping roughened conical prominences destined to support them. Neither
are horns, like those of Sheep or Oxen, nor antlers like those of the
Deer, ever found upon these processes, a tuft of hair alone surmounting
the lateral pair.

The neck of the Giraffe is longer than that of any other living animal,
notwithstanding which it conforms to what, on account of its almost
constant applicability, may be termed a law, namely, that there are but
seven vertebræ which go to form the neck of a mammalian animal. In this
animal, such being the case, each vertebra is very long, which makes
the neck correspondingly awkward and inflexible; so that when the head
is much carried to the side, the conformation and enumeration of the
bones in the cervical region is not a matter of any difficulty.

The Giraffe is a native of Africa south of the Sahara. Most of the
specimens which reach Europe in a living state are brought from Nubia
and the north-east of the continent generally. The adult male attains
a height of sixteen feet, the female rarely exceeding fourteen feet.
They live and have bred well in captivity, although, as may be readily
imagined, they are most delicate, and require much special care,
particularly to prevent the joints of their lengthy limbs from being
injured.

M. Thibaut, who, in 1836, obtained the first specimen of the Giraffe
alive for the Zoological Gardens in Regent’s Park, tells us that “the
first run of the Giraffe is exceedingly rapid. The swiftest Horse,
if unaccustomed to the desert, could not come up with it unless with
extreme difficulty. The Arabs accustom their coursers to hunger and to
fatigue; milk generally serves them for food, and gives them power to
continue their exertions during a very long run. If a Giraffe reaches
a mountain, it passes the height with rapidity; its feet, which are
like [not exactly in structure] those of the Goat, endow it with the
dexterity of that animal; it bounds over ravines with incredible power;
Horses cannot, in such situations, compete with it.”

“The Giraffe eats with great delicacy, and takes its food leaf by
leaf, collecting them from the trees by means of its long tongue. It
rejects the thorns, and in this respect differs from the Camel.... It
is extremely fond of society, and is very sensible. I have observed one
of them shed tears when it no longer saw its companions or the persons
who were in the habit of attending it.”

By Le Valliant and other sportsmen most graphic accounts have been
given of the hunting of the Giraffe. Quoting from Captain Harris, we
learn that “the rapidity with which the awkwardly-formed animals can
move is beyond all things surprising, our best Horses being unable
to close with them under two miles. Their gallop is a succession of
jumping strides, the fore and hind leg on the same side moving together
instead of diagonally, as in most other quadrupeds; the former being
kept close together, and the latter so wide apart, that in riding by
the animal’s side the hoof may be seen striking on the outside of
the Horse, threatening momentarily to overthrow him. Their motion,
altogether, reminded me rather of the pitching of a ship or rolling
of a rocking-horse, than of anything living; and the remarkable gait
is rendered still more automaton-like by the switching, at regular
intervals, of the long black tail, which is invariably curled above the
back, and by the corresponding action of the neck, swinging as it does
like a pendulum, and literally imparting to the animal the appearance
of a piece of machinery in motion. Naturally gentle, timid, and
peaceable, the unfortunate Giraffe has no means of protecting itself
but with its heels; but even when hemmed into a corner, it seldom
resorts to this mode of defence.”

[Illustration: SKELETON OF THE GIRAFFE.]

[Illustration: GIRAFFES.]

CHAPTER IV.

THE CERVIDÆ, OR ANTLERED RUMINANTS: THE ELK, ELAPHINE,
SUB-ELAPHINE, AND RUSINE DEER.

The Deer Tribe--Distinguishing Characters--Exceptions to
the rule--The Musk (Deer) and Chinese Water Deer--Other
Characters of the Cervidæ--Antlers, their Nature,
Growth, and Shedding--The Knob--“Velvet”--Getting rid
of the “Velvet”--Full equipment--Contests--Interlocking
Antlers--Distribution--Classification--Development of Antlers in
the Common RED DEER--Explanation of the various stages--Splendid
“Heads”--Simple and Complex Antlers--Types of Antlers--THE ELK,
OR MOOSE DEER--Appearance--Antlers--Habits--Hunting--THE ELAPHINE
DEER--THE RED DEER--Distribution--Appearance--Hunting--THE
WAPITI--Acting of the Fawns--THE PERSIAN DEER, OR MARAL--THE
CASHMERIAN DEER, OR BARASINGHA--Habits and General
Appearance--BARBARY DEER--SUB-ELAPHINE DEER--THE JAPANESE,
FORMOSAN, AND MANTCHURIAN DEER--THE FALLOW DEER--Peculiarity of its
Antlers--THE PERSIAN FALLOW DEER--THE RUSINE DEER--THE SAMBUR, OR
GEROW--Habits--Species of Java, Formosa, Sumatra, Borneo, Timor,
Ternate, and the Philippines--THE HOG DEER--THE AXIS DEER--PRINCE
ALFRED’S DEER--THE SWAMP DEER--SCHOMBURGK’S DEER--ELD’S DEER, OR THE
THAMYN--Description--Habits--Hunting--Shameful havoc.

The Deer tribe, known scientifically as that of the CERVIDÆ, is more
circumscribed, and therefore better defined, than are the BOVIDÆ, or
hollow-horned ruminants. Their best distinguishing character is that
in the males there is each year developed a pair of antlers which is
shed at the end of the season to be reproduced in the following spring.
The females do not carry antlers, except in the case of the Reindeer,
in which, although these elegant appendages are of the same form as in
their mates, they are constructed upon a much smaller scale. There are,
however, one or two Deer in which not even the males carry antlers, and
these are the only members of the family with reference to which there
is any serious doubt on the subject of affinity. The Musk (_Moschus
moschiferus_) may be taken as an example. In this pretty creature,
which is more fully described on pages 42-3, there are no antlers and
no horns. Nevertheless, other peculiarities in its organisation have
led most naturalists to include it among the Cervidæ, a position which
is, however, so doubtful that it is quite possible that it may be an
aberrant member of the bovine section, as we have for several reasons
thought best to consider it.

A more certain Deer without antlers is the Water Deer of China, the
flesh of which has formed an article of food among the natives of
Shanghai for years. This small Deer has lengthy tusks, as has the Musk
Deer, and nearly every member of the family in which the antlers are
diminutive. Its very existence was not known in Great Britain until the
year 1862, when Mr. Swinhoe, then our consul at Shanghai, described it,
which shows how ignorant we still may be of the creatures which inhabit
the mighty Celestial Empire.

In most other respects the Deer closely resemble the hollow-horned
ruminants. Their complicated stomach does not differ from that of the
Ox, and their other organs are constructed upon the same plan, except
the liver, which, like that of the Giraffe, lacks a gall-bladder,
this reservoir being present in nearly all the Bovidæ. Their general
proportions are also much the same. The Red Deer and the Fallow Deer
are those best known to most of us, as both are to be found living in
Great Britain, as is the Roebuck in the north of Scotland.

[Illustration: HEAD OF RED DEER, IN WHICH THE GROWING ANTLERS ARE SEEN
COVERED WITH “VELVET.”]

The nature, growth, and shedding of the antlers deserve special
consideration. In the commencement of the spring a pair of knobs is to
be seen upon the forehead of the adult male animal. This is covered
with a nearly smooth dark skin; and a scar can be detected in the
middle of each, which is that left by the antler of the year before,
where it fell off.

As the weather becomes more propitious these knobs commence to
grow, feel warm to the touch, and are evidently filled with
actively-circulating blood, supplied by special vessels which
are developed at the time. They do not increase regularly in all
directions, for if they did the antler would be a sphere, but they
sprout out, as it may be termed, around the above-mentioned scar; in
most cases there being one branch which takes a direction forward,
whilst a second larger one makes its way backward. These become, in
the fully-formed antler, the brow antler and the main beam; and it is
by other branches growing upon the beam, according to definite laws,
different in different species, that the elaborate complications of the
fully-developed structure are produced.

As long as the antler, which is composed of genuine bone of very dense
texture, is increasing in size, it will be found to be covered with
the same warm black skin as is the knob from which it sprang; and as
this skin is covered with short, fine, close-set hair, it has received
the name of the “velvet.” It is this “velvet” which secretes the bony
texture of the antler from its inner surface, just in the same way
that the outer covering (the periosteum) of any long bone of the body
is mainly concerned in the formation of the bone itself. As, also, in
the same way, if we seriously graze our shins, and scrape off this
covering, the bone exposed is very apt to die, so in the Deer any
mishap to the “velvet” injures the growth of the antler in the part
affected. The animals, therefore, during the time they are “in velvet”
are more than usually careful to protect their cranial appendages, and
are inoffensive even to strangers.

[Illustration: HEAD OF RED DEER, IN WHICH THE ANTLER IS FULLY DEVELOPED
AND THE “VELVET” HAS DISAPPEARED.]

When their antler-growth has ceased their natures change. The “velvet”
has performed its function and dries into a parchment-looking membrane,
to get rid of which the Deer adopt a very simple method. They rub their
antlers against any neighbouring trees, and force them into the soft
earth until there is none left, and the bare bone, with scarcely any
trace of hollow in the middle of it, is completely exposed. Now, in the
glory of their full equipment, they go in search of others of their
kind, having previously maintained a comparative solitude. They try
their strength by butting at imaginary enemies, and choose their wives,
unless prevented by others of their species mightier than themselves,
with whom, if fairly matched, they enter into the most formidable
contests, to win or to be driven from the herd with ignominy. During
these contests the sound of their battering antlers may be heard
for considerable distances, whilst now and then, by accident, they
interlock themselves inextricably, and perish both, as is attested by
skulls so found, and to be seen in more than one museum.

Looking upon the Deer generally, we find them inhabiting many parts of
the world--Europe, Asia, and America. In Africa none occur south of
the Sahara, they being there replaced by members of the Bovine section
of the order. None are found in Australia, and in America they are far
less common than in Great Britain. To understand the peculiar features
and the distribution of the various species, it is necessary to
classify them in groups of kindred genera, most falling into sections
which are distinguishable without difficulty.

In arranging the different members of the Deer-tribe for description,
there are peculiarities in their outward conformation which agree
with those internal differences upon which all correct notions of
relationship alone can be established. In classifying animals,
naturalists must always be guided by the totality of the structure of
each member of each group; but, as in describing them to those who
have not made the minute details of their organisation their special
study it is impossible to lay stress on all the various parts which
have to be included by the student in arriving at the desired result,
those outward features only can be mentioned which are found to tally
with their total structure, namely, their osteology, their visceral
anatomy, and their muscular arrangement. As an example of the relative
importance of different external structures, we may mention that the
late Dr. J. E. Gray, in his Catalogue of the Ruminant Mammalia in the
British Museum, gives the following arrangement of the genera, in which
the length of the tail suggests one distribution of them, whilst the
shape of the antlers is in favour of another, which is very different:--

1.--_Tail very short 2.--_Tail elongate, with
or clubbed._ longer hair at
the end._

Antlers { Mantchurian Deer.
Red Deer and its near allies. elaphine { Japanese Deer.
{ Fallow Deer.
Eld’s Deer. }
Barasingha Deer. } Antlers { Hog Deer.
Schomburgk’s Deer. } rusine { Spotted Axis.
Sambur and its near allies. }

Roebuck. } Antlers
Chinese Elaphure. } capreoline.

This table is useful as a means of comparing the tails of the different
genera; but other points of structure do not in the least support the
classification suggested by that appendage, as a result of which it has
to be ignored in the consideration of distant affinities, although,
where questions of specific proximity are concerned, it is found to be
of considerable value.

The antlers render much more trustworthy information in the
determination and expression of relationships; and their characterising
features can be most readily grasped by having an ideal type in the
mind wherewith to compare all aberrant and complicated specimens. This
ideal type may be derived in one or other of two ways. The first of
these is from the study of the antlers as they are each year developed
in any given kind of Deer, commencing with its earliest age. For
example, in the Common Red Deer: in the spring of the year following
its birth the antlers are nothing more than straight, conical, and
unbranched “beams,” the animal being then known as a “Brocket.” In
the following spring the antler has, besides the “beam,” a small
branch from its base, directed forwards, known as the “brow antler;”
it is then termed “Spayad.” In the third year an extra front branch
is formed, known as the “tres,” and the whole antler is larger. This
“tres” is sometimes seen in the smaller antler of the Spayad. In
the fourth year the brow-antler is doubled, to form the “brow” and
“bez-tyne,” at the same time that the top of the main beam divides
into the “sur-royals” of the “Staggard,” or four-year male. In the
fifth year the sur-royals become more numerous, the whole antler of the
“Stag” being heavier than previously, only to be exceeded in weight
by those of the fully adult “Great Hart,” with ten or more “points,”
each being larger and longer than the year before. In Great Britain
the conditions of life and the food are not of the quality which
develops first-rate antlers, at the same time that it is--in Scotland,
at least--the habit to shoot those with the finest heads, and so leave
the indifferent specimens to perpetuate their species. In some of the
ancient forests of Germany superb heads of the Red Deer are to be
obtained, whilst in several of the old castles of that country antler
trophies are preserved as memorials of sport in times gone by, with as
many as six-and-sixty points. Lord Powerscourt has in his possession a
pair with five-and-forty tynes.

The second way is from the study of the antlers of the species in
which they are simple, in comparison with those in which they are
particularly complex, both methods as they ought to do, leading to the
same result. There are Deer--as, for example, the American Brockets,
David’s Deer, and Reeves’ Muntjac--in which the antler is never more
than a simple dag, like that of the “Brocket” stage in the Red Deer.
There are others with never more than a single tyne besides the beam,
as instances of which may be mentioned the Indian Muntjac and the
Huamel. Others, again--and these form an important section of the
family--are triply branched, as in the Spayad, the beam bifurcating
some distance above the brow-antler. As instances of these we find
the Sambur Deer of India, with its large and thus simple antlers; the
closely-allied Javan and Swinhoe’s Deer; the Spotted Axis; the Hog
Deer, and the Roebuck.

We have now arrived at the stage in which the beam has bifurcated,
and almost all the more elaborate forms result from an excess in the
development of both, or one or other, of the limbs of this bifurcation.
In the Deer known as Elaphine--because they more or less resemble the
Red Deer (_Cervus elaphus_)--the front of these two branches (the
“tres”) does not increase or become complicated, whilst from the
much-enlarged hind one the numerous sur-royals spring in the biggest
species, such as the Wapiti, Cashmere, Red, and Barbary Deer, as well
as the Maral, of Persia. In the smaller species which follow this type
of structure the sur-royals are less developed, at the same time that
the brow-antler does not split in two to form a “bez” as well, examples
of which are to be seen in the Mantchurian, Formosan, and Japanese
Deer, as well as in the Fallow Deer and its newly-discovered ally
from Mesopotamia. These two last-named differ also in the “palmation”
of their antlers--a peculiarity referred to further in the special
description of the species.

[Illustration: VARIOUS TYPES OF ANTLERS.

(From the _Proceedings of the Zoological Society_.)]

The accompanying outline diagram represents the most important types
of antlers, to one or other of which those of almost every known Deer
can be referred. To facilitate future description, they may be named as
follows:--

Fig. 1.--Rusine type.
2.--Normal Rucervine type.
3.--Intermediate Rucervine type.
4.--Extreme Rucervine type.
5.--Sub-elaphine type.
6.--Elaphine type.

(A) Brow-tyne.
(B) Tres-tyne.
(C) Royal-tyne.

The Rusine type (1), in which the brow-tyne (A) is simple, at the
same time that the beam ends in a simple bifurcation, is found in the
Sambur Deer (_Rusa Aristotelis_) of India. The Rucervine type, in
which the bifurcate beam is further subdivided, tends to be prolonged
in the direction of the tres-tyne (B), at the same time that there
is a corresponding reduction of the royal (C). In Schomburgk’s Deer
(_Rucervus Schomburgki_) of Siam, both branches of the beam are equally
developed (2); in the Swamp Deer (_Rucervus Duvaucelli_) of India
(3), the tres (B) is larger than the royal (C); whilst in Eld’s Deer
(_Rucervus Eldi_) (4), of Burmah, there is but a small snag (C) at the
back of the enormous tres-tyne (B) to represent the royal. The Red Deer
(_Cervus elaphus_) (6), besides having the brow-tyne (A) re-duplicated,
has the royal (C) developed at the expense of the tres (B), and much
divided up in well-grown animals. In the Japanese Deer (_Cervus sika_)
(5) and its allies the relative proportions of the tynes are much the
same, although the brow-tyne (A) is simple.

THE ELK, OR MOOSE DEER.[29]

The Elk, the largest of the family of the _Cervidæ_, is found in
North America, Northern Europe, and the coldest parts of Asia, thinly
scattered in all but the first-named locality. At the shoulder it
may attain so great a height as eight feet when adult. The female is
antler-less. In the male these appendages possess quite a peculiar
shape, the two together forming a kind of basin, on account of their
being developed into huge palmated concave sheets of bony tissue, which
diverge laterally from the skull.

[Illustration: ELK HUNT.]

[Illustration: YOUNG ELK.]

At nine months old the antlers first appear, not being more than
straight and rounded dags in the first year. They reach their full
length in the fifth year, from which period for many more years they
increase in breadth and weight, and add, it is said, a fresh point
to their palmated margins until the fourteenth, when the creature is
considered quite adult.

The colour of the animal is a deep blackish-brown; the neck is short
and thick, with a peculiar bob-shaped, pendulous, and hair-covered
lap of skin hanging down from its middle, just behind the angles of
the jaw. The limbs, especially the front ones, are long; the tail is
rudimentary. The coat is formed of close-set harsh angular hair, which
breaks when bent, produced into a mane upon the neck and shoulders.
Sir John Richardson gives the following account of the habits and food
of the Elk, with the mode of hunting it:--“In the more northern parts
the Moose Deer is quite a solitary animal, more than one being very
seldom seen at a time, unless during the rutting season or when the
female is accompanied by her fawns. It has the sense of hearing in very
great perfection, and is the most shy and wary of all the Deer species,
and on this account the art of Moose-hunting is looked upon as the
greatest of an Indian’s acquirements, particularly by the Crees, who
take to themselves the credit of being able to instruct the hunters of
every other tribe. The skill of a Moose hunter is most tried in the
early part of the winter; for during the summer the Moose, as well as
other animals, are so much tormented by Mosquitoes that they become
regardless of the approach of man. In the winter the hunter tracks the
Moose by its footmarks in the snow, and it is necessary that he should
keep constantly to leeward of the chase, and make his advance with the
utmost caution, for the rustling of a withered leaf or the cracking of
a rotten twig is sufficient to alarm the watchful beast. The difficulty
of approach is increased by a habit which the Moose Deer has of making
daily a sharp turn in its route, and choosing a place of repose so near
some part of its path that it can hear the least noise made by one that
attempts to track it. To avoid this, the judicious hunter, instead
of walking in the animal’s footsteps, forms his judgment from the
appearance of the country of the direction it is likely to have taken,
and makes a circuit to leeward until he again finds the track. This
manœuvre is repeated until he discovers by the softness of the snow, in
the footmarks and other signs, that he is very near the chase. He then
disencumbers himself of everything that might embarrass his motions,
and makes his approach in the most cautious manner. If he gets close
to the animal’s lair without being seen, it is usual for him to break
a small twig, which, alarming the Moose, it instantly starts up, but
not fully aware of the danger, squats on its hams and waits a minute
before setting off. In this posture it presents the fairest mark, and
the hunter’s shot seldom fails to take effect in a mortal part. In the
rutting season the bucks lay aside their timidity, and attack every
animal that comes in their way, and even conquer their fear of man
himself. The hunter then brings them within gunshot by scraping on the
blade-bone of a Deer, and by whistling, which, deceiving the male, he
blindly hastens to the spot to assail his supposed rival. If the hunter
fails in giving it a mortal wound as it approaches, he shelters himself
from its fury behind a tree, and I have heard of several instances in
which the enraged animal has completely stripped the bark from the
trunk of a large tree by striking with its fore-feet. In the spring
time, when the snow is very deep, the hunters frequently run down the
Moose on snow-shoes, which give them immense advantage, because the
slender legs of the animal sink into the snow for their whole length
each step they take, which makes their progress very slow.”

The usual pace of the Moose is a high shambling trot, and its strides
are immense. On account of their necks being short at the same time
that their legs are long, they browse upon the bushes rather than on
the ground, which they find difficulty in reaching with their mouths.

THE ELAPHINE DEER.[30]

This group is characterised by the presence of a bez-tyne in all its
members--except that under the influence of protracted bad nutrition
individuals resident in barren parts may lose it--whilst the tres-tyne
is small, and the third main branch of the antler splits up into
several snags, sometimes arranged in the form of a cup. The deep brown
coat is varied by a conspicuous light, almost white patch upon the
rump, in which the uncovered rudiment of a tail is included. All the
species are large, the best known to us being

THE RED DEER.[31]

This species is a native of the British Isles and many parts of Europe.
Northern specimens are much the smaller, and carry far inferior
antlers, those of South Germany and Hungary possessing heads worthy,
of the species. In England they are still to be found wild in Exmoor
Forest, in Scotland north of the Forth and Clyde; and in Ireland about
Killarney, Connemara, and Erris.

[Illustration: RED DEER.]

A well-grown Stag stands over four feet at the withers, with a
thickly-coated neck of a greyish tint, a rich red-brown body-colour,
uniformly curved symmetrical antlers, and head held high. The Stag in
summer is a lordly creature. In winter its coat is longer and of a
greyer tint. As is the case in allied species, and all but a few of the
Rusine Deer, the new-born calves are brilliantly spotted with white.

[Illustration: RED DEER AND FALLOW DEER IN WINTER.]

The pairing season occupies the early part of October. The calves are
born at the end of May or the beginning of June; whilst the Stags
drop their antlers between the end of February and the earlier days
of April, the youngest latest. Up till the age of twelve the animal
continues to increase in bulk and strength, and it is highly probable
that they do not ever much outlive twenty years, although superstition
credits them with very many more.

It is towards the end of August or the beginning of September that the
well-nourished Stags, having already cleared their antlers of their
“velvet,” leave their retirement, and with swollen necks as well as
restless mien, seek out the hinds. During the rutting season, which
lasts about three weeks, they eat but little, and lose weight rapidly,
to be regained in the subsequent repose upon the summer-developed
foliage. In the southern counties of Great Britain the hunting of the
Stag has degenerated into the repeated chase of a few individuals,
deprived of their antlers, and let out of boxes shortly before the
sportsmen put in an appearance; whilst long-ranged rifles have reduced
the difficulties of what not many years ago--more especially in
Scotland--was a form of sport which very severely taxed the physical
capacities of the most determined and courageous.

[Illustration: RED DEER FIGHTING.]

The WAPITI, the PERSIAN, the CASHMERIAN, and the BARBARY DEER resemble
the Red Deer in almost every detail except size, the first and second
being considerably larger. Their antlers all branch in the same manner,
except that the proportionate sizes of some of the snags are apt to
vary. Superb heads of Wapiti are numerous in Great Britain, with their
brown beams and white burnished tips.

The Wapiti is kept in confinement without difficulty, although in
autumn the stags become savage. Its home is the woodlands and the
mountains of North America, where it is generally incorrectly called
the “Elk.” Stalking the species is a common sport, but there is not so
much interest associated with it as with Moose-stalking, because it
is a more stupid creature, and its senses are less acutely developed.
When started, a herd will make off for a short distance, and stop
to recognise the source of danger before continuing its flight. Its
food is mostly leaves of trees and shrubs, though it frequently eats
grass and weeds. Dr. J. D. Caton, of Ottawa, Illinois, who has had
much experience in the preserving of American Deer, has published
many interesting details with regard to this species. Among others
he mentions, with reference to the young, that “the most prominent
instinct of the young fawn is that of deception. I have several times
come across fawns evidently but a few hours old, left by the mother in
supposed security. They affect death to perfection, only they forget
to shut their eyes. They lie without a motion, and if you pick them up
they are as limp as a wet rag, the head and limbs hanging down without
the least muscular action, the bright eye fairly sparkling all the
time.” The venison is excellent; it is said to be more nutritious than
any other meat.

The Persian Deer, or Marāl, differs from the Cashmerian Deer but
little. Its head, however, is longer and more pointed.

The Cashmerian Deer, or Barasingha, again, is hardly distinguishable
from the Wapiti. Professor Leith Adams remarks, with reference to it,
that “the Cashmere forests seem the head-quarters of this species
on the western ranges, for it is seldom, if ever, met with between
Mussouree and the Vale of Cashmere. The dense forests and fertile
valleys of the latter country are particularly inviting to this
species. In habits and general appearance the Cashmere Stag bears a
striking resemblance to the Red Deer. Although it is seldom, nowadays,
that individuals of the latter species escape the hunter so long as to
attain the size and magnitude of the Barasingha [twelve points], yet I
think it will be found that the horns of those killed in the forests of
Scotland in former years are equal in size to any at present met with
in Cashmere. It is in the dense pine forests on the Northern Pinjal,
and in the many beautiful valleys among these ranges, that we find
the species most abundant. There are very few on the southern ranges.
In the secluded depths of these solitudes they lie all day, to issue
forth at dusk and feed on the grassy hill-sides, or descend even into
the Valley of Cashmere when forced by the snows of winter. An adult
Stag averages thirteen hands in height. The colour of the coat varies
but little in the sexes or the seasons of the year; dark liver-colour,
with reddish patches on the inner sides of the hips; belly and lower
parts white, or a dirty white. The male has the hair on the lower part
of the neck long and shaggy (wanting in the female); the horns large,
and usually very massive, with from ten to fifteen or more points,
according to age (the largest pair of horns I have measured were four
feet round the curves, with six and seven points). They are shed in
March; and the new horn is not completely formed until the end of
October, when the rutting season commences, and the loud bellowings of
the Stags are heard all over the mountains. During vigorous winters
they are frequently driven to seek for shelter and food around the
villages in the valleys, when many are destroyed by natives, who hunt
them with Dogs. The Cheetahs, Wild Dogs, and Bears are said to kill the
young.”

The very similar Barbary Deer is most interesting, in that it is the
only member of the Cervine group which is found in Africa.

[Illustration: FALLOW DEER.]

THE SUB-ELAPHINE DEER.[32]

The JAPANESE, FORMOSAN, and MANTCHURIAN DEER are all species allied
to those just described, but differing in being smaller in size, at
the same time that the antlers conform to the sub-elaphine type,
in which the bez-tyne is never present, and the sur-royals are but
inconsiderably branched. They are all strongly spotted in their
summer dress, which, especially in the Mantchurian--the largest of
the species--is most brilliant. In the winter their coats are nearly
uniform, and of a dark brown colour. A fawn-red is the groundwork
of the summer coat, the spots being yellowish-white, whilst a black
streak, in perfect contrast, runs the whole length of the middle of
the back, continuing down the tail and expanding slightly at its base.
The throat is white. The sombre winter coat is a nearly uniform dark
red-brown.

[Illustration: SAMBUR DEER.]

The FALLOW DEER (_Dama vulgaris_), so well known on account of its
being preserved in a semi-domesticated state in so many English parks,
has antlers constructed upon the same plan as those of the Mantchurian
Deer (sub-elaphine). These, however, present special peculiarities
found in none of the allied species, for they are palmated in their
upper parts, in the region of the sur-royals, the digitations or
terminal points being developed along the convex posterior margins
of the palmated surface. The buck is about three feet high at the
shoulder. The head is short and broad, the tail between seven and
eight inches long. The colour of the wild animal, both buck and doe,
is a rich yellowish-brown in summer, spotted with white all over. In
winter the tints are more sombre and greyish. Domestic varieties vary
immensely, both in the distinctness of the spotting and the general
colouration. Until six years of age the buck receives a separate name
each year from sportsmen--fawn, pricket, sorrel, soare, buck of the
first lead, and buck complete, being the terms employed--the antlers
not being developed at all in the fawn, being simple snags in the
pricket, with two front branches in the sorrel, with slight palmation
of the extremity of the beam in the soare, and the whole antler larger
and larger until the sixth year. The venison of the Fallow Deer is
fatter than that of the Red Deer, and is preferred by most.

[Illustration: BORNEO RUSINE DEER.]

The species is not a native of Britain, having most certainly been
introduced, although exactly when is not known. The dark-coloured and
more hardy breed was brought from Norway by James I. Its true wild
habitat was probably the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, both north
and south.

The PERSIAN FALLOW DEER,[33] so closely related to the species just
referred to that they breed together, was made known to us in 1875 by
Sir Victor Brooke, who described it from specimens sent to England by
Mr. Robertson, the British Vice-Consul at Busrah. It resembles the
Common Fallow Deer in almost every detail, except that it is slightly
larger, and that the antlers are not the same. As stated above, in the
Common Fallow Deer the antlers, whilst developed on the sub-elaphine
type, are palmated in the region of the royals, with several snags
projecting from the upper margin, at the same time that the lower
portion of the beam, the tres, and the brow-tynes are cylindrical, as
usually is the case in other species.

[Illustration: AXIS DEER.]

In the Persian Fallow the palmation at the extremity of the antlers is
much less conspicuous, and scarcely exists, although many snags are
present there, directed upwards. The palmation is at the bases of the
antlers instead, including the brow-tyne and the beam, so that the
general appearance of the antlers is quite peculiar to the species.

THE RUSINE DEER.[34]

The SAMBUR, OR GEROW (_Rusa Aristotelis_), of India, is found
abundantly in all the hill-districts of that country. It is nearly
five feet high, of a deep brown colour, with the hair of the neck
developed almost into a mane. The tail is of fair length. Its build is
massive, as are its antlers, which present three powerful points, and
reach over three feet in length. Above the considerable brow-tyne the
beam bifurcates high up into two fairly equal snags, and no more in
well-grown antlers. The hind is much less massive, and of a yellowish
tint. Captain Kinloch says of the species that “Sambur delight in
stony hills, where there is plenty of cover, and where they can have
easy access to water. They browse more than graze, and are nearly
nocturnal in their habits. During the daytime they seek the most
shady retreats, and old Stags especially are most difficult to find,
frequently betaking themselves to almost inaccessible places, where
the uninitiated would never dream of looking for them. The experienced
hunter, indeed, has frequently to depend more upon fortune than his
own knowledge of woodcraft.” In Java an almost identical species
differs mostly in having the hinder of the two branches of the beam of
the antler longer than the one in front. Swinhoe’s Deer from Formosa
is also almost indistinguishable, at the same time that Sumatran and
Bornean specimens agree with it in being particularly dark in colour.

Three smaller species, with antlers branched in exactly the same
manner, are found in the islands of Borneo, Timor, Ternate, and the
Philippines.

The HOG DEER of India and Ceylon is not bigger than the Roebuck
although the legs are shorter and the body heavier. Its antlers
consist of a brow-tyne and bifurcate beam, of which the posterior
tyne is short, and turned inwards; they rarely exceed a foot and a
half in length. It is of a uniform dark brown colour, rarely spotted
indistinctly with white. Their name is derived from the pig-like way in
which they run, with their heads low, when pursued.

The SPOTTED HOG DEER is a rare species, of a slightly lighter colour,
and with pale yellow spots.

The AXIS DEER of India, sometimes called the Cheetal, resembles the
Fallow Deer in size and colouration most closely, although its antlers
serve to show that its true relations are quite different. These latter
are not palmated at all, and are quite rusine in type, presenting the
three points characteristic of them, the front tyne of the bifurcate
beam being of great length. There is a beauty in the intensity of the
spotting of the coat of this species which is unequalled by any other
member of the Cervidæ, and it is interesting to know that according to
the universal testimony of sportsmen, the effect of sunlight through
foliage so much resembles it that it is almost impossible to recognise
the animal in the woods. They have a reputation for being indolent, as
they feed during the night, and sleep throughout the day, frequenting
the heavy grass jungles along the banks of rivers. Their cry is a
shrill bark at the approach of danger. The accompanying figure (see
Plate 26), drawn from a specimen in captivity, gives an excellent idea
of the immense length attained by the antlers, which in this particular
case are blunt-tipped, because not quite fully grown. The hinder tyne
on the right side, it will be noticed, is almost entirely hidden in the
hair of the flank.

PRINCE ALFRED’S DEER,[35] about the size of the Fallow Deer, was first
described by Dr. Sclater from a specimen brought from the Philippine
Islands by the Duke of Edinburgh in 1870. Its glossy coat is of a rich
chocolate colour, covered with pale yellow spots; a broad line along
the back, as in all spotted Deer, being uninterrupted; the under parts
are of a pale yellow. The antlers are only nine inches in length, but
comparatively thick, and simply branched upon the rusine type, with
three points. The legs are rather short, at the same time that the body
is heavy.

The SWAMP DEER.[36] The name Barasingha, signifying “twelve points,” is
applied to two very different species of Indian Deer, the Cashmerian
Deer, previously mentioned, and the Swamp Deer.

The Swamp Deer of India and Assam is slightly smaller than the Sambur,
not exceeding four feet in height. Its colour is a rich light
yellow. As its name signifies it delights in moist situations, where
it congregates in herds of great numbers. Its antlers are large, and
of the intermediate rucervine type. The brow-tynes reach a foot in
length, and are directed forwards with an upward turn at their tips.
The beam is long, and branches into an anterior, massive, and branched
continuation of itself, as well as a posterior smaller bifurcate tyne.

[Illustration: SCHOMBURGK’S DEER.]

In Siam this species is replaced by the closely-allied SCHOMBURGK’S
DEER, a little-known species, in which the antlers are extremely
elegant, the long brow-tyne being followed by a short beam which
bifurcates into two equal branches, these again, each of them,
bifurcating in a similar manner.

ELD’S DEER, OR THE THAMYN.[37] This Deer, which differs from the Swamp
Deer only in its antlers, was discovered by Captain Eld, in 1838. It
abounds in the swamp lands of Burmah, and extends as far east as the
Island of Hainan. Its form is slimmer than that of the Red Deer, at the
same time that it is somewhat smaller, attaining a height of over four
feet. During the summer months its body-colour is a light rufous brown,
with a few faint indications of white spots. Its under parts are nearly
white, as are the insides of the hairy ears. Its tail is short, and
black above. In winter its lengthy hair takes on a darker tint.

Lieutenant R. C. Beavan has given an excellent account of the habits
of Eld’s Deer, from which we learn that their food must consist almost
entirely of grass and paddy, which grow both cultivated and wild, in
the swamps in which they dwell. “In habits they are very wary and
difficult of approach, especially the males. They are also very timid,
and easily startled; the males, however, when wounded and brought
to bay with Dogs, get very savage and charge vigorously. On being
disturbed they invariably make for the open, instead of resorting
to the heavy jungle like Hog Deer and Sambur. In fact the Thamyn is
essentially a plain-loving species; and, although it will frequent
tolerably open tree-jungle for the sake of its shade, it will never
venture into dense or matted underwood.... When first started the
pace of the Thamyn is great. It commences by giving three or four
large bounds like the Axis or Spotted Deer, and afterwards settles
down into a long trot, which it will keep up for six or seven miles on
end when frequently disturbed.” As to the means employed to hunt them,
the same author informs us that “a large number of men would assemble
from the neighbouring villages, and gradually encircle three or four
moderate-sized herds with long strings, upon which plantain-leaves were
tied so as to flutter in the wind. The circle, originally formed at
some distance, was gradually lessened as the Deer, afraid to pass the
scarecrows, got gradually driven together, until they were completely
surrounded and at the mercy of the hunters. The object was to get them
into a corner near the heavy jungle, into which, if they attempted
to run, they either became entangled, or allowed their pursuers to
get up quite close. As many as a hundred and fifty to two hundred,
my informant tells me, he has himself seen killed in one battue in
former years. To such a length was this [shameful] system carried, and
such enormous havoc was thereby created, that the Burmese Government,
fearing the species would be utterly exterminated, wisely put a stop to
the practice.”

CHAPTER V.

THE MUNTJACS--THE ROEBUCK--CHINESE DEER--REINDEER--AMERICAN
DEER--DEERLETS--CAMEL TRIBE--LLAMAS.

The MUNTJACS--Distribution--Characters--THE INDIAN MUNTJAC,
OR KIDANG--Hunting--THE CHINESE MUNTJAC--Habits--DAVID’S
MUNTJAC--“Shanyang”--THE ROEBUCK--THE CHINESE WATER
DEER--Peculiarity--Chinese Superstition regarding it--THE
CHINESE ELAPHURE--Peculiarity of its Antlers--THE
REINDEER--Distribution--Character--Colouration--Antlers--Canadian
Breeds--Food--THE AMERICAN DEER--THE VIRGINIAN DEER--THE MULE
DEER--THE BLACK-TAILED DEER--THE GUAZUS--THE BROCKETS--THE VENADA,
OR PUDU DEER--THE CHEVROTAINS, OR DEERLETS--Antlerless--Their
Position--Bones of their Feet--General Form and
Proportions--Species--THE MEMINNA, OR INDIAN DEERLET--THE JAVAN
DEERLET--THE KANCHIL--THE STANLEYAN DEERLET--THE WATER DEERLET--THE
CAMEL TRIBE--Their Feet--Stomach--Its Peculiarity--The Water
Cells--THE (TRUE) CAMEL--Description--The Pads of Hardened
Skin--Its Endurance--Its Disposition--Anecdote of its Revengeful
Nature--THE BACTRIAN CAMEL--THE LLAMAS--Description--Habits--Used
as Beasts of Burden--Wild and Domesticated Species--THE
HUANACO--THE LLAMA--THE VICUNA--THE ALPACA--The Alpaca
Industry--FOSSIL RUMINANTIA--Strata in which they are
found--_Chœropotamus_--_Hyopotamus_--_Dichobune_--_Xiphodon_--
_Cainotherium_--_Oreodon_--_Sivatherium_--Fossil
Deer, Oxen, Goats, Sheep, Camels, Llamas, Antelopes, Giraffes--The
Irish Elk--Its huge Antlers--Its Skeleton--Ally--Distribution.

THE MUNTJACS.[38]

The Muntjacs form a group of small and elegant Deer found in India,
Burmah, China, the Malay Peninsula, and the large islands of the
Indo-Malay Archipelago. They differ from all other members of the
family in that their diminutive antlers are supported on lengthy bony
pedestals, covered with a hairy skin much like the horn-processes of
the Giraffe. Most, also, have a pair of elongated longitudinal ridges
between the eyes, within the folds of which small glands are situated,
at the same time that there is a dark crest of retroverted hair,
tending to the shape of a horseshoe, upon the forehead. In the males
the upper canine teeth develop into tusks, which project externally
some way below the lip, though not so far as in the Musk, forming
efficient instruments of attack.

The INDIAN MUNTJAC, OR KIDANG, is the best known species. Its antlers
attain a larger size than those of any of the others, although they are
not more than four inches long, composed of an undivided beam, at the
base of which there is a diminutive brow-tyne. Its size is slightly
less than that of the Roebuck, its colour uniformly foxy red-brown,
with the throat, hind part of abdomen, and under surface of tail white.
A black line runs up the inner side of each antler-pedestal of the
male, instead of forming the frontal horseshoe of the female.

Dr. Horsfield tells us that in Java, where it is much hunted, “the
Muntjac selects for its retreat certain districts, to which it forms
a peculiar attachment, and which it never voluntarily deserts. Many
of these are known as the favourite resort of the animal for several
generations. They consist of moderately elevated grounds, diversified
by ridges and valleys, tending towards the acclivities of the more
considerable mountains, or approaching the confines of extensive
forests.... The Muntjac has a strong scent, and is easily tracked by
Dogs. When pursued it does not go off, like the Stag, in any accidental
direction; its flight, indeed, is very swift at first, but it soon
relaxes, and taking a circular course, returns to the spot from which
it was started. After several circular returns, if the pursuit be
continued, the Kidang thrusts its head into a thicket, and in this
situation remains fixed and motionless, as if in a place of security,
and regardless of the approach of the sportsman.”

[Illustration: INDIAN MUNTJAC.]

In China the Muntjacs are smaller than those of India and Java; their
antlers are less developed at the same time that the tint of their
coats is less rufous, and the neck is not white. They were first
described by Mr. Ogilby under the name of Reeves’ Muntjac, a larger
form having been more recently discovered by M. A. Milne-Edwards and
Mr. Swinhoe. With reference to its habits the last-named naturalist
tells us that “this species affects the low ranges of hills which
are covered with long, coarse grass and tangled thicket. It is there
usually found in small herds, basking in the sun, or lying in hidden
lairs. They are very seldom approached near, except by stealth. The
least noise startles them, and they dash away with bounds through the
yielding grass, occasionally showing their rounded backs above the
herbage. They have, however, their regular creeps and passes through
the covert, near which the natives lie when stalking them, while others
drive them. The little startled creatures hurry from danger along
these beaten tracks, and are then picked off with the matchlock.” In
captivity they soon become very docile, even when taken in the adult
state. The flesh of this animal is very tender and palatable.

The enterprising missionary Père David, among his numerous discoveries
in Chinese zoology, sent from Moupin, in Western China, to Paris,
skins of a peculiar Muntjac, which is of special interest. Having
canine tusks, a black frontal hairy horseshoe, and the proportions of a
Muntjac generally, its antlers are not more than an inch long, at the
same time that their pedestals are correspondingly reduced in length
as well as thickness. Its body-colour is mouse-brown, verging on grey,
whilst the hairy covering is coarse. It may be called DAVID’S MUNTJAC.

Very shortly after the above-mentioned skins arrived at Paris, Mr.
Michie, of Shanghai, forwarded to Mr. Swinhoe in England another
specimen from Ningpo, which, although derived so far east of Moupin, is
almost indistinguishable from that belonging to the latter district.
The animal is there known as the “Shanyang,” or Wild Goat. It is an
undoubted Muntjac, although peculiar in not possessing the glands on
the forehead found in the more common species.

THE ROEBUCK.[39]

This elegant, small, and almost tailless Deer is, like the Red Deer,
a native of Great Britain, as well as of all Northern Europe and Asia
below the line of perpetual snow. In Asia the individuals attain a
greater size than in Europe. The adult Roebuck stands a little over
two feet high at the shoulder. Its colour is a dark reddish-brown in
summer, becoming yellowish-grey in the cold weather. There is a large
patch of white on the rump. The antlers, which are peculiarly near
together at their bases, rarely exceed a foot in length, possessing
three points, the rugose unbranched beam continuing from the
considerable burr for half a foot unbranched; then bifurcating fore
and aft, the posterior branch again bifurcating. The destruction of
the forests throughout Britain has driven the Roebuck farther north,
till now it is most common in the north of Scotland, although it still
survives in the woods of Westmoreland and Cumberland. Its disposition
is wild, shy, and cautious. Its favourite resort is the thick underwood
of forests, living singly or in small companies of a pair with their
young, which latter--contrary to what we find in the case of most other
Deer--are two or three in number. Its venison makes very indifferent
food.

[Illustration: ROEBUCK: MALE, FEMALE, AND YOUNG.]

THE CHINESE WATER DEER.[40]

This is an entirely isolated small species, not bigger than an Indian
Muntjac, discovered by Mr. Swinhoe, _in which there are no antlers_,
the canine teeth of the upper jaw being developed into immense tusks
which project downwards, as in the Musk and Muntjacs. The legs are
short, and the body lengthy. The body-colour is a light red-brown
all over. There is no tuft of hair on the head as in the Muntjacs, to
which by some it might be imagined to be allied. From Mr. Swinhoe’s
account of the species we learn that “In the large riverine islands of
the Yangtsze, above Chinkiang, these animals occur in large numbers,
living among the tall rushes that are there grown for thatching and
other purposes. The rushes are cut down in the spring; and the Deer
then swim away to the main shore and retire to the cover of the
hills.... Fortunately for the Deer, the Chinese have an extraordinary
dislike for their flesh. I could not ascertain why; but it must be
from some strange superstition, as the Celestials are otherwise
pretty omnivorous. The Deer are killed only for the European markets
[of Shanghai], and sold at a low price. Their venison is coarse, and
without much taste.... The Chinese at Shanghai call this animal the
_Ke_, but at Chinkiang they are named _Chang_--the classical term for
the Muntjac.”

[Illustration: CHINESE WATER DEER.]

THE CHINESE ELAPHURE.[41]

This most interesting Deer was discovered in 1865 by the indefatigable
French naturalist, M. Armand David. In his account of the animal, Dr.
Sclater[42] tells us that M. David first observed it whilst looking
over the wall of the Imperial Hunting-park at Pekin, to which no
European is allowed admission. There it is found in a semi-domesticated
state, its native place probably being Eastern Mantchuria. In 1869, Sir
Rutherford Alcock succeeded in sending a living pair to England, which
were exhibited for some time in the London Zoological Gardens, and
from which much information has been obtained with reference to their
habits. It resembles the Swamp Deer of India (_Rucervus Duvaucelli_) in
its proportions and size, standing nearly four feet at the shoulder.
The legs are somewhat heavy and the feet expanded, but it is in its
antlers that the Elaphure is quite different from any other Deer. They
are represented in the accompanying engraving, from which the abrupt
ascent of the beam, with an enormous back-tyne arising from the lower
end, and no brow-tyne, may be most clearly seen. The beam branches
higher up, but its furcations follow none of the ordinary rules of
cervine antler-growth.

The body-colour of the animal is light and rufous, paler on the under
parts. A black line runs some way down the back, being most conspicuous
at the shoulders. The tail is not longer than in the Fallow Deer, and
is hairy at the tip. Mr. Swinhoe tells us that the Chinese name is
Sze-poo-seang, which signifies “like none of the four”--to wit, the
Horse, the Cow, the Deer, or the Goat.

[Illustration: CHINESE ELAPHURE.]

THE REINDEER.[43]

The Reindeer, which differs from all its allies in that the females
carry antlers as well as the males, forms so important an element in
the social economy of the Laplanders that more has been written on its
habits than of any other species of the family. It is found distributed
throughout the Arctic regions of Europe, Asia, and America, extending
farther south in the last-named of these in the same way as the
isothermal line of 32° Fahr., as might be expected from the relation
borne by its economy to its temperature. In Spitzbergen, Finland, and
Lapland it attains the greatest size, being inferior in strength and
stature in Norway and Sweden. In Iceland it has been introduced and
thrives. The Caribou is the name by which it goes in the New World,
where it extends through Greenland, Canada, and Newfoundland. The horns
of the American variety differ from those of the Old World so much that
it is not difficult to recognise their origin; nevertheless, attempts
which have been made to establish the specific difference of the two
forms have not found much favour with naturalists generally.

[Illustration: REINDEER AT A LAPP ENCAMPMENT.]

The animal, with a characteristic deer-like form, is powerfully
built, with short limbs and heavy neck. The feet have the false hoofs
well developed, while the fissure between the median toes is so much
extended upwards, and the ligaments which bind them together are so
loose, that their hoofs spread out considerably when pressed upon the
ground, and so increase the surface for support upon the yielding
snow--their most frequent foothold. Upon raising the limbs in rapid
action these hoofs make a sharp snap at the moment when they close
together.

[Illustration: REINDEER.]

Individuals vary much in tint as well as with the season. Some are
entirely white, whilst in winter the coat is always lighter than in
summer. Deep brown is the prevailing tint, and there is generally a
band of white above each hoof. As in the Elk--another Arctic ruminating
animal--the muffle of the nose is covered with hair, and is not moist.
The fur is of two sorts--an outer covering of longer, harsh, brittle
hair, and an under-coat of closely-matted and much finer, wool-like
texture, which serves as an excellent protection against the inclement
temperature, and makes the skins so valuable for articles of clothing
in the Arctic regions.

The antlers are strikingly large for the size of their owners.
Although they vary considerably in detail, the general plan of
their construction is always the same, agreeing with that of the
Virginian Deer and the Barasingha. As in the Wapiti and Red Deer,
the brow-antlers on each side are, however, re-duplicated, so that
a bez is present. This, as well as the brow-tyne, is branched, or
palmated, wherein it is peculiar; and further, in the Caribous one
of the brow-tynes is generally aborted, in order to allow of the
great development of its fellow of the opposite side into a palmated
triangle, flattened from side to side, directed straight forward in
the middle line of the head, and attached by its apex to the beam. The
function of this share-like expansion in the economy of the animal can
hardly be other than to remove the snow which covers its favourite
food, each movement of the lowered head from side to side effecting
this result. The beam is lengthy, curved boldly upwards and forwards,
with a small snag at the back, about half-way from each end. Its
extremity is branched and often palmated, much like the horns of the
Fallow Deer. The beam may reach a length not more than three inches
less than five feet. In the females the same plan of structure of the
antlers exists as in the males. They are considerably smaller in every
respect, more slender, and scarcely palmated, if at all so.

The Woodland Caribou and the Barren-ground Caribou are the names
given to a larger and a smaller breed in Canada. Both are hunted by
the Indians for their flesh as well as for their hides, the venison
obtained from the latter being held in high estimation. The pounded
meat, when mixed with melted fat, is known as pemmican. The tongue is
esteemed a great delicacy.

The Reindeer, from the nature of the country it inhabits, is compelled
to lead a migratory life, in which the natives of Lapland, who have
to depend entirely for their sustenance on the animal, have to
participate. Troops of them during the winter months reside in the
woods, feeding on the lichens that depend from boughs of the trees, as
well as on those that grow upon the ground beneath. In the spring they
repair to the mountains in order to escape the swarms of stinging Gnats
and Gad-flies which infest the air, and inflict wounds in the skin of
most serious severity.

THE AMERICAN DEER.

In America there are several species of Deer which differ considerably
from those of the Old World. In our remarks on these animals we will
not include among them the Wapiti and the Elk: the Wapiti, because it
is nothing but a large representative of the Red Deer of Great Britain;
the Elk, because it stands very much by itself, at the same time that
it is found in the Arctic Old World as well as in America. We ourselves
think that the Reindeer conforms to the American type of structure,
and have therefore described it in relation with the New World Deer,
although most authors class it not far from the Elk.

None of the typical Deer of America attain any considerable size, and
their antlers are decidedly small when contrasted with those of the Old
World. The species which will be first described is the VIRGINIAN DEER,
which is the “Common” Deer of North America, and is slightly smaller
than the Fallow Deer. Its colour is uniform, being of a reddish-yellow
in summer and light grey in winter. The individual members of the
species are small in Mexico, and get larger as they live more north.
The antlers belong to the extreme rucervine type, their beams turning
outwards and forwards in a very characteristic manner, with several
points directed upwards from their convex border. The brow-tyne is
short and pointed upwards instead of forwards. The tail is nearly a
foot and a half in length. In disposition it is timid and wild, and is
therefore domesticated with difficulty. Its flesh was in times gone
by one of the staple articles of food of the aborigines. Audubon and
other authors have described in detail the various modes employed in
capturing these Deer, including the “still hunt,” “jack hunt,” “fire
hunt,” &c., according to the nature of the country.

The MULE DEER and the BLACK-TAILED DEER are not far distantly related
North American species. The former is slightly larger than the
Virginian and of a heavier build. Its tail is short, tufted, and white;
its colour a dark grey in winter, dull yellow in summer. Its name was
suggested from its lengthy ears. The latter is smaller, and has shorter
legs. Its colour is tawny grey, the short tail black above and white
below. Of both these species the antlers differ from the Virginian
Deer in detail, only the brow tyne of the Black-tailed species being
rudimentary, at the same time that the snags on the convex margin of
the beam spring from a single stem instead of independently. In the
Mule Deer they are smaller and less branched. Lord Walsingham, in
writing of them, remarks, “They appear to frequent the thick willow
clumps and other brushwood bordering the streams and swamps. They were
extremely difficult to distinguish among the foliage, and remarkably
quick when alarmed. As they bound off over logs and fallen trees, or
dash through the thicket, they have a habit of swinging their broad
white tails with a conspicuous flourish, which becomes annoying to a
sportsman, to whom they never afford anything but a snap shot, which is
very apt to fail.”

[Illustration: GUAZUTI DEER.]

The GUAZUS are small South American Deer with large ears and short
tails, in which the antlers want the brow tyne, and have the beam
branched in almost exactly the same way as Schomburgk’s Deer when not
quite full grown. The Guazuti, one of them, is not more than two feet
six inches in height.

The BROCKETS are equally small, with minute antlers of a most simple
form--whence the name--they being unbranched and shelving backwards.
The colour of the fur in the Guava Viva and Brazilian Brocket is pale
brown, and shining red-brown in the Red Brocket and the Eyebrowed
Brocket.

The VENADA, OR PUDU DEER, is not bigger than Reeves’ Muntjac or a Hare.
Its colour is red-brown, and it has minute antlers, not far separated
from one another. It inhabits the western coast of South America.

THE CHEVROTAINS, OR DEERLETS.[44]

It is not until within the last few years that naturalists have
separated off from the true Deer a group of diminutive animals which
look like them in miniature, but are entirely destitute of antlers.
These little creatures, known as Chevrotains, for which we take the
liberty of coining the name Deerlets, were placed together with the
Musk into a single section, characterised by the fact that the males
possess large tusks situated in the upper jaw, which project downwards,
and are conspicuous even when the mouth is fully closed, grooving the
lower lip on each side. Now, however, they are entirely separated
off from the Deer and Ox tribes, to constitute an independent family,
because of the peculiarities of many of their parts. They have a
complex stomach composed of paunch, honeycomb-bag, and reed, the
manyplies being so much reduced in size, that it may practically be
said not to be present.

From the bones of their feet it is evident, too, that they cannot be
correctly classed with the more ordinary Ruminants, and that they
tend towards the other family of the Cloven-hoofed Ungulata, namely,
the Swine. Each foot of the common Pig possesses four toes, that
corresponding to our thumb in the fore-limb, and to our great toe in
the hind being absent, as has been previously explained. The bones of
all these toes are quite separate from one another, as in those of
man, at the same time that those of the outer and inner digits in each
limb are smaller than those which bear the larger hoofs. In the true
Ruminants and in the Camel tribe these larger toes are partly fused
together, the bones of digit three and digit four corresponding to
those situated in the human palm and sole, being joined from end to end
to form the “cannon-bone;” whilst those of digit two and digit five are
reduced to mere imperfect splinters, or are sometimes altogether lost,
as in the Giraffe and in the Camel. Now, in the Deerlets, these bones
are not blended at all in the fore-limbs of the Water Deerlet of West
Africa, in which, as in all the other species, digit two and digit five
are perfect from end to end. They therefore stand, in this respect, as
in others easily explained, intermediate between the Swine and the true
Ruminants.

[Illustration: JAVAN DEERLET.]

All the Deerlets are particularly delicate, diminutive, and graceful
animals, the slenderness and clear-cut outline of their limbs being
exceedingly striking. With bodies as big as that of a Hare or Rabbit,
their legs are not so thick as a cedar pen-holder or a clay pipe-stem.
Their proportions are very much those of the small Water Bucks of
Africa, and of many of the kinds of Deer, especially the Hog Deer of
India, in which the body, as in them, is not carried very high above
the ground. The want of antlers in both sexes makes them resemble Hinds
rather than Stags at first sight, whilst their elegantly-pointed noses,
and large dark eyes, add to their general interesting appearance.

Of the Deerlets there are five species--the Meminna, the Kanchil,
the Javan, the Stanleyan, and the Water Deerlets. The first four are
confined to India, Ceylon, Malacca, Java, and Sumatra, the last being
found in Sierra Leone and the Gambia district. These differ slightly in
their size and markings, the MEMINNA, or INDIAN DEERLET, being nearly
eighteen inches long, and about eight inches high at the shoulder, the
tail being very short. As in its allies, the white spotting of the
surface is disturbed by two or more streaks of the same which run along
the flanks.

The JAVAN DEERLET, known sometimes as the Napu, is smaller than the
preceding. It is of a rust-brown colour above and white beneath, three
white stripes radiating backwards, one along the middle line, and the
other two laterally from the front of the neck. The short tail is
white-tipped. The naked and moist muzzle is black. The Javan Deerlet
is gentle in disposition, and somewhat uninteresting in captivity.
Specimens are frequently brought to Great Britain, and live if
carefully protected from the cold.

The KANCHIL is still smaller in size, at the same time that it is
darker in colour, especially along the back. Its activity and cunning
are remarkable, so much so that Sir Stamford Raffles, in his original
description of the creature, tells us that it is a common Malay
expression, with reference to a great rogue, that he is “as cunning as
a Kanchil.” Feigning to be dead when caught, its captor incautiously
releases his hold, when the animal is immediately up and away before
any means can be employed for its recapture. It is also said that when
pursued by Dogs it will jump up towards a bough, and there hook itself
by means of its lengthy tusks until its tormentors have passed under it.

[Illustration: STANLEYAN DEERLET.]

The STANLEYAN DEERLET was named after the grandfather of the present
Earl of Derby, in whose menagerie at Knowsley the species was first
recognised.

The WATER DEERLET of West Africa is slightly larger than the Meminna.
Its deep glossy brown coat is also streaked with white lines, and is
irregularly spotted.

THE CAMEL TRIBE, OR TYLOPODA.

The name _Tylopoda_, by which the Camels, together with the Llamas,
are known to naturalists, is derived from two Greek words (τύλος, a
knot or callus, and πούς, a foot), signifying that the feet, instead of
being protected by hoofs, are covered with a hardened skin, enclosing
the cushion-like soles of the feet, which are so constructed that
they spread out laterally when brought in contact with the ground, an
arrangement of evident advantage to desert-ranging animals. The tips
of each of the two toes are protected by nails, as can be seen in the
accompanying drawing.

[Illustration: FOOT OF CAMEL.]

There are also other points in which these creatures differ from the
more ordinary Ruminantia. In the front of the upper jaw there are two
teeth--one on each side, placed laterally--which correspond to the side
cutting teeth in man, and to the similarly-situated “nippers” of the
Horse. In the Deer, Ox, Sheep, and their allies there is not a trace of
these, as has been previously explained (page 4). As to the limbs, it
may also be mentioned that the true knee-joints--which in animals like
the Horse are almost entirely hidden within the general skin-covering
of the body--are much more conspicuous and free.

The stomach is peculiar; it wants the “manyplies,” or third
compartment, but possesses the “paunch,” “honeycomb-bag,” and
“abomasum,” the last-named of which is of great length. In the
walls of the paunch there are present two extensive collections of
“water-cells,” which serve their owners in good stead whilst traversing
the desert or residing in regions where fresh water is not to be
procured except with difficulty.

[Illustration: Fig. A.--STOMACH OF THE LLAMA.]

[Illustration: Fig. B.--WATER CELLS OF THE CAMEL’S STOMACH.]

Fig. A is a view of the stomach from below (or, in other words, from
the side farthest from the backbone), in which it is seen that the
clusters of water-cells (_a_ and _b_) are arranged, one (_a_) the
larger, along part of the right border of the viscus, whilst the second
(_b_) is transverse, the remainder of the walls being smooth. These
water-cells, seen from within in Fig. B, are formed by the development
of septa, both transverse and longitudinal, in the substance of the
paunch-wall. They are deep and narrow, much like the cells of a
honeycomb, and have a muscular membrane covering their mouths, in
which there is an oval orifice opposite to each compartment capable of
being further dilated or completely closed, probably at the will of
the animal. When fully distended, these paunch-cells in the Arabian
Camel are capable of storing a gallon and a half of water. The second
stomach, or reticulum, is also modified in the same direction, the
usually extremely shallow cells being deep, at the same time that
food is never found in them after death. Of the last compartment, or
“abomasum,” it may be noted that it is nearly cylindrical in shape, its
walls being very muscular. It is in this stomach that true digestion is
carried on.

Of the Camels two species are known, differing in the number of the
humps upon their backs. Nothing is known of either variety in the wild
state. We will commence with the description of

THE (TRUE) CAMEL.[45]

The One-humped Camel of Arabia is frequently termed the Dromedary, but
this latter name is correctly applicable only to the swift variety of
the species which is employed for riding, the heavier-built One-humped
Pack-Camel not being included under the designation.

[Illustration: HEAD OF THE (TRUE) CAMEL.]

It is the Arabian Camel--the _Ship of the Desert_--which is much
more serviceable to man than its Bactrian ally. Its distribution has
extended westwards along North Africa, from which attempts have been
made to introduce it into Spain. Eastwards it is found as far as India.

In the Camel the limbs and neck are lengthy. A single bulky hump
is present on the middle of the back, composed of fatty cells held
together by strong bands of fibrous tissue which cross in all
directions. Like all similar accumulations, it varies much in size
according to the condition of the animal, dwindling almost to nothing
after protracted hard work and bad feeding, being firm and full in
times of ease and plenty. When on the point of commencing a long
journey, there is nothing on which an Arab lays so much stress as on
the condition of his Camel’s hump, which, from what we have just said,
must be considered to be nothing more or less than a reserved store of
food.

Upon the chest, the elbows, the fore-knees (true wrists), knees, and
hocks, callous pads of hardened skin are found, upon which the creature
supports its weight whilst kneeling down, a position in which it
always rests, and one which it assumes when being loaded. These pads
are present in the new-born Camel-calf, proving, contrary to the view
maintained by some, that they are not the direct result of pressure,
but are special provisions in accordance with the requirements of
the species, arrived at by a process of natural selection, those
individuals alone surviving in which there is the power of resisting
the injurious effects of protracted strain upon a few spots of the skin.

The coat is, in the summer, scanty; in the winter, of considerable
length, and matted into lumps. The two-toed feet are very much
expanded, and tipped with a pair of small hoofs. The lips are
covered with hair, the upper one being split up for some distance
in the middle line. The nostrils, when closed, are linear, and from
their construction prevent sand from entering the air-passages when
the animal desires it. The tail is of fair length, reaching to the
ankle-joint. There is a fixity about its attitudes, and a formality
about its paces, which is quite characteristic. Its power of enduring
fatigue upon its scanty fare, whilst carrying a weight as great as 600
lbs., together with its endurance, makes it invaluable in its desert
home.

[Illustration: (TRUE) CAMEL.]

A stolid obstinacy is its usual disposition. Mr. Palgrave, criticising
the reputation that the animal has for docility, remarks:--“If docile
means stupid, well and good; in such a case the Camel is the very model
of docility. But if the epithet is intended to designate an animal that
takes an interest in its rider so far as a beast can; that in some way
understands his intentions, or shares them in a subordinate fashion;
that obeys from a sort of submissive or half fellow-feeling with his
master, like the Horse or Elephant: then I say that the Camel is by no
means docile--very much the contrary. He takes no heed of his rider,
pays no attention whether he be on his back or not, walks straight on
when once set agoing, merely because he is too stupid to turn aside;
and then, should some tempting thorn or green branch allure him out of
the path, continues to walk on in the new direction simply because he
is too dull to turn back into the right road. In a word, he is from
first to last an undomesticated and savage animal rendered serviceable
by stupidity alone, without much skill on his master’s part, and any
co-operation on his own, save that of an extreme passiveness. Neither
attachment nor even habit impresses him; never tame, though not wide
awake enough to be exactly wild.”

[Illustration: BACTRIAN CAMEL.]

Nevertheless the animal gives indications of intelligence when badly
treated, if we may judge from its revengeful nature, well illustrated
in the following account:--

“A valuable Camel, working in an oil-mill, was severely beaten by its
driver. Perceiving that the Camel had treasured up the injury, and was
only waiting a favourable opportunity for revenge, he kept a strict
watch upon the animal. Time passed away; the Camel, perceiving that it
was watched, was quiet and obedient, and the driver began to think that
the beating was forgotten, when one night, after the lapse of several
months, the man was sleeping on a raised platform in the mill, whilst,
as is customary, the Camel was stabled in a corner. Happening to awake,
the driver observed by the bright moonlight that, when all was quiet,
the animal looked cautiously around, rose softly, and stealing towards
a spot where a bundle of clothes and a bernous, thrown carelessly on
the ground, resembled a sleeping figure, cast itself with violence upon
them, rolling with all its weight, and tearing them most viciously
with its teeth. Satisfied that its revenge was complete, the Camel was
returning to its corner, when the driver sat up and spoke. At the sound
of his voice, and perceiving the mistake it had made, the animal was
so mortified at the failure and discovery of its scheme, that it dashed
its head against the wall and died on the spot.”

THE BACTRIAN CAMEL.[46]

The Two-humped Camel is found in the regions to the east and north of
the home of its One-humped ally, extending as far as Pekin and Lake
Baikal. It it a heavier, shorter-legged, and thicker-coated species, at
the same time that the feet are more adapted to a less yielding soil
from their greater callousness. The hair is specially abundant upon the
top of the head, the arm, wrist, throat, and humps. There is no variety
of this species corresponding to the Dromedary One-humped Camel.

[Illustration: HUANACO ATTACKED BY A PUMA.]

THE LLAMAS.[47]

The Llamas, when the term is employed in its wider sense, include the
American representatives of the Camel tribe, none of which have any
trace of the dorsal hump or humps found in their Old World allies. They
are mountain animals, found in the Cordilleras of Peru and Chili, in
this respect also differing from the desert-loving Camels, with which
they agree in all important structural peculiarities, including the
stomach, lips, nostrils, and coat. The feet are somewhat modified in
accordance with the rocky nature of the mountain regions which they
inhabit, the sole-pads being less considerable, and almost completely
divided into two hard cushions, with a long and hooked nail in the
front of each.

[Illustration: ALPACA.]

Llamas were found domesticated when South America was first discovered
by the Spaniards, and as there were then no Mules or Horses there,
these creatures were employed exclusively as beasts of burden, as well
as for their flesh, their wool, and hides. Their disposition and their
habits also resemble those of the Camel. They have their own peculiar
gait and speed, from which they cannot well be made to vary. When
irritated they foam at the mouth and spit, sulking and lying down when
overloaded. As beasts of draught their most important use is to convey
the ores from the mines of Potosi and elsewhere in the Andean range.
From the account of Augustin de Zerate, who was a Peruvian Spanish
Government official in the middle of the sixteenth century, we learn
that “in places where there is no snow the natives want water, and
to supply this deficiency they fill the skins of Sheep [Llamas being
meant] with water, and make other living _Sheep_ carry them, for it
must be remarked that these _Sheep_ of Peru are large enough to serve
as beasts of burden. They can carry about one hundred pounds or more,
and the Spaniards used to ride them, and they would go four or five
leagues a day. When they are weary they lie down upon the ground,
and as there is no means of making them get up, either by beating or
assailing them, the load must of necessity be taken off. When there is
a man on one of them, if the beast is tired he turns his head round and
discharges his saliva, which has an offensive odour, into the rider’s
face. These animals are of great use and service to their masters, for
their wool is very good and fine, particularly that of the breed called
Pacas, which have very long fleeces; and the expense of their food is
trifling, as a handful of maize suffices them, and they can go four
or five days without water. Their flesh is as good as that of the fat
Sheep of Castile.”

[Illustration: LLAMA.]

It is somewhat difficult to decide exactly the relations of the wild
to the domesticated species of the Llamas. It seems most probable that
there are two true species, known as the Huanacos (_Lama huanacos_) and
the Vicuna (_Lama vicugna_), of the former of which the true Llama is a
domesticated variety, as the Alpaca is of the latter.

The HUANACO--or Guanaco, as it is sometimes written--has a more
elongated head and more slender legs than the Vicuna, at the same
time that there are elongated warty tubercles upon the hinder limbs
not found in the latter species. Its height at the shoulder is three
feet and a half. The fur is uniformly brown, at the same time that it
is rough and short. It can be domesticated without difficulty. Its
tail is short and hairy. Its native haunts are the highlands of Peru
and Chili, as well as farther south, where it lives in herds, which
descend to the valleys in the winter months. When hunted they have a
habit of now and again facing their pursuers, after which they gallop
off afresh. When attacked at close quarters they defend themselves by
striking with their fore-feet. From Mr. Darwin’s account of the animal
in the “Voyage of the _Beagle_,” we learn that it “abounds over the
whole of the temperate parts of South America, from the wooded islands
of Tierra del Fuego, the rough Patagonia, the hilly parts of the La
Plata, Chili, even to the Cordillera of Peru. Although preferring an
elevated site, it yields in this respect to its near relative the
Vicuna; on the plains of Southern Patagonia we saw them in greater
numbers than in any other part. Generally they go in small herds, from
half a dozen to thirty together, but on the banks of the St. Cruz we
saw one herd which must have contained at least five hundred. On the
northern shores of the Strait of Magellan they are also very numerous.
Generally the Guanacoes are wild and extremely wary. The sportsman
frequently receives the first intimation of their presence by hearing
from a distance the peculiar shrill neighing note of alarm. If he then
looks attentively, he will perhaps see the herd standing in a line on
some distant hill. On approaching them, a few more squeals are given,
and then off they set at an apparently slow--but really quick--canter
along some narrow beaten track to a neighbouring hill. If, however, by
chance he should abruptly meet a single animal, or several together,
they will generally stand motionless, and intently gaze at him; then,
perhaps, move on a few yards, turn round, and look again. What is the
cause of this difference in their shyness? Do they mistake a man in the
distance for their chief enemy, the Puma, or does curiosity overcome
their timidity? That they are curious is certain; for if a person lies
on the ground and plays strange antics, such as throwing up his feet
in the air, they will almost always approach by degrees to reconnoitre
him.... On the mountains of Tierra del Fuego, and in other places, I
have more than once seen a Guanaco, on being approached, not only neigh
and squeal, but prance and leap about in the most ridiculous manner,
apparently in defiance as a challenge.... The Guanacoes readily take to
the water; several times at Port Valdez they were seen swimming from
island to island. Byron, in his ‘Voyage,’ says he saw them drinking
salt water. Some of our officers likewise saw a herd drinking the briny
fluid from Salina, near Cape Blanca. I imagine, in several parts of the
country, if they do not drink salt water they drink none at all. In the
middle of the day they frequently roll in the dust in saucer-shaped
hollows.... The Guanacoes appear to have favourite spots for dying
in. On the banks of the St. Cruz the ground was actually white with
bones in certain circumscribed places, which were generally bushy, and
all near the river. On one such spot I counted between ten and twenty
heads, some gnawed, as if by beasts of prey.”

The Domestic Llama resembles its wild ancestor in most respects. Its
colour may, however, be variegated, or even white. Its woolly coat is
longer, but not so fine, and when it is removed by shearing the animal
is conspicuously spotted.

The VICUNA is a smaller animal of a light lion-brown colour, with a
short and hairy face; its neck is lengthy, as in its allies; its height
about two feet six inches. Its wool is particularly fine, and has been
much employed, undyed, as a material for clothing. It is active and
spiteful, inhabiting a region higher and therefore colder than the
Huanaco.

The Alpaca is its domestic form, with thicker and much darker wool,
as well as shorter limbs. Its colour is often nearly black, or black
varied with white or brown.

The manufacture of alpaca stuffs dates from the year 1836, when Mr.
(afterwards Sir) Titus Salt commenced weaving the unusually long-haired
wool, which at the time found no sale in the markets on account of
its not being suited to the existing combing apparatus. Since that
period alpaca has been much employed as a fabric, possibly to be again
replaced in great measure by the sheep wool of the Australian and other
British colonies.

FOSSIL RUMINANTIA.

The study of fossil forms throws as much light upon the development
of existing types of Ruminantia as it does in the case of the
Perissodactyla. Until the last of the three great geologic epochs none
have been found; whilst in the Tertiary strata from Eocene, Miocene,
and Pliocene formations, numerous species are known, resembling
existing types more closely as they are discovered in the more recently
deposited strata.

As might be anticipated from what has been said above, and as is
indicated in the table of classification of the Artiodactyla on page
336, Vol. II., the oldest forms of cloven-hoofed Mammalia must have
been intermediate in structure between the Pigs and Ruminants. Such a
creature existed at the close of the Eocene period in _Chœropotamus_,
discovered first by the illustrious Cuvier in the palæontologically
most interesting gypsum beds at Montmartre. Another specimen has also
been found near Ryde, in the Isle of Wight. The creature was pig-like
in size, and in the tuberculated structure of its grinders, the parts,
together with the lower jaw, alone discovered as yet.

[Illustration: SKELETON OF THE IRISH ELK.]

_Hyopotamus_, _Dichobune_, _Xiphodon_, and _Cainotherium_ were
four-toed Upper Eocene transitional forms approaching the Ruminants,
but all possessing upper cutting-teeth, the last-named differing but
little from the Deerlets. _Oreodon_ is a genus of small pig-like
animals, appearing first in the Miocene of North America, and evidently
closely related to the Ruminantia. _Sivatherium_ was a gigantic
Ruminant with four horns in pairs, and evidently a trunk. Its remains
are found in the Miocene deposits of the Sewalik hills of India. Deer,
Oxen, Goats, and Sheep first appeared in the Pliocene period, as did
Camels and Llamas. Antelopes and Giraffes existed earlier, namely, in
the Late Miocene. It is a fact of interest that Camels are abundant in
the Miocene and Pliocene of North America, whilst they are only very
scantily distributed in the same strata of the Old World, Arabia and
Asia being their sole living habitat.

Among the most interesting of the Pleistocene species which has been
discovered in Great Britain is the gigantic Irish deer, a species
originally included with the Elk, on account of the palmation and
outward inclination of its huge antlers, in some specimens only a few
inches less than eleven feet in span, and each more than five feet
long in a straight line from burr to tip. In general form the antlers
do not strikingly differ from those of the Common Fallow Deer. The
brow-tyne is quite simple at its base, and generally slightly bifid at
its extremity, there being no true “bez.” The beam is cylindroid as far
as the insignificant “trez,” beyond which it is flattened out into a
gigantic triangular expansion, or “palm,” with the free base developed
into snags, usually about seven in number, and a fairly independent
posterior tyne.

[Illustration: IRISH ELK. (_Restored._)]

At the withers the skeleton, which is quite cervine in every detail,
measures as much as six feet; its great peculiarity in the male being
the large size of the cervical or neck vertebræ, necessarily extra
strong that they may support the massive antlers, about seventy pounds
in weight. In the females, which had no cranial appendages, the
vertebræ of the neck were one-third smaller.

The accompanying figure is an attempt to represent the species under
consideration, as it must have appeared when living. It is worthy of
note, however, that as the coat of the Fallow Deer, which may be its
nearest ally, is brilliantly spotted, the great Irish Deer may have
resembled it in that respect.

The first fairly complete skeleton of the species was found in the
Isle of Man. Others have been obtained from Waterford and elsewhere in
Ireland.

A. H. GARROD.

[Illustration: PRAIRIE DOG.]

ORDER RODENTIA.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTION--THE SQUIRREL, MARMOT, ANOMALURE, HAPLODONT, AND BEAVER
FAMILIES.

Character of the Order--A well-defined Group--Teeth
Evidence--Kinds and Number of Teeth--The Incisors: their
Growth, Renewal, and Composition--The Molars--The Gnawing
Process--Skeleton--Brain--Senses--Body--Insectivora
and Rodentia--Food of Rodents--Classification--THE
SIMPLE-TOOTHED RODENTS--Characteristics--THE SQUIRREL-LIKE
RODENTS--SCIURIDÆ--Distinctive Features--THE COMMON
SQUIRREL--Form--Distribution--Food--Bad Qualities--Habits--THE
GREY SQUIRREL--THE FOX SQUIRREL--Flying Squirrels--Their
Parachute Membrane--THE TAGUAN--Appearance--Habits--Other
Species--THE POLATOUCHE--THE ASSAPAN--The Genus
_Xerus_--THE GROUND SQUIRRELS--THE COMMON CHIPMUNK--THE
MARMOTS--Distinguishing Features--THE SPERMOPHILES--THE
GOPHER--THE SISEL, OR SUSLIK--THE BARKING SQUIRRELS--THE PRAIRIE
DOG--Description--Species--Habits--Burrows--Fellow-inmates in their
“Villages”--THE TRUE MARMOTS--THE BOBAC--THE ALPINE MARMOT--THE
WOODCHUCK--THE HOARY MARMOT, OR WHISTLER--ANOMALURIDÆ--Tail
Peculiarity--Distinctive Features--HAPLODONTIDÆ--Description--THE
SEWELLEL--CASTORIDÆ--THE BEAVER--Skeletal Peculiarities--General
Form--Appearance--Distribution--The Beavers of the Old and New
World--Habits--Wonderful Sagacity--The Building Instinct--Their
Method of Working--The various Stages--Their Lodges--Their
Dams--Activity by Night--Flesh--Hunted--The _Castoreum_.

While the last few chapters have been devoted to orders which contain
the largest and most powerful of terrestrial mammalia, we have now to
treat of a group, all the members of which are of comparatively small
size. “Mice, rats, and such small deer,” to use Shakspere’s phrase,
make up a great proportion of the order Rodentia. The biggest of them
is only about the size of a small Pig; and perhaps the common House
Rat, or, at any rate, the common Squirrel, may be taken as showing the
average dimensions of a Rodent. But, although from this point of view
they may be looked upon as “a feeble folk,” their numerous species
render them a most important section of the mammalian fauna of nearly
all countries, and this importance is greatly increased, practically,
by the immense number of individuals by which each species is usually
represented.

The Rodentia, or gnawing mammals--GLIRES, as Linnæus and some modern
zoologists call them--notwithstanding the great number of the species
and the immense variety of forms which they display, constitute,
perhaps, the most definitely circumscribed order of the Mammalia. In
most other groups of the same value, we find that some types exhibit
divergent characters, which render it difficult to frame a general
description of the order which shall include them; or else some species
present a marked tendency towards some other order; but in the case of
the Rodents, we never have any difficulty, a cursory inspection of the
dentition is always sufficient to decide whether a quadruped belongs
to the Rodentia or not; and in spite of an almost infinite variety of
form, the structure of the rest of the organism is most clearly in
accordance with the evidence derived from the teeth.

[Illustration: SKULL OF THE TAGUAN, A FLYING SQUIRREL.]

The teeth are only of two kinds--incisors and grinders (_see_ the
above figure of the skull of the Taguan)--and the number of efficient
teeth of the former kind is never more than two in each jaw. Almost
throughout the order, indeed, there are actually, even from the first,
only two incisors present; but in the Hares and Rabbits, and some
allied forms, there are in the upper jaw, in addition to the working
teeth, a pair of rudimentary incisors,[48] placed immediately behind
the large ones, but quite incapable of taking any part in the business
of gnawing, for which the latter are so admirably fitted. Their
presence is, however, of interest, as indicating the direction in which
an alliance with other forms of Mammalia more abundantly supplied with
teeth is to be sought.

[Illustration: DENTITION OF THE HARE.]

The great incisors, which are characteristic of the Rodents, exhibit
the following peculiarities:--They possess no roots, but spring from
a permanent pulp, so that they continue growing during the whole
life of the animal; and their form, and that of the cavity which
constitutes their socket, is always that of a segment of a circle,[49]
in consequence of which, they always protrude from the front of the
jaws in the same direction, and meet at the same angle. By this means,
as the teeth are worn away at their summits by use in gnawing, a fresh
supply of tooth is continually being pushed forward to take the place
of the portion thus removed, and, in fact, so intimately are the two
functions of use and growth correlated in the teeth of these animals,
that if by chance one of the incisors should get broken, or the natural
opposition of these teeth should be disturbed in consequence of injury
to the jaw, the teeth, thus deprived of their natural check, continue
growing, and, following the curve of their sockets, gradually form
circular tusks, which must always be greatly in the way of the animal
when feeding, and sometimes, by actually penetrating again into the
mouth, cause its death by absolute starvation. The teeth themselves are
composed of dentine, coated along the front surface with a layer of
hard enamel, which substance is wanting on the other surfaces of the
teeth, except in the Hares, Rabbits, and other forms with additional
rudimentary incisors in the upper jaw, in which, as further evidence
of their relationship to the other Mammalia, the whole surface of the
incisors is encased in enamel, although this coat is excessively thin
except on the front or outer face. The purpose of this structure
of the incisors is easily understood. In the action of gnawing, the
dentine, which forms the greater part of the tooth, is more easily
abraded than the harder enamel, which is thus left as a sharp front
edge, to which the mass of dentine behind it, being worn away into
a bevelled surface, gives the necessary firmness and support, the
whole forming a chisel-like instrument, constructed precisely on the
principle of those tools in which a thin plate of hard steel forms the
cutting edge, and is stiffened by a thicker bevelled plate of softer
iron.

The canine teeth are entirely deficient, and behind the incisors
we find on each side a toothless gap of considerable extent (_see_
figures p. 82), beyond which come the grinding teeth. In these it is
difficult to recognise any distinction of molars and pre-molars; the
whole series presents nearly the same structural characters, and for
all practical purposes we may speak of them as molars, although some
zoologists prefer to regard the three hindmost teeth on each side as
true molars, and any others that may be present as premolars. In one
genus (_Hydromys_) the number of grinding teeth is reduced to two on
each side in each jaw; in a great proportion of the species the number
is three; others have four or five grinders on each side, either in one
or both jaws (usually one more in the upper series); and the largest
number is possessed by the Hares and Rabbits, in which the upper jaw
has six and the lower five grinders.[50] The grinders are sometimes
furnished with true roots, but are more commonly open below, and
provided, like the incisors, with a permanent pulp. They are sometimes
tubercular, at least in youth, but generally show a flat, worn surface
with transverse bands, or re-entering folds, and sometimes cylinders of
enamel, which display a great variety of patterns. Sometimes the enamel
is confined to the surface of the tooth; in other cases each tooth is,
as it were, made up of two or more variously-shaped tubular portions
of enamel, filled up with dentine. Curiously enough, this structure
of the grinders, especially the arrangement of the transverse ridges
and plates of enamel in these little animals, reminds us strongly of
the characters of the molars of the gigantic Proboscidea, in which,
moreover, the incisors also are represented by the permanently-growing
tusks.

The articulation of the lower jaw with the skull is peculiar, and in
special relation to the armature of teeth which we have described.
Instead of articulating freely, as in man and many herbivorous mammals,
by which provision is made for a sort of rotatory action of the molars,
or by a regular transverse hinge-joint, as in the Carnivora, the
articulating surfaces are elongated in a direction parallel to the
middle line of the skull, an arrangement which, like that occurring in
Carnivora, has the effect of preventing much lateral movement of the
jaw; but, at the same time, the pits with which the jaw articulates are
open in front, so that the jaw is allowed a certain amount of play,
backwards and forwards. This motion greatly increases the gnawing power
of the large incisor teeth.

[Illustration: SKELETON OF THE RABBIT.]

The head in the Rodents is generally of small or moderate size in
proportion to the body, and the skull is usually rather elongated,
and flattened on the upper surface. The tympanic bullæ are generally
of considerable size; the zygomatic arch is in nearly all cases well
developed; but the orbits of the eyes are never closed behind, and only
in certain families is there even a small process of the zygomatic
arch behind the orbits, as an indication of possible closure. Of
the vertebral column we need only say that the lumbar vertebræ are
remarkable for possessing large transverse processes directed forwards,
and that the tail varies greatly in length, being sometimes longer
than the body, sometimes reduced to very small proportions, whilst
between these two extremes almost every grade of development may be met
with.

The sternum, or breast-bone, is usually long and narrow. Collar-bones
are nearly always present, but in a few forms they become rudimentary,
or even disappear altogether. The pelvis is long and narrow. The limbs
exhibit a very great variety in their development; in many, the two
pairs are nearly equal in length, but in the majority the hind limbs
are distinctly longer and more powerful than their fellows, and in some
groups they attain a most disproportionate length, and serve almost
exclusively as the organs of locomotion. On the other hand, in the
great majority of the order, the fore limbs serve in a certain degree
as hands, and are used for holding the food to the mouth; and in these
the radius and ulna, which are always distinct bones, retain the power
of rotation. The corresponding bones in the hind limbs (tibia and
fibula) are, on the contrary, firmly anchylosed together in two great
groups of the order. The feet have usually five toes, but sometimes
this number is reduced to four, or even to three, in the hind feet.
These toes are armed with claws, which, however, in one family, acquire
more or less of the appearance of hoofs.

In point of intelligence the Rodentia do not stand high. The brain is
comparatively small, and the cerebral hemispheres show no traces of
those convolutions of the surface which are characteristic of most
Mammals (_see_ figures). The Capybara alone is known to have a few
convolutions. The cerebellum is entirely uncovered by the hemispheres.
The organs of the senses are generally well developed, and the eyes
and external ears, especially, are often of large size. In the Mole
Rats and some other burrowing forms, however, the external ears are
entirely wanting, and the eyes are very much reduced in size, and in
some instances even concealed beneath the skin. The intestinal canal is
long, and in all but one family furnished with a distinct cæcum.

[Illustration: BRAIN OF BEAVER (_from above_).]

[Illustration: BRAIN OF BEAVER. (_Profile._)]

The body in the Rodents is generally plump and short, and the head is
borne upon a short neck. The limbs also are usually short, so that the
belly is close to the ground; but in some cases all four legs are of
moderate length, or, as already stated, the hind legs are enormously
developed, forming powerful leaping organs. In general structure, as
to a certain extent in habits, there is, in fact, a most striking
parallelism between the Rodentia and the Insectivora (_see_ Vol. I.,
p. 343); in both we find arboreal and terrestrial forms, and among the
latter some specially organised for burrowing in the earth, and others
equally adapted for springing lightly over its surface; a few, also, in
both orders, are aquatic. But here the parallel ceases. The dentition
in the two groups is widely divergent, and, as might be anticipated
from this circumstance, the food is very different; for, although some
Rodents, such as the common Mouse and Rat, are omnivorous, there is no
doubt that, as a whole, the Rodents must be regarded as vegetarians.
Grass and the leaves of plants and trees furnish some of them with
nourishment; whilst others feed upon fruits, seeds, and nuts, in the
consumption of which last the powerful incisor teeth come into play.
Many species lay up stores of food for the winter season, of which
they pass more or less in a state of torpidity; and some of these are
provided with cheek-pouches, often of considerable size, in which to
convey their harvest into their store-houses.

As might be expected from the great number of species belonging to this
order, and their general uniformity of structure, their classification
is a matter of some difficulty, and very different views as to their
relationships have prevailed at different times. Nowadays, however,
zoologists have arrived at something like uniformity of opinion in
this matter, and except in some minor points they may be said to be
pretty nearly agreed. In the following sketch of the natural history
of the Rodents we shall follow the classification proposed by the
late Mr. E. R. Alston in the _Proceedings of the Zoological Society_.
Mr. Alston accepted the division of the order into two primary groups
(sub-orders), proposed fifty years ago by Professor Gervais, and
characterised by the number of incisor teeth. The first of these
sub-orders, which includes by far the majority of the Rodents, is
formed by those species which never at any period of their lives
possess more than two incisors in the upper jaw, and have the enamel on
these strictly confined to the front surface of the teeth. These are
denominated SIMPLICIDENTATA, or SIMPLE-TOOTHED RODENTS. In the second
group, which includes only the Hares, Rabbits, and Calling Hares, we
have those species which in the adult state possess four incisors in
the upper jaw, namely, two large and efficient teeth, and behind these
two small, almost rudimentary incisors (_see_ figure of the dentition
of the Hare on p. 82). These are called DOUBLE-TOOTHED RODENTS, or
DUPLICIDENTATA.

SUB-ORDER I.--SIMPLE-TOOTHED RODENTS.

Besides the characters derived from the number of incisor teeth above
mentioned, several other peculiarities of structure seem to show the
existence of a decided difference between the Simple-toothed and
Double-toothed Rodents; but most of these are of a rather abstruse
nature, and need not be noticed here, the most important additional
distinctive characters of the former being that the bony palate is well
developed, and that the fibula does not articulate with the calcaneum,
or heel-bone; whereas in the Double-toothed Rodents the palate is
reduced to a mere bridge between the portions of the upper jaw in
which the teeth are inserted, and the fibula does articulate with the
heel-bone.

The Simplicidentata include a great number of families, and various
attempts have been made to group these under larger heads; but it must
be confessed that, owing to the way in which the families approach one
another, it is difficult to bring them together in sections capable of
being very strictly defined. Certain broad principles of relationship
are, however, generally recognised, and Mr. Alston represented these
by placing the Simple-toothed families under three great sections, the
first indicated by Mr. Waterhouse--the Squirrel-like, Mouse-like, and
Porcupine-like Rodents.

The Squirrel-like Rodents have four molars on each side in the lower
jaw, and either four or five in the upper. When the latter number
is present, the foremost tooth is smaller than the rest. The fibula
remains as a distinct bone through life, and is usually quite free,
although sometimes attached to the tibia at the extremity. The upper
lip is usually cleft, the muffle is small and naked, and the nostrils
are comma-shaped, with the rounded part above. The zygomatic arch is
formed chiefly by the process of the malar bone, which is not supported
below by a continuation of the zygomatic process of the maxillary. The
collar-bones are perfect. The tail is usually cylindrical and hairy.

The Mouse-like Rodents agree with the preceding in the characters of
the upper lip, muffle, and nostrils, but they have the tibia and fibula
completely united for at least the last third of their length. The
zygomatic arch is slender, and the malar process rarely extends so far
forward as in the preceding group and is generally supported below by
a continuation of the maxillary process. The collar-bones are perfect,
except in one very small family; and the tail is cylindrical, and
although sometimes hairy, more commonly covered with scales arranged in
rings. The number of molar teeth in this section varies from three to
six[51] on each side in each jaw, but three is the most usual number.

[Illustration: TEETH OF THE TAGUAN.]

The Porcupine-like Rodents, with one exception, have four molars on
each side in both jaws; the fibula distinct throughout life; the upper
lip rarely cleft; the muffle clad with a velvety coat of fine hairs;
and the nostrils either S-shaped or straight. The zygomatic arch is
stout, and the malar process does not advance far forward, nor is it
supported below by the maxillary process.

SECTION I.--(_SCIUROMORPHA._) SQUIRREL-LIKE RODENTS.

FAMILY I.--SCIURIDÆ.

This first family, which includes the true Squirrels and the Marmots,
is distinguished from the rest of the section by the possession of five
rooted molars on each side of the upper jaw (_see_ figure of the teeth
on p. 85), the first being very small and sometimes deciduous, and
four molars on each side of the lower jaw, and by the presence on the
skull and zygomatic arch of small processes, indicating the posterior
boundary of the orbits (_see_ figure of the skull on p. 82). The molars
are tubercular, at least at first; but the summits of the tubercles are
generally more or less worn down as the animal increases in age.

[Illustration: COMMON SQUIRREL.]

The true Squirrels, which may be regarded as the types of this family,
are distinguished by their slender and graceful forms, and their long
and generally bushy tails, the latter character having originated
their classical name of _Sciurus_, as a compound of two Greek words,
indicating their habit of carrying their tails thrown up, so as to
shade the back. Our COMMON SQUIRREL (_Sciurus vulgaris_) may serve
as a good example of this division of the family. It is too well
known as a pet to need any detailed description; its elegant form and
graceful movements, the rich brownish-red colour of its upper surface,
contrasting with the white of the belly, and the beautifully-pencilled
or tufted ears, which, combined with its bright black eye, give it such
a lively appearance, must be familiar to every one. When full-grown,
the Squirrel measures from eight to ten inches in length of body, and
has a tail seven or eight inches long. British specimens are generally
smaller than those from the Continent of Europe. It varies considerably
in colour with the seasons, especially in northern regions; but even
in Central Europe and in Britain the fur of the sides and back becomes
mixed with a certain quantity of greyish-white hairs in the winter,
whilst in Lapland and Siberia the whole upper surface acquires a grey
tint at that season. In the summer also the ear-tufts diminish, or
altogether disappear. In the Alps and Pyrenees, there is a variety
having the back of a dark brown colour, speckled with yellowish-white.
This has been described as a distinct species, under the name of
_Sciurus alpinus_.

The Common Squirrel is a widely-distributed species. It is abundant all
over Europe, except, according to Pallas, in the Crimea, and extends
beyond the Ural Mountains through the whole length of Southern Siberia
to the Altai and the Amoor region. It occurs in the Caucasus, and
probably in Persia. Everywhere it haunts the woods and forests, living
chiefly upon the trees, among the branches of which it displays the
most astonishing agility. On the ground--to which, however, it does
not often descend--it is equally quick in its movements. If alarmed
under these circumstances, it dashes off to the nearest tree with
lightning-like rapidity, and by the aid of its sharp claws rushes up
the trunk till it has reached what it considers a safe elevation,
when the little sharp face and bright eyes may be seen peeping at the
intruder, apparently in triumph over his supposed disappointment.

The food of the Squirrel consists chiefly of nuts, beech-mast, acorns,
and the young bark, shoots, and buds of trees. In eating the former
articles, they are held in the fore-paws, which thus supply the place
of hands, and the strong incisors soon make a way through the outer
shells into the contained kernels, which alone are eaten; for in all
cases in which the kernel is coated with a coarse brown skin (as in
the common hazel-nuts), the Squirrel carefully removes every particle
of this from the portions on which he feeds. The bark, buds, and young
shoots of trees seem generally to be attacked by the Squirrel when he
finds a deficiency of other and more congenial nourishment; but this
is so regularly the case in the spring of the year, that these animals
actually cause a great amount of damage to the trees in forest regions.
Hence, not unnaturally, the Squirrel is regarded in forest countries
as a most mischievous little animal, whose depredations are not to be
condoned on account of its elegant appearance and lively habits. As
another unamiable quality, may be mentioned its habit of plundering
birds’ nests and eating the eggs, which appears to be established upon
unquestionable evidence. In some northern regions the inhabitants
turn their Squirrels to a more profitable use than putting them, as
we so often do, into a sort of treadmill. In Lapland and some parts
of Siberia, especially on the banks of the Lena, these animals are
killed in great numbers for the sake of their grey winter-coats, which,
however, are not equal in beauty to those of the north American Grey
Squirrel.

The Squirrel passes the greater part of the winter in a torpid state,
lying coiled up in some hole of a tree, where its long bushy tail is
of service in keeping it warm and comfortable. On fine and warm days,
however, it rouses itself from its slumbers; and, as if foreseeing
the occurrence of such days, it lays up in the autumn stores of nuts,
acorns, and beech-mast, upon which it can feed when it wakes during
the winter. This winter provision is not laid up all in one place, but
stored away in several different holes in trees surrounding the place
of its own retreat.

Squirrels appear to be strictly monogamous, pairing for life, and
constantly inhabiting the same dwelling. The young, three or four in
number, are produced in June, and for their reception the parents
prepare a very beautifully constructed nest, formed of interlaced moss,
leaves, and vegetable fibres, which is placed either in the hole of a
tree, or in the fork between two branches. The young Squirrels are
very carefully attended by both parents, and the family remains united
until the following spring, when the young go out to find partners, and
settle themselves in the world.

The Common Squirrel may serve as an example of the whole genus
_Sciurus_, which includes the ordinary Tree Squirrels, the species
of which are very numerous, probably more than one hundred, and
distributed over nearly all parts of the world. The species are most
numerous in the warm Oriental regions, in India, and the countries
and islands lying to the east of it, from which nearly fifty species
have been recorded. The northern parts of the Old World only possess
half a dozen species, but North America has about eighteen, many of
which are considerably larger than the European Squirrel. The most
striking of the North American species are the GREY SQUIRREL (_Sciurus
carolinensis_) and the FOX SQUIRREL (_Sciurus niger_), both of which
are abundant in the Atlantic States, and vary considerably in colour,
presenting both grey and black individuals.

[Illustration: BLACK FOX SQUIRREL.]

Besides the ordinary Squirrels, a considerable number of other species
are arboreal in their habits, and, indeed, even more strictly so than
the true Squirrels. These are the Flying Squirrels, as they are called,
which may be at once distinguished from the others by the presence
of a large fold of skin, extending along the sides of the body, and
including the limbs as far as the wrists and heels (_see_ figure on
next page). In the case of the Common Squirrels, it is observed that
in performing leaps of any considerable extent the limbs are stretched
out, and the long, bushy tail extended, so as to give the animal as
large a surface as possible; but in the Flying Squirrels, as in the
Flying Lemur (Vol. I., p. 344), when the limbs are extended laterally
the folds of skin (_patagia_) become tightly stretched, and form a
regular parachute, which seems to give the animal essential support in
its most extensive leaps. The extent of this membrane is increased by
means of a sort of bony spur, which articulates with the wrist.

The TAGUAN (_Pteromys petaurista_) is a large species, indeed, the
largest of the whole family Sciuridæ. It measures about two feet long,
and has a bushy tail of nearly equal length. Its ears are pointed, but
not tufted, and its eyes are large and prominent. Its colour above
is greyish-black, produced by a mixture of entirely black hairs with
others having the tips greyish-white; beneath it is greyish-white.
About the head and on the limbs the fur is tinged with brown or
chestnut brown, and the lateral folds are sometimes of the latter
colour, sometimes blackish-brown above and grey beneath. The tail is
rounded in its form.

This species inhabits the peninsula of India and Ceylon, Malacca and
Siam, where it is found only in the forests, living in trees, either
singly or in pairs. Its activity is chiefly nocturnal, in which respect
it differs from the ordinary Squirrels. During the day it sleeps in
the holes of trees, but at night it comes forth, climbing and leaping
with the greatest rapidity about the trees on which it lives. While
thus engaged the lateral membranes are loosely folded at the sides of
the body; but from time to time the Squirrel wishes to pass from one
tree to another at some distance, and then it ascends to a considerable
elevation and springs off, at the same time extending all four limbs
as much as possible, when the tightly-stretched folds of skin lend
the body a support, which enables it to glide through the air to some
distance, although it seems always to alight at a lower level than that
from which it started. During these aerial excursions the long bushy
tail serves as a sort of rudder, and enables the animal even to change
its course during flight. Of the habits of the Taguan very little is
known. It appears to feed upon fruits, and is exceedingly shy and
fearful. Of a nearly-allied species which he observed in China, Mr.
Swinhoe says that the nest, which was placed high up in a large tree,
measured about three feet in diameter, and was composed of interlaced
twigs, and lined with dry grass. It contained only a single young
Squirrel; but this might be exceptional.

[Illustration: TAGUAN.]

Some nine or ten additional species of the genus _Pteromys_, which
includes the Flying Squirrels with cylindrical tails, are found in
the forest regions of India and of the countries to the east of that
peninsula, including China, Formosa, and Japan. The same region also
harbours three or four species of another kind of Flying Squirrel, in
which the long hairs of the tail are arranged in two rows, and the
tail is flat instead of cylindrical. These animals, to which the name
of _Sciuropterus_ has been given, are, however, more numerous in the
north, where their distribution extends from Lapland and Finland,
through Siberia, to Northern China and Japan. Squirrels of this genus
also occur over the whole continent of North America and as far
south as Guatemala. The best known of the Old World species is the
POLATOUCHE (_Sciuropterus volans_), which inhabits the north-eastern
parts of Europe and nearly the whole of Siberia. It is an elegant
little creature, about six inches in length, and with a broad, flat
tail, rather shorter than the body: as, indeed, is the case in all
the _Sciuropteri_. Its silky coat is in summer of a tawny brown on
the upper surface, darker on the flying membrane and the outsides
of the limbs, beneath pure white; whilst the tail is greyish above
and light rusty red beneath. In winter the fur becomes longer and
thicker, and appears of a silver grey colour on the upper surface.
The Polatouche lives in the birch woods, or in places where pines,
firs, and birches grow intermingled; but the presence of the birch
seems to be a necessity of its existence. It is met with singly or in
pairs, but always on the trees, sleeping during the day in its nest
or in the hole of a tree, and coming forth at dusk to climb and leap
about the branches with great agility. In going from tree to tree by
the aid of its lateral membranes, it is said to cover distances of
twenty or thirty yards with ease, always, however, taking its leap from
the highest branches of the tree it starts from, and alighting at a
considerably lower level. Its food consists of nuts, seeds, berries,
the buds, young shoots, and catkins of the birch, and the young shoots
of pines and firs. The nest is made in the hole of a tree, carefully
lined with soft moss and herbage. Like the Common Squirrel, the
Polatouche sleeps through the cold weather, but wakes up from time to
time and goes out in search of food.

[Illustration: POLATOUCHE.]

This group of Flying Squirrels is also represented on the North
American continent. The number of species seems rather uncertain, some
authors making it two, others four; while Mr. J. A. Allen regards all
the North American Flying Squirrels as belonging to a single species,
which varies greatly in size in different localities. This species
is the ASSAPAN (_Sciuropterus volucella_), one of the smallest of
its family, the length of its head and body being only from four and
three-quarters to seven and a half inches; the smaller specimens
(var. _volucella_) being found in the more southern States, and even
as far south as Guatemala; and the larger ones (var. _hudsonius_) in
more northern localities. In its habits this elegant little Squirrel
resembles the Polatouche, but appears to be more sociable. It thrives
well in confinement.

Besides these Tree Squirrels, a few species of the Sciurine sub-family
live upon the ground. In Abyssinia and in other parts of Africa some
curious animals, forming the genus _Xerus_, are found, distinguished
by their very small ears, longish limbs, and the singular texture of
their hair, which scantily clothes the skin and generally takes the
form of flattened spines. They have a slender body, a pointed head,
and a longish tail. These animals live in elevated forest regions,
and even upon comparatively barren steppes, where they burrow in the
ground under rocks, or among the roots of trees and bushes. They are
diurnal, and feed chiefly upon buds and herbage, but also devour small
birds, eggs, and insects. The best known species (_Xerus rutilans_) is
about twenty inches long, of which the tail makes about nine inches.
Its colour is reddish-yellow above, becoming paler on the sides, and
whitish below.

[Illustration: COMMON CHIPMUNK.]

The true GROUND SQUIRRELS (_Tamias_) are distinguished from the rest
of the Squirrels (_Sciurinæ_), and approach the Marmots, which form a
second sub-family of Sciuridæ. Like some of the latter, they possess
large cheek-pouches opening into the mouth. The ears in this genus are
short; the fourth toe of the fore feet is longer than the rest, as in
all the Sciurinæ; the limbs are short, and nearly equal in length; and
the tail is shorter than in the true Squirrels. In general form and
appearance, however, the Ground Squirrels greatly resemble the latter,
except that they are rather stouter in the body. Four species of this
group inhabit the continent of North America, where they are known as
Chipmunks; and one of these, according to Mr. J. A. Allen, is identical
with the only known Old World species (_Tamias asiaticus_), which is
found in North-eastern Europe and across Northern Asia, as far as the
mouth of the Amoor, North China, and Japan. This species, which goes
by different names in the different localities which it inhabits,
and the COMMON CHIPMUNK (_Tamias striatus_) of the United States,
agree very closely in all respects, and are exceedingly pretty little
animals, with light-coloured fur adorned with darker stripes, varied
in the case of the Chipmunk with streaks of white. They are from eight
to ten inches long, including the tail. These animals live in burrows
in the ground, and feed upon nuts, acorns, grain, and other seeds
of various kinds, of which they lay up great stores in the autumn,
carrying home their provisions in their cheek-pouches, which they
stuff as full as they can hold. In this way they do no small damage to
cultivated grounds near their haunts, plundering the corn and maize
fields very freely; over eight pounds of corn in the ear are often
found in the granaries of the Siberian form. The burrow is made deep
enough to protect the animals from frost in winter, and the sleeping
chamber contains a large nest of leaves and grass, in which several
individuals, probably the parents with their grown-up family, sleep
through the cold weather; but it must be remarked that their torpidity
is very imperfect, and that they have frequent recourse to the supplies
of food which they have stored up during the summer and autumn in
separate chambers at the ends of lateral passages. These stores are so
large that they generally greatly exceed the wants of the provident
little animals, and in the spring the residue is greedily devoured by
Wild Pigs and Bears. Even the poorer human inhabitants of the countries
frequented by the Ground Squirrels do not disdain to eke out their
scanty means of subsistence by plundering the hoards of these animals.
Many of them perish in severe winters, great numbers are destroyed by
man, by the smaller Carnivora, and by birds of prey, but, nevertheless,
they manage to hold their own, in consequence of the great fertility of
the females, which produce several young twice in the year, namely, in
May and August. At pairing time the males fight violently.

[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH OF THE MARMOT.]

From the Ground Squirrels we pass, by a perfectly natural transition,
to the MARMOTS (_Arctomyinæ_), the second sub-family of Sciuridæ. These
animals differ from the preceding forms by their broader incisors,
shorter tail, and stouter form of body, and by having the third finger
longer than the rest. The first upper molar, also, is larger and more
persistent than in the Squirrels, and the other molars differ in
structure (_see_ figure). The Marmots are all terrestrial animals,
living and storing provisions in burrows, which they dig in the ground,
and they are strictly confined to the northern parts of the two
hemispheres.

[Illustration: STRIPED SPERMOPHILE, OR GOPHER.]

[Illustration: BURROWS OF THE PRAIRIE DOG.]

The nearest approach to the Squirrels is made by the SPERMOPHILES
(_Spermophilus_), several species of which occur in North America
from Mexico to the Arctic regions, but never to the east of the
great central prairie region; whilst in the Old World their domain
extends from Silesia, through Russia, and across Asia, to the Amoor
and Kamstchatka. The Spermophiles are Squirrel-like in form and have
rather short tails, but in the American species this organ is generally
longer than in those of the Eastern continent. On the thumb the claw is
either very small or altogether wanting; the two series of molars are
nearly parallel, and the mouth is furnished with large cheek-pouches.
The ears are very small. These animals live in society, and prefer
a dry, sandy, or loamy soil, in which they can easily make their
burrows, which terminate in a chamber lined with grass and herbage,
and have, besides, side-chambers, in which provisions can be stored
for winter use. Like the other species of the family, the Spermophiles
pass the winter in a state of partial torpidity. In the summer they
are exceedingly lively and playful. Their food consists of roots,
berries, and seeds of various kinds, and their winter stores of these
articles are carried into the burrows in their large cheek-pouches.
The females are very prolific, producing from four to eight young at
a birth, and in some cases even as many as ten have been found. The
commonest and most widely distributed of the North American species is
the STRIPED SPERMOPHILE, or GOPHER (_Spermophilus tredecimlineatus_),
a pretty little creature of from six to eight inches long, usually of
a chestnut brown colour with seven yellowish-white lines running along
the back and between these six rows of small squarish spots of the same
colour. This species extends its range from the Red River in Canada
southwards as far as Texas, and is common on the prairies east of the
Mississippi. This and some other species of the genus are said to be
very carnivorous in their habits, preying upon small birds and mammals;
and the Gopher was even described as feeding upon the flesh of Bisons,
which it found lying dead on the prairies. The other American species
are more local in their distribution; four of them occur in Mexico, and
one of these is only known from that country. Of the Old World species
the best known is the SISEL, or SUSLIK (_Spermophilus citillus_), which
is abundant in Central and Eastern Europe and in Siberia. Several
other species are known from Asia Minor, Siberia, and Central Asia.

The BARKING SQUIRRELS, or PRAIRIE DOGS, of which two species (_Cynomys
ludovicianus_, _see_ figure on p. 81, and _C. columbianus_) are found
in the United States of America, are of a stouter form than the
Spermophiles, and have the ears and tail short. The claws are well
developed on all the toes of the fore feet, the cheek-pouches are
shallow, and the two rows of grinding teeth converge towards the back
of the mouth. These animals are peculiar to North America, where the
former inhabits the prairies east of the Rocky Mountains, and the
latter is found on the plains of the Columbia river, and in other parts
of the western territories as far south as New Mexico. The best known
of the two species is the _Cynomys ludovicianus_, to which the name of
the PRAIRIE DOG was first applied: this name being given to it from
a fancied resemblance of its voice to the barking of a small Dog. It
measures about a foot in length, and its tail is about four inches
long. Its colour on the upper surface is reddish-brown, variegated with
grey, and with a few scattered black hairs; the tail is flattened,
and brownish-black towards the end, and the lower surface is brownish
or yellowish-white. These animals live together in great societies,
especially upon those portions of the prairies where the so-called
buffalo-grass (_Sesleria dactyloides_) grows most luxuriantly, this
grass and succulent roots constituting their chief food. They live
in burrows, which they dig in the ground at a distance of twelve or
fifteen feet apart; a hard-beaten path runs from burrow to burrow, and
would seem to give evidence of the sociable disposition of the animals;
and at the mouth of every burrow there is a little hillock, formed by
the earth thrown out of it, which serves the occupant as a watch-tower.
These burrows are usually so numerous upon favourable pieces of ground
that the space occupied by them is quite populous, and presents a scene
of considerable animation when the inhabitants are out in the pursuit
of their business or their pleasure, and hence they are in common
parlance spoken of as “towns” or “villages.” Their curious appearance
is heightened by the almost constant presence in them of numerous small
Owls, of the species known as the Burrowing Owl (_Athene cunicularia_),
a widely-spread species, which in some places digs its own subterranean
habitation, but on these prairies saves itself the trouble by taking
possession of the deserted abodes of the Prairie Dogs. These birds are
diurnal in their habits, and are to be seen mixed up with the Prairie
Dogs in their settlements. Another inhabitant of the burrows is the
Rattlesnake; and some of the earlier observers thought that the Prairie
Dogs, Owls, Rattlesnakes, and some other animals, such as Horned Frogs
and an occasional Tortoise, occupied the same burrow, and lived there
on the most amicable footing. Unfortunately, this paradisaic picture
is an imaginary one. It is true that the Rattlesnake does take up his
abode in the Prairie Dog’s burrows, but he either selects a deserted
one, or dispossesses, and perhaps devours, the rightful owner; and his
object in his residence among the lively little Marmots is anything
rather than peaceful, as they constitute his favourite food. The little
Burrowing Owl has also been said by some writers to feed on the young
Prairie Dogs; but this is not proved, and the food of the Owls is known
to consist chiefly of Grasshoppers and Crayfish. According to the
latitude in which they live, the Prairie Dogs seem to be more or less
subject to torpidity during the winter.

The true MARMOTS (_Arctomys_) are nearly related to the Prairie Dogs.
They are stout in the body, have a short tail, and a rudimentary thumb
with a flat nail; and are either entirely destitute of cheek-pouches
or have mere indications of those organs. The rows of molar teeth
are placed nearly parallel to each other in each jaw. The skull is
broad and flat above, with a depression between the orbits; and
the post-orbital processes are larger than in any other Sciuridæ.
The Marmots are confined to the Northern hemisphere, but over it
they are widely distributed in both continents. Of the Old World
species, the best known are the BOBAC (_Arctomys Bobac_) and the
ALPINE MARMOT (_A. Marmota_), of which the former extends from the
south of Poland and Galicia over the whole of Southern Russia and
Siberia to the Amoor region and Kamstchatka, whilst it is found in
elevated situations as far southward as Cashmere, Tibet, and the
Himalayas; and the latter inhabits only the higher regions of the Alps,
Pyrenees, and Carpathians. In North America the common species is the
WOODCHUCK (_Arctomys Monax_), the distribution of which is from the
Carolinas northward to Hudson’s Bay, and westward from the Atlantic
coast to Missouri, Iowa, and Minnesota; the Rocky Mountain region
is inhabited by a distinct species (_A. flaviventer_); and a third
very large species, the HOARY MARMOT, or WHISTLER (_A. pruinosus_),
which measures from twenty-three to twenty-five inches in length of
body, appears to be most abundant in the north-western parts of the
continent, and is said to range northward as far as the Arctic Circle.
The Marmots live usually in large societies in extensive burrows, which
they form underground; and in some localities, as on the great plains
of Russia and Siberia, their dwelling-places are described as producing
a remarkable effect, owing to the multitude of little hillocks formed
by the earth thrown out of their burrows. During the summer they are in
a state of constant activity, playing and running about in search of
food in the neighbourhood of their dwellings. The winter they pass in a
state of torpidity, in a comfortable chamber lined with soft herbage,
and protected from the outside cold by the closure of the main passage
leading into their abode. For a time after their retirement for the
winter they continue active in their domicile, and feed upon the stores
of food which they have laid up during the summer; and as a preparation
for their winter sleep, they become exceedingly fat during the autumn.
The Marmots are the largest members of their family, and, indeed, some
of them may be reckoned among the larger Rodents. The Alpine Marmot
measures more than twenty inches in length, and the Bobac about fifteen
inches, exclusive of the tail.

[Illustration: ALPINE MARMOT.]

FAMILY II.--ANOMALURIDÆ.

Some curious African animals, closely resembling the Flying Squirrels,
and at first regarded as belonging to that group, were formed by Mr.
Waterhouse into a distinct genus, which he called _Anomalurus_, in
allusion to the peculiar characters presented by their tail. This
organ, which is long and well clothed with hair, although not so bushy
as in the true Squirrels, has on the lower surface of its basal portion
a double series of horny scales, which project from the skin, and
probably serve to assist the animal in climbing upon the branches of
trees.

Besides this peculiarity, these animals exhibit certain other
characters which have induced modern zoologists to separate them from
the Squirrels as a distinct family. Thus, the post-orbital processes
are wanting, or nearly so; the infra-orbital openings are large; the
molar teeth are four in number on each side, above and below, nearly
equal in size, and not tubercular, but with a flat surface, crossed by
transverse loops of enamel; and the palate is contracted in front and
deeply notched behind. In the skeleton we find sixteen pairs of ribs,
whereas in the Squirrels there are only twelve or thirteen pairs; and
the internal anatomy, first described by Mr. Alston, is very peculiar.
The flying membrane is quite as largely developed as in the Flying
Squirrels, and is in the same manner extended from the wrists to the
heels, and further supported by cartilaginous spurs starting from the
fore limbs; but, whilst in the Flying Squirrels this spur springs from
the wrist itself, in the Anomalures it projects from the elbow, and
thus produces a still greater extension of the membrane. The ears are
well developed, the eyes large, and the general aspect both of head and
body completely squirrel-like. Six species of this family have been
described, all from the West Coast of Africa. One of them occurs in the
island of Fernando Po. The species figured (_Anomalurus fulgens_) is
from the Gaboon. It is a handsome little creature, of a bright reddish
colour, paler below, and having a small white spot between the ears.
Its length is fourteen inches, and its tail is seven inches long. In
some of the other species the tail is as long as the body. Of the
habits of these animals little is positively known, but they are said
to feed upon fruits. They probably resemble the Flying Squirrels in
their general mode of life.

[Illustration: FULGENT ANOMALURE (From the _Proceedings of the
Zoological Society_).]

[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH OF THE ANOMALURE.]

FAMILY III.--HAPLODONTIDÆ.

This is another small family, smaller even than the preceding one, for
it includes only a single known species, limited in its range to the
western coast of North America. This is the Sewellel, a little Rodent,
first observed by the American travellers, Lewis and Clarke, in 1805
or 1806, described in 1814 by Rafinesque under the name of _Anisonyx
rufa_, and afterwards, in 1829, by Sir John Richardson, as the type
of a new genus, as _Aplodontia leporina_. This generic name has been
corrected, in accordance with its derivation, by more recent writers,
to _Haplodon_, from which the name of the family has been formed.

In this animal there are five molars in the upper and four in the
lower jaw; the first upper molar is very small, and all these teeth
are rootless, simple, and prismatic, the surface of each tooth being
surrounded by a mere border of enamel. The skull is very flat, very
wide behind, and furnished with large zygomatic arches; between
the orbits and in front it is much contracted, and there are no
post-orbital processes. In the lower jaw the angular portion is twisted
so as to form a horizontal ridge. The body is stout and clumsy, the
tail very short, and the claws of the fore feet (which are five-toed,
as well as the hind ones) are very powerful; in fact, as Dr. Coues
says, “The whole organisation, viewed externally, indicates terrestrial
and highly fossorial habits.”

The SEWELLEL (_Haplodon rufus_) is about a foot long, with a tail
of an inch or an inch and a half; its colour is brownish, with an
intermixture of black hairs, lighter and more greyish below. The
whiskers, claws, and upper surface of the feet are whitish, and
the incisor teeth yellow. It inhabits the Washington and Oregon
territories, from the Rocky Mountains to the shores of the Pacific, and
extends also into the southern portions of British Columbia and the
upper parts of California.

The Sewellel is described as having very much the same habits as
the Prairie Dog, living in society, burrowing very readily in the
ground, and feeding on roots and berries. Their companies, however,
seem to be much smaller than those of the Prairie Dog, and they are
said chiefly to frequent spring-heads in rich, moist places. They are
described as having the curious habit of neatly cutting off some herb
or plant, which, when packed in bundles, they lay out and expose to
the sun to dry; this is probably for the purpose of storing for winter
consumption. It seems to be uncertain whether the Sewellel is torpid
during the winter, but probably in this respect it varies according to
local conditions or the coldness of the seasons. Dr. Suchley believes
that the Sewellel has several litters of young during the season. The
Indians trap them, and esteem them very highly as food. Cloaks or
blankets are made of their skins, which are sewn together with fibres
derived from the sinews of the Elk and Deer. A robe described by Sir
John Richardson was composed of twenty-seven skins.

FAMILY IV.--CASTORIDÆ.

Unlike as the Beaver may be to a Squirrel, it yet presents many
characters which prove that its nearest affinity is to the animals
which compose the group Sciuromorpha. This relationship has indeed
been overlooked by many zoologists, but Mr. Alston and Mr. Allen have
clearly shown that Professor Gervais was right in placing the Castoridæ
in close juxtaposition with the Squirrels. The peculiarities which make
the apparent discrepancy so striking are indeed chiefly those by which
the Beaver is adapted to an aquatic life.

[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH OF THE BEAVER.]

The Beaver, which is the sole living representative of this family, is
a more powerful animal than any of the preceding, and his incisor teeth
and the means of working them are especially well developed. The head
is large and the skull massive, and furnished with a distinct median
(sagittal) crest for the insertion of the strong muscles which move the
lower jaw. There are no post-orbital processes. There are four molars
on each side in each jaw, and these are nearly similar in size and
structure; but, contrary to what we have seen in the preceding groups,
the first molar is the largest, and the others diminish in size towards
the hinder end of the row. The series of teeth in the two sides of the
mouth converge toward the front; and the teeth themselves, which are
for a long time rootless, and only close up to form a simple root when
the animal grows old, show three folds or loops of enamel on one side,
and a single fold on the other: the three folds entering from the outer
surface of the tooth in the upper jaw, and from its inner surface in
the lower.

The general form is stout and heavy, especially in the hinder parts;
the tail is of moderate length, broad, flattened, and covered with a
scaly skin; the feet are all five-toed, the fore pair considerably
smaller than the hinder, but all well furnished with claws, and the
hinder pair fully webbed to the extremities of the toes. The wrist has
a large ossicle, in addition to those usually composing that part
of the body. The eyes are small, have the pupil vertical, and are
furnished with a nictitating membrane; the ears are small and short,
and their antitragus can be so applied to the head as almost entirely
to close the auditory aperture; and the nostrils are also so arranged
as to be capable of closing.

[Illustration: BEAVER.]

The Beaver is usually about two feet and a half long, and is,
therefore, one of the largest of the Rodentia, except the Capybara.
The tail, which is flattened above and below, and of an elongated
oval form, measures about ten inches. The muffle is naked; the ears
scaly; the soles of all the feet are naked, and their upper surfaces
clothed with hairs; and the second toe of the hind feet is usually
furnished with a double claw, the additional one being placed beneath
the other. The general colour of the fur is reddish-brown on the upper
surface, lighter and greyish below. The colour varies a little in
different individuals, and appears to become darker, or even blackish,
in northern localities. White or pied individuals are not uncommon.
The Beaver appears to increase in size for some years after it has
attained maturity. Mr. Allen says that in America “two-year-old Beavers
generally weigh about thirty-five to forty pounds, while very old ones
occasionally attain a weight of upwards of sixty.” The size of the
skull seems to increase throughout life; the thickness and density
of the bones also increase, and the ridges for the attachment of the
muscles become stronger in old individuals.

The Beaver is, or has been, distributed generally over all the northern
parts of the Northern hemisphere, especially in the forest regions.
Formerly it ranged over the whole of Europe, including the British
islands, where there is historical evidence of its former existence,
besides the skulls and bones which have been found in various places,
but especially in the Fen lands. At present the animal appears to be
completely exterminated in the southern parts of Europe from France
southwards, with the exception of a small colony on the Rhone, which we
believe is still in existence; and only a very few individuals survive
in Germany, where they are found on a tributary of the Elbe, and in one
or two other places. In some parts of Poland, Russia, and Austria, and
in the Scandinavian peninsula, they still, to a greater or less extent,
hold their ground; and in Asia they abound about the rivers of Siberia,
and in the streams which flow into the Caspian Sea. In North America
Beavers formerly abounded from Texas, and, according to manuscript
evidence cited by Mr. Allen, even from Mexico, northward to the extreme
limit of forest growth, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast. The
constant pursuit to which the animals were subjected, in consequence of
the demand for their skins, greatly diminished their numbers, and in
many localities altogether exterminated them; but they still occur over
a very large extent of the North American continent, especially in the
western territories, where they are even abundant in some of the wilder
parts.

In the preceding statements we have spoken of the Beaver as forming a
single species; but it has long been a moot question with zoologists
whether the Beavers of the Old and New Worlds were or were not
specifically identical. The external differences are very slight,
and those observed in the skull, upon which most stress has been
laid, do not appear to be of sufficient importance for the separation
of the animals as distinct species. They consist chiefly in the
greater breadth of the anterior portion of the skull, including the
inter-orbital space; the extension farther back of the nasal bones,
the greater size and depth of the basilar cavity and the more anterior
position of the auditory bullæ, in the European Beaver; but the
examination of large series of specimens has proved that the skulls
from both hemispheres present many exceptions, in which one or more
of the peculiarities which they ought to exhibit do not occur: a
circumstance which of necessity greatly invalidates the distinction
founded upon such characters. Dr. Ely sums up the results of an
extended investigation in the following words:--“The extremes of
difference, in their aggregate, on the one side and on the other, are
sufficiently striking to justify us in regarding them as varieties
of one and the same species; while the want of constancy in these
peculiarities suggests the inference that these variations are due to
long separation of the races, and to accidental causes, rather than to
original diversity of the stock.” The Beaver may thus be regarded as a
species with two geographical forms (varieties or sub-species), viz.,
_Castor fiber_, var. _europæus_, and _Castor fiber_, var. _canadensis_.

So much has been written upon the habits of the Beaver, that the
following short statement will suffice to give the leading facts in the
natural history of the animal, the accounts of the marvellous sagacity
of which, given by the older writers, have, perhaps, invested it with
an exaggerated interest.

In populous countries the Beaver is contented, like the Otter, with a
long burrow for his residence; but in the wilder regions of Siberia and
North America his dwelling-place is a much more complicated affair. But
even in these regions, according to some authorities, a certain number
of Beavers--always males--show a lazy unwillingness to take part in the
common labours of the colony, and these, as idlers, are expelled from
the community, often with rather severe treatment, and then take up
their abode by themselves in holes, which they dig out in the banks of
rivers, whence they are called “terriers.” On the other hand, it would
appear that the building instinct which is so remarkably manifested by
the Beaver is not always extinct even in those which inhabit populous
countries, for we have a most interesting account from M. Meyerinck
of the construction of a lodge, and even of a dam, by the colony of
Beavers on a tributary of the Elbe.

In North America, from which we have the fullest accounts of the habits
of the Beavers, these animals select for their habitation some small
stream running through a locality well covered with trees, especially
willows, birches, and poplars, upon the bark of which they chiefly
feed. These trees they cut down with their powerful incisor teeth,
usually selecting those from the thickness of a man’s arm to that
of his thigh, but sometimes even felling trunks eighteen inches in
diameter. The operation, which at first sight would seem to be a rather
difficult one for an animal like the Beaver to perform, is effected
by gnawing all round the trunk for a certain distance, and gradually
working deeper and deeper into its substance in the middle of the part
attacked, until at length the tree stands upon quite a slender piece
of wood, with the trunk both above and below this tapered off into
the form of two cones, united by their apices. The work is done as
sharply and neatly as if the wood had been cut away by a chisel; and
the animals are said to have the sagacity to weaken the trunk more on
the side that looks towards the water than on the opposite side, by
which means, when it falls, it will generally do so in the direction
of the water, which materially facilitates the further operations of
the Beavers. The quantity of trees cut down by them in this way is very
great, so that in the neighbourhood of a Beaver encampment the ground
is everywhere full of the stumps which they have left.

These tree trunks are then cut up into lengths of five or six feet,
which, after their bark has been stripped off and eaten, are employed
in the formation of a lodge, to serve as a shelter for the company of
Beavers forming it. Access to the lodge is obtained by means of several
subterranean passages, which always open under water, and lead up into
the chamber occupying the interior of the lodge. The lodge is usually
of an oven-like shape, and is built close to the edge of the water;
its walls are very thick, and composed of the above-mentioned trunks
of trees, plastered over with mud, clay, &c., mixed with grasses and
moss, until the whole fabric measures from twelve to twenty feet in
diameter, and forms a hill some six or eight feet high. The larger
lodges are in the interior about seven feet in diameter, and between
two and three feet high; and the floor of this spacious chamber is
covered with fine chips of wood, grasses, and the soft bark of trees,
which serve to form the beds of the occupants. Occasionally the lodges
are said to contain store-rooms. In front of the lodge, according to
Audubon, the Beavers scratch away the mud of the bottom until they
make the water deep enough to enable them to float their pieces of
timber to this point, even when the water is frozen; and, communicating
with this, a ditch surrounds the lodge, which is also made so deep
that it will not readily freeze to the bottom. Into this ditch, and
the deep water in front of the lodge, the passages by which access to
the water is obtained always open, and thus the inhabitants can at
any time make their way out when their business requires them to do
so. In the neighbourhood of the lodge the timber cut into lengths,
as above described, is piled up, so as to furnish a supply of food
as it is required; and the pieces of timber, after being stripped of
their bark, are usually employed by the Beavers either in repairing
their lodges or in constructing or strengthening the dams which they
very frequently throw across the streams haunted by them. These dams,
which are destined to keep the water of variable streams up to the
necessary height for the convenience of the Beaver, are wonderful
pieces of work, and almost justify the marvellous stories told of its
intelligence and sagacity by the older writers. They are often of
great length--sometimes 150 or 200 yards and more--and run across the
course of the brook inhabited by the Beavers--sometimes in a straight
line, sometimes in a curved form, according to peculiarities in the
ground or the stream, and the exigencies of the engineers. They are
composed, like the lodges, of lengths cut from the trunks and branches
of trees, filled in with smaller sticks, roots, grasses, and moss, and
all plastered with mud and clay in a most workmanlike manner, until the
whole structure becomes quite water-tight. Their height is from six to
ten feet, and their thickness at the bottom sometimes as much as double
this, but diminishing upwards by the slope of the sides until the top
is only from three to five feet wide. These dams convert even small
rivulets into large pools of water, often many acres in extent; and in
districts where Beavers abound these pools may occupy neatly the whole
course of a stream, one above the other, almost to its source. Their
use to the Beavers, as constantly furnishing them with a sufficiency of
water in which to carry on their business, and especially to float to
their lodges the tree trunks necessary for their subsistence, is easily
understood; but it is a more remarkable circumstance that by this
means the Beavers exercise a considerable influence upon the external
appearance of the locality inhabited by them, which may persist even
long after they have themselves disappeared. In and about the pools
the constant attacks of the Beavers upon the trees produce clearings
in the forest, often many acres in extent; at the margins of the pools
the formation of peat commences, and under favourable circumstances
proceeds until the greater part of the cleared space becomes converted
into a peat-moss. These peaty clearings are known as Beaver-meadows,
and they have been detected in various countries where the Beaver is
now extinct.

As in the case of the majority of Rodents, the chief activity of the
Beaver is nocturnal; and it is only when driven from its lodge by a
high flood, or in the wildest and most sequestered localities, that it
goes about during the day. It swims quickly, but entirely by the agency
of the hind feet, the fore feet being used chiefly for carrying and
building operations, and for conveying the food to the mouth. Before
diving, it is said to slap the surface of the water with its tail,
producing a sound that may be heard at a considerable distance. On land
it sometimes travels a good way in the warm season, and is then stated
to indulge in a change of diet, feeding upon roots and fruits, and
sometimes upon corn. The roots of the water-lily (_Nuphar_) are also
said to constitute part of its food. The Beaver is hunted--but less
now than in former years--for the sake of its skin, the soft under fur
of which was much used in the manufacture of hats. It is asserted that
the flesh is very good, but according to some authorities, only certain
parts of it are palatable; and Audubon declares that the tail, which is
regarded as a peculiarly choice morsel, closely resembles marrow, and
is so rich that only those whose stomachs are incapable of being upset
by greasy food can eat more than a very little of it.

The Beaver has been hunted not only for its fur, but also, and from
time immemorial, for the sake of a peculiar secretion produced by it,
which, under the name of _Castoreum_, has been for many centuries a
highly-esteemed medicament. This substance is secreted in a pair of
glandular pouches, situated in the inguinal region of the male Beaver;
and it would seem that it was almost entirely in order to procure these
that the ancients hunted this animal. Even in connection with this
they had wonderful tales to tell of its sagacity: as how that, when it
was pursued and found itself unable to escape, it would throw itself
upon its back, as if to invite the hunter to take what he wanted and
spare its life. Nay, some ancient writers seem to have believed that
the Beaver would go the length of biting off its own castoreum glands,
and leaving them for the hunter to pick up! Castoreum contains some
volatile oil and resin, and a peculiar crystallisable substance called
castorine; it is used in medicine as a stimulant, and seems to act
especially on the nervous system, but is not much employed nowadays.
Its odour, which appears to spread over a considerable space, is
described as being very attractive to other Beavers. Audubon states
that it is used for this reason as a lure by the American trappers.

CHAPTER II.

THE DORMOUSE, LOPHIOMYS, RAT, AND MOUSE FAMILIES.

THE MOUSE-LIKE RODENTS--MYOXIDÆ--Characteristics--THE
DORMOUSE--Description--Habits--Activity--Food--Winter Condition--THE
LOIR--THE GARDEN DORMOUSE--LOPHIOMYIDÆ--How the Family came to be
Founded--THE LOPHIOMYS--Milne-Edwards’ Opinion--Skull--General
Form--Habits--MURIDÆ--Number of Species--Characteristics--Variety
of Forms--Distribution--The Murine Sub-Family--THE BROWN
RAT--History--Fecundity and Ferocity--Diet--At the Horse
Slaughter-houses of Montfaucon--Shipwrecked on Islands--Story
of their Killing a Man in a Coal-pit--In the Sewers of Paris
and London--THE BLACK RAT--THE EGYPTIAN RAT--THE COMMON
MOUSE--Habits--Destructiveness--Colours--THE LONG-TAILED FIELD
MOUSE--Description--Food--THE HARVEST MOUSE--Description--Habits--In
Winter--Agility--Their Nest--THE BANDICOOT RAT--THE TREE RAT--THE
STRIPED MOUSE--Allied Genera--THE WHITE-FOOTED HAPALOTE--The
American Murines--THE WHITE-FOOTED, OR DEER MOUSE--THE GOLDEN,
OR RED MOUSE--THE RICE-FIELD MOUSE--THE AMERICAN HARVEST
MOUSE--THE FLORIDA RAT--Description--Their Nest--Food--Mother and
Young--THE BUSHY-TAILED WOOD RAT--THE COTTON RAT--THE RABBIT-LIKE
REITHRODON--THE HAMSTERS--Characteristics--Appearance--Distribution--
Burrows--Disposition--Food--Habits--THE TREE MICE--THE BLACK-STREAKED
TREE MICE--THE GERBILLES--Characteristics--Habits--Other
Genera--THE WATER MICE--Characteristics--Species--THE
SMINTHUS--THE VOLES--Characteristics--THE WATER
VOLE--Appearance--Distribution--Food--THE FIELD VOLE--THE
BANK VOLE--THE SOUTHERN FIELD VOLE--THE SNOW MOUSE--THE ROOT
VOLE--THE MEADOW MOUSE--THE PINE MOUSE--THE MUSQUASH, MUSK RAT,
OR ONDATRA--Distinguishing Features--Habits--His House--THE
LEMMING--Description--Food--Habits--Disposition--Their Extraordinary
Migrations--Other Lemmings--THE ZOKOR.

SECTION II.--MOUSE-LIKE RODENTS (_MYOMORPHA_).

The Myomorphic, or Mouse-like group of Rodents, includes a much greater
variety of forms than the preceding, and the number of species is
also very great. We find in it arboreal, terrestrial, and aquatic
species; and in the second of these categories some presenting almost
every variety of habit which the Rodent type is capable of assuming.
Naturally the families and sub-families into which it is divided are
rather numerous. Mr. Alston distinguished seven family groups, the
first of which is the Myoxidæ.

FAMILY V.--MYOXIDÆ.

The Dormice, which constitute this family, have generally been regarded
as nearly related to the Squirrels; and certainly, although they fall
under the definition of the Myomorphic section, they have a plain
affinity to the Sciuridæ. In form they are Squirrel-like, and the tail
is long and hairy, although not so bushy as in the true Squirrels. They
have four molars on each side in each jaw (_see_ figure), the front
one in each series being smaller than the rest. All these teeth are
rooted, and their crowns show transverse folds of enamel. The frontal
bones are much narrowed; the fore limbs are small, with the thumbs
rudimentary and furnished with a small flat nail; and the hind feet
have five toes. The Dormice differ from all other Rodents by having
the intestine entirely destitute of a cæcum. They are confined to the
Eastern hemisphere, and chiefly to its temperate and colder regions;
although a species of _Myoxus_, and some forms on which a special genus
(_Graphiurus_) has been founded, inhabit Africa. The number of known
species is only about a dozen.

[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH OF THE DORMOUSE.]

The common DORMOUSE (_Myoxus avellanarius_) is an elegant little
creature, about three inches long, with a somewhat bushy, cylindrical
tail, two inches and a half in length. Its fur is of a light
reddish-tawny colour above, becoming paler and yellowish on the lower
surface. On the throat there is a small whitish mark. It is widely
distributed in Europe, ranging from Britain and Sweden in the north to
Tuscany and Northern Turkey in the south. Generally it is more abundant
in southern than in northern countries, but in the south of France it
is less common than either of the other two European species. Eastwards
it does not extend beyond Galicia, Hungary, and Transylvania.

[Illustration: DORMOUSE.]

The Dormouse is nocturnal in its habits. During the day it sleeps in
its nest or in some snug retreat, and at night comes forth in search of
its food, which consists of nuts, acorns, seeds, berries, and the buds
of trees and shrubs. It is particularly fond of the nuts of the common
hazel, whence its specific name, and the name of “Haselmaus,” which it
bears in Germany; these nuts it is said to pierce and empty without
plucking them or taking them out of their cups. The Dormouse lives in
small societies in thickets and hedgerows, where it is as active in its
way amongst the bushes and undergrowth as its cousin the Squirrel upon
the larger trees. Among the small twigs and branches of the shrubs and
small trees the Dormice climb with wonderful adroitness, often, indeed,
hanging by their hind feet from a twig in order to reach and operate
on a fruit or a nut which is otherwise inaccessible, and running along
the lower surface of a branch with the activity and certainty of a
Monkey. Detached articles of food are held up to the mouth by the fore
paws, after the fashion of a Squirrel. Towards the winter the Dormouse
becomes exceedingly fat, and having collected a small store of food,
makes for itself a little globular nest, composed of small twigs,
leaves, pine-needles, moss, and grass, and within this, coiled up into
a ball, passes into a torpid state.

Nevertheless, the winter sleep is not wholly uninterrupted; on mild
days the Dormouse wakes up for a time and takes a little of its
stored-up food. The female produces usually about four young, in the
spring according to Professor Bell, in August according to Brehm; but
the former writer thinks that in some cases two broods are produced
in the year, as he has received from the same locality in September a
half-grown Dormouse and three very young ones, evidently not more than
a fortnight or three weeks old.

Of the other common European species, the LOIR (_Myoxus glis_) is
found only in southern regions, its range extending from Spain to
Southern Russia, and passing into the neighbouring parts of Asia. It is
considerably larger than the Dormouse, measuring rather more than six
inches in length, and has a bushy tail, in which the hairs are arranged
in two rows, as in that of the Squirrel. The habits of this species
are like those of the Dormouse. Fruit constitutes a portion of its
diet, and it is said also to destroy and devour small birds and other
animals. The Loir is a very voracious feeder, and becomes exceedingly
fat in the autumn. By the ancient Roman epicures it was regarded as a
dainty morsel, and they spared no pains to fatten it for the table.
It sleeps during the day, and hibernates in some hole in a tree or in
the ground, and the nest is formed in the former situation. The female
usually produces about six young.

[Illustration: GARDEN DORMOUSE.]

The GARDEN DORMOUSE, or LEROT of the French (_Myoxus nitela_), is
common all over the southern and western parts of the Continent,
extending northwards through Germany into the Baltic provinces of
Russia. It is a little smaller than the preceding species, which,
however, it resembles in its general habits; but it dwells commonly in
gardens, and feeds on fruits, often doing much damage to the choicer
varieties. It is a lighter and more active animal than the Loir, and is
said to be even more predaceous in its habits. The female produces from
four to six young, sometimes in a beautifully-made nest of her own,
sometimes in the deserted or usurped nest of a Blackbird or Thrush, or
in that of a Squirrel.

FAMILY VI.--LOPHIOMYIDÆ.

The importance of an animal in the zoological system by no means
depends either upon its size or on its abundance in the world; its
rank in the classification is decided solely by peculiarities of
organisation which distinguish it more or less from its fellows; and in
many cases the creatures which are regarded with the most interest by
the naturalist are those which seem most to withdraw themselves from
general observation. A single genus, perhaps containing only one or two
species, may, by a singular combination of characters, be so completely
isolated from all the recognised allied groups that it cannot be placed
in any of them, and accordingly a distinct family, possibly even an
order, has to be established for its reception. Sometimes subsequent
discoveries add to the number of species forming the group thus set up,
and in this way the prescience of its founder is confirmed. Sometimes
the group remains in its original condition, leaving us, according
to circumstances, to regard the anomalous creatures of which it is
composed either as a special development of their general type, or as
the residue of a group which may have presented a greater variety of
forms at some past period of the earth’s history.

[Illustration: SKULL OF LOPHIOMYS.]

The latter is perhaps the case with the curious little Rodent which
alone forms the present family, of which its original describer,
M. Alphonse Milne-Edwards, writes as follows:--“In its general
aspect it somewhat resembles certain Opossums, and like these it is
pedimanous;[52] but these are the only analogies it presents to the
Marsupials, and in its dental system, as also in the rest of its
organisation, we easily see that it belongs to the order Rodentia. It
differs, however, from all the members of this group by characters of
considerable importance; I may even say that, by some peculiarities
of structure it departs from all other Mammals, and that we find in
it anatomical arrangements of which we have hitherto had examples
only in the class of Reptiles.” After an exhaustive discussion of the
characters of this curious little animal, M. Milne-Edwards comes to
the conclusion that it is most nearly related to the members of the
following family, and especially to the Hamsters, although he found it
impossible to unite it with them. In this course he has been followed
by other writers.

[Illustration: LOPHIOMYS.]

The general construction of the skull is the same as in the Muridæ,
but from the temporal ridges thin plates are developed, which bend
downwards, and articulate with similar plates springing from the malar
bones, and thus completely arch over the temporal fossæ after a fashion
only met with in certain reptiles, and especially in the Hawksbill
Turtle (_Chelone caretta_). The whole upper surface of the skull is
covered with minute but perfectly definite granules, arranged with much
regularity, and these, which occur in no other Mammal, give the skull
a very peculiar aspect, such as may be seen in some fishes. As in the
Muridæ, there are three molars on each side in each jaw, and these are
rooted and strongly tubercular; the foremost in each series having
three and the others each two ridges. Without entering in detail into
the peculiarities described at great length by M. Milne-Edwards, we
may say that in its general structure, and especially in that of the
skeleton, the animal is murine, but with a very important distinction,
namely, that the collar bones, which are well developed in the Rats and
their allies, are here reduced, as in the Hares and Rabbits, so as to
form only two small bony styles freely suspended among the muscles,
and that the first toe in the hind feet, although not very long, is so
attached as to be opposite to the rest, thus converting the organ into
a prehensile hand which the animal uses freely in climbing. The cæcum
is small.

In its external characters this animal is as remarkable as in its
anatomical structure. In general appearance, as stated by its
describer, it has much resemblance to a small Opossum, but the bushy
tail and the peculiar arrangement of the hair on the body are met
with in no Marsupials. The head is small; the general form stout; the
limbs short, and the hind ones not much longer than their fellows;
and the ears are of moderate size and sparingly clothed with hair.
The prevailing colour is blackish-brown, but a triangular spot on the
forehead, a streak under each eye, and the tip of the tail, are white;
and the long hairs which clothe the body and tail are dark only in the
middle, the base and tip being white, as are also a great quantity of
finer and shorter hairs which form a sort of under fur. But the chief
peculiarity of the coat is to be found in the arrangement of the hairs
of the body. The long hairs of the middle of the back and tail, some of
which are nearly three inches in length, are capable of being raised
into a nearly upright position, forming a sort of crest which gives
the animal a very peculiar aspect, and this crest is separated from
the pendulous hair of the flanks by a sort of furrow clothed with very
peculiar hair of a greyish-tawny colour. These hairs are unlike any
others known to occur among Mammals. The apical part is of the ordinary
construction; but the following portion down to the base is “very
rugose, and presents a spongy aspect, due to the interlacing, and, so
to speak, felting of a multitude of epidermic filaments emanating from
radiate cells, which constitute a perfect network of irregular meshes.
Within the sort of sheath thus formed longitudinal filaments which
break up into bundles of fibrils are to be seen.”

Very little is known as to the habitat of this animal, which M.
Milne-Edwards has named _Lophiomys Imhausi_, the former name referring
to the crested character of the back, the second commemorating the
person who first brought the creature to the notice of naturalists. M.
Imhaus, stopping for a few hours at Aden on his way home from Réunion,
saw a living specimen of this Rodent in the possession of a negro
from whom he bought it, but could learn nothing as to its origin. He
inferred, however, that it had not been brought very far, and that its
native country was either Southern Arabia, or some region in Abyssinia,
or Nubia, on the other side of the Red Sea. This specimen was brought
to France, and lived for about a year and a half in the Garden of
Acclimatization in the Bois de Boulogne, where it fed upon maize,
vegetables, and bread, slept during the day, and climbed with ease upon
chairs and other convenient objects by the aid of its hinder hands. It
never took its food in the fore-paws to carry it to the mouth as so
many Rodents do. When irritated it elevated the crest right down to the
end of the tail, and defended itself by biting vigorously.

It is doubtful whether the _Lophiomys_ inhabits Arabia, but it is found
in the neighbouring parts of Africa. Professor Peters described the
skull of the animal as representing a new generic type under the name
of _Phractomys æthiops_. His specimen was obtained by Dr. Schweinfurth
from the tombs of Maman, north of Kassala, in Upper Nubia. A third
specimen has been brought from Keren in the Bogos country, and a fourth
from the Erkanid mountains between Suakim and Singat.

[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH OF THE BLACK RAT.]

FAMILY VII.--MURIDÆ.

We come now to the largest and most typical family of the Rodents:
that, namely, which includes the Rats and Mice and their numerous
allies. Mr. Wallace estimates the number of known species at 330, which
is probably within the mark. All these forms agree in the following
characters:--The lower incisors are compressed; the molars are usually
three in number on each side in each jaw, in one genus only two in
the lower or in both jaws, and in another four in both jaws. They are
rooted or rootless, tubercular or flat, with folds of enamel; the
malar bone is short and slender, generally reduced to a mere splint
between the maxillary and squamosal processes of the zygomatic arch;
the thumb is rudimentary, but often furnished with a small nail; and
the tail is generally scaly, with a few scattered hairs, densely hairy
only in a few species.

As might be expected in so large an assemblage of species, the variety
of forms is very great among the Muridæ, but broadly, the common Rats
and Mice, which are only too well known to most of us, may serve as
characteristic types of the whole series. The family, however, includes
jumping forms, swimming forms, arboreal forms, and burrowing forms,
in which the peculiarities of the life-habits are very distinctly
indicated by the external appearance of the creatures. In their
distribution the Muridæ are almost absolutely cosmopolitan, the family
being represented in every part of the world, with the sole exception
of the islands of the Pacific Ocean. Australia possesses about thirty
species of the family. New Zealand, at the time of its discovery,
harboured a Rat, known as the Forest Rat, or Maori Rat, which was a
favourite article of food with the natives, and is now almost extinct.
It was proved by Capt. Hutton to be identical with the Black Rat (_Mus
rattus_), and was probably introduced by the ancestors of the Maoris.
Certain species also, such as the common Brown Rat and Mouse, are now
perfectly cosmopolitan in their distribution, having accompanied man in
all his migrations on the surface of the globe.

[Illustration: BROWN RAT.]

The Rat and Mouse form the types of a great sub-family, MURINÆ, which
have the molars rooted and tuberculate when young, the infra-orbital
opening high and perpendicular, widest above, and the lower root of the
zygomatic maxillary process flattened into a perpendicular plate. They
possess no cheek-pouches, have the fore and hind limbs approximately
equal in length, the thumb rudimentary, and the tail nearly naked,
covered with scaly rings. The genus _Mus_, to which our household pests
belong, includes upwards of one hundred species, scattered over most
parts of the Eastern Hemisphere, and living sometimes chiefly in the
neighbourhood of human habitations, granaries, &c., where they often
feed indifferently upon animal and vegetable substances, sometimes in
the open country, and feeding almost exclusively upon the latter. The
common BROWN RAT (_Mus decumanus_), sometimes called the Norway Rat,
which is almost too well known to need description, is not a native of
Great Britain, but was certainly introduced there by commerce, probably
from some southern or eastern country--perhaps, as Pennant thinks,
from the East Indies. Haunting ships in great numbers, it has now been
introduced into all parts of the world, and it is quite impossible to
ascertain its original habitat. It was known in Asia long before it
made its appearance in Europe; and its passage into Russia is fixed by
Pallas in the year 1727, when, he says, after an earthquake it swam
across the Volga from the countries bordering the Caspian. Its first
appearance in France and England is said to have occurred about the
middle of the last century.

[Illustration: BLACK RAT.]

From its great fecundity and determined ferocity of disposition, the
Brown Rat has become a great pest wherever it has taken up its abode.
“It digs,” says Professor Bell, “with great facility and vigour, making
its way with rapidity beneath the floors of our houses, between the
stones and bricks of walls, and often excavating the foundations of
dwellings to a dangerous extent. There are many instances of their
fatally undermining the most solid mason-work, or burrowing through
dams which had for ages served to confine the waters of rivers and
canals.” It is almost impossible to keep them out of our houses, and,
once in, there is no end to the mischief they do. Their ferocity
is very great; and although they will, if possible, retreat from a
powerful enemy, they will fight in the most savage fashion when they
cannot escape.

Although not averse to a vegetable diet--as those who have to do
with corn and seeds, whether in the field or the store-house, know
to their cost--the Brown Rat evinces a decided preference for animal
food, which he consumes of all kinds and in all states. The case of
the horse slaughter-houses of Montfaucon, near Paris, is well known;
here, the carcases of all the Horses killed during the day, sometimes
to the number of thirty-five, would be picked to the bone by the next
morning; and one main argument against the removal of the establishment
to a greater distance from the city was that these swarms of ferocious
vermin would be left without means of support, and would become a
complete pest in the neighbourhood. That such an apprehension was not
unfounded is proved by several instances recorded of the escape of
Rats from wrecked ships upon small islands. In the course of a few
years they exterminated every other living thing. Professor Bell, on
the authority of the late Mr. Robert Stephenson, relates the following
instance of the extreme ferocity of the Rat when driven by hunger:--“In
a coal-pit,” he says, “in which many Horses were employed, the Rats,
which fed upon the fodder provided for the Horses, had accumulated
in great multitudes. It was customary in holiday times to bring to
the surface the Horses and the fodder, and to close the pit for the
time. On one occasion, when the holiday had extended to ten days or
a fortnight, during which the Rats had been deprived of food, on
re-opening the pit, the first man who descended was attacked by the
starving multitude, and speedily killed and devoured.” Stories are also
told, with what truth we do not know, of the occurrence of similar
catastrophes in the sewers of Paris and London, where, as is well
known, Rats abound.

The Brown Rat breeds several times during the year, and produces as
many as ten, twelve, or fourteen young ones in a litter. Its general
length is about nine inches. It may be distinguished from the old
English Rat, which it has displaced in most localities, by its
greyish-brown colour and by the comparative shortness of its ears,
which, when pressed down, do not reach the eye.

The BLACK RAT (_Mus rattus_), or old English Rat, as it is sometimes
called, agrees closely in its habits with the Brown Rat. It is smaller
than the Brown Rat, measuring only about seven inches in length,
but has a comparatively much longer tail and larger ears, which,
when pressed forward, cover the eyes. Its colour above is greyish or
brownish-black, and the lower parts are dark ash colour. Although the
Black Rat has generally been compelled to give way before its larger
and more vigorous competitor, it is still widely dispersed, but not in
such numbers as formerly, in Europe. Its native country was probably
Southern Asia. Nearly allied to it, if indeed specifically distinct, is
the EGYPTIAN RAT (_Mus alexandrinus_). Both these Rats are said to keep
more to the upper parts of houses than the Brown Rat.

Although the true Mice are very nearly allied to the Rats, of which
they are copies on a small scale (and some of them, at any rate, are
as destructive in their way as their larger relatives), they do not
excite by any means the same sentiments of disgust with which Rats
are generally regarded; ladies, indeed, will sometimes scream at the
mere sight of a Mouse, but most of them will admit that, apart from
its predatory habits, it is an elegant little creature. The COMMON
MOUSE (_Mus musculus_) seems to be as completely associated with man
as the Rat, and has accompanied him in his wanderings to all parts of
the world. It is, however, said not to occur in the Sunda Islands. Of
its general appearance and habits we need say nothing; they are too
familiar to need description. But besides haunting our houses, the
Mouse takes up its abode in the rick-yard, and here its devastations
are often very serious. The Mice live in the ricks, through which they
make passages in every direction, and their fecundity is so great
that several bushels of Mice are often destroyed during the removal
of a single rick. The Mouse breeds all the year round, and usually
produces five or six young at a birth, so that its rapid increase under
favourable circumstances is easily understood. Several varieties of the
species are well known, especially the Albino form, or White Mouse,
which is such a favourite pet with boys. The Common Mouse in England
is sometimes patched with white, and we sometimes see in the shops
Pied Mice, which are said to be of Indian origin. A pale buff variety
is also sometimes met with; and during the removal of a rick some
years ago, it was found to be infested by a breed of Mice with a naked
wrinkled skin, to which the name of Rhinoceros Mice was given at the
time.

Besides these more or less domestic species, there are in Britain
two other representatives of the genus _Mus_, which do not generally
frequent houses. One of these is the LONG-TAILED FIELD MOUSE (_Mus
sylvaticus_), sometimes called the Wood Mouse, an exceedingly pretty
little creature, rather larger than the Common Mouse, and having a
proportionally longer tail. It measures about four inches in length,
and the tail is about as long as the body; its colour is yellowish or
yellowish-brown on the upper surface, whitish beneath; and the tail
is brown above and white beneath. This species is found all over the
temperate parts of Europe and Asia, living in the fields and gardens,
where it takes up its abode, either in some small cavity under the root
of a tree, in the deserted runs of the Mole, or less commonly in a
little burrow excavated by its own labour. It feeds chiefly upon grain
and seeds, of which it lays up a considerable store for winter use in
its subterranean dwelling, and in this way does considerable damage
to the crops. The Field Mouse does not, however, strictly confine
itself to a vegetable diet, but under circumstances of privation will
attack and devour smaller and weaker animals, not even sparing its
own species. It breeds more than once in the year, and produces from
seven to ten young in each litter. It is easily tamed, and soon becomes
familiar.

[Illustration: HARVEST MICE.]

The remaining British species, the HARVEST MOUSE (_Mus minutus_), is
the smallest of the British quadrupeds, with the exception of the
Lesser Shrew (_Sorex pygmæus_). The Harvest Mouse is to be found in
most parts of England. It also occurs in Scotland as far north as
Aberdeenshire; and in Ireland, but very rarely. On the Continent its
range extends over nearly the whole of Europe, from Russia in the
north to Italy in the south. It is well known in Siberia, and occurs
abundantly in the steppes near the Caucasus.

The total length of this pretty little Mouse is about five inches, of
which nearly one-half is made up of the tail. In it the eyes are less
prominent than in the common Field Mouse, and the ears considerably
shorter in proportion. Its colour on the upper surface is bright
reddish-brown, and below pure white, the two colours being sharply
separated. During the summer, the Harvest Mouse associates with the
other Field Mice in corn-fields, and with them is very frequently
carried in the sheaves of corn to rick-yards and barns, where it then
takes up its abode for the autumn and winter, and, like other Mice,
multiplies very rapidly, and no doubt does a good deal of mischief.
The less fortunate individuals who are left behind in the fields
retreat to little burrows for protection from the inclemency of the
winter, which they pass in a state of at least partial torpidity; and
to provide against exigencies they lay up in their dwellings a small
store of food, to which they can have recourse when a fine day recalls
them for a time to activity. Those which have been introduced into
ricks and barns are, of course, liberally provided for, and they show
their gratitude by remaining awake all the winter, as if on purpose to
consume their abundant provender. In the open field their food consists
of corn and the seeds of grasses and other plants, but also to a
considerable extent of small insects.

In its movements the Harvest Mouse is wonderfully agile. On the ground
it runs very rapidly; and it climbs upon shrubs and plants as cleverly
as a Monkey, running out upon the thinnest twigs with the greatest
confidence, and climbing up stalks of grasses so thin that they bend
nearly to the ground with its weight. In these operations the long
slender tail comes into use, as its extremity is prehensile, and can
be twisted neatly round the small stalks and branches over which the
little climber is making its way. From its lively habits, and the
elegance of its form, the Harvest Mouse is a very interesting pet.

The Harvest Mouse breeds several times during the year, producing from
five to eight or nine young at a birth, and provides for them one of
the prettiest cradles formed by any Mammal. It is placed, according to
the locality, upon several grass-leaves split and interwoven with the
other materials, or suspended at a height of from eighteen inches to
three feet above the ground, upon the twigs of some shrub or between
several stalks of corn or strong grasses. It is egg-shaped, or nearly
round, about the size of the egg of a Goose, and is composed externally
of slit leaves of the reeds or grasses among which it is formed, each
leaf being carefully divided longitudinally by the sharp teeth of the
little architect into six or eight thread-like portions, which are then
all woven together, so as to produce a firm structure. The interior is
lined, or rather stuffed, with all sorts of soft vegetable substances,
so that it has been a question with many observers how the mother could
get at all the members of her family to suckle them, and how the nest
could contain them all as they began to increase in bulk. The young
usually remain in the nest until they can see; but as soon as they are
able to provide for themselves, the mother takes them out, gives them
some practical instructions in the art of living, and then leaves them
to their own devices. According to Brehm, as these Mice increase in age
they improve in the art of nest-building.

Besides these few species, a multitude of Rats and Mice, belonging to
the same genus, occur as natives of nearly all parts of the world,
but in their habits they agree in general with the British species.
India harbours a considerable number, among which we may mention the
BANDICOOT RAT (_Mus bandicota_), a large species, which inhabits the
Indian and Malayan peninsulas, and is very destructive in plantations;
and the TREE RAT (_Mus arboreus_), a native of Bengal, seven or
eight inches in length, which lives partly on grain, of which it
lays up stores in its nests, and partly on young cocoa-nuts, which
constitute its favourite food, and in search of which it climbs the
trees. This species builds a nest on cocoa-nut trees and bamboos, and
occasionally makes predatory visits to the houses. The STRIPED MOUSE
(_Mus barbarus_) is remarkable for its coloration, its ground colour
being a bright yellowish-brown or reddish-yellow, adorned with several
longitudinal blackish-brown streaks. This elegant Mouse inhabits
Northern Africa, especially in stony places. It is very abundant in
Algeria.

[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH OF THE HAPALOTE.]

Nearly allied to the true Mice are numerous forms more restricted
in their distribution, which have been formed into distinct genera.
Thus _Pelomys fallax_, in which the incisors are grooved, the tail
short, and the first and fifth toes of all the feet shorter than
the three middle ones, is peculiar to Mozambique; _Acanthomys_,
in which the fur is mixed with flattened spines, is an African
genus; whilst _Echinothrix_, which has a somewhat similar coat, is
Australian. Madagascar possesses two peculiar genera, _Nesomys_ and
_Brachytarsomys_, the former having some relation to the American
Murinæ, the latter remarkable for the shortness of the hind feet; and
in Australia, besides the genus already mentioned, and one or two
species of true _Mus_, we find the genus _Hapalotis_ represented by
about thirteen exclusively Australian species. These animals have the
hind limbs rather long, the ears large, and the tail long and hairy,
terminating in a tuft. The molar teeth also exhibit a peculiar pattern;
The best known species is the WHITE-FOOTED HAPALOTE (_Hapalotis
albipes_), an animal about the size of the Brown Rat, of a smoky brown
colour, with the belly and the feet white. It inhabits New South Wales,
especially in the mountainous parts. The animals of this genus were
formerly regarded as allied to the South American Chinchillas and
Viscachas.

The American Murines all belong to a group to which the name of
Sigmodontes has been given, because their molar teeth, which in the
young state have two tubercles in each transverse row (instead of
three, which is the usual number in the preceding forms), when ground
down by use, show some S-like patterns in the enamel folds in place
of transverse ridges. The greater number of the species belong to
the genus _Hesperomys_ (Western Mouse), which is represented in both
divisions of the American continent, and has been divided by authors
into several sub-genera. The WHITE-FOOTED, or DEER MOUSE (_Hesperomys
leucopus_) is perhaps the best known of all the species, and its
varieties, or rather local permanent races, are distributed all over
the continent of North America. The fur shows various brownish or
greyish tints above; and the lower surface, with the feet up to the
wrist and ankle, is snow-white. What Dr. Coues gives as the normal
colour of typical specimens is a rich fawn, with a darker streak along
the back: but he says that this is shown by not more than one example
in six. The tail is generally white beneath. The length of the head and
body is about three inches; the tail varies considerably in length. The
White-footed Mouse is nocturnal in its habits, and feeds to a great
extent upon corn, of which, with acorns and other nuts, it lays up
stores for winter use. It lives a good deal upon trees, taking up its
abode in the deserted nest of a Squirrel or of some small bird. When it
constructs its own nest the little fabric is placed in a bush at from
five to fifteen feet from the ground, and is very neatly constructed,
usually of fine moss and strips of bark. In some localities it burrows
in the ground. The GOLDEN or RED MOUSE (_H. aureolus_), which resembles
the preceding species in form and size, has the fur of the upper
surface golden-cinnamon colour, and the lower parts yellowish-white. It
inhabits the Central and Southern States of the North American Union.
The RICE-FIELD MOUSE (_H. palustris_), which has been placed in a
distinct genus (_Oryzomys_), is a larger species, sometimes attaining
the size of a small Rat. This is found in the Southern States, chiefly
along the coast, and in rice-fields, where it is exceedingly abundant
and does considerable damage. It is eminently aquatic in its habits.
The AMERICAN HARVEST MOUSE (_Ochetodon humilis_) closely resembles
the preceding species, but differs from them in a rather remarkable
character. It has the upper incisor teeth grooved, a peculiarity which
occurs also in the South American Rats of the genus _Reithrodon_.
The American Harvest Mouse inhabits the Southern States, and extends
northwards as far as Iowa and Nebraska.

The FLORIDA RAT, or Wood Rat (_Neotoma floridana_), is a widely
distributed species in the United States, inhabiting especially the
southern portion, but extending northwards as far as New York and
Massachusetts. It measures from six to nine inches in length, with
a tail from four to six inches long. In its coloration it presents
a general resemblance to the common Brown Rat, but is brighter,
especially on the sides; the lower surface is white. According to
Audubon and Bachmann, the habits of this species vary considerably in
different localities. These authors say that “in Florida they burrow
under stones and the ruins of dilapidated buildings. In Georgia and
South Carolina they prefer remaining in the woods. In some swampy
situations, in the vicinity of sluggish streams, amid tangled vines
interspersed with leaves and long moss, they gather a heap of dry
sticks, which they pile up into a conical shape, and which, with
grasses, mud, and dead leaves, mixed in by the wind and rain, form,
as they proceed, a structure impervious to rain, and inaccessible to
the Wild Cat, Raccoon, or Fox. At other times their nest, composed of
somewhat lighter materials, is placed in the fork of a tree.” This
species is very active and Squirrel-like in its habits. It feeds on
grain, seeds, and fruits, and sometimes makes a meal of a Crayfish
or a Frog. There are from three to six young in each litter, and two
litters in the year. The young animals in very early days continue to
adhere to the teats of their mother, even when she is walking about
outside the nest, and even at a later period they will cling to her
sides and back, after the manner of some Opossums. The female seems
but little inconvenienced by this burden, and shows great affection
for her family, defending them even at the risk of her own life. A
nearly-allied, but smaller species, the BUSHY-TAILED WOOD RAT (_N.
cinerea_), inhabits the western and north-western parts of America,
also extending eastward to Hudson’s Bay, and southward to New Mexico
and California. The COTTON RAT (_Sigmodon hispidus_), another
inhabitant of the Southern States and Mexico, ranges southwards to Vera
Cruz and Guatemala.

Besides several species of _Hesperomys_, South America possesses
various Murine animals, which have been placed in special genera. Among
these the most remarkable are those of which Mr. Waterhouse formed
his genus _Reithrodon_, as these, although true Murines, have a very
Rabbit-like character, and further present the peculiarity of having
the upper incisors grooved. They have the profile much arched, the
eyes large, the ears hairy, and the first and fifth toes of the hind
feet very short. The tail is well clothed with hair. The RABBIT-LIKE
REITHRODON (_R. cuniculoides_) inhabits Patagonia, where it was
discovered by Mr. Darwin. It is of a yellowish-grey colour, mixed with
black, with the throat and belly pale yellow, and the rump and feet
white. The tail is about half the length of the head and body, dusky
above, white beneath. The length of the head and body is six inches and
a half. Two other species are described: one (_R. typicus_) from the La
Plata; the other (_R. chinchilloides_) from the Strait of Magellan.

[Illustration: HEAD OF THE RABBIT-LIKE REITHRODON.]

The HAMSTERS, forming the sub-family CRICETINÆ, are very nearly related
to the true Mice and Rats, but differ from them at the first glance by
their possession of large internal cheek-pouches, those organs being
entirely wanting or very small in the Murinæ. Their molars, three in
number in each series, are also tuberculate when young and regularly
rooted. As age advances they become more and more worn away, so as
to exhibit folds of enamel. They are stoutly-built rat-like animals,
generally with short tails, with the upper lip cleft, and with short
limbs, of which the hinder have five, and the anterior four, toes, the
thumb being represented by a small wart. The Hamsters are confined to
the Old World, and chiefly inhabit the temperate parts of Europe and
Asia; two or three species occur in Africa. They live generally in
corn-fields, where they dig deep burrows with numerous chambers, into
which they can retreat to take their repose, and in which they pass
the winter, previously, however, taking care to lay up a good store of
provisions in some of the chambers of their domicile.

[Illustration: HAMSTERS.]

The best known species is the HAMSTER (_Cricetus frumentarius_, _see_
Plate 28), a rather pretty little beast, of about ten inches long, with
bright, prominent, black eyes, short, membranous ears, and a tapering
hairy tail, about two inches and a half in length. The fur, which is
thick and somewhat lustrous, is usually of a light yellowish-brown
colour above, with the snout, the neighbourhood of the eyes, and a
band on the neck reddish-brown, and a yellow spot on each cheek;
the lower surface, the greater part of the legs, and a band on the
forehead are black, and the feet white. Many varieties occur. This
Hamster is widely distributed, ranging from the Rhine, through Europe
and Siberia, to the Obi; and in most localities where it occurs it
appears in great numbers, and causes great injury to the crops. Its
burrows are exceedingly spacious, and consist of numerous passages and
chambers. In its temper it is exceedingly irascible, and at the same
time very courageous, defending itself bravely against its enemies,
and standing boldly on the defensive the moment any danger appears to
threaten it. Its diet is by no means of a purely vegetable nature,
but it will destroy and devour all sorts of small animals that come
in its way. Besides the corn, which forms its chief winter provender,
green herbage, peas and beans, and roots and fruits of various kinds,
are welcome articles of diet, and in confinement it will eat almost
anything.

[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH OF THE HAMSTER.]

The Hamsters pass the winter in their burrows in a torpid state, but
waken up very early in the spring, generally in March, but frequently
in February. At first they do not open the mouths of their burrows, but
remain for a time subsisting on the stores laid up during the preceding
autumn. The old males make their appearance first, the females about
a fortnight after them, the latter about the beginning of April. They
then set about making their summer burrows, which are not so deep or
so complicated as the winter dwellings; and shortly afterwards the
sexes pair. The young are produced twice in the year, in May and July;
their number varies from six to eighteen. They have teeth when first
born, and their development as babies is very rapid. Their eyes open in
little more than a week after birth, and in another week they begin to
burrow in the ground, and then their hard-hearted parent drives them
off to take care of themselves.

The other species of this sub-family generally very closely resemble
the Hamster, both in appearance and manners. Most of them are found
in Central Asia and Siberia, extending southwards as far as Persia
and South Tartary. _Cricetus songarus_ has been obtained at Kumaon.
The recorded African species belong to two peculiar genera: they are
_Saccostomus lapidarius_ and _fuscus_, and _Cricetomys gambianus_.

Other African forms constitute the small sub-family of the TREE MICE
(_Dendromyinæ_), which are entirely confined to the southern portion of
the continent. They are characterised by having the incisors rounded
and grooved in front, the infra-orbital opening not narrow below, and
the coronoid process of the lower jaw very small. The ears are clothed
with hairs; and the feet, which are five-toed, are furnished with long
claws, which are serviceable to the little rat-like animals in climbing
up the trunks of trees. The BLACK-STREAKED TREE MOUSE (_Dendromys
mesomelas_) is a rather pretty little species, of a greyish colour,
with a black line down the middle of the back. It is slender in form,
with a long, scaly tail, rounded ears, and the two outer toes in each
foot shorter than the rest. _Steatomys pratensis_, from Mozambique,
is stouter in form than the preceding, and has a short, densely hairy
tail; and in _Lophuromys ater_, from the same locality, the incisors
are not grooved, and the fur is developed into fine flattened bristles.

The GERBILLES (_Gerbillinæ_) are distinguished from all other Muridæ
(although approached by _Hapalotis_) by the great length of the hind
limbs, which are converted into powerful leaping organs, somewhat as
in the Jerboas and Kangaroos, although not quite to the same extent.
Like all the preceding forms, they have the molars furnished with
roots, but not with tuberculate crowns, these being divided into
transverse plates formed by separate elliptical or rhomboidal coats
of enamel. The incisor teeth are narrow, the infra-orbital opening as
in the Murinæ, and the tail long and hairy. The Gerbilles are plump
little animals, with a short neck, a broad head, and a pointed muzzle.
The feet are five-toed, but the thumb on the fore feet is reduced to
a mere wart-like process with a flat nail. They are confined to the
Eastern hemisphere, and, indeed, to the African continent, the south
of Asia, as far as India, and the south-east of Europe, where they
live both in cultivated districts and in the driest deserts, and often
occur in great numbers, when they may cause considerable damage to the
neighbouring crops. They shelter themselves during the day in shallow
burrows, and come forth in the evening in search of their food, which
consists chiefly of grain and roots. They store up great quantities of
the ears of corn in their subterranean dwellings, and in many places
the poorer inhabitants search after these stores, and by digging them
out procure a good supply of grain. They are very prolific, the females
producing large families several times in the year.

[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH OF THE GERBILLE.]

Several other forms of Muridæ, with rooted molars, have been
distinguished, and all are inhabitants of the Eastern hemisphere. The
genera _Phlœomys_ and _Nesokia_, each including a single species, form
the group PHLÆOMYINÆ, characterised by having broad incisors and the
molars divided by transverse plates of enamel. The characters of the
skull are as in the Murinæ. _Phlœomys Cumingii_ is from the Philippine
Islands; _Nesokia Griffithii_ inhabits Northern India. _Platacanthomys
lasiurus_, the only known species of the group PLATACANTHOMYINÆ,
resembles a Dormouse in its form, and is nearly allied to the preceding
species, but has the fur of its back mixed with long, flattened,
bristle-like spines. It is a native of the Malabar coast.

[Illustration: SKULL OF THE WATER-MOUSE.]

The WATER MICE (_Hydromyinæ_) are of particular interest, as being
a small group, exclusively confined to the Australian region, and
presenting the exceptional character among the Rodents of having only
two molars on each side in each jaw. These teeth, are rooted, and
divided into transverse lobes by ovate enamel lobes; the front tooth is
much larger than its fellow. The _Hydromys_ are small rat-like animals
of slender form, with long tails, rather densely clothed with short
hairs, and short limbs. The hind feet have much stronger claws than
the fore feet, and their toes are partially webbed. Five species of
this group are known from Australia and Van Diemen’s Land, where they
inhabit the banks of the streams. The best known are the Yellow-bellied
and the White-bellied Water Mice (_Hydromys chrysogaster_ and
_leucogaster_), both of which inhabit New South Wales, and the latter
is also found in Van Diemen’s Land. The Sooty Water Mouse (_H.
fuliginosus_) is an inhabitant of Western Australia.

In the SMINTHINÆ--a group which includes only the genus _Sminthus_,
founded for the reception of a rat-like Rodent (_S. vagus_) first
discovered in the Crimea, but now known to range from Hungary, Finland,
and Sweden, through Russia to the banks of the Irtisch and Yenisei,
and into Tartary (Bokhara)--we find another exceptional character of
the molar teeth. There are four of these teeth on each side both above
and below, the first and fourth of which are much smaller than the
intervening ones. In this animal the ears are rather long and pointed,
the legs are rather short, and the tail is about as long as the body,
and clothed with short hairs.

[Illustration: TEETH OF SMINTHUS.]

In the remainder of the Muridæ, the molars, which are again only three
in number on each side, are generally rootless, although occasionally
the growth of the teeth stops and they close up below. The molars are
composed of triangular prisms placed alternately. Two groups are thus
characterised, namely, the Voles and the Zokors.

The VOLES (_Arvicolinæ_), which, next to the true Rats and Mice,
form the most important group of Muridæ, are represented in the
northern parts of both hemispheres. The brain-case in these animals
is rhomboidal when looked at from above, the frontal region of the
skull is much contracted, and the zygomatic arch stands out very far.
The infra-orbital opening is as in the Murinæ. The molars are so
constructed of alternating triangular prisms that the whole margin is
enclosed by deep angular folds of enamel. These are mouse-and rat-like
Rodents of a rather stout build, with the limbs and tail of moderate
length, or short, and the latter more hairy than in the true Murines.
The ears are short, often nearly concealed beneath the fur.

The true Voles (genus _Arvicola_) number about fifty known species,
which have been arranged by various writers under a considerable number
of sub-genera, generally corresponding to differences in mode of
life. Three species, representing three of these groups, are found in
Britain, and may serve to illustrate the natural history of the Voles.
The largest of these is the well-known WATER VOLE, or Water Rat, as
it is more commonly called (_Arvicola amphibius_), an animal rather
smaller than the Common Rat, and having, like all the Voles, the muzzle
considerably blunter, and the tail a good deal shorter and more hairy.
Although thoroughly aquatic in its habits, the feet of the Water Vole
are not webbed; they have five toes, but the thumb in the fore feet is
very short. The general colour of the fur is reddish-brown, mixed with
grey on the upper surface, and yellowish-grey beneath; the ears are
nearly concealed in the fur; and the incisor teeth are deep yellow in
front, and very strong, presenting a considerable resemblance to those
of the Beaver, to which great Rodent the Voles were formerly considered
to be related. It is very widely distributed, being found in all parts
of Europe, and stretching right across Central and Northern Asia, to
China, the Amoor region, and the Sea of Okhotsk. In Ireland, however,
it is not found. Its habits vary a little in different localities,
but in general it haunts the banks of rivers, in which it burrows to
a considerable distance. In the water it is very active, swimming and
diving with the greatest facility, and it is here that it seeks its
food, which appears to consist exclusively of vegetable substances.
Professor Bell says:--“A decided preference is shown, during the summer
months, for the inner or concealed part of some species of sword-flags,
which is very succulent and sweet-tasted. As this portion is usually
below water, the animal gnaws the plant in two near its root, when it
rises to the surface, and being conveyed to some sound footing, is
consumed at leisure. In default of its more favourite food, it will
make a satisfactory meal on the common duckweed. Only the green and
fleshy leaf is eaten, the roots and other fibrous parts being rejected.
While feeding on this plant, the creature sits like a Squirrel on
its haunches near the water’s edge, and taking up a lump of the soft
and slimy-looking mass in its fore paws, eats a small part only, and
letting the remainder fall, takes up some more in the same manner.” The
accusation sometimes brought against the Water Vole of eating worms
and insects, and even of destroying fish-spawn, young fishes, and even
young ducks, seems to be entirely unfounded. In the winter the Water
Voles will feed on turnips, mangel-wurzel, and other roots, and also
upon the bark of osiers and willows, to which they do considerable
damage; and in some localities they appear to frequent gardens at all
seasons of the year, burrowing in the ground, and feeding luxuriously
upon the produce of the gardener’s labour. Their greatest activity is
in the twilight, but in quiet situations they are to be seen abroad
during the day. The female produces from two to six young at a litter:
twice in the year in Britain, according to Professor Bell; three or
four times in the course of the summer, according to Brehm and other
Continental naturalists.

[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH OF THE WATER RAT.]

A second British species is the FIELD VOLE, or Short-tailed Field
Mouse (_Arvicola agrestis_), which is less than half the size of the
Water Vole, and has the tail only about one-third the length of the
body, instead of half that length. In the general form of the head
and body the two species are a good deal alike, but the ears project
farther beyond the fur in the Field Vole. The general colour of this
species is greyish-brown, becoming tinged with reddish or yellowish
on the sides; the lower surface is pale grey or dirty white, and the
tail is brown above and greyish beneath. The Field Vole is a very
abundant species in the northern and central parts of Europe, but is
wanting in Ireland and south of the Alps and Pyrenees. It is usually
found in damp places, especially in meadows in the neighbourhood of
woods and copses, where it forms burrows of considerable extent. Its
food consists almost exclusively of vegetable substances, such as
roots and herbage, and in times of scarcity it will climb up trees and
bushes to feed on the tender parts of the bark. In case of necessity,
however, it does not disdain animal food, but will eat insects and
meat, and even sometimes kill and devour smaller individuals of its
own species. It breeds three or four times in the year, producing from
four to six young at a birth, in a small round nest made of moss and
leaves, among the roots of the herbage in some hollow of the ground.
Their increase, which would otherwise be very formidable, is checked
by the smaller predaceous beasts and birds, such as the Weasel, the
Kestrel, and the Owls, which destroy them in great numbers. The BANK
VOLE (_Arvicola glareolus_[53]), the third British species, which is
chestnut-coloured, with white feet and with a longish tail, closely
resembles the preceding species in its habits, but feeds rather on
fruits and roots than on herbage, and is far more addicted to a diet of
animal food, freely devouring insects, worms, snails, and even young
birds and carrion. It is pretty generally distributed over Europe, but
not so uniformly as the Field Vole, which it even exceeds in fecundity,
the females producing from four to eight young three or four times in
the year, in a nest constructed of grass and moss placed in a hollow of
the surface of the ground among dense herbage.

[Illustration: SOUTHERN FIELD VOLE.]

The Continent of Europe is inhabited by several other species of Voles,
among which we may notice the little SOUTHERN FIELD VOLE (_Arvicola
arvalis_), which more or less completely takes the place of our common
Field Vole in Southern Europe, but also extends over the whole of
Central Europe, and into Western Asia. Several of these species, and
others to which we cannot specially refer, ascend to considerable
elevations on the mountain-sides, but at least one species, the
SNOW MOUSE (_Arvicola nivalis_), lives on the Alps and Pyrenees, at
elevations of 4,000 feet and upwards, being most abundant about the
limit of perpetual snow, where it not only resides during the short
period of summer, when some portion of the surface is freed from its
snowy covering, but actually throughout the winter, buried under the
snow, through which it makes its way in search of the roots of plants.
The ROOT VOLE (_Arvicola œconomus_) is a large and abundant Siberian
species, the range of which extends from the Obi to Kamstchatka. This
and some other northern species often migrate in great bodies, after
the fashion to which we shall have to refer when speaking of the
Lemmings.

In North America, it would appear from Dr. Coues’ monograph, there
are about a dozen distinct species of Voles. One of them, confined to
the northern parts of the Continent, he identifies with the _Arvicola
rutilus_ of the Old World, which he regards as a circumpolar species.
South of a line running from sea to sea, a little north of the boundary
of the United States, comes another form, _A. Gapperi_, which is
regarded as a sub-species of _A. rutilus_, to which _A. glareolus_
(_see_ p. 116) is considered to stand in a similar relation. The most
abundant North American species is the MEADOW MOUSE (_A. riparius_),
which is distributed, apparently, over the greater part of the
Continent, and takes the place of the Field Vole. On the prairies there
is a peculiar species (_A. austerus_), a sub-species of which (_A.
curtatus_) is found in the Western territories as far as California;
the PINE MOUSE (_A. pinetorum_) inhabits the country east of the
Mississippi; and the genus is represented in Mexico by one species (_A.
quasiater_). The Voles are most numerous and abundant in the northern
and north-western parts of North America.

Another American species is the MUSQUASH, MUSK-RAT, or ONDATRA (_Fiber
zibethicus_), which constitutes a genus distinguished from the true
Voles by having the tail compressed and nearly naked, the hinder toes
united by short webs, and fringed with long hairs, and the enamel
folds of the molars united by a line running down the middle of the
tooth. The form of the animal is thickset, and in this respect, as in
its aquatic habits, it resembles the Beaver, to which it was formerly
supposed to be nearly allied. The head is short and broad, the ears
project very little beyond the fur, the hind limbs are longer than the
fore legs, and terminate in five toes with strong claws, while the fore
limbs have only four toes and a wart-like thumb; the fur is very thick
and shiny, and the colour is usually brown above and grey below, with
the tail, which is nearly as long as the body, black. The fur is well
known in commerce. The length of the head and body of a full-grown male
is about twelve inches. The name Musk-rat, often given to this species,
refers to the musky odour diffused by the secretion of a large gland
situated in the inguinal region.

The Musquash, which may be described as a large Water Rat, inhabits
all the suitable parts of North America, from the thirteenth to the
sixty-ninth degree of north latitude, and is most abundant in the
Canadian region, which offers it peculiarly favourable conditions of
life in the multitude of rivers and lakes, upon the banks of which
the Musquash always takes up its abode. It is a nocturnal animal,
passing the day in concealment, and coming forth with the twilight
to seek its nourishment, and amuse itself with its fellows. In the
water it displays wonderful activity, and, in many respects, presents
much resemblance to the Beaver. Curiously enough, the parallelism of
habits holds good to a certain extent, even in the construction of
their dwellings. The Musquash generally lives in a burrow dug out of
the bank of the stream in which he disports himself, and consisting of
a chamber with numerous passages, all of which open under the surface
of the water. But, under certain conditions, especially in the north,
he builds himself a house of a rounded or dome-like form, composed
of sedges, grasses, and similar materials, plastered together with
mud, and supported upon a mound of mud of sufficient height to raise
it above the water. The house contains a single chamber from sixteen
inches to two feet in diameter, and is entered by a passage which opens
at the bottom of the water. Other passages are said to issue from this,
and to lead down into the ground under the bottom of the water; these
are made by the animal in his search for the roots of water-lilies and
other aquatic plants, which constitute a great part of his nourishment.
The Musquash also seeks provisions on land, and in this way often does
much mischief in gardens. Fresh-water mussels also form a part of its
diet. It passes the winter in its house, which it then furnishes with
a soft bed of leaves, grasses, and sedges, and, according to Audubon,
ventilates by covering the middle of the dome only with a layer of
similar materials, through which the air can pass. Of the propagation
of the Musquash very little seems to be known with certainty. They
pair in April and May, and the female produces from three to six young
at a birth; but whether this takes place once or several times in
the course of the summer is a matter of doubt. They are captured in
fall-traps baited with apples, or by traps set at the mouth of their
burrows. The Indians sometimes spear them in their houses.

[Illustration: MUSQUASH.]

The LEMMING (_Myodes lemmus_) is one of the most remarkable of
the Muridæ, on account of the great migrations which it performs,
apparently with no special object. In Norway, where it is best known,
they make their appearance in the cultivated districts in such enormous
numbers, and so suddenly, that the peasants have always believed them
to fall from the clouds. The Lemming is a Vole-like animal, about six
inches long, of which the tail makes up about half an inch. It varies
considerably in colour, but is usually brownish-yellow, with dark spots
above, and with a yellow streak enclosing the eye on each side of the
face; the under surface is yellowish. The ears are very short, scarcely
projecting beyond the fur; the eyes are small, black, and bead-like;
the soles of the feet are hairy, and the claws of the fore feet much
stronger than those on the hinder extremities. The Norwegian Lemmings
live and breed among the peat mosses of the mountains. They are lively
and active little creatures both by day and night, and feed upon the
scanty vegetation of their Alpine home--grasses, lichens, the catkins
of the dwarf birch, and roots. They are active even through the winter,
when they make passages for themselves under the thick covering of
snow which then veils the whole country, and thus are enabled to go
in search of their ordinary food. They also make their way up to the
surface, upon which they may occasionally be seen running, even in
the depth of winter. They breed in their burrows and under stones,
and must be very prolific, seeing that every predaceous animal in the
country destroys and devours them. The Lemming is, in one sense, an
exceedingly timid little creature, the slightest disturbance of its
quietude, or even the passing over-head of a cloud, being sufficient to
alarm it; but when attacked it displays the most dauntless courage,
standing on the defensive against both men and animals, and biting very
sharply at anything that comes within its reach. From time to time,
from some unexplained cause, the Lemmings start in vast swarms from
their mountain fastnesses, and make their way in a straight line in
some definite direction. Nothing seems to turn them from their course;
they go straight on, over hill and dale, and, although said at other
times to have an aversion to water, they now swim across any lakes or
rivers that come in their way. In this operation many of them lose
their lives, for they require smooth water for their navigation, and
the least breeze ruffling the surface suffices to send hundreds of them
to the bottom. In this way they gradually arrive at the cultivated
regions, where they do so much damage to vegetation, that in olden
times a special form of prayer and exorcism was in use against them.
Their march is accompanied by great numbers of carnivorous beasts and
birds of all sorts. Wolves, Foxes, and Wild Cats, and the smaller
quadrupeds of the family Mustelidæ, Eagles, Hawks, and Owls, all prey
upon them with avidity--even the Reindeer is said to stamp them to
death; and the story of his eating them, long discredited, has been
confirmed on good authority, while man, with his Dogs and Cats, is not
behindhand in the work of destruction. Nevertheless, a great multitude
survives all these dangers, and, strange to say, the termination of
this painful migration is always the sea, into which the survivors
of the march plunge, and, apparently, voluntarily commit suicide.
Mr. Crotch, who has published several papers on the Lemming and its
migrations, says that in Norway these animals always proceed from the
central backbone of the country in an east or west direction, and that
in either case the survivors of the march drown themselves, those
that go westward in the Atlantic, those that go eastward in the Gulf
of Bothnia. His notion is that the migration is in obedience to an
inherited instinct acquired at a time when there was land where the
sea now rolls; but there are many difficulties in the way of such a
hypothesis.

[Illustration: LEMMING.]

Besides the Scandinavian Lemming above noticed, several other species
occur in the northern parts of the world. Three species (_Myodes
lagurus_, _obensis_, and _torquatus_) inhabit Siberia; the latter
two are found in North America, the last also in Greenland. In this
species, which has been placed in a distinct genus under the name of
_Cuniculus torquatus_, the third and fourth toes of the fore feet are
much larger than the second and fifth (the thumb being rudimentary),
and their claws become periodically enlarged to double their ordinary
size by an enormous growth during winter of horny matter on the lower
surface.

The transition from this to the next family is effected by two genera,
which to such an extent combine the characters of the two as to have
led different zoologists to place them sometimes in the one, sometimes
in the other. Externally they have all the characters of the Mole-rats
of the following family; in the characters of the skull and teeth
they more resemble the Voles. The ZOKOR (_Siphneus aspalax_), which
may be taken as an example of these forms, is an inhabitant of the
Altai Mountains, has the eyes very small, the external ears reduced to
mere rudiments, the body cylindrical, as in the true Mole-rats, and
the fore-feet armed with very long and strong claws, of which that
on the fifth toe is longer than the toe itself. This animal lives
in subterranean runs something like those of the Mole, but of much
greater extent, and in burrowing in the earth makes use of its strong
incisors to cut through the roots it meets with, and when necessary
to loosen the earth. The runs pass very near the surface, and are no
doubt made for the purpose of feeding on the tender roots of grasses. A
species of _Siphneus_ is said to occur in North China. The other genus
(_Ellobius_) includes two species; one (_E. luteus_) from the country
about the Sea of Aral; the other (_E. talpinus_) from south-eastern
Russia and the west of Asia. The latter abounds in the Crimea. These
animals form the sub-family Siphneinæ.

CHAPTER III.

MOLE RATS, POUCHED RATS, POUCHED MICE, JERBOAS, AND OCTODONTIDÆ.

SPALACIDÆ, OR MOLE RATS--Characteristics of the
Family--Habits--Food--THE MOLE RAT--Distribution--Description--THE
CHESTNUT MOLE RAT--THE NAKED MOLE RAT--THE STRAND
MOLE RAT--Description--Habits--THE CAPE MOLE
RAT--GEOMYIDÆ, OR POUCHED RATS--Characteristics of
the Family--The Cheek-pouches--THE COMMON POCKET
GOPHER--Distribution--Description--Burrowing--Runs--Subterranean
Dwelling--THE NORTHERN POCKET GOPHER--HETEROMYINÆ, OR POUCHED
MICE--Difficulties as to Position--Characteristics--PHILLIPS’
POCKET MOUSE--Where Found--Description--THE YELLOW POCKET
MOUSE--THE LEAST POCKET MOUSE--DIPODIDÆ, OR JERBOAS--Organisation
for Jumping--Characteristics--Distribution--THE AMERICAN JUMPING
MOUSE--Description--Characters peculiar to itself--Habits--THE
TRUE JERBOAS--Characters--THE JERBOA--Distribution--Habits--Mode
of Locomotion--THE ALACTAGA--THE CAPE JUMPING HARE--THE
PORCUPINE-LIKE RODENTS--OCTODONTIDÆ--Characteristics--Sub-Family,
CTENODACTYLINÆ--THE GUNDI--THE DEGU--Description--Habits--THE
BROWN SCHIZODON--THE TUKOTUKO--THE CURURO--THE ROCK
RAT--Sub-Family, ECHINOMYINÆ--THE COYPU--One of the Largest
Rodents--Description--Burrows--Habits--Mother and Young--THE HUTIA
CONGA--THE HUTIA CARABALI--THE GROUND RAT.

FAMILY VIII.--SPALACIDÆ (MOLE RATS).

Although the Zokor and its allies in the preceding family have to a
certain extent prepared us for the peculiar characters presented by the
Mole-rats, these are exhibited by the latter in a much more extreme
form. They have a very large broad head, which is usually flattened
above, and forms an appropriate anterior termination to a clumsy,
cylindrical body, supported upon short stout limbs; their incisor
teeth are large and broad, and are most formidably exposed in front
of the mouth; their eyes are exceedingly small, hidden in the fur,
and sometimes quite rudimentary; the external ears are reduced to the
smallest possible size, or altogether wanting; and their tails are
either so short as to be concealed within the hair of the hinder part
of the body, or altogether wanting externally, although the skeleton
still shows some caudal vertebræ. The molar teeth are rooted, and not
tuberculate; their surface shows re-entering folds of enamel. The
feet have five toes, but the thumb is generally very small, although
furnished with a nail. The number of molars varies from three to six on
each side in each jaw.

In their mode of life, as in their form and the condition of the organs
of sight and hearing, these animals present a considerable resemblance
to the Moles; but as their food is exclusively of a vegetable nature,
the object of their burrowing is not exactly the same. They all inhabit
the eastern hemisphere, and are generally met with in dry sandy plains,
the soil of which lends itself readily to mining operations. They
seldom quit their burrows, and usually work in these only at night,
when they make their way rapidly through the ground, and, like the
Mole, can run either backwards or forwards in their subterranean
galleries with equal facility. They feed chiefly on roots, and
especially on the bulbs and tubers which so many plants possess in the
dry districts which they frequent; but some of them also eat nuts,
seeds, the young bark of trees, and herbage. None of them fall into a
state of torpidity during the winter--indeed, only two species inhabit
northern regions; but these, although active in the winter season, are
said not to take the precaution to lay up a store of provisions.

[Illustration: SKULL OF MOLE-RAT.]

Most zoologists distinguish two groups of Spalacidæ. In the SPALACINÆ,
the representatives of which range from south-eastern Europe to further
India and the south of China, and also occur in Africa in the countries
of Abyssinia and Shoa, the palate between the molar teeth is broader
than one of the sockets of the molars, and the angular portion of the
lower jaw springs from the lower edge of the bony case of the incisor.
To this group belongs the MOLE-RAT (_Spalax typhlus_), which inhabits
Hungary and Galicia, and the south-east of Europe generally, and
ranges eastwards into Asia as far as the Caucasus and Ekaterinoslav.
It possesses only three molars on each side in each jaw, and has the
eyes rudimentary and covered by the skin, so that the animal is quite
blind; the upper incisors are placed perpendicularly; and the tail
reduced to a sort of wart. The toes, especially those of the fore-feet,
are furnished with very powerful claws, which are vigorously employed
by the animal in the digging operations above described. The general
covering of the body is a soft fur of a yellowish-brown colour, tinged
with ashy-grey; the head lighter, but becoming brownish behind; and
the lower surface ashy-grey, with some white streaks and spots. The
muzzle, chin, and feet are whitish, and along each side of the face
there runs a sort of ridge of stiff bristle-like hairs. This species is
particularly abundant in the Ukraine and the country about the Volga
and the Don.

The genus _Rhizomys_, of which there are an East Indian and two African
species known, has the eyes uncovered, though very small, short naked
ears, and a short partially hairy tail. The upper incisors are arched
forward. The CHESTNUT MOLE-RAT (_Rhizomys badius_) lives in Northern
India, Siam, and Arracan; and, according to Mr. Finlayson, the food of
a specimen in confinement consisted of unhusked rice and other grain,
but he showed himself fond of yams and pumpkins. The NAKED MOLE-RAT
(_Heterocephalus glaber_), which has no external ears and a short tail,
has the body almost entirely naked. It is a native of Shoa.

[Illustration: MOLE-RAT.]

The other section of the Mole rat family, the BATHYERGINÆ, is entirely
confined to Africa, and, indeed, almost exclusively to the southern
extremity of that continent, only a single species being found
elsewhere--at Mozambique. They show a resemblance to the Hystricine
Rodents in the structure of the lower jaw, the angular portion of which
springs from the side of the bony case of the lower incisor; and the
palate between the molars is narrower than in the Spalacinæ. The best
known of the six species inhabiting the Cape of Good Hope is the STRAND
MOLE-RAT (_Bathyergus maritimus_), which is nearly as large as a small
Rabbit, its length being about ten inches, with a tail two inches in
length. In general form it resembles the species last described; it has
small but uncovered eyes, a broad nose, no external ears; very long,
compressed, and powerful claws on all the toes, except the thumb of
the fore-feet, which has a crooked nail; four molars on each side, and
long white incisors, of which the upper ones are strongly grooved in
front. The colour of the fur is greyish-white, with a yellowish tint
on the upper surface. The tail has a sort of radiating tuft of hairs
at the end. The Strand Mole-rat lives entirely in sandy localities
near the sea-shore, and especially in the sand-hills or dunes which
fringe the coast of the Cape of Good Hope in some parts. Here it
burrows freely in all directions, its galleries generally radiating
from several central points, and joining in various places. It avoids
the light as much as possible, and if by chance it is exposed on the
surface it is exceedingly helpless. Very little is known of the habits
of this species, which probably feeds chiefly on roots like the other
members of the family. It is regarded as mischievous, as it undermines
the ground so much as to make it unsafe to ride over. The colonists,
therefore, often destroy it by various means. The enamel folds of the
teeth become effaced with use.

The _Georychi_, five species of which inhabit Cape Colony, resemble
the preceding species, but are smaller and weaker. The claws of the
fore-feet are shorter and weaker, and the upper incisors, which are
long and arched forward, are not grooved. The best-known species is
the so-called CAPE MOLE-RAT (_Georychus capensis_). In the Mozambique
species (_Heliophobius argenteo-cinereus_) there are six molars on
each side above and below, and the second toe of the hind feet is the
longest. In most other characters it resembles _Georychus_.

FAMILY IX.--GEOMYIDÆ, OR POUCHED RATS.

The Pouched Rats, or Pocket Gophers, and the Pouched Mice of North
America, constitute a family distinguished from all the preceding forms
by the presence of a pair of great cheek-pouches, opening _outside_
and not inside the mouth (_see_ figure). These cheek-pouches are hairy
inside throughout. The angular portion of the lower jaw is strongly
twisted, the molars are four in number on each side in each jaw, and
the squamosal bone is very large. In external characters the animals
of this family present considerable diversity, which has led to their
being divided into two well-marked sub-families, the distinctive
peculiarities of which are of such importance that Dr. Coues has raised
them to the rank of distinct families. The GEOMYINÆ, or Pouched Rats,
are more or less Rat-like animals, in which the feet are five-toed, and
all the toes furnished with claws, those of the fore feet being very
strongly developed; and the tail is short. Certain other characters
are presented by the skull. The outline of this part, including the
zygomatic arches, is almost quadrangular; the infra-orbital opening is
far in front of the jugal process; the malar bone extends forward to
the lachrymal.

[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH OF THE MEXICAN POUCHED RAT.]

[Illustration: UNDER SURFACE OF THE HEAD OF HETEROMYS.]

Of the animals thus characterised, the Continent of North America
possesses, according to Dr. Coues, seven species, and they are met with
from Hudson’s Bay and the Columbia River in the north, as far south
as Mexico. The best-known species, the COMMON POCKET GOPHER (_Geomys
bursarius_), inhabits the whole valley of the Mississippi, and extends
northwards into Canada. It reaches the foot of the Rocky Mountains in
Colorado, but is not known to occur west of that range. It is also
found in Texas. This Pouched Rat, like the rest of its genus, has the
incisors broad and the upper ones deeply grooved; but in addition to
the ordinary deep groove it has a fine line close to the inner margin
of each of these teeth. Its form is stout and clumsy, but its coat is
beautifully soft and velvety, like that of the Mole, but of a dull
reddish-brown colour, with the feet and tail white. The average length
of an adult specimen is from seven to eight inches, and the tail is two
or three inches long. This organ is clothed with hair nearly to the tip.

[Illustration: SKULL OF THE MEXICAN POUCHED RAT.]

Like the Mole, this animal lives in burrows, which it makes in all
directions in the ground, throwing out as it proceeds heaps of earth,
which exactly resemble ordinary mole-hills. To enable it to perform
these labours the claws of the fore feet are exceedingly powerful; and
to adapt it the better to its subterranean existence, the eyes are very
small, and the external ears are wanting. Its digging operations have
generally the same object as those of the Mole--namely, the search
for food. The tunnel is carried along not far from the surface of the
ground, and the roots of any plants that lie in its course are bitten
off and devoured by the little miner. Besides the runs, the Pouched
Rat digs himself a convenient dwelling in the shape of a chamber
hollowed out under the roots of a tree, access to which is gained by
a somewhat spiral descending passage. This chamber, which is usually
at a depth of four or five feet, is comfortably lined with soft grass,
and the nest in which the female brings forth her young is a cavity of
the same kind, but surrounded by circular passages, from which, like
that of the Mole, other passages branch off. One of these, according
to Gesner, leads from the nest to a large store-chamber filled with
nuts, seeds, and roots, among which the potato was found to play an
important part. These provisions are carried to the store-house in the
great cheek-pouches, which the animal is said to fill by the aid of its
tongue, and to empty with the fore paws. This Pouched Rat does much
damage in cultivated ground by attacking the roots of both plants and
trees, sometimes destroying a great number of the latter in a few days.
The female produces from five to seven young at the end of March or the
beginning of April. The other species of _Geomys_ closely resemble this
in their habits.

Of the second genus belonging to this sub-family (_Thomomys_) Dr. Coues
admits only two species, one of which, however, occurs under three
named forms. They may be distinguished from the species of _Geomys_ by
their having the upper incisors plain, without grooves.

The NORTHERN POCKET GOPHER (_Thomomys talpoides_), with its
sub-species, ranges over nearly the whole of North America from the
Hudson’s Bay Territory to California and New Mexico. The three forms
are for the most part in accordance with geographical distribution.
A small species (_Thomomys clusius_) has been obtained in the Rocky
Mountains.

The HETEROMYINÆ (forming the family Saccomyidæ of Dr. Coues, although
he does not accept the genus _Saccomys_) are more slender and delicate
in form than the Geomyinæ, and have the hind limbs and tail elongated,
the former, indeed, being converted into leaping organs like those
of the Jerboas and Kangaroos. The eyes and ears are larger, and the
animals are in every respect adapted to life in the open, while the
Geomyinæ, on the contrary, are subterranean in their habits. The hair
in the present family is coarse and harsh, sometimes even spiny. In
skeletal characters we find a similar alteration. The incisors are
narrow; the skull is delicate, with its angles rounded off, and the
mastoid bones form a considerable part of the roof of the cranial
cavity; the zygomatic arches are slender; and, the lower root of the
maxillary process being undeveloped, the infra-orbital opening is
not defined. As in the Jerboas, the cervical vertebræ are sometimes
anchylosed. Like the Geomyinæ, these animals are confined to America,
and chiefly limited to the Southern United States and Central America,
although some of the species occur as far north as the Columbia River
and Hudson’s Bay, and one is found in Trinidad. By American writers
they are called “Pocket Mice.”

PHILLIPS’S POCKET MOUSE, also known as the Kangaroo Rat (_Dipodomys
Phillipsii_), is one of the best known species of this group. It is
an elegantly formed little creature, about four inches long, with
a slender tail nearly six inches in length. Its colour above is
mouse-brown, white beneath; the sides of the body have some white
streaks, especially one from the ear towards the shoulder, and one on
the thigh running towards the root of the tail; the tip of the tail is
also white. This is a Californian species, but extends throughout the
Pacific region of the United States. It is represented in the Rocky
Mountains by a rather larger and stouter form, with smaller ears and
a shorter tail (_Dipodomys Ordii_), which is generally regarded as
distinct, but is placed by Dr. Coues as a sub-species. The habits of
the species are comparatively little known, but they appear to live in
the most desert places they can find, the barren spots on which the
only plants that seem to flourish are the great mis-shapen cactuses.
They dwell in holes under rocks and stones, from which they emerge at
sunset, and hop about gaily after the fashion of little Kangaroos. The
places in which these Pocket Mice are found are so bare of vegetation
and destitute of water, that it is difficult to imagine how they
contrive to exist. In all probability they pick up a scanty living in
the shape of roots and grasses, especially seeds, carrying a supply for
the day into their holes in their great cheek-pouches.

The YELLOW POCKET MOUSE and the LEAST POCKET MOUSE (_Cricetodipus
flavus_ and _parvus_) are very minute creatures, only about two inches
long in the head and body. The tail is longer than the head and body in
the latter, shorter in the former species, and the colour of the fur
in both is a pale buff. These species are found in the Rocky Mountains
and the region west of that range to the Pacific, the latter being
inhabited by the second of the above species. Several species of the
genus _Heteromys_ inhabit Central America, and one is found in the
island of Trinidad. Nothing appears to be known of their habits.

From these we pass as by a natural transition to

FAMILY X.--DIPODIDÆ (THE JERBOAS).

The JERBOAS are a more extensive and much more widely distributed
family of hopping Rodents. In these we find the organisation for
jumping brought to greater perfection than in any other group. The
body is light and slender, the hind limbs much elongated, the fore
limbs very small, and the tail long and usually tufted at the end. The
number of toes on the hind feet varies from three to five, and the
metatarsal bones are very often united so as to form what is called
a “cannon bone” in the Horse. The incisor teeth are compressed; the
molars sometimes four, but usually three in each series, rooted or
rootless, not tuberculate; the infra-orbital opening is rounded and
very large, and the zygomatic arch slender. The great home of these
animals is the vast steppe region which stretches from South-eastern
Europe across the greater part of Central Asia, but they extend
southwards round the eastern extremity of the Mediterranean, through
Syria and Arabia to Egypt and Africa, over a great part of which they
are found, and eastward to India, Afghanistan, and Ceylon. A single
species occurs at the Cape of Good Hope; and another is found in North
America. We may commence by noticing this last species, as it not only
makes the nearest approach to those of preceding families, especially
the Muridæ, but differs from the rest of the Jerboas in characters of
such importance, that Dr. Coues maintains its right to form a separate
family (_Zapodidæ_).

[Illustration: SKULL OF THE CAPE JUMPING HARE.]

The AMERICAN JUMPING MOUSE (_Zapus[54] hudsonius_) has a wide range,
extending across the continent of North America from sea to sea, and
from Labrador, Hudson’s Bay, and the Great Slave Lake in the north,
to Virginia and the elevated portions of Arizona and New Mexico in
the south. It is an elegant little mouse-like creature, rather more
than three inches long, and furnished with a cylindrical tail, which
exceeds the head and body in length by about two inches. Its hind limbs
are not quite so disproportionately developed as in the other members
of the family. Its fur in summer is of a brown colour above, becoming
yellowish on the sides and white below; in the winter the brown tint
covers the whole surface. The ears, which are not very large, are
black, with a light-coloured rim; the hind feet are greyish, and the
fore feet whitish on the upper surface; and the tail, which tapers to
an exceedingly fine point, where there is a fine pencil of hairs, is
ringed and nearly naked.

The characters in which this animal differs from its nearest relatives
are as follows:--In the upper jaw there are four rooted molars on
each side, the first being very small, the second the largest, and
the rest gradually diminishing in size; the fore feet have the thumbs
rudimentary, and the hind feet have five toes, all of which touch the
ground; the metatarsal bones are separate; and the soles of the feet
naked, with granules and small horny shields.

[Illustration: AMERICAN JUMPING MOUSE.]

The American Jumping Mouse is found in meadows in the neighbourhood of
woods and copses. It is nocturnal in its activity, sleeping during the
day in its burrow, which is usually about two feet deep, and coming
forth at night. It is sociable in its habits, and excessively active,
covering from three to five feet of ground at each leap, so that it is
a matter of no little difficulty to capture a specimen in the open. In
the woods it is worse, as the little creature will bound over bushes,
and get out of sight in a moment. Its food consists of seeds of various
kinds, and it is exceedingly fond of beech-mast. For protection from
the cold of winter the Jumping Mouse makes a little hollow clay ball,
within which it coils itself up, and goes comfortably to sleep. The
nest is made about six inches under the surface of the ground, and
is composed of fine grass, sometimes mixed with feathers, wool, and
hair; and in this the female produces from two to four young, probably
several times in the course of the summer, as the nests and young are
to be found from May to August.

[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH OF THE JERBOA.]

If we regard the American Jumping Mouse as constituting a peculiar
section of the family, ZAPODINÆ, a second group, DIPODINÆ, is formed
by the TRUE JERBOAS, which make up the greater part of the family.
These either possess only three molars, or a very small additional
tooth exists in front of each series in the upper jaw. The molars are
rooted, and diminish in size backwards in each series. The cervical
vertebræ are anchylosed; the fore feet have the thumbs rudimentary, but
sometimes furnished with a small nail; the hind feet have only three
toes fully developed, and the metatarsals are united into a single bone
of great length; the soles are furnished with elastic balls; and the
tail is very long, well-clothed with hair, and tufted at the end.

[Illustration: JERBOA.]

Of these pretty little creatures, which are in some respects singularly
bird-like, about twenty species have been recorded, and these occupy
the whole of the Old World area of the family, except South Africa.
The JERBOA (_Dipus ægyptius_) may serve as an example of this section
of the family. This is a most lively and active little creature, which
inhabits the deserts of north-eastern Africa as far south as Nubia, and
extends its range into Arabia and south-western Asia. On these arid
plains, so scantily clothed with a few grasses and dry shrubs that it
is difficult to conceive how any animal can find a living on them, the
Jerboa lives, often in numerous societies, and in company with the few
birds and lizards which enliven the wilderness. These animals dwell
in subterranean abodes consisting of many branched galleries, which
they dig out in the hard soil not far from the surface. The Arabs
assert that these habitations are produced by the joint labour of the
whole society. They retreat into their burrows at the least alarm. The
females are said to produce from two to four young at a birth in a nest
made in the deeper part of the burrow, and lined with hair pulled from
the under surface of her own body. When going along quietly, the Jerboa
walks and runs by alternate steps of the hind feet, but when there
is occasion for rapid motion it springs from both feet at the same
time, covering so much ground at each leap, and touching the ground so
momentarily between them, that its motion is more like that of a bird
skimming close to the surface of the ground than that of a four-footed
beast.

The Jerboa is about six inches long, with a tail about eight inches in
length exclusive of the tuft with which its tip is adorned. Its upper
surface is of a greyish sand-colour, like that of many other desert
animals; the lower surface is white; and the tail pale-yellowish above
and white beneath, with the tuft white, with an arrow-shaped black mark
on its upper surface.

[Illustration: ALACTAGA.]

Several other species of Jerboas are known, some from the deserts of
North Africa, others from the steppes of Central Asia. The latter
region harbours some forms, which differ from the preceding, among
other characters, by having five toes in the hind feet, whereas the
true Jerboas have only three, but of the five toes only three are
sufficiently developed to take part in the animal’s progression.
The best known of them is the ALACTAGA (_Alactaga jaculus_), a
rather larger species than the Jerboa, and with a still longer tail,
reddish-yellow with a greyish tinge above, white beneath and on the
hind legs. Its range extends from the Crimea and the steppes of the Don
across Central Asia to the borders of China. It walks upon all-fours,
and when advancing quickly springs along after the fashion of the
Jerboa. Its food consists of all sorts of vegetable substances, but
it is especially fond of the bulbs of plants, and does not refuse
occasionally to eat insects, or even the eggs and young of the
birds which inhabit the steppes with it. The Alactagas live in very
complicated burrows, with many passages and branches, and they are said
always to make one passage from the central chamber of their residence,
which terminates close to the surface of the earth at some distance,
but is only opened in case of danger, when the inhabitants escape
through it, the position of its intended aperture being previously
unrecognisable. In cold weather they sleep in their nests. The female
produces from five or six to eight young, in a nest lined with her own
hair. Species of _Alactaga_ occur not only in Central Asia, but also in
Arabia and North Africa.

[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH OF THE JUMPING HARE.]

South Africa produces one species, the CAPE JUMPING HARE (_Pedetes
caffer_), which constitutes a distinct sub-family, PEDETINÆ, having
four rootless molars on each side in each jaw, the metatarsal bones
separate, the tail bushy, and the hind feet furnished with four toes
having broad, hoof-like nails. This is a much larger animal than any
of the preceding, being about the size of the common Hare, which it
also resembles in its colours. The Jumping Hare inhabits a considerable
portion of South Africa, extending on the west coast at least as
far as Angola. It is abundant at the Cape of Good Hope, both in the
mountains and in the plains. Great numbers of the animals often live
together, and their burrows, which, like those of other Dipodidæ, are
inhabited by numerous individuals as a common residence, consist of
many-branched galleries made at no great depth from the surface, but
leading into a more deeply-seated habitation. They generally go about
slowly upon all-fours, but can advance with extraordinary rapidity by
Kangaroo-like springs, in each of which, when pressed, they will cover
a space of twenty or thirty feet. Their food consists of roots, seeds,
and herbage. The female produces three or four young at a birth.

[Illustration: CAPE JUMPING HARE.]

SECTION III.--PORCUPINE-LIKE RODENTS (_HYSTRICOMORPHA_).

FAMILY XI.--OCTODONTIDÆ.

This first family of the Porcupine alliance consists of a number of
rat-like animals, nearly all of which are inhabitants of South America,
three species only being peculiar to the large West Indian Islands,
whilst, singularly enough, four more are known from different parts of
the African continent. Except in one of these last, all the members of
the family have four molars on each side in each jaw, and the crowns
of these teeth show internal and external folds of enamel. The malar
portion of the zygomatic arch has an angular process at its lower
margin. The hind limbs are not disproportionately developed, and both
they and the fore feet are nearly always furnished with five toes,
armed with curved claws; and the clavicles are perfect. The ears are
generally short and sparingly hairy, and the tail, which is of various
lengths, is either clad with short hairs, or naked and scaly.

We may begin with two African species of this generally American
family, which have the two inner claws of the hind feet furnished with
comb-like fringes of horny bristles, whence the name of _Ctenodactylus_
has been applied to the best known species. These two species,
which exhibit strong affinities to the Jerboas, form the sub-family
CTENODACTYLINÆ. The GUNDI (_Ctenodactylus Massoni_) has only three
molars on each side in each jaw, and only four toes upon each foot. It
is an animal about the size of the Water Rat, but with a mere stump
of a tail, very small ears, very long whiskers, and the hind limbs
rather longer than their fellows. It lives in North Africa, chiefly on
the borders of the Sahara, where it takes up its abode in the rocky
hills, and descends therefrom to the cultivated grounds to feast upon
the growing corn. It is diurnal in its habits, but exceedingly shy
and watchful, making off to its fastnesses at the least appearance of
danger. _Pectinator Spekei_, a species named after its discoverer, the
celebrated African traveller, is nearly related to the preceding, but
has a small additional molar in each series. The tail is of moderate
length, and bushy, and the ears have a small antitragus. It inhabits
the Somali land in the interior of North-eastern Africa.

[Illustration: DEGU.]

The DEGU (_Octodon Cumingii_), a very abundant species in Chili, which
also extends into Peru, may be taken as a typical example of the whole
family, and also of its typical sub-family OCTODONTINÆ, in which the
molars are simply indented on each side. The fur is soft, and the
tail is short. The Degu is a rat-like animal, rather smaller than
the Water Vole, the head and body measuring from seven and a half to
eight inches in length, and the tail, exclusive of its terminal tuft,
rather more than half that length. The general colour of the animal is
brownish-yellow, pencilled with black on the back; the lower surface is
yellowish, the feet white, and the tail dusky above, whitish beneath,
with the tufted tip dusky or blackish. In the central parts of Chili,
according to various travellers, the Degu is exceedingly abundant,
living in large societies about hedges and thickets, and running about
boldly, even on the high roads. The animals make their burrows in
the hedge-banks and similar places, and when alarmed rush into them
with their tails elevated, very much after the manner of Rabbits. As
the burrows communicate freely with each other, the Degus can easily
escape pursuit, going in at one opening and coming out at another at
some considerable distance. They sometimes climb up into the bushes
among which they live. Their ordinary food consists of the herbage
which grows about their dwelling-places, but they also invade gardens
and fields, where they may do considerable damage. In the winter they
will feed upon the tender bark of certain trees, but they are said by
some authors to lay up a store of food against this season. They do
not become torpid. The female is believed to produce two broods in the
year, each consisting of from four to six young. Two other species
of _Octodon_ are known from Chili and Bolivia, which region is also
inhabited by two species of _Habrocoma_, a genus distinguished by the
large size of the ears, and the extreme softness of the fur. In these
animals the molar teeth differ in the two jaws, the upper ones being
as simple as in the preceding species, while the lower ones show a
complication of the enamel folds like what we shall meet with in the
third sub-family.

The BROWN SCHIZODON (_Schizodon fuscus_), which inhabits certain
elevated spots in the southern part of the Andes (75° S. lat.), has
the enamel folds of the molar teeth meeting in the middle. It is about
the size of the common Rat (seven and a half to nine inches long),
and has a shortish tail clothed throughout with short hairs. Its fur
is dark brown above, dirty yellowish beneath. This animal inhabits
grassy places near mountain streams, where the ground is sometimes so
undermined by its burrows as to render travelling on horseback very
uncomfortable. It is a nocturnal animal, and passes most of its life
underground. The valleys it inhabits are covered with snow for at least
four months in the year.

In the TUKOTUKO (_Ctenomys brasiliensis_) and its congeners, about
four of which are known from different parts of South America, one of
them extending as far south as the Strait of Magellan, the eyes and
ears are very small, and the animal seems to be still more specially
adapted to a subterranean mode of life. In these animals the claws
are longer than the toes, and those of the hind feet are fringed with
a sort of comb formed of bristles. The incisor teeth are very broad.
The Tukotuko is about the size of a large Rat, namely, from eight and
a half to nine and a half inches long, with the tail from two and a
half to three and a half inches. Its name is in imitation of the sound
which it constantly emits--a sound which rather surprises a stranger
when he first hears it, seeing that the animal uttering it is concealed
underground. In many places, as in the Argentine Republic, this animal
is exceedingly numerous, living generally in sandy soil, but sometimes
in damp situations. It makes long burrows not far from the surface, and
thus in some places completely undermines the ground. In making these
galleries the Tukotuko is engaged in the search for its food, which
consists chiefly of the roots of plants. According to Azara, it lays up
stores of food in its burrows. Its activity is nocturnal.

The CURURO (_Spalacopus Pöppigii_) has the ears quite rudimentary,
and is also organised for a subterranean existence. This and another
species inhabit Chili, where they make extensive burrows in the ground,
and feed upon the bulbous and tuberous roots of various plants, large
stores of which they collect in their subterranean abodes. These
magazines are sought out by the poorer people, and their contents used
as food.

[Illustration: DENTITION OF THE ROCK RAT.]

The ROCK RAT (_Petromys typicus_), although most nearly allied to
the preceding species, lives on the opposite side of the Atlantic in
the rocky hills of South Africa, especially towards the mouth of the
Orange River. It differs from the preceding forms in the harshness of
its fur, in which it resembles another sub-family of Octodontidæ, in
the shortness of its thumbs, which are furnished with a small nail,
and in its rather bushy tail. The molars are semi-rooted, with the
enamel folds nearly meeting in the middle. The whiskers are of great
length, and entirely black. The general colour is reddish-brown, with
the head and fore parts greyish, the throat whitish, and the belly
pale yellow. The tail is of the colour of the body at the root, with
the remainder black. The length of the animal is about seven and a
half inches, of the tail from five to five and a half inches. It feeds
upon various vegetable substances, and appears to be very fond of the
flowers of syngenesious plants, especially a species of groundsel,
which it eagerly devours. It forms its retreat among loose stones, or
in crevices of the rocks.

[Illustration: TEETH OF THE SPINY RAT.]

While the Octodontinæ may be regarded as specially characteristic of
the region of the Andes, the other great group of this family is almost
exclusively confined to the country east of that great chain, and to
some of the West Indian islands. Curiously enough this sub-family also
has a single representative in Africa. Its members are distinguished
at once by the complicated enamel folds of their molar teeth in both
jaws, by these teeth being generally rooted, and by the texture of the
fur, which is harsh and frequently mixed with fine spines. Hence the
name of _Echinomys_ (Spiny, or rather Hedgehog, Rat), applied to the
typical genus, from which the sub-family is named ECHINOMYINÆ. The tail
in these animals is usually long.

The Rodents belonging to this sub-family are generally of considerable
size, as large as Rats, or larger, stoutly built, with the hinder part
of the body larger than the fore-quarters, with limbs of moderate
length, the hinder larger than the anterior, the former furnished with
five toes, the latter with four complete digits and a rudimentary
thumb, and the toes armed with strong curved claws. The tail is scaly,
with scattered hairs. In their habits these animals appear to be
strictly vegetable-feeders, but in other respects they present some
variety. The majority live in and upon the ground; but one or two are
arboreal, and one aquatic, in their mode of life.

The last species alluded to is the well-known COYPU (_Myopotamus
Coypus_), one of the largest of Rodents, which occurs in nearly
all parts of South America and on both sides of the Andes, from
the tropic of Capricorn to about 15° N. lat. It is usually about
twenty inches long, but often attains still greater dimensions. The
tail, which is about two-thirds the length of the head and body, is
scaly, with hairs about as thickly scattered as in the common Rat.
The ears are of moderate size; the incisor teeth very large and
powerful; the molars, the hindmost of which are the largest, have
two internal and two external enamel-folds in the upper, and three
internal folds and one external in the lower, jaw; the hind feet are
webbed. The general colour of the upper surface is brown, produced by
dusky and brownish-yellow pencilling; the sides and under parts are
brownish-yellow, and the front of the muzzle and the chin white.

[Illustration: COYPU.]

The Coypus live upon the shores of the rivers and lakes of South
America, generally, according to Rengger, in pairs, each pair digging
for themselves a burrow in the bank, which extends to a depth of three
or four feet, and widens out into a cavity eighteen inches or two feet
in diameter. Here they pass the night, and take refuge when necessary
during the day. They select for their dwelling-places the stiller parts
of the water, where the aquatic plants on which they chiefly feed grow
freely. They are said to swim well, but not to be expert in diving. On
land they are slow and awkward in their movements. They feed chiefly on
the roots of plants, but in the Chonos Archipelago, where the Coypus
frequent the sea and make their burrows at some little distance from
the beach, they are said occasionally to eat shell-fish. The female
produces from four to five young once in the year. The little animals
very early accompany their mother into the water, when she swims with
them on her back, until they have acquired the art of swimming. Mr.
Waterhouse thinks that this habit may “explain the singular position
of the nipples noticed in the female Coypu. Of these four were found
by Mr. Lereboullet on each side of the body, and situated rather above
the mesial line of the flanks, the foremost being placed behind the
shoulder, and the hindermost in front of the thigh.” The Coypu is
hunted for the sake of its flesh, which is described as white and of
good flavour, and of its skin, which is well known in the fur trade
under the name of “Nutria,” signifying Otter. Great quantities of these
skins are annually exported from Buenos Ayres. It is said to be a
courageous animal, fighting bravely with the dogs engaged in chasing it.

[Illustration: HUTIA CONGA.]

[Illustration: TEETH OF PLAGIODON.]

[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH OF LONCHERES.]

The HUTIA CONGA (_Capromys pilorides_) is another large Rodent,
measuring from twenty to twenty-two inches in length, with a stout
rat-like tail about half as long as the head and body. It is an
inhabitant of Cuba. The incisors are considerably smaller and weaker
than in the Coypu; the upper molars have one internal and two external
folds; the lower ones are similar but reversed. The fur, which is
long, is very harsh, and consists of a mixture of black and yellow
hairs, becoming rusty on the hinder part of the body. The belly is
rusty yellow. This animal lives in the dense forests of Cuba, where
it resides either upon the trees or in the thick underwood. It is a
nocturnal or crepuscular animal, and is tolerably active when going
about on the branches of trees, but is less at home on the ground.
Its food consists of fruits, leaves, and the bark of trees, but,
according to M. Ramon de la Sagra, it does not disdain animal food,
and is especially fond of a species of Lizard belonging to the genus
_Anolis_. On the other hand, the negroes are very partial to the flesh
of the Hutia, and they capture the animal either by snaring it on the
branches of trees, or by sending Dogs after it. Like the Coypu, it is
said to fight courageously against its pursuers. Another Cuban species,
the HUTIA CARABALI (_C. prehensilis_), has a slightly longer tail,
which is prehensile at the tip. It is described as keeping chiefly to
the highest branches of the trees. In St. Domingo there is an allied
form, _Plagiodon ædium_, in which the enamel folds of the molars are
singularly complex (_see_ figure on p. 132). This animal frequents
the neighbourhood of human habitations, and approaches them at night
in search of its food, which consists of fruit and roots. In most of
the other members of this sub-family, which appear to be terrestrial
in their habits, the intermixture of spines with the fur of the back
is a striking character. In the genus _Echinomys_ itself, and in
_Loncheres_, which together include about a dozen species found chiefly
in Guiana and Brazil, the spines frequently form the principal outer
covering of the back. Side by side with these hedgehog-like species,
however, others occur in which the fur is soft.

[Illustration: SKULL OF LONCHERES.]

The GROUND RAT (_Aulacodus Swinderianus_), of Western and Southern
Africa, is remarkable as being the sole representative of this group
outside the South American province. It has very broad incisors, and
those of the upper jaw exhibit three deep grooves; the molars show
the same arrangement of folds as in _Capromys_; the fur is harsh and
bristly, and of a general brown tint; and the tail is of moderate
length, sparingly haired, dusky above, and whitish below. The fore
feet have the thumb rudimentary and the outer toe very short; and the
hind feet have only four toes, of which the outer one is rudimentary.
This curious animal, which is nearly two feet long, is known to be an
inhabitant of Sierra Leone and the Gambia, and also of South Africa
(Port Natal); in all probability it occurs at many intermediate
localities. In Sierra Leone it is known as the Ground Rat, or Ground
Pig, and is said to feed upon ground nuts, and cassada and other roots
in search of which it digs into the ground, where it also forms large
burrows for its residence.

CHAPTER IV.

PORCUPINES--CHINCHILLAS--AGOUTIS--CAVIES--HARES AND RABBITS--PIKAS.

HYSTRICIDÆ, THE PORCUPINES--Conversion of Hairs into
Spines--Skull--Dentition--Tail--Sub-families--The
True Porcupines--The Tree Porcupines--THE COMMON
PORCUPINE--Distribution--Description--The Crest of
Bristles--Nature of the Spines--Habits--Young--Flesh--On the
Defensive--Other Species--Species of Tree Porcupines--THE
COUENDOU--THE COUIY--Description--Habits--THE URSON, OR CANADA
PORCUPINE--Description--Habits--Food--CHINCHILLIDÆ, THE
CHINCHILLAS--Characteristics--THE VISCACHA--Description--Life on the
Pampas--Their Burrows--Habits--The Chinchillas of the Andes--THE
CHINCHILLA--THE SHORT-TAILED CHINCHILLA--CUVIER’S CHINCHILLA--THE
PALE-FOOTED CHINCHILLA--DASYPROCTIDÆ, THE AGOUTIS--Characters--THE
AGOUTI--Distribution--Appearance--Habits--AZARA’S
AGOUTI--THE ACOUCHY--THE
PACA--Appearance--Distribution--Habits--DINOMYIDÆ--Founded
for a Single Species--Description--Rarity--CAVIIDÆ, THE
CAVIES--Characteristics--THE RESTLESS CAVY--Appearance--Habits--The
Guinea-Pig Controversy--THE BOLIVIAN CAVY--THE ROCK
CAVY--THE SOUTHERN CAVY--THE PATAGONIAN CAVY, OR
MARA--Peculiar Features--Its Burrows--Mode of Running--THE
CAPYBARA--Its Teeth--Where Found--Habits--THE DOUBLE-TOOTHED
RODENTS--Characteristics--LEPORIDÆ, THE HARES AND
RABBITS--Structural Peculiarities--Distribution--Disposition--THE
COMMON HARE--Hind Legs--Speed--Its “Doubles”--Other
Artifices--Its “Form”--Habits--Food--Pet Hares--THE
RABBIT--Distribution--Habits--Domesticated--THE MOUNTAIN
HARE--LAGOMYIDÆ, THE PIKAS--Characteristics--Distribution--THE ALPINE
PIKA--THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN PIKA.

FAMILY XII.--HYSTRICIDÆ (PORCUPINES).

This second family of the section Hystricomorpha exhibits the
conversion of the hairs into spines in perfection, the whole upper part
of the body being in several instances completely covered with long,
hollow, pointed quills, whilst in all cases great numbers of spines
and stiff bristles are mixed with the hair. The form of the skull in
these animals is distinctive. It is ovate, the cranial portion being
more or less inflated by air-cavities in the bones, and the facial
portion short, but the occipital or hinder surface is usually nearly
perpendicular; the malar portion of the zygoma has no angular process
as in the preceding family; the molar teeth are four in number on each
side in each jaw; and the limbs are about equal in development. The
incisor teeth are large and powerful. With regard to the development of
the tail there are considerable differences, some species having that
organ quite short, while in others it is of moderate length, or long
and sometimes prehensile.

[Illustration: SKULL OF THE PORCUPINE.]

The Porcupines fall readily into two distinct groups (sub-families)
characterised by structure, habits, and geographical distribution. In
the strictly terrestrial species, or True Porcupines (HYSTRICINÆ),
which inhabit the warmer parts of the eastern hemisphere, the skull
is rather more elongated than in the others; the front margin of the
orbit is over the third molar; the molars are rootless when young, but
become closed after a time, and the clavicles are imperfect. The upper
lip is furrowed; the tail, which may be either long or short, is never
prehensile; the soles of the feet are smooth; and the female has six
teats.

[Illustration: COMMON PORCUPINE.]

The arboreal species (SPHINGURINÆ), which are all American, have the
skull peculiarly short, the front margin of the orbit over the first
molar, the molars always rooted, and the clavicles perfect. The upper
lip is not furrowed; the tail is moderate or long, and generally
prehensile; the soles of the feet are covered with wart-like tubercles;
and the female has only four teats.

The COMMON PORCUPINE (_Hystrix cristata_) may serve as a characteristic
and well-known example of the first of these two groups. It is an
inhabitant of the Mediterranean region, occurring in most parts of
North Africa, and extending as far southwards as the Gambia and Soudan;
in Southern Europe it is abundant in Italy, Sicily, and Greece. It
measures about twenty-seven or twenty-eight inches in length to the
root of the tail, which is about four inches long. The head, shoulders,
limbs, and under parts are clothed with short spines intermixed with
hairs usually of a dusky or brownish-black hue; the neck is marked
with a whitish collar; from the back of the head and neck there rises
a great crest of long bristles, many of them fifteen or sixteen inches
in length, which can be elevated and depressed at the pleasure of the
animal, are gently curved backwards, and are either dusky with the
extremities white, or whitish throughout; the hinder portion of the
body is entirely covered by a great number of long, sharp spines,
ringed with black and white, but always having the extremities white.
These spines vary considerably in size, some of them being very long
(fifteen or sixteen inches), comparatively slender and flexible; others
shorter (from six to twelve inches), but much stouter. They are all
hollow, or filled only with a sort of spongy tissue, but from their
structure are exceedingly resistant, and when the animal erects them,
which he is able to do by contracting the muscles of the skin in which
their roots are imbedded, they constitute a most formidable armature.
They appear to be but loosely attached to the skin, and readily fall
out, a circumstance which no doubt gave rise to the belief prevalent
among the ancients (and many moderns) that the Porcupine was able to
shoot his spines at an approaching enemy, or even to project them
behind him at a pursuer when he was rushing away in search of a place
of safety. The tail of the animal bears at its tip about twenty spines
of very curious construction; they are about two inches long, hollow,
open, and cut off square at the end, and about a quarter of an inch in
diameter for the greater part of their length, but they are inserted
into the skin by the extremity of a thin stalk half an inch long.

The Porcupine lives in holes among the rocks, or in a burrow, which he
makes for himself in ordinary ground. In this retreat he passes the
day in sleep, coming forth in the evening in search of food, which
consists of herbage of various kinds, fruits, roots, and the bark and
leaves of trees and bushes. He is slow in his movements, and does
not even display much activity in burrowing. His habits are solitary
except during the pairing season; and during the winter he passes
most of his time in his habitation, without, however, falling into a
torpid state. The pairing takes place early in the year, but varies
in this respect according to the climate of the locality; and in the
spring or early summer the female produces from two to four young, in a
nest carefully lined with leaves, grasses, roots, and other vegetable
substances. The young Porcupines are born with their eyes open, and
their bodies are covered with short, soft spines, which are pressed
closely to the body. These speedily harden and grow longer, and the
young do not appear to remain very long with their mother. The flesh of
the Porcupine, like that of most purely vegetable-feeding Rodents, is
very good, and is eaten in the countries where the animal occurs. When
pursued or irritated, he stands on the defensive, erects his formidable
quills and crest, stamps on the ground with his hind feet after the
manner of a Hare, jerks himself towards the object of his dread, as if
to wound it with his spines, and at the same time produces a curious
noise by rattling the open quills of the tip of his tail. But all these
manœuvres are generally in vain, and the Porcupine, in spite of his
defensive armour, is pretty easily captured by those who know how to
set about it. The Leopard is said to manage the business at once by a
single blow of his paw on the head.

A very similar Porcupine (_Hystrix hirsutirostris_) takes the place
of this species in Syria and Asia Minor, and extends thence eastward
to India; another (_H. javanica_) inhabits the Sunda Islands; and the
district of Nepaul has a peculiar species of its own. In Siam and
Malacca, and on the west coast of Africa, we find two species of an
allied genus, in which the spines of the body are comparatively short
and depressed, and the tail is elongated, scaly, with a few scattered
bristles in the middle, and with a large tuft of long flat bristles at
the tip. The Malayan species (_Atherura fasciculata_) is about eighteen
inches long, the African one (_A. africana_) about fourteen inches.
Both are somewhat rat-like in their form.

The Tree Porcupines, forming the second sub-family, several species
with prehensile tails, range over the continent of South America, east
of the Andes, and one of them, the Mexican Tree Porcupine (_Sphingurus
mexicanus_), is found as far north as Guatemala and Southern Mexico.
The most abundant and widely-distributed species in the Brazilian
region are the COUENDOU (_Sphingurus prehensilis_) and the COUIY (_S.
villosus_), inhabiting Guiana, Brazil, and Bolivia, the latter being
found throughout the forest region of Brazil and as far south as
Paraguay.

These animals are of considerable size, usually measuring from sixteen
to twenty inches in length without the tail, which is about one-third
the length of the head and body. By the aid of the prehensile tip
of this organ they climb with great facility and security upon the
branches of the trees, but their feet are also specially adapted for
this particular mode of activity, and they are said even to climb
the palm-trees in order to feed upon their fruit. They are nocturnal
in their habits, passing the day in sleep concealed in the fork of
a branch, and going abroad at night in search of their food, which
consists of fruits of various kinds, and the buds, leaves, and even
flowers, of the trees on which they live. Roots also form a part of
their nourishment, probably when they reside rather among thickets than
in the high forest. Their spines, although short when compared with
those of the Common Porcupine, are formidable defensive weapons when
the animal erects them; in some species, as especially in the Couiy,
they are concealed, when depressed, by the long hair, and, according
to Hensel, this serves as a protection to the animal from rapacious
birds, for, when it sits in a heap, sleeping away the daylight, these
soft grey hairs give it a most deceptive resemblance to a mass of
the beard-moss which so commonly grows on the trees in the Brazilian
forests.

[Illustration: TREE PORCUPINE.]

The URSON, or CANADA PORCUPINE (_Erythizon dorsatus_), the only North
American species of the family, according to Mr. Allen, although other
writers distinguish two or three such forms, is about two feet or
more in length when full grown, and is covered with woolly hair, and
with long coarse hair of a dark brown colour, with the points white
or yellowish, this difference in the colour of the tips of the hairs
being the chief distinction between the two varieties which Mr. Allen
recognises. The spines in both forms are white, with the points usually
dusky or brown. The Canada Porcupine is distributed through the whole
of the Eastern United States, except on the seaboard, from New York to
Virginia, and north of the States through Canada, as far as the limit
of trees. The Western Porcupine, which has the tips of the long hairs
yellowish (whence it has received the name _E. epixanthus_), occurs
west of the Missouri river, extending to the Pacific shores and going
southward along the mountains to Arizona and New Mexico, and northwards
at least as far as Alaska and Sitka.

[Illustration: MEXICAN TREE PORCUPINES.]

Although a heavy and clumsy-looking beast, and destitute of the
prehensile tail of its South American cousins, this Porcupine is a
good climber, and passes nearly the whole of its life upon trees;
nevertheless, according to Mr. Allen, it may be met with travelling
upon the prairies, probably on its way from one suitable residence to
another. On the ground it moves slowly, but its armature of spines is a
protection against most of its enemies, and it has the art of striking
very forcible and judicious blows with its spiny tail. Audubon and
Bachmann mention many cases in which Dogs, Wolves, and even a Puma were
found dead or dying in consequence of the severe inflammation caused
by the spines of this animal sticking about their mouths; and the
former gives an interesting account of a lesson in urbanity given by
a captive Urson to a Mastiff that attacked him. The food of the Urson
consists of various vegetable substances, fruits, buds, and the young
shoots and leaves of trees. In the winter it subsists chiefly upon the
bark, which it strips off the upper branches of the trees, and when it
has taken up its abode upon a tree it stays there until the suitable
bark has been consumed. As it prefers young trees this operation is
generally effected pretty quickly, and in this way it is estimated
that a single Porcupine may destroy hundreds of trees in the course
of a winter. The Urson resides in the holes of trees, and in such
situations, or in crevices among the rocks, the female prepares her
nest, in which she brings forth usually two, but occasionally three or
four, young in April or May.

FAMILY XIII.--CHINCHILLIDÆ (THE CHINCHILLAS).

In the Chinchillas, which form a small family peculiar to South
America, the incisor teeth are short; the molars are rootless, divided
by continuous folds of enamel into transverse plates, and the two
series in each jaw converge towards the front; the zygomatic arch has
no angular process on the lower margin; the clavicles are slender but
perfect; the fore limbs are small, the hind limbs long; the tail of
moderate length or long, and turned up at the end; and the fur is very
fine and soft. They are Rodents of moderate size and more or less of
Rabbit-like appearance, except that the tail is always elongated and
bushy. Of the five known species, four are inhabitants of the mountain
regions, and one lives in the plains of the region of La Plata.

The latter, the VISCACHA (_Lagostomus trichodactylus_), is a
stout-built and almost Marmot-like creature, from eighteen inches to
two feet long, exclusive of the tail, which measures from six to eight
inches. It has four toes on the fore limbs, and three on the hind feet,
the latter furnished with long, compressed, and pointed nails; the
muffle is broad and covered with a velvet-like coat of brown hair; the
fur, which is soft and moderately long, is of a mottled grey colour
above, and white or yellowish-white beneath; on each cheek there is a
dark band; a white band crosses the muzzle and runs back on each side
almost as far as the eye; the tail is dusky-brown or black.

The Viscacha lives on the Pampas from Buenos Ayres to the borders
of Patagonia, and where it occurs is generally to be found in great
numbers, residing in extensive burrows which it digs for itself in the
ground, generally in the neighbourhood of copses, and, if possible,
near cultivated fields. Each burrow has a great number of passages
leading down to several chambers, in which the Viscachas live in family
parties to the number of eight or ten. The Burrowing Owl already
mentioned as an associate of the Prairie Dogs of North America, is
found about the settlements of the Viscachas, living in their burrows,
but it is said that the intrusion of these birds immediately drives out
the real owners of the dwelling, as the Owls will not observe those
rules of cleanliness which are characteristic of their unwilling hosts.
Of course the expelled family has to make itself a new residence, and
in this way great stretches of country come to be so undermined that
they are dangerous to ride over. According to Mr. Darwin, the most
favourite resort of the Viscachas in the neighbourhood of Buenos Ayres
are those parts of the plain which, during half the year, are covered
with great thistles.

They are nocturnal in their habits, passing the day sleeping in the
recesses of their burrows, and coming forth in the twilight one by
one, until a large and lively company is to be seen playing about the
neighbourhood of their holes. When all is quiet they go in search of
their food, which consists of grasses and other herbage and roots, and
sometimes of the bark of trees and shrubs. In cultivated fields they
may do considerable damage. While engaged in feeding, one or other
of the party is perpetually on the watch, and the moment anything
occurs to cause alarm, the whole of them scamper away with their tails
elevated, to take refuge in their holes. In their movements they are
very like Rabbits, but less active.

The Viscacha has the very singular habit of dragging all sorts
of hard objects to the mouth of its burrow, where bones, stones,
thistle-stalks, hard lumps of earth, dry cow-dung, and other chance
articles may be found collected into a heap, frequently, according
to Mr. Darwin, amounting to as much as a wheelbarrow would contain.
Mr. Darwin says that he was informed that “a gentleman riding on
a dark night dropped his watch; he returned in the morning, and
by searching in the neighbourhood of every Viscacha hole on the
line of road, as he expected, soon found it.” The purpose of this
accumulation of apparently useless articles by the Viscacha has never
been ascertained. It has been compared to the habit of some of the
Australian Bower-birds, which adorn their playing-places with bright
and glittering objects.

[Illustration: VISCACHAS.]

The Chinchillas of the Andes, or Alpine Chinchillas, are much lighter
and more elegant animals than their cousins of the plains; in form they
more resemble Squirrels or large Dormice. Their fur is excessively
soft, perhaps the softest that clothes any animal, and in all the
species it is of a grey colour, mottled or clouded with darker and
lighter tints. The ears are of large size. They are confined to the
Andes of Chili, Bolivia, and Peru, where they live among the bare rocks
at a considerable elevation, seeking refuge in natural clefts and
cavities, sleeping in their holes during the day, and coming forth at
twilight in search of food. They are exceedingly lively and active in
their movements, and very shy.

[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH TEETH OF THE CHINCHILLA.]

The COMMON CHINCHILLA (_Chinchilla lanigera_), the skins of which are
well known as furs, is a squirrel-like animal, nine or ten inches long,
with a tail more than half this length. It has large rounded ears; its
fore feet have five, and its hind four, toes. Its fur on the upper part
is grey, elegantly marbled with dusky or black, on the lower surface
yellowish-white; the tail is black above, and dirty white at the sides
and beneath. The incisors are of a bright orange colour in front. The
SHORT-TAILED CHINCHILLA (_C. brevicaudata_), a larger species, has the
tail only three inches long. Its fur is of a general silvery-grey hue,
tinged with black, especially along the back, and the tail has two
dark bands on its upper surface. Both these animals inhabit Peru, and
the former is also found in Bolivia and Chili. They are exceedingly
abundant, notwithstanding the constant persecution to which they are
subjected for the sake of their skins. They come out of their holes
even in the daytime, but then always keep on the shady side of the
rocks. Their activity is described as wonderful, and they will run with
great rapidity up perpendicular walls of rock which seem to offer no
hold for their feet. On the ground they are said to run very much after
the fashion of our common Mice. The Chinchilla seems to breed nearly
all the year round, and the female is said to produce from four to six
young at a birth.

[Illustration: CHINCHILLA.]

The other two species of Alpine Chinchillas are placed in a separate
genus, characterised by a more hare-like form, longer ears, and the
presence of only four toes on both fore and hind feet. CUVIER’S
CHINCHILLA (_Lagidium Cuvieri_) is about eighteen or twenty inches
long, of an ashy-grey colour with a yellowish tinge above, and pale
yellow beneath; the tail, which, with the hair, is nearly as long as
the body is clothed beneath with short black hairs, and above with much
longer bushy hairs, gradually increasing in length towards the tip,
where they are black; a black line passes down the middle of the tail,
and its sides are dirty white. The PALE-FOOTED CHINCHILLA (_Lagidium
pallipes_), which is about the same size as the preceding, but has a
shorter tail, is ashy grey, with a brownish tinge, becoming yellowish
fawn colour beneath. The range of these animals seems to be the same as
that of the true Chinchilla, but the second of them passes northwards
into the mountains of Ecuador. In their habits they agree with the
Chinchillas.

FAMILY XIV.--DASYPROCTIDÆ (AGOUTIS).

In the Agoutis we have the first of three more or less pig-like
families, furnished with hoof-like nails on the toes, all the members
of which are inhabitants of South America. The Agoutis especially may
be compared to small slender-limbed Pigs, but they bear a still closer
resemblance in external form to the little Musk Deer. The Dasyproctidæ
have the incisors long; the molars, which are at first rootless,
and afterwards close up, have enamel folds from both surfaces; the
clavicles are rudimentary; the upper lip entire; the ears short; the
tail short and naked, or quite rudimentary; and the fore feet have five
toes.

Of these animals eight or nine species are known. They inhabit South
America, from Mexico southwards to Paraguay and Bolivia, and some of
them also occur in the larger West Indian Islands. They frequent the
forest region, and especially haunt the banks of rivers.

[Illustration: MOLAR TEETH OF THE AGOUTI.]

The AGOUTI (_Dasyprocta aguti_), the most abundant and best-known
species, is found chiefly in Guiana, Brazil, and eastern Peru, where
it is to be found plentifully in the primeval forests. Like the other
true Agoutis, it has only three toes on the hind foot; its ears are
of moderate size and rounded; its form compact, and supported upon
slender limbs; its tail rudimentary; and the hair of its back is coarse
and harsh, and longer towards the hinder parts, which thus obtain a
somewhat truncated appearance. Its general colour is olive brown,
produced by a mixture of black and yellow; but the long hairs covering
the hinder portion of the back are usually of an orange colour, and the
middle line of the abdomen is whitish or yellow. This animal is from
eighteen to twenty inches long.

[Illustration: AZARA’S AGOUTI. (From the _Proceedings of the Zoological
Society_.)]

Although inhabiting the forests, the Agouti is not unfrequently seen on
the neighbouring grassy plains, but its residence is among the trees,
in the hollows of which, or in cavities at their roots, it takes up
its abode, generally lying concealed in its retreat during the day.
It is very quick in its movements, runs well, and springs with almost
the agility of an Antelope. The food of the Agouti consists of almost
any vegetable substances that come in its way. It will eat grass
and herbage, the roots of plants, their flowers and fruit, and when
it lives in the neighbourhood of sugar plantations and gardens its
inroads may give rise to considerable injury. The animal is, however,
rather solitary in its habits, living by itself in its cell, in its
departure from and return to which it appears generally to follow
exactly the same roads, by which means a narrow but very distinct
footpath is in course of time produced. This naturally often leads to
the discovery and capture of the little recluse.

The Agouti appears to breed all the year round, usually producing
two young ones at a birth. The female prepares her dwelling for the
reception of her family by lining it comfortably with leaves, fine
roots, and hair.

In the southern parts of Brazil, in Paraguay and Bolivia, the place of
this species is taken by AZARA’S AGOUTI (_Dasyprocta Azaræ_). A smaller
species, the ACOUCHY (_D. acouchy_), is found not only in Guiana and
the north of Brazil, but also in several of the West India Islands. The
last-named species has a well-developed tail about two inches long.

[Illustration: SKULL OF THE PACA.]

Besides the Agoutis, this family includes an allied animal, the PACA
(_Cœlogenys paca_), which differs generically from the Agoutis by
having five toes on the hind feet. It has a broader head and a blunter
muzzle, and is altogether a rather stouter animal than the Agoutis;
but, like most of them, it has a mere tubercle instead of a tail. One
of the most remarkable characters presented by this animal, however, is
the enormous development of the zygomatic arches, which are enlarged
and inflated in the most extraordinary manner, the maxillary portion,
which occupies the anterior two-thirds being hollowed out beneath into
a great chamber, lined with mucous membrane, and opening into the mouth
by a rather small aperture. The function of these remarkable cavities
is at present quite unknown. Food is not to be found in them, and,
indeed, as they are enclosed by solid bone, it would seem impossible
that they could act as cheek-pouches.

[Illustration: PACA.]

The Paca, which inhabits Central and South America from Guatemala to
Paraguay, is about two feet long, and is clothed with short rather
coarse hair of a brown or yellowish-brown colour above, white beneath,
with from three to five bands of white streaks and spots upon each
side of the body. In its habits the Paca very much resembles the
Agouti. It usually lives singly, or sometimes in pairs, on the borders
of the forests, or near the banks of rivers, taking up its abode during
the day either in a hole at the root of some tree, or in a burrow
excavated by its own labour, which is generally carried to a depth of
four or five feet. Its food consists of the leaves, fruits, and flowers
of various plants, and, like the Agouti, it occasionally does mischief
in the corn-fields and gardens. The female produces only one, or at
most two, young at a birth. The Paca swims well, and can cross even a
broad river in this way. Its flesh, like that of the Agouti, is very
well flavoured, and is consumed both by natives and Europeans.

FAMILY XV.--DINOMYIDÆ.

This family has been founded for the reception of a single species,
of which only a single specimen has hitherto been obtained. It is
described by Professor Peters under the name of _Dinomys Branickii_.
In its external appearance it closely resembles the Paca (_Cœlogenys
paca_), but may at once be distinguished from that animal by its
possession of only four toes both before and behind. The ears are short
and rounded; the upper lip deeply cleft; the incisors very broad;
the molars four on each side, and divided into transverse plates by
folds of enamel; the clavicles are imperfect; and the tail of moderate
length and well clothed with hair. The animal, which inhabits the high
mountain regions of Peru, is of the size of the Paca, or about two
feet long, exclusive of the tail, which measures rather more than nine
inches. Its general colour is grey, produced by the sprinkling of white
among nearly black hairs; and on each side of the body are numerous
large white spots, of which the upper ones nearly run together, so as
to form two longitudinal bands. The extremity of the tail is black.

The only known example of this Rodent was obtained by M. Constantin
Jelski at the Colonie Amable Maria, on the Montaña de Vitoc, in Peru,
having been found at daybreak walking about the yard. It showed no
fear of man, and was easily killed by a sword cut or two on the
head. The species would appear to be rare, as the inhabitants of the
neighbourhood were not acquainted with it. Of course nothing is known
of its habits.

[Illustration: THE DINOMYS. (_After Peters._)]

The chief interest at present attaching to this animal, therefore,
consists in its peculiar combination of characters. Externally, as
already stated, it resembles the Paca, with which it also agrees in
the S-like form of the nostrils, and in the structure of the limbs
(except the number of toes). In the lamellar structure of the molar
teeth, in the structure of the skull, and of the skeleton generally,
and especially in the flattened form of the front of the sternum
and the development of clavicles, it differs from the Paca and all
other Rodents with hoof-like nails. In some minor particulars it
resembles the Capybara. By the structure of the molar teeth and certain
osteological characters, it is most nearly allied to the Chinchillas;
while it approaches the genus _Capromys_ among the Octodontidæ in
the structure of the limbs and of some other parts of the skeleton.
Professor Peters is evidently inclined to regard it as most nearly
related to the Chinchillidæ, but as constituting a group establishing a
closer union than previously existed between the families Chinchillidæ,
Octodontidæ, Dasyproctidæ, and Caviidæ.

FAMILY XVI.--CAVIIDÆ (CAVIES).

This family, the last of the simple-toothed Rodents, includes a small
number of species, of which the Common Guinea-pig may serve as a sort
of type. The Guinea-pig is, however, one of the smaller species of
the family, and is shorter in the limbs than most of its relatives.
They have the incisor teeth short, that is to say, not extending far
back in the jaw; the molars are rootless, variously divided by folds
of enamel into lobes, the angles of which are acute; the palate is
narrow in front, so that the upper series of molars approach each other
rather closely in front; the clavicles are rudimentary or wanting;
the fore limbs have four and the hind feet only three toes, all armed
with hoof-like nails; the upper lip is not cleft; and the tail is
rudimentary or wanting. They are stout, more or less rabbit-like
animals, with a soft coat, and the ears variable in length; and they
are confined to the continent of South America, where they chiefly
inhabit the plains.

The RESTLESS CAVY (_Cavia aperea_), which is commonly regarded as
the wild original of the so-called Guinea-pig (_Cavia cobaya_ of
some authors), is abundant on the banks of the Rio de la Plata, and
extends thence northwards through Paraguay into Bolivia and Brazil.
It is usually about nine inches long, with the fur of the upper
part and sides of the body composed of a mixture of black and dingy
yellow hairs, the chest greyish-brown, and the throat and belly pale
dingy-yellow or brownish-grey. The incisor teeth are white. The genus
to which this animal belongs may be at once distinguished from the
other two genera constituting the family by the shortness of the limbs;
the ears also are short; the feet are naked beneath; the hind toes are
not webbed; and the molar teeth are nearly equal in size, and each
composed of two angular lobes.

The specific name of the Restless Cavy seems to be derived from
its popular name in the country where it occurs. According to Mr.
Darwin, it is very common about the banks of the La Plata, sometimes
frequenting sandy hillocks, and the hedge-rows formed of the agave and
the prickly pear, but apparently preferring marshy places covered with
aquatic plants. In dry places it makes a burrow; but when it frequents
wet localities contents itself with the concealment afforded to it by
the herbage. Rengger describes it also as generally haunting moist
situations in Paraguay, and he adds that it keeps near the borders
of forests, but is never found either in the forests or in the open
fields. It lives in small societies of from six to fifteen individuals,
in the impenetrable thickets of Bromelias, where its presence is
revealed by the numerous beaten paths which it produces by going to
and fro. In Bolivia, according to Mr. Bridges, it is peculiar to the
low lands, and there takes shelter among the loose stones of the walls
enclosing the fields. It is active in search of food early in the
morning and in the evening, but will also come forth on gloomy days.
Rengger and Azara both agree in the statement that the female produces
only one or two young at a time; but the former says that this takes
place only once in the year, whilst the latter describes the animal
as breeding all the year round, and, indeed, in this way accounts for
its abundance, notwithstanding its being preyed upon so extensively by
rapacious birds and quadrupeds.

The question whether our common Guinea-pig is really the domesticated
descendant of the animal just described can hardly be regarded as
finally settled, and, indeed, independently of colour, there are
sufficient differences between them to justify some doubt on the
subject. The name Guinea-pig may, as Mr. Waterhouse suggests, be a
mistake for Guiana-pig, and the first specimens may very probably have
come from that part of America. Its prevalent colours, as is well
known, are combinations of white, black, and yellow, and as these
colours are shown in the drawings of Aldrovandus, dating back to within
fifty years of the discovery of South America, there seems every
reason to believe that the animal must have been long domesticated in
America prior to its introduction into Europe. On the other hand, Dr.
Rengger says that he saw fourteen Apereas representing the fifth or
sixth generation from a single couple domesticated about seven years
before, and that these exhibited no difference of colouring from the
wild animal. Several allied species inhabit the great plains of South
America.

The BOLIVIAN CAVY (_Cavia boliviensis_), which is grey in colour, with
a faint yellowish tinge, with the throat and belly white, the feet
whitish, and the incisor teeth orange yellow, inhabits the elevated
parts of Bolivia, generally at a height of 10,000 or 12,000 feet. The
ROCK CAVY (_Cavia rupestris_) is found in rocky districts in Brazil,
where it shelters itself in holes and crevices. It is always found near
the upper waters of rivers, and is a large species, measuring thirteen
or fourteen inches in length. The SOUTHERN CAVY (_Cavia australis_), on
the other hand, is a small species which inhabits Patagonia, where it
ranges from 39° S. lat. to the Strait of Magellan.

This part of the world is also the abode of another and much larger
species of the family, the PATAGONIAN CAVY or MARA (_Dolichotis
patachonica_), an animal which somewhat resembles the Agouti in the
length and comparative slenderness of its legs, and differs from all
other Cavies in having tolerably long, pointed ears. It also possesses
a very short tail. The molar teeth are rather small, and resemble
those of the Guinea-pig in being formed of two nearly equal angular
lobes, but the last molar in the upper jaw, and the first in the
lower jaw, have three such lobes. The animal is somewhat Hare-like
in its appearance, and has been mistaken for a Hare by superficial
observers. It is, however, a much larger animal, measuring from thirty
to thirty-six inches in length, and weighing from twenty to thirty-six
pounds.

[Illustration: PATAGONIAN CAVY.]

The Patagonian Cavy is clothed with a dense crisp fur of a grey colour
on the upper part of the head and body, rusty yellow on the flanks,
and white on the chin, throat, and belly; the rump is black, with a
broad white band crossing it immediately above the tail. It inhabits
Patagonia about as far south as 48°, and extends northwards into the
La Plata territory as far as Mendoza. It is found only in the sterile
desert part of the country, where the gravelly plains are thinly
covered with a few stunted thorny bushes and a scanty herbage. The
northern limit of the species, according to Mr. Darwin, is at the point
where the vegetation of the plains becomes rather more luxuriant. The
Patagonian Cavy usually burrows in the ground, but where it lives
in the same region as the Viscacha, it will take advantage of the
excavations made by that animal. It wanders to considerable distances
from its home, and on these excursions two or three are usually seen
together. Mr. Darwin says:--“It is a common feature in the landscape of
Patagonia to see in the distance two or three of these Cavies hopping
one after the other over the gravelly plains.” Their mode of running,
on the same authority, more nearly resembles that of the Rabbit than of
the Hare; though their limbs are long, they do not run very fast. They
rarely squat like a Hare, but are very shy and watchful, and feed by
day, in connection with which it is to be observed that the eyes are
defended from the direct rays of the sun by well-developed eyelashes,
which do not occur in the other Cavies. The female produces generally
two young at a birth, which are brought forth and suckled in the burrow.

The CAPYBARA (_Hydrochœrus capybara_), the only other member of the
present family, is the largest of all existing Rodents, large specimens
measuring over four feet in length. It is a stout-built and massive
animal, with limbs of moderate length, a large head with a very blunt
muzzle, small eyes and ears, no tail, and both the fore and hind feet
webbed. The upper incisor teeth have a broad and shallow groove down
the front, and the molars present very remarkable characters. In the
upper jaw the first three molars are each composed of two lobes united
by cement, and on the outside of each of these lobes there is a fold of
enamel which passes deeply into the tooth. The last molar consists of
one lobe similar to those of the preceding teeth, but in place of the
second there are ten or a dozen transverse plates. The first two molars
of the lower jaw exhibit complex lobes and folds of enamel; the third
and fourth a combination of folded lobes and transverse plates.

In its general form the Capybara is more pig-like than any of its
relatives, and, indeed, its generic name, _Hydrochœrus_, Water-pig,
recalls this resemblance, and at the same time intimates its aquatic
habits. Its coat is composed of long and coarse hairs, often five or
six inches long on the hinder parts, of a reddish-brown colour above,
and a dirty brownish-yellow beneath. It is distributed over the whole
eastern part of South America, from Guiana southwards to the Rio de la
Plata, and ranges westwards into the lower parts of Peru and Bolivia.

[Illustration: MOLARS OF THE CAPYBARA.]

The Capybaras frequent the borders of the lakes and rivers, with which
all this part of the South American continent abounds, and, according
to Mr. Darwin, they used to frequent the islands in the mouth of the
La Plata, where the water is quite salt. In this part of America they
are called “Carpinchos.” They never wander far from the water-side,
and show a marked preference for the larger rivers, among the reeds
and other plants fringing which they take up their abode. In populous
districts they seem to pass the day in concealment, coming forth in
search of food only at morning and evening, but where they are less in
danger of pursuit they come out freely in the day-time. Seen from a
little distance when walking they have much the appearance of Pigs, but
they lose this when they sit, like the other Cavies, on their haunches.
When danger threatens they emit a short, sharp bark, and immediately
plunge into the water, where they swim about with little more than
the nostrils above the surface; but under pressing circumstances
they can dive and swim for a considerable distance under water. When
swimming, the female is said to take her young ones on her back. About
Maldonado Mr. Darwin observed that the Capybaras were usually to be
seen only three or four together, but they are more numerous and go in
larger companies more in the interior of the country. They constitute
the ordinary food of the Jaguar, and are also eaten by the Indians,
although their flesh is said not to be very good. The female produces
five or six young at a birth, but has only one litter in the year. The
young follow their mother about at a very early age.

SUB-ORDER II.--DOUBLE-TOOTHED RODENTS.

With the Cavies concludes the long series of simple-toothed Rodents,
and some of them, as we have seen, present no small resemblance to the
Hares and Rabbits which constitute the greater part of the second great
group into which we have divided the order. The chief peculiarity of
this section, as has been already stated, consists in the presence in
the upper jaw of a pair of minute incisor teeth, placed immediately
behind the large effective incisors; and in the newly-born animal the
number of these teeth is even greater, there being six incisors in the
upper jaw, two of which fall out at an early period. Though the number
of species included in this section is very considerable (about fifty,
according to Mr. Wallace’s estimate), it includes only two families,
and each of these contains only a single genus. We will commence with
that which includes the best-known forms, the Hares and Rabbits.

[Illustration: CAPYBARA.]

FAMILY XVII.--LEPORIDÆ (HARES AND RABBITS).

The general appearance of these animals hardly needs to be described,
and we may, therefore, indicate merely the structural peculiarities
which serve to define the family. These consist in the presence of
six rootless molars on each side in the upper, and five in the lower
jaw (_see_ figure on p. 82), each molar being divided into lobes by
transverse folds of enamel; in the compressed form of the skull and
the presence of wing-like post-orbital processes of the frontal bones;
in the imperfect condition of the clavicles; the greater development
of the hind limbs; and the presence of a short, bushy, upturned tail.
The ears are long; the inner surface of the cheeks is more or less
clothed with short hairs; the fore-limbs have five, and the hind-limbs
only four toes; and the soles of the feet are hairy throughout. In
all these characters, however they may differ in some respects, all
the true Hares and Rabbits agree. The representatives of this family
occur in nearly all parts of the world, but chiefly in the northern
hemisphere, and the few species which pass down within the tropics are
generally found only in mountainous regions. In the north they reach
the Arctic regions in both continents. In the Old World a few species
are scattered over India and Further India, and four or five occur in
Africa, but chiefly in the southern part of the continent. In North
America the species are numerous, and some of them range southward into
Central America; but South America has only a single species, which
occurs in the mountains of Brazil and upon the Andes.

As the whole of the family consists of animals to which in common
parlance the names of Hares and Rabbits are given, we may take as
examples of it the Hares and Rabbits which are so abundant in Great
Britain, the other species agreeing generally with one or other of them
in character and habits.

They may all be characterised as animals destitute of any means of
defence against their enemies, except the rapidity of their movements,
and as exceedingly shy and timid. Their general colour is a mixture
of grey and brown, sometimes quite tawny, sometimes almost pure grey,
and, as Mr. Bell remarks, “The admirable wisdom which has assigned such
colours to a group of defenceless animals which conceal themselves
amidst the brown sombre vegetation of woods and heaths, will appear
more striking when it is recollected that certain species inhabiting
the snowy regions of the north become wholly white in winter. All the
members of the genus,” he adds, “are remarkable for their timidity,
and their whole structure is such as at once to announce to them the
presence of danger, and to enable them to escape from it. The eyes and
ears are so formed and situate as to become instantly cognisant of even
distant warnings of peril, and the limbs are admirably adapted for the
most rapid flight.”

This last statement applies in a special manner to the COMMON HARE
(_Lepus europæus_), which is singularly well adapted for getting over
the ground rapidly by the great length and powerful development of its
hind legs. These organs are nearly twice as long as the fore limbs,
and, as most of us are well aware, the bones composing them are set
in motion by an enormous mass of solid muscle. Owing to their great
preponderance the Hare, when moving slowly in search of food, goes
with a sort of lolloping gait; but the moment there is occasion for
him to move with rapidity, the disproportionate hind limbs stand him
in good stead, and he shoots along over the ground by a series of long
leaps, and with great swiftness. At the same time, it is observed that
the length of its hind legs causes the Hare to run with much greater
facility up hill than down, and, in fact, it is said that in descending
steep inclines the animal is obliged to run obliquely in order to
escape over-balancing itself. When pursued, the Hare has the art of
making sudden turns in its course, known as “doubles” or “wrenches,”
by which the Dogs in chase of it are thrown out, for although most
Greyhounds are swifter of foot than a Hare, they are incapable of
changing their course so sharply, and thus, while they are carried
some distance onwards by their own impetus, their intended victim is
making off in a different direction. They adopt other cunning artifices
in order to escape from their pursuers, and some of these indicate a
considerable amount of intelligence. Under such circumstances, and also
in search of a more plentiful supply of food, the Hare will take to the
water readily, and swim across rivers. Mr. Yarrell observed a Hare even
swimming across an arm of the sea about a mile broad.

The Hare lives chiefly in cultivated fields, where it resides in
a small depression of the surface, which is called its “form.” It
shifts the situation of this simple residence according to the season,
selecting a shady spot in summer, and a sunny one in winter, and going
into cover in wet weather. It is rather a nocturnal or crepuscular
than a day-feeding animal, although it may not unfrequently be seen
abroad in the day. In the evening and early in the morning it is most
active, passing the brighter hours at rest in its form. When out in the
field in search of food it goes hopping along among the herbage and
cultivated plants, every now and then sitting upright on its haunches
and listening with erected ears for the slightest sound indicative of
approaching danger. Its food is exclusively of a vegetable nature, but
it seems to embrace pretty nearly the whole round of cultivated plants.
Cruciferous plants appear to be amongst its favourite articles of diet,
but it also does much damage to fields of young wheat. In the winter,
when the open fields are covered with snow frozen hard, and, indeed,
sometimes in the summer, the Hare will make his way into gardens in
search of food, or, if this resource is not at hand, into plantations
of young trees, where it will gnaw off and feed upon the bark, thus
destroying great numbers of the trees. Mr. S. Mawson has recorded
finding the stomach of a Hare killed in winter filled with hawthorn
berries. After its wanderings the Hare always returns to its own form.

Hares pair when they are about a year old, and from that time produce
several broods every year, each consisting of from two to five young,
which are born covered with hair and with their eyes open. From Mr.
Bell’s statement, these animals would appear to breed almost all the
year round; he says that in mild winters young Hares have been found
in January, and that he has known breeding continue till the middle
of November. When captured young, the Hare may be easily tamed, and
become an amusing pet, as, indeed, will be familiar to almost every
one, through Cowper’s account of his Hares. Formerly the Hare used to
be trained by jugglers to perform various tricks, one of which was the
beating of a tambourine with its fore-feet, with which the animal will
of its own accord drum upon the back of an offending companion. A relic
of this practice is to be recognised in a common toy, which shows a
small Hare sitting and beating a tambourine, its fore limbs being set
in motion by the turning of the wheels of its stand.

The Common Hare is found spread over the greater part of Europe, from
the south of Sweden and northern Russia to the Mediterranean and the
Caucasus. It does not occur in Ireland. It varies somewhat in colour in
different localities, and although it does not become white in winter,
the northern forms show a tendency in that direction, and the others
acquire a greyish tint at the approach of the cold weather.

[Illustration: COMMON HARE.]

THE RABBIT, or CONY (_Lepus cuniculus_), differs from the Hare
in various characters; its colour is a tawny brownish-grey, the
disproportion between the fore and hind limbs is not so great, and the
ears are shorter, not exceeding the head in length. Although the Wild
Rabbit is so plentiful in England as to become a pest to the farmers
in many places, it is supposed not to be a native of north-western
and central Europe, but to have been naturalised in Britain, its
original home being in the countries bordering the Mediterranean. It
is, and always was, very abundant in Spain, the name of which country
(Hispania) has been supposed to mean the “country of Conies,” from
the Phœnician and Hebrew word _Schaphan_, the name of the Hyrax or
Cony of the Bible. Even in the present day it is very local in its
distribution north of the Alps, and is not found at all in eastern and
northern Europe. In Australia it has proved to be a veritable scourge.

In its habits the Rabbit differs from the Hare more than in its form
and structure. Instead of contenting itself with a shallow depression
as a resting-place on the surface of the ground, it digs deep holes
in the ground, into which it may retire to sleep or at the approach
of danger. It prefers light sandy soils for its residence, as these
present great facilities for burrowing, and wherever particularly
favourable conditions exist the Rabbits are to be found living together
in very large societies. Furzy heaths are favourite places with them,
as the ground is easily worked, and the furze bushes not only serve as
a protection to the burrows, but furnish the Rabbit with an abundant
supply of food, the young shoots being eaten off as high as the animals
can reach when standing on their hind feet. In wet moors the Rabbits
avoid burrowing, and live in runs and galleries formed in the matted
heather and long herbage. Mr. Bell says that in more than one instance
he has known a family to take possession of a hollow tree, ascending
its inclined and decayed trunk for some distance.

Like the Hare, the Rabbit is generally quiet during the day, although
it will not unfrequently be abroad at all hours. The evening, however,
is its principal time for activity, and then the inhabitants of the
warren may be seen playing about near their abodes, or wandering to
greater distances in search of the green vegetables on which they
feed. The moment there is the smallest suspicion of danger, the whole
company scamper off at once to seek safety in their burrows. As they
go, their white tails are the most conspicuous objects to be seen, and
the spectacle of some hundreds of them rushing along at full speed,
vanishing one after the other down the burrows, is lively and amusing
enough.

The Rabbit begins breeding at six months old, and has several litters
in each year. The young are usually from five to eight in number,
sometimes even more; they are born blind and naked, and are produced in
a separate burrow which the female digs for their reception, and lines
with fur pulled from her own body. This brood-chamber has usually only
a single entrance, and this the mother closes with earth after visiting
and suckling her young family, which she is said to do only at night.

When domesticated, the Rabbit, as is well known, differs materially
from its wild state. It is larger, and its colours are usually white,
black, brown, or fawn colour, sometimes alone, sometimes mixed in
patches. Albinoes are common, and form a permanent race. The Angora
Rabbit, which is usually albino, has the hairs very long; and the
so-called “fancy Rabbits” have the ears more or less pendent at the
sides of the head, and often so long as to touch the ground.

A third British species is the MOUNTAIN HARE (_Lepus variabilis_),
or Northern Hare, an inhabitant of all the northern parts of both
hemispheres, which occurs in most parts of Scotland, and in Ireland,
where, indeed, it takes the place of the common Hare. In its summer
coat it is of a light fulvous grey colour, and is further distinguished
from the common Hare by the shortness of the ears and tail, the former
being shorter than the head, and the latter little more than half its
length. In cold climates this animal becomes pure white in the winter.
This Hare is absent from Central Europe, but reappears on the chain of
the Alps.

It will be unnecessary to enter into details with regard to the other
species of this family, all of which more or less resemble those just
described, both in appearance and habits. They are distributed over
nearly the whole world except the Australian region, but they are
most numerous in North America, where a great many species have been
described, which are reduced by Mr. Allen to twelve. Four of these,
however, present well-marked local races, which double the number of
recognised permanent forms.

FAMILY XVIII.--LAGOMYIDÆ (PIKAS).

In many respects the Pikas closely resemble the Hares, but they are
distinguished by having only five molars on each side in each jaw,
a depressed skull, with contracted frontal bones destitute of the
wing-like process seen in the Hares, complete clavicles, short ears,
limbs nearly equal in length, and no tail visible externally. They are
much smaller than any of the Leporidæ, the largest being no larger
than a Guinea-pig, to which the animals have some resemblance; while
in their habits they somewhat resemble the Marmots. When feeding they
often produce a chirping or whistling noise, whence the name of Piping
Hares, or Calling Hares, has been applied to them. Ten or a dozen
supposed species of these animals have been described, most of them
inhabiting the northern and mountainous parts of Asia, and one of these
is also found in Europe, about the southern part of the Volga. In Asia
species have been found as far south as the Himalayas and Nepaul. In
North America a single species (_Lagomys princeps_) inhabits the Rocky
Mountains, where it was first discovered by Sir John Richardson.

The ALPINE PIKA (_Lagomys alpinus_), which inhabits Siberia from the
Irtish eastwards into Kamtchatka, is a little animal from nine to nine
and a half inches long, of a greyish-brown colour above, yellowish-grey
beneath; the feet are pale, and the ears dirty yellowish-white within,
becoming dusky towards the margin, which is white. This animal
occurs in considerable numbers in the Alpine and sub-Alpine parts of
Siberia, where it either burrows in the ground, or shelters itself
in crevices of rocks or among loose stones. The Pikas generally come
out only at night, although they sometimes venture forth on a cloudy
day. Their food consists of the scanty herbage to be found in their
elevated abode, and as this would be impossible to procure during the
winter when the ground is thickly covered with snow, the Pikas take
care in the autumn to collect a large supply of dried grasses and
other herbage, which they pile up near their habitations like little
haystacks. They are, however, sometimes deprived of the fruits of their
labour by the Sable-hunters, who plunder the Pikas’ stacks to feed
their Horses. The female produces about six naked young early in the
summer.

[Illustration: ALPINE PIKA.]

The ROCKY MOUNTAIN PIKA (_Lagomys princeps_) is a small species from
six inches to seven and a half inches long, of a greyish-brown colour
above, yellowish-brown on the sides, and greyish below. It received its
specific name from its discoverer, Sir J. Richardson, in allusion to
the name of “Little Chief Hare” given to it by the Indians. It inhabits
the summits of the Rocky Mountains from Colorado northwards far within
British America, and also occurs in the mountains of Utah, California,
and Oregon. Mr. Allen describes its habits as follows:--“The animals
are everywhere found in communities, living among the loose rocks from
a little below timber-line nearly up to the snow-line. They appear to
rarely wander many yards from their homes; are timid, yet easily become
familiar. Though retreating to their homes when first alarmed, they
soon come cautiously out one after another, till one may hear their
sharp little cries in every direction. Their colour so nearly resembles
that of the rocks they live among, that they are not easily seen, and
their cry is of such a character as easily to mislead one in respect
to the point from which it proceeds, seeming to be far away when only
a few feet distant. They sit erect, like little Marmots.... They carry
into fissures of the rocks large quantities of grass, which they lay up
for winter consumption.”

CHAPTER V.

FOSSIL RODENTIA.

Families of Rodents represented by Fossil Remains--State of the
“Record of the Rocks”--THE SCIURIDÆ--Sciurine Genera now Extinct--No
Fossil ANOMALURIDÆ and HAPLODONTIDÆ--ISCHYROMYIDÆ--_Pseudotomus
hians_--_Gymnoptychus_--CASTORIDÆ--Mr. Allen’s CASTOROIDIDÆ--THE
MYOXIDÆ--No Fossil LOPHIOMYIDÆ--THE MURIDÆ--THE SPALACIDÆ--THE
GEOMYIDÆ--THE DIPODIDÆ--THE THERIDOMYIDÆ--THE OCTODONTIDÆ--THE
HYSTRICIDÆ--THE CHINCHILLIDÆ--THE DASYPROCTIDÆ--THE
CAVIIDÆ--THE LEPORIDÆ--THE LAGOMYIDÆ--_Mesotherium
cristatum_--Difficulties concerning it--Mr. Alston’s Suggestion--THE
HEBETIDENTATA--Teeth--Skull--Skeleton--Conclusions regarding
it--Table of Rodent Families--Concluding Remarks.

The majority of the preceding families are more or less clearly
represented by fossil remains, either in the younger strata of
the earth’s crust, or in those cave-deposits of comparatively
recent date which have furnished so many interesting relics of the
Mammals of former days. It must be remarked, however, that while a
considerable number of fossil Rodents have been named and described
by palæontologists, the materials upon which many of them have been
established are very imperfect; in a great number of cases isolated
molar or even incisor teeth furnish the sole evidence of the existence
of creatures which were manifestly Rodents, but of which the other
characters are rather difficult to divine from such scanty material.
Still, imperfect as may be “the record of the rocks” in this as in
other instances, it is in some parts sufficiently complete to enable us
to trace back the existence of many forms of gnawing Mammals through a
long period of geological time.

Of the SCIURIDÆ a considerable number of fossil species have
been recorded. Species of the genera _Sciurus_, _Arctomys_, and
_Spermophilus_, some of them identical with those still existing,
have left their remains in Post-Tertiary deposits and in bone-caves
in various parts of Europe; while species belonging to the first two
genera, and to the American genus _Tamias_, have been detected in
similar situations in North America. A few forms referred to the same
genera go down still lower in the series of geological formations.
True Squirrels are recorded from Miocene and Upper Eocene deposits in
France, and a single species from the Tertiaries (probably Miocene)
of Colorado; Marmots from Pliocene and Miocene beds in the South of
France, and from a Pliocene deposit in Nebraska; and a Spermophile from
the Miocene of Weisenau in Germany.

Besides these examples of known types, several fossils have been
obtained both in Europe and America, which are regarded as indicating
genera distinct from any now living. _Plesiarctomys Gervaisii_ is
founded on a fragment of jaw with four molars, obtained from Upper
Eocene beds near Apt, Vaucluse. In its characters it appears to be
intermediate between Squirrels and Marmots. _Pseudosciurus suevicus_,
from the Upper Eocene (Bohnerz) of Würtemberg, seems to differ from
all other Sciuridæ in the form of the molar teeth of the lower jaw,
which are somewhat elongated, and have four tubercles arranged in two
pairs, each pair being connected by a ridge. From the Tertiary deposits
of the western territories of the United States, Professors Cope,
Marsh, and Leidy have described several Sciurine Rodents as belonging
to genera now extinct: thus _Paramys_ has five species; _Sciuravus_
(perhaps identical with the preceding), three; _Heliscomys_, _Mysops_,
_Colonymys_, _Taxymys_, and _Tillomys_, one or two species each.

Of the ANOMALURIDÆ and HAPLODONTIDÆ no fossil remains are known.
On the other hand, a North American fossil Rodent, described by
Dr. Leidy under the name of _Ischyromys typus_, is regarded by Mr.
Alston as the type of a distinct family, the _Ischyromyidæ_, nearly
allied to the Sciuridæ, but also showing an affinity to the Beaver
in some of its characters. The specimen described and figured by Dr.
Leidy was obtained by Dr. Hayden from Miocene deposits in the “Bad
Lands” of Wyoming. It was originally referred to the Sciuridæ, with
which it agrees in its dentition, but is distinguished by its large
infra-orbital opening, the presence of a sagittal crest, and the
absence of post-orbital processes. The parietal region of the skull is
much narrowed, and in this, as in the large size of the infra-orbital
opening, _Ischyromys_ resembles the Musk Rat.

Two other forms must be referred to here. Under the name of
_Pseudotomus hians_, Professor Cope has described the remains of an
animal which he believed to have been about the size of an Agouti, and
originally thought to belong to the order Edentata. Subsequently he
referred it to the Sciuridæ; but both Mr. Alston and Mr. Allen think
that it may belong to the family Ischyromyidæ. In some respects the
skull resembles that of _Arctomys_, but it has the same contraction
between the orbits as _Ischyromys_ and _Fiber_. The incisor teeth are
separated, and Professor Cope believes that the animal had only three
molars on each side in each jaw. A still more doubtful member of the
family is Professor Cope’s genus _Gymnoptychus_, which includes four
species, all said to be from the “Tertiary of the Plains.” In this
genus there are five molars above and four below on each side, as in
_Ischyromys_ and the Sciuridæ; but these teeth show two crescents on
the inner side in the upper, on the outer side in the lower jaw, and
each crescent gives origin to a cross-ridge running to the opposite
margin of the tooth.

The CASTORIDÆ, including at present only a single species common to
the northern parts of both hemispheres, are represented by several
peculiar fossil forms. Remains of the Common Beaver (_Castor fiber_)
are not uncommon in peat bogs and other late superficial deposits both
in Europe and America; and, according to Sir R. Owen, in association
with those of the Rhinoceros, Mammoth, and Mastodon, even in the
Fluvio-marine Crag (Newer Pliocene) of Norfolk. In Belgium its bones
have been found in caves. Among the Mammals from the Upper Tertiaries
of the Sivalik Hills, Messrs. Falconer and Cautley record a Beaver
distinct from the existing species, although nearly allied to it.
The skull of a great Beaver, one-fifth larger than that of the
living species, was obtained many years ago by M. Fischer from sandy
deposits on the shores of the Sea of Azov, and, as it differed in
some peculiarities of the teeth from _Castor fiber_, was described by
him as constituting a distinct genus under the name of _Trogontherium
Cuvieri_. It is now regarded as a true Beaver, and named _Castor
Trogontherium_. The British species, described and figured by Sir R.
Owen from the Norfolk Forest bed under the name of _Trogontherium
Cuvieri_, is, however, quite distinct, and belongs to the genus
_Diobroticus_, characterised by having the third upper and first lower
molar teeth with four enamel folds, and the rest only with two, most of
the folds soon becoming isolated as the teeth wear down. This animal
must have been nearly twice the size of the European Beaver.

At a still earlier period--namely, in the Miocene--the family Castoridæ
was represented, both in Europe and America, by some small species,
nearly agreeing with the Beavers in dentition, but differing in
the characters of certain bones of the skull. These form the genus
_Steneofiber_. The largest (_S. viciacensis_), from the Miocene of
the Allier, was about half the size of the Beaver; another (_S.
sansaniensis_), from the fresh-water limestone of Sansan, was about as
large as a Rat; an American species (_S. nebrascensis_), from the “Bad
Lands” of Dakota, was rather smaller than a Marmot, and presented some
resemblance to the Agoutis in the characters of the teeth; and a fourth
species (_S. pansus_) occurs in the Santa Fé marls. _Eucastor tortus_,
a species rather smaller than a Marmot, is described by Dr. Leidy as
very nearly related to the Beaver. Its remains were found in loose
sands of the Niobrara River, Wyoming. _Chalicomys_ and _Palæomys_ are
genera doubtfully placed here. Their species occur in the Miocene and
Pliocene of Europe.

Some bones of a gigantic Rodent, indicating an animal as large as a
full-grown Black Bear, obtained from Quaternary and Alluvial deposits
of various parts of the United States, have been described under the
name of _Castoroides ohioensis_, Mr. J. W. Foster, its first describer,
having an idea that it was a great Beaver. It has generally been known
as the “Fossil Beaver” of North America, but several authors have
entertained doubts of the correctness of this designation, and Mr.
Allen has lately made it the type of a special family, CASTOROIDIDÆ,
which he regards as most nearly related to the Chinchillidæ. In the
general aspect of the skull it resembles the Beaver, but in several
details of structure approaches the Viscacha; while the structure
of the molar teeth, which consist of a series of plates of dentine,
completely enclosed by enamel, and held together by a thin coating of
cement, occurs elsewhere only in the Chinchillidæ, and in the last
molar of the Capybara.

Dormice as well as Squirrels disported themselves in the Tertiary woods
and thickets of Europe, and remains of several species of MYOXIDÆ occur
in various deposits in France, Switzerland, and elsewhere, from the
Upper Eocene onwards. _Myoxus glis_, the Garden Dormouse, has been
identified with some doubt from the caves of Lunel Viel; and this is
also probably the species occurring in the Belgian bone-caves, and
described as _Myoxus priscus_ by Dr. Schmerling. A species a little
larger than the Dormouse occurs in Russian caves, and has received
the name of _Myoxus fossilis_ from M. Fischer; and the most striking
species of all is also a Post-Pliocene form, namely, the gigantic
Dormouse of Malta (_M. melitensis_). This animal, which seems to have
been about the size of a Guinea-pig, must have been excessively
abundant in Malta, for its describer, Professor Leith Adams, says
that “its remains are met with in abundance throughout the cavern and
fissure deposits, up even to the superficial alluvium now in course
of formation.” From older times we have evidence of the existence of
a Dormouse, about the size of the common species, at the time of the
deposition of the gypsum of Montmartre (Upper Eocene), in which a
well-preserved skeleton of the animal has been found. The same deposit
has furnished traces of a second rather larger species. The Miocene of
Switzerland and of Sansan has also yielded species of _Myoxus_; and
Professor Hermann von Meyer has recorded a Dormouse from the Miocene of
Weisenau, under the name of _Brachymys ornatus_.

No fossil LOPHIOMYIDÆ have yet been detected, but the great family
MURIDÆ has left abundant evidence of its former existence. Species of
the genera _Mus_, _Arvicola_, _Myodes_, and _Cricetus_, identical in
many cases with those now living, have been obtained frequently in
Post-Pliocene deposits and in bone-caves in Europe. Lemmings (_Myodes
lemmus_ and _torquatus_) are recorded from English caves. The genus
_Mus_ is also represented by several species in the Miocene deposits of
France, and in the Sivalik beds investigated by Falconer and Cautley.
The Miocene of Sansan has furnished a form which has been doubtfully
regarded as a Gerbille, and named _Meriones Laurillardi_. In the same
and other deposits of the same age in South-eastern France several
species of an extinct genus (_Cricetodon_) have been obtained. Their
dentition resembles that of the Hamster, but the first molars in both
jaws have a tubercle less; the largest species (_C. sansaniensis_)
rather exceeded the Hamster in size, while the smallest was less
than a Mouse. Associated with some of these are two doubtful forms,
_Decticus_ and _Elomys_, the latter considered by M. Aymard, its
describer, to be allied to _Hydromys_. The American fossil Muridæ are
for the most part either species of the genus _Hesperomys_, or nearly
related to it. Twelve species of that genus were obtained by Dr. Lund
from the Brazilian bone-caves, but of these eight were identified by
him with species still existing. In North America two species of a
nearly-allied genus (_Eumys_) have been obtained from Miocene deposits;
and the bone-caves of Pennsylvania furnish the remains of a species of
_Neotoma_ (_N. magister_), hardly distinguishable from the Florida Rat.

A _Rhizomys_ from the Sivalik deposits of North-western India is the
only recorded fossil representative of the SPALACIDÆ; and of the
GEOMYIDÆ the only known species are a _Geomys_ from the Pliocene of
Nebraska, nearly allied to, if not identical with, the living _G.
bursarius_; and one from the “Tertiaries of the Plains,” described by
Professor Cope as _Colotaxis cristatus_, which, however, has only three
molars in the lower jaw.

The DIPODIDÆ are still more scantily represented. A Jerboa described by
M. Fischer from Post-Pliocene deposits, probably of Tartary, is very
nearly allied to the living _Dipus platurus_, but has shorter toes
and broader cannon-bones. The genus _Dipoïdes_, from the “Bohnerz” of
Würtemberg, is founded on a single tooth, and its position in this
family is very doubtful.

On the other hand, some fossil allies of the Dipodidæ and Geomyidæ
constitute a distinct family, for which Mr. Alston proposed the name
of THERIDOMYIDÆ, from that of one of its genera, _Theridomys_. In this
genus, of which six species are recorded from the Eocene and Miocene
deposits of France, there are four rooted molars in each series, and
each of these has several enamel folds, some of which are converted
into isolated loops as the crown is worn away. The best known species
is _Theridomys platiceps_, from the Miocene of Caylus. In _Archæomys
chinchilloides_ there are still four molars, but these present a very
different structure; they are rootless, and have the enamel folds
extending diagonally across the crown, so that they are composed of
a series of plates, thus presenting a certain amount of resemblance
to the Chinchillas, which American family _Archæomys_ was at one time
supposed to represent in Europe. In fact, in the structure of their
molar teeth, both the above genera approach American types; but in
other characters, especially the form of the lower jaw, they appear
to have been decidedly Mouse-like, and Mr. Alston regards them as
most nearly related to the Dipodidæ, with which they are joined by a
third form referred to the family _Issiodoromys_, a genus sometimes
placed with the Jerboas. The teeth in this genus are of the same
number as in the preceding, but the molars are much simpler, each of
them exhibiting one large re-entering fold of enamel, which causes the
surface of the tooth to present two heart-shaped lobes. This structure
is not dissimilar to that prevailing in some Dipodidæ, and especially
in _Pedetes_, but it was formerly thought to indicate a relationship
to the Cavies, and accordingly the best-known species has received
the name of _Issiodoromys pseudanæma_ (_Anæma_ being a sub-genus of
Cavies). This species occurs abundantly in the Miocene lacustrine
limestone near Issoire. A second species (_I. minor_) has been detected
in the Upper Eocene of Lamandine-haute.

Of the OCTODONTIDÆ, an essentially American family at the present
day, nearly all the recorded fossil forms are also American. Species
of _Echinomys_, _Loncheres_, and _Phyllomys_ were obtained by Dr.
Lund from the Brazilian bone-caves, which also furnished him with the
remains of a Coypu (_Myopotamus antiquus_), and of an allied form,
_Carterodon sulcidens_, distinguished by its having broad incisors
with longitudinal furrows and raised ridges. The latter has since been
found living in South America. Another species, allied to _Echinomys_,
is named by Lund _Lonchophorus fossilis_. The superficial deposits of
South America have yielded the remains of two species of _Ctenomys_,
one of which is believed to be identical with a recent species. As
several species of this family now live in Africa, the occurrence in
the eastern hemisphere of fossil forms belonging to it would not be
surprising, but the few that have been referred to it are of very
doubtful nature. M. Lartet obtained some isolated teeth from the
Miocene of Sansan, which he described under the name of _Myopotamus
sansaniensis_; and one or two other types (_Aulacodon_, _Adelomys_),
from Upper Eocene and Miocene beds, are of very uncertain position.

Of the HYSTRICIDÆ, or Porcupines, remains have been obtained in both
hemispheres. In the Old World traces of true Porcupines (_Hystrix_) are
recorded from the Valley of the Arno, from the Sivaliks, the Pliocene
deposits of the Auvergne, from Pikermi, and, on very doubtful evidence,
from the Upper Eocene of Lamandine-basse; whilst Dr. Leidy has
described two teeth from the Pliocene deposits of Dakota, as belonging
to a species (_Hystrix venustus_) allied to the European Porcupine.
This determination, if confirmed, would be of great interest, as no
true Porcupine now occurs in America. Of the American type, two species
of _Sphingurus_ have been obtained from the Brazilian bone-caves;
and Professor Cope records a species of the North American genus
_Erythizon_ from a similar cave in Pennsylvania.

The CHINCHILLIDÆ have left but scanty traces of their former existence.
_Lagostomus brasiliensis_ is from the Brazilian bone-caves; and
_Megamys patagoniensis_ from the Eocene sandstone of Patagonia. The
latter species is founded upon a tibia and rotula, which on comparison
seemed to approach most nearly to those of the Rodents of this family,
and if the determination be correct it was probably one of the largest
species of the order, as the tibia measures about a foot long.
_Amblyrhiza_ and _Loxomylus_, are two genera described by Professor
Cope from bone-caves in Anguilla Island, West Indies.

The DASYPROCTIDÆ have but few fossil representatives, and the undoubted
ones are all from the bone-caves of Brazil, which furnished Dr. Lund
with two Agoutis and two Pacas. Of the former, one is described
as _Dasyprocta capreolus_; the second is allied to the living _D.
caudata_. The two species of _Cœlogenys_ are extinct. Some teeth,
found in Tertiary deposits of the Puy-de-Dôme, have been referred
to _Dasyprocta_, but this determination is excessively doubtful.
_Diobroticus schmerlingi_ from Belgian caves has been placed with the
Castoridæ.

Of the CAVIIDÆ, Dr. Lund obtained three species of the genus _Cavia_,
and two of _Hydrochœrus_, from Brazilian bone-caves. Of the latter, one
was allied to the existing Capybara; the other was a gigantic species,
measuring about five feet in length. Dr. Leidy has described a species
(_Hydrochœrus æsopi_) from teeth found in Post-Pliocene deposits in
South Carolina; and the Pampean deposits of the same age furnished M.
D’Orbigny with the remains of a Cavy (_Cavia antiqua_) which, however,
is doubtfully distinct from the Patagonian species.

The remains of species of the family LEPORIDÆ are very abundant in
some Post-Pliocene cave deposits on both sides of the Atlantic, and
in several cases the species are evidently identical with those now
living. Besides these, species of the genus _Lepus_ have been found in
Pliocene and Miocene beds in France. In North America three extinct
Leporine genera have been recognised, differing from _Lepus_ in certain
peculiarities of the molar teeth:--_Palæolagus_, with three species,
from the Miocene of Dakota and Colorado; _Panolax_, from the Pliocene
marls of Santa Fé; and _Praotherium_, from a bone-cave in Pennsylvania.
The last-named genus has the crowns of the molars transversely oval,
and without the enamel-band or crest which is seen on the surface of
the teeth of other Hares.

The LAGOMYIDÆ are known in a fossil state chiefly from Post-Pliocene
deposits, and the bone breccias of caves in various parts of Europe.
In Post-Pliocene times the genus _Lagomys_ seems to have been very
generally distributed over the South of Europe; and the earliest
appearance of the genus is in the Pliocene, three species having
been described from deposits of that age at Œningen and Montpellier.
The family is, however, carried further back in time by the genus
_Titanomys_, in which the molars differ but slightly in structure from
those of _Lagomys_, but there are only four of them in each series,
both above and below. Two species of this genus have been recorded from
Miocene deposits in France and Germany.

[Illustration: SIDE VIEW OF SKULL AND LOWER JAW OF MESOTHERIUM
CRISTATUM.]

[Illustration: DENTITION OF MESOTHERIUM CRISTATUM.

(A) Upper Jaw; (B) Lower Jaw; (C) Incisors.]

We have thus passed very briefly in review the fossil Rodents belonging
to the two great sections of the order to which all its living species
are to be referred; and it will be seen that while a knowledge of their
existence is necessary to complete the history of the order, they
present none of those peculiar characters which lend such interest
to the fossil members of many other orders. There is, however, one
fossil South American type to which we have yet to refer, as, by the
curious combination of characters which it presents, it has long been
somewhat of a puzzle to palæontologists, and although generally placed
among the Rodents, its peculiarities are such that Mr. Alston found
himself compelled to establish a third primary section of the order
for its reception. According to M. Bravard, the first discoverer of
this peculiar type, the Pliocene deposits of the Pampas of La Plata
contain the remains of three species belonging to it; but the bones
which have been sent to Europe, and which represent most parts of
the skeleton, seem all to belong to a single species, which has been
very fully described by M. Serres under the name of _Mesotherium
cristatum_.[55] What distinguishes it at once from all other known
Rodents is the presence _in the lower jaw_ of four incisor teeth, the
second pair being very small and placed immediately behind the outer
edge of the broad middle pair. The latter are peculiarly widened and
compressed from front to back in both jaws, and their summits, instead
of being worn to a sharp chisel-like edge as in ordinary Rodents,
show an elongated ring of enamel surrounding a slightly depressed
surface. Hence Mr. Alston denominated this section HEBETIDENTATA, or
BLUNT-TOOTHED RODENTS. The enamel in all the incisors is continuous
round the tooth. The molar teeth are rootless and curved, the convex
side being directed outwards, contrary to what occurs in other Rodents.
They are surrounded by enamel, and show re-entering folds which differ
in the two jaws. Their number on each side is five in the upper and
four in the lower jaw. The skull is massive, with enormously-developed
sagittal and occipital crests, the latter of which run forward so far
as to join the zygomatic arches; and these crests rise so high that
the upper surface of the actual brain-case is entirely concealed by
them when the skull is looked at from the side. The lower jaw in its
characters presents some resemblance to the same part in the Leporidæ;
but it has the condyle for its articulation with the skull transverse,
and fitting into a cavity of corresponding direction, a character
which occurs in no other Rodent. Of the remainder of the skeleton we
need only state that the animal possessed perfect clavicles; that the
shoulder-blade and humerus somewhat resemble those of the Beaver; that
the fibula articulated with the heel-bone; and that both front and hind
limbs possessed five toes, some of which, judging from the form of the
terminal joint, were probably furnished with hoof-like claws.

Thus, as regards its affinities in the order Rodentia, _Mesotherium_
presents resemblances in its lower jaw (as also in some peculiarities
of the skull), and in the articulation of the heel with the shank,
to the Hares; while in the shortness of the incisors and some other
cranial peculiarities, the form of the shoulder-blades, and the
probably hoof-like character of the claws, we may notice an approach to
the Cavies, which are also South American forms, and especially to the
Capybara, which it probably resembled in its habits, although, if the
evidence of the Beaver-like shoulder-blade and humerus be taken into
account, it would appear to have been still more aquatic.

On the other hand, the resemblance to certain other Mammalia, and
especially to some aberrant Ungulates, is unmistakable. The number of
incisor teeth is the same as in _Hyrax_, and in these teeth there is
also a certain amount of resemblance to the curious genus _Toxodon_,
in which the incisors are four in the upper and six in the lower jaw,
and worn away in somewhat the same fashion. In _Toxodon_ also, the
convexity of the curve of the molars is turned outwards. Certain other
characters of _Mesotherium_--such as the mode of articulation of the
lower jaw, and the peculiar connection of some of the caudal vertebræ
with the ischiatic bones--present resemblances to the Edentata. As
Mr. Alston says, “It appears to have been a survivor, to Pliocene
times, of a much earlier type, which represented an era at which the
Rodents were not yet clearly marked off from their allies. In fact,
_Mesotherium_ seems to continue _into_ the order Glires that line of
affinity which Professor Flower has pointed out as extending from the
typical Ungulates through _Hyracodon_, _Homalodontotherium_, _Nesodon_,
and _Toxodon_.”

The general relationships of _Mesotherium_ to the other Rodents, and of
these among themselves, are represented by Mr. Alston in a diagrammatic
form, from which the following scheme, which will serve also as a table
of the families, is derived:--

II.--RODENTIA
DUPLICIDENTATA. 4. _Haplodontidæ_. { I.
1. SCIUROMORPHA. 1. _Anomaluridæ_. { -- S
5. _Castoridæ_. 2. _Sciueridæ_. { R I
3. _Ischyromyidæ_. { O M
| { D P
{ E L
6. _Myoxidæ_. 7. _Lophiomyidæ_. { N I
8. _Muridæ_. { T C
10. _Geomyidæ_. 11. _Theridomyidæ_. { I I
2. MYOMORPHA. { A D
II.--RODENTIA 9. _Spalacidæ_. 12. _Dipodidæ_. { E
DUPLICIDENTATA. | { N
| 14. _Hystricidæ_. 13. _Octodontidæ_. { T
| 3. HYSTRICOMORPHA. { A
/----/ \----\ 16. _Dasyproctidæ_. 15. _Chinchillidæ_. { T
20. _Leporidæ_. { A.
17. _Dinomyidæ_. {
19 _Lagomyidæ_. 18. _Caviidæ_. {
| |
III.--RODENTIA HEBETIDENTATA.
21. _Mesotheriidæ_.

It seems quite clear, even from the above brief sketch of the history
of the Rodentia in time, that, except in the case of _Mesotherium_,
the fossil remains of animals belonging to this order furnish us with
no important information bearing upon their alliances and possible
origin. They make their earliest appearances, so far as we know, in
deposits of Eocene age; and the earliest forms the remains of which are
sufficient to give us a clear insight into their nature, are manifestly
members of families, and often nearly allied to species still extant
in the regions where their traces are now found. Thus in Eocene and
Miocene deposits, we have representatives of the families _Sciuridæ_,
_Castoridæ_, _Myoxidæ_, _Muridæ_, _Geomyidæ_, _Chinchillidæ_, and
_Leporidæ_, already differentiated as at the present day, so far as
the evidence goes; and it is clear that we must go much further back
in time to seek the earliest appearance of the Rodent type, whether it
branched off directly from the Marsupial series, or passed, as would
seem to be indicated by _Mesotherium_, through a sequence of forms more
or less related to the Ungulates.

Nor does the geographical distribution of the animals lead to any more
definite conclusions. Certain families and even sub-families are of
very wide range, the Muridæ and Sciuridæ especially being represented
nearly all over the world, while the Hystricidæ and Leporidæ are also
spread over very large areas, occurring in both hemispheres. Certain
groups, such as the Sciuridæ of both sub-families, the Castoridæ,
the Murine, and Arvicoline sub-families of Muridæ, the Leporidæ, and
the Lagomyidæ, may be said to have a circumpolar distribution in the
northern hemisphere, nearly allied and sometimes identical species
being found in the more northern parts of both the Old and the New
World, but mixed with other forms peculiar to the regions, especially
as we advance southwards. On the other hand, the Myoxidæ are peculiar
to the eastern hemisphere, as are also the Spalacidæ and the Dipodidæ
(with the exception of _Zapus_, which is considered by Dr. Coues to
form a distinct family), and all the sub-families of Muridæ, except
those above mentioned as having a circumpolar range. The Myomorpha may
in fact be looked upon as an Old World group, the Geomyidæ being the
only exclusively American family; while the Hystricomorpha as a whole
may be regarded as American, certain aberrant forms of the Octodontidæ
inhabiting various parts of Africa and the Old World Porcupines being
the sole representatives of that great section outside the western
continent. Considering these facts, we may regard the Sciuromorpha
and the Duplicidentata as originally polar types, or at all events
as having an equal claim to an origin in the northern regions of
either continent; while the Myomorpha, with their multitudinous
forms spreading over all parts of the Old World, and having a much
scantier representation in America, probably originated in the eastern
hemisphere, and spread by a northern passage into the New World; and
the Hystricomorpha would seem to have originated in South America,
where they display the greatest variety of forms.

W. S. DALLAS.

[Illustration: GROUP OF SLOTHS (_Arctopithecus griseus_).]

ORDER EDENTATA, OR BRUTA (ANIMALS WITHOUT FRONT TEETH).

CHAPTER I.

TARDIGRADA, OR SLOTHS.

The South American Forests--Discovery of the Sloth--How it derived
its Name--Peculiarities of Dentition--Food--Fore Limbs and
Fingers--Hind Limbs and Heel--Other Modifications of Structure--Kinds
of Sloth--Waterton’s Captive Sloth--Habits of the Animal--Burchell’s
Tame Sloths--Manner of Climbing Trees--Disposition--Activity among
Trees--Naturalists’ Debate about Anatomy--Probable Conclusion
regarding it--Skeleton--Vertebræ--the Rudimentary Tail--Most
Distinctive Skeletal Characters--Arm, Wrist, Hand, Fingers,
Claws--Mode of Walking--Great Utility of the Claws--Face of
Sloth--Skull--Teeth--Classification--_TARDIGRADA_--BRADIPODIDÆ--Genus
BRADYPUS--Characteristics--Genus
ARCTOPITHECUS--Characteristics--CHOLŒPODIDÆ--THE COLLARED
SLOTH--Description--Skull Bones--Habits--Circulation of the
Blood--_Rete Mirabile_--THE AI--THE UNAU--Appearance--Skull and
Teeth--Skeleton--Interesting Anatomical Features--Stomach--HOFFMANN’S
SLOTH--Description--Habits.

When the dense forests of the northern parts of South America were
first explored by Europeans, it was observed that active Spider
Monkeys, Howlers, and their Quadrumanous allies, were not the only
climbing animals which frequented the trees. For every now and then,
hunters came in sight of creatures about the size of a large Monkey,
but whose sluggish movements, long hair, short heads, small ears and
tail, and very long claws, enabled them to be distinguished at once
from their very lively companions. It was noticed that these new
creatures, instead of climbing quickly and swinging from branch to
branch and running along the boughs, moved very slowly, by hanging
head and body downwards and grasping the branches with their long
claws. During the daytime, these quiet animals were constantly found
asleep, huddled up in the fork of a branch, and looking like great
balls of tow, or else hanging by two legs, the rest of the body being
curled up. Now and then, one was seen at the foot of a tree, and it
appeared to run along the ground with great difficulty; for the arms
were so long that it walked on the elbows, and the hind feet were
turned in, so that it supported itself on the sides of its great hind
claws. Naturally, the animal took its time in moving, and as it was
never seen to be lively, it received the name of Sloth. Interesting
from being so different in its habits from other arboreal animals, it
became much more so, to naturalists, when its remarkable construction
was ascertained; but still the hairy creature with a short face, small
head, long neck, hardly any tail, and very long front limbs, retained
its popular name.

A very slight examination of one of the Sloths showed that it had no
front teeth, that is to say, neither incisors nor true canine teeth,
and that the hinder teeth--the false and true molars--were not like
those of any other mammal. The back teeth, few in number, have since
been ascertained to be exceptionally simple in their structure, and
evidently the masticating process is very simple. But when it was
noticed that the Sloth fed upon leaves and young twigs, the absence
of the necessity for more elaborate teeth was acknowledged. Then it
was observed that they had very long arms, or rather fore limbs, for
the fore-arm bones and the humerus are all unusually long, and also
that they had great power of movement. Moreover, it was seen that the
fingers were reduced to three in number in some kinds, and to two in
others, and that they were furnished with long and strong claws, which
did not interfere with a great amount of mobility in the wrist. The
length of limb, the mobility of the wrist, and the great claws, enable
the Sloth to bring the leaves to its mouth, to hang on, and to walk, as
it were, beneath the branches. An examination of the hind limbs showed
that they were shorter than the others, and always furnished, in all
kinds of Sloths, with three great claws. But the ankle seemed to be
turned in, as if there was a state of “club-foot.” This condition would
enable the toes to clasp a bough without effort, but it would prevent
the sole from being placed flat on the ground. As the knowledge of the
anatomy of these constant tree-livers progressed, other modifications
of structure, equally important in relation to the peculiar arboreal
life and food, were gradually discovered. For instance, a remarkable
flexibility of the neck, produced by the peculiar arrangement of
the vertebræ; a _rete mirabile_, to a certain extent, in the limbs,
resembling somewhat that in the Lemurs (Vol. I., pages 213, 245),
and a complicated stomach suited for the digestion of leaves, and
foreshadowing that of the Ruminants.

Two different kinds of Sloths were described in the first instance,
and subsequently, several others. The first kinds known were the Ai, a
Sloth with three claws on the fore limb, and the Two-toed Sloth, with
two claws on the fore limb. The Ai was called _Bradypus tridactylus_,
and the other the Unau, or _Bradypus didactylus_, names which have been
changed somewhat, as will be seen further on.

Sloths are caught without much difficulty, and their habits, in
captivity, have been observed in South America, and also after their
removal to Europe. Waterton writes[56] on the subject:--

“Some years ago I kept a Sloth for several months. I often took him
out of the house and placed him on the ground, in order to have an
opportunity of observing his motions. If the ground were rough he would
pull himself forward by means of his fore-legs, at a pretty good pace,
and he invariably shaped his course towards the nearest tree; but if I
put him upon a smooth and well-trodden part of the road, he appeared
to be in trouble and distress. His favourite abode was the back of a
chair, and often getting all his legs in a line upon the topmost part
of it, he would hang there for hours together. The Sloth, in its wild
state, spends its whole life upon trees, not upon the branches, but
under them; he moves suspended from the branch, he rests suspended
from it, and he sleeps suspended from it; hence his seemingly bungled
conformation is at once accounted for. One day, crossing the Essequibo,
I saw a large Two-toed Sloth on the ground upon the bank, and although
the trees were not twenty yards from him, he could not make his way
through the sand in time enough to make his escape before we landed. He
threw himself on his back and defended himself with his fore-legs. I
took a long stick and held it for him to hook on, and then conveyed him
to a high and stately Mora. He ascended with wonderful rapidity, and in
about a minute he was almost at the top of the tree. He now went off in
a side direction, and caught hold of the branch of a neighbouring tree,
and then proceeded towards the heart of the forest.”

At Santos, in Brazil, in 1826, Mr. Burchell kept a tame Sloth, a
_Bradypus tridactylus_, which at the end of two months pined and
died. It fed exclusively on the buds and leaves of a species of
_Cecropia_, a tree having a slender stem of thirty or forty feet long,
with horizontal branches, hollow internally, and naked, except at
the extremities. It ate only the young shoots and terminal buds of
the unexpanded leaves, rejecting the old leaves on the boughs, which
were brought to it daily. It was always perfectly silent, and its
countenance and manners were most expressive of melancholy. It fed by
day, and slept much; being kept in a room, it sat upright upon its
short tail, embracing the legs of a chair with its arms and legs.

When resident at Para, near the mouth of the Amazons, Mr. Burchell also
kept two full-grown Sloths, and a young one of a three-toed species
(not _Bradypus tridactylus_, but of nearly similar form and habits),
in a garden enclosed with strong stockades. They were kept tied up
to the pillars of a verandah, to prevent their escape. Against these
pillars they always placed themselves in an erect position, embracing
the pillar with all four legs; when not tied to the verandah, they got
up into trees in the garden. They slept both by day and night, always
fixing their arms round something or other. Their food, consisting of
branches, was brought to them in the verandah. They appeared extremely
stupid, and would never come to the food. They would eat no leaves but
those of the _Cecropia_.

They did not mount very large trees, and they ascended with their
breasts pressing the trunk of the tree, advancing the hind-leg beyond
the fore-leg. On the ground, they could neither stand nor walk, but lay
sprawling on their belly, and dragged, or rather warped, themselves
along, laying hold of a bunch of grass or stone with their three claws,
which operated like grappling-irons, or, rather, pincers. All these
died in a month or two. In their wild state they are seldom seen,
from their colour mingling with the grey foliage of the trees, and
from their being so extremely quiet and slow. The tame Sloths never
willingly remained on the ground, except to pass from one tree to
another. All the movements of the animal are slow. It moves its claws
slowly. In eating it chews slowly; it also climbs slowly. The moisture
of the leaves it eats suffices it for drink, without descending to
obtain water. None of those kept by Mr. Burchell were ever seen to
drink. The full-grown animals were never heard to utter any sound,
but the young one occasionally, though rarely, gave a short cry or
whistling squeak, of a single note.

They showed no indication of fear, and seemed to give attention only
with their eyes. They took no notice of the boy who often carried them
across the garden to their place in the verandah, with their long arms
sprawling; the only objects of their regard were trees. They fight on
their backs, and grapple their enemy to strangulation. The use of the
long wool that covers the body, and even the face, seems to be to guard
them from the annoyance of insects. Possibly it may preserve them from
the attacks of Snakes, which are, doubtless, their greatest enemies.

The Sloth spends nearly the whole of its life in the trees, and travels
along the branches body downwards. It rarely comes to the ground, on
which it walks with difficulty, and it occasionally takes to the water
and swims. It looks slothful enough when asleep, for it then resembles
a bunch of rough hair, and a jumble of limbs close together, hanging
to a branch; but when awake, it is industrious in its search for nice
twigs and leaves, and moves along the under side of the branches of the
trees with some activity. It seizes the ends of adjoining branches,
clinging to the leafy mass, and moves from tree to tree quickly enough,
when it is requisite, and it has a very singular power of moving the
head and neck backwards in seeking food. When the atmosphere is still,
the Sloth keeps to its tree, feeding on the leaves and twigs, but when
there is wind, and the branches of neighbouring trees come in contact,
the opportunity is seized, and the animal moves along the forest, under
the shady cover of the boughs. The Indians have a saying that “when
the wind blows the Sloths begin to crawl,” and the reason is thus
evident enough--the animal cannot jump, but it can hang, swing, and
crawl suspended. Mr. Waterton states, however, that “the Sloth travels
at a good round pace, and were you to see him passing from tree to
tree you would never think of calling him a Sloth. Being born up in a
tree, living amongst the branches, feeding on leaves, and finally dying
amidst the foliage, and enjoying life as much as any other animal, its
structure and conformation are, of course, admirably suited for this
arboreal existence. Its power of grasp is great, and is assisted by the
great bent claws as it hangs by its feet when asleep, and also often
when it is dead. One which was much frightened by being taken from the
forest had a pole placed near it at a little distance from the ground,
on two supports. It clung directly to the pole and hung on. A Dog was
then made to attack the Sloth, which seized it in its long claws, and
did not let go until the enemy died.”

Leading thus a very unusual kind of life, up amongst the dense foliage,
and having some very unusual peculiarities of construction, much debate
occurred many years since regarding the general conformation as well as
the special anatomy of the Sloths. One school of anatomists considered
the Sloths incomplete and abnormal animals, moving with “pain” on the
ground, and another regarded their unusual and peculiar anatomy as
singularly beneficent.

But whilst it is perfectly evident that the long limbs and their
joints, and the peculiar turning in of the ankles, and the structure
of the clawed hands and feet, are all admirably adapted for the
peculiar life which the animal leads, it appears to be consistent
with anatomical reasoning to believe that the Sloth is an instance of
retrograde development; that, in fact, the peculiar formation of the
skull, neck, wrists, and ankles, is the result of the laws of disuse
and adaptation operating on ancestral animals, which once had their
anatomy more consistent with a perfect mammalian type.

[Illustration: SKELETON OF THE SLOTH.]

When the Sloths were first carefully watched and studied, their length
of neck and their ability to turn the head, so as to look at a person
standing directly behind or beneath them, without swerving the body,
struck Mr. Burchell especially. This curious peculiarity led to a
careful examination of the skeleton of the different kinds, and much
discussion followed, for it was found that in the Sloth examined (the
Three-clawed Ai) there were more neck bones (vertebræ of the cervical
region) than in other Mammalia. Instead of the common number of seven
neck bones, there were nine. This elongation of the neck of course
permitted a greater amount of twisting than could occur in an animal
with fewer neck bones. But there are other reasons why the head can
be so much twisted round, for the spines on the neck bones are small,
and the joint between the skull and the first vertebra is so fashioned
that this remarkable motion is possible. There was a great deal of
discussion about the extra neck bones, and as the last two had rib-like
projections from their sides, some anatomists considered them to belong
to the true rib-bearing vertebræ, or those of the back (the dorsal).
But when the other Sloths were examined it was found that the number of
the bones of the neck in all the two-fingered kinds was not as great as
in other animals. There are only six neck vertebra in one well-known
species (_Cholœpus Hoffmanni_, for instance), whilst there are seven in
another two-toed Sloth.

Eating largely and of bulky substances, the Sloths require a large
digestive cavity, and the ribs are numerous, and the body is long
and broad. There is much variation, however, in the number of the
back bones in the dorsal and lumbar regions. Thus in the Ai there are
sixteen dorsal and three lumbar vertebræ, whilst in the Two-fingered
Sloth there may be twenty-three or twenty-four dorsal bones, and two,
three, or four lumbar vertebræ. The ribs are close together and are
broad. As the hind limbs require strong muscles, for the animal hangs
on by them whilst it is feeding itself with the fore hands, the pelvis
is large and is strengthened by having the hip and haunch bones (ilia
and ischia) united to the conjoined sacral vertebræ, which may be six,
seven, or eight in number. Moreover, all the strength of the pelvis is
behind, the fore part or pubic bones being slender and united in front.

Some small tail bones exist, for that organ is rudimentary in all the
Sloths, there being a stump in the Ai, and eleven very small bones; but
in the Two-fingered Sloths the tail is not visible, and there are four
little ossicles. There are no long and very prominent spines to any
of the back bones, and the whole bony column of the spine is readily
curved and bent. The animals so constantly bring the hands and feet
close together, when hanging, that a ready bending of the spine is
absolutely necessary. Moreover, in sleeping they often rest in the fork
of a tree, or on a branch, and place the head between the hind legs,
rolling the body up as it were in a ball, and this is facilitated by
the peculiar construction of the long chain of back bones with small
spines.

The most distinctive character of the skeleton of the Sloth is the
excess of length of the fore limb over the hind one. An examination of
the slender bones of the arm shows that they are more solid than those
of most Mammals. The arm bone (humerus) has a hole through it in the
inner expanded part, just above the elbow (inner condyle), in the Ai;
but this is not found in the two-toed kinds. The wrist and hand are
long and narrow, and this is produced by the union of some bones which
are separate in other Mammalia, and the slight development of others.
Thus there are six bones in the wrist instead of eight (the scaphoid
and trapezium, and the os magnum and trapezoid have coalesced). In
the Ai there are three clawed fingers, and the bones of the thumb and
of the little finger are absent, and their corresponding hand bones
(metacarpals) are very small, and are joined on to the next, that is,
to the metacarpal of the index and third finger.

The three fingers are, moreover, strengthened for their peculiar uses,
the first two joints being united, and the tip or last joint being
very long, and supporting the claw. Moreover, as the long claws are
constantly half closed in the hand, and they are never required to be
widely open, the tip of the finger is so made that flexion is possible,
but not unclasping widely. The skin comes up to the base of the claws,
and encloses the fingers, and the base of each claw is protected by a
bony sheath. They form capital hooks; they grasp, and although there is
no opposable thumb, they hold the food; and a tame Sloth may be seen
holding a carrot very firmly between them and the wrist. In the case of
the Unau Sloth, the outer claw is the longer.

[Illustration: BONES OF HAND OF THREE-TOED SLOTH.]

The Sloths walk on the outside of the extremities of the fore and
hind limbs, and their claws are always curved in, and, as it were,
retracted. Consequently, the animal cannot place the soles flat on
the ground, and it cannot open its foot-claws to a great extent. This
fixing of the claws assists in the clasping and hanging, which are the
usual and commonest attitudes. The claws surpass the foot in length,
and are so sharp and crooked that they readily seize upon the smallest
inequalities in the bark of the trees and branches upon which the
animals habitually reside. They and those of the fore limb are no mean
weapons of offence and defence, for, situated at the end of long and
muscular arms, they can drag, cling, and hold with great tenacity. The
thigh bone (femur) of the Sloth is straight, and is thicker and shorter
than the arm bone (humerus); it has no ligament to unite it to the
joint (no ligamentum teres). On examining the lower bones of the leg
(the tibia and fibula), they will be found to be bent, so as to leave
a space between them, and they are shorter than the bones of the fore
arm. The bones of the ankle joint, are united together immovably--that
is to say, the usual bones seen in other Mammalia are there, but
are united by bone. Moreover, this union includes the complete and
ill-developed feet bones (metatarsals), and the first bones of the
second, third, and fourth fingers. One bone is not included in this
strange union. It is the astragalus, or the bone immediately jointed
with the ends of the bones of the legs. The outer or small bone of the
leg (fibula) fits into a pit in the outer part of the upper surface of
this bone, and thus prevents any movement of the foot like a twisting
outwards, and favours, but does not produce, the usual position of
twisting inwards. Moreover, there are two powerful muscles in the front
of the leg which are not opposed by others as strong, and they, by
their contraction, keep the foot twisted inwards, as in club-foot (the
anterior tibial and the long extensor of the great toe).

In the Unau, or Two-fingered Sloth, there is the same general
arrangement of the bones and muscles, with some important differences,
which result in there being a greater amount of bending and extending
of the foot, although the foot rests on its outer edge.

A Sloth’s face is short, and there is a broad snub nose, with round
nostrils, which are widely open. The cheeks become wide suddenly,
and the forehead slopes rapidly backwards, the eyes being wide apart
and small, but looking forwards. The head is small and round, and
as it is covered with hair behind, it cannot be distinguished well
from the upper part of the back of the neck. The expression of the
face is always the same, and the method of masticating and eating is
disagreeable to observe. The animal having no front teeth, and moving
its jaws usually only upwards and downwards, and not from side to
side, places the morsel, such as lettuce leaf or carrot, well into its
mouth, and chews at it, dragging out the food every now and then, when
it is covered with moisture. On examining the skull, the short cut
off or truncated appearance of the face is very evident, and it will
be observed that the teeth are wanting in the front bones of the face
(the pre-maxillaries), and that only the palatal part of these bones
exists. The lower jaw is strongly jointed to the upper, and the back
part is large: there are teeth at the sides, but there are none in the
front part of it. A very singular-looking cheek bone (zygoma) exists
on either side. It is not attached behind to the ear bone, so as to
cover the jaw muscles, but it has two processes behind--an upper and
a lower--which differ in shape and size according to the species. The
central bone of the nose does not reach to the nasal outlet, and there
is a system of air-cavities which is continued from the nose into the
forehead bone. In some kinds, the lower jaw ends abruptly in front, as
in the Ai; but in the Unau Sloths it is slightly angular, and projects.

The back teeth of the Sloths are very simple, and consist of three
structures, called vaso-dentine, hard dentine, and cement, there being
no proper enamel. The vaso-dentine is a kind of bony substance in
the centre of the tooth, in which there are the passages and tubes
of blood-vessels. The dentine is outside this, and consists of more
earthy particles than the vaso-dentine, and of fewer tubes; it is
all the denser and more resistant. Wearing away more slowly than the
vaso-dentine, it forms a ridge which grinds easily. The cement is a
kind of bony structure on the outside of the tooth. The teeth of the
Sloth continue to grow from below as they are worn above, and there is
no entire milk set which are replaced by those of a permanent kind.

[Illustration: SKULL OF SLOTH.[57]

(From the _Proceedings of the Zoological Society_.)]

The term Sloth is commonly applied to all the kinds of animals whose
general shape and habits have just been noticed. It is evident,
however, that this union of several species under one term is not
correct in zoology, and it is necessary to distinguish them by
peculiarities which are permanent. A very ready method of distinction
is to separate the Sloths into two families, one containing those which
have three claws on the fore limbs and the same number on the hind
limbs, and the second including those which have only two claws on the
fore feet and three on the hinder.

The first family is called the BRADYPODIDÆ, from βραδύς (slow), and
πούς (foot), and the second CHOLŒPODIDÆ, from χωλός (halting, lame),
and πούς (foot), and both are included in the group TARDIGRADA, or
slow-moving _Edentata_.

The BRADYPODIDÆ include two genera, but many naturalists only
acknowledge one. The first is _Bradypus_. This includes the Sloths with
three-clawed fingers on the fore limbs, whose males and females are
alike in their fur, and which have the cheek bone (malar bone) with
two processes. The upper one is long and dilated at the end, and the
lower is long and triangular, and neither of the processes reaches the
ear bone. There are in these Sloths, when full grown, five molar teeth
on each side in both jaws, and the first is very short. There are two
mammæ on the chest.

The second genus is _Arctopithecus_ (Gray), and it contains species
which have the males and females dissimilar in their colour and
ornamentation, and the malar bone has a thin and narrow upper process.

The second family of the Sloths (the CHOLŒPODIDÆ) contains but one
genus, _Cholœpus_ (the Unau), whose species have two claws on the fore
limbs and three on the hind ones. The front of the lower jaw is stuck
out, and not cut short, and the first molar teeth are long.

The genus _Bradypus_ probably contains several species, but it is only
necessary to mention one, which is called

THE COLLARED SLOTH, OR THE HAIRY SLOTH.[58]

This Sloth lives in the densest forests of Brazil, Peru, and Para, and
is found not far from Rio Janeiro.

It is a kind of the Three-clawed Sloths, in which there is little
or no difference between the fur of the males and females. The neck
is surrounded by a large collar of long black hair, and underneath
this is a fur of a dark-brown colour. The face is naked, and is of a
black colour, and the hair of the body is not very flattened, but is
withered-looking to a certain extent. The forehead, temples, chin,
throat, and breast are covered with reddish or rust-coloured hair,
slightly grizzled. On the crown of the head it is long and yellow, and
pale orange on the rest of the body. This Sloth produces one at a birth.

The lower jaw has a kind of blunted lobe in front, and the angle of
this jaw is broad, triangular, with a rounded lower edge, and it
projects backwards beyond the joint which connects the bone with the
skull. The cheek bone has those peculiarities which have already been
mentioned. The teeth are peculiar, for the first or foremost grinders
are smaller than the others, and the second upper grinder is the
largest of all. The first grinder on the lower jaw is broader than the
rest, and the hinder are the largest, being also cylindrical.

[Illustration: COLLARED SLOTH. (From Prince Maximilian of Neuwied’s
_Animals of Brazil_.)]

It has the general method of living of the Sloths, being perhaps not
quite so lively or active as the Unau, and feeds mainly on _Cecropia_
leaves, finishing those of one tree as far as it can before commencing
those of another. Like all the Sloths, it has the power of long and
sustained muscular action, and can cling on, or grasp, for a very long
time without perceptible fatigue, and this gift is associated with a
structure of the blood-vessels which supply the muscles, resembling, as
we have said, that noticed in some of the Lemurs. The main artery which
supplies each of the fore limbs is the axillary, so called from its
being found in the armpit or axilla. In quickly-moving animals this
vessel reaches into the upper arm, and divides into a few rather large
ones lower down, and these give off others, so that a certain quantity
of blood is supplied and removed quickly. But in the Sloths the
axillary artery divides at once into a number of cylindrical vessels
nearly as large as it is, and they are united here and there. These
unusual arteries are found in contact with the surface of the muscles,
and their branches go in and amongst the muscular bundles. As many as
forty-two of these large vessels were counted by Sir A. Carlisle, on
the surface of the muscles on the front of the arm, and probably about
twenty were inside. These arteries thus carry an immense supply of
blood to the muscles, but blood which, although it is finally removed
by the veins, does not move very rapidly. In fact, the muscles are
turgid with blood. The same arterial structure is seen in the hinder
limbs, and the arteries of the thigh form as numerous a set as those of
the arm.

[Illustration: AI. (From the _Proceedings of the Zoological Society_.)]

It seems to be in accordance with careful investigation, to state that
the species of Sloth called _Bradypus tridactylus_ (the Three-toed
Sloth, or Ai) has too large a meaning, and that it really refers to
the Collared Sloth, as well as to others which have been placed in the
next genus. It is as well to remark here, that although there are three
clawed fingers to the fore limb, there are vestiges of two other ones
by their side in the form of two rudimentary metacarpal bones.

GENUS ARCTOPITHECUS.--THE AI.[59]

Several kinds of three-clawed Sloths have been called Ai; for instance,
the Yellow-throated Ai, and De Blainville’s Ai, and all have been
named _Bradypus tridactylus_. Dr. Gray, however, satisfied himself
that the kind which was first described by Cuvier as the Ai, and which
is figured in Prince Maximilian of Neuwied’s “Animals of Brazil,” is
the same as one which has since been called _Arctopithecus Ai_, or
_Arctopithecus flaccidus_. The word _Ai_ is taken from the noise made
by the animal, and the term _flaccidus_ relates to its long hair.
The true Ai inhabits Venezuela and Peru, and has very long flaccid
grey hair mottled with white. There is an abundant under-fur of a
blackish-brown colour, which has white and black in spots and blotches.

There is a small spot between the shoulders on the back, where the fur
is soft and woolly, and a broad, short, blackish streak there, with
a white or orange ring around it. The claws are coloured brown. The
head has a curiously-cut short and turned-up nose appearance, and is
furnished with coarse shaggy hair, disposed on the crown in a diverging
manner. The short hair of the face contrasts with the long, shaggy,
shrivelled, dry, hay-looking hair of the body. This hair is coarse and
flattened at the ends, but it is exceptionally fine at the roots, and
it greatly resembles in colour and texture some of the vegetation of
the trees on which it lives. The eyes are bright, and are surrounded
by a dark ring. Several species of the genus Arctopithecus have been
described which live in Guiana, Bolivia, Brazil, Peru, and Venezuela.

[Illustration: SKULL OF AI.]

The next genus of the Sloths is represented by

THE TWO-FINGERED SLOTH (THE UNAU).[60]

There are several kinds of Sloths with two “toes,” or rather with two
fingers ending in claws on the fore limb, but the differences between
the species are not very readily appreciated. They are differences
which can be recognised, but it is doubtful whether the possession of
dark brown or pale brown hair is sufficient to decide that there are
more than one species.

The common Unau Sloth is usually of a darker tint than the others, but
there is no doubt that the specimens in museums of all these Sloths
vary much in the colour and length of the hair. Thus the hair may be
generally dark, and the hairs of the crest on the back of the head
may be white, and more or less tinted with bright green; or the hair
may be short, of a dark brown colour, paler on the rump, much paler
on the head, cheeks, and chin; a band may be across the nose, and the
orbits dark brown. Others of the same species have very long hair, of
an uniform dark tint, paler on the head and redder beneath, whilst one
from Juan de Fuca has short hair, without any indication of a crest.
From Brazil there are specimens with long paler hair and a crest. All
these specimens, however, have pale whitish claws.

A Unau from Columbia is of a pale and whitey-brown paper colour, darker
at the root of the hairs, and it has pale fawn-coloured claws.

In all these animals with different kinds of furs, the two-clawed
condition is peculiar to the fore limbs only, for on the hinder there
are three claws, and it is to be remarked that the hair and skin unite
the fingers and toes close up to the base of the claws. The skull of
the Unau is rather projecting in front, and not, as it were, quite
cut off close; and there is a great gap in the upper and lower gums
in front, the incisor teeth being absent, of course. But at the side
of the mouth there is a longish tooth above and below, looking like
a canine, but really it is the front molar, which in both jaws and
on both sides is longer and larger than the others. The under teeth
belonging to the lower molar set are placed behind the corresponding
upper ones when the mouth is shut.

The cheek or malar bone is seen, on looking at the skull, to be
separated from the ear bone, and to have a forked end posteriorly, the
lower part of the fork extending downwards and backwards.

The lower jaw is very straight: it projects a little, in front and
behind, where it is jointed with the upper jaw, there is no upright
portion or branch, or ascending ramus. The last back tooth is just in
front of a curved piece of bone called the coronoid process, the base
of which is on a level with the line of the teeth.

This Sloth has seven neck bones (cervical vertebræ), and the last one
has a very small and rudimentary rib attached to it on either side.
There are no less than twenty-three dorsal vertebræ found to be with
ribs. The Unau has a clavicle which is much smaller in the other group.
It has no tail. The structure of the ankle joint enables it to turn
in, even more than that of the Three-clawed Sloth. As the habits of
the Unau Sloth are the same as those with three claws, and all live
in the same great district, these anatomical distinctions are very
interesting, and relate to their remote ancestors, being hereditary
legacies, which are of little or no importance in assisting the
creature merely to live. One of the differences between the Sloths is
singular. The Unaus have a very remarkably formed stomach, which may
be said to be double. The first stomach is large and rounded, but it
is contracted behind, and then formed into a kind of conical appendix.
This appendix is doubled from left to right, and its cavity has a
fold at its opening into the stomach. It forms a special part of the
first stomach. Then it is to be noticed, that where the food enters
the stomach, or at the opening, which is called the cardia, there is
a pouch, looking like a bag at the end of the tube which runs down
from the gullet to the stomach. This is the second part of the first
stomach: and the third is a tube-like space which connects the cardia
with the stomach far away to the left. These three cavities form the
first stomach. The second stomach is of a slender form, and is very
much smaller than the other. Its walls are thin for the first half of
its length, but towards the spot where the gut commences (the pylorus)
they are thick and muscular. A small fold occurs midway. There is a
fold in the body of the smaller or second stomach, and there is a
little hollow there with glands in it, and it is called the appendix to
the second stomach.

[Illustration: STOMACH OF SLOTH.]

The stomach is thus rather complicated, and its internal mucous
membrane is so thrown into folds, and made into hollow spaces, that it
occupies much more space than if it were a simple bag. This plan is
also well seen in those ruminating animals which, like the Ox, live
entirely upon vegetable substances; and it is evident that the diet of
the Sloth bears some relation to the complicated stomach.

In the Ai, the appendix to the second stomach is larger than that of
the Unau Sloth, and is more complicated.

HOFFMANN’S SLOTH.[61]

This is a Sloth with two clawed fingers on the fore, and with three
claws on the hinder extremities. Living specimens are occasionally
brought to Europe, especially from Porto Rico, so that its general
appearance may now and then be studied at the Zoological Gardens,
in the Regent’s Park. If it be looked at there in the day-time, it
certainly merits the name of Sloth, for it resembles a bundle of long,
light, brown hair, fixed on the top of a bar of wood close to an
upright branch, or huddled up in a corner on the ground; but in the
morning, and also late in the evening, the creature begins to move
slowly, and to look out for the food put for its use on the floor of
the den. All the Hoffmann’s Sloths have pale brown hair, whiter at the
tips, and a white face, showing a brown band across the nose, extending
to a ring round each eye. They have also a long and full crest of hair
on the neck, and the hair on the limbs is darker than that of the
rest of the animal. Dr. Peters, who discovered this Sloth, examined
the skeleton, and found only six vertebræ in the neck, and in this it
differs from the _Cholœpus_ just noticed.

When its food, consisting of carrots and lettuce, and bread-and-milk,
is put down in the morning it is soon in movement, and enjoys its meal
hanging down from a bar with its hind legs, and resting its back on
the floor of the cage. It seizes the food between the claws and the
long straight palm of the fore-foot, and passes it into its mouth,
chewing actively with the molar teeth, especially with the first,
which are sharp. It cares little for the spectators, and when it has
finished, slowly mounts up into a corner of its little den and settles
down to sleep. In the evening it becomes lively, for it is, and,
indeed, all Sloths are, nocturnal in habit. The hairless snout, of a
light red tint, the absence of “smellers,” the little eyes with a few
hairs around them, and the broad forehead, give the animal a curious
appearance. The hair is brushed back on the forehead, and comes around
the very small ears on to the cheeks, and is whitey-brown, and this
same tint is seen over the whole of the back in long slender hairs. But
the under hair is light red or red-brown. The long and slender hand,
with its two claws, contrasts with the rather bulky upper part of the
limbs, and the flesh-coloured palms are very remarkable.

[Illustration: HOFFMANN’S SLOTH.]

The whole of the Sloths lead very monotonous lives; their food is
ever within their reach, and it is abundant, and they do not appear
to have to compete much or at all in the struggle for existence with
other animals. Their enemies are Snakes and the Carnivora, but it is
evident that they are much more readily preserved by their habits from
the latter than from the former. Leading such an uneventful existence,
there is no great call upon their nervous energies or intelligence,
and these are at a low pitch. The brain consequently is very simple in
regard to convolutions, which are few in number and shallow.

CHAPTER II.

THE ANT-EATERS.

THE CAPE ANT-EATER--The Cage at “the Zoo”--Appearance of the
Animal--Its Prey--The Ant-hills--How the Orycteropus obtains
its Food--Place in the Order--Teeth--Skull--Tongue--Interesting
Questions concerning the Ant-eater--THE PANGOLINS, OR SCALY
ANT-EATERS--THE AFRICAN SCALY ANT-EATERS--Differences between the
Pangolins and Cape Ant-eaters--Their Habitat--Description--TEMMINCK’S
PANGOLIN--Habits--Food--How it Feeds--Superstitious Regard for
it shown by the Natives--Scarcity--Appearance--THE LONG-TAILED,
OR FOUR-FINGERED PANGOLIN--THE GREAT MANIS--THE ASIATIC SCALY
ANT-EATERS--THE SHORT-TAILED, OR FIVE-FINGERED PANGOLIN--The
Species of _Manis_--Skull--Stomach--Claws fitted for Digging--Other
Skeletal Peculiarities--THE AMERICAN ANT-EATERS--General
Appearance--Genera--THE GREAT ANT-BEAR--Habits--Diet--How
it Procures its Food--Distribution--Mode and Rate of
Locomotion--Stupidity--Manner of Assault and Defence--Stories
of its Contests with other Animals--Appearance--THE
TAMANDUA--Description--Where Found--Habits--Odour--THE TWO-TOED
ANT-EATER--Appearance--Two-clawed Hand--Habits--Von Sach’s Account of
his Specimen.

THE CAPE ANT-EATER.[62]--THE AARD-VARK.

In one of the cages in the house, close to where the Kangaroos are
kept, in the Zoological Gardens of London, there is usually a heap of
straw to be seen and an empty dish. Outside the cage is placed the
name of an animal, “The Cape Ant-eater.” People look and wait, and as
neither the animal nor the Ants it eats are to be seen, they go away,
supposing that the absence of the last-named insects has caused the
destruction of the animal, whose straw alone remains.

But in the evening, and sometimes in the morning, when the food is
placed in the cage--not Ants, however--a long pair of stuck-up ears,
looking like those of a gigantic Hare with a white skin and little fur,
may be seen poked up above the straw; and, soon after, a long white
muzzle, with small sharp eyes between it and the long ears, comes into
view.

Then a very fat and rather short-bodied animal with a long head and
short neck, low fore and large hind quarters, with a bowed back, comes
forth, and finally a moderately long fleshy tail is seen. It is very
pig-like in the look of its skin, which is light-coloured and has a few
hairs on it. Moreover, the snout is somewhat like that of a Pig, but
the mouth has a small opening only, and to make the difference between
the animals decided, out comes a worm-shaped long tongue covered with
mucus. The animal has to content itself with other fare than Ants in
England, but it seems to thrive, and as it walks slowly on the flat of
its feet and hands to its food, they are seen to be armed with very
powerful claws.

In Southern Africa, whence this animal came, it is as rarely seen by
ordinary observers as in England, for there it burrows into the earth
with its claws, and makes an underground place to live in, and is
nocturnal in its habits, sleeping by day.

The Orycteropus, which means digging-up foot, from ὀρύσσω (to dig
up), and πούς (foot), is the deadly foe of the Ants of all kinds, and
especially of those which, like the White Ants, live in large colonies
and build nests.

These nest-building Ants abound in certain districts, but not in the
region of the downs or karoos, nor where it is very dry and woody.
They choose the country which is covered with a poor and so-called
“sour” grass, and there they dig galleries in the ground, fetch earth
from far and wide, and erect large rounded mounds of an elliptical
figure, and often from three to seven feet in height. Apparently fond
of company, the Ants congregate, and these gigantic hills of theirs are
often crowded together and occupy the plains, as far as the eye can
reach. The nests, or hills, are solidly built, and contain innumerable
ants. This is the favourite resort of the Orycteropus, and the insects
are his sole food then. Wherever ant-hills are found, there is a good
chance of finding one of these Aard-varks, or Innagus, or Ant-Bears, as
the Dutch and natives call them, leading a sort of mole-like life. But
he is not easy to catch if the stories told be true. It is stated that
the long strong flattened claws and short extremities, worked by their
strong muscles, enable the animal to burrow in the soft soil as quickly
as the hunters can dig, and that in a few minutes it will get out of
the way; moreover, its strength is sufficient to resist the efforts of
two or three men to drag it out of the hole. But when fairly caught,
the Ant-eater does not resist much; it has no front teeth or eye teeth
to do any harm with, and it can be killed easily by a blow on the
head. The Ant-eater runs slowly, and never moves far from the entrance
of its burrow, being seen to do so only at night-time. The burrows
are often two feet in diameter and three or four feet deep before
they branch off. Night is the time for Ant-eating, for the active and
industrious insects are then all at home and within their solid nests.
Then the Orycteropus sallies forth, finds a fresh nest, sprawls over
it, and scratches a hole in its side, using his strong claws, and
then introduces his long snout. Having satisfied himself that there
is no danger at hand, the animal protrudes its long slimy tongue into
the galleries and body of the nest, and it is at once covered with
enraged Ants, which stick to it, and are finally returned with it into
the mouth. This goes on over and over again, until the appetite is
satisfied; and apparently the diet is excellent, for the Ant-eater is
generally fat, and indeed his hams are appreciated as a delicacy for
their peculiar flavour, into which that of formic acid is said to enter.

[Illustration: CAPE ANT-EATER.]

Although without an armour to its body, and provided with only a thick
skin and bristles, the Orycteropus has a great resemblance in many
points of its anatomy to the Armadillos of America. It is more closely
allied to them than to the other Edentata. It is one of the order of
Edentata, for there are no front teeth in the jaws, the incisors and
canines being absent. The teeth are found in the back part of the
mouth, and there are five on each side and in the upper and lower
jaws, or twenty in all; there are also some small teeth which fall out
during the growth of the animal. As might be expected from the very
simple nature of the diet, the teeth are not at all complicated in
their structure. They increase in size from before backwards, the last
tooth but one being the largest, and all are peculiar in their minute
construction. The first permanent tooth, which may be called a molar,
is cylindrical in shape, and consists of a centre of very remarkable
substance, for the body of the tooth is composed of a great number of
vertical canals placed side by side, and running up the tooth. It was
this interesting structure, so different to that of other animals,
which led Cuvier to compare the teeth to pieces of cane. Outside this
part of the tooth is a hard and more solid substance. When the teeth
are unworn, this outer covering covers their top, but as it wears
off the tubular appearance is seen, and the ends of the tubes become
exposed. The teeth have no fangs like those of such orders of Mammalia
as the Carnivora and Insectivora, and they increase in length by
growth from below, so that the wear above is continually compensated
for. The second tooth resembles the first in its minute construction,
but appears like two cylinders fixed together, a longitudinal groove
indicating the junction, and this is the appearance presented by most
of the others. The hindermost teeth resemble the first molars. The
dental number varies according to age, and the presence or absence of
the teeth which are not permanent. The jaws, in which the teeth are
fixed, are long, and the lower one is low, but there is an ascending
back part, or ramus; consequently, the face is long and low. The eye
is placed far from the ear, and is small. Its bony case, or orbit, and
its surrounding bones, are somewhat remarkable for an Edentate, for
there is a lachrymal bone, and the tear canal is open on the bony face.
Moreover, the malar bone is united to the ear bone by a complete arch,
the zygoma, and the deficiency so remarkable in some other Edentates
is thus not observed. The pre-maxillary bones are also to be seen, in
front of the face. In this completeness of the bones of the face this
animal is a true mammal, but in the nature and extent of the ear bones,
the Orycteropus has some resemblance to reptiles and birds.

[Illustration: SKULL OF THE CAPE ANT-EATER.]

The tongue is long, narrow, and flat, and can be protruded considerably
beyond the mouth, but not so far as those of the other insect-eating
Edentata; and in order to keep up a supply of thick mucus, the glands
under and at its side, or the sub-maxillary, are very large and active
in their functions. The stomach is moderately bulky and not simple,
for the portion towards the right has very thick muscular walls, and
the rest is thin. The intestine has a blind gut, or cæcum.[63] In
fact, the stomach and blind gut might belong to an animal which eats
something more bulky and less nutritious than Ants, and would be of use
to the creature, did it eat vegetable matters. All these structures,
the simple teeth, the tear bones, the size of the ear bones, the
Sloth-like teeth, with tubes, however, and the peculiarities about the
intestinal canal are, it must be remembered, associated with the life
of a purely insectivorous animal. Why has it not the kind of teeth of
the Insectivora and their stomach? and why should it combine high and
low characters in its skull? These are questions which, when attempted
to be answered, show that in the great philosophy of nature causes and
effects are not everything, and that the same definite methods of life
may be followed by animals very differently constituted.

The claws of the Orycteropus and the limbs are admirably suited for
its kind of life. There are five claws on the hind limbs and four on
the front, and they are long, slightly curved, flat, and scooped out
below. The burrowing is facilitated by the arrangement of the claws as
regards length, and they diminish in size from within outwards. There
is a collar bone. The foot rests evenly on the ground and not on its
outside, and the body is supported either by the whole foot or by the
palm surface of the claws. The fore arm can be rotated more or less,
and the pronator quadratus[64] muscle enables this necessary action to
be carried out. The _Orycteropus capensis_ lives over a wide extent of
country in South Africa, in Caffraria, and in the western districts. A
closely-allied species lives in Senegal (_Orycteropus senegalensis_,
Less.); and a third is found in Southern Nubia, near the White Nile
(_Orycteropus æthiopicus_, Sund.).

THE PANGOLINS, OR SCALY ANT-EATERS.[65]

THE AFRICAN SCALY ANT-EATERS.

An animal living in the same country, on the same kind of food, and
having many of the habits of the Cape Ant-eater, especially as it
belongs to the same order of the animal kingdom, might be expected
to resemble it in shape and in most of the important parts of its
construction. But the comparison between the Ant-eater, just described,
and the Scaly Ant-eater, shows that these animals have some very
remarkable differences. The Scaly Ant-eater is toothless, and covered
with scales.

[Illustration: TEMMINCK’S PANGOLIN.]

Formerly, the Scaly Ant-eaters roamed far south in Africa, but now
they are rare animals in South Africa, in the west of the continent,
and across to Sennaar. They are found in Zanzibar, and as far south
as the latitude of Mozambique. They are small animals, of from two to
nearly five feet in length, with long tails; and their body, limbs, and
tail are covered with numerous large, somewhat angular, and sharp-edged
scales, as with armour. The scales overlap each other like tiles,
and the free part pointing backwards is bluntly angular or rounded
at the tip. When the animal is on its feet walking, they form a very
close and impenetrable covering, being doubtless of great use to the
creature, for it must trust entirely to its defences, having no weapon
of offence. But when the Scaly Ant-eater is alarmed or threatened with
danger, or positively attacked, it rolls itself up like a ball, places
the snout between the legs, and the tail underneath, and then sticks up
its scales, offering their sharp edges to the enemy. There are several
kinds of them, and one in particular was noticed by Dr. Smith, the
African traveller, and was named after the zoologist Temminck, MANIS
TEMMINCKII. He observed that it was rarely seen, but that when it was
discovered, instead of burrowing, it did not attempt to escape, but
rolled itself up instantly in the shape of a ball, taking especial
care of its head, which is the only part unarmoured and likely to be
injured. He states that Ants form its chief and favourite food, and
that it secures them by extending its projectable tongue into holes
which may exist in the habitations of those insects, or which it may
itself form. The tongue having made an entry, it is soon covered with
a multitude of insects, and as it is well lubricated with saliva, they
are held fast, and when a full load is ready, the retracting muscles
act on the tongue and the whole is carried back into the mouth, after
which the Ants are swallowed. The same traveller accounts for the
scarcity of the Scaly Ant-eaters, partly from the disinclination of the
natives to discover them for strangers, and partly because they are
environed with supernatural gifts in their eyes. They are carefully
sought for, by the natives, for their own use and supposed advantage,
for they believe the animal to have some influence on cattle, and that
certain treatment to which they are exposed produces this. Whenever
a specimen is secured by the natives, it is submitted to fire in
some cattle-pen, apparently as a burnt offering for the increase of
the health and fertility of all cattle which may henceforward enter
the fold. “Here,” writes Dr. Smith, “we have another cause for the
obliteration of a species. Intolerance of their aggression has wrought
up the shepherd or agriculturist to the destruction of some; but in
this case, a species is probably dying out under the influence of a
superstition.”

[Illustration: FOUR-FINGERED PANGOLIN.]

They burrow even in rather hard ground, and feed at night time. It has
been noticed that the mother sits upright when enticing the young to
suckle.

This _Manis_ has rather a short head, and a wide body, and the tail is
as long as the trunk: it is rather less in width near the body, and
does not diminish much near the end. In a specimen which is twenty-five
inches and a half long, the back of the animal is eight inches across,
and the tail at its root is five inches broad. The scales are large,
and are in about eleven rows. The body is of a pale yellowish-brown
colour, the scales being lightest in tint near their points, and they
are often streaked with yellow. Where the scales are wanting the skin
is dusky brown. The eyes are reddish-brown, and the muzzle is black.
The nails of the fore feet are bent under, so that the animal walks on
their upper part. The scales are composed of hairs placed side by side
and agglutinated together, and when first formed, and for some little
time after, they are soft. They cover the upper part of the fore and
hind extremities besides the body, and are striated. This kind lives in
Eastern Africa, Sennaar, Caffraria, Kordofan, and Latakoo.

THE LONG-TAILED, OR FOUR-FINGERED PANGOLIN.[66]

This Ant-eater is from two to three feet in length, and the tail is
twice as long as the body. It inhabits the Guinea Coast and the Gaboon,
and probably Senegal. It is a dark brown animal, with the hair of the
face and under sides black in tint. There are eleven series of scales,
with the end rounded, and a central prominence.

Buffon described a pale brown or horn-coloured, very scaly, long-tailed
Ant-eater as a Phatagin, but it is correctly called _Manis tricuspis_,
from the scales having three projections on them. It lives in Western
Africa, Fernando Po, Guinea, and Sierra Leone.

THE GREAT MANIS.[67]

This scaled Ant-eater is thirty inches long in the body, and its tail
measures twenty-five inches in length. The great tail lessens to the
end, and the scales are striated at the base, the whole colour being
pale brown. It is an interesting animal from its likeness to one of the
Asiatic species, the _Manis pentadactyla_ (Linn.); but the difference
in the length of tail is remarkable. It has been found in West Africa,
Guinea, and in the Cape Coast Castle district.

THE ASIATIC SCALY ANT-EATERS.

There is one point of great interest about the genus _Manis_, and it is
that it is not restricted to Africa, for some species are found over
a wide extent of country in India. They live there in a region from
the Himalayan Mountains to Ceylon, and eastward to Sumatra and Java,
and in Southern China as far as Amoy, Hainan, and Formosa. They afford
an instance of closely-allied animals now living in large districts
which are separated by seas, deserts, mountains, and rivers, and other
impassable barriers. The Javanese are said to have called the animal,
from the fact of its rolling itself up, Pangolin, and the Bengalese
termed it the Reptile of Stone. The first to be noticed is--

THE SHORT-TAILED, OR FIVE-FINGERED PANGOLIN.[68]

This is supposed to be the Phattage of Ælian, and much resembles
Temminck’s _Manis_ from South Africa. It has a small head, which is
pointed and long at the muzzle; the body is rather stout, and the tail
is short, broad at the root. The back scales are in longitudinal rows,
eleven in number, and they are smaller than those of the African kind.
It has the under part of the body, head, and feet naked, and more or
less hairy, and some long, fair-coloured hairs spring from between the
scales. The middle claw of the fore-foot exceeds the others in size.
They feed on white Ants especially. They are found in Bengal, Madras,
and Assam.

A _Manis_ with a tail as long as the body, and with the scales of the
hind feet acutely pointed, and the front and hind claws nearly equal in
size, is found in Sumatra and in Java. Finally, the other Asiatic kind,
_Manis Dalmannii_, is found in the Himalayas, China, and possibly in
Java.

All the species of the genus _Manis_, whether from Africa or Asia,
are absolutely toothless, and the Edentate peculiarity is perfect,
for there are no back teeth. The tongue is worm-like, round, very
long, and can be stuck out far from the mouth, and it supplies the
want of the teeth, but from having this long organ and no back teeth,
the palate and the skull are very long and conical. Being without
masticating teeth, the lower jaw is very flat and simple, and there is
no ascending ramus. The muscles of the lower jaw being of secondary
importance, the arch (zygoma) of bone between the face and the ear is
incomplete, and the outside ear is very small. But the organ of hearing
is somewhat complicated, and there is a large space in the temporal
bone which communicates with the internal ear, so that one tympanum is
in communication with the other.

Much saliva is required to moisten the tongue, and the sub-maxillary
glands are therefore very large, and reach down under the skin of the
neck on to the chest. The stomach is usually, if not always, found
to contain stones which the creature has swallowed. Of course it can
hardly tell what may be on its tongue in the dark Ants’ nest, and earth
and stones are likely to rest on it and be swallowed, but the constant
presence of these hard things may have something to do with the
absence of the teeth, and the necessity of having a crushing material
somewhere or other. The walls of the stomach are thin near the entry of
the gullet tube, but towards the pylorus, or the right side end, the
muscles are well developed, and the mucous membrane is very dense.

These animals use their claws for the purpose of digging holes in the
ground, or in the Ants’ nests, for the sake of food, and the position
in walking is with the front claws bent under, so that the whole weight
of the front of the body is felt on the back (or upper part) of the
claws. The hind feet are placed flat, and the sole and under part of
the claws sustain the hinder quarters. The joints of the five fingers
of the fore feet are so arranged that they can bend downwards only,
and indeed they are more or less permanently bent, being kept in that
position by strong ligaments. This assists the digging powers of the
claws, which are, moreover, forked at their points in some species, and
the wrist is rendered very strong by having the joints between two of
its bones abolished, and they are united by bone, as in the carnivorous
animals. The bones thus united are the scaphoid and semi-lunar bones.
Every structure in the creature’s fore limbs tends to the promotion of
easy and powerful digging, and as the motion of scratching the ground
is directly downwards and backwards, the power of moving the wrist
half round, and presenting the palm more or less upwards, as in the
Sloths and in man, does not exist. In order to prevent this pronation
and supination, the part of the fore-arm bone, the radius, next to the
elbow, is not rounded, but forms part of a hinge joint. Finally, it is
necessary to observe, that the middle claw is the longest of the five
on all the extremities, and that as the animal does not require to
reach over its head, there is no collar bone.

[Illustration: FIVE-FINGERED PANGOLIN.]

The long tail of the Pangolins, stumpy at the end in some kinds, has a
considerable number of bones, usually twenty-six; and the first of them
joins on to the last of the back bones of the pelvis. This last, or
sacral vertebra, unites on each side with the haunch bones (ischium),
and there is no notch in the bone for the passages of the great nerves
of the back of the leg, but a hole.

The thigh bone is flattened from before backwards, and the bones of
the leg are wide apart, and all this gives extra powers to the muscles
which have to direct the scraping and digging by the hind feet. The
feet are solid and strong, and have not any of the inside turning
and club-foot appearance of the Sloths, and the heel bone projects
backwards.

There is an interesting peculiarity about the chest of the Pangolins,
for the breast bone is very long, and the cartilage at its end is
large, and has two long projections resembling those of the Lizards.
The neck consists of seven vertebræ, and the back of thirteen, and
there are three or four in the sacrum.

THE AMERICAN ANT-EATERS.

The adjective “long” may be applied to nearly all the structures of
these animals. The tail, body, neck, head, snout, and tongue, and the
hair are all very long, and the only things which are short are the
ears. The observer is immediately struck with the curiously-shaped
head, so narrow, low, and ending in a flexible and very slender snout,
especially if the round tongue happens to be projecting out of the
mouth, for it is longer even than the head, and is like a gigantic
worm. The snout appears bent, and is made to look all the longer, by
the eye being placed not far from the small ear. Then the huge bushy
tail, flattened from side to side, as long as the body, has a fringe
of very long and strong hair. The body itself moves on four powerful
limbs, well clawed, and looks bulky from the quantity of hair on it,
but usually it is thin. The animal, when it stands still, is higher at
the shoulders than behind, and it rests on the sides of the fore-feet,
where there is a callous pad, the claws being bent inwards and under,
and not touching the ground with their tips. The under part of the hind
feet bears the weight of the hind limbs. It is about four feet and a
half in length from the snout to the tail, the tail being rather more
than three feet in length, and the height is about three feet and a
half. So long is the head, that it measures thirteen inches and a half
from the ear to the snout, and the tongue can be projected for sixteen
or eighteen inches, and is, when brought back into the mouth, bent so
that its tip looks backwards towards the throat.

The animal belongs to a group of the Edentata (for it is toothless)
which has the following genera:--One genus, which is now being
considered, is _Myrmecophaga_--μύρμης (an Ant), and φαγεῖν (to eat)--a
second is _Tamandua_, and the third is _Cyclothurus_, from κυκλωτός
(rounded). The animals of this group represent in South America the
Pangolins and Cape Ant-eaters of the Old World.

The species of the genus _Myrmecophaga_, which has been thus slightly
alluded to, is called the Maned Ant-eater.

THE GREAT ANT-BEAR.[69]

The habits of this animal, which has been named Great Ant-Bear by the
English and Spaniards, have been described as follows:--“The habits of
the Great Ant-Bear are slothful and solitary; the greater part of his
life is consumed in sleeping, notwithstanding which he is never fat,
and rarely even in good condition. When about to sleep he lies on one
side, conceals his long snout in the fur of the breast, locks the hind
and fore claws into one another, so as to cover the head and belly,
and turns his long, bushy tail over the whole body in such a manner as
to protect it from the too powerful rays of the sun. The female bears
but a single young one at a birth, which attaches itself to her back,
and is carried about with her wherever she goes, rarely quitting her,
even for a year after it has acquired sufficient strength to walk and
provide for itself. This unprolific constitution, and the tardy growth
of the young, account for the comparative rarity of these animals,
which are said to be seldom seen, even in their native regions. The
female has only two mammæ, situated on the breast, like those of
Monkeys, Apes, and Bats. In his natural state the Ant-Bear lives
exclusively upon Ants, to procure which he opens their hills with his
powerful crooked claws, and at the moment that the insects, according
to their nature, flock from all quarters to defend their dwellings,
draws over them his long, flexible tongue covered with glutinous
saliva, to which they consequently adhere; and so quickly does he
repeat this operation, that we are assured he will thus exsert his
tongue and draw it in again covered with insects twice in a second. He
never actually introduces it into the holes or breaches which he makes
in the hills themselves, but only draws it lightly over the swarms of
insects which will issue forth, alarmed by his attack. ‘It seems almost
incredible,’ says D’Azara, ‘that so robust and powerful an animal can
procure sufficient sustenance from Ants alone; but this circumstance
has nothing strange in it to those who are acquainted with the tropical
parts of America, and who have seen the enormous multitudes of these
insects, which swarm in all parts of the country to that degree that
their hills often almost touch one another for miles together.’ The
same author informs us that domestic Ant-Bears were occasionally kept
by different persons in Paraguay, and that they had even been sent
alive to Spain, being fed upon bread-and-milk mixed with morsels of
flesh minced very small. Like all animals which live upon insects,
they are capable of sustaining a total deprivation of nourishment for
an almost incredible time.”

[Illustration: GREAT ANT-BEAR.]

The Great Ant-Bear is found in all the warm and tropical parts of
South America, from Colombia to Paraguay, and from the shores of the
Atlantic to the foot of the Andes. His favourite resorts are the low,
swampy savannahs, along the banks of rivers and stagnant ponds. He is
found also frequenting the humid forests, but never climbing trees, as
falsely reported by Buffon, on the authority of La Borde. His pace is
slow, heavy, and hesitating; his head is carried low, as if he smelled
the ground at every step, whilst his long, shaggy tail, drooping
behind him, sweeps the ground on each side, and readily indicates
his path to the hunter; though, when hard pressed, he increases his
pace to a slow gallop, yet his greatest velocity never half equals
the ordinary running of a man. So great is his stupidity, that those
who encounter him in the woods or plains may drive him before them
by merely pushing him with a stick, so long, at least, as he is not
compelled to proceed beyond a moderate gallop; but if pressed too
hard, or urged to extremity, he turns obstinate, sits up on his hind
quarters like a Bear, and defends himself with his powerful claws.
Like that animal, his usual, and indeed only, mode of assault is by
seizing his adversary with his fore paws, wrapping his arms round him,
and endeavouring by this means to squeeze him to death. His great
strength and powerful muscles would easily enable him to accomplish his
purpose in this respect, even against the largest animals of his native
forests, were it but guided by ordinary intelligence, or accompanied
with a common degree of activity. But in these qualities there are
few animals, indeed, which do not greatly surpass the Ant-Bear, so
that the different stories handed down by writers on natural history
from one to another, and copied, without question, into the histories
and descriptions of this animal, may be regarded as pure fiction. For
this statement we have the express authority of Don Felix d’Azara, an
excellent observer and credible writer, from whose “Natural History
of the Quadrupeds of Paraguay” we have derived the greater portion of
the preceding account of the habits and economy of this extraordinary
animal. “It is supposed,” says Don Felix, “that the Jaguar himself
dares not attack the Ant-Bear, and that if, pressed by hunger, or
under some other excitement, he does so, the Ant-Bear hugs him and
embraces him so tightly, as very soon to deprive him of life, not even
relaxing his hold for hours after life has been extinguished by his
assailant. It is very certain that such is the manner in which the
Ant-eater defends himself; but it is not to be believed that his utmost
efforts could prevail against the Jaguar, which, by a single bite or
blow of his paw, could kill the Ant-eater before he was prepared for
resistance; for even in so extreme a case, his motions are so slow and
so heavy, that he takes some time to get himself ready, and besides
being unable to leap, or to turn with even ordinary rapidity, he is
necessarily forced to act solely on the defensive.” The flesh of the
Ant-eater is esteemed a delicacy by the Indians and negro slaves, and,
though black, and of a strong musky flavour, is sometimes even met with
at the tables of Europeans.

This large Ant-eater, grey in colour, with a black-coloured throat
and a triangular spot, black in tint, ascending obliquely over each
shoulder, has four claws on the fore limb and five on the hinder
extremity. The claws are grooved underneath, and are not split or
forked as in the _Manis_, and they, and especially the great middle
claw, are protected by an expansion of bone from the last joint of
the digits, or toes. This envelopes the base of the claw, except
quite underneath, leaving the tip free to perform its office without
endangering the tender base. The tips are protected, moreover, in the
fore limbs by the position assumed during standing and walking, for
they are then turned in and do not touch the ground; but this is not
the case in the feet, for the Great Ant-Bears rest on their soles.
Without teeth, and having an incomplete arch of bone between the cheek
and ear bones, they possess a long palate, so long, indeed, that when
the long nose cavity opens into the throat in the skeleton certain
bones called pterygoid, or wing-shaped, form part of its boundary.
This is unusual amongst the Mammalia, and Huxley observes that it is
only found in some of the Whale tribe (_Cetacea_). Moreover, it is
not noticed in any other vertebrate animals except the Crocodiles.
The skull is very low and long, and the framework of the tongue is as
important as that of the jaws. This kind of Ant-eater has imperfect
collar bones. As in the other Ant-eaters there is in this one a very
muscular condition of the right side of the stomach.[70]

THE TAMANDUA.[71]

The Tamandua is much smaller than the Great Ant-eater, and is, were it
not for its long snout and tail, somewhat like a Sloth. It is nearly
as large as one of these animals, and has a long head, small rounded
ears, and small mouth. The body, some two feet in length, is rather
short, and is covered with short, silky, or woolly shining hair, of
almost uniform length. The fore limbs are very stout, especially above
the elbow, and the hind ones rest on the rather long sole. The tail is
about a foot and a half in length; it is stout at its root, and round
and tapering to the blunt end, is minutely scaled, and covered in some
places with short hairs. The fore claws are bent on the hand, and the
animal walks on their outer and upper surface, using them also to clasp
and to hang on in climbing. The tail is more or less prehensile. The
colour of the hair and the markings varies much in the species, and
in captivity the rusty straw-colour of the body becomes whiter; but
there is a line of black on the upper part of the chest reaching over
the shoulders and between them and the neck on to the back, and also
several black patches over the tail and on the flanks.

The Tamandua is an inhabitant of the thick primeval forests of tropical
America, and lives in Brazil and Paraguay. It is rarely found on the
ground, but resides almost exclusively on trees, where it lives upon
termites, honey, and even, according to the report of D’Azara, bees,
which in those countries form their hives among the loftiest branches
of the forest, and, having no sting, are more readily despoiled of
their honey than their congeners of Great Britain. When about to sleep,
it hides its muzzle in the fur of its breast, falls on its belly,
letting its fore feet hang down on each side, and wrapping the whole
tightly round with its tail. The female, as in the case of the Great
Ant-eater, has but two pectoral mammæ, and produces but a single cub
at a birth, which she carries about with her on her shoulders for the
first three or four months. The young are at first exceedingly deformed
and ugly, and of an uniform straw-colour.

The animal is called Cagouaré by the Guaranis, on account of the
noxious and infected vapours of the forests in which alone it is found,
the word literally signifying, in the language of those Indians, “the
inhabitants of a stinking wood or marsh.” Such at least is D’Azara’s
interpretation of the term, though it appears more probable that it may
refer to the strong disagreeable odour of the animal itself, which,
this very author informs us, is so powerful that it may be perceived
at a very great distance, particularly when the animal is irritated.
Tamandua is the name by which it is known to the Portuguese of Brazil;
the French and the English call it Fourmilier and Little Ant-Bear.

THE TWO-TOED ANT-EATER.[72]

These little animals appear, at first sight, to resemble Sloths with
tails; and their round heads, furry bodies, and two claws on the fore
limb, add to the resemblance. They are essentially arboreal animals
also, but they have long and useful tails, and live on insects. They
hunt their insect prey in the forests of Costa Rica, Honduras, and
Brazil. Their two-clawed hands are remarkable, for the rudiments of
the thumb and little finger are hidden beneath the skin, and the claws
are placed on the first and second digits. The third digit has no
claw. There are four claws on the feet, so that in this arrangement
the animal is peculiar amongst the Ant-eaters. It is not larger than
a common Squirrel, and the general shape of the body is like that of
a Tamandua on a small scale. Its whole length, from the snout to the
origin of the tail, is but six inches, and of the tail, seven inches
and a quarter. This is consequently rather longer than the body; it
is thick at the root, and covered with short fur, but tapers suddenly
towards the point, where it is naked and strongly prehensile. The
muzzle is not so long, in proportion, as in the other two species; the
tongue also is shorter, and has a flatter form; the mouth opens further
back in the jaws, and has a much larger gape, the eye being situated
close to its posterior angle; the ears are short, rather drooping, and
concealed among the long fur which covers the head and cheeks; the legs
are short and stout; and the hair, very soft and fine to the touch, is
three-quarters of an inch in length on the body, but much shorter on
the head, legs, and tail. The general colour is that of straw, more or
less tinged with maroon on the shoulders, and particularly along the
median line of the back, which usually exhibits a deep line of this
shade. The feet and tail are grey.

This species is said to have four mammæ, two pectoral, as in those
already described, and two others on the abdomen. It is reported,
nevertheless, to have but a single cub at birth, which it conceals
in the hollow of some decayed tree. The habits and manners of this
little animal, hitherto very imperfectly known to naturalists, are well
described by Von Sach, in his “Narrative of a Voyage to Surinam.”

“I have had two little Ant-eaters, or Fourmiliers, which were not
larger than a Squirrel. One was of a bright-yellow colour, with a brown
stripe on the back, the other was a silvery-grey, and darker on the
back. The hair of each was very soft and silky, a little crisped; the
head was small and round, the nose long, gradually bending downwards to
a point; it had no teeth, but a very long round tongue; the eyes were
very small, round, and black; the legs rather short; the fore-feet had
only two claws on each, the exterior being much larger and stronger
than the interior, which exactly filled the curve or hollow of the
large one; the hind feet had four claws of a moderate size; the tail
was prehensile, longer than the body, thick at the base and tapering
to the end, which, for some inches on the under side, was bare. This
little animal is called in Surinam ‘Kissing-hand,’ as the inhabitants
pretend that it will never eat, at least when caught, but that it only
licks its paws, in the same manner as the Bear; that all trials to make
it eat have proved in vain, and that it soon dies in confinement. When
I got the first, I sent to the forest for a nest of Ants, and during
the interim I put into its cage some eggs, honey, milk, and meat; but
it refused to touch any of them. At length the Ants’ nest arrived,
but the animal did not pay the slightest attention to it either. By
the shape of its fore-paws, which resemble nippers, and differ very
much from those of all the other different species of Ant-eaters, I
thought that this little creature might perhaps live on the nymphæ of
Wasps, &c. I therefore brought it a Wasps’ nest, and then it pulled
out, with its nippers, the nymphæ from the nest, and began to eat them
with the greatest eagerness, sitting in the posture of a Squirrel. I
showed this phenomenon to many of the inhabitants, who all assured me
that it was the first time they had ever known that species of animal
take any nourishment. The Ants which I tried it with were the large
white termites upon which fowls are fed here. As the natural history
of this pretty little animal is not much known, I thought of trying
if they would breed in a cage; but when I returned from my excursion
into the country I found them both dead, perhaps occasioned by the
trouble given to procure the Wasps’ nest for them, though they are here
very plentiful; wherefore I can give no further description of them,
than that they slept all the day long, curled together, and fastened
by their prehensile tails to one of the perches of the cage. When
touched they erected themselves on their hind legs, and struck with
the fore-paws at the object which disturbed them, like the hammer of
a clock striking the bell, with both paws at the same time, and with
a great deal of strength. They never attempted to run away, but were
always ready for defence when attacked. As soon as evening came, they
awoke, and with the greatest activity walked on the wire of the cage,
though they never jumped, nor did I ever hear their voice.”

[Illustration: TWO-TOED ANT-EATER.]

All these Ant-eaters have great glands (sub-maxillary) for the purpose
of secreting the sticky saliva, and the tongue is most movable, and
wriggles like an eel in feeding on milk. The Little Ant-eater has a
_rete mirabile_ of blood-vessels.

Another Cyclothurus lives in Costa Rica, which is golden-yellow in
colour, and silky in its hair. It has a broad black stripe on the back.

CHAPTER III.

THE ARMADILLO FAMILY.

The Armour-plates--How the Shields are formed--Their
connection with the Body--Description of the Animals--Mode
of Walking--Diet--Skeleton--Adaptation of their Limbs for
Burrowing--Classification--THE GREAT ARMADILLO--Appearance--Great
Burrower--THE TATOUAY--THE POYOU, OR YELLOW-FOOTED ARMADILLO--THE
PELUDO, OR HAIRY ARMADILLO--THE PICHIY--THE PEBA, OR BLACK TATOU--THE
MULE ARMADILLO--THE BALL ARMADILLO--Dr. Murie’s Account of its
Habits--Description--The Muscles by which it Rolls itself up and
Unrolls itself--THE PICHICIAGO--Concluding Remarks: Classification of
the Order, Fossil Edentates, the Allied Species of _Manis_ in South
Africa and Hindostan.

[Illustration: BONES OF CLAW OF GREAT ARMADILLO.]

These South American animals are more or less covered with a hard
bony crust, separated into shields and bands, which are more or less
movable, owing to the presence of special skin-muscles. In the most
perfectly armoured there are four distinct shields and a set of
bands, a certain amount of motion being possible between their edges.
Of the shields, one covers the head, another the back of the neck,
a third protects the shoulders like a great cape, and the fourth
arches over the rump like a half dome, and is, in some, attached by
its deep structure to the bones of the hip and haunch. The movable
bands cover the back and loins, and are between the third and fourth
shields. The tail may further be invested by incomplete bony rings,
and scattered scales, and others are distributed over the limbs. This
covering is, according to Professor Huxley, strictly comparable to
part of the armour of the Crocodile; and the Armadillos are the only
Mammals possessing such structure. The shields and bands are formed
of many scales, or scutes, which are ossifications of the skin, and
they may be of many kinds of shape--four, or many-sided--being united
by sutures, and they are incapable of separate motion. The shields
and bands, however, vary much in their number, size, and perfectness
in the different animals, which, being armoured, the Spaniards called
Armadillos; and, indeed, the number of bands in the back and loin
division varies in individuals of the same species. These bands cover
the flanks, and, with the shields fore and aft, protect the limbs,
which are often more or less hidden by a growth of hair. The bands,
moreover, by being movable one on the other, enable the rest of the
armour to accommodate itself to the motions of the body, so that some
roll themselves up, as in a ball shape. There may be few or many bands
present, and the extreme numbers are three and thirteen. The Armadillos
are of different sizes, and whilst the smallest may be only ten inches
in length without the tail, the largest are more than three feet long.
The head is long, and broad at the neck, the ears are usually long,
the neck is short, the body is long, round, and low, and the length of
tail varies much in different kinds. Where the head shield joins that
of the shoulders, there is a space for the movement of the short neck;
but this is protected by a backward projection from the head shield.
The throat, under parts, and thighs are not protected by armour, except
here and there by small plates in the skin, or by a granulated state
of it; and they are naked or hairy. Even between the bands on the back
there are often long hairs, and the tail fits into a kind of notch in
the last shield of the body, and its plates are close in almost all
Armadillos, but not united. So that much more motion is given to it and
to the body than might be expected by the muscles during their action
beneath the more or less soldered bony skin. The flat top to the head,
and the long muzzle, are useful to the Armadillos in their burrowing,
and this is assisted by short and strong limbs armed with powerful
claws. Some of the Armadillos are even capable of running with some
speed; and the little Six-banded Armadillo, or Poyou, and the Matico,
are very restless and active in captivity. With one exception, these
animals move with the flat of their feet and hands on the ground; all
have five hind claws, but there is some variation in the number of the
fore claws, which may be four or five. They have simple cylindrical
molar teeth, which, according to the species, are from seven or eight
to twenty-five on each side of each jaw, and they are separate,
standing apart from one another. Moreover, they are so arranged that
when the mouth is closed, the upper teeth fit into the spaces between
the under ones, and the under teeth into those of the upper, so that
their grinding surfaces wear down into ridges. In one kind, there are
some teeth in the pre-maxillary bones; but all the others have only
molar teeth, which do not, however, go very far back, for there are
none on the ascending ramus of the lower jaw. They are not, therefore,
animals which prey upon their fellows, but are vegetable, insect, and
probably carrion eaters. They dig and burrow, and their sense of smell
is acute. This is assisted by the position of the nostrils in the long
muzzle, for they are not at its tip, but rather underneath, so that
they open downwards. In fact, the ends of the bones of the nose project
in front of the pre-maxillary bones. The armour is doubtless useful
against the attacks of their many carnivorous and reptile enemies;
it assists them in burrowing, keeps off pressure, and may protect
those which live in forests against a falling bough. They are passive
creatures, mostly nocturnal in their habits, and their skeleton is
strengthened in some parts in relation to its armour and its office.

[Illustration: SKELETON OF THE ARMADILLO.]

Thus the spine of the second vertebra is tall and compressed, and
reaches backwards over those of the third and fourth vertebræ, and
it coalesces with them. The bodies of these vertebræ also join more
or less solidly, and there are no (or very minute) spines on the
last three cervical vertebræ. This gives a strange appearance to the
skeleton, which is increased by the length of the spine of the first
vertebra of the back (dorsal). In order to support the back shield,
the projections from the back bones are greatly developed, and two
side processes stand out on either side of the spinous one. Moreover,
there is much fixity between the last dorsal and lumbar vertebræ, and
the strong and long sacrum beneath the last shield is formed by the
junction of the back bones of the root of the tail with the true sacral
vertebræ. Finally, the transverse processes of some of the upper tail
vertebræ are united to the pelvic bones. There is a corresponding
strengthening of the chest, and a broad flat first rib accompanies an
expanded condition of the upper part of the breast bone; and this bone
is jointed with bony sternal ribs, which unite on the side of the chest
with the ordinary ribs of the spine.

[Illustration: SKULL OF THE ARMADILLO.]

As they are rapid burrowers, the limbs are fashioned with a view of
favouring this kind of life, the general skeletal peculiarities of
the Edentata being more or less preserved at the same time. They have
a collar bone, and the blade bone is long, rather narrow, and has
a tall, long spine, and a kind of offshoot from the back edge. The
humerus of the arm is short and robust, strongly marked by ridges and
depressions for the great muscles of the shoulder and chest, and the
fore-arm is characterised by the disproportionate size of its two
bones. The ulna has a very long and stout elbow process (olecranon) for
the attachment of the muscles, which can force the hand strongly on to
and into the earth, and drag it out, and its length makes the whole
bone twice as long as the radius. The thigh bone has a strong crest,
arising from the great trochanter, and extending downwards nearly the
whole length of the bone; moreover, the great trochanter has a large
process on the middle of its outer edge. The bones of the leg are
broad, arched, and united at both ends, and the heel bone reaches far
back, in order to give strength to the squatting position taken up when
the animal is burrowing. The eye is placed rather high in the head,
is protected above by the outer edge of the head armour, and by some
small surrounding scales. It looks as a rule outwards. The lower jaw
is long, and has a back angle, sometimes of some size; the cheek bone
unites to the temporal bone, and the arch is complete. In the face
the intermaxillary bone is well developed, and there is often a crest
of bone passing over the top of the skull from side to side over the
occiput, which is in relation to the head armour. The brain is small;
the back or little brain is not covered by the brain proper, whose
convolutions and processes are few and simple. The olfactory lobes
project.

[Illustration: GREAT ARMADILLO.]

These armoured, round-bodied, short-legged, great-clawed animals are
numerous, and there are several species, which need not, however,
be collected into more than two genera. But it is by no means easy
to arrange those of the first genus--the True Armadillos, genus
_Dasypus_--in any other than an arbitrary and very artificial
classification. Usually they are grouped and separated by the relative
number of digits or claws on the fore and hinder extremities; by the
presence or absence of teeth in the intermaxillary bones; by their
ability to roll up; and by the excessive or the small number of their
teeth. The method of walking, whether on the sole or on the tips of
the claws, and the number of the bands, have been partly employed in
classification, but their number is often variable in individuals of
the same species.

[Illustration: BRAIN OF THE ARMADILLO.]

The Priodontes have but one species, which is readily distinguished by
its superior size, besides by its great number of teeth, of which there
are from twenty-two to twenty-four small ones on each jaw on each side,
making from eighty-eight to ninety-six in all.

THE GREAT ARMADILLO.[73]

This is an inhabitant of Brazil, and of the northern parts of Paraguay
and of Surinam, and is a dweller in the forest, being never found far
out on the plains. The head is seven inches and a half long, and the
ears, usually pointed and laid backwards, are not quite two inches in
length. The head and body, without the tail, measure three feet and
some inches, whilst the thickly-rooted but rapidlytapering tail is
about a foot and a half in length. Hence the head is small for the body
in this Armadillo, and the forehead is protuberant, and the face is
very tubular and cylindrical-looking. The shoulder and croup shields
are not expanded and solid, but consist of nine and eighteen rows of
plates respectively, and the intermediate part of the body has twelve
or thirteen movable bands, each of which is made up of rectangular
scales, or scutes, about half an inch square. The circumference of the
root of the tail is upwards of ten inches, and the organ is covered
with plates, disposed in rings at the root, and not farther down, but
forming spiral or crescent-shaped lines throughout the rest of its
length.

The Great Armadillo is a persevering and most rapid burrower, and the
fore limb and hand are singularly modified for the purpose of enabling
rapid digging and removal of the soil. The olecranon process of the
ulna is enormous, and the muscle of the deep flexor or tendon of the
claws is ossified and turned into a hand bone. The metacarpal bones of
the thumb and first finger are small, and so are the slender digits,
but that of the middle finger is irregularly rectangular, and is
broader than long, and the digit which it supports is extraordinarily
short, stout, strong, and broad. Its corresponding bones of the fourth
finger are similarly formed, but are somewhat smaller, and the fifth
finger is very small. The nail phalanx of the middle finger is large
and strong, being curved _outwards_, and having a large horny hood,
or core, at its base, for the lodgment of the claw. There are five
claws on the hands and feet, and the Armadillo moves on the flat of
its feet, being plantigrade. There is no doubt that, aided by these
digging weapons, and being of considerable stoutness, the animal makes
long and deep burrows. It feeds on roots, fallen fruit, and insects,
and there is a story that it seeks carrion, and it used to be said that
the collectors of Cinchona bark in the dense forests, when they lost a
companion by death, were obliged to bury the body in a grave surrounded
with a double row of stout planks, to prevent its being scratched up
and devoured by the Great Armadillo. Planks must be scarce, however, in
those localities, and difficult to carry; and probably there are other
inhabitants of the woods besides the Armadillos which would discover
and drag out a corpse. To assist the scratching and digging, the soles
of the feet are partly covered with flat scales.

* * * * *

The Kabassous have the fore and hind extremities furnished with an
equal number of (five) fingers and toes respectively, but the number of
teeth is, altogether, from thirty to forty.

THE TATOUAY.[74]

This Kabassou has the five fingers disposed obliquely; and the great
middle and fourth claws resemble those of the gigantic Armadillo. It is
named in allusion to its tail, which is more or less naked, and nearly
uncovered with rings or plates, so that it has not the usual tube-like
protection, or beautifully ornamented crust seen in some Armadillos.
The tail is about seven inches and a half long, and is round and
pointed, having only a few hard crusts beneath, near the outer third,
where it often trails on the ground. The rest of its root is covered
with soft brown fur, interspersed with a few stiff short hairs on the
upper surface. The ears are large, being nearly two inches in length,
and they form a segment of a circle in figure. The body is round, and
the shields of the shoulder and croup have seven and ten rows of scales
respectively, each scale forming an oblong rectangle, those near the
root of the tail being the largest. The movable bands are thirteen
in number, and are composed of much smaller scales than those of the
shields, and they have a nearly square outline. The head is long and
larger in proportion than that of the Great Armadillo, and it has not
the very cylindrical appearance noticed in that and some other species.
The arrangement of the claws resembles that of the Great Armadillo,
whose they almost equal in size. The female has two pectoral mammæ.

It inhabits Guiana, Brazil, Peru, Paraguay, and Surinam, and but little
is known of the habits of these Armadillos. They burrow easily and
rapidly, and their great claws enable them to grasp the earth, and fix
themselves so thoroughly that a great amount of exertion is required
to pull them out of a burrow. They live on insects and on vegetable
matters.

* * * * *

The Encouberts of Cuvier have five toes on the fore and hinder
extremities, and nine or ten teeth on each side of the jaws, and
there are two teeth in the intermaxillary bones of the upper jaw,
representing the incisor teeth of ordinary Mammals, and thus forming an
exception, not only to the other Armadillos, but even to the order of
_Edentata_, as represented in the recent period.

THE POYOU, OR YELLOW-FOOTED ARMADILLO.[75]

This little Armadillo, which in captivity and in the natural state is
remarkable for its boldness and restlessness, is a native of Brazil
and especially of Paraguay, where it is common. It has a large, flat,
nearly triangular top to its head, the face is short, the muzzle
obtuse, and the ears erect and of moderate size. It has sharp little
eyes. It measures about sixteen inches from the nose to the tail, and
this is about seven or eight inches long. The number of movable bands
is often six, but this is not the invariable number, for there may
be seven or eight. The tail is surrounded, at its base, with three
or four bony rings, and throughout the rest of its length is nearly
covered with regular tuberculous scales, the separations between the
bands showing some long bristly grey hairs. The body is flat and
broad, and has short legs, and the creature runs with a very active
and determined gait. It is a strong little thing, and it is said that
when it is chased, it will often get away from a man by sheer speed and
activity. When any noise is made at the entrance of its burrow, or if
it is teased by spectators around its cage, it comes forth and grunts
like a Pig, and looks at the disturber with a bold inquiring look.
When it is attacked it is powerless, and seems incapable of making any
defence, but it retreats to its burrow, and getting to the bottom of
it, digs deeper still. Its power of burrowing does not seem to be much
diminished by the limited rotation of the fore-arm, to which there is
no pronator quadratus, but a well-developed pronator teres.

[Illustration: POYOU.]

The Poyou feeds much on carrion, and for this reason its flesh, though
fat, is never eaten by the inhabitants of European origin, though
the Indians make no distinction in this respect between it and other
Armadillos. When it stops or rests, it has a custom of squatting close
to the ground like a Hare on her form, and in this position the great
breadth of the body becomes apparent.

The hinder shield has two hairs on the hinder side of each of its
dorsal scales, and the under part of the body has scattered bristles on
it. The female has two pectoral mammæ.

The next two Armadillos to be noticed were formerly included in the
same group as the Poyou, but as they have not the incisor teeth on the
intermaxillary bones, they are placed in the sub-division _Euphractes_.

THE PELUDO, OR HAIRY ARMADILLO.[76]

The long, silky, half bristly, abundant black hairs of this little
Armadillo are the principal characteristics, which separate it, so
far as its external construction is concerned, from the Poyou just
noticed. It is smaller, however, the head measuring nearly four inches
in length, and the whole body about two inches less than _Dasypus
sexcintus_. The ears are long, large, and elliptical, and are pointed
outwards, and the muzzle is broad. The forehead is broad and covered
with rugged scales. The bands are six or seven in number, and the
border of the shield, as well as that of the movable bands below, is
indented in a remarkable manner, and forms sharp, regular points. There
are eight teeth on each side, above and below, and the body, hairy as
it is, is much scaled interiorly and on the limbs. The tail is long
and slender, and only hairy at the root. This species does not inhabit
Paraguay, nor probably is it found in the Brazils, but it exists in
multitudes in the Pampas north of the Rio Plata, and Mr. Darwin noticed
it in Chili. Its habits, according to that most accurate observer,
are nocturnal, but D’Azara, to whom natural history owes very careful
descriptions, states that “in an expedition which I made into the
interior, between the parallels of 35° and 36° south latitude, I met
with vast multitudes of this species of Armadillo, so that there was
scarcely an individual of the party who did not daily capture one or
two at least; for, unlike the Poyou, which moves abroad only at night,
this animal is to be found at all times, and if alarmed, promptly
conceals himself, if not intercepted. In March and April, when I saw
them, they were so extremely fat that their flesh surfeited and palled
the appetite; notwithstanding which, the pioneers and soldiers ate them
roasted, and preferred them to beef and veal. This Hairy Armadillo,
like others of the genus, has undoubtedly a very acute sense of smell,
since it scents the carcases of dead Horses from a great distance, and
runs to devour them; but as it is unable to penetrate the hide, it
burrows under the body until it finds a place which the moisture of
the soil has already begun to render soft and putrid. Here it makes
an entrance with its claws, and eats its way into the interior, where
it continues feasting on the putrid flesh, till nothing remains but
the hide and bones, and so perfectly do these preserve their position,
that it is impossible, from a mere external view, to anticipate the
operations which the Armadillos have been carrying on within.” The same
author states that this species never constructs burrows to reside
in, that it avoids low, damp situations, and is found only on the dry
upland plains. Probably there is more than one Hairy Armadillo.

THE PICHIY.[77]

This little Armadillo is only fourteen inches long, tail included; its
scaling is very handsome, and there are six or seven bands according to
the individual and age. The head is covered with close scales, which
are elliptical behind, and concealed under the others in front, and the
whole top has a triangular outline, hiding the eye much. The scales
on the front shield are large, and are hexagonal or pentagonal, and
the croup shield has the angular endings noticed in the last species.
The scales of the bands and of the shields generally are beautifully
ornamented with lines, depressions, and little tubercles, which are
more or less concentric. There is some hair on the long neck, and on
the legs and tail. The five digits and claws on the fore limbs are
moderately developed, for the thumb is very small, and the fourth
finger only a little longer. But the index is long, with a short claw,
and the second has a stouter and longer claw, and the third is shorter.
It has a slender snout and small ears.

Mr. Darwin writes that it “prefers a very dry soil and the sandy dunes
of the coast of Chili, where for many months it can never taste water.
In soft soil, the animal burrows so quickly that its hind quarters
would almost disappear before one could alight from one’s horse.” It
also inhabits the Pampas to the south of Buenos Ayres, and extends from
36° lat. southward to the confines of Patagonia. It inhabits burrows,
to which, however, it does not confine itself during the day. Its
flesh is said to be remarkably tender and well tasting. It is a hardy
species, and can live in the dreary solitudes of Port Desire on the
east coast.

The Cachicames, another group of Armadillos, were so called after the
Indian name for a black kind, which has a very long tail, and which is
the type of it.

The two kinds included in the group have four fingers, and five toes,
which are separate, and the backs of the feet are round and covered
with scales. The claws are conical, and the animal walks, as it were,
on the toes more than on the sole, being thus digitigrade. The teeth
number about eight on each side above and below.

THE PEBA, OR BLACK TATOU.[78]

This Armadillo has a very wide geographical range, extending from
Texas, through Central America to Guiana, Brazil, and Paraguay, and a
variety called _Dasypus Kappleri_ inhabits Surinam. It has great ears,
which are long and placed very close together, and the muzzle at the
end of the long, tapering face is not unlike that of the snout of a
Hog in shape. The head is small, long, and straight, but the mouth is
large. There are eight teeth on both sides of both jaws. The body is
hairy below the shields and bands, which are largely developed. Then
the neck and shoulder shield extends far back and comes as low as the
elbow, and is composed of numerous scales disposed in many concentric
rings, having the concavity in front, the first embracing the neck in
its curve. The croup shield extends from the back to the origin of the
tail, and reaches as low as the knees, and the concavity of its rings
is turned towards the rear, the last embracing the tail. These scales
are hexagons. Between the shields the bands are marked with zigzag
lines forming very acute angles, and in some degree gliding over one
another according to the movements of the animal. Out of fourteen
specimens, two had six, one had seven, seven had eight, and there were
four with nine bands; the full-grown ones have the greatest number.
The head shield descends from the ears to the muzzle, and covers the
cheeks as far down as the eyes, and there are small, interspersed,
detached scales over the throat, the under jaw, the legs, and feet. The
body is sixteen inches long, and the tail is nearly as long--fourteen
inches--and is stout at the root. One variety of the species has some
of the rings of the tail soldered into a case, which is used as a horn
by the Indians. It is a timid, nocturnal animal, tolerably swift-footed
and very expert in burrowing. It is never found in the woods, but
delights in the open plains and cultivated fields, and is much hunted
on account of the delicacy of the flesh, which, when roasted in the
shell, is fat, and something better than Sucking-pig in taste. These
long-tailed Armadillos bury garbage and flesh in their burrows, and eat
it at their leisure.

Another species of this group is the Mule Armadillo (_Dasypus
hybridus_, Desmarest), which has long, straight ears and a short
tail. It roams farther north than the other kind, and is common on
the Pampas, and is not nocturnal, nor does it burrow very easily. The
female has from eight to twelve young at a birth, and the individuals
of a litter are often of one sex.

The Armadillos of all kinds, it is said, only have one litter a year,
and then the young are numerous, but the mother has never more than
four teats, and many have only two.

* * * * *

The last group of the Armadillos, the _Tolypeutes_, contains some
remarkable species, which have the power of rolling themselves up as in
a ball-shape, and they walk in a most extraordinary manner on the tip
of long and powerful front claws, and also on the flat and tip of the
hind ones.

THE BALL ARMADILLO.[79]

This is a small and very beautifully ornamented Armadillo, which has
three free central bands and a short tail, with large fore and aft
shields. It rolls itself up on the slightest alarm, so that the great
shoulder and croup shields meet, the head and tail fitting in exactly,
in front, so as to close up the body very safely. The little animal,
which is rarely more than fifteen inches long, and has a tail of a
couple of inches in length, is found in Brazil, Paraguay, and Buenos
Ayres, and its walking on the long, stout claws of the fore legs gives
it a very curious and unsteady appearance.

It is an active, sprightly, light-footed little thing, according to Dr.
Murie, and is constantly on the move, going here and there with much
vivacity. Poising itself on tiptoe, it trots backwards and forwards as
if on some urgent errand. In captivity the food was raw meat, boiled
eggs, and bread-and-milk. In the forest land, where it dwells along
with its fellow armoured creatures, it has the advantage of being able
to curl itself up, and to present no tangible part of its body to the
host of mischievous Monkeys of its locality. The other Armadillos,
when retiring to their holes, are often set upon by their lively
quadrumanous neighbours, and are dragged out by the tail with great
gusto; but the little Tolypeutes curls himself up and laughs at the
disappointed Monkeys, who can find nothing to pull at about him.

[Illustration: BALL ARMADILLO.]

The shoulder shield comes down like a flap, far in front, and the croup
extends behind in the same way, and they and the bands have large
scales, which are very pretty in shape and ornament. The shields are
very stout, and so is the skeleton within. The fore foot has three
large clawed toes, on the tips of which the animal walks. The thumb of
the fore extremity is to be seen in the skeleton, but is not always
visible in the skin, and it is very small and high up; the index is
long, and the claw also, and it is slightly bent, but sharp at the
tip. The next claw is the largest and longest, and has a cutting edge
at the back and outer part, and the point is sharp. The next digit is
smaller. In the hind foot there are five toes, one being high up and
rudimentary, and the second and third having broad, flat, curved, short
nails, the third being the greatest. The fourth nail is smaller, and
they are all placed more or less flatly on the ground.

The shell of this Armadillo is blackish-brown, and the skin between
the central bands is bald and smooth. There are nine back teeth on
each side in both jaws, and there are none in front. The muscles which
enable this Armadillo to bring its tail and nose together and to
form a ball shape, are not simply expansions of the common muscular
tissue, which exists deeply in the skin in so many animals, but are
special structures. The most important are in relation to the position
of the head, neck, limbs, tail, and the shields and bands, when
the body is about to be and while it is being rolled up; and these
roller-up muscles are so arranged as to permit of the large liver and
other internal organs not suffering pressure during their natural or
temporary displacement. On the other hand, the unrollers act when the
body and bones are in the rolled-up condition. The muscles of the back
are very tendinous, and to a degree they unroll the animal, but this
is also performed by muscles which are attached underneath the first
movable band of armour, and to the front part of the spine of the
blade bone; this will tend, when it contracts, to pull out the legs
and protrude the fore part of the body, the centre being still rigid.
Another drawer-back of the bladebone assists in this action, and it
is inserted into the front or chest shield. The rolling up is done by
the action of muscles which draw the nose down, so as to make the long
head at right angles to the neck; then the fore-legs and bladebones are
drawn in and up. At the same time, the muscles which pull down the tail
act on the hind shield, and draw it down and forwards. The legs are
pulled up, and then a great muscle, which is largely attached to the
front and hind shields, and has a tendon-like expansion in the middle
of its course beneath the movable bands, contracts and pulls front and
stern together. The muscles of the loins, which in jumping animals
bring the spine to a curve, do not act, and indeed are excessively
small. The chief bend in the back is between the second and third
lumbar vertebræ. (Murie.)

GENUS CHLAMYDOPHORUS.--THE PICHICIAGO.[80]

[Illustration: PICHICIAGO.]

This is an Edentate animal, resembling the Armadillos more than any
others, and is about six inches in length. It has a conical-shaped
head, a large full chest, short clumsy powerful fore limbs, with
four great nails rising gradually one above the other, the external
shortest, and broadest; and the whole so arranged as to form a
sharp-cutting instrument, rather scooped, and very convenient for
progression under ground. The back and croup are broad and high,
and the tail is small. The hind legs are weak and short, the feet
being long and narrow, and there is a well-defined heel. The foot is
arched, the toes are separate, and the nails are strong. The whole
surface of the body is covered with fine silk-like hair, which covers
over the limbs on to the palms. But the most striking peculiarity is
the long-banded shell, which is loose as it were throughout, being
attached to the back immediately above the spine by cellular tissue.
It rests on two knobs on the frontal bones, and these are the great
attachments of this important covering. There are twenty-four bands and
no separate shields, and their consistence is somewhat more dense than
leather of the same thickness. They are composed of scales or plates of
geometrical form, and the bands are separated by skin. There is a notch
in the last band for the tail, and the free inferior edges of the bands
are everywhere fringed with silky hair. This elongated band structure
is moved, to a certain extent, by two broad thin muscles, which are
beneath it, on the back, and each of which divides, on approaching the
shoulder, into two portions, one being attached to the bladebone, and
the other to the occiput.

The ear is hidden by hair, and is small; so also is the eye, which is
black. The nostrils open downwards, at the inferior border of a large
cartilage. The mouth is small, and there are eight teeth on both sides
in both jaws. They are simple molars, and are separate and cylindrical.
The head is large behind, and the jaws come almost to a point, and
the lower has a long ascending ramus. A great passage for the spinal
cord, and the two processes on the frontal bone, add to the curious
appearance of this “bumpy” skull. The pelvis is remarkable in its
structure, and is open in front.

Some of these animals have the bands of the armour not attached, as has
been mentioned, to the muscles of the back and to the head, but have
them adherent to the skin of the back to the edge; and the sides and
under part of the body are then covered with woolly hair. These are the
largest animals of the two, and are found in Bolivia. The others are
from Mendoza and Chili. These curious animals live, partly, mole-like
lives.

* * * * *

From what may be gleaned by reading the previous pages about the
Edentates, it will appear that the order is a very remarkable one, and
that it is interesting on account of the different external appearance
of the species, their diverse modes of life, and singularly restricted
localities. Evidently, there has been much degeneration in some of
the anatomical characters of many of the species, and especially in
those whose foot bones and neck vertebræ have joined more or less. The
singular resemblance which some species present, in various points of
their anatomy, to the lower animals, is very interesting, as is also
their wonderful relation, in points of structure, with a number of
extinct Edentata, most of which were gigantic.

The Edentata, called also Bruta by Linnæus, form an order, the
characters of which are, that there are teeth of one or two kinds all
very similar, and often wanting. The incisors are not developed except
in one group, and the rest have either molars which are separate, and
numerous and simple, or there are none. The extremities are clawed, and
the tongue is more or less elongated. The great groups of this order
are the _Tardigrada_, or slow movers, which have a short face, long
limbs, and small tail, and the body is covered with crisp hair; and the
_Effodientia_, or diggers, which have long faces and worm-like tongues,
with short limbs.

The Sloths form the only family of the Tardigrada, and the Effodientia
are divided into the genera _Manis_, the scaly Ant-eaters; _Dasypus_,
the Armadillos; _Chlamydophorus_, the Pichiciagos; _Orycteropus_, the
Ant-Bears; and _Myrmecophaga_, the American Ant-eaters. The Sloths form
three genera--_Cholœpus_, _Bradypus_, and _Arctopithecus_. Amongst the
Ant-eaters, the genus _Manis_ may stand alone. The genus _Dasypus_
may be divided, for the sake of convenience, into the subdivisions
Priodontes, Kabassous, Euphractes, Cachicames, and Tolypeutes. The
other genera need no subdivision.

The fossil Edentata are mostly gigantic, and formerly lived in Europe
and in the Americas. The European kinds would, were they now living,
belong probably to the group of Pangolins, and they are placed in the
extinct genera _Pervatherium_, _Macrotherium_, and _Ancylotherium_.
In the Pliocene deposits of North America, there are large Edentates
belonging to the genus _Morotherium_, and the previous Miocene
deposits contain _Moropus_. The later, or Post-Pliocene strata of
North and South America, contain species of _Mylodon_ and _Megalonyx_,
_Megatherium_, _Scelidotherium_, _Cœlodon_, and _Sphenodon_; they
constitute a group of Terrestrial Sloths--the Gravigrada. In Cuba,
the fossil huge Gravigrade Sloths are of the genera _Megalocnus_ and
_Myomorphus_. The Armadillo group are found fossil in South America,
and the genera are _Chlamydotherium_, _Euryodon_, _Heterodon_,
_Pachytherium_, and _Schistopleuron_. The modern genera are found
with these, and the gigantic Armadillo-like animal, the Glyptodon,
lived contemporaneously with the others, and possessed many strange
peculiarities in its skeleton. The Ant-eaters are represented by
a fossil form called _Glossotherium_. The oldest Edentates of the
American Continent are found in North America, unless there is a
Miocene group of them in South America, which is by no means an
improbable supposition. The European Ant-eaters now found fossil lived
in the Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene ages.

With regard to the discovery of recent and closely-allied species
of _Manis_, in South Africa and Hindostan, it may be said that they
are relics of the old forms of the intermediate and now sunken land,
between Eastern Africa and India, which existed before the last
upheaval of the Himalayas. The evident structural affinity between the
Effodient Edentata of South America and Africa, although the genera
are different, adds to the interest of the corresponding, and in some
instances greater, resemblance of many African and South American
fresh-water fish and plants. The geologist looks back in the remote
ages of the globe, when the great land surfaces and seas of the world
were rather across the earth than in their present longitudinal
position, in order to explain this remarkable similarity.

P. MARTIN DUNCAN.

[Illustration: GREAT KANGAROO.]

ORDER MARSUPIALIA, MARSUPIAL OR POUCHED ANIMALS.

CHAPTER I.

SUB-ORDER MARSUPIATA.--THE KANGAROO AND WOMBAT FAMILIES.

THE GREAT KANGAROO--Captain Cook and the Great
Kangaroo--Habitat--Appearance of the Animal--Marsupials separated
from the other Mammalian Orders, and why (Footnote)--Gestation
and Birth of Young (Footnote)--Mode of Running--The Short Fore
Limbs--The _Marsupium_, or Pouch--Head--Dentition--Peculiarities
in the Teeth--Hind Extremities--Foot--Great Claw--How the
Erect Position is maintained--Whence their Jumping Power is
derived--Other Skeletal Peculiarities--Kangaroo Hunts--Becoming
Rarer--Mode of Attack and Defence--Hands--Bones of the Fore
Limbs--Skull--Stomach--Circulation of Blood--Peculiarity in
Young--Nervous System not fully developed--Brain--The Baby Kangaroo
in the Pouch--THE HARE KANGAROO--THE GREAT ROCK KANGAROO--THE RED
KANGAROO--THE BRUSH KANGAROO--THE BRUSH-TAILED ROCK KANGAROO--THE
COMMON TREE KANGAROO--THE KANGAROO-RATS--Characteristics--THE
RAT-TAILED HYPSIPRYMNUS--Description--THE WOMBAT FAMILY--THE
WOMBAT--Peculiarities--Description--Habits--Teeth--Skeleton.

I. THE KANGAROO FAMILY.[81]--THE GREAT KANGAROO.[82]

In the year A.D. 1770, the great circumnavigator, Captain
Cook, was on the coast of New South Wales repairing his ship, and a
party of sailors were sent on land, to procure food for the sick. They
saw an animal whose description tempted Cook himself, and also Mr.
Banks (afterwards Sir Joseph Banks), to land and go in pursuit of it
the next day. The animal was seen in company with others of its kind,
and its short front limbs, great hind legs, and huge tail, and the
tremendous hops it made in its very fleet course, quite bore out the
statements of the astonished crew. They had seen, for the first time,
the Great Kangaroo in its wild condition and on its own ground. Soon
afterwards a specimen was shot, and notes were made about the creature,
and some skins were brought over to Europe.

The animal has now become familiar to the civilised world. It is,
however, gradually receding before the Australian colonist and
squatter; but formerly it roamed all over the plains of New South
Wales, Southern and Western Australia, Queensland, and Van Diemen’s
Land, with only the aborigines for its enemies. It is called Bundaary
and Bullucur by the natives of the Liverpool range and Murray, and the
name Kangaroo is a mistaken native one.

On looking at one of the Great Kangaroos in some menagerie or
zoological garden, the first peculiarities that strike the eye are its
small fore limbs, its very large and long hind ones, and the great and
thick tail. The smallness of the head, which has rather long ears, and
a long dusky brown muzzle, the length of the body, and the comfortable
grey-brown, thick, shortish fur, are then noticed. But the principal
fact which impresses all these things upon the visitor, is that the
female may have a little Kangaroo with its head poked out of a kind of
pouch in the under part of the body. Sometimes the little one jumps out
and gets in again if it is frightened, and the old one moves, hops, and
jumps about, with its portable nursery, with the greatest ease.[83]

Sometimes the Kangaroos may be seen feeding, and then the awkwardness
of their gait becomes evident; for the small fore legs and curious
paws are on or very close to the ground, whilst the back part of the
body is raised up by the long hind legs, and, as it were, balanced by
the great tail. These hind legs seem to do nearly all the running, or
rather jumping, both being used together; and the tail is of use in
supporting the long body when the animal suddenly raises itself up
straight, and squats on its hind quarters. The small front legs then
appear quite stunted, and the ears stick up, and the small head is held
straight. But in slow walking, the fore feet are placed on the ground,
and the animal rests on them whilst it brings the long hind quarters
forward and outside them. Evidently the senses of hearing and sight are
very acute; but they are used to warn the animal of danger, rather than
to urge it to attack, for it is a feeder on herbs, leaves, and grass,
and often may be seen reclining and moving its jaws, as if it were
chewing the cud after a fashion.

When moving with great velocity, the Kangaroo depends upon the hind
limbs alone, bounding along with great ease, over ten, fifteen, or more
feet at a jump. Its body is then carried almost horizontally, and the
tail is stuck out as if to balance it.

[Illustration: SKELETON OF THE GREAT KANGAROO.]

If the short fore limbs are examined, they will be noticed to be able
to do a great deal in the way of holding, clasping, and turning things
about, and they are used in patting the little ones, and in embracing
and cleaning them. The five digits, or fingers, have a very free
movement, and the fore arm can twist and turn like that of the higher
animals; that is to say, it is capable of pronation and supination.
The first digit, or thumb, has two joints (phalanges), and the other
four have three; and the five curved claws (the third and fourth being
large) are useful weapons of offence. But they and the fingers are
often used for very different purposes, and they have, in the female,
to open the curious pouch for the young ones, and to place them there.
There is an evident relation between the arrangement of the bones of
the wrist and this necessary office or function. The _marsupium_,
or pouch, is a kind of inbending of the skin of the lower part of
the belly, and is moist and naked inside. In it, in the females,
are the nipples of the mammary glands, and to these the very young
Kangaroos[84] hang on for a long time, before they see the outer world.
They are put in there by the mother, when they are just born, and when
very small and not perfectly formed. They grow there, and after a
while, leave the nipple when they think fit. As this pouch, with its
contents, would drag upon the mother, it is kept from doing so, more
or less, by two bones which are found amongst the muscles of the lower
part of the body, and which are attached to the front or pubic bones
of the pelvis. They are called marsupial bones. They exist also in
the males, but they have no open pouch, for it is, as it were, turned
outwards, and contains part of the reproductive organs.

The head is long, and is remarkable for the long nose, and large
full eyes, with eyelashes, for the Kangaroo is not nocturnal in its
habits, like most of the Marsupials. The upper lip is split, the end
of the nose or muffle is naked or hairy according to the kind, and the
brain-case is small. The nostrils are at the side of the end of the
muzzle, and are slit-like and oblique, and there are bristly “smellers”
to the fleshy lips and chin. A slender tongue is sometimes seen for an
instant whilst the Kangaroo is feeding, and if the bones of the jaws be
examined, the angle, or lower part of the back of the lower jaw, will
be found to be turned inwards.

The long jaws have not very many teeth, and there are two large lower
front ones, or lower incisors, which project in a line with the lower
jaw; they are horizontal and more or less pointed, but have an outer
and inner cutting edge. The upper incisors, six in number, or three on
each side of the middle line, are placed on the pre-maxillary bone, and
they work up and down. They are broad and have the cutting edge below,
and the outer one, on each side, is broad, grooved, and complicated by
one or two folds of its enamel, which are continued from the outer side
of the tooth obliquely forward and inward. There is a space or diastema
behind the incisors. There are four premolars, one on each side of both
jaws, and then follow four molar teeth above and below and on both
sides of the mouth. The dental formula is thus--Incisors, (3-3)/(1-1);
premolars, (1-1)/(1-1); molars, (4-4)/(4-4) = 28. There are no canine
teeth in the adults, but their germs may be found in the very young
Kangaroos. As the Kangaroo is a vegetable feeder, and delights in
grass, leaves, and herbs, its teeth are eminently of a non-carnivorous
kind. It may be remarked that when the mouth is closed, the cutting
edges of the upper incisors come against the outer cutting edge of the
long front teeth of the lower jaw. The true molars increase in size
from front backwards; and the crown of each molar is squarish, but is
longer than broad, and it has two principal cross ridges, which, when
not worn, are tall, and have sharp edges. Besides these, there are two
other transverse ridges which are smaller and not so tall. One of these
is on the front part of the tooth, and the other on the hinder (in the
upper molars only). Then there is a long ridge which connects the cross
ones. They are all covered with enamel. When the tooth is worn, we find
it presenting, according to Mr. Waterhouse,[85] two powerful loops or
folds. On comparing these teeth with those of the herbivorous mammalia
already noticed, a remarkable difference will be seen.

[Illustration: TEETH OF THE GREAT KANGAROO.

(A) Upper and Lower Jaw; (B) Upper Molar; (C) Lower Molar.]

The hinder extremities consist of a nearly straight, long, cylindrical
bone, the femur, which has a hemispherical joint head, and a large
trochanter, which reaches above the joint; of two leg bones--the tibia,
which is prismatic above and cylindrical below, but with only a slight
inner ankle projection, and the fibula, which is distinct but thinned
and concave in its lower half, where it is close and attached to the
other bone, and forms the outer ankle projection. To these are added
the bones of the ankle-joint and the clawed toes. The Kangaroo being
a great jumper, and having a great tendon, the analogue of the tendo
achillis of man, has a powerful projecting process of the hinder ankle
bone for its attachment. But the great length of the foot is produced
by the size of the fourth and fifth or two outer toes, and especially
of the fourth, which often reaches a foot in length, including the
metatarsal bone behind, and the pointed claw in front. The great
claw looks like a long hoof, is three-sided and sharp-pointed like a
bayonet, and with it the animal stabs and rips open the body of its
opponent.[86] The outer claw is very small, and there is no great toe
(or first), but the second and third are long and slender, and are
united in a common skin, so as to look like a single toe with a double
nail, the hair coming to the roots of it. The long narrow foot is
nearly as long as the leg bones, and is admirably adapted for jumping
forwards, as well as sideways, and for supporting, when the legs are
widely separated, the weight of the erect body. The body in that
position has the leg bones straight, the thigh bones oblique, and
the pelvis and spine erect, the great tail being a prop behind. Owen
remarks that in man it is the massive and expanded muscles of the back
of the pelvis and upper part of the thigh, or the gluteal muscles,[87]
which are the chief structures in maintaining the erect posture. But
in the Kangaroo, the narrow bones of the haunch could not afford
attachment to great gluteal muscles; so a muscle which is but slightly
formed in man, and is called the little psoas, is greatly developed
in the Kangaroo, and has evidently the power of maintaining the erect
posture, although it is situate within the body and in front of the
spine. The great jumping power is due to the leverage of the ankle and
long toes, and the muscles which supply the tendon already mentioned,
and others which have the same office. These are of great strength
and size, and there are some accessory muscles to the thigh and leg.
The long spine of the back has powerful processes, and the jar of the
great jumps is received by two vertebræ which, anchylosed or united
together, form the sacrum. The tail is made up of many vertebræ, and
covered with muscles. The great blood-vessels running underneath it
have many chevron, or V-shaped, bones, to protect them from pressure.
The marsupial bones, one on each side, are long, and broad below; they
are movable on the pubis, and afford attachment to muscular fibres, act
as a pulley for others, and strengthen the walls of the abdomen. Formed
within muscles and tendons, they are rather bony growths than parts of
the true skeleton, and hence they may be absent in some of the order,
although they are always present in the Kangaroos.

Although well provided with strong limbs and muscles, and acute senses,
the Kangaroos living the life of the deer and cattle of other regions
than Australia, are subject to the attacks of beasts of prey and
hunters. In Australia the great Carnivora do not exist, but there is a
native dog, the Dingo, aborigines, and trained dogs and colonists, who
enjoy a Kangaroo hunt. The native dogs stalk and run them down, the
natives spear them after sometimes forming a great circle and closing
in and yelling and shouting. But the rifle and trained hounds have
dislodged many more than the natives, and the animals are becoming
scarcer near the settlements than in former years. Dogs which run
by sight afford many an exciting hunt, and the Kangaroo starts off,
bounding at a great rate, and clearing all sorts of impediments with
ease. It is hard riding to keep up with the chase, and especially in
hot weather, when the Kangaroo often escapes, thanks to its greater
powers of endurance. Sometimes the Kangaroo will stand at bay, and will
rip up a solitary Dog with its claws, or will kill with a single blow
of the leg and tail. Three or more Dogs are usually laid on, one more
fleet than the others, to “pull” the Kangaroo, while the others rush
in and kill it. Mr. Gould[88] says that it sometimes adopts a singular
mode of defending itself, by clasping its short, powerful fore limbs
round its antagonist, leaping away with it to the nearest water hole,
and then keeping it beneath the water until drowned.

Mr. R. Foulerton, who has paid some attention to the habits of the
Marsupials, writes that the Great Kangaroo, although its numbers have
been greatly diminished in some pastoral districts, still is numerous
enough to render some runs almost worthless for pastoral purposes. They
may be seen there in thousands, eating off all the best grass, and in
the bad seasons reducing the cattle to starving point. They have few
enemies but man, as even the native Dog will never attack them, unless
they are very young. An “old man” Kangaroo is a formidable opponent; he
will severely wound and even kill a man, unless approached cautiously.
Their mode of attack is to “hug” him bear fashion, and then rip him
with the hind foot. When pursued, they generally take to the water,
and there stand at bay, and the luckless man or dog who gets within
their grasp is forced under the water, and held there until drowned.
The middle-aged Kangaroos, or Flyers, easily outstrip the hunting Dogs
at the start, but they are gradually gained upon. When caught, the
Kangaroo fights to the last.

The diminutive fore limbs are separated by narrow shoulders, and
although the upper arm is short and well furnished with muscles, the
fore arm is long, slender, but very movable. The hand is short and
broad, and there are four curved, sharp claws, the first one, or thumb,
being the smallest, and the third and fourth the largest. The hair
covers over the fingers to the claws, which can separate widely, grasp
and hold, and be bent on the palm. The movements of the wrists and
fore arms are considerable, and a large and long upward-turning muscle
is in the space between the ulna and radius (the bones of the arm).
Moreover, the ulna joints with a cavity in the cuneiform bone of the
wrist; and the first row of wrist bones has three in it, and the second
has four. The first phalanges, or those of the thumb, are not placed
as a thumb in relation to the wrist bones, and it is the outer fingers
that grasp with their claws. As the Kangaroo has to lift up its arm,
there is a collar-bone, and the arm bone (humerus) is perforated on the
inner side of the end above the elbow; and the olecranon is long.

The bladebone has a curved ridge, and the muscles of the upper part
are less than those which are attached to the part below it. There are
thirteen pairs of ribs to the chest.

The skull is long and comparatively smooth, and even the ridges for
the temporal muscles are only slightly raised; and in old Kangaroos
the bones do not unite or anchylose as they do in the other Mammalia
hitherto noticed. The teeth are not used as weapons of offence, but
simply to graze with, and the lower jaw is not quite solid at the
chin, but only so below, so that the lower incisors can be slightly
separated. The ear-bone is remarkable for being separated into three
parts, namely, the temporal or squamous, the petrosal, and the
tympanic; and this is rather a reptilian character. Moreover, the
air-chambers of the side of the under part of the skull are in the form
of rounded prominences, or “bullæ.” They are situated in the lower part
of the ear-bone, called squamosal. The zygoma, or process between the
cheek (malar) bone and the ear, is hollow, complete, and arched, its
front part being, moreover, extended downwards in a projection which
reaches below the grinding teeth, and resembles that of the Sloths
somewhat. The lower jaw has its back part, or angle, bent inwards (or
inflected) strongly, and this is, except in one set, a characteristic
of the Marsupiata.

[Illustration: STOMACH OF THE GREAT KANGAROO.

([_œ_]) œsophagus; (_in_) intestine.]

The Kangaroo, being a vegetable feeder, has a stomach suited for the
diet, which also permits of a certain amount of regurgitation of food
up again into the mouth, when a kind of chewing of the cud occasionally
is indulged in. The stomach is large and long, resembling the colon
or large intestine of the highest Mammalia in its general shape. It
measured, in one instance, according to Owen, no less than three feet
six inches, the measurement following its bends or curvatures. It
consists of a left, middle, and right or pyloric division. The left
ends in two round sacs, and these are really continuations of the
stomach separated to a certain extent by a peculiar arrangement of
the three bands of muscular fibres which pass separately along the
organ. Numerous clusters of secreting glands are found in the mucous
membrane of the stomach in its middle part, and they disappear near
the pylorus where the tissues are thick and corrugated. The animal
has a small intestine, a cæcum, and a large gut, but this last is not
much larger than the first part of the stomach. The organs of the
circulation of the blood resemble those of the other Mammalia, but
there is a distinction which relates to the short period during which
the young Kangaroo is a portion of the maternal being. So soon is it
born, and so soon therefore must it breathe, that before the heart has
grown much, it has the blood from the lungs and the rest of the body
running through it. The young Kangaroo breathes when its heart is not
fully developed, yet it has the perfect double circulation set up. The
auricles of the heart communicate as in other Mammals until birth, but
the duration of this communication is very short in the Marsupial,
and its traces so evident in the other Mammals are wanting in it. The
arteries of the body are simpler than in those Mammals which have a
more complicated intestinal arrangement, and Owen, in his great work
on the Marsupials, has pointed out that the hind limbs and tail are
supplied with arterial blood by vessels which have an arrangement not
without its similarity to that of birds. Leading a very simple life,
and one of great sameness, moving in a manner which does not require
much complexity of muscular action, the nervous system of the Kangaroo
could not be expected to be highly organised or fully developed. The
brain is small for the body of the animal. It is simple in form, and
does not cover the cerebellum, which is visible behind, and has a
little lobe on each side. The surface of the brain proper has a few
convolutions on it, and more perhaps than the Rodent Mammalia have.
The commissures of the brain, which relate to the complexity of the
method of life, are unequally developed. The central one, or the corpus
callosum, is small, and the front one is very large. Finally, the part
of the brain which refers to the sense of smell is large, but hidden by
the brain proper, and its nerves supply a large surface in the nose, at
its upper part at the base of its skull.

[Illustration: BRAIN OF THE GREAT KANGAROO.]

The young Kangaroo, when very small, and almost transparent, comes down
from the womb into a canal, and gets into the uro-genital sac, as it is
termed. Thence it is taken by the mother, and put into the marsupium,
or pouch, where it fixes on to a nipple, and holds on. As the little
one is ever “at the breast,” it might have any quantity of milk go the
wrong way, but this is provided for by the upper part of the organ
of voice (the larynx) being prolonged at the back of the nose, above
the level of the long nipple. Breathing goes on through the nose, and
swallowing safely through the gullet.

THE HARE KANGAROO.[89]--THE TURATT.

There are many kinds of Kangaroos, and one of them, which is solitary
and nocturnal in its habits, is called the Hare Kangaroo, of which
Mr. Gould writes:--“The name of Hare Kangaroo has been given to this
species as much from its similarity of form and size to the common Hare
as from its similarity of habits. I usually found it solitary, and
sitting alone on a well-formed seat under the stalk of a tuft of grass
on the open plains. For a short distance, its fleetness is beyond that
of all others of its group that I have had an opportunity of coursing.
Its powers of leaping are also equally extraordinary. While out on the
plains in South Australia, I started a Hare Kangaroo before two fleet
Dogs. After running to the distance of a quarter of a mile, it suddenly
doubled and came back to me, the Dogs following close to its heels. I
stood perfectly still, and the animal had arrived within twenty feet
before it observed me, when, to my astonishment, instead of branching
off to the right or to the left, it bounded clear over my head, and,
on descending to the ground, I was able to make a successful shot, by
which it was procured. It has the end of the nose covered with a fine
set of hairs. The fur is long and soft and very hare-like, and it has
small limbs and sharply-pointed nails.”

THE GREAT ROCK KANGAROO.

This is very different from its timid congener just described. It
inhabits the sterile and rocky mountains in the south-eastern part of
Australia. It scampers about the rocks, and readily escapes Dogs, and
it is a dangerous and formidable animal to approach, for it will, if
closely pressed, turn on its enemy, and force him over the rocks. It
bites, and uses its strong fore-arms very efficiently. It is called
_Macropus robustus_, and is often found in companies of four or six;
and it has more powerful fore-limbs than the Great Kangaroo, which is
even sometimes the smaller of the two. It has the part of the nose
called the muffle without hair.

THE RED KANGAROO[90] is so called from the red tint of the
male, which is sometimes marked under the neck and elsewhere. It was
found in the plains near the Darling and Murrumbidgee rivers, and is
celebrated for its great fleetness; and the female is often called
the “Flying Doe.” It is as fast as the Agile Kangaroo,[91] which is
long-haired, and is found in Northern and Eastern Australia.

Van Diemen’s Land has a Kangaroo with a long, deep-grey fur, with red
on the back of the ears, neck, and shoulders; and it is called the
Brush Kangaroo by the settlers. It is eaten and highly esteemed, and
its skin is exported for leather. Liking the dense and damp forests of
the island, it finds a safe retreat therein, and probably this is what
keeps them from extinction, for they have been killed by the thousand,
in order to supply contracts for boot-leather. The young of this
Kangaroo, which is also called after Bennett the naturalist (_Macropus
Bennetti_), does not leave the pouch of its mother permanently, until
it is as large as a Rabbit.

In the north of Australia, in the region of King George’s Sound, there
is a small Kangaroo which is not larger than a common Rabbit, and it is
a very interesting example of how species may differ from the type of a
genus. It has a slender and rather short tail, which is rather scaly,
and has but a few hairs on it, but it is not very short. The ears are
short and round, and the hind feet are short. The departure from the
configuration of the Great and Brush Kangaroo shape is therefore great.
It is called the Short-tailed Kangaroo. The last four kinds mentioned
are grouped together with others under a sub-genus, _Halmaturus_ (ἅλμα,
a leap, and οὐρά, a tail).

THE BRUSH-TAILED ROCK KANGAROO.

[Illustration: BRUSH-TAILED ROCK KANGAROO.]

Almost as strange as the slender-tailed Kangaroo are those which
are called the “brush-tailed,” and which inhabit rocky situations
(_Macropus penicillatus_). Mr. Waterhouse thus notices them:--

“Whilst the Kangaroos of the plain have the fore part of the body
slender and light, great strength in the hinder parts, combined with
a long leg and foot, adapting them to fleetness, the tail powerful,
and assisting in the support of the long body, we perceive certain
modifications in the form and structure of these parts in the Rock
Kangaroos which adapt them to their particular habitats. The body, more
compact in form, requires but little assistance from the tail for its
support, the leverage being less; and the feet are, though powerful,
comparatively short, and remarkably rough beneath, being thickly
covered over this part with hard tubercles, which no doubt prevent
the foot from slipping. The nails of the two larger toes are shorter
than usual, and, indeed, in some of the species, scarcely project
beyond the fleshy pads with which the toes are terminated, and on the
upper surface of which the nails are placed. A long and slender foot,
with long nails, as in the typical Kangaroos, it is obvious, would be
ill-adapted to an animal which has to leap to and balance itself upon
the small ledges of the rocks. The tail is large, but not thickened
at the root, as in the plain Kangaroos; and, unlike the tail in those
animals, it is clothed with long hairs, which, gradually increasing
in length from the base of the tail, become very long and bushy at
the opposite extremity. It serves to steady the animal in its leaps,
and to balance the body when perched in situations which require it,
but is of little assistance in supporting the weight of the trunk.
Its muffle, that is to say, the end of the nose, is naked, as in the
scrub-inhabiting Kangaroos just noticed, and it forms the type of the
sub-genus _Heteropus_” (ἕτερος, altered, πούς, foot).

One of these was hunted and shot amongst the woods of Liverpool plains,
New South Wales, by Sir Edward Parry, who wrote that they appear to be
gregarious, and seem to prefer the neighbourhood of rocky ground, in
which they had holes, and to which, when hunted, they retreated. They
swarm along in groups one after the other, and jump from side to side,
alighting on ledges so slightly prominent that their resting thereon
appears to be an impossibility. They go into caves and holes in the
rocks during the day, and they enjoy the night, and gambol and feed by
moonlight.

A Rock Kangaroo, with white and black bands on it, inhabits Western
Australia, and a short-eared kind enjoys the hot sands and high rocks
of Hanover Bay. There is a Kangaroo in the island of New Guinea
(_Macropus Brunii_), and it was the first seen by Europeans.

THE COMMON TREE KANGAROO.[92]

[Illustration: COMMON TREE KANGAROO.]

This is an inhabitant of New Guinea, and instead of frequenting the
brush and scrub, which are not physical features found in the island,
or the rocks, it lives in the forests, and is no mean but rather a
good climber of trees. There is a Kangaroo look about the animal, even
when it is seated on a thick branch, but the fur is very different to
that of its fellows of Australia. The fur looks coarse and harsh, and
is not very unlike that of a Bear. There is no soft under fur, but all
the hairs are long and resemble the long ones of the Kangaroos, and
the ears are quite clothed with it. Then, as the animal glides down
the stem of a tree, the shortness of the hind legs becomes apparent;
moreover, the claws on the foot do not resemble those of the Kangaroo.
The feet are stout but rather short, and the toes are more equal in
size than in the other Kangaroos. The claw of the outer toe is often
on a line with the middle of the longest one (the fourth), whilst the
nails of the double inner toe extend slightly beyond its base. The
nail of this large fourth toe is about an inch in length. Then the
fore limbs are nearly as large as the hind ones, and are very strongly
made, and so are the hands, the claw of the middle finger being
three-quarters of an inch in length. It has a clumsy-looking head, with
a high muzzle and small lower jaw. The upper lip is straight. It has
a large face and small ears, and the colour of the fur is brown-black
and yellow-brown. The tail is very long, tapers slightly, and is
considerably of use in steadying the climber, and it is carried very
much after the fashion of the other Kangaroos when the animal has
come down from its tree and hops off to its retreat. A specimen in the
Zoological Gardens of London had grizzled-grey fur, whiter underneath
the jaws and on the neck and limbs, and the ears were wide apart, and
the powerful fore limbs ended in five claws. The tail tapered but
very little. This was probably a second species called the Brown Tree
Kangaroo (_Dendrolagus inustus_).

These Tree Kangaroos have a small superior canine tooth on each side,
and the hinder incisor is not grooved. Hence they form a sub-genus,
which is called _Dendrolagus_ (δένδρον, a tree, λαγός, a hare), Tree
Hare.

THE KANGAROO-RATS.[93]

[Illustration: KANGAROO-RAT.]

These are also called Potoroos, and are of small size, being about
that of a Hare or Rabbit. They have a compact body, the neck being
short, and the ears are rather rounded, so that their shape is unlike
that of the Great Kangaroo, but it resembles that of the smaller
kinds somewhat. They have a rat-like shape, both hind feet like the
Kangaroos, a long tail, and peculiar teeth. The head is very like that
of a Rodent, and the incisor teeth in the upper jaw have the front ones
the longest. The canine teeth exist in the upper jaw, and the premolar
is large, and has numerous distinct vertical grooves on the outer and
inner sides; and the front molars are the largest, the smallest being
in the rear. The toes of the fore foot are unevenly developed; the
three central ones are large, and those at the side are small. The
nails are solid, broadest above, and much compressed. The foot is long,
and the fourth toe and nail are greatly developed. The fifth toe is
next in size, and the small second and third are coupled together by
skin, and form a projection, with two small nails, which are useful in
combing and scratching the fur. The first toe is absent. The Rufous
Kangaroo-Rat inhabits New South Wales, and is very common.[94] Its nest
is made up of grasses, and is frequently placed under the shelter of
a fallen tree, or at the foot of some low shrub. During the day the
little animal lies curled up in its nest, but it occasionally reposes
in a “seat” like the Hare Kangaroo; but it never sits in the open
plains. On being pursued it jumps like a Jerboa, with great swiftness
for a short distance, and seeks shelter in hollow logs and holes. Its
food consists of roots and grasses. Another is a native of Van Diemen’s
Land, and keeps to the open, sandy, or stony forest land, rather than
to the thick and humid bushes. It is called _Hypsiprymnus cuniculus_.

[Illustration: TEETH OF THE KANGAROO-RAT.]

None of the animals hitherto described as Kangaroos have any prehensile
power in the tail; but in one group of the Kangaroo-Rats, the tip of
the tail has a brush of long hairs above, and is clothed beneath with
short hairs, which are closely applied to the skin. This structure,
and the motion of the muscles beneath, give the Tufted-tailed
Kangaroo-Rat[95] of New South Wales a power of encircling and holding
objects, especially for seizing grasses with which to make its nest.
This is placed in a hollow in the ground, excavated for its reception,
and its opening being on a level with the surrounding herbage, the
practised eye of the native is required to discern it. After the little
things creep in, they drag some grass after them, and close up the
place. In the evening, they sally forth and scratch and dig up roots
with their strong fore-claws.

THE RAT-TAILED HYPSIPRYMNUS.[96]

The Rat-tailed Kangaroo-Rat is about fifteen inches and a half long,
and the tail measures, in addition, more than nine inches. It has a
long head and rather short hind feet, and the rat-like tail has short
stiff hairs on it which do not quite hide the scaly skin beneath.
The body fur is long and loose, and dusky brown, more or less tinted
with black and pale yellowish-brown. The end of the nose or muzzle
is spotted, and the ears are short and rounded. This little animal
lives in New South Wales, and was that which was first described by
Hunter under the name of Potoroo, or Poto Roo, being the “Bettong”
of the natives of New South Wales. The stomach of the Kangaroo-Rats
is less sacculated than that of the Kangaroos, but its left-hand
portion is enormously developed in proportion to the rest, and may be
compared with that of the Ruminantia in point of relative size. It
may be noticed that the lower jaws of the Potoroos, which are largely
inflected at the angle, articulate with the skull rather differently to
those of the Kangaroos. In these last, the cavity at the base of the
zygomatic process which receives the lower jaw is broad and slightly
convex, permitting considerable side-to-side movement which is useful
in the occasional “cud chewing.” But in the others the cavity barely
deserves the name, it being a nearly flat surface, and, therefore,
not much motion, except that of an up-and-down kind, is possible to
the jaw. The organ of hearing has been slightly noticed in the Great
Kangaroo in a former page, and it is necessary to observe that the
tympanic bone does not form a perfect tube in the Potoroos as in
the Kangaroos, and that the surface of the auditory cavity is also
increased by a “bulla,” or bony cavity, bulging out at the under part
of the skull. Corresponding “bullæ” were noticed in the Rodentia, but
in their case the swelling is in the temporal bone, whilst in the
Marsupials, with the exception of the Wombat, they are formed out
of the sphenoid bone (the great ala). Moreover, the Potoroos, like
the Kangaroos, and some of the other Marsupials (the Phalangers and
Koalas), have the ear chamber prolonged, by a number of cells, into the
zygomatic process of the temporal bone. The Kangaroo-Rats are numerous,
and there are many species. They are distributed in New South Wales,
Western Australia, Van Diemen’s Land, and South Australia, and to the
north-east.

[Illustration: FORE (A) AND HIND (B) FOOT OF HYPSIPRYMNUS.]

Sir R. Owen investigated the anatomy of a small Kangaroo-Rat which had
been described by Mr. Ramsay in Australia, and which was remarkable
for its musky smell. It is a long and slender-bodied little animal,
measuring about one foot three inches and a half from the snout to
the end of the tail, which is five inches and nine lines in the
female, and rather less in the male. Its hinder legs are shorter, and
the head is more slender and pointed than in the Kangaroo-Rats just
described. The fur is of moderate length, pretty closely applied, and
has numerous rather long hairs scattered here and there, the visible
portions being black or blackish, or pointed. These are relieved by
the dark and light-barred colour of the visible part of the shorter
hairs, all the hairs being of a leaden-greyish tint at the skin. The
upper surface of the body has a close and stiff fur of rich golden
colour, mixed with black; the head, face, and lower parts of the legs
are dark brownish-grey; and there are a few patches of white along the
centre of the throat and chest. The fur covers the tail for half an
inch or more, and then the rest is naked, and covered with a network
of scales about three to a line in length. The scales are black above,
and a few minute and very short hairs project from the interstices of
the scales. The animal has a naked muffle and rounded ears. The hind
foot is remarkable, for whilst the skull and dentition of the creature
would associate it more with the Kangaroo-Rats, the position of the
first toe (wanting in the Kangaroo-Rats) resembles somewhat that of the
Phalangista group, or the Phalangers, which will be noticed further
on. The sole of the foot is long, and there is a nailless projecting
first toe, like a thumb; next come the second and third toes--small,
united by skin, and leaving the two combing-nails visible; and then the
largest, or fourth toe, is followed by a smaller fifth. Sir R. Owen
judged that this animal was an occasional climber of trees, but that
its usual locality was on the ground. Mr. Ramsay states that it lives
in the Rockingham Bay district, and that it frequents the dense and
damp positions of the scrubs which fringe the rivers and clothe the
sides of the coast range. Its habits are diurnal, and its movements are
graceful. It procures its food by turning over the rubbish in search of
insects, worms, and tuberous roots, frequently eating the palm-berries,
which it holds with its fore paws, after the manner of the Phalangers,
sitting up on its haunches, or sometimes digging. They have a pouch,
and two young ones have been found in it. Considering the importance
of the great toe to the animal, and its linking together the climbing
and jumping Marsupials, Sir R. Owen acknowledged the necessity of
recognising Mr. Ramsay’s name of _Hypsiprymnodon moschatus_, and of
thus bringing in a new genus into a new family in the Kangaroo series
with two large front teeth in the lower jaw.[97]

II.--THE WOMBAT FAMILY.--THE PHASCOLOMYIDÆ.

THE WOMBAT.[98]

[Illustration: SKELETON OF THE WOMBAT.]

On looking at a picture of a Wombat, the outside distinctions
between it and all the Kangaroo family may be seen at a glance, and
an examination of its anatomy affords still greater evidence of
differences which, to a certain extent, relate to the fact that the
animal now under consideration is a burrower and gnawer. About two to
three feet in length, the Wombat has only a small stump of a tail, a
low body, small feet, and strong limbs, ending in broad extremities,
well provided with claws. It has moderately long and coarse fur of a
grey-brown colour, and there is some white about the short ears, and
the feet are black. It is usually a plump animal, with a bare black
muzzle, and feet naked beneath, and covered with little tubercles
of flesh. The claws are large, and those of the fore feet (five in
number) are solid and but little curved, whilst the four on the hind
feet are curved and concave beneath. It has long moustache hairs,
and plenty of them. Sir Everard Home had one, and he found that
its principal desire was to get into the ground, and to do this it
worked with great skill and rapidity, covering itself with earth with
surprising quickness. It was very quiet during the day, but was in
constant motion during the night; was very sensible of cold; ate all
vegetables, and was particularly fond of new hay, which it ate stalk by
stalk, taking it into its mouth like a Bear, in small bits at a time.
It was not wanting in intelligence, and appeared attached to those to
whom it was accustomed, and who were kind to it. When it saw them, it
would put up its fore-paws on their knees, and when taken up would
sleep on the lap. It allowed children to pull and carry it about, and
when it bit them it did not appear to do so in anger or with violence.
When wild, the Wombat hides up during the day, and quits its retreat
at night, to dig and get grass and roots. It is by no means an active
animal, and shuffles along like a Bear. The Wombat has a slit-like,
imperfect marsupium, and the special peculiarities of its order, such
as marsupial bones, the inflected lower jaw, and double uterus. On
the hind foot the innermost or first toe is very small, nailless, and
placed at right angles to the foot, and the second, third, and fourth
toes are joined by skin, and have larger claws than the small fifth
toe. The stomach is simple, and has a peculiar glandular apparatus, and
the cæcum is short, and has an appendage as in man and some monkeys.
The teeth are remarkable for their number in relation to those of
the Kangaroos, and for having no rootlets. The incisor teeth greatly
resemble those of a Rodent, like the Rat. They are two in number in
each jaw, and are widely separated from the other teeth. The molars
are long, curved, and, like the incisors, have no true fangs, but
persistent pulps. They are divided into two nearly equal parts by a
fold of the enamel entering deeply into the body of the tooth on one
side, and a slight indentation on the opposite side.

[Illustration: WOMBAT.]

[Illustration: LOWER JAW OF THE WOMBAT.]

The number of the persistent teeth is as follows:--Incisors, 2/2; true
molars, (4-4)/(4-4). It is the only Marsupial which has an equal
number of incisors in both jaws. There are no canines. As the Wombat
uses much force in gnawing, the muscles of the jaws and their bony
attachments are large; consequently the temporal ridges are strongly
marked. There is a deep and strong zygomatic arch, and in the lower
jaw the turned-in angle is of great size. The chin is also large,
and the joint of the jaw also. The sutures of the bones of the skull
are scarcely ever obliterated, and the auditory “bullæ” are formed
in the temporal bone. With regard to the marsupial bones, they are
long, flat, curved, and, moreover, less expanded near their attachment
to the pubis. The ribs are fifteen in number on each side, and the
collar-bones are large and stout. There is a curious power of movement
of the ankle, so that the foot can imitate the turning movements of the
wrist and fore-arm of man. This pronation and supination is because
the small bone of the leg, the fibula, is free and not attached to the
other bone (tibia), and because there is a muscle whose action is to
move the fibula after the fashion of the corresponding muscle in the
fore limb. The stomach is smaller than in the Kangaroos, and has a
large gland.

[Illustration: TEETH OF THE WOMBAT.

A, Upper Jaw; B, Lower Jaw; C, Molar.]

The Wombat has been found in South Australia, Van Diemen’s Land, Bass
Strait, and in New South Wales.

CHAPTER II.

THE PHALANGER, POUCHED BADGER, AND DASYURE FAMILIES.

THE PHALANGER FAMILY--THE KOALA--Habits--Characteristics--THE
CUSCUS--THE VULPINE PHALANGER--THE DORMOUSE
PHALANGER--Habits--Remarkable Characters--THE FLYING
PHALANGERS--Its Flying Machine--Habits--THE SQUIRREL FLYING
PHALANGERS--Habits--The Parachute-like Membrane--Exciting Scene
on board a Vessel--Characteristics--THE OPOSSUM MOUSE--THE
NOOLBENGER, OR TAIT--A Curiosity among Marsupials--Distinctive
Features--THE POUCHED BADGER FAMILY--Characteristics--THE
RABBIT-EARED PERAMELES--THE BANDICOOT--THE BANDED
PERAMELES--THE PIG-FOOTED PERAMELES--Discussion regarding
it--Characteristics--THE DASYURUS FAMILY--Characteristics--THE
POUCHED ANT-EATERS--THE BANDED MYRMECOBIUS--Description--Great
number of Teeth--History--Food--Habits--Range--THE URSINE
DASYURE--Appearance--“Native Devil”--Ferocity--Havoc
among the Sheep of the Settlers--Trap to Catch them--Its
Teeth--A True Marsupial, though strikingly like the
Carnivora--Skeletal Characters peculiar to itself--MAUGE’S
DASYURE--THE DOG-HEADED THYLACINUS--Description--Resemblance
to the Dog--Habits--Peculiarities--THE BRUSH-TAILED
PHASCOGALE--Description--Other Varieties.

III.--THE PHALANGER FAMILY.--THE PHALANGISTIDÆ.

The loftiest of the gum-trees of the country from Moreton Bay to Port
Phillip, and even more widely than this, were often the familiar haunt
of a small Marsupial animal, not unlike a little Bear, about two feet
in length, and without a tail. It is a famous tree-climber, and its
stout body, small head, short limbs, and well-developed feet, are all
cased in an ash-grey fur. It has moderate-sized ears, which are hidden
by the long hair of the head, and it has a short and nearly naked
black muzzle. The eye is large and without eyelashes. The natives
climb up the trees after it, according to Mr. Gould, with as much ease
and expertness as an European would get up a long ladder, and having
reached the branch, perhaps forty or fifty feet from the ground, they
follow the animal to the extremity of a bough, and either kill it or
take it alive. This animal is called the KOALA, and it feeds
on the tender shoots of the blue gum in preference to those of any
others, and it rests and feeds in the boughs. At night it descends
and prowls about, scratching up the ground in search of some peculiar
roots, and it seems to creep rather than to walk. When angry it utters
a long, shrill yell, and assumes a fierce and menacing look. They are
found in pairs, and the young soon learn to perch on the mother’s
shoulders. Mr. Gould says that, unlike most quadrupeds, the Koala
does not flee upon the approach of man, and that it is very tenacious
of life. Even when severely wounded it will not quit its hold of the
branch upon which it may be. The animal has a nice thick fur, which
nearly hides the ears, and the pouch is large. A careful examination of
the animal shows that it differs from the Kangaroos and Wombats; it is
more like the latter than the former, but it is sufficiently distinct
to be placed in another family, the Phalangers, in which the incisors
are six above and two below, and there are two canines in the upper
jaw, and in some, two in the lower jaw, but not in all. There are two
premolars above and below, and either six or eight molars in the upper
and lower jaws. The head is rather small, and the face is short, the
upper lip being cleft. The limbs are equal; the fore feet have five
well-made toes with compressed and curved claws; the hind feet have
five toes, of which the first or inner one is large, nailless, and at
right angles to the rest, and opposable to them. The second and third
toes are shorter than the others, and are united in a common skin,
and they have nails. The fourth and fifth toes are curved and have
compressed claws. The name Phalangista is derived from this union by
skin of the phalanges of the foot. The tail may be absent, or long, and
more or less prehensile, but sometimes not.

[Illustration: KOALA.]

There is a well-developed pouch, and the stomach is simple, and the
cæcum is usually very long and large. One young one is produced at a
birth.

The Koala, or Native Bear,[99] may be taken as the type of the tailless
group, and it belongs to the genus _Phascolarctus_.

The CUSCUS, or Ursine Phalanger,[100] belongs to a second division, for
it has a prehensile tail. They are common animals in the dense woods
of the Island of Celebes. They squat on the branches half asleep by
day, but are lively enough at night, and it is said that they have a
fancy for flesh as well as fruit. A pretty spotted Cuscus inhabits the
islands of Amboyna, Waigeoe, Banda, and New Guinea, as well as Cape
York.[101] They are dull in captivity, but when placed together they
fight with fury, growling like Cats, and biting. They have small red
eyes with a vertical pupil, short ears, and a very stupid look. They
are all nocturnal in their habits, and feed on fruit, buds, leaves,
meat, and eggs.

One of the Phalangers, called _Cuscus albus_, is abundant in New
Ireland, Amboyna, Banda, and Timor, and is remarkable for its peculiar
odour. The male is white, and the female reddish-brown in colour, both
being about the size of a common Rabbit. It is slow in its movements,
lives in trees, and takes good care to conceal itself, but its scent
discovers it. The naturalists Lesson and Garnet stated that when
they traversed the forests of the island the odour of the Cuscus was
distinctly perceptible. It is stated that if these animals see any one,
they suspend themselves at once by the tail, and if they are looked at
steadfastly, they will drop by-and-by from fatigue, and are then easily
caught; in fact, they pretend to be dead.

[Illustration: CUSCUS.]

THE VULPINE PHALANGER.[102]--THE BRUSH-TAILED “OPOSSUM.”

Waterhouse describes this Marsupial to be about the size of a Cat, but
in shape it is somewhat between a Squirrel and a Marten. It has long
and somewhat pointed ears; and the tail, clothed with bushy, harsh,
black fur, except beneath, near the end, where it is naked, is about as
long as the body. The limbs are rather short, the muzzle is moderately
long and foxy-looking, and the whole body and head, except the naked
muzzle, are covered with a grey and black fur. The moustaches are long,
numerous, and black, and the feet are yellowish-white, and the naked
soles are flesh-coloured, the nails being dusky. The pupil of the eye
is round and intensely dark in colour. They sleep during the day, and
become active during the evening, and on the alert for their food,
which consists, in the Zoological Gardens, of bread and milk, fruit and
vegetables. They hold up the solid food between the hands as a Squirrel
holds a nut, and nibble very much in the same manner. Their native
haunts are New South Wales, Western Australia, and North Australia.
They inhabit the large trees, usually the Eucalypti, selecting such as
have the heart of the branches or trunk decayed, and they take refuge
there during the daylight. At night they leave their nests and climb
the branches of the trees which yield them buds and fruit. They descend
to the ground for food, and doubtless now and then eat snails and small
birds. When climbing they use the tail to hold by, and carefully grasp
every support with it before they let go with their feet or hands. A
brown-black species, closely allied, lives in Van Diemen’s Land.[103]

[Illustration: VULPINE PHALANGER.]

THE DORMOUSE PHALANGER.[104]

This is a very small Marsupial animal, about six inches in length,
including the tail, which measures nearly, if not quite, one-half. It
is like a little Dormouse, with its soft fur, ashy-grey in colour,
large ears, and thick tail. They are broader, not so long in the leg,
and usually larger than the Dormouse, and the eyes are larger, and the
upper jaw overhangs the lower. But they look just as fat and sleepy
in the daytime. The habits of these animals, moreover, are much the
same, for the Phalangista living in Van Diemen’s Land feeds on nuts
and other similar food, which they hold in their fore paws, using them
as hands. They are nocturnal, remaining asleep during the whole day,
or, if disturbed, are not easily roused into a state of activity. They
come forth in the evening, and are then more easy and rapid in their
movements. Some of these were kept in the Zoological Gardens of London,
and it was noticed that they made great use of their tail, which is
prehensile, and thus not like that of the Dormouse. They ran about a
small tree, using their paws and tail to hang on by, and using the tail
as a suspender when they descended. Sometimes the tail is thrown in a
reverse direction, and is turned over the back, and at other times,
when the weather is cold, it is rolled closely up towards the under
part, and coiled up almost between the thighs. They are like little
balls of fur, and are very gentle and harmless.

Mr. Gould states that another kind of these Dormouse-looking creatures
is very abundant in the northern portion of Van Diemen’s Land, and that
of all trees it appears to prefer the Banksia, whose numerous blossoms
supply it with a never-ceasing store of food, both of insects and
sweets. It undergoes a kind of hibernation somewhat similar to but not
to the extent of that of the Dormouse.

These pretty little marsupials are remarkable by having only three
true molar teeth in each jaw on both sides; but they have the usual
two narrow, long, and pointed incisors in the lower jaw. The auditory
bullæ on the base of the skull are large, and the hard palate has
four openings in it. The lower jaw is slender behind, and the angular
process is inflected, the process of bone being, however, slender and
pointed. Their mouse-like shape is evident, but they have a large eye,
and the ears are often more or less crumpled and pendent, but they
start up and are erect at the least noise. There are three species of
these Phalangistidæ, and they are included in a sub-genus, Dromicia.
They live in Van Diemen’s Land, Western Australia, and South Australia.
Some which were found in King George’s Sound district live in retreats
under the dead bark of trees, and in holes in trees which have been
burnt out.

THE FLYING PHALANGERS.

The next genus of the family Phalangistidæ contains the Flying
Phalangers, which form the genus Petaurus. They have all the
peculiarities of the Phalangers, and also a skin on the flank of the
body, which is extended between the fore and hind legs, which serves
to sustain the animal in the air, when descending from a height.
They have a long hairy tail. The Yellow-bellied Flying Phalanger
(_Petaurus australis_, Shaw) may be taken as the type of the genus,
and is fourteen inches long in the body, and nineteen in the tail. The
peculiar fold of fur, which is its flying machine, is attached to the
fore leg as far as the elbow, and all down the legs to the great toe.
It is common in all the brushes of New South Wales, particularly those
along the coast from Port Philip to Moreton Bay. Mr. Gould states, in
addition to this, “In these vast forests, trees of one kind or other
are perpetually flowering, and thus offer a never-failing supply of
blossoms, upon which the animal feeds. The flowers of the gum-trees,
some of which are of great magnitude, are the principal favourites,
and, like the rest of the genus, it is nocturnal in its habits,
dwelling in holes of trees and in the hollows of branches during the
day, and displaying the greatest activity at night, while running over
the small leafy branches, sometimes even to their very extremities,
in search of insects and the honey of the newly-opened blossoms. Its
structure being ill-adapted for terrestrial habits, it seldom descends
to the ground, except for the purpose of passing to a tree too distant
to be attained by springing from the one it wishes to leave. The tops
of the trees are traversed at a pace and with as much ease as if it
were on the ground. If chased, it ascends to the highest branches, and
performs enormous leaps, sweeping from tree to tree with wonderful
address.”

A slight elevation gives its body an impetus, which, with the expansion
of its membrane, enables it to pass to a considerable distance, always
ascending a little at the extremity of the leap. By this ascent the
animal is prevented from receiving the shock which it would otherwise
sustain.

THE SQUIRREL FLYING PHALANGER.[105]

This little creature, called the Sugar Squirrel by the colonists, is
very generally dispersed over the whole of New South Wales, where, in
common with other Phalangers, it inhabits the magnificent gum-trees.
Mr. Gould states that it is nocturnal in its habits, and that it
conceals itself during the day in the hollows of trees, where it early
falls a prey to the natives, who capture it both for the sake of its
flesh and skin, which latter, in some parts of the colony, they dispose
of to the colonists, who occasionally apply it to the same purposes as
those to which the fur of the Chinchilla and other animals is applied
in Europe. At night it becomes extremely active in its motions. It
prefers those forests which adorn the more open and grassy portions of
the country rather than the thick brush near the coast. By expanding
the membrane attached to the sides of its body it has the power of
performing enormous leaps. They have the power of changing their
course to a certain extent when descending, parachute-like, from a
height. It is stated that a ship sailing off the coast had a Squirrel
Petaurus on board which was permitted to roam at large. On one occasion
it reached the mast-head, and as the sailor who was sent to bring it
down approached, it made a spring from aloft to avoid him. At this
moment the ship gave a lurch, which, if the original direction of the
little creature’s course had been continued, must have plunged it in
the sea. All who witnessed the scene were in pain for its safety; but
it suddenly appeared to check itself, and so to modify its career
that it alighted safely on deck. This kind is not more than eight or
nine inches in length, and its bushy tail is as long as the body. The
soft fur of the tail, like that of the body, is a delicate ashy-grey.
There is a long stripe of black fur from the naked tip of the nose to
the root of the tail, and the cheeks are white with a black patch;
the flank membrane is edged with white, and this is the colour of the
underneath part of the body; the ears are long, and of a brownish flesh
colour.

Another kind, with a yellow flank membrane, is short-headed, and
it inhabits Port Essington, North Australia,[106] whilst the true
Short-headed Flying Phalanger is found in New South Wales.[107]
Probably it is the first of these which is found in New Guinea, and
which has been called the Squirrel Flying Phalanger by mistake. These
Flying Phalangers all have long and nearly naked ears, and the side
membrane extends to the outer finger. They have the outer two fingers
of the hand long and equal to each other, or very nearly so; the second
and third fingers are distinctly shorter than these; and the inner
finger is very short. Their dentition is--Incisors, (6/2); canines,
(1-1)/(0-0); premolars, (3-3)/(4-4); true molars, (4-4)/(4-4) = 40. The
incisors of the lower jaw are, as usual, long and pointed, and almost
horizontal, whilst the upper incisors are large and dilated, so far
as the anterior ones are concerned, and the next is smaller than the
hindmost. The canine is large, and separated from the first premolar,
which is large and compressed, and all the molars have rounded
tubercles on them.

[Illustration: SQUIRREL FLYING PHALANGER.]

The OPOSSUM MOUSE[108] of the colonists of New South Wales used to be
common in the neighbourhood of Port Jackson. It is about the size of a
common Mouse, and of an ashy brown and grey colour on the upper parts
and on the flank membrane; the rest is white. It belongs to the Flying
Phalangers, but its side membrane scarcely extends to the wrist, and
the thumb of the hind foot is large. It has only three true molars in
each jaw on both sides, and the canine is close to the incisors. It
forms part of the sub-genus Acrobata, whilst those already mentioned
constitute the sub-genus Belideus (βέλος, a dart). Finally, the
short-eared, white-bellied Taguan Phalanger of the scrub of New South
Wales is the type of the sub-genus _Petaurus_.

GENUS TARSIPES.--THE NOOLBENGER, OR TAIT.[109]

This is an Australian curiosity amongst the Marsupials, and is a small,
mouse-like thing, with a long muzzle, small ears, long tongue, and
very few teeth. Its dental formula is--Incisors, (2-2)/(2); canines,
(1-1)/(0-0); molars, (3-3)/(3-3). The fore and hind extremities have
toes something like those of the Lemur, called Tarsius (Vol. I., page
248). The fore feet have five smallish toes, each thickened at the end,
and a minute scale-like nail, which reaches neither the end nor sides
of the toe. The hind feet have five toes on each, and the innermost
has the formation of a thumb, and is slender and nailless. The second
and third toes are very short, and are joined to the end and furnished
with small pointed nails, which are directed upwards almost at right
angles to the plane of the toe; and the fourth toe is twice as long as
the second and third. The fifth is shorter than the fourth, and has a
scale-like nail on the upper surface. This is the case with the fourth
also. There is a long, slender tail. The small bones of this little
honey-sucker are very thin, and the lower jaw has two slender and
almost straight sides, and the inflection is wanting.

This little animal is rare, but it is to be found in West Australia,
from Swan River to King George’s Sound. It is nocturnal in its habits,
and catches flies in captivity with great ease. But its food is honey,
which it gets like a moth, with its tongue. The tail is prehensile, and
the little pouch contains four mammæ in the female.

The little Tarsipes, with its honey and insect diet, has a very
long intestine and no cæcum, whilst the Koala has a cæcum more than
three times the length of its body. The pigmy Acrobata has this
organ disposed in a spiral curve in the left lumbar region. The
marsupial bones are large in the Koala, and are long, broad, and
flat, almost equalling the iliac bone in size. Finally, with regard
to the parachute-fold of skin on the flanks of the Petaurists, it is
a simple fold with very elastic tissues within, which draw it up to
the body, more or less, when the animal is walking or standing. When,
however, the limbs are extended after a jump, the membrane becomes very
tense, and acts by increasing the surface of the body so as to oppose
gravitation by the supporting power of the air.

IV.--FAMILY PERAMELIDÆ.--POUCHED BADGERS.

This group of Marsupials embraces two genera, Perameles and Chœropus,
the first having several species and the last but one. They have all
long, slender heads; large, long ears, with fleshy lobes; longer hind
than fore limbs; the tail short in some, long in others, and hairy; and
the pouch is directed backwards. They have a considerable number of
teeth, there being ten incisors in the upper jaw and six in the lower;
there are two canines in each jaw, three premolars in each jaw on
either side, and four true molars behind them, making forty-eight teeth
in all. The teeth have fangs, the premolars are compressed and pointed,
and the molars have tubercles on them. The stomach is simple.

GENUS PERAMELES (BANDICOOTS).--THE RABBIT-EARED PERAMELES.[110]

The so-called native Rabbit of the Swan River district of Western
Australia is abundant in the grassy country in the interior; and it
frequents, in pairs, places where the soil will permit of burrowing.
It is about the size of a common Rabbit, and has a long and pointed
muzzle, which is naked at the tip. It has long, oval ears, which are
tubular at the base. The eye is small, and the tail is a little shorter
than the body. The legs are longish, and the fur is well grown.

This sharp-looking animal lives upon insects, and its favourite food
is a large grub, probably the larvæ of a species of Buprestis beetle
which infest the roots of the acacia trees. In order to obtain this
peculiar food, it has to compete with the natives, who like it also,
and often enough it has to rush to its long and deep burrows for
safety. Its flesh is sweet, and is much sought after by the aborigines.
One which was kept at the Zoological Gardens was very active in the
evening, but usually slept during the day-time, when, sitting upon its
haunches, with its head thrust between its hind legs, it appeared like
a ball of fur. It was a very savage animal, and bit severely, holding
on, moreover, if it could, with its teeth. It waddled on its hind legs
alone, which were straddled, and the tail assisted in supporting the
body. They have five toes to the fore-foot, of which the two outermost
are rudimentary and nailless, the remaining three are well developed,
and are furnished with strong solid nails, which cover the last
phalanges which are cleft above in the longitudinal direction almost to
the root. The hind feet have a rudimentary inner toe, the second and
third are joined and are slender, and have two hollow nails, and the
fourth is large and, like the fifth, which is well developed, has a
solid nail sheathed on the end bone.

GUNN’S PERAMELES.--THE BANDICOOT.[111]

This is the animal which has given the native name to the genus, and
Mr. Gunn, who discovered the species, informed Mr. Waterhouse that it
is common in many parts of Van Diemen’s Land, going by the name of
Bandicoot. It is a burrower, and lives principally upon roots, and it
likes the bulbs which are introduced from the Cape and elsewhere into
gardens. It is about sixteen inches long, and has a slender muzzle,
moderate-sized ears, and the under parts of the body are white, the
rest being grey and pencilled with black and yellow, except behind,
where it is blacker. There are four broadish white bands on this part.

THE BANDED PERAMELES.[112]

[Illustration: BANDED PERAMELES.]

This is a pretty little Perameles with a body about a foot in length,
and a tail of about four inches long. It has rather a sharp and long
snout, rather large ears, which are broad at the base, and long and
pointed at the tip. The fur is longish and harsh, and is pencilled with
black and yellow in about equal proportions on the upper part of the
body, there being a black ground colour on the hinder part of the back.
There, however, there are three broad yellow-white bands, the foremost
of which crosses the back. The feet and under parts are white, and the
tail is of the same colour underneath, but black on the top. The feet
are slender, and the hind ones have a rudimentary inner toe, naked
beneath, in front, and at the heel. In the skeleton this inner toe has
one or two phalanges, and a small tubercle without a nail is visible
before the flesh is removed. It inhabits Southern Australia from east
to west. This kind resembles the Bandicoot of Van Diemen’s Land on the
other side of Bass Strait, and may be considered its representative. It
is smaller than the Van Diemen’s Land species, but its tail is longer;
moreover, the ear exceeds those of the insular forms in size. Like
the other Perameles, the pouch for the young opens backwards. “Though
provided with strong claws it rarely burrows,” says Mr. Krefft, “and
it is a great enemy to little Rodents. It tumbles the Mice about with
its fore paws, breaks their hind legs, and eats the head.” New Guinea
contains a short-legged Perameles,[113] which appears to be deficient
in the usual number of upper incisor teeth; and another[114] resembling
the common Bandicoot.

GENUS CHŒROPUS.--THE PIG-FOOTED PERAMELES.[115]

A very rare little, large-eared, small-legged animal was found by Sir
Thomas Mitchell on the banks of the River Murray, and its appearance
was so remarkable that much attention was paid to its anatomy, whilst
unfortunately nothing particular was learned regarding its natural
history and habits. Subsequently the little creature, whose body is
about nine inches and a half long, the tail measuring in addition
about four inches, was found in the interior of the country near the
Swan River. It is an active little animal, and a hunter of insects,
but it will feed upon vegetable substances also. Mr. Gould states
that, like the Perameles, to which it is allied in many parts of its
construction, it forms a nest composed of leaves and other substances.
The pouch is deep and runs upwards, and not like that of the Kangaroo,
and there are eight teats. At first there was much discussion whether
the animal had a tail, but there is no doubt about its possessing one
when in the perfect condition. The slender fore limbs, no thicker than
goose-quills, end in two very small digits, and they are provided
with small, compressed, and but little curved nails. They have a
small fleshy pad on their under surface, behind which is a smaller
one. The hind legs are longer than the front ones, and are almost as
slender. The foot is long, and at first sight appears to have only
one large toe, for the others are very small and far removed from the
end of the foot. The outer little toe has a small nail, and the inner
toes, joined, are almost as small, but they have hollow nails. The
greatly-developed toe has a conical and compressed nail, but beneath
there is a large fleshy pad; the rest of the foot is hairy. Hence it
appears that the heel is not put to the ground. The colour of the long,
loose, soft fur is brown-grey above, and yellowish-white beneath, the
limbs and the fore feet have a whitish tint, and the large toe is of a
dirty white colour. So far as the skull and teeth are concerned, the
little Chœropus greatly resembles the other kinds of Marsupials which
are classified under the genus Perameles. Sir Thomas Mitchell noticed
the broad head and very slender snout, which, he stated, resembled the
narrow neck of a wide bottle, in the specimen which the natives took
from a hollow tree after chasing it on the ground. In the construction
of the skull and in the number of the teeth, this long-eared creature
resembles the rest of the genus Perameles. In the upper jaw there are
five incisor teeth on each side, and they are close, and the canine
is small, and resembles a premolar, and is slightly distant from the
incisors. The first premolar is separated from the canine by a space
of one line and a half, and slightly from the second premolar; and the
second and third premolars and the four molars form a continuous line.

V.--THE DASYURUS FAMILY.--DASYURIDÆ.

These animals are all carnivorous, and prey upon small quadrupeds and
the young of large ones, as well as upon birds and insects. They are
of different shapes and sizes, according to the genera to which they
may belong; and whilst some resemble the Shrew Mice somewhat in outward
appearance, others are like the Marten, and one important group may be
compared with Short-legged Wolves, or Jackals. Varying in size from
that of a Mouse to a small Wolf, the members of the different genera
of this family are equally variable in the number of the teeth, of the
claws, and in the development of the marsupial pouch and its bones.
They all have rather long muzzles and furry tails, which, however,
are not prehensile. The second and third toes of the hind feet are
disunited and well developed, and the thumb-toe is small or absent.
There are eight incisors in the upper jaw, and six in the lower.

GENUS MYRMECOBIUS.--THE POUCHED ANT-EATERS.[116]

The BANDED MYRMECOBIUS may be taken as an example of this genus. It is
about the size of a Rat, but it is more Squirrel-like in shape, and has
a long and pointed muzzle. The tail is long and furry, with long hairs
also; and the prevailing colour of the body is reddish, but posteriorly
it becomes dark or black. There are nine bands of light or white
colour on the sides of the body, from the back over the flanks, and
the crupper is also marked with a band. The head is long, the ears are
moderately long, narrow, and pointed, the gape is considerable, and the
small pointed snout has some rather long smellers; there are also some
long hairs under the eye. A black mark runs on the cheek to the ear,
and has white hairs above and below it. The fur is somewhat remarkable.
The under hair is scanty and whitish-grey, and the upper hair is rather
coarse, short, and depressed on the fore parts of the body. It is long
on the hind and under parts, and the hairs on the fore part of the back
are black near the skin and reddish at the tip. The fur of the head
is short and brownish above, being composed of a mixture of black,
fulvous, and a few white hairs. The fore legs are rather stout and
strongly made, and the five curved and compressed claws are admirably
adapted for its method of life, which consists of insect-hunting by
digging. The hind limbs are suited to support the weight of the animal,
as it scratches with the fore feet, but they are deficient in the first
toes. The whole animal is about seventeen inches long, seven inches
being included in the tail. This animal has a greater number of teeth
than any other Marsupial, and, indeed, they are only surpassed by some
Cetacea and Edentate Ant-eaters amongst the other Mammalia. There
are fifty-two teeth in the mouth--namely, eight upper and six lower
incisors, four canines, six compressed false molars behind the canines
above and below, and ten small true molars above, and twelve below. The
canines of the lower jaw are incurved, and the last lower molars are
worn in ridges internally. The number of teeth appears, however, to be
variable, and some have fifty-four and others less than fifty.

The Myrmecobius, although it has the inflected condition of the lower
jawbone and small marsupial bones, not more than half an inch in
length, has no pouch. The young adhere to the mother’s nipples, and are
protected by the comfortable fur and long hair of her body.

The Banded Myrmecobius was first discovered by Lieutenant Dale, who
procured a specimen whilst on an exploring expedition into the interior
of the Swan River Settlement, about ninety miles to the south-east
of the mouth of the river. Two specimens of this very elegant little
animal were seen by Lieutenant Dale, both of which fled to hollow trees
for shelter upon being pursued. The district in which they were found
abounded in decayed trees and ant-hills; and, from some peculiarities
in the dentition of the animal, combined with its extremely long and
slender tongue, it became evident that its food was insects, and the
softer and smaller species, for procuring which, by scratching up the
earth, the strong fore feet and claws appeared to be adapted. Indeed,
the peculiarities of structure, combined with the fact that the animal
was found in the vicinity of ant-hills, suggested that its food, in all
probability, consisted chiefly of Ants: and hence the generic name.
As yet, however, we have no direct evidence that Ants form the chief
food of the Myrmecobius, though it is stated, in Mr. Gould’s “Mammals
of Australia,” that wherever this animal takes up its abode, there
Ants are found to be very abundant. In the same work the following
particulars of the habits of the animal are given from the pen of Mr.
Gilbert:--

“I have seen a good deal of this little animal. It appears very much
like a Squirrel when running on the ground, which it does in successive
leaps, with its tail a little elevated, every now and then raising
its body and resting on its hind feet. When alarmed, it generally
takes to a dead tree lying on the ground, and before entering the
hollow, invariably raises itself on its hind feet to ascertain the
reality of approaching danger. In this kind of retreat it is easily
captured; and when caught, is so harmless and tame as scarcely to make
any resistance, and never attempts to bite. When it has no chance of
escaping from its place of refuge, it utters a sort of half-smothered
grunt, apparently produced by a succession of hard breathings.

“The female is said to bring forth her young in a hole in the ground or
in a fallen tree, and to produce from five to nine in a litter. I have
not myself observed more than seven young attached to the nipples.” It
is not nocturnal in its habits.

With regard to the range of the genus Myrmecobius, Mr. Gould states
that it is very generally dispersed over the interior of the Swan River
Settlement, from King George’s Sound on the south to the neighbourhood
of Moor’s River on the north, and as far westward as civilised man has
yet been able to penetrate. Its species are also found near the Murray
and Darling.

This many-toothed Ant-eating Marsupial has always been interesting to
geologists, for in the Stonesfield slates of the Oolitic formation of
England, which lie low down in the Great Oolite, the lower jaws of an
animal have been found greatly resembling those of Myrmecobius. The
fossil Amphitherium has the jaws but slightly inflected, and is not
without resemblance to insectivorous creatures; but, nevertheless, its
similarity to Myrmecobius struck Owen and Lyell many years since.

GENUS DASYURUS.--THE URSINE DASYURE.[117]

Being a great enemy of the poultry and tender rearlings of the
colonists of Van Diemen’s Land, this small creature has earned the
name of the “Native Devil.” It may be compared to a Bear, with a body
about two feet in length, and the resemblance is tolerably correct in
the fur, general proportions of the body and limbs, and also in its
gait and its actions. The Dasyure, however, has a longer tail than the
Bear, and never grows larger than a Badger. It is a short animal, with
a round broad head and rather a long snout, and the coarse black fur
(brown-black on the head, tail, and beneath) is marked by one broad
white band across the chest and by another over the back, close to
the tail. The tail is about half the length of the head and trunk.
Harris notices that these animals were very common on the British first
settling at Hobart Town, and were particularly destructive to poultry,
and Mr. Gunn states that they commit great havoc among Sheep, and that
notwithstanding their comparatively small size, they are so fierce that
they are a match for any ordinary Dog.

[Illustration: DASYURE.]

As the settlements increased in Tasmania, and the ground became
cleared, the animals were driven from their haunts near the town
to the deeper recesses of the forests yet unexplored. They were
easily procured by setting a trap in the most unfrequented parts of
the woods, baited with raw flesh, all kinds of which they will eat
indiscriminately and voraciously. They also, it is probable, prey on
dead fish and blubber, as their tracks are frequently found on the
sands of the sea-shore. In a state of confinement they appear to be
untamably savage, biting severely, and uttering at the same time a low
yelling growl. A male and female which Mr. Harris kept for a couple of
months, chained together in an empty cask, were continually fighting.
Their quarrels began as soon as it was dark, as they slept all day,
and continued throughout the night almost without intermission,
accompanied by a kind of hollow barking, not unlike that of a Dog, and
sometimes a sudden kind of snorting, as if the breath were restrained
a considerable time and then suddenly expelled. They frequently sat
on their hind parts, and used their fore paws to convey food to their
mouths. The muscles of the jaws were strong, and they crushed the
largest bones asunder with ease.

This Dasyure, like the others of the genus, has the incisor teeth
equal, and there are eight of them in the upper jaw and six in the
lower. The four canines are large, and there are two powerful premolars
in each jaw and on each side. These are succeeded by four molars above
and below, and on both sides of the mouth.

The incisor teeth, equal in size, are arranged in a semicircle in the
upper jaw, and those of the lower jaw have a corresponding direction,
but they are rather the stouter. The canines are well developed, and
those of the lower jaw bite in front of those of the upper. They look
eminently adapted for stopping and seizing prey, and their carnivorous
character is surpassed by that of the premolars and true molars. These
last have a triangular grinding surface: the first has four sharp
cusps, the second and third have five, and the last, which is the
smallest in the upper jaw, has only three. In the lower jaw the last
molar is of the same size as the last but one, and has four cusps; and
the other molars have much resemblance to those in the upper jaw.

The hind feet have the toes separate and not united by a fold of skin,
and there is a rudimentary great toe in this species. The condyle of
the humerus is not perforated--as in the Kangaroos, for instance--for
the passage of the blood vessels, but is whole, and the outside of the
bone is marked by a groove, along which they pass.

Although this Dasyure has the lower jaw inflected, and is a true
Marsupial, the resemblance in shape, and in dental and other
characters, as well as in its habits, to the Carnivora is striking. Its
fierce character and the nocturnal habits add to the similarity; but
there are some very peculiar anatomical distinctions. The wrist bones,
called scaphoid and lunar, those which are nearest the radius along
the first row of carpal bones, are separate in the Dasyure, but in the
Carnivora they are united to form one bone. And in the foot there is
a peculiarity: for whilst in the Carnivora there is a groove between
the heel bone and the astragalus, this is absent in the Marsupial
Carnivore, and the articular surface of the bones is continuous.

[Illustration: TEETH OF THE DASYURE.]

The Dasyures have a small crest of bone on the top of the skull,
which is also seen on a grander scale in the Carnivora. They have,
moreover, the zygoma well developed and strong; it bulges outwards and
curves upwards, but not to the amount seen in the true Carnivora. The
occipital bone is developed as in the non-Marsupial mammals, but its
parts, instead of joining together and forming one with age, often
remain separate; but this does not appear to occur in all the species
of the genus, for Owen, in his wonderful article on the Marsupials in
the “Cyclopædia of Anatomy and Physiology,” notices that in the little
_Dasyurus Maugei_ the occipital bone presents the usual state of bony
confluence. He notices that the Dasyure, in common with some other
Marsupials, has the temporal bone permanently divided into its several
parts, there being separate squamous, petrous, and tympanic bones; but
the petrous and mastoid parts are usually united. This is a reptilian
peculiarity, but the tympanic bone of the Dasyure is not without its
resemblances to those of birds. The surface on which the lower jaw
moves or is hinged, is not composed entirely by the temporal bone, but
the malar bone is slightly included, and even the sphenoid comes into
the joint.

Another marked character of the Dasyures is, that their hard palates
are not whole, but have spaces and perforations, and this denotes a low
organisation. This absence of a perfect hard palate is seen in other
Marsupials, and especially in the Bandicoots (Perameles).

The angular process of the lower jaw, where inflected or bent in, is
triangular and directed upwards, with a blunt point; and the condyle of
the jaw is low, being on a level with the molar teeth.

[Illustration: BRAIN OF THE DASYURE.]

It is remarkable that the Dasyures should have the bones of the leg,
the tibia and fibula, so connected together as to allow of a certain
degree of rotation on each other, after the fashion of the fore-arm
bones. The muscles of the leg are modified for the purpose. This
interesting anatomical point recalls one of the great distinctions
between the fixed leg bones of man and those of the hand-footed Ape.
It is not found, however, in the non-Marsupial mammals, whose habits
of life are simulated by the Dasyure; but it is found in the Wombat,
a burrower, and in the Koala, Phalangers, and Opossums, which are
climbers. In examining the stomachs of the Marsupials, Owen noticed
that differences in food and habit are not met by alteration in the
shape of the organ, as they are in the higher Mammalia. Thus, the
common Dasyure, the insectivorous Bandicoot, and the leaf-eating
Phalangers, have a full round, oval, or sub-triangular-shaped stomach,
with the right extremity projecting beyond and below the pylorus. The
length of the stomach seldom exceeds the height by more than one-third.
No cæcum is found in the carnivorous Marsupial, and the intestine is
short and wide, being continued, like the intestine of a reptile, along
the margin of a single and simple mesentery, from the pylorus to the
rectum (Owen). The liver has a gall-bladder in the Dasyure, and there
is a pancreas as well as a spleen. The heart is contained in a slight
pericardium, as in the other Mammalia. The Ursine Dasyure is found in
Van Diemen’s Land only.

There are several kinds of Dasyure, which have been carefully noticed
and described. One is called the Long-tailed or Spotted Dasyure,[118]
and is about the size of a Cat. The fur is reddish-brown, pencilled
with yellow, and is spotted with white both on the body and on the
tail. It has a tail as long as the head and body together, and the
under parts of the body and the fore-legs and feet are of a dirty
yellow tinge. It lives in Van Diemen’s Land, and was, from its shape,
at first called a Marten. The teats are six in number, three on each
side, and seated within a slight fold only of the skin, so that there
is no true pouch.

[Illustration: UPPER (A) AND UNDER (B) VIEW OF SKULL OF DASYURE.]

MAUGE’S DASYURE.[119]

This is a small animal, not larger than a half-grown Cat. It has a
longish bushy tail, a broad head, and is somewhat of greyish-yellow
colour. There are white spots on the sides of the body and tail. In
confinement this little creature is torpid by day, but lively as
evening comes on, and it rushes about, with its tail extended, with
great rapidity. It is very injurious to the poultry when in a wild
state, and is called the Wild Cat in Van Diemen’s Land. A variety of
it is the Viverrine Dasyure, which has the head and body spotted with
white, the general colour being brown, black, or grey, tinted with
yellow, the under parts being white. It has long hairs to its tail;
rather large ears, the flesh of which is of a pale pink, as is that of
the naked lips, the tip of the nose, and the soles of the feet, the
latter being hairless, but covered with small fleshy tubercles. There
is no trace of an inner toe to the hind foot, unless it be a slight
swelling of the flesh, marking the situation of the rudimentary bone
beneath. Both of these animals are to be found in New South Wales and
Van Diemen’s Land.

The rest of the Dasyures are widely spread over the continent. The
smallest kind is the North Australian Dasyure. Geoffroy’s Dasyure,
which has a thin tail and an inner toe to the hind foot, inhabits
Western and Southern Australia and New South Wales, is a great killer
of the Yellow-crested Cockatoo, and they hunt and kill Mice or Rats as
well as any Cat. They have not a pouch.

GENUS THYLACINUS.[120]--THE DOG-HEADED THYLACINUS.[121]

This is a Dog-like, slim, narrow-muzzled animal, with clean and rather
short limbs, a foxy head, and a tail about half as long as the body,
which in males is forty-five inches in length. It is about the size of
a Jackal, and the fur is short, but rather woolly and greyish-brown,
faintly suffused with yellow in colour. The fur on the back is deep
brown near the skin, and yellowish-brown towards the tip. It has from
twelve to fourteen black bands on the body, and the tail has long hairs
at the tip only. The eyes are keen, large, and full, and they are black
and have a nictitating membrane. The animal walks half on its toes and
half on its soles or palms, and thus is a semi-plantigrade, the body
being brought nearer the ground than that of the Wolf in running. There
is a marsupial pouch, but the bones are mere cartilages. The Dog-headed
Thylacinus, or the Zebra-Wolf of the colonists of Van Diemen’s Land,
thus described, has often been taken for one of the Carnivora, and
certainly there are great resemblances between it and the Dogs. The
canine teeth are of large size, but they are recurved at the top, and
in the upper jaw are separated from the incisors by a space, into which
the point of the lower canine fits when the jaws are closed. This is
different in the Dogs, whose lower canine passes on the outer side of
the upper one when the mouth is closed. The premolar of the Thylacinus
has a small cusp behind, but in the lower jaw the premolars are
isolated, and do not form a continuous cutting and masticating ridge.
It is also to be remembered that this animal has a peculiar lower jaw,
as it is one of the Marsupials, and the angle is inflected. It is a
Marsupial, with some structures which foreshadow those of the more
highly-developed Dog.

[Illustration: DOG-HEADED THYLACINUS.]

Mr. Harris, who was the first to make this animal known, states that
it lives among caverns and rocks, in the deep and almost impenetrable
glens, in the neighbourhood of the highest mountains of Van Diemen’s
Land. The specimen from which his description was taken was caught in a
trap baited with Kangaroo’s flesh; it remained alive but a few hours,
having received some internal hurt whilst being secured. From time
to time it uttered a short guttural cry, and it appeared exceedingly
inactive and stupid, and, like the Owl, had an almost continual motion
of the nictitant membrane of the eye. Remains of an Echidna were found
in the stomach of the animal. Waterhouse states, on the authority
of Mr. Gunn, that these animals are common only in the remoter parts
of the colony, and used to be frequently caught at Woolnooth and the
Hampshire Hills. They attack the Sheep at night, but are occasionally
seen during the daytime, upon which occasions, perhaps from imperfect
vision, their pace is very slow. Mr. Gunn also observes that the
Thylacinus sometimes attains so large and formidable a size, that a
number of Dogs will not face it. That gentleman denies that the tail
of the animal is compressed, as has been stated by some authors, and
his observations do not confirm the aquatic habits which have been
attributed to it. There are cartilages in the place of the marsupial
bones; but the pouch is well developed in the female Thylacine, and
there are four well developed teats, each four inches long, indicating
that it may contain four young ones at a time. The marsupium, or pouch,
opens backwards, not, as in the Kangaroos and most others, forwards.

[Illustration: SKELETON OF THE DOG-HEADED THYLACINUS.]

GENUS PHASCOGALE (POUCHED WEASELS).--THE BRUSH-TAILED PHASCOGALE.[122]

This genus includes many species of small Weasel-or Rat-like
Marsupials. They are small, insectivorous, and climb shrubs and trees
in pursuit of their prey. The largest known is about the size of a
common Rat. The brush-tailed kind inhabits New South Wales, South
Australia, and Western Australia, and is a pretty little animal, having
a long and soft fur, of a grey colour above and white or yellow-white
under the body. The eyes are encircled with black, and there is a pale
spot above and below the eye, and the hairs are blackest along the
middle of the head. The ear is rather large and not furry; the tail
is about equal to the body in length, or seven inches to nine inches,
and there is a portion near its end of about two inches in length,
which is clothed with short, stiff hairs, and the rest has long and
glossy hairs, sometimes an inch or two long. An insectivorous little
creature, its teeth are modified to meet its diet, and they are less
carnivorous than the other Dasyurids. They have the two foremost
incisors of the upper and lower jaw larger than the others. There are
three premolars in each jaw on each side, and eight molars above and
below, which are studded with prickly tubercles, those of the upper
jaw having triangular crowns. There are five toes to the fore and
hinder extremities, and the inner toe of the latter is in the form of
a small nailless prehensile thumb. The brain-case is large and the
skull comparatively smooth. The species just noticed is said to enter
the stores of the settlers, and it makes a nest in the hollows of the
trunks of trees or in the branches. The female has no pouch, but ten
teats covered with hair. It is the Tapoa Tafa of White, according to
Krefft.

Another species, about six inches long, not including a tail of three
inches--the Freckled Phascogale--lives in the Swan River district
and at King George’s Sound, being generally distributed over Western
Australia. It has the fur freckled with black and white on the head
and fore parts of the body. Mr. Gilbert found insect remains in
its stomach, and he obtained a female specimen having seven young
attached. They were little more than half an inch in length, and quite
blind and naked. Above the teats of the mother is a very small fold of
skin, from which the long hairs of the under surface spread downwards,
and effectually cover and protect the young. This fold is the only
approximation to a pouch which has been found in any species of this
genus. The young are very tenacious of life, and those just mentioned
lived nearly two days attached to the mammæ of the dead mother.

[Illustration: BRUSH-TAILED PHASCOGALE.]

The Yellow-footed Phascogale is a kind which inhabits New South
Wales and South Australia, and the White-footed Phascogale and a
closely-allied kind live in South Australia and Van Diemen’s Land. In
New Guinea, which constitutes a part of the Australian natural history
province, there is a black, short-eared, and short-furred kind, about
the size of a Rat, called _Phascogale melas_.

[Illustration: ANTECHINUS.]

There is a little kind, measuring only three inches in length, with
white fur everywhere, except on the upper parts, which are ashy grey;
and in Western and Southern Australia there is one which has great
ears, very slender limbs, and a short and thick fat tail. It looks like
a large-eared, fat-tailed Mouse, and is under four inches in length.
All these kinds of Phascogale, except the brush-tailed one, belong to a
group with very short hairs on the tail, and are sometimes classified
under the name Antechinus, the thick-tailed one being termed Podabrus;
and they all have shallow pouches.

[Illustration: OPOSSUM AND YOUNG.]

CHAPTER III.

THE OPOSSUMS.

Prehistoric Opossums--Description of the Animal--Their
Teeth--Habits--THE COMMON OPOSSUM--Appearance--Use of its
Tail--Food--The Young--How they are Reared--D’AZARA’S OPOSSUM--THE
CRAB-EATING OPOSSUM--THE THICK-TAILED OPOSSUM--MERIAN’S
OPOSSUM--Pouchless Opossums--Their Young--THE MURINA OPOSSUM--THE
ELEGANT OPOSSUM--THE YAPOCK--Classification of Marsupial
Animals--Geographical Distribution of the Sub-Order--Ancestry of
the Marsupials--Fossil Remains.

VI.--THE OPOSSUM FAMILY.--DIDELPHIDÆ.

The Marsupial animals included in this family are not found in
Australia or in Van Diemen’s Land, or in any part of the natural
history province to which those countries belong. They are numerous,
however, and are now living on the American continent; but formerly
some inhabited Europe during that geological period which is called the
Eocene. The Opossums are very rat-like in form, the largest species
being about the size of a large Cat, but they have the snout more
elongated; and in some species in which the individuals are large the
body is proportionately stout, and on most there is a comfortable fur,
with short and long hair. The tail is almost always very long, nearly
destitute of hair, excepting at the root, and is covered with a scaly
skin, there being a few scattered hairs. It is a useful organ, for the
Opossums hang by it, and it assists them in climbing and descending
trees, and in holding on, when they are young, to their parent. The
ears are rather large and round, the eyes are placed rather high up
in the face, and the long muzzle ends in a naked snout. The legs look
short for the body. The feet are naked beneath; there are five toes,
and the great toe is more or less opposable to the foot, and acts like
a grasping thumb. Each toe is furnished with moderate-sized claws,
excepting the inner toe of the hind foot, which is clawless. The
Opossums are remarkable for the great number of their incisor teeth,
there being ten in the upper and eight in the lower jaw, and they are
arranged in a semicircular manner. The upper and two foremost incisors
are rather longer than the rest, and are generally separated from them
by a narrow space. They are nearly cylindrical and expanded at the tip.
The canines are well developed, the upper ones being the largest. There
are three premolars on each side of both jaws, and they have two roots,
and are compressed and pointed. There is a posterior talon to them. The
molars, eight in each jaw, have three roots, and those of the upper jaw
have the crown of a triangular form and tubercular, whilst those of the
lower jaw are longer than broad, and each has the appearance of five
prickly cusps on its upper surface.

[Illustration: TEETH OF THE OPOSSUM.]

Some of the Didelphidæ have no marsupium, or pouch, or it is very
slightly developed, and in these particular kinds the young, after
having left the nipples, are carried on the back of the mother,
retaining their position by twining their tails around hers. The mammæ
are numerous: there may be as many as thirteen, an odd one being found
in the centre of the ring of the other nipples.

The Opossums are active, sly, and very intelligent in certain things,
and their food consists of insects, small reptiles, birds, and eggs.
Living for the most part in trees, they secrete themselves in the
hollows of the branches and trunks during the daytime and sally forth
in the night. They have a moderate-sized cæcum. It must be noticed that
the great toe of the hind foot is well developed, has no nail, and
enables the creature to grasp, and is thus very useful; and that they
walk plantigrade. The ankle and leg have the same movements as in the
Wombats, and the same general anatomy. If the members of the family
are compared with those of the families which live in the Australian
province, it will be found that they most resemble the Perameles and
Dasyures. The Opossums may be divided into three groups: those whose
pouch is well developed, those in which it is a mere fold, and those
which have webbed feet and live in the water, like Otters.

[Illustration: SKELETON OF THE CRAB-EATING OPOSSUM.]

THE COMMON OPOSSUM.[123]

This is a large kind, and is about the size of a common Cat, and its
long, large, pointed head, ending in a naked snout, and having eyes
encircled in dusky brown fur amongst the white hair and fur of the
head, gives it a very cunning and thoughtful appearance. The ears are
black. The tail is long and prehensile, the end being white and the
rest black, and the legs and feet are brownish. It is a great climber,
and uses its tail almost as much as some of its Monkey companions.
Running along the branches, it will often suspend itself by its tail,
and give a swing and let go, thus launching its body to a distance, and
then it catches at the boughs with its feet and unclawed but prehensile
hind toe-thumb. In coming down trees it uses the tail to steady itself,
and to prevent too rapid a fall; and in climbing, the ever-ready tail
prevents mishaps, should the clawed toes not grasp sufficiently. The
natural food of this Opossum is probably vegetarian, but it is a great
birds’-nester; it will eat roots and fruits, but the early settlers
found it very destructive to their poultry, for it catches the birds
and sucks their blood, not eating the flesh: consequently, it has
been much hunted, and as the fur and skin are sometimes used, the
destruction of the Opossum has been great. It is a curious creature,
and seems to have gained experience in its struggle with man, and as
many stories are told of its cleverness as there are about Reynard the
Fox and the Indian Jackal. It will sham death in a most persevering
manner, and is at the same time very tenacious of life.

The skull has strong temporal ridges, which form a sagittal crest, and
the arch of the zygoma is well grown. The animal has a longer facial
part of the skull and a smaller brain-case than the other Dasyures, and
the brain has large olfactory or front lobes. The cerebral hemispheres
are small, and there are no convolutions. This is essentially a North
American animal, and is found from Mexico to the Southern States
inclusive.

The female brings forth from twelve to sixteen young at a time, and her
nest, which is formed of dry grass, is usually at the root of a tree or
bush. When first born, the young are said not to be more than a grain
in weight, and blind, naked, and shapeless. They find the teats in the
mother’s pouch, unless she places them on to them with her mouth, and
they cling on so as not to be separated except by violence. In about
five days, so rapid is their growth, they have reached the size of a
Mouse, and all their parts are developed. They then leave the pouch,
and return to suckle and when danger appears. During this time the
female shows great attachment to her young; and Mr. Waterhouse, from
whose work these descriptions are taken, states that she will suffer
any torture rather than permit the pouch to be opened.

[Illustration: CRAB-EATING OPOSSUM.]

AZARA’S OPOSSUM.[124]

This is a smaller animal than the common or Virginian Opossum, but
its tail is long in proportion to its body. It is the South American
representative of its larger fellow species, and is found over a very
wide extent of country. It was noticed by the celebrated naturalist
D’Azara in Paraguay; Mr. Darwin found it at Maldonado, La Plata; and
specimens have been obtained from the Brazils, Santa Fé de Bogota,
and Bolivia. This is because it is not entirely a forest animal, but
is found occasionally in the open country. It may be distinguished
from the common Opossum by three distinct black marks on its head,
by its large tail, one-third of which is covered with fur like that
on the body. The rest of this important member is scaly, with small
hairs springing from between, the scales being black in the second
third, and white at the tip in colour. The habits of this Opossum are
nocturnal, and it lies concealed by day in burrows in the ground or in
thickets. At night it climbs trees to feed upon fruits and birds’ eggs.
It will chase and catch sleeping birds, and suck their blood like a
Weasel.

THE CRAB-EATING OPOSSUM.[125]

A small Opossum, with a long black tail tipped with white, and a
dull-coloured fur to its body, lives in Brazil and Guiana, and has a
very omnivorous disposition. Preferring swampy situations, it lives
mostly on the trees, hunts small birds and insects, and even catches a
reptile now and then, but its fondness for the Crustacea of the swamps
is proverbial, and hence its name of Crab-eater.

Another species is interesting from being found in the part of
California which adjoins Mexico. The Short-headed Opossum also belongs
to this group, and is from the same locality. Besides these, there are
several smaller pouch-bearing Opossums, without the long hair of those
just mentioned, and they are from Brazil, Guiana, and Surinam--for
instance, the Quica, the Naked-tailed, and the Four Spotted kinds. The
Philander Opossum is a bird-hunter, and lives in Surinam.

The next group of Opossums have no pouch, but there may be folds of the
skin protecting the mammæ.

THE THICK-TAILED OPOSSUM.[126]

As its name implies, this pouchless Opossum has a very thick tail.
Moreover, it has smaller ears than the other Opossums, and has a
short head and short legs. The fur is made up of harsh hairs, which
are close to the body, and there is but little under fur. Its colour
is yellow-brown, but the eye and muzzle are brownish, and the tail,
with the terminal two-thirds, is black, with the exception of a small
white spot at the end. It inhabits Brazil and Paraguay, and extends
southwards to the River Plate. One of the Opossums was kept by D’Azara,
who found it quiet, tame, and stupid; but having been fed on raw meat,
and a parrot happening to come too close, it killed the bird in a
moment. There are folds of skin in the lower part of the abdomen, but
no pouch, and there are six mammæ.

Another of the Opossums is called Merian’s Opossum, or _Didelphys
dorsigera_, and it inhabits Surinam. It was described by Madame Merian
in 1717, who represented it in her great book on insects with its young
clustered on its back and hanging on to the mother’s tail, which was
curved over its back, with their little tails.

[Illustration: MERIAN’S OPOSSUM.]

It is very curious that the young of these pouchless Opossums should
resemble those of the whole order in being comparatively little
advanced in their development at the time of their birth. The young
are at first strongly attached to the teats of the mother, and when
they are sufficiently strong and grown to leave them, occasionally she
takes them off from the nipples and places them on her back. Here they
cling on with their tails to hers. Hence the name of back-bearing, or
Dorsigera, which is given to this kind.

[Illustration: YAPOCK.]

It was at first supposed that this method of carrying the young was
restricted to this species, but subsequent experience has shown that
several kinds do the same thing.

Two or three other species of Opossum are interesting from their small
size and habits. Thus the Murina Opossum (_Didelphys murina_), with a
very long tail, inhabits Guiana, Brazil, Peru, and Mexico. The body is
about five inches in length, and the tail is either slightly longer or
about the same. Yet this little thing attacks birds and insects; it
burrows in the ground, and climbs trees to get its insect food.

The Elegant Opossum (_Didelphys elegans_), of Chili, is still smaller
than the last, and frequents the thickets growing on the rocky hills
near Valparaiso. They are numerous, or were so when Mr. Darwin observed
them, and are easily caught in traps baited with cheese or meat. The
tail appeared to be rarely, if at all, used as a prehensile organ;
yet they could run up trees with some degree of facility. It is an
interesting fact that some of the smallest Opossums prey upon Lizards
and Snakes as large, and even heavier, than themselves.

The last section of the Opossums contains the Water Opossum.

THE YAPOCK.[127]

This animal has a perfect pouch, and has large hind feet, the toes of
which are united by a web. The fore feet are moderate-sized, and the
pisiform bone is unusually long. Its habits are aquatic. The Yapock
has large naked ears, and a long, almost naked, tail, and is altogether
rather larger than the common Rat. Its method of life is very much
the same as that of the Otter. It is a good diver, and feeds upon
crustaceous and other aquatic animals. It is a native of Guiana and
Brazil.

* * * * *

The Marsupial animals assume the general shape and habits of many
orders of Mammalia which have no marsupium, and which live in the other
great natural history provinces. Thus there are Marsupial animals
like Dogs, Rats, Squirrels, Flying Squirrels, Deer, &c. They have,
therefore, many methods of life as a group, and, as might be expected,
the brain and nervous system present many differences in them. In all,
the front lobes of the brain which deal with the sense of smell are
very large, and in some, such as in the Carnivorous Marsupials, they
are exposed, and not covered by the main mass of the brain. In the
Kangaroos, however, these olfactory lobes are hidden more or less.
These last also have well-marked convolutions on the brain which are
nearly wanting in those first mentioned.

The Marsupial animals just considered have been classified to a certain
extent during their descriptions, but it is necessary to recapitulate.
They are arranged in groups of genera or species, or into families.
They are as follows:--

ORDER MARSUPIALIA.--SUB-ORDER MARSUPIATA.

{ Genus Macropus Kangaroos.[128]
Family MACROPODIDÆ { „ Dendrolagus Tree Kangaroos.
{ „ Hypsiprymnus Potoroos.
{ „ Hypsiprymnodon The Hypsiprymnodon.

„ PHASCOLOMYIDÆ „ Phascolomys The Wombat.

{ „ Phascolarctus The Koala.
{ { The Cuscus.
„ PHALANGISTIDÆ { „ Phalangista { Dormouse Phalanger.
{ { Phalangers.
{ „ Petaurus Flying Phalangers.
{ „ Tarsipes Tarsipes.

„ PERAMELIDÆ { „ Perameles Bandicoots.
{ „ Chœropus Chœropus.

{ „ Myrmecobius Ant-eaters.
„ DASYURIDÆ { „ Phascogale Phascogale.
{ „ Dasyurus Dasyures.
{ „ Thylacinus Dog-headed Thylacinus.

„ DIDELPHIDÆ { „ Didelphys Opossum.
{ „ Chironectes Yapock.

The Macropodidæ, Phalangistidæ, Peramelidæ, and Dasyuridæ are found
living somewhere or other in the Australian distributional province,
which includes the mainland, Tasmania to the south, and the Molucca
and Arru Islands to the north, bounded by the Straits of Lombok, and
Celebes, New Guinea, New Ireland, Timor, Amboyna, Banda, and Waigeoe.
Each family is not represented fully, however, in all the remarkably
separated divisions of the province. Thus the genera Macropus and
Dendrolagus of the first family, Petaurus and Phalangista of the
third, Perameles of the fourth, and Phascogale of the Dasyuridæ have
been found in New Guinea; but in other islands, such as Celebes, and
in those from Lombok to Timor, the genus Cuscus alone is represented.
In the Moluccas, Cuscus and the genus Petaurus are found. In Van
Diemen’s Land about one-half of the species are peculiar to the
island, and the remainder are found also on the eastern districts
of the mainland. It has Kangaroos, Potoroos, Wombats, Phalangers,
Bandicoots, and three out of the four genera of Dasyuridæ. Western
Australia, which is such a remarkable botanical province, and is so
separated by desert and sand from the east, has numerous Kangaroos,
Potoroos, Phalangers, Bandicoots, Phascogales, Dasyures; and, in
common with South Australia, a Chœropus, whilst the genus Tarsipes is
peculiar to it. The Wombat is found in Van Diemen’s Land and some of
the islands in Bass Strait. It is found in the south and east of the
mainland of Australia, but not to the west and north. Mr. Waterhouse
notices that the Marsupials of the eastern districts are for the most
part distinct from those of the opposite side of the continent, there
being, when his great work, which has been so constantly referred to
in this description, was written, but eight species out of upwards of
sixty inhabiting the two provinces. South Australia is the habitat of
more common species than elsewhere. The northern part of Australia has
more species peculiar to it than the other divisions, and some of its
Dasyuridæ especially, and species of Cuscus also, are found in the Arru
and other islands to the north. The metropolis of the sub-genus Cuscus
is in the Moluccas, where two species are widely distributed, or one is
restricted to certain islands.

The other divisions of the genus are represented by the Vulpine
Phalanger, an animal with long loose fur, which inhabits New South
Wales, Western Australia, and North Australia; by Cook’s Phalanger,
of New South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land. The genus Perameles, the
Bandicoots, has species in Van Diemen’s Land, Australia, New Guinea,
and in the Arru Islands, and the genus Petaurus has a corresponding
distribution. The Didelphidæ are found in the United States,
California, Mexico, Peru, Guiana, Brazil, Paraguay, Banda Oriental, and
Chili; and Brazil is the country where they abound the most in species
and individuals, the number diminishing to the north and south.

The Marsupials have a great ancestry, and some of them lived when the
continents and oceans of the earth were in very different relative
positions to those they now occupy. Indeed, it is most probable that
the fossil remains of the most ancient mammal belong to this order.
There is a small double-fanged molar tooth of a mammal which was found
by Plieninger, in 1847, contained in a jumble of shells and of the
remains of reptiles and fishes in strata beneath the Lias formation of
Diegerloch, near Stuttgart. It and another which was discovered close
by, by the same professor, belonged to animals which were dead when
this topmost stratum of the Trias, immediately beneath the Lias, was
being formed. They are Triassic in age, therefore, and they somewhat
resemble the back teeth of a fossil which was found subsequently in the
Purbeck strata of England, and which evidently belonged to a Marsupial
more or less resembling the existing Kangaroo-Rats or Potoroos, of
the genus Hypsiprymnus. Later on, Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.,
discovered a small tooth belonging to the same extinct genus as that
which included Plieninger’s fossil, namely, Microlestes; and its
resemblance to one of Hypsiprymnus is even greater. Its position was
high up in the Trias of Watchet in Somersetshire. Mr. Charles Moore, of
Bath, had previously found many specimens of teeth of the same family
in a fissure, down which they had been washed by the Triassic sea.

A lower jaw of a small Mammal was found in the Trias of North America
by Emmons; and it has on one side three incisors, one long canine, then
a diastema, three premolars, and seven molars with three points. It is
therefore one of the Myrmecobius group.

After the age of the Trias, when there was much continuous land
surface, Europe was broken up into a coral island tract, during the age
of the collection of the Jurassic deposits. The islands were tenanted
by many small Marsupials, four species of which have been discovered in
the deposits of Stonesfield slate at the bottom of the Great Oolite.
They belong to the extinct genera Amphitherium, Phascolotherium,
and Stereognathus, and the first somewhat resembled the Myrmecobius
of recent times; but all that can be said is that they belonged to
Marsupial animals. Piled on the Stonesfield slates are many hundred
feet of strata, and high up amongst them, in the Swanage and Purbeck
districts, are deposits in which Messrs. Brodie and Beckles have found
portions of the skeletons of numerous insectivorous Marsupials, of
which the genera Spalacotherium, Plagiaulax, Triconodon, and Galestes
are the most important. They were small, as a rule, and there has been
much debate regarding their affinities with modern insectivorous forms,
and they are still surrounded with doubt.

The appearance of the Mammalia without pouches took place in the
Eocene age, and in the Old and New World, and contemporaneously with
them lived in France a kind of Opossum, some of whose bones were
found in the strata of Montmartre, near Paris; and in later Tertiary
strata other relics have been found. These are the only instances of
a fossil Didelphid occurring out of the New World; and there, where
the Opossums are now characteristic animals, they were present in the
last geological age, for in the Brazilian latest deposits remains of
several species of Didelphys have been found. Remains of these fossil
Opossums have been found in the North American Pliocene deposits.
The more ancient deposits of Australia have not yielded the remains
of any of the animals which are now so peculiar to the province, but
in the bone caves of the Wellington Valley, some two hundred and ten
miles west of Sydney, Sir Thomas Mitchell discovered a mass of bones,
forming a breccia with limestone, which contained numerous and most
interesting Marsupial remains. In deposits of the same late age, and
in bogs and gravels in Queensland, other remains were found. They were
described by Sir R. Owen in one of his greatest works, and they belong
to the Australian families of Marsupials, and not to the American
Didelphidæ. As was usual elsewhere before the appearance of man on the
earth, and contemporaneously with him for awhile, many of the kinds
which resemble more or less those now living, or would be classified
in the same family, and perhaps in the same genus, are gigantic. Owen
distinguished among the bones those of large fossil Marsupials which
belong to the Macropodidæ, and which may be arranged as subdivisions
of the genus Macropus or Kangaroos, and of a powerful creature called
Thylacoleo, or Pouched Lion, which must be admitted as a new section of
the Macropodidæ, and whose habits were probably carnivorous, although
there is much diversity of opinion on the subject, some of the most
distinguished anatomists believing the creature to have been of an
innocent disposition, although appearances are much against it. It is
more closely allied to Plagiaulax, of the English Purbeck beds, than to
any other form, and they well fit in between the genera Macropus and
Hypsiprymnus.

A huge Marsupial, with a skull three feet in length, with teeth, in
front especially, on the Kangaroo plan, and with longer fore limbs and
shorter hind ones than the last-named animal, was described by Owen.
The pelvis, however, has but two sacral vertebræ, and its ilio-pubic
process would ally it with the Macropodidæ. This Diprotodon was an
herbivorous animal, and was of the size of a Rhinoceros. This great
Marsupial had fore limbs which possessed the power of rotation, and it
was not without some characters which are seen amongst the Wombats.
It appears to have had a great range, for its remains have been found
in the caverns in the Wellington Valley, at Welcome Springs, South
Australia, Hergolt’s Springs, 500 miles north of Adelaide, near
Melbourne, in the valley of the Condamine River, and widely over
Queensland. A slightly smaller animal, called the Nototherium, also
existed with the larger one.

The species of this genus have no lower incisive tusks, and a very
short chin; the angle of the jaw is curved inwards, and there were
only four molar teeth on each side in both jaws, and they were with
two strong roots or fangs. It was probably one of the Macropodidæ.
Others of this family are allied to Dendrolagus, and form the genera
Protemnodon and Sthenurus. The Wombat was represented in the age of the
great Marsupials; and both large and small species, one being of the
size of the Tapir, have been described from bones and teeth which were
found in the cave deposits of Australia. Remains of a Marsupial animal,
probably of the Vulpine Phalanger, were found in the same caves, as
were also some referable to the genus Perameles, or Bandicoots, and
to the Potoroos. Several fossil species of the family Dasyuridæ have
been found in the Australian caves, and one of them is referable to a
section of the genus Dasyurus, which at present is restricted to Van
Diemen’s Land, it being somewhat like _Dasyurus ursinus_; moreover,
probably, there was a species of Thylacinus present also. So far as is
known from the researches of Owen amongst this wonderful cave fauna, no
members of the family Didelphidæ occur there. They were American then,
as they are now.

CHAPTER IV

SUB-ORDER--MONOTREMATA.[129]

THE PORCUPINE OR LONG-SPINED ECHIDNA AND DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.[130]

Why the Monotremata are formed into a Sub-order--The lowest of
the Mammalian Class--THE PORCUPINE OR LONG-SPINED ECHIDNA--An
Ant-eater, but not an Edentate--Its Correct Name--Description
of the Animal--Habits and Disposition--Manner of Using the
Tongue--Where it is Found--Anatomical Features: Skull, Brain,
Marsupial Bones--The Young--Species of Van Diemen’s Land and
New Guinea--THE WATER-MOLE, OR DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS--The
most Bird-like Mammal--Various Names--Description--Their
Appearance and Movements in Water--Their Burrows--Habits of an
Individual kept in Confinement--Used by Natives as Food--How
they are Captured--The Young--A Family in Captivity--the
Snout--Jaws--Teeth--Tongue--Fore and Hind Feet--Heel--Spur--The
Shoulder Girdle--Breastbone--Concluding Remarks on the
Sub-orders--Postscript on the Monotremes.

THE PORCUPINE OR LONG-SPINED ECHIDNA.

This animal is the first example of some Marsupial beasts which are
separated into a sub-order, because, in addition to the marsupial
bones, there are some internal points of construction which are more
bird-and lizard-like than those of the Kangaroo tribes. It contains
animals which are the lowest of the Mammalian class, and are found only
in the Australian natural history province. The Porcupine Ant-eater, as
its name implies, has somewhat the shape of a Hedgehog or Porcupine,
and it is fond of burrowing with its peculiar limbs, as well as of
eating Ants with the assistance of its long tongue. But its internal
anatomy and the construction of the skeleton differ from those of the
true Ant-eaters, which belong to the order Edentata. It was called
Ant-eater by its first describer (Shaw) in 1792, but a few years
afterwards it was decided to belong to the same group as an animal
about to be described--the Duck-billed Platypus, or Water Mole--and
Cuvier, whilst believing that they both belonged to a peculiar order,
separated this false Ant-eater from the Water Mole as a species and
genus. He called this Hedgehog-like creature Echidna, from the presence
of a spur on the heel, which is perforated, and which was erroneously
supposed to be poisonous, like the fang of a Viper (Ἔχιδνα). The
correct name is the Long-spined Echidna, or the Porcupine Echidna
(_Echidna hystrix_).

[Illustration: PELVIC ARCH OF THE ECHIDNA.

(_a_ _a_) Marsupial Bones.]

The creature greatly resembles a Hedgehog with a very long snout, at
first sight, but a slight examination will show that it differs much
from the insect-eating and spiny little Hystrix. The Echidna is about
a foot in length, and the upper part of its short body is covered with
strong spines, and the rest is hairy, the front of the head, and the
long, slender, and tapering snout being naked. The legs are short and
strong, and the five toes of the fore leg have large and strong claws.
This is in order to permit the creature to bury itself in sand and soft
earth quickly, and this operation is assisted by a broad and rounded
nail on the inner toe of the hind foot and by large claws on the other
toes, and especially by a long nail to the second toe. A very long
and flexible tongue enables the creature to catch prey. There are no
teeth. The skull, when the skin and flesh have been removed, has a very
pear-like appearance. It is a great burrower, and manages to get out of
the way of observers as soon as is possible, for working actively with
its strong limbs and claws, it pokes its snout into the earth and soon
gets out of view. Ants are its favourite food, and they are captured
in the same way as by the Great Ant-eaters belonging to the Edentata:
for in both there is a long slimy tongue, which can be poked far out
of the mouth into Ants’ nests. The saliva required to make the tongue
sticky comes from large glands under the lower jaw from the ear on to
the fore part of the chest. When the Ants have collected on the sticky
tongue it is taken into the mouth, and they are swallowed. The absence
of teeth is made up by the presence of horny spines on the palate and
tongue, which look backwards, and these crush and direct the food to
the throat. It is an apathetic and stupid animal, and usually tries
to get out of the light, and it will lie and roll itself up, but not
so successfully as a Hedgehog. One of the first which was seen was
attacked by the Dogs of two of the travellers, Bass and Flinders,
whose names are so familiar from places having been named after them
in Australia. The Dogs did not come off victorious, for the new animal
burrowed in the loose sand, but not head foremost; it sank itself
directly downwards, and left its prickly back just on a level with the
surface.

An Echidna was watched, so that the manner in which it could use its
tongue was observed. Ants could not be had, but a diet of chopped-up
eggs, liver, and meat was readily received, and it was noticed that the
tongue was used in the same manner as that of the Chameleon, by simple
protrusion and bringing in, and also as a mower moves his scythe, it
being curved sideways, and the food swept into the mouth. The Echidna
is fond of water and milk, which are licked up by a rapid putting out
and drawing in of the long tongue.

[Illustration: PORCUPINE ECHIDNA. (_After Gervais._)]

Gerard Krefft says that they are usually found in mountain ranges,
and among rocks in the Lower Murray district. He failed to feed them
on Ants and their eggs. On hen’s eggs they fed for a time, and liked
bread-and-milk. He has reason to believe that they live on grass also,
as those whose stomachs and intestines he examined had fed on herbs and
grasses. The spur on the heel is not used as a weapon of offence.

It inhabits Australia, and has been found as far north as the Bellenden
Plains, Queensland, about 18° south latitude. A specimen has also been
captured at Cape York, and others at Plain Creek, Queensland. It is not
found in Van Diemen’s Land.

With regard to the anatomy of the Echidna, it may be said that the long
muzzle and the very slender lower jaw give the skull a bird-like look
which is increased by the swollen and ball shape of the brain-case. The
bones of the skull remain imperfectly united for some time, and then
they are united by plain lines of junction, and not by jagged sutures.
The shoulder and the bones of the upper part of the chest resemble
those of the Water Mole, and will be noticed in its description. The
brain of the Echidna weighs about one-fiftieth of the whole body,
and the hemispheres do not conceal the cerebellum. There are three
convolutions behind, and in front of them is a large one bent on
itself, and on its outside are some oblique folds. The sense of smell,
evidently acute in the Echidna, is assisted by a large development of
the olfactory lobes of the brain and their nerves.

The Echidnas have large marsupial bones. They have not a true pouch,
but only a rudimentary one, or rather an infolding of the skin,
during the breeding season, in the female. The orifices of the teats
are situated beneath the level of the skin, and inverted; and as the
surrounding parts swell under the influence of suckling, there is a
little cavity made, at the bottom of which are the so-called nipples.
They are really little depressions with hair around them. The young
Echidnas are placed in this temporary cavity by the mother, and help
themselves by placing their snouts in the small depressions leading to
the milk gland. Captain Armit says that some force is required to get
the young out of the pouch, and that there is probably a muscular ring
to it. They are at first very small. When about a month or so old, the
hinder parts of the young may be seen sticking out of the region of the
fold, and at three months the body may be observed, the animal still
adhering by its snout. When the prickles of the young begin to harden,
the old one turns them out into the world. (But see Postscript, p. 234.)

A short-spined Echidna (_Echidna setosa_) inhabits Van Diemen’s Land,
whose hair is sufficiently long to hide most of the spines, but
little is known regarding its habits. Quoy and Gaimard, two French
naturalists, kept one for a month, and it took no food, but after that
time it began to lap and to eat a mixture of flour, sugar, and water.
It burrowed very rapidly, and got to the bottom of a large can full of
earth and plants in the course of a few minutes, and it was assisted in
this by its snout.

[Illustration: MOUTH (A) AND NOSE-SNOUT (B) OF ECHIDNA.]

A species of Echidna has been found in the north of the Island of
New Guinea, at the Mont des Karous and Mount Arfak, at an altitude
in the first place of 1,150 yards. It likes the rocky broken ground,
and is unknown on the sea coast. The natives call it “Nokdiak,” and
hunt it for the flesh. As the animal burrows well, the natives dig
down about a yard in different places, and generally cut across one of
the underground runs. It has been described, and has been named after
the explorer, M. Brujn. It is more robust and larger than the species
from Australia and Van Diemen’s Land, has a very long snout--three
times the length of the head--a short tail, and is black in colour
with white points. The fur is plentiful, and like velvet, whilst the
spines are scanty, and about midway in strength between those of the
two Australian kinds. The number of nails on the fore and hind feet
is singular in this New Guinea Echidna, for there are three on each
instead of five. The tongue of the species is longer and more spiny;
moreover, the number of vertebræ differs in this new kind. There are
seventeen dorsal instead of fifteen, and there is one caudal more than
in the others. The spiny pimples on the tongue and palate, so well
developed in this Echidna, have tempted Professor Gervais to include
it in a new genus, Acanthoglossus; but it is as well to retain the old
name, so that the creature is called Echidna Brujnii. Another species
has been found in the south of New Guinea, at Port Moresby, which
is distinguished chiefly by the long, thin, cylindrical form of the
quills, and the stiff, flat, hair-like bristles on the face. The tint
of the flattish bristles covering all the body and limbs, except the
back, is brown; on the back are long cylindrical spines, some white
and others black. There are five claws to each foot, and the second
hind toe is said to be the largest. The fore limbs are short, stout,
and strong. It has been named Echidna Lawesii (Ramsay), after its
discoverer. All these animals can roll themselves up.

THE WATER MOLE, OR DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.[131]

Like most of the other objects of natural history found in Australia
and the neighbouring islands, the Water Mole is very singular in its
construction, nature, and habits. It is of all animals that suckle
their young the most like a bird, and it really deserves the title,
from its external appearance of half beast, half bird. As its shape and
method of life are peculiar, it has received several names, such as
the Water Mole, the Flat-footed, Duck-billed Platypus, the Bird-beaked
quadruped, and the Paradoxical Bird-beaked animal. It is very fond
of the water and also of burrowing in the ground, and, of course, is
admirably adapted for these pursuits: hence its construction relates to
them to a certain extent, and also to that of the animals of which it
was, as it were, a continuation in the scheme of nature.

The Ornithorhynchus anatinus has a rather flat body of about eighteen
inches in length, and the head and snout greatly resemble those of a
Duck, whilst the tail is short, broad, and flat, and resembles that
of a small Beaver, but is shorter. The feet are webbed and flat, and
the greater part of the creature is covered with a short dense fur
of a dusky brown colour, darker on the upper and paler on the under
parts of the body. A slight examination of the habits of the animal
will explain the necessity for observing it a little more closely.
Mr. Bennett describes his first interview with one shortly after his
arrival in Australia. He writes: “We soon came to a tranquil part of
the river, such as the colonists call a ‘pond,’ on the surface of which
numerous aquatic plants grew. It is in places of this description that
the Water Moles are most commonly seen, seeking their food among the
aquatic plants, whilst the steep and shaded banks afford them excellent
situations for excavating their burrows. We remained stationary on the
banks, waiting their appearance with some degree of impatience, and it
was not long before my companion quietly directed my attention to one
of these animals, paddling on the surface of the water, not far distant
from the bank on which we were then standing. In such circumstances
they may be readily recognised by their dark bodies, just seen level
with the surface, above which the head is slightly raised, and by
the circles made in the water round them by their paddling action.
On seeing them, the spectator must remain perfectly stationary, as
the slightest noise or movement of his body would cause their instant
disappearance, so acute are they in sight or hearing, or perhaps both;
and they seldom appear when they have been frightened.” On ordinary
occasions they do not remain more than a minute or two at a time on the
surface of the water.

A burrow of an Ornithorhynchus, which Mr. Bennett opened, had its
entrance on a steep part of a bank, situated about one foot from the
water’s edge, and concealed among the long grass and other Plants.
“This burrow ran up the bank in a serpentine course, approaching nearer
to the surface of the earth towards its termination, at which part
the nest is situated. No nest had yet been made in the termination of
the burrow, for that appears to be formed about the time of bringing
forth the young, and consists merely of dried grass, weeds, &c.,
strewed over the floor of this part of the habitation.” The expanded
termination measured one foot in length and six inches in breadth, and
the whole length of the burrow was twenty feet. Besides the entrance
before alluded to, it appears there is usually a second opening
into the burrows below the surface of the water, communicating with
the interior, just within the upper aperture. A burrow subsequently
examined by Mr. Bennett terminated at a distance of thirty-five feet
from the entrance; and that gentleman stated that they have been found
fifty feet in length.

From the burrow first opened by Mr. Bennett a living female was
taken, and placed in a cask, with grass, mud, water, &c., and in this
situation it soon became tranquil, and apparently reconciled to its
confinement. On his return home to Sydney, Mr. Bennett determined to
indulge it with a bathe; and with this view, when he arrived in the
vicinity of some ponds, he tied a long cord to its leg. “When placed on
the bank, it soon found its way into the water, and travelled up the
stream, apparently delighting in those places which most abounded in
aquatic weeds. When diving in deep and clear water, its motions were
distinctly seen: it sank speedily to the bottom, swam there for a short
distance, and then rose again to the surface. It appeared, however, to
prefer keeping close to the bank, occasionally thrusting its beak into
the mud, from whence it evidently procured food, as, on raising the
head, after withdrawing the beak, the mandibles were seen in lateral
motion, as is usual when the animal masticates. The motions of the
mandibles were similar to those of a Duck under the same circumstances.
After feeding, it would lie sometimes on the grassy bank, and at others
partly in and partly out of the water, combing and cleaning its coat
with the claws of the hind feet. This process occupied a considerable
time, and greatly improved its sleek and glossy appearance.”

The Water Moles are said to have a peculiarly fishy smell, more
especially when wet, which probably proceeds from an oily secretion.
They are used by the aborigines for food; “but it is no particular
recommendation of them,” Mr. Bennett remarks, “to say they are eaten by
the native Australian, as nothing in the shape of provender comes amiss
to him, whether it be Snakes, Rats, Frogs, Grubs, or the more delicate
Opossum, Bandicoot, and Flying Squirrel.”

The Ornithorhynchus is captured by the natives when in its burrow. They
first examine the neighbourhood of the burrow, to ascertain, by the
presence of recent footmarks on the soil, whether it is inhabited, and
if the examination proves satisfactory, they proceed to dig holes with
pieces of sticks from the surface of the ground into the burrow, at
distances from each other, until they discover its termination, when
the Australians consider themselves exceedingly fortunate should they
find the young, since they are regarded as a great delicacy.

The young have been found in their nests by Mr. Bennett about one inch
and seven-eighths in length, in the early part of December, and near
the end of the same month he found young Water Moles of ten inches
in length. These latter were kept alive for nearly five weeks, and
their habits whilst in captivity are described in detail in his paper,
which is illustrated by some admirable figures, showing their various
attitudes, &c. The young were allowed to run about the room; but an old
Ornithorhynchus in the possession of our author was so restless, and
damaged the walls of the room so much by her attempts at burrowing,
that it was found necessary to confine her to the box. “During the day
she would remain quiet, huddled up with her young ones; but at night
she became very restless, and eager to escape. The little ones were
as frolicsome as puppies, and apparently as fond of play; and many of
their actions were not a little ludicrous. During the day they seemed
to prefer a dark corner for repose, and generally resorted to the spot
to which they had been accustomed, although they would change it on
a sudden, apparently from mere caprice. They did not appear to like
deep water, but enjoyed exceedingly a bathe in shallow water, with a
turf of grass placed in one corner of the pan; they seldom remained
longer than ten or fifteen minutes in the water at one time. Though
apparently nocturnal, or at least preferring the cool and dusky evening
to the glare and heat of noon, their movements in this respect were
so irregular as to furnish no grounds for a definite conclusion. They
slept much; and it frequently happened that one slept whilst the other
was running about; and this occurred at almost all periods of the day.
They climbed with great readiness to the summit of a book-case, and
thus, by means of their strong cutaneous muscles and of their claws,
mounting with much expedition to the top. Their food consisted of bread
soaked in water, chopped eggs, and meat minced very small, and they did
not seem to prefer milk to water.”

Mr. Foulerton states that the natives are seldom successful in catching
the Water Moles alive, although in some places in the rivers and creeks
of New England they are so numerous that from fifteen to eighteen have
been shot in an afternoon. In the dark, rocky, shady rivers they may
be seen at any time of the day, but in more open places seldom before
sunset. He failed to see any young ones, and believes that they keep
them concealed until near their maturity. They are very active in the
water, and are more frequently under than above the surface. He never
saw one leave the water, and states that they made very poor progress
on land. As a rule they are to be found in good fellowship with the
Australian Water Rat (_Hydromys chrysogaster_).

The young Water Moles are naked, and have a short beak with fleshy and
smooth edges, and this conformation enables them to seize the space
on the mother whence the milk comes, for there are no nipples. Their
tongue is large and assists in the sucking also.

[Illustration: JAWS OF THE DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.

(_After Waterhouse._)

(A) Upper, (B) Lower Jaw; (_a_) Molar Teeth; (_b_) Narrow Anterior
Teeth; (_c_) Tongue; (_d_) Integument projecting from Jaw; (_e_)
Transverse Ridges on Covering of Beak.
]

The most curious feature in the Ornithorhynchus is the snout in the
form of a beak. This is flat and broadest in front where it is rounded.
It is hard, and is covered with a skin full of pores, and on each side
this skin overlaps the sides to form a kind of fringe or flexible
cheek, and this free membrane is carried round the front. Where this
skin comes to the head, it forms a wide fold, which flaps over the
front of the head and throat, and is a capital protection when the
creature is grubbing in the wet banks or burrowing, and evidently
protects the face and the eyes from injury. The nostrils are close to
the extremity of the snout. In the lower jaw, or part of the beak-like
snout, there are some ridges, which mark it crosswise from the mouth
to the outside, and corresponding structures may be noticed in a Duck,
their use being to provide grooves or spaces through which water may
pour out of the mouth when the creature is feeding on soft mud and wet
substances. Inside the mouth there is a pouch in the cheek, one on each
side, and this is to retain food. It has four teeth in the upper and
four in the lower jaw, but they are horny and made up of tubes; the
front ones are long and narrow, and the others are oblong and oval in
form, with a hollow crown. Moreover, the tongue, as in some reptiles,
has horny teeth on it. The eyes of the creature are small and brown,
and are situated close to the beak, and they look upwards. The ear is
hidden by the fur, but it is none the less sharp of hearing. As may
be gleaned from the notice of its habits, the animal has great power
of swimming but not much of running, although the limbs are short.
The fore-feet have five toes, nearly equal in length, the first being
rather the shortest, and all have solid and rounded claws. The toes are
webbed, and the fold of skin even extends in front of the claws when
swimming is going on, but is folded back in digging. In the hind-feet
the web does not extend farther than the base of the claws, and there
is a spur on the heel, which is movable and sharp. It is found on the
adult males in perfection, and it may be useful as well as ornamental.
On carefully examining the under and lower part of the body, the milk
or mammary glands are to be seen, and there is no proper nipple; but
when suckling, the swelling of the gland produces an eminence, which
can be grasped by the wide, open, and soft beak of the young.

[Illustration: FORE (A) AND HIND (B) FOOT OF THE DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.

(_After Waterhouse._)

(_a_) Spur on Heel of Hind Foot.]

[Illustration: SHOULDER-GIRDLE AND STERNUM OF THE ECHIDNA.

(_a_) T-shaped interclavicle; (_b_) Manubrium; (_c_) Ensiform end of
sternum; (_d_) Cartilages of ribs; (_e_) Scapula; (_f_) Coracoid;
(_g_) Epicoracoid.
]

It was thought that this bird-like creature laid eggs, but the point
was not easy to determine. (See Postscript, page 234.) It has a double
uterus, leading to the common canal, called urogenital, and this
ends in the common outlet. The Ornithorhynchus and Echidna have an
arrangement of the bones of the shoulder and chest, which resembles to
a certain extent that of the Lizards and of the Ichthyosaurus, and the
annexed engraving will explain the position of the bones. Indeed, the
most important peculiarity in the skeleton of the Monotremes is that of
the shoulder-girdle and upper part of the chest; for a bone, the merest
vestiges of which are noticed in some of the Mammalia, occurs, that is
of some importance in the great groups of birds and reptiles, which
are lower in the animal scale than the Vertebrata already described.
In all the animals described hitherto, and including the Marsupiata,
the large arm bone (humerus) is jointed at the shoulder with the blade
bone, or scapula. The socket in this bone, which receives the somewhat
ball-shaped top of the humerus, in order to permit of very general
motion, is a part of the scapula, and is called the glenoid cavity; but
in the Monotremes a bone called the coracoid joins with the scapula,
and forms part of the socket; moreover, this coracoid is long enough
to reach the breast bone, or sternum. The breast bone in the Mammalia
hitherto noticed consists of an expanded part at its fore end (in
the usual position of quadrupeds), or at its top in man, called the
manubrium, and of some smaller pieces, which form the front bone of
the chest and reach to the belly, having ribs attached to them on each
side. This is the state of things in the Monotremes; and the coracoids
are attached to the manubrium, one on each side. In other Mammalia it
is the collar bone which is jointed there. In addition to these breast
bones in the Monotremes, there are other bones in front, or between
the neck and the top of the manubrium. Firstly, there is a bone in the
shape of a =T=: the lower point is on the breast bone, and the
cross-bar supports a collar bone on each side, which reaches outwards
to the blade bone. Secondly, there is a bone on each side in front of
the coracoid, reaching forwards towards the neck. This is called the
epicoracoid. Some of these bones, now noticed for the first time, are
more or less common to birds, reptiles, and amphibians.

[Illustration: DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.]

There are some other anatomical points which ally the Monotremes to
the reptiles. For instance, the peg on the second, or axis vertebra of
the neck, is not fixed to the bone by true bony matter, and some of
the ribs which exist in the neck in the Monotremes are separate from
the vertebræ until late in life, or altogether. And the cavity for
jointing of the thigh bone with the pelvis (the acetabulum) is not
perfect, there being a part of it not filled with bony matter.

The ear is singularly simple in its construction in this sub-order, and
the cochlea is not coiled into a spiral; moreover, there is no external
ear.

The hemispheres of the brain, which are convoluted in the Echidnas,
are smooth in the Ornithorhynchus, and in both the central commissure,
or corpus callosum, just exists, whilst the anterior one is large. The
Ornithorhynchus inhabits Van Diemen’s Land and Australia, as far north
as Queensland inclusive.

The Echidna and the Ornithorhynchus belong to a sub-order of the
Marsupialia which, whilst it has some structures resembling those
of the sub-order of Marsupiata, possesses others which link it with
the birds and reptiles. This sub-order is the lowest amongst the
Mammalia, and the animals which are included in it have the following
peculiarities:--The marsupial bones are present, the uterus is double,
and the young are not nourished when within the parent by a placenta;
there is no inflection of the lower jaw; the shoulder-girdle has
additional bones; there are no true nipples; the teeth are either
absent or horny; the external ear is not present, and there is not a
true pouch. The excretion of the kidneys and the contents of the bowels
fall into one receptacle, through which the young also pass. It is
called a cloaca, and receives the outlets of the rectum and urogenital
canal. The presence of the spur on the heel is also a peculiarity.

A fossil Echidna has been discovered in deposits on the Darling Downs.

The Echidnas form one genus and the Ornithorhynchus another, and the
classification of the whole is as follows:--

ORDER MARSUPIALIA.
SUB-ORDER MONOTREMATA.
Genus Echidna.
Genus Ornithorhynchus.

In concluding this Natural History of the Marsupiata and Monotremata,
it is necessary to direct attention to the fact that they are less well
defined than the other great groups of the Mammalia. As sub-orders,
they are very artificial, for some of their most important structural
peculiarities are deficient in some of the genera. The inflected lower
jaw is not invariably found, the marsupium does not always exist, and
the marsupial bones differ in shape and size, and are occasionally
absent. With regard to these bones or cartilages, they are not
connected with the pouch, but with the muscular system of the belly.
They have been shown by Huxley to be present in Crocodiles, and in the
amphibian called the Salamander. Hence these structures are relics
of a remote ancestry, and have but slight functional importance. The
authorities whence I have derived most of this Natural History are
Waterhouse, Owen, Huxley, Bennett, Gould, and Kreeft, to whom I am
under great obligations.

P. MARTIN DUNCAN.

_Postscript._--Mr. W. H. Caldwell has discovered that the Monotremes
lay eggs as has been suspected, and he has traced the development of
the animal during the hatching. The eggs resemble those of a Reptile
more than a Mammal, and the yolk is in such excess that it is not all
subdivided during the early stages of the embryo of the Monotreme,
but some remains over and above, upon which it is nourished in the
early stages within the egg. The heart of Ornithorhynchus paradoxus is
interesting because Meckel, and, subsequently, Prof. E. Ray Lankester,
F.R.S., have shown that it differs from that of the higher Mammalia,
and is not without considerable resemblance in some of the valvular
structures to the hearts of Birds and Crocodiles. The last-named
naturalist states that the reflux of blood into the right auricle
on contraction of the ventricle, is not prevented by the presence
of the special structure seen in Mammals, but by an arrangement
which is observed in Reptiles and Birds. The mitral valve is with
three divisions instead of two, as in the higher Mammalia, but the
tendinous structures seen in this last group, to terminate the muscular
structures, do not exist in the Monotreme. This increase of the
muscular structure is not so palpable in Echidna. It is interesting to
know that the special structures of the right side of the heart in the
adult Ornithorhynchus are seen in the embryonic condition of the higher
Mammalia.

[Illustration: IMPERIAL EAGLE.]

THE CLASS AVES.--THE BIRDS.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTION--WING-STRUCTURE AND FEATHERS--DISTRIBUTION.

Introduction--Distinctive Characters of the Class Aves--Power of
Flight--The Wing--Its Structure--The Six Zoo-geographical Regions of
the Earth--Birds peculiar to these Regions.

The study of birds is almost an instinct in an Englishman: from peasant
to noble, an innate affection for the feathered songsters seems to
prevail; so that whether it be in a stately aviary or in a little cage
outside a cottage door, birds are found to be the constant companions
of man throughout the length and breadth of the land. And it is
possible that no other country in the world possesses such a number
of birds, in proportion to its size, as does Great Britain. Any one
travelling on the continent of Europe cannot fail to notice how few
birds meet his eye; and although they may be there, and may be found
by a little searching for, they do not form such a prominent feature
of a walk as they do in England or Scotland. Even the toiler in large
towns has but to get a little way into the nearest fields to hear the
cheering song of the Skylark or the Thrush, or to be amused with the
bustling and active habits of the Starling, or those of the more sedate
and cautious Rook. It is certain that a study of the habits of birds
will always repay the student, who may see in the feathered favourites
which are around him many a little bright example to be followed, if
he read the lesson aright. Birds teach us many things--perseverance,
fidelity, parental affection, thrift, cleanliness, and many other
domestic virtues, which are to be seen carried out in their life in
the greatest perfection. In the following pages the birds will be
passed in review, and the habits of some of the most striking and
important forms will be detailed. But, although every species and genus
cannot be noticed here, it is necessary to assure the student that
in every country--even in England, where so much has been done for
Ornithology--he will find an ample reward in the study of all birds;
and that even the commonest species cannot be neglected, for there is
always something new to learn and to record in their life-history.
To quote Dr. A. E. Brehm, one of the most accomplished observers of
nature, who, carefully trained by his father, a true naturalist also,
has studied the feathered tribes in many climes:--

“He who is only half at home with nature on this earth of ours will be
able approximately to appreciate the feelings with which the naturalist
wanders and travels from place to place: wherever he may be he finds
friendly forms. For years he has silently watched the interior economy
and household arrangements of animated nature, and yet he has not seen
all; and on this account he is never in want of employment. Every bird
is a personal friend: the old ones he knows almost as well as he knows
himself, and the new ones must be studied. How much more is there yet
to observe! Rich as he may be in experiences, every fresh ramble brings
him fresh mental treasure. The relations existing between him and the
bird become each day more and more intimate; he knows the lives and
habits of each: when each arrives, or takes its departure: where is
its abode: how it is made: when it is occupied by a happy troop of
nestlings: when deserted. The naturalist knows his friends by their
notes, flight, and bearing. In his eye the bird never ceases to exist:
alive or dead it is always interesting in his eyes, for in either case
the bird is associated with a poesy of feeling in creative nature which
he would put into words. Every new bird raises his spirits a step
higher; every fresh discovery is a step onward in the knowledge of the
ways and means of all things. He is indebted to his friends for many a
happy hour; their lives are a pattern worthy of imitation.”[132]

Here, then, we may ask--What is a bird? How can a bird be told from all
other Vertebrate animals? The chief character which distinguishes the
class of birds is undoubtedly _the clothing of the body with feathers_.
Other characters they also possess, but not exclusively. For instance,
they have the power of flight developed in the greatest degree: but
there are some birds, such as the Apteryx, the Ostrich, and the
Cassowary, which cannot fly at all; while, on the other hand, there are
flying mammals, such as Bats, Flying Squirrels, and there are flying
reptiles, which can progress through the air by means of flight. Again,
birds lay the eggs from which they produce their young; but so do many
reptiles and fish: so that this cannot be considered a prerogative of
the class of birds. Their bill is hard and sheathed in horn; but so
is that of the Duck-billed Platypus (page 231), an animal belonging
to the Monotreme Mammals; and Turtles also have beaks. Most, but not
all, birds build nests; and in this they stand almost alone among the
higher animals; but nest-building propensities are developed in many of
the Mammalia--in the Lemurs and Mice, for instance--while it cannot be
assigned as a habit peculiar to birds, as the wonderful nests made by
some fish conclusively prove.

All birds, whether they fly or not, are clothed with feathers, and this
distinguishes the class _Aves_ in the existing state of nature. The
majority are specially adapted for flight: and as this is undoubtedly
the most vigorous form of locomotion, the greatest muscular efforts
being required to raise and sustain a body above the ground and to
propel it rapidly through the air, a large development of muscular
energy is necessary. The great strain on the circulation of the blood
is met by a heart not only as complete as in the Mammalia, but with
stronger and a peculiar valvular mechanism for propelling that fluid
vigorously through the body. Moreover, in addition to their lungs,
birds possess a singular provision of air-receptacles within the body,
and these are connected with a series of cavities, also filled with
air, which occupy the interior of most of the bones. These cavities
serve not only to give lightness to the bird’s body, but they also
assist the lungs in aërating the blood, so that birds may be said to
enjoy a double respiration. As birds exceed mammals in the activity of
their breathing and circulatory system, so also they possess a higher
degree of animal heat, their temperature ranging from 106° to 112°
Fahr. This high temperature, which exceeds that of the Mammalia by
from 8° to 14°, is maintained by its admirable feather-clothing, which,
being a non-conductor, effectually serves to guard against any sudden
variations of temperature in the air to which its body is exposed,
during its rapid and extensive flights, as well as tempering the usual
radiation from the body.

As one might expect in the fore-limb of a creature specially organised
for suspension in, and progression through, the air, it is found that
the muscles, as well as the bones and joints, of the bird’s wing
become much modified as compared with the corresponding parts of other
animals. With all our scientific knowledge and mechanical contrivances,
no one has yet succeeded in constructing a flying machine. It is a
significant fact that Nature has not only long ago solved this problem,
but that she has done so in several ways. The flight of an insect, of
a bird, of a bat, is equally perfect in its way: but in each case the
result is attained by very different modifications in the skeletal and
muscular apparatus. The principal resistance that a flying animal has
to work against is its weight: that is, the force of gravity which,
proportionately to its mass, tends to draw it down vertically towards
the earth; hence the muscles which are largest and strongest in a bird
are those which pull down the wing against the air, thereby raising the
body and overcoming its weight.

[Illustration: BONES OF WING OF BIRD.

(_After Sundevall._)

(_a_) Humerus; (B) Cubitus; (_c_) Ulna; (_d_) Radius; (E) Manus, or
hand; (_f_) Carpus; (_g_, _h_, _i_) Metacarpus; (_k_) Pollex, or
thumb; (_l_) Second digit; (_m_) Third digit.
]

The chief muscle thus employed is the “great pectoral,” attached to
the large keel (or ridge) on the breast-bone, and inserted into the
“humerus,” or “arm-bone.” This “great pectoral” is generally the
largest muscle in the bird’s body, and in fact often equals in bulk all
the other muscles put together.

The wing is _opened out_ by straightening the elbow and the
wrist-joints. The former process is effected by the contraction of the
_triceps_; the latter chiefly by the action of the so-called “radial
extensors,” and by the elasticity of the long “tensor,” or ligament,
which comes from the shoulder muscles along the front border of the
anterior wing-membrane, and is attached to the base of the thumb, at
the front side of the wrist.

The wing is _folded_ by the bending of the elbow and the adduction of
the wrist-joints. The elbow is bent principally by the contraction of
the “biceps” and the “internal brachial,” the wrist-joint chiefly by
the contraction of the “hand-adductor,” and of the “ulnar wrist-flexor.”

As already stated, the possession of feathers is one of the most
characteristic features in a bird. These beautiful structures are
modifications of the skin, just as are the scales of the feet and
the claws of the toes. Feathers and hairs, scales and claws, are all
produced out of, and are modifications of, the cells of the upper
skin, or _epidermis_, and of the under, or true skin, or _cutis_. The
feathers differ much in their minute construction in some birds; and
all those of a bird are of course not of the same size and shape, but
they have the following parts in common.

[Illustration: FEATHERS OF WING OF BIRD. (_After Sundevall._)

(A) Feathers of the manus, or primary quills; (B) Feathers of
the _cubitus_, or secondary quills; (C) Coverts of the manus, or
primary-coverts; (D) Lesser primary-coverts; (E) Coverts of the
_cubitus_, or secondary-coverts; (F) Median coverts; (G) Lesser
coverts; (H) Feathers of the thumb, or bastard wing.
]

A feather consists of a quill, a shaft, barbs, and barbules: moreover,
there may be a kind of accessory part, often in the shape of a downy
tuft, close to the junction of the shaft and the quill. The shaft
(_scapus_) or axis of every perfect feather (_penna_) is divided into
the quill (_calamus_), the hollow cylinder (_d_), which is partly
embedded in a sac of the skin, and the true shaft (_rachis_, _a_),
which bears on each side the lateral processes called barbs (_rami_
or _radii_). The rachis and the barbs together are known as the
vane (_vexillum_), and, in fact, form what is commonly known as the
“feather” in contradistinction to the “quill.” The barbs (_c_, _c_,
_c_, _c_) are narrow plates, or laminæ, “tapering to points at their
free ends, and attached by their bases on each side of the rachis.
The edges of these barbs are directed upwards and downwards, when the
_vexillum_ of the feather is horizontal The interstices between the
barbs are filled up by the _barbules_, pointed processes, which stand
in the same relation to the barbs as the barbs do to the rachis. The
barbules themselves may be laterally serrated and terminated by little
hooks, which interlock with the hooks of the opposed barbules. In very
many birds each quill bears two _vexilla_; the second, called the
_aftershaft_ (_b_) (_hyporachis_), being attached on the under side of
the first,”[133] close to the junction of the shaft with the quills.

In all the feathers of the Ratitæ, and in the case of all but the
contour feathers in other birds, there are no barbules to the barbs.
The pennæ are ordinarily arranged in definite patches, or areas on
the bird, and the shape and size of these, and their relation to one
another, differ in many birds.

The _aftershaft_ (_b_) is ordinarily a smaller _vexillum_, which is
attached to the under side of the larger one at about the point where
the rounded quill passes into the stem.

It is not necessary to notice these important characteristic structures
more fully now, as they will have to be considered in explaining the
distinctions between the great groups of birds, and we pass on to
notice that the same kinds of birds are not found everywhere, but that
they have, as groups, a remarkable geographical distribution.

In the following pages the distribution of birds is often alluded to,
although it will naturally be impossible to discuss, within these
limits, all the various phases of the study which the geographical
distribution of the feathered tribes opens up to us. At the same time
sufficient evidence will be given to show that birds are not scattered
without order over the earth, but are more or less restricted to
certain spots.

[Illustration: PARTS OF A FEATHER. (_After Nitzsch._)]

The six natural history or distributional provinces into which the
world is ordinarily divided by modern naturalists were determined,
first of all, from the study of the birds; and in fixing the boundaries
of each division the wading birds and many swimming birds must be left
out of the question, as they are creatures of such very extensive
flight, and wander almost from pole to pole. A natural region,
therefore, can be marked only by its resident forms of bird life, or
at the most by the birds which breed within its limits; and the six
regions alluded to provide us with many excellent reasons for believing
that they possess well-defined physical boundaries. No Capercailzie,
for instance, was ever found out of the _Palæarctic_[134] region, which
comprises Europe and the greater part of Asia above the line of the
Himalayas and the Yangtze-kiang River in China. This region is also
characterised by a large number of Buntings, Warblers, Grouse, &c.
In the _Nearctic_[135] region there is a certain similarity to the
European and Siberian Avifauna, Grouse, Ptarmigan, Waxwings, Magpies,
Ravens, &c., being commonly found throughout the two regions. North
America possesses, however, several forms peculiar to itself, though
it is by no means so rich in species as is the _Neotropical_[136]
region, which commences south of a line drawn through Northern Mexico,
and includes the whole of Central and Southern America. Within this
large area are contained whole families of birds, such as Toucans,
Mot-mots, the vast majority of the Humming-birds, Trogons, besides
innumerable genera of Tanagers and other forms, so that this region is
by far the richest in the world as regards bird life. The _Ethiopian_
region embraces all Africa below the Sahara Desert and Madagascar:
Plaintain-eaters, &c., are characteristic of this region. The _Indian_
region skirts the Palæarctic, and includes the remainder of Asia below
the Himalayas and the Yangtze-kiang; the Malayan Peninsula, the Sunda
Islands, and the Philippines, belong to this region, which contains
all the finest Pheasants in the world, the Impeyan Pheasant from the
Himalayas, the Tragopans, and the Lobed Pheasant of Borneo being most
beautiful creatures. Lastly, between the islands of Bali and Lombok
passes a deep sea boundary called “Wallace’s line,” which divides the
_Australian_ region from the Indian, and although these islands lie so
close together, the great depth of the channel between them seems to
mark them out as frontier lines of two ancient continents. Certain it
is that the birds and animals on each side of Wallace’s line differ
remarkably; and the Australian region, which includes all the Moluccas,
New Guinea, and Oceania, in addition to the Australian continent and
New Zealand, presents us with forms not found elsewhere, such as Birds
of Paradise, Cassowaries, Lyre-birds, and a large variety of peculiar
types. Many smaller divisions of the globe are now recognised, but the
above are the main ones, which may occasionally be referred to in these
pages.[137]

Many birds migrate, and the student of migration alone would find
sufficient material there for the work of a lifetime; and it seems
almost impossible to account for the instinct or other causes which
bring birds regularly year by year to breed in the same haunts, and
which drive them away at the same change of season. Why is it, for
instance, that species of similar habits and form, and both visiting
Europe in equal abundance, should occupy such different winter
quarters? Yet the common Red-backed Shrike, or Butcher-bird (_Lanius
collyrio_), when he is said to leave Europe, passes by the Nile Valley
along the east coast of Africa down to the Cape, where he brings up
a second brood of nestlings; while the Wood-Chat Shrike (_Lanius
auriculatus_), a bird of about the same size and of precisely similar
habits, proceeds down the Nile Valley and invades Abyssinia in the
winter, and also occupies Senegambia, where a Red-backed Shrike has
never been found yet by a naturalist. Nothing whatever is known by
which route the bird gets to the Gambia: whether he follows the same
one as his red-backed relation as far as Abyssinia, and then skirts the
southern edge of the Sahara, or whether he reaches north-western Africa
by a direct flight across the Great Desert. Many other such problems
in the economy of our most familiar species are still awaiting further
scientific research.

CHAPTER II.

THE ANATOMY OF A BIRD.[138]

The Three Divisions of the Class Aves--ANATOMY OF A
BIRD--The Skeleton--Distinctive Features--Peculiar Bone
Character--The Skull--Difference between the Skull of
Birds and that of Mammals--The Jawbones--Vertebral
Column--Sternum--Fore-limbs--Hind-limbs--Toes--The
Muscular System--How a Bird remains Fixed when Asleep--The
Oil-gland--The Nervous System--The Brain--The Eye--The
Ear--The Digestive System--The Dental papillæ--The
Beak--Tongue--Gullet--Crop--Stomach--Uses of the
Gizzard--Intestine--The Liver, Pancreas, and Spleen--The Blood
and Circulatory System--Temperature of Blood of a Bird--Blood
Corpuscles--The Heart--The Respiratory System--Lungs--Air-sacs--The
Organs of Voice--The Egg--Classification of the Class Aves.

Birds may be separated into three great divisions: the _Carinatæ_, or
birds with a keeled sternum, the _Ratitæ_, or birds having a raft-like
sternum, and the _Saururæ_, or lizard-like birds. The last of these
orders links the birds with the reptiles, and does not concern us here,
as it contains only one genus, and that a fossil one, the _Archæopteryx
lithographica_, respecting which a few words will be found at the end
of this article (Vol. IV., pp. 236-8). The other two divisions are of
great importance, and are easily recognisable, although the characters
which separate them are chiefly anatomical. The principal point of
difference lies in the sternum, or breast-bone, and the name _Carinatæ_
is given to all those which have a keel (_carina_) or sternal ridge
largely developed, as in the common fowl; and this is present in the
great majority of birds. The _Ratitæ_ have not got this keel, and in
this division are found the Struthious birds--Ostriches, Cassowaries,
&c. They are all species which cannot fly; and although the number at
present existing is small, the fact of their being found at widely
distant parts of the earth--in South America, in Africa, and again in
Australia--would seem to indicate that they were once more plentifully
distributed, and that they are remains of what was formerly a large
and important group. To these Ratite birds belonged also the extinct
gigantic Moas of New Zealand, and the _Æpyornis_ of Madagascar.

Before proceeding further, it will be necessary to give a brief outline
of the principal anatomical features of a bird’s body. On examining
either the general features of the skeleton, or the minute characters
of many of the bones of which it is made up, in such a bird as a Hawk,
for example, we are arrested by those remarkable arrangements by which
this part of the body is adapted to the mode of life of its possessor.
Here, however, as in so many instances, we have to distinguish between
what is characteristic of the bird as a flying animal, and what is
more or less common to it and other vertebrate animals, and does not
especially relate to peculiar habits. We may well be struck by the
marvellous power which birds have, and which man has not, and it is
curious to notice how man’s aspirations have ever been associated with
it. Without pausing to observe that painters always endow spirits with
wings, or that the imaginative genius of the French has emboldened them
to form a “Société d’Encouragement pour la Locomotion Aérienne,” we may
find in the words of Faust definite expression of what man feels with
regard to the law by which he is held down to earth:--

“Ich eile fort, ihr ew’ges Licht zu trinken,
Vor mir den Tag und hinter mir die Nacht,
Den Himmel über mir, und unter mir die Wellen.
Ein schöner Traum, indessen sie entweicht.
Ach! zu des Geistes Flügeln wird so leicht
Kein körperlicher Flügel sich gesellen.
Doch ist es jedem eingeboren,
Dass sein Gefühl hinauf und vorwärts dringt,
Wenn über uns, im blauen Raum verloren,
Ihr schmetternd Lied die Lerche singt,
Wenn über schroffen Fichtenhöhen
Der Adler ausgebreitet schwebt,
Und über Flächen, über Seen
Der Kranich nach der Heimat strebt.”[139]

Inspired by feelings such as those so powerfully expressed in Goethe’s
lines, numerous naturalists have treated of the bird as though the
powers of flight were confined to it, and were not shared by Bees and
Bats in the present, and by Pterodactyles in the past. With this word
of comment, which it is even still necessary to insist upon, attention
should be given to the following avian characters:--The anterior limbs
do not touch the ground, and the bones which compose them are adapted
for carrying the feathers of the wing; the breast-bone is not only
elongated, but has its central portion developed (except in the Ratitæ)
into a strong keel, the better to permit insertion of the muscles
by which the fore-limb is moved; the small bones (vertebræ) in the
region of the back are fixed firmly together, and are not, as in man
or in the Ostrich, movable on one another; while those which succeed
them are often welded into one mass with the greatly-developed upper
bones (_ilia_) of the pelvic girdle; and the hinder vertebræ develop
an upstanding plate (ploughshare bone) which gives support to the
_rectrices_, or so-called steering feathers of the tail. It will have
been seen that the ordinary seizing organ of man (the hand) has in
birds been modified to serve another purpose; but this is made up for,
not only by the character of the beak, but by the long and flexible
neck, and in some by the grasping toes.

Before describing in detail the characters of the different parts of
the skeleton, it is to be noted that many of the bones are not, as in
the Mammalia, filled with marrow, but with air; a large cavity may,
for example, be seen in the upper bone (_humerus_) of the wing of the
common fowl. It is obvious that the specific gravity, or weight of the
bird, is thus largely reduced, while the connection between these
air-spaces and those which are derived from the lungs enables the
contained air to undergo the necessary exchanges with the surrounding
medium.

It was long ago observed by the famous German anatomist, Johannes
Müller, that “it has often been a subject for complaint that the
anatomical characters of birds are so constant that they are of but
slight assistance in the labours of the zoologist.” The truth of this
will very forcibly strike any one who comes to the study of the skulls
of birds, after having examined a series of skulls in mammals, so that
the seemingly trivial variations to which anatomists have directed
attention are in truth those which are, in birds, often of the most
importance.

[Illustration: SKELETON OF EAGLE. (_Reduced. After
Milne-Edwards._)

(_p_) Pelvis; (_c_) Coracoid; (_dr_) Dorsal ribs; (_sr_) Sternal
ribs; (_up_) Uncinate processes; (_co_) Coccyx; (_r_) Radius; (_u_)
Ulna; (_d_) first phalanx of chief digit of the wing; (_d′_) second
phalanx of chief digit of the wing; (_d″_) Phalanges of lower digit;
(_d‴_) Pollex; (_ca_) Carpus; (_f_) Femur; (_fu_) Furcula; (_h_)
Humerus; (_pp_) Postorbital process; (_tm_) Tarso-metatarsus; (_m_)
Metatarsus; (_ma_) Lower jaw; (_me_) Metacarpus; (_s_) Scapula;
(_pa_) Phalanges of foot; (_fi_) Fibula; (_pt_) Patella; (_st_)
Sternum; (_ti_) Tibia.
]

The skull, then, is, as compared with the rest of the body, small; but
that portion which contains the brain is relatively larger to the face
than it is in any living mammal. The orbits, or cavities in which lie
the eyes, are very deep, in consequence of the small extent to which
the walls of the brain-case extend forwards. The cavities of each side
are separated by a partition (_inter-orbital septum_), which is more
or less bony; the nasal bones are short, so that the nasal orifices
(anterior _nares_) are placed near to where the beak joins the face. Of
the four bones which bound the great opening at the back of the skull
for the passage of the spinal cord, three take part in the formation
of the single ball-like projection, or condyle, by which the skull
is hinged on the vertebral column. In this point, the skull of birds
offers a striking point of dissimilarity to that of mammals, in which
there are two condyles, one on each side of the great opening (_of_).
Another point in which birds do not resemble mammals is in the mode
by which the lower jaw is hinged on the skull. This is in the case of
birds effected by a bone, which, being more or less square in shape,
has gained the name of the _quadrate_ (_q_). In mammals the skull
proper and the lower jaw are directly connected. This quadrate bone is
connected by a long narrow bar (_quadrato-jugal_) with the bones which
go to form the “beak,” and also, by a narrow bone directed inwards,
with the bones which lie in the middle line of the base of the skull,
and form the hard palate. The connections between these bones are often
of such a kind as to allow of the upper jaw, or upper half of the beak,
being movable on the rest of the skull, the upper bones of which are so
completely united together as to form a very firm point of support. In
the Parrots this arrangement is carried to an extreme, for the slender
bones (nasals and processes of the pre-maxillaries) which connect the
upper jaw with the bones of the brain-case form with them a distinct
joint, and so allow of that large amount of vertical movement which
will have been observed in these birds. The pre-maxillary bones (_pm_),
which are so small in mammals, are very largely developed in birds,
giving off, as they do, three processes: one to the _frontal bone_ (or
fore-bone of the brain-case), one along the hard palate, and another
externally to form the margin of the beak. The parts that vary most in
this bone-group are the bones which make up the hard palate. Of these,
the chief are the so-called _palatines_ (_p_) and the _maxillaries_;
the former are united by an articular surface with the bone which forms
the anterior part of the base of the brain-case, while there is in the
middle a narrow bone, which, from its shape in man, has received the
name of the _vomer_ (ploughshare, _v_). The maxillary bones develop
horizontal plates, which have the palate below and the nasal chamber
above them.[140]

The lower jaw (_ma_) is composed of six pieces of bone on each
side--the dentary, angular, surangular, coronoid, splenial, and
articular. The upper part of the joint is concave.

The tongue is in relation, as regards its support and movements, to
the _hyoid_ bones, which will be especially noticed in describing the
Woodpecker.

[Illustration: SKULL OF YOUNG OSTRICH FROM ABOVE (A) AND FROM BELOW (B).

(_After Owen._)

(_of_) Occipital foramen; (_so_) Supraoccipital; (_eo_) Exoccipital;
(_q_) Quadrate; (_pa_) Parietal; (_pp_) Pterygoid process; (_f_)
Frontal; (_e_) Ethmoid; (_n_) Nasal; (_pm_) Premaxillary; (_m_)
Malar; (_p_) Palatine; (_v_) Vomer; (_im_) Intermaxillary; (_l_)
Lachrymal bones.
]

Turning to the vertebral column, we find a number of small bones,
complicated in form, and more or less movable on one another. For
convenience of description they may be divided into those which belong
to the neck (_cervical vertebræ_), to the trunk (_dorsal vertebræ_), to
the _sacrum_ (so-called because it was offered in sacrifices!), or to
the tail (_caudal vertebræ_). As has been observed already, the first
of these, or the region of the neck, is very long, and is always long
enough for the beak to be able to reach to the base of the tail. In
birds, unlike mammals, the number of these cervical vertebræ may be
as low as nine, or as high as twenty-four. The first of them, which
is known as the _atlas_, has on its front face a rounded cavity into
which fits the single projecting condyle, which was spoken of as being
found at the back of the skull; and this condyle, being well rounded,
is easily able to turn in the cavity which it fits, and the head is
thereby capable of a large amount of movement. In the succeeding
vertebræ it is possible to make out a body, an upper arch, through
which passes the spinal cord, which meets above in the middle line, and
is produced into a more or less long spinous process set horizontally
to the “body,” and others directed forwards and backwards, so as to
connect each vertebra with its neighbours; and lastly, a lower arch,
the two halves of which are not connected below, but are converted
into the more or less long ribs. As these vertebræ are so small it is
clear that if their spines were long the free movement of the neck
would be greatly impeded, and they are therefore in many cases little
more than projecting processes. This free movement is further greatly
aided by the characters of the two faces of the body (or _centrum_)
of each vertebra; the face of each is saddle-shaped, that is to say,
the anterior face is concave from side to side, and convex from above
downwards, while the reverse of this is seen on the posterior face; in
addition to this the vertebræ are separated by a disc of cartilage from
one another. The region of the neck is, broadly speaking, distinguished
from that which succeeds it by the fact that the ribs connected with
its vertebræ do not reach to the sternum, or breast-bone. In all birds
which are capable of flight this dorsal region has its parts firmly
united together, and the same holds for the parts which follow, till
we reach the region of the tail, where the more anterior vertebræ are
movable on one another, so as, perhaps, to serve in aid of the steering
organ formed by the rectrices, or feathers (_co_). In all living birds
the caudal vertebræ are a good deal shorter than the body, but in the
fossil _Archæopteryx_ they are longer.

The only important point to note with regard to the ribs, is the
presence on some of them of backwardly directed hooked processes (_up_,
fig. on p. 241), which aid in giving firmness to the thoracic region.
The number of ribs is variable, but there is never a large number
connected with the dorsal vertebræ, as there are in some Carnivora, in
Hyrax, and in the Horse.

[Illustration: STERNUM OF FREGILUPUS VARIUS. (_After Murie._)

(_cl_) Clavicle; (_sc_) Scapula; (_co_) Coracoid; (_cs_) Keel of
Sternum.
]

The fore and hind limbs are connected to the body by a series of
bones, which form the breast and hip girdles respectively; with
the former series is also connected that large, long bone with its
sharply-projecting ridge (_is_), which is known as the breast-bone, or
sternum, and in the depressions on which so much muscle is collected.
This sharply-projecting ridge to the sternum, which is known as the
carina, or “keel” (_cs_), is found only in the flying birds, though
here and there, as in the Parrot of New Zealand (_Strigops_), it is
very rudimentary. The lower edge of the bone is often imperfect, so
that, as in the fowl, there are two deep clefts on each side, or
there may be but a single cleft, and this again may be converted into
a rounded space; in all cases these clefts or holes are covered, or
filled by membrane, during the life of the animal. Projecting in front
of the sternum, and often intimately connected with it, are the two
clavicles (_cl_), which unite in the middle line to form the bone of
childhood’s delight--the furcula, or “merrythought.” Above, this bone
is connected with two bones, one of which, called the coracoid (_c_),
descends on each side to fit into a depression on the upper edge of
the sternum, while the other, known as the scapula, or shoulder-blade
(_sc_), is set at an angle to the coracoid. The scapula has a backward
and downward direction; while it may be noted that among mammals the
coracoid is well developed only in _Echidna_ and _Ornithorhynchus_.
These two last bones form, at their point of junction, a cavity into
which is fitted the head of the long bone of the arm (wing). In the
Ratitæ, it must be observed, these two bones are not set at an angle to
one another, and they become more firmly united together.

[Illustration: PELVIS OF AN ADULT FOWL, SIDE VIEW. (_Reduced._)

(_After W. K. Parker._)

(_il_) Ilium; (_is_) Ischium; (_pb_) Pubes; (_dl_) Dorso-lumbar
vertebræ; (_cd_) Caudal vertebræ; (_am_) Acetabulum.
]

As in all the vertebrate animals except fishes, the fore-limb may be
divided into three parts (fig. on p. 237)--upper arm, in which there
is one bone, the humerus (_a_); fore arm, in which there are two,
radius (_d_) and ulna (_c_); and hand (E), which can again be
divided into three parts, which in man would be called wrist, palm,
and fingers. Now, in some animals the wrist-bones may be ten in
number, and the palm-bones five, while the number of small bones in
the fingers varies a good deal, but the number of fingers is _five_.
In most birds all these numbers are reduced. Just beyond the fore
arm, the larger bone of which has often small projections indicating
the points at which the secondary feathers have been attached, there
are two small bones (_f_), then comes a longer bone (_g h i_), as it
seems, in which there is an elongated space. Now, this bone consists
of three metacarpals and one wrist-bone; the two outer metacarpals are
absent, the two innermost ones have completely united with one another,
and with the (true) middle metacarpal bone at their upper end; while
the second and third metacarpals are also united at the other--or
finger--end. The inner digit (_k_), or that which corresponds to man’s
thumb, has two joints (_phalanges_), and may be clawed; the next has
three joints, and may also be clawed; while the third finger, which
has never more than two joints, is never known to carry a claw. In
the _Archæopteryx_ the metacarpal bones are well developed, and are
not, as in recent birds, united together. No idea of a bird’s flying
powers can be fairly gathered from the length of the hand, for it is
long in Swifts and short in Albatrosses, for example; although it is to
be noted that in the former the single bone (_humerus_) of the arm is
short, and in the latter long.

As in the breast-girdle, the bones of the hinder or hip-girdle, by
which the hind-limbs are connected with the body, are three in number;
of these the upper one is greatly flattened out and projects very far
forwards, thus aiding in the formation of the firm back of flying
birds; the other two bones are much more slender, and are directed
backwards and downwards. It is a curious circumstance that it is in
one bird only, in either case, that these bones are directly connected
at their lower ends with their fellow on the opposite side; those
which are known as the _pubes_ (_pb_) are so in the African Ostrich,
and those which are known as the _ischia_ (_is_) in the Rhea of South
America. These two bones, with the large, flat _ilia_ (_il_), take
part in forming the cavity in which the head of the thigh-bone plays;
the outer of the two bones (_fi_) which are found in the leg is rarely
as long as, and is always much more slender than the other (_ti_),
which has a strong ridge on its front face. There is yet another very
remarkable point of resemblance between birds and reptiles, in that
the “ankle-joint” is in both cases situated between the two rows of
bones which make up the “ankle” (_tarsus_). In birds this arrangement
is carried to a still further extent, for the single bone of the upper
row is early united with the shin-bone, as may be seen under those
unfortunate circumstances in which the poulterer has provided an aged
fowl (aged, that is, for eating); in more fortunate cases it will be
found possible to separate a small bone from the lower end of the
shin-bone of the leg.

In no case does any bird, even _Archæopteryx_, possess a fifth toe.
Unlike mammals, the number of joints in the toes varies greatly in
birds. In those which possess four toes we find the following number of
joints: in the first, two; in the second, three; in the third, four;
and in the fourth, five. This rule holds for nearly all birds, but the
Swifts have never more than three joints, and in the Goat-sucker and
the Sand Grouse there are two less than ordinary on the fourth toe. In
a number of birds the inner toe (big toe of man) disappears, and in the
Ostrich proper the next division of the “typically” five-toed foot, or
second toe, has no toe-joints.

In dealing with the muscular system of birds, we need here concern
ourselves with only those special muscles which are modified in
accordance with the necessities of the bird’s habits, and those other
muscles which have been brought into special notice by valuable
investigations.

That great fleshy mass which is found on the breast of a bird, and
which is not unknown to those who are fond of a good “dish,” consists
of three separate muscles, two of which depress, while the other
elevates the wing. The presence of the elevator muscle on the lower
side of the sternum is a curious arrangement by which the centre of
gravity of the animal is lowered--a most necessary condition in flight;
the tendon from this muscle passes through a pulley-like canal to
be inserted into the upper side of the head of the bone, which, as
has already been explained, is known as the humerus, so that when it
contracts it draws this bone up. The ability of the wings to resist
the pressure of the air is clearly dependent on the power possessed by
these muscles. Borelli has calculated that the “pectoral muscles” of
the bird exceed in weight all the other muscles taken together, whilst
in man the pectoral muscles are but a seventieth part of the mass of
the muscles.

The large and important muscles, which in the Mammalia, constitute the
_diaphragm_, or midriff, are ordinarily said to be absent in birds,
and, indeed, in most cases are but feebly represented. In the Ratitæ,
and especially in the New Zealand form (_Apteryx_) of this group, the
diaphragm may attain to a very fair degree of completeness, though
even here the apex of the heart is allowed to pass into the abdominal
cavity. The muscles of the back are feebly developed, as might be
imagined from the firm character of the spinal column; and as the fore
limb exhibits but slight power of _varying_ its movements, its muscles
are not well developed. Those muscles which are found in the skin are,
on the contrary, expanded into broad pieces; and special bundles are
sent to the larger feathers of the wings and of the tail, and to those
folds of skin which connect the upper arm with the trunk, and with
the fore arm, respectively. Borelli thus explains the arrangement by
which a perching bird remains fixed when asleep: A muscle which arises
from the _pubes_ bone of the hip-girdle passes over the knee, and then
takes a backward direction so as to pass behind the ankle; it thus
becomes one of the flexor muscles, by the contraction of which the
toes are flexed, or bent. When the perching bird, which, as we know,
has one of its toes directed _backwards_, is seated on a bough, the
thigh has its upper end directed backwards, while the upper joint of
the leg is turned forwards, or in other words, the two parts of the
leg have opposite directions. This arrangement acts as a contracting
influence on this muscle and its tendons, while the weight of the bird
is sufficient to preserve this condition and the consequent flexion of
the toes.

To turn to those muscles the arrangement of which has, been made the
basis of a suggested classification. In the leg of the bird there are,
among others, four muscles, the names of which are _femoro-caudal_,
_accessory femoro-caudal_, _semi-tendinosus_, and _accessory
semi-tendinosus_, any of which may be absent, but in those cases where
a single muscle only is found the first is always present; again, there
is a muscle which, from its course, is known as the _ambiens_, and
this, too, may be present or may be absent. As the presence or absence
of any of these muscles is a very constant phenomenon in any given
section of birds, it has been proposed to divide the class into those
which do, and those which do not, possess the above-named _ambiens_
muscle. In the latter group the second of the four above-named
muscles--the accessory femoro-caudal--is never present.[141]

Of all the muscles, those which act in aid of the vocal organs are of
the greatest interest, but they will be considered a little later on.

A valuable suggestion has been made, which, if followed out, may lead
us to understand how it is that the brain of the bird, which is so
simple as compared with that of man, is nevertheless capable of so much
intelligent activity. Bearing in mind the axiom that it is quality not
quantity that tells, and looking at the fact that the brain of the most
highly intelligent man is, after death, supposed to be similar to that
of the foolish and of the unwise of our race, it is obvious that the
essential difference must lie elsewhere than in the coarser, or more
evident, characters of that organ which is known as the brain. The
suggestion, then, that was made, was to the effect, that the possessors
of aviaries, in which it was possible to study the characters of birds,
should submit the brains of their deceased favourites to that more
thorough investigation which the microscope allows of. The brains of
birds vary but little in their anatomy. The optic lobes are rounded,
paired, and tubercular in the bird, and are not divided into four, as
in mammals; they are found at the lower part and sides, and not in the
upper part of the brain. The _cerebellum_ is not continued at the sides
into distinct lobes; nor are the two lobes of the brain (or _cerebral
hemispheres_) provided with those convolutions which, in mammals, seem
to increase in complexity of character as the animal rises in the scale
of intelligence. The cerebrum does not cover the cerebellum. Small as
is the brain of birds, it is found that, in many, its weight is, as
compared with that of the body, much greater than it is in man.

With reference to the spinal cord, or the continuation of the central
part of the nervous system through the vertebral column, it is
only necessary to remark that it is much increased in width at the
two regions, in which the nerves for the fore and hind limbs are
respectively given off; that there is a narrow canal running along its
centre, and that at the lower end there is a large space. In regard to
the cerebral nerves, those for the eyes are of great size.

Coming now to consider the organs of the senses, and beginning with
the eye, it is interesting to note that there are no blind birds, and,
indeed, the eyes are of a large size as compared with the brain. They
are generally placed at the sides, though the nocturnal birds of prey
(in which they are directed forwards) are an exception to this rule.
It is in very rare cases that eyelashes are present, and although they
seem to exist in the group just mentioned, it is probably more correct
to look upon them as slightly modified feathers.

If the eye be regarded as having on its front face, a part which would,
if completed, form part of a smaller circle than the rest of the eye,
it is clear that this _cornea_, or front part, would be more convex
than the rest, and that it would consequently be a “more powerful
glass,” inasmuch as it would exert a greater bending (refracting)
influence on the rays of light which pass through it, while, further,
it is clear that the more convex it is the better “glass” would it be.
Now this is just what happens in birds: the _cornea_ is very convex;
in addition to this, the long axis of the eye, on the length of which
it seems that, in many cases, the condition known as that of being
“short-sighted” depends, is very long in some birds, and notably in the
Owls.

The eye is covered in by a firm and strong membrane, which is known
as the “sclerotic;” this, in its front part, develops a number of
bony plates; of these there may be as many as twenty, and they are
capable of a certain amount of free movement on one another. What
is known as the power of accommodation depends upon the extent to
which the front face of the somewhat lens-shaped body which helps to
separate the eye into two chambers is capable of being rendered more
or less flat; this front face is covered by a membrane which is found
to be more or less taut, according to the state of contraction of the
muscles (ciliary muscles) connected with it. A very little reflection
is sufficient to show that a swiftly moving animal has the focus of
its eye, or the point at which clear vision is alone possible, changed
much more rapidly than an animal which moves more slowly. So much on
the one side. On the other, it is to be observed that muscles vary
in structure; they are either “smooth” or “striated,” and it is the
latter that contract the more rapidly. Putting these two series of
observations together, it is easy to arrive at the result that a bird
should have striated muscular fibre in its ciliary muscles, and a more
slowly moving animal like man, smooth muscular fibres; and this we find
to be the case! The _iris_ is an arrangement by which the quantity of
light admitted into the eye is enabled to be varied, and the small hole
in the centre, through which the rays of light pass, is known as the
_pupil_; this is always rounded in birds, and is never elongated as it
is in some mammals--the Cats, for example.[142]

But the most peculiar arrangement in the bird’s eye is the presence,
projecting into the hinder chamber, of a membrane in which run
blood-vessels; this, which is known as the _pecten_ (comb), or
_marsupium_ (pouch), enters the vitreous humour, which fills up this
hinder chamber by the same cleft as the optic nerve. It is folded, and
is generally of a quadrangular shape; it is not found in the eye of the
Wingless Bird of New Zealand (_Apteryx_).

[Illustration: SECTION OF THE EYE OF THE COMMON BUZZARD.

(_After Macgillivray._)

(_aa_) Sclerotic; (_bb_) Choroid Coat and Pigment; (_c_) Ciliary
Circle; (_d_) Lens; (_ee_) Iris; (_f_) Cornea; (_g_) Optic Nerve;
(_i_) Pecten.
]

A third eyelid is well developed in this class; it is an elastic
membrane (_membrana nictitans_, or winking membrane), which has not,
like the other two, a vertical movement, but is drawn obliquely over
the eye from the inner to the outer side. This movement is effected
by two special muscles, one of which arises on the inside, and below
the eyeball, and has therefore to pass over to the outer side. In
contracting, it would press on the optic nerve, were it not for the
other one, which, however, is so disposed that by its contraction it
draws away the tendon of the _pyramidalis_ muscle from pressing on the
nerve. As in ourselves, there are six special muscles for moving the
orbit or ball of the eye, but the one which in man is well enough known
as the _trochlear_, has no pulley-arrangements in birds. Lachrymal
glands are present.

With regard to the organ of hearing, one particular part, which in man
is in the form of a snail’s shell, and is known as the _cochlea_, is
not coiled into this shape in birds, being very slightly bent, though
holding in other respects the same general relations. Nor is there any
external ear, as in mammals, for collecting the waves of sound; there
is, however, in the nocturnal birds of prey a crescent-shaped valve on
which are set tufts of short feathers, and it is possible that this
may aid in hearing. Nor, again, are there in the interior of the ear
those three small bones, which are known generally as the auditory
ossicles; of the two that are absent, one is thought by many anatomists
to be represented by the quadrate bone, which, as has already been
mentioned, connects the lower jaw of the bird with the skull. The
single bone which is present, and which is, perhaps, most generally
known as the “columella,” is connected by two or three cartilaginous
processes with the drum of the ear, and by the other end--at which it
has a small oval plate--with the more internal parts of the organ of
hearing. In man there is a curious arrangement of rods, which vary in
so remarkable a way as to have led to the supposition that each was
adapted to a distinct note; these rods, which constitute the organ of
Corti, are not present in birds, affording thereby a striking example
of the law that physiological inferences are often well examined by the
aid of comparative anatomy, no physiologist being hardy enough to deny
to birds the power of appreciating those delicate modulations of sound
which go to make up the chief charm of music. With regard to the organ
of smell, it is only necessary to note the absence of those muscles by
which, in man and other mammals, the nostrils are contracted or dilated.

The first point which attracts us on examining the digestive tract
of birds is the absence of lips and of teeth; but with regard to
these latter we must note that it is a character which has only
become distinct since the time when birds were first developed. This
statement is borne out by two series of facts, each taken from one of
the two great aids to a correct apprehension of the real importance of
structural characters--that is, from embryology, or the study of the
developing individual; and from palæontology, or the natural history of
the past. The young of certain Parrots have been observed to possess,
at an early stage of their development, those uprisings on the mucous
membrane of the jaw which go by the name of “dental papillæ,” and these
papillæ have been seen to be covered with a cap of dentine. On the
other hand, the researches of Owen and of some American palæontologists
have brought to light bird-like forms which were provided with teeth
(Odontornithes: _Ichthyornis_, _Hesperornis_).

The _beak_, or horny covering of the jaws, varies very greatly in
form, and in the degree of its sensibility. This tactile sense is
dependent on the extent to which the beak is supplied by nerves (from
the fifth cerebral nerve). In the Woodpecker, for example, there is a
large branch extending along the inside of the lower jaw, which, as it
approaches the extremity, breaks up into finer nerves that perforate
the bone by a number of small canals and so give to the beak a power
of discovering what lies hid in the crevices of the wood and under
the bark. Being an external structure, the beak is naturally adapted
to the habits of its possessors, so that it may be hooked, as in many
flesh-eating forms, or trenchant, and fit to cut and break, or provided
with transversely-set fine plates by which the water taken in with the
food can be filtered off, or provided with bristles, the better to hold
a living prey. Finally, in many cases the hardness of the bill is made
up for by a patch of naked skin at the base of the upper mandibles,
which is known by the name of the “cere” and seems to have a tactile
function.

In many birds, the tongue is either feebly developed, or is encased
in horn, so that it can hardly be as useful an organ of taste as is
our tongue: in the Pelicans it is obsolete. In some, however, as in
the Woodpecker, the tongue is a very powerful seizing organ, as it is
protruded with great rapidity by means of a special muscle, and is well
provided with a sticky secretion, which is given off from a large gland
(the sub-lingual), which, lying below the muscle above referred to,
is compressed when this muscle contracts; so that in the Woodpecker,
just as in the mammal called the Great Ant-eater (_Myrmecophaga_), the
insect prey is easily captured.

The region of the mouth is not separated from that which follows
it (the pharynx) by an epiglottis, which in ourselves protects the
entrance into the air-passages, nor is there any uvula to guard the
posterior orifice of the nose by which the air reaches the throat. The
succeeding portion of the gullet (the œsophagus) is very long, as might
be supposed from the length of the neck in most birds, and it is very
frequently either dilated at one side, or produced into a cæcal pouch
(crop, _ingluvies_), which may, or may not, be separated by a narrow
connection, from the rest of the gullet, and which may be divided into
two compartments. This crop serves for the detention of the food, which
cannot have undergone any complete process of mastication, and it is
here treated to a process of maceration by the fluid secreted from the
walls of this organ. Passing from this receptacle, the food becomes
subject to the action of the stomach proper, which differs, however,
from our ordinary conception of a stomach, as seen in man, by being
divided into two distinct portions. The anterior one is known as the
_proventriculus_, and it is in this that the gastric juice is brought
to bear upon the food, and its walls are consequently thickened by a
glandular layer; the hinder division, which is known as the _gizzard_,
forms an elongated sac, with two orifices--one from the proventriculus,
the other leading to the small intestine--in its upper portion. The
characters of its walls are very different in those birds which live on
animal, as compared with those that live on vegetable (grains) food;
in the former they are membranous and thin, but in the latter they are
enormously thick and very muscular. On examination, it is seen that the
dark colour of the muscles is on each side of the gizzard relieved by a
shining spot of tendinous material, and the walls of the gizzard have
consequently been compared to a double-bellied (digastric) muscle. The
internal cavity of the gizzard is lined with a dense and rough coat,
and is ordinarily found to contain small stones, and occasionally other
hard materials. These obviously take the place of the absent teeth,
when the muscles of the gizzard set up that (grinding or compressing)
action by which the ingested seeds are broken down. The wall of the
gizzard may itself also act as a rasping organ, being, as it often
is, provided with a firm glandular layer, the secretion of which is
converted into a hard lining, the structure of which has been observed
in some cases to be due to interlaced filaments secreted from and
continuous with the glands in the wall of the gizzard.

Notwithstanding the differences in the character of the gizzard
in carnivorous and graminivorous birds, it has been shown by the
ever-famous John Hunter that carnivorous birds can be brought to live
on grains, and grain-eating birds on meat.

It is interesting, further, to note, with regard to the opening into
the small intestine, that in a number of grain-or fruit-eating birds
there is no valvular arrangement to detain the food in the gizzard till
it is completely triturated, for it is thus that many plants have their
area of distribution increased, the escaped seeds passing uninjured
from the intestine to find, perhaps, a suitable soil in a new district.
In those that swallow large stones a valve is often to be observed.
The difference which we have already had so frequently to notice, as
obtaining between the carnivorous and “vegetarian” birds, is seen to be
continued into their small intestine; just as in mammals, this portion
of the tract is longer in the latter than in the former birds. The
anterior, or _duodenal_ portion, is always characterised by forming
a loop, within which lies the gland known as the _pancreas_, and the
succeeding portion is, as compared with most mammals, short. A slight
elevation, hardly ever of any great size, may at times be observed on
the course of the short intestine. This represents all that remains of
the duct by which the hatching bird was connected with the yolk. The
short and straight large intestine is ordinarily separated from the
preceding by a cæcum; this is generally paired (in the Herons and some
others it is single), and varies in length; in many cases these cæcal
tubes are hardly more than papillæ. In the Parrot, as in the Woodpecker
and some others, these cæca are absent. In the desert-dwelling Ostrich
(_Struthio_) they are said to be as much as two feet long; but in the
Emu they do not exceed six inches in length.

[Illustration:

DIGESTIVE ORGANS OF THE KINGFISHER.

(_After Macgillivray._)

(_a_) Tongue; (_b_, _c_, _d_) Œsophogus; (_d_, _e_, _f_) Stomach;
(_f_, _g_, _h_, _i_, _j_, _k_) Intestine; (_j_, _k_) Cloaca.
]

The intestine ends in a cavity, which is common to it, and to the other
organs that open to the exterior in this region. This _cloaca_ (sewer)
is found in reptiles also, and in one division of the Mammalia, the
Monotremata. In birds it is provided with a special glandular appendage
on its upper (or _dorsal_) aspect, which goes by the name of the _Bursa
Fabricii_. Neither the history nor the functions of this peculiar organ
can be said to be thoroughly understood.

Of the organs which are appended to the intestine, the lungs will be
described elsewhere; of the rest we have to consider the liver, the
pancreas, and the spleen. The first-named organ is large, and covers
over the pancreas, the proventriculus, the spleen, part of the gizzard,
and part of the small intestine. It is ordinarily divided into two
“lobes,” between which, on the upper edge, is placed the tip of the
heart. In the common fowl the left lobe is often divided into two; but
this organ is never broken up into so large a number of parts as it is
in many mammals, from which animals birds also differ in always having
more than one duct to carry off the secretion of the liver (bile) to
the small intestine, except in the Ostrich; in this, as in some other
birds, there is no gall-bladder in which the bile may be collected, so
that in such this secretion passes directly into the intestine.

As has been already pointed out, the commencement of the small
intestine forms a loop, in which is set the organ known as _pancreas_,
which may for simplicity be described as the salivary gland of this
region, although in truth the fluid secreted from it is a much more
powerful aid to the digestion of food than that of any known salivary
gland. It has always two, and in a number of cases three ducts, which
do not unite with the bile ducts, but open separately from, though near
them, into the end of the “duodenal loop.” The _spleen_, which is a
small oval body, and is placed to the right of the proventriculus, has
no ducts; in birds of prey it is more cylindrical in shape.

The temperature of the blood of the bird is, in requirement with the
conditions of its existence, hot--that is to say, it is ordinarily
hotter than the temperature of the surrounding air, and is found to
register between 100° (Gull) and 112° (Swallow) on Fahrenheit’s scale,
or from two to fourteen degrees more than does that of man. Birds
and mammals, are, speaking broadly, the only hot-blooded animals now
existing, and it has consequently been suggested that they should be
grouped together as such, in opposition to the rest of the Vertebrata.
But it is obvious that this character of the temperature is merely
dependent on physiological conditions; and were this a treatise on
the anatomy of birds rather than one on their natural history, the
statement of this fact would not receive the prominence here given to
it. The high temperature of any body may be preserved from cooling
influences by two methods: thus, tea in a well-polished silver teapot
keeps hot because the rays of heat are but slightly radiated from
its surface; or a less costly teapot may be kept hot by covering it
with a loosely-fitting “cosy,” which, being made of badly-conducting
materials, “keeps the heat in.” It is, then, clear that the heat of a
body is best preserved when it is covered by a bad radiator and a bad
conductor of heat; and this is just the case with birds: the polished
feathers are bad radiators, and the air entangled among them forms a
bad conductor.

The blood corpuscles are, broadly speaking, about twice as large as in
man; those which are coloured red are oval in shape, as they are in
nearly all of the lower Vertebrates and in the Camels among mammals.
Like the white ones, they are “nucleated.” The heart is, as in mammals,
divided into four chambers. It is a condition of the circulation
in hot-blooded and rapidly-breathing animals that the current of
_arterial_ blood _from_ the heart, and the current of _venous_ blood
_to_ it, should be kept as much as possible separate; no reflection is
needed to show that the blood freshly purified by contact with the air
in the lungs must be kept as distinct as can be from the blood which
has lost its purity in passing through the body; in other words, it is
required that there should be a similar result in birds and in mammals.

Birds, like all warm-blooded creatures, have the heart divided into
four cavities--two ventricles and two auricles--those of the right
side being completely separated from those of the left. The whole is
enclosed in a pericardium, a thin, but strong, membrane. The right
ventricle has thin muscular walls, and almost completely envelopes
the left. The right auricle has a remarkable valve in the shape of a
fleshy leaflet, which appears almost to be a portion of the inside
of the ventricle that has become detached from the partition between
the two ventricles. The blood, under certain circumstances, passes
between this septum, or partition, and the leaflet, into the auricle;
but when the beat of the heart takes place (the systole), the septum,
being convex, is forced against the leaflet on the other side of the
auricolo-ventricular opening, and the passage of the blood, through
this, is prevented. The valve between the stout-chambered left
ventricle and auricle does not present this structure, but is divided
into two or three lobes attached to tendinous processes. At the origin
of the great vessels--the pulmonary artery and the aorta--there are
three valves, semi-lunar in shape and by name. And this last vessel,
often having given off the coronary artery to the heart itself, is
curved to the right, and then passes backwards to go down the body. The
blood from the body is collected into three large veins--two anterior
_venæ cavæ_ and one posterior.

The lymphatic system is well developed, and of the so-called “lymphatic
hearts,” which are well known in the Frog, the posterior ones have been
observed in some, and especially in the Ratite birds.

The lungs, or organs in which the blood effects an exchange of its
gases with the outer air, are paired, and set on either side of the
heart. As is elsewhere mentioned, the nostrils are not provided with
muscles, and there is no _epiglottis_ sufficiently well developed to
cover the entrance into the long tube, or _trachea_, which runs down
the neck. This tube, which does not always take a straight course,
is essentially made up of a number of rings of cartilage, which are
for the greater part perfect, and not, as in man, imperfect rings.
The _bronchi_ which are given off from this tube, to the right and
left, have their rings imperfect, and they do not show that two-forked
mode of division which is so characteristic of mammals. The lungs
are of a rosy colour, and of a comparatively small volume; they are
marked externally by depressions corresponding to the characters of
the vertebræ and ribs, to which latter they are firmly attached, and
they are not divided into _lobes_; in their texture they are spongy;
the air-tubes are given off from them at right angles to the main
air-passage; these run nearly parallel to one another, and contain in
their walls the true tissue of the respiratory organ. The air-tubes are
also connected with the air-cells, which are arranged in so remarkable
a manner as to deserve a full account.

They are found in all birds with the exception of the _Apteryx_,
according to Professor Owen. Our knowledge of their existence is
primarily due to the illustrious William Harvey, while it is to the
distinguished anatomist, John Hunter, that we owe our knowledge of the
very curious fact that these air-passages and sacs communicate also
with the cavities of some of the bones of the skeleton. Though these
sacs are not by any means highly vascular, or supplied with vessels
to the same rich extent as are the lungs, they are nevertheless of
enormous importance to the bird; thus, they diminish the specific
gravity of the animal. For example, taking a bird which weighs 1,600
grammes, and has a volume of 1,230 cubic centimetres--or a specific
gravity of 1·30 (1600/1230) it has been calculated (Bert) that 200
cubic centimetres of air can be introduced; now these centimetres would
weigh ·22 of a gramme, so that the specific gravity of the animal
would be reduced to 1·05 ((1600+0·22)/(1230+200)) or (1600·22/1520).
Again, the air which is taken into the lungs is, in high-flying
birds, often of an extremely low temperature; but this air is not
only brought into contact with that of the lungs, but also with that
which has been warmed in the abdominal cavity. And again, the air
is often very dry--as it is for the Ostrich on the desert plains of
Africa--but the air from the air-sacs contains a large amount of
moisture. Of the proper air-sacs there are nine; of these, four--the
two anterior and the two posterior _thoracic_--lie in the thorax
(breast) proper; three--the right and left cervical, and the sac
between the _clavicles_--lie in front of the thorax; while the last
two are found behind it and in the abdomen. From all of these, with
the exception of those within the thorax, communications are, or may
be, given off to the bones of the vertebral column, to the humerus, to
the bones of the thigh, and to the sternum and the ribs; but there is
no communication between these sacs and the air-spaces which are so
constantly found in the bones of the skull, and which are in connection
with the air-cavities of the ear and of the nose. The inter-clavicular
sac has been observed to be covered with a thick layer of muscle in
those birds, at any rate, which perform somersaults, and it has been
suggested that this layer of muscle is capable of driving the air in
the sac backwards. It is obvious that such an operation would send the
centre of gravity of the animal nearer the head, and would, so far, be
of assistance in the execution of the curious movement alluded to.

It has been suggested that the air-sacs are of assistance in increasing
the resonance of the bird’s voice. Be this as it may, attention must
now be turned to the organ of voice. This organ may take one of three
forms, or, if absence is to be counted, four. There is no organ of
voice in the Ratitæ, or in the American Vultures (_Cathartidæ_). It is,
when present, remarkable for being developed at the lower, and not at
the upper, end of the _trachea_; while the true _vocal cords_, which,
by their vibration produce the notes of the human voice, are altogether
and always absent from the larynx; in other words, the vocal organ is
not the _larynx_, but an organ seated at a lower level, and known as
the _syrinx_. This instrument may, further, be formed in the trachea
alone (as in some American Passerines), or in the bronchi alone (as in
Steatornis), or at the point at which the tracheal and bronchial tubes
pass into one another (as in the majority of singing birds).

The last-mentioned, or _bronchio-tracheal syrinx_, consists of the
following parts; (i.) a _tympanic_ chamber formed by the union of
some of the lower rings of the trachea; (ii.) a membranous _septum_
separating from one another the tracheal orifices of the two bronchi;
(iii.) on either side a _tympaniform membrane_, formed on the inner
side of the uppermost bronchial rings; in consequence of this these
bronchial rings are not complete circles; their mucous membrane is
developed into a fold which bounds one side of a cleft which is formed
by the presence on the other side of the above-mentioned tympaniform
membrane. The air which passes through these bronchial clefts sets in
vibration the membranes which bound them, while the character of the
note is affected by the position of the bronchial half-rings, and the
length of the column of air in the trachea. These rings have their
positions changed by five lateral muscles, which act on their ends,
and so rotate them. The principle variations in the characters of the
muscular supply of the organ of the voice were long ago worked out by
Johannes Müller, the famous German anatomist and physiologist.

It is also to this observer that we owe our first information with
regard to the bronchial syrinx of Steatornis; the anatomy of this
animal was also investigated by the late Prof. Garrod, who gave the
following account of its vocal apparatus:--“Each semi-syrinx, as it
may be termed, is formed on the same principle as that of the combined
organ in most of the non-singing birds. Taking for description that
of the left side, it is found that the thirteenth bronchial ring
is complete, though considerably flattened from side to side; the
fourteenth is not complete in the middle of its upper surface; it
is a little longer from before backwards than the one above, and
not so long as the one following it. The fifteenth is only a half
ring, its inner portion being deficient; it is slightly convex
upwards, and articulates, both at its anterior and posterior ends,
with the fourteenth incomplete ring and the sixteenth half-ring. The
sixteenth half-ring is concave upwards, and so forms an oval figure in
combination with the one above, which is filled with a thin membrane
to form part of the outer wall of the bronchus. There is a membrane
also between the ends of these and the succeeding half-rings, which
completes the tube of the bronchus internally.”

[Illustration:

FRONT VIEW (A) AND SECTION (B) OF INFERIOR LARYNX OF PEREGRINE FALCON.

(_After Macgillivray._)]

The ducts from the urinary organs open to the exterior through the
cloaca, into which, as already mentioned, the digestive tube also
opens. The chief point with regard to the urinary secretion of birds
is the fact that it is _semi-solid_, and that it contains a quantity
of the substance known as _uric acid_. The kidneys are placed some way
back and near the cloaca; they are set on either side of the spinal
column, between the transverse processes of the sacral vertebræ, and
are generally divided into three portions of greatly varying size. On
their inner edge are given off the _ureters_, which pass on each side
to enter separately into the before-mentioned cloaca.

The right ovary of birds is always atrophied, and it is in rare cases
only that rudiments of it are found (namely, in the diurnal Raptores).
The _oviduct_ is a coiled canal, the lower portion of which has strong,
muscular walls, while internally the characters of its surface vary
according to the substance which the glands of different regions add to
the descending egg. The right oviduct is not so completely atrophied as
is the ovary of the same side. This duct opens into the cloaca through
which the egg passes to reach the outer world; as further development
is so largely independent of the mother, the female organs offer no
peculiarities of arrangement, or complexities of structure.

All birds lay eggs, or, in other words, the born young are not carried
about by the mother till the time of birth. The advantage of this to a
flying animal is so obvious that we may pass at once to describe the
egg of a common fowl. The shell, which consists of organic matter and
lime-salts, is found to be formed of two layers; it is in the outer
one only that pigment is found. Both layers are traversed by canals,
through which air can pass only when the shell is dry; that is to
say, the outer pores of the shell are closed under the influence of
moisture. This may be seen by removing the outer layers, when air or
water will pass in quite easily. These canals are said to be branched
in the Ratite birds, and to be simple in the Carinatæ. The shell is
lined by the shell-membrane, which, again, is made up of two layers.
At the broad end of the egg these two layers are separated from one
another, and so give rise to that air-chamber which is found in stale
eggs, and increases in size as the egg grows older and the yolk
evaporates.

The shell-membrane is in direct contact with the _white_ of the egg
(_albumen_). This, in its fresh state, consists of fluid albumen,
arranged in layers, which are separated from one another by networks
of fibres, in the meshes of which, however, fluid albumen is also to
be found. There are, further, two special sets of fibrous cords in the
white of the egg; these extend somewhat along the long axis of the egg,
though they do not reach to the shell-membrane. From their bead-like
character they are known as _chalazæ_ (hailstones), but their more
common English name is that of the “tread.”

[Illustration: DIAGRAMMATIC SECTION OF A FOWL’S EGG.

(_bl_) Blastoderm; (_wy_) White Yolk; (_yy_) Yellow Yolk; (_vt_)
Vitelline Membrane; (_w_) Albumen; (_ch_) Chalazæ; (_ach_)
Air-chamber; (_ism_) Internal Layer of Shell Membrane; (_em_)
External Layer of ditto; (_s_) Shell.
]

The “white” is separated from the _yolk_ by the so-called _vitelline_
(or _yolk_) membrane; the greater part of this yolk is known as the
_yellow yolk_, and is made up of minute albuminous granules, but its
outermost part is formed of a thin layer of a somewhat different
substance, which goes by the name of the _white yolk_. The spheres of
this latter are still smaller than those of the yellow yolk, and they
are also found to form layers at various levels in it. At one point
the white yolk becomes a good deal thicker, and forms, as it were,
a pad for a small white disc, which, in ordinary circumstances, is
always found uppermost when an egg is opened. This disc is formed of
an encircling white rim, and within it there is a rounded transparent
region, the centre of which is more opaque.

This region is known as the _blastoderm_, and is that part of the egg
from which the chick, with its organs and complicated vessels, muscles
and bones is soon to be developed. In the laid egg, this blastoderm
consists of two layers of cells, as do at a certain stage the eggs of
all but the very simplest of animals. The dissection of a laying fowl
will probably reveal the presence of eggs at an earlier stage, and from
their study the following history has been made out: the ellipse-shaped
egg, when about to leave the ovary, is a yellow body enclosed in a
fine membrane, and possessing at one pole a small (_germinal_) disc;
this disc contains a smaller _germinal vesicle_, and a still smaller
_germinal spot_; when this body is ripe, it escapes from its enclosing
capsule, and the germinal vesicle disappears. As the egg passes down
the _oviduct_ the albumen becomes deposited around it, and part of it
is converted into the shell-membrane. The egg now becomes subjected to
a thick, white fluid, which is gradually converted into the shell.

While these additions to the substance of the egg are going on, the
germinal disc undergoes the remarkable process known as segmentation,
in which it becomes divided into two, four, eight, sixteen, thirty-two
(and so on) masses, which arrange themselves in two distinct layers,
the presence of which has been already noted in the laid egg.

This is not the place in which it is possible to follow out the various
future changes undergone, but the condition of the young birds on
escaping from the egg is widely different in some of the larger groups
of birds. Some young birds, on their exclusion from the egg, are able
to shift for themselves, and are covered with down; while others are
born naked and helpless, and require food from their parents for some
time after they are hatched. Of the first section, an ordinary chicken
is a familiar example, while a young Thrush or a Sparrow illustrates
the second. There are, however, manifest exceptions to this rule, as
in the Herons, for instance, where the young are densely clothed with
feathery down, but are helpless for a long time after they are hatched.

Finally, it must be stated that all birds possess an oil-gland (known
as the uropygial), situated near the tail, with which they clean and
dress their feathers. Attention has already been called to this gland
in the foot note on p. 245.

Before commencing the special part of the present article, it may
be useful to give a slight sketch of the classification which it is
proposed to follow throughout its course.

CLASS AVES.

DIVISION I. CARINATÆ: CARINATE BIRDS.

ORDER I.--ACCIPITRES: BIRDS OF PREY.

SUB-ORDER I.--FALCONES: FALCONS.

Family I.--Vulturidæ Vultures.
„ II.--Falconidæ Hawks.

Sub-Family I.--Polyborinæ Caracaras.
„ II.--Accipitrinæ Long-legged Hawks.
„ III.--Buteoninæ Buzzards.
„ IV.--Aquilinæ Eagles.
„ V.--Falconinæ Falcons.

SUB-ORDER II.--PANDIONES: OSPREYS.

SUB-ORDER III.--STRIGES: OWLS.

Family I.--Bubonidæ Owls proper.
„ II.--Strigidæ Barn Owls.

ORDER II.--PICARIÆ: PICARIAN BIRDS.

SUB-ORDER I.--ZYGODACTYLÆ: CLIMBING BIRDS.

Family I.--Psittaci Parrots.

a.--_Psittaci proprii._

Sub-Family I.--Camptolophinæ Cockatoos.
„ II.--Androglossinæ Fleshy-tongued Parrots.
„ III.--Conurinæ Conures.
„ IV.--Platycercinæ Parrakeets.
„ V.--Strigopinæ Owl Parrots.

b.--_Psittaci orthognathi._

„ VI.--Trichoglossinæ Brush-tongued Parrots.

Family II.--Cuculidæ Cuckoos.
„ III.--Indicatoridæ Honey-guides.
„ IV.--Musophagidæ Touracoes.
„ V.--Picidæ Woodpeckers.
„ VI.--Rhamphastidæ Toucans.
„ VII.--Capitonidæ Barbets.

SUB-ORDER II.--FISSIROSTRES: WIDE GAPING BIRDS.

Family I.--Galbulidæ Jacamars.
„ II.--Bucconidæ Puff Birds.
„ III.--Alcedinidæ Kingfishers.
„ IV.--Bucerotidæ Hornbills.
„ V.--Upupidæ Hoopoes.
„ VI.--Meropidæ Bee-eaters.
„ VII.--Momotidæ Motmots.
„ VIII.--Coraciadæ Rollers.
„ IX.--Trogonidæ Trogons.
„ X.--Caprimulgidæ Goatsuckers.
„ XI.--Cypselidæ Swifts.
„ XII.--Trochilidæ Humming-birds.

ORDER III.--PASSERIFORMES: PERCHING BIRDS.

SECTION A.--ACROMYODI: SINGING BIRDS.

SUB-ORDER I.--TURDIFORMES: THRUSH LIKE BIRDS.

GROUP I.--COLIOMORPHÆ: CROW LIKE PASSERES.

Family I.--Corvidæ Crows.

Sub-Family I.--Corvinæ Crows proper.
„ II.--Fregilinæ Choughs.

Family II.--Paradisiidæ Birds of Paradise.
„ III.--Orioliidæ Orioles.
„ IV.--Dicruridæ Drongos.
„ V.--Prionopidæ Wood-shrikes.

GROUP II.--CICHLOMORPHÆ: THRUSH-LIKE PASSERES.

Family VI.--Campophagidæ - - - - Cuckoo-shrikes.
„ VII.--Muscicapidæ - - - - - Flycatchers.
„ VIII.--Turdidæ - - - - - - - True Thrushes.

Sub-Family I.--Turdinæ - - - - Thrushes.
„ II.--Sylviinæ - - - - Warblers.

Family IX.--Timeliidæ - - - - - - Babbling Thrushes.

Sub-Family I.--Troglodytinæ - - Wrens.
„ II.--Brachypodinæ - - Bulbuls.
„ III.--Timeliinæ - - - Babblers.
„ IV.--Cisticolinæ - - Grass-warblers.
„ V.--Miminæ - - - - - American Babblers.

Family X.--Laniidæ - - - - - - - Butcher-birds.
„ XI.--Vireonidæ - - - - - - Greenlets.
„ XII.--Paridæ - - - - - - - Titmice.

GROUP III.--CERTHIIMORPHÆ: CREEPERS.

GROUP IV.--CINNYRIMORPHÆ: HONEY SUCKERS.

SUB-ORDER II.--FRINGILLIFORMES: FINCH-LIKE BIRDS.

Family I.--Motacillidæ - - - - - Wagtails.
„ II.--Mniotiltidæ - - - - - American Warblers.
„ III.--Cærebidæ - - - - - American Creepers.
„ IV.--Diceidæ - - - - - - - Flower-peckers.
„ V.--Ampelidæ - - - - - - Chatterers.
„ VI.--Hirundinidæ - - - - - Swallows.
„ VII.--Tanagridæ - - - - - - Tanagers.
„ VIII.--Fringillidæ - - - - - Finches.
„ IX.--Icteridæ - - - - - Hang-nests.

SUB-ORDER III.--STURNIFORMES: STARLING-LIKE BIRDS.

Family I.--Ploceidæ - - - - - - Weavers.
„ II.--Sturnidæ - - - - - - Starlings.
„ III.--Artamidæ - - - - - - Wood-swallows.
„ IV.--Alaudidæ - - - - - - Larks.

SECTION B.--MESOMYODI: SONGLESS BIRDS.

Family I.--Menuridæ - - - - - - Lyre-birds.
„ II.--Pteroptochidæ - - - - Bush-wrens.
„ III.--Dendrocolaptidæ - - - Spine-tails.
„ IV.--Formicariidæ - - - { American Ant-thrushes.
„ V.--Pittidæ - - - - - - { Old-World Ant-thrushes.
„ VI.--Tyrannidæ - - - - - - Tyrant-birds.
„ VII.--Cotingidæ - - - - - - American Chatterers.
„ VIII.--Pipridæ - - - - - - - Manakins.
„ IX.--Eurylæmiidæ - - - - - Broadbills.
„ X.--Phytotomidæ - - - - - Plant-cutters.

ORDER IV.--COLUMBÆ: PIGEONS.

ORDER V.--GALLINÆ: GAME-BIRDS.

Family I.--Cracidæ - - - - - - - Curassows.
„ II.--Opisthocomidæ - - - - Hoatzins.
„ III.--Phasianidæ - - - - - Pheasants.
„ IV.--Meleagridæ - - - - - Turkeys.
„ V.--Tetraonidæ - - - - - Grouse.
„ VI.--Pteroclidæ - - - - - Sand-grouse.
„ VII.--Turnicidæ - - - - - - Hemipodes.
„ VIII.--Megapodidæ - - - - - Megapodes.

ORDER VI.--GRALLÆ: WADING BIRDS.

Family I.--Rallidæ - - - - - - - Rails.
„ II.--Scolopacidæ - - - - - Snipes.
„ III.--Charadriidæ - - - - - Plovers.
„ IV.--Otididæ - - - - - - - Bustards.
„ V.--Gruidæ - - - - - - - Cranes.
„ VI.--Psophiidæ - - - - - - Trumpeters.

ORDER VII.--HERODIONES: HERONS.

Family I.--Ardeidæ - - - - - - - Herons proper.
„ II.--Ciconiidæ - - - - - - Storks.
„ III.--Plataleidæ - - - - - Spoonbills.
„ IV.--Phænicopteridæ - - - Flamingoes.

ORDER VIII.--ANSERES: GEESE.

Family I.--Palamedeidæ - - - - - Screamers.
„ II.--Anatidæ - - - - - - - Ducks.

ORDER IX.--STEGANOPODES: PELICANS.

Family I.--Fregatidæ - - - - - - Frigate-birds.
„ II.--Phæthontidæ - - - - - Tropic-birds.
„ III.--Pelecanidæ - - - - - Pelicans.

ORDER X.--GAVIÆ: SEA-BIRDS.

Family I.--Laridæ - - - - - - - Gulls.
„ II.--Procellariidæ - - - - Petrels.

ORDER XI.--PYGOPODES: GREBES.

ORDER XII.--IMPENNES: PENGUINS.

ORDER XIII.--CRYPTURI: TINAMOUS.

DIVISION II.--RATITÆ: STRUTHIOUS BIRDS.

DIVISION III.--SAURURÆ: LIZARD-TAILED BIRDS.

It has been already stated that birds are divisible into three great
sections, and attention is now directed to those which have a keel to
the sternum, and which are good flyers--the Carinate Birds (CARINATÆ).

CHAPTER III.

DIVISION I.--THE CARINATE BIRDS (CARINATÆ).

THE ACCIPITRINE ORDER--BIRDS OF PREY.

VULTURES AND CARACARAS.

The Birds of Prey--Distinctive Characters--The Cere--How the
Birds of Prey are Divided--Difference between a Hawk, an Owl,
and an Osprey--The three Sub-orders of the Accipitres--Sub-order
FALCONES--Difference between the Vultures of the Old World and the
Vultures of the New World--THE OLD WORLD VULTURES--Controversy as
to how the Vultures reach their Prey--Waterton on the Faculty of
Scent--Mr. Andersson’s, Dr. Kirk’s, and Canon Tristram’s Views
in Favour of Sight--THE BLACK VULTURE--THE GRIFFON VULTURE--Its
Capacity for Feeding while on the Wing--THE EARED VULTURE--One of the
Largest of the Birds of Prey--Whence it gets its Name--THE EGYPTIAN
VULTURE--A Foul Feeder--THE NEW WORLD VULTURES--THE CONDOR--Its
Appearance--Power of Flight--Habits--THE KING VULTURE--THE TURKEY
VULTURE--THE CARACARAS--Distinctive Characters--Habits--THE SECRETARY
BIRD--How it attacks Snakes--Habits--Appearance--THE ÇARIAMA.

The first order of birds to be considered is the birds of prey
(_Accipitres_). They are all remarkable for strong and sharply-hooked
bills, and most of them have sharp and powerful talons. In the Eagles
and Falcons these characters are developed in the highest degree,
although many modifications of their structure take place in the
order--the Vultures, for instance, and other carrion-feeding birds,
not having such a hooked bill as the true Falcons and Eagles, while
their feet are larger and more adapted for holding their prey than for
striking it down in full career, as the Falcons do. In most of the
birds of prey the female is larger than the male, and is much the more
powerful bird. This fact is always recognised in falconry, especially
in the short-winged Hawks, such as Sparrow-Hawks or Goshawks, whose
females are always preferred, as possessing the greater power for
holding ground game, such as Rabbits, Hares, &c. The difference in
size is not very noticeable in the Vultures, but is unmistakable in
the long-legged Sparrow-Hawks, Eagles, and Falcons. The form of the
breast-bone, which plays such an important part in the classification
of other birds, is a character of less value in the birds of prey,
as it varies to a great extent even in those species which, by their
habits and general structure, are most closely allied. Another
character possessed by these birds is the distinct _cere_, which is
present in all, though much hidden by bristles in the Owls: it is a
waxy covering to the base of the bill, often hard, but generally fleshy
in substance.

Birds of prey are of three kinds: Hawks, Ospreys, and Owls. Under the
first name is included every rapacious bird which is not an Osprey or
an Owl, and, therefore, the first thing to find out is--how to tell
an Owl from a Hawk. At one time it was supposed that all Owls came
out by night and all Hawks by day, and so they were separated into
two great divisions, which were called diurnal birds of prey[143] and
nocturnal birds of prey.[144] Now, however, that the habits of birds
are getting better observed, these divisions have to be abandoned as
not being entirely true, for there are Owls which are quite at home
in the daylight, when they hunt for their food like any other bird of
prey, and at least one kind of Hawk is known, whose habit it is to feed
on Bats in the evening. This is Andersson’s Pern,[145] a kind of Kite,
allied to the Honey-kite of England. It is found only in the Damara
Country, in South-western Africa, and in Madagascar. A far better way
to distinguish Hawks from Owls is seen in the foot, as the latter have
the outer toe reversible--that is to say, they can turn their outer
toe backwards or forwards as they please. This is easily observed in
the living birds; and any one examining a caged Owl in the Zoological
Gardens will see that it sits with its toes in pairs--two in front
and two behind. A Hawk cannot do this, all his toes being arranged as
in a little perching bird, such as a Sparrow or a Canary, three in
front and one behind. Then, again, Owls have no “after-shaft” to the
feathers, a structure which most Hawks possess. The “after-shaft” is
the small accessory plume, which springs from the under-side of the
main feather. In some birds it is very large, in others small. It
occurs on the body feathers only, and is never found in the quills
or tail feathers (see p. 238). Lastly, in addition to the reversible
outer toe, and the absence of an accessory plume or after-shaft, Owls
may be distinguished from all other birds of prey, save one, by the
proportions of their leg-bones. In the skeleton figured on p. 241 the
three principal leg-bones are pointed out; and it is the length which
the tarsus bears in proportion to the tibia that is here insisted on.
In the Owls the tarsus is only about half the length of the tibia; this
is never the case in a Hawk, in which these two bones bear different
proportions the one to the other, according to the sub-family. Thus in
Sparrow-Hawks and Harriers[146] the tibia and the tarsus are equal in
length. In Eagles and Buzzards, Kites and true Falcons, the tibia is
always much longer than the tarsus, but is never double its length, as
it is in the Owls. The term “Hawk,” which has been employed throughout
the foregoing sentences, is intended to apply to every bird of prey
excepting the Owls, with the sole exception of the Osprey. The habits
of the Osprey are noticed later on, but they may be briefly stated to
be similar to those of a Sea-Eagle, its prey consisting entirely of
fish, while its plumage and general appearance are also those of an
Eagle, so that in many places it is popularly known as the “Fish Hawk,”
or “Fishing Eagle;” but here the resemblance of the Osprey to the Eagle
ends, and in its other characters it is very like an Owl. The tibia is
more than double the length of the tarsus, as in the Owls; the feathers
of the body have no after-shaft, as in the Owls, and the outer toe is
reversible, as in the Owls. Possessing, therefore, as it does, some of
the most prominent features of the Eagles, as well as some of the most
striking peculiarities of the Owls, the Osprey holds an intermediate
position between these two sub-orders of birds.

[Illustration: HEAD AND BILL OF SEA EAGLE. (_After Keulemans._) (_a_)
bony eye-shelf; (_b_) cere.]

The birds of prey, then, may be separated into three sub-orders:--

(_a_). Outer toe _not_ reversible; tibia varying in length in
proportion to the tarsus, sometimes equal to it, but never double
the length of the latter; body feathers _with_ an after-shaft or
accessory plume. (American Vultures excepted.)

I. Hawks (_Falcones_).[147]

(_b_). Outer toe _reversible_; tibia double the length of tarsus;
body feathers _without_ an after-shaft or accessory plume; plumage
compact, as in an Eagle; no facial disk.

II. Ospreys (_Pandiones_).[148]

(_c_). Outer toe _reversible_; tibia double the length of tarsus;
body feathers _without_ an after-shaft; plumage soft and fluffy; a
facial disk.

III. Striges;[149] Owls.

The Falcones, or Hawks, include in their number more kinds of rapacious
birds than the other two sub-orders. All the Vultures, the Caracaras,
the Harriers, the Sparrow-Hawks, the Buzzards, Eagles, Kites, and
Falcons, together numbering some four hundred different species, are
classified as _Falcones_. Only one species of Osprey is known, which is
found nearly all over the world; and about two hundred different kinds
of Owls remain to represent the STRIGES.

ORDER ACCIPITRES.--SUB-ORDER FALCONES.

The first sub-order is divided into two families, the first to be
noticed being the Vultures (_Vulturidæ_), which is again sub-divided
into two sections, the Vultures of the Old World (_Vulturinæ_) and the
Vultures of the New World (_Sarcorhamphinæ_).

THE FIRST SUB-FAMILY OF THE VULTURIDÆ.--THE OLD WORLD VULTURES
(_Vulturinæ_).

These Vultures are neither to be recommended for their habits nor
for their personal appearance. In fact, in both these respects they
are rather repulsive birds, but useful withal in hot climates,
where they act as scavengers, and clear away much putrid matter and
decaying substances, which but for their intervention would prove most
offensive. They are all inhabitants of tropical, or at least of warm,
countries; and it is only on rare occasions that they wander into the
North of Europe or occur in the British Islands. Both the Old and the
New Worlds have their Vultures, but the naturalist has no difficulty
in telling at a glance to which hemisphere the bird he is looking at
belongs, for all the Vultures of the New World have _a hole through
their nose_--or, in other words, want the wall of bone which divides
one nostril from the other; in the Vultures of the Old World this bony
wall is present so that the nostrils resemble those of other ordinary
birds.

[Illustration: BILL OF EGYPTIAN VULTURE, TO SHOW FORM OF NOSTRIL.
(_After Keulemans._)]

Besides their perforated nostril, the American Vultures differ from
the Old World species in having no after-shaft to the feathers,
therein resembling the Owls. This character has led some naturalists
to consider the New World Vultures as constituting a separate family,
which bears the name of _Cathartidæ_; but although the absence of
an after-shaft is a striking feature, yet the habits of the birds
so closely resemble those of their Old World cousins, that it seems
unnatural to separate them widely in any scheme of classification. The
head of a Vulture, whatever locality he may be from, proclaims the
nature of the bird at once, as it is always bare of feathers, or nearly
so: sometimes a few scattered tufts of down are seen on the head and
neck, but never any true feathers, as in the case of the other birds of
prey. The Vultures feed on the ground, where they walk with comparative
ease, their large feet being fitted for progression on the earth, and
their toes not being prehensile or capable of bending to the same
extent as in the other Hawks. This formation of the foot prevents them
from striking down or snatching their prey, as an Eagle or a Hawk would
do; and they do not carry food to their young, but devour the carcase
or carrion where it falls, and then feed the nestlings by throwing up
food from their crop. They are all birds of powerful flight, and are
capable of sustaining a prolonged soar in the air without any apparent
motion of the wings.

[Illustration: BILL OF TURKEY VULTURE, TO SHOW THE PERFORATED NOSTRIL.]

As to the way in which Vultures discover their prey, the opinion of
naturalists has for a long time been divided, and controversy has waxed
hot upon the subject, the question being whether the Vulture possesses
a more than usually keen sense of sight, or whether his sense of smell
is so powerful as to enable him to scent a decaying carcase at a
greater distance than other birds can do. The experiments of various
travellers seem to prove that both the senses of sight and smell are
possessed by the Vulture in no ordinary degree; but the balance of
evidence seems to prove that it is by their keen sight that they
generally find their food. Supposing that an animal is wounded, and
escapes from the hunter, his course is marked by a Vulture soaring
high in the air; another circling far away on the horizon sees the
first bird fly down, and follows in his track; and so on, until a large
company is feeding on the carcase. This action of the Vultures is well
described by Longfellow:--

“Never stoops the soaring Vulture
On his quarry in the desert,
On the sick or wounded Bison,
But another Vulture, watching
From his high aërial look-out,
Sees the downward plunge, and follows;
And a third pursues the second,
Coming from the invisible ether,
First a speck, and then a Vulture,
Till the air is dark with pinions.”[150]

The power of the Vulture’s sight was long disputed by the former
generation of naturalists, and the celebrated Waterton wrote an article
on the “Faculty of Scent in the Vulture,”[151] to prove that it was
more by this means than by sight that the bird was able to discover a
carcase. Waterton was well acquainted with Vultures in Demarara and in
Southern Spain, and he sums up his argument as follows:--“After the
repeated observations I have made in the country where it abounds, I
am quite satisfied that it is directed to its food by means of its
olfactory nerves coming in contact with putrid effluvium, which rises
from corrupted substances through the heavier air. Those are deceived
who imagine that this effluvium would always be driven to one quarter
in the tropics, where the trade-winds prevail. Often, at the very time
that the clouds are driving from the north-east up above, there is a
lower current of air coming from the quarter directly opposite. This
takes place most frequently during the night-time, in or near the
woods; and it often occurs early in the morning, from sunrise till near
ten o’clock, when the regular trade-wind begins to blow. Sometimes it
is noticed in the evening, after sunset; and now and then during the
best part of the day in the rainy season.... Vultures, as far as I have
been able to observe, do not keep together in a large flock when they
are soaring up and down in quest of a tainted current. Now, suppose a
Mule has just expired behind a high wall, under the dense foliage of
evergreen tropical trees; fifty Vultures, we will say, roost in a tree
a mile from this dead Mule. When morning comes, off they go in quest
of food. Ten fly, by mere chance, to the wood where the Mule lies, and
manage to spy it through the trees; the rest go quite in a different
direction. How are the last-mentioned birds to find the Mule? Every
minute carries them farther from it. Now reverse the statement; and
instead of a Mule nearly dead, let us suppose a Mule in an offensive
state of decomposition. I would stake my life upon it that not only
the fifty Vultures would be at the carcase next morning, but also
that every Vulture in the adjacent forest would manage to get there
in time to partake of the repast.” It will be seen from the above
that Mr. Waterton allowed the keen sight of the Vultures to play, on
some occasions, a part in their discovering food. Another observation
on this subject is contained in the late Mr. C. J. Andersson’s work
on the ornithology of South-western Africa. Writing on the Sociable
Vulture (_Otogyps auricularis_), he says:--“I believe naturalists are
not quite agreed as to whether Vultures hunt by sight, by scent, or by
both faculties combined. I have myself no doubt that they employ the
one sense as well as the other in finding their prey, though I feel
inclined to give sight the preference; and I once had a very striking
proof of how they employ their vision in guiding them to carrion--in
this instance, however, not so much by the actual sight of the carrion
(though the first discovery probably originated in that way) as by
another singular contrivance. Early one morning, as I was toiling up
the ascent of a somewhat elevated ridge of hills, with the view of
obtaining bearings for my travelling map, and before arriving at the
summit, I observed several Vultures descending near me: but thinking I
had merely disturbed them from their lofty perch, I did not take any
particular notice of their appearance, as the event was one of usual
occurrence; but on gaining my destination, I found that the birds were
not coming merely from the hill summit, but from an indefinite distance
on the other side. This circumstance, coupled with the fact that I had
wounded a Zebra on the preceding day in the direction towards which the
Vultures were winging their way, caused me to pay more attention. The
flight of the Vultures was low--at least five hundred to a thousand
feet below the summit of the mountain; and on arriving near the base,
they would abruptly rise without deviating from their direct course;
and no sooner was the obstacle in their way thus surmounted than they
again depressed their flight. Those Vultures which I saw could not have
themselves seen the carrion, but simply hunted in direct sight of one
another. There was a numerous arrival; and although I could not always
detect the next bird as soon as I had lost sight of the previous one,
yet, when at length it did come into view, it never seemed uncertain
about its course. Having finished my observations, I descended,
and proceeded in the direction which the Vultures had pursued; and
after about half an hour’s rapid walking, I found, as I anticipated,
the carcase of a Zebra, with a numerous company of Vultures busily
discussing it.”[152]

Dr. Kirk, the companion of Livingstone, in his paper on the “Birds of
the Zambesi Region of Eastern Tropical Africa,”[153] says that to the
inexperienced hunter the Griffon is “a great annoyance. If game be
left for an hour in the open plain while the men come to carry it off,
the birds will descend, and in a very short time completely devour
it. This is not so if it be covered over with a little grass or with
branches, clearly proving that sight alone is the sense by which the
birds discover their prey. If part of the animal be exposed it matters
not--probably owing to its being mistaken for one asleep; nor does the
presence of blood seem to guide the birds if the carcase be concealed
from view.”

Lastly, to quote from Canon Tristram’s interesting essay on the
“Ornithology of the Sahara:”[154] “As, happily for the traveller,
Camels do not die every day under the weight of their water-skins, the
Griffon does not habitually visit the desert. Still, he occasionally
gives it a passing call, though, if his meal be deposited near an
oasis, he is usually forestalled by the Hyæna (‘Dubba,’ Arab.), who
lurks in the ‘weds.’ On one occasion a Camel in our caravan having
become footsore had to be slaughtered on the spot. Our attendants
selected the tenderest morsels for ‘kouskous,’ the Arab broth; and
it was not until the next morning that a Vulture scented, or rather
descried, his prey. That the Vulture uses the organ of sight rather
than that of smell, seems to be certain from the immense height at
which he soars and gyrates in the air. In this instance one solitary
bird descended, and half an hour afterwards was joined by a second.
A short time elapsed, and the Nubian Vulture (_Otogyps nubicus_)
appeared, self-invited, at the feast; and before the bones were left
to the Hyæna no less than nine Griffons and two Nubians had broken
their fast. I should hesitate to assert that they had satisfied their
appetites. I have observed the same regular succession of diners out on
other occasions. May we not conjecture that the process is as follows?
The Griffon who first descries his quarry descends from his elevation
at once; another, sweeping the horizon at a still greater distance,
observes his neighbour’s movements and follows his course; a third,
still farther removed, follows the flight of the second; he is traced
by another; and so a perpetual succession is kept up as long as a
morsel of flesh remains over which to consort. I can conceive no other
way of accounting for the numbers of Vultures which in the course of a
few hours will gather over a carcase, when previously the horizon might
have been scanned in vain for more than one, or at the most two, in
sight. Does not this explain the immense number of Vultures who were
congregated in the Crimea during the siege of Sebastopol, where the
bird was comparatively scarce before? May not this habit of watching
the movements of their neighbours have collected the whole race from
the Caucasus and Asia Minor to enjoy so unwonted an abundance? The
Arabs believe that the Vultures from all North Africa were gathered to
feed on Russian Horses in the Crimea, and declare that during the war
very few ‘Nissr’ were to be seen in their accustomed haunts.”

The above extracts from authentic works have been made at some length,
as exhibiting the general habits of the Vultures. It remains now to
notice some of the most striking forms of these birds.

THE BLACK VULTURE[155]

This is an inhabitant of Southern Europe, whence it extends on both
sides of the Mediterranean to North-western India, where it is a cold
weather visitant, and even to China. In its habits this bird is rather
unsociable, and keeps more to the wooded districts, seldom venturing
into the open country, except when attracted by the presence of some
carcase, on which it feasts in company with the Griffon Vulture. It
breeds on trees, constructing a large bulky nest, and only selects a
rock for its breeding home when there are no trees to be found in the
neighbourhood. It lays one egg, of a richly mottled red colour, two
eggs being an extremely rare occurrence. In appearance they are very
like those of the Golden Eagle. A story is told of the rescue by a pair
of old birds of their young ones, which were in danger from the felling
of the tree on which the nest was situated. It is thus related by Count
von Tshusi Schmidthofen:--“The royal forester, A. Fikker, found in
1860, on the top of a giant beech in the valley of Dobrabach, in the
Sinnaer district, the nest of this Vulture. When the young birds were
large enough to be able to save themselves as the tree fell, orders
were given to cut the beech down. The wood-cutters had worked at the
tree some time, when the old birds appeared, uttering loud cries, and
suddenly pounced on the nest, caught hold of the young ones in their
claws and disappeared like lightning, carrying off the young (who
loudly complained of the unusual mode of locomotion) before the gaze of
the astonished spectators.”

[Illustration: GRIFFON VULTURE.]

The Black Vulture measures three feet and a half in length, and is
entirely black, the bare places on the head and neck being of a livid
flesh colour when the bird is alive.

THE GRIFFON VULTURE.[156]

The Griffon, or Fulvous Vulture (so called from its colour), is found
all over Southern Europe, and occurs occasionally at different points
in Central Europe, having once been taken in the British islands off
Cork Harbour; it therefore figures in the list of British birds. It
ranges all over North-eastern Africa, and extends eastwards into
Turkestan, Central Asia, and North-western India. As it goes eastwards
the Griffon becomes a more rufous bird, and is by some naturalists
considered to be a different species. In the British Museum is a very
interesting specimen of this Vulture, collected by Major Denham in
Bornou during his travels across Africa, being one of the comparatively
few birds that have been brought from Central Africa, about the
ornithology of which we do not even yet know much. Like other
Vultures, the Griffon feeds on carrion, but is also stated to frequent
the sea-shore in search of Crustacea and dead fish; while the South
African Griffon is said to feed on Locusts and small Tortoises, the
latter of which it swallows whole.[157]

This bird’s capacity for feeding is illustrated in a most amusing
anecdote of Canon Tristram’s:--“For some months we possessed two
Griffons taken from the nest, who at length arrived safely in England.
They never attempted to leave us, differing in this respect from our
Lämmergeiers, but remained contentedly about the tents or perched
on the backs of the baggage-camels _en route_. They took a peculiar
interest in taxidermy, scrutinising, head on one side, the whole
operation of bird-skinning, and perfectly aware of the moment when
a morsel would be ready, exhibiting a more than ordinary excitement
when they saw the skin drawn back over the head, and knew that the
whole carcase would soon be cut off for them. One of these birds was
of a desponding, querulous disposition, the other of a very different
natural temperament, always contented and cheerful, a universal
favourite in the camp, while his fellow received, I fear, many a sly
kick for his complaints. They were able to fast for days; but, whenever
such an opportunity as a Camel’s carcase presented itself, would be
revenged on their Lent. I have seen our pet, ‘Musha Pasha,’ attack the
entrails of a Camel, and, as his crop became distended, sink upon his
breast, unable to stand, till at length, even this position being too
much for him, he lay on his side, still eating, until, overpowered and
helpless, he fell asleep. This enormous capacity for food, combined
with the power of long abstinence, is a wonderful provision of creative
wisdom for carrion-feeders, whose supply is so uncertain, while the
necessity for the immediate removal of offensive matter is so urgent.
The strength of the Vulture’s stomach is equal to its capacity, for on
one occasion one of our Griffons devoured a half pound pot of arsenical
soap, with no further inconvenience than a violent fit of vomiting.”

The Griffon nests on rocks, sometimes several building in company in
the same neighbourhood. Its flight is majestic, and Mr. Salvin says
that it is a fine sight to watch the ease with which the Griffon sails
through the air; the apparently effortless extension of the wing
seems amply sufficient to sustain its huge body; no flapping motion
is necessary to enable it to mount to a great height. It is only on
leaving a rock that a few strokes are requisite to attain the necessary
impulse, after which, with primaries bent upwards by the force of the
air, it performs its stately evolutions by soaring only. In alighting,
the bird drops its legs some distance from the rock, and, sailing
to within a few yards, it checks its velocity by two or three heavy
strokes of the wing.

Among the ancient Egyptians the Griffon appears to have been a sacred
bird, and its remains have been found embalmed. It is also figured on
their monuments, sometimes in its natural form, sometimes with the head
of a Snake. In size the European Griffon stands about three feet and a
half high, and is of a general ashy fulvous colour, with black quills
and tail; the under surface is creamy-brown, with a darker brown mark
on the crop; the head and neck are bare, or with loosely scattered
tufts of white down; and round the neck there is a white ruff.

Besides the Griffon Vulture of Europe there are four others, which
seem to be distinct species, the Himalayan Griffon, the South African
Griffon, Rüppell’s Griffon from Abyssinia, and the Long-billed Griffon
from India. In addition to these there are the two White-backed Griffon
Vultures, which have only fourteen tail-feathers, and belong to the
genus _Pseudogyps_.

THE EARED VULTURE (_Otogyps[158] auricularis_[159]).

This is one of the largest species of the birds of prey found in the
Old World, being exceeded in size only by the Great Condor of the
Andes. It is an inhabitant of Africa, being plentifully spread over the
southern portion of the Continent, and also occurring in North-Eastern
Africa, whence it ranges in small numbers to Lower Nubia and the
Sahara, and has even been said to occur accidentally in Europe. It has
received the name of Eared Vulture on account of the folds of skin on
the sides of the neck, which are found only in one other species, the
Indian Vulture (_O. calvus_). These two kinds of Eared Vultures appear
to play the part of the King Vulture of South America, the smaller
Vultures, such as the _Neophrons_, always giving place to them, and
allowing them to finish their feast before venturing to approach.

[Illustration: EGYPTIAN VULTURE.]

The Egyptian Vulture (_Neophron[160] percnopterus_[161]) is also
familiarly known as Pharaoh’s Chicken. It is a small bird about two
feet and a half in length, white in plumage, with black wings. A great
part of the face is bare and of a yellow colour. The young birds
are brown. In Europe the Egyptian Vulture is a migratory bird, but
it breeds in many localities in the Mediterranean region, and has
even occurred once or twice on the shores of the British islands. In
winter it takes itself to the Cape of Good Hope. It is much valued in
certain places as a scavenger, as it devours excrementary matter, but
Mr. Gurney states that its food also consists of carrion of various
descriptions, and in default of such food it occasionally preys upon
rats, field mice, small lizards, snakes, insects, and even earthworms.
Colonel Irby observes that it is probably the foulest-feeding bird that
lives, and that it is very omnivorous, devouring any animal substance,
even all sorts of excrement; nothing comes amiss to it, and he has
sometimes seen them feeding on the sea-shore on dead fish thrown up
by the tide. The same gentleman[162] says that on their migrations
they pass Gibraltar, which is one of their lines of passage, about the
end of February, and they breed in the neighbourhood of that place,
beginning to lay about the 1st of April. The nest is composed of a few
dead sticks, always lined with wool, rags, or rubbish; and Colonel
Irby states that he found about a pound of tow in one nest, and the
sleeve of an old coat; while another observer says that on a foundation
of branches Pharaoh’s Hen heaps rags, patches, old slippers, and whole
basketfuls of camels’ hair and wool for the comfort of its offspring.
The Egyptians frequently represented this species on their monuments,
but do not appear to have attached any particular significance to it.

[Illustration: CONDOR.]

In India the place of the present species is taken by the Indian
Scavenger Vulture (_Neophron ginginianus_), and in Africa the Pileated
Vulture (_N. pileatus_), an entirely brown bird, occurs nearly all over
the continent.

THE SECOND SUB-FAMILY OF THE VULTURIDÆ.--THE AMERICAN VULTURES
(_Sarcorhamphinæ_).

THE CONDOR (_Sarcorhamphus[163] gryphus_[164]).

As before mentioned, all the American Vultures can be readily
distinguished by the perforation of their nostrils. The Condor is a
very unmistakable species, being the largest of all the Vultures,
and the male has a large comb on the head which is not developed in
the female. The hind toe also is extremely small, scarcely touching
the earth, and on this account the foot is less prehensile than in
any other Vulture. The home of this magnificent bird is the chain of
the Andes in South America, and the neighbouring countries to the
west, and it is found inhabiting these mountains from Ecuador and
Colombia, down to the Strait of Magellan, and again extending on the
east coast as far as the mouth of the Rio Negro in Patagonia. It bears
confinement well, examples being generally to be seen living in the
Zoological Gardens; and some idea of the extent of wing in the Condor
can occasionally be obtained when the birds are sunning themselves on
their perch. The expanse in large individuals is said to reach as much
as eight or nine feet. All observers agree that when seen in a wild
state the flight of the Condor is truly majestic, and it is capable of
ascending to an immense height, at which a man could not breathe on
account of the rarefaction of the air, a state of things which does
not seem to affect the Condor, who is often lost to sight amidst the
clouds. The most exaggerated stories of the strength and prowess of
this Vulture were circulated by the old authors, and it was even said
to attack full-grown oxen. The careful observations, however, of recent
travellers, have dispelled many of the fabulous stories respecting it,
and it is now a well ascertained fact that the Condor does not attack
full-grown animals of any size, but will devour newly-born and helpless
offspring, and several of them will unite to kill the mother should she
appear in a weak and sickly condition. The supposed habit, attributed
to these birds, of carrying off prey in their feet, is disproved by
the weakness of the last-named organs, and their utter incapacity for
grasping anything: in fact the feet play a very insignificant part in
the bird’s economy, the powerful bill being the chief factor in tearing
a carcase to pieces. The Condor measures about three feet and a half
in length, the closed wing being about twenty-nine inches. The general
colour of the bird is black, the secondary quills and most of the
wing-coverts being externally grey. Round the neck is a ruff of soft
white down. The bare parts of the head and neck are not remarkable for
any bright colour, but are blackish with traces of livid flesh colour
here and there. That the Condor lays sometimes in confinement is shown
by a specimen in the British Museum, which was hatched by a common
hen, who sat on the egg for six weeks and two days. The nestlings are
usually covered with white down.

THE KING VULTURE (_Cathartes[165] papa_[166]).

This is by far the handsomest of the whole family, its head and neck
being covered with caruncles, which in life are orange, purple, and
crimson in colour; the general plumage of the bird, too, is a delicate
fawn or cream colour. It is an inhabitant of Central and Southern
America, from Mexico southwards to Brazil, where it is found a little
below the twentieth degree of south latitude. It appears to be rather
a cleaner feeder than the Condor or other American Vultures, and
frequents wooded countries instead of those rocky places in which the
Condor delights. It is rarer than the last-named bird, and from its
forest-loving habits is less easily observed, and it is altogether
a more active and lively species. It is shy and suspicious, and is
most difficult to obtain, from its habit of sitting on the tops of
trees, whence it scans with ease the country around. On this account
it is seldom shot, and D’Orbigny, from whose works much of the above
information is derived, says that it is only captured by attracting
it to a carcase, and then shooting it from an ambush. Another mode of
capture, which he says is followed by the natives of Santa Cruz de
la Sierra,[167] is by finding out the tree on which the King Vulture
roosts, and to which it returns night after night, and then to climb
up and capture the bird with gloved hands. The same observer says that
it is not from any innate respect, but from fear of its powerful bill,
that the Turkey Vultures pay such deference to this present bird, not
venturing to commence their repast until he is satisfied, whereby he is
popularly known as the “King” of the Vultures.

THE TURKEY VULTURE (_Rhinogryphus[168] aura_).

This is an inhabitant of North America, whence it ranges throughout
Central America and the West Indian Islands down the Andean chain to
the Strait of Magellan. Their habits vary somewhat with locality, for
whereas in the Southern United States they act as scavengers in the
towns, in Guatemala and other places in Central America they are not
seen in flocks, but occur in pairs only in the forests. As in the case
of the other Vultures, their food consists of carrion, and they are
found in large numbers in deserts, where they obtain an ample supply of
food in the animals which perish. The Turkey Vulture is about two feet
and a half in length. The plumage is black with a purplish gloss, and
in life the bare head and neck are of a bright red colour, which soon
fades after death.

[Illustration: BRAZILIAN CARACARA.]

FAMILY FALCONIDÆ.--THE FALCON-LIKE HAWKS.

THE FIRST SUB-FAMILY.--THE CARACARAS (_Polyborinæ_).

All the members of this sub-family are more or less Vulturine in their
habits and appearance, and many of them are carrion feeders. The name
“Caracara” with which these birds are here designated is of Brazilian
origin, and all the species included under the present heading are
inhabitants of Central and Southern America, with the exception of the
Secretary Bird of Africa. They all seem to be at home on the ground,
and they differ from all other birds of prey in having a membrane which
joins the base of the two outer toes to the middle one, a feature
which is doubtless useful to the birds when wallowing in the marshy
ground, which many of them frequent in quest of frogs, &c. The Southern
Caracaras (_Ibycter australis_) are said to run with extreme quickness,
putting out one leg before the other, and stretching forward their
bodies very much like Pheasants. Mr. Darwin, who became acquainted
with these birds during his voyage in the _Beagle_, says that their
flesh is good to eat, and he gives a very interesting account of
the habits of the Southern Caracara in the Falkland Islands, where
they were extraordinarily tame and very mischievous, frequenting the
neighbourhood of the houses to pick up all kinds of offal. If a beast
were killed they congregated from all quarters like so many Vultures,
and they did not hesitate to attack and capture wounded birds, on one
occasion pouncing on a Dog which was lying asleep. They would also
carry off miscellaneous articles which were lying on the ground. “A
large black glazed hat was carried nearly a mile, as were a pair of
heavy balls, used in catching wild cattle. Mr. Usborne experienced
during the survey a severe loss in a small Kater’s compass, in a
red morocco case, which was never recovered.” According also to Mr.
Darwin, these birds were quarrelsome and extremely passionate, and it
was curious to behold them, when impatient, tearing up the grass with
their bills, from rage. It may be owing to their strong feelings, as
described by the last-named naturalist, that the colour of the face
changes in the Brazilian Caracara, concerning which a somewhat amusing
incident may be related. There arrived from Patagonia at the Zoological
Gardens two Caracaras, which were white instead of brown, like the
Brazilian species (_Polyborus tharus_), and the question which troubled
naturalists was, whether these Patagonian birds were a distinct
species, or whether they were simply a white variety of the ordinary
Brazilian bird. The latter had the bare skin of the face lemon-yellow,
whereas the white birds had this part purple, and this was looked
upon as one sign of their belonging to a distinct species. But one
memorable day an ornithologist went up to describe the new arrivals,
and to bestow on them a name, which should mark the character of the
purple face. No doubt existed in his mind, for the white birds had now
lived for a whole year in the Gardens, and were still white and had a
purple visage, but, happening to turn his head away for one moment,
he was not a little surprised, on looking back at his supposed new
species, to find that the facial character had disappeared, and that
the bird’s visage was now yellow. At the same moment the face of one
of the Brazilian birds in the adjoining den had turned red, and hence
it became clear that the Caracaras can change the colour of the bare
face at will, and that the lighter-coloured specimen was only an albino
after all! Besides the Caracaras, at least one other species of bird of
prey changes colour in a somewhat similar way--the Bateleur Eagle,[169]
which, if irritated, flushes up to the roots of its feathers, and
its bare face, which is usually scarlet, becomes a deep blood-red or
crimson. In the case of the latter bird the change of colour is visible
not only in the visage but in the feet also, which likewise acquire a
darker red than before.

THE SECRETARY BIRD (_Serpentarius[170] secretarius_[171]).

This is the only African representative of the Caracaras, or web-footed
birds of prey, and from its general look and from its habits, no less
than from some peculiar anatomical characters, it is by many good
authorities considered to be a game bird, and not a Hawk at all. No
one, however, who has seen a Secretary kill a Rat, and the prodigious
force with which, by repeated blows of his powerful legs, sometimes
springing into the air and bringing both feet down at the same moment
upon his victim, he quickly reduces it to a shapeless pulp, would
consider him anything but a bird of prey. Standing before a Cobra which
rises to attack him, the Secretary spreads his wings out in front as
a shield to guard his body, and then from behind this protection he
strikes his enemy down. On account of their prowess in destroying
venomous Serpents, they are protected with care by both the European
and Native Governments in South Africa, and in the Cape Colony a
penalty is inflicted upon any one who ventures to kill one of these
useful birds. Sometimes the Secretary does not win in the fight with
the Snake, for a good observer has stated that on one occasion he saw
a bird suddenly leave off fighting and run to a pool of water, where
he fell down dead. If the Snake bites a feather, the bird immediately
pulls it out, but in the above instance the reptile had drawn blood
from the point of the pinion. It is somewhat remarkable that the
Secretary should have such striking power in his legs, as they are
long and slender for the size of the bird, and are so brittle that it
is said that, if suddenly started into a quick run, their legs will
snap. The Secretary Bird is a most voracious feeder, devouring Rats,
Lizards, Locusts, Snakes, Tortoises, &c., and Levaillant states that
he took from the stomach of one of these birds three Serpents as long
as his arm and an inch in thickness, eleven Lizards of seven or eight
inches in length, and twenty-one small Tortoises of about two inches
in diameter, besides a large quantity of Grasshoppers or Locusts, and
other insects.

[Illustration: SECRETARY BIRD.]

A spirited and truthful account of the habits of the Secretary was
published in 1856 by the late M. Jules Verreaux, who spent upwards of
fifteen years in South Africa engaged in a study of the natural history
of that part of the world, and a few extracts from this paper cannot be
resisted.[172] “As Nature exhibits foresight in all that she does, she
has given to each animal its means of preservation. Thus the Secretary
Bird has been modelled on a plan appropriate to its mode of life; and
it is therefore for this purpose that, owing to the length of its legs
and tarsi, its piercing eye is able to discover at a long distance the
prey which, in anticipation of its appearance, is stretched on the
sand or amongst the thick grass. The elegant and majestic form of the
bird becomes now even more graceful; it now brings into action all its
cunning in order to surprise the Snake which it is going to attack;
therefore it approaches with the greatest caution. The elevation of the
feathers of the neck and back of the head shows when the moment for
attack has arrived. It throws itself with such force on the reptile
that very often the latter does not survive the first blow. But if
the bird does not succeed, and the enraged Snake draws itself up and
expands, at the same time, the skin of its neck, as is the way with the
more dangerous Serpents, the bird is forced to retreat, and takes a
spring backwards, waiting to seize a favourable moment for recommencing
the attack. Raising itself, the furious reptile moves its tongue
with the quickness of lightning, and gives forth the most vehement
hisses, which keep back the enemy and seem to force some respect from
it: but the bird, whose courage redoubles in the same ratio that the
difficulties increase, opens out its wings, and, returning to the
charge, assails the reptile afresh with blows from its terrible feet,
such as no one would believe, and which are not long in putting the
Snake _hors de combat_. We have, however, sometimes seen the Snakes
launch themselves on the Secretary, but, either by opening its wings,
whose long primaries serve it as a kind of shield, or by jumping
backwards or on one side, the bird is certain to parry the attack of
its antagonist, who at last, overcome by fatigue, falls at full length
on the ground. The moment is seized by the Secretary to redouble its
massive blows, which, by dislocating the vertebral column, soon cause
the reptile to give up the ghost. It is then that the victorious Hawk
darts like an arrow, and placing its foot on the Serpent’s neck, just
at the back of the head, commences to swallow it, which it does by
beginning at the tail first. Nor is this a long operation, even with
reptiles five or six feet in length and more than four inches in
diameter; and as soon as it arrives at the head it completely smashes
the skull by several blows of its bill before swallowing it.”

“Both sexes work at the construction of the nest, which is always
placed on the summit of a high dense bush, more often a mimosa. It is
added to each year, and it is easy to see the age of a nest by the
number of fresh layers which have been added year by year. The young
birds remain for six months before leaving the nest, their legs not
being strong enough to support the weight of the body. During the whole
of this time they are fed with great assiduity by both parents.”

The Secretary Bird stands more than four feet high, when fully grown.
The general colour of the plumage is grey, with black quills; the lower
back and rump are black, the upper tail-coverts white; the tail is
grey, tipped with white, and crossed with two black bands; below, the
colour is ashy-white, the thighs and abdomen black. From the hinder
part of the crown and occiput springs an elegant crest of plumes, which
the bird can raise or depress at will; they are either entirely black,
or grey with a black tip. It is from these long plumes that the bird
has got the name of the Secretary, from some fancied resemblance in the
bird’s head to the quills which a secretary places behind his ear.

In America, the Secretary is represented by the Çariama (_Çariama
cristata_), a bird which looks so like a game bird that, as we have
said, many ornithologists place both it and the Secretary among the
Gallinaceous birds, and not among the Hawks. From a consideration of
its anatomy, however, both Professor Parker and Professor Sundevall
determined that the Çariama is an accipitrine bird, though of a
very aberrant form. Those who differ from them admit that where the
Secretary is placed in the natural system the Çariama must also be
located, and no one who has studied the habits of the former, either
in a wild state or in captivity, can doubt for a moment that it is a
veritable bird of prey, and so it follows that the Bustard-like Çariama
must also be included in the same order.

CHAPTER IV.

THE LONG-LEGGED HAWKS AND BUZZARDS.

THE BANDED GYMNOGENE--Habits--Its Movable Tarsi--THE
HARRIERS--Distinctive Features--THE MARSH HARRIER--Habits--Its
Thievish Propensities--THE HARRIER-HAWKS--Colonel Greyson’s Account
of their Habits--THE CHANTING GOSHAWKS--Why so Called--Habits--THE
TRUE GOSHAWKS--Distinctive Characters--THE GOSHAWK--Distribution--In
Pursuit of its Prey--Appearance--THE SPARROW-HAWKS--Distinctive
Characters--THE COMMON SPARROW-HAWK--Habits--Appearance--THE
BUZZARDS--Their Tarsus--THE COMMON BUZZARD--Where Found--How it might
be turned to Account--Food--Its Migrations--Habits--Appearance--THE
HARPY.

THE SECOND SUB-FAMILY OF THE FALCONIDÆ.--THE LONG-LEGGED HAWKS
(_Accipitrinæ_).

All the Hawks included under this heading are remarkable for their
long legs, in which the tibial bone and the tarsus are about equal in
length. In all the other Hawks, Eagles, Kites, Buzzards, and Falcons,
the tibia is always longer than the tarsus.

The Long-legged Hawks are not such powerful birds of prey as the Eagles
or Falcons, and do not possess, as a rule, the same dash and courage in
pursuing their quarry, many of them feeding on a low kind of diet, and
being robbers of eggs and destroyers of young birds. The birds of prey
belonging to this sub-family are--1. The Gymnogenes; 2. The Harriers;
3. The Goshawks; 4. The Sparrow-Hawks.

THE BANDED GYMNOGENE[173] (_Polyboroides[174] typicus_).

From its general appearance, especially in its naked yellow face, this
remarkable Hawk is considered to be a close ally of the Secretary
Bird; but the proportions of its legs and its habits proclaim it to be
nearly related to the Harriers. Two kinds of Gymnogenes are known, one
inhabiting Africa, and the other being found in Madagascar. The food
of the present species appears to consist of Frogs and Lizards, and
at times it walks over the ground which has been recently burnt, in
pursuit of insects and small reptiles; at other times it will sit for
a long time on stumps by pools of water, watching for Frogs, which in
such situations form its favourite food. The Gymnogenes are remarkable
in the class of birds for being able to put their leg “out of joint” at
will (that is to say, they can bend the tarsus backwards just as they
please); and this is a fact which may be accepted as a certainty, since
its truth has been tested by many trusty and independent observers. One
of these, the late M. Jules Verreaux, states that the tarsi are movable
at the “knee”-joint toward the front from behind, a provision which,
from the facility it affords the bird for drawing up Frogs out of the
marsh-holes by means of its talons, is of no little service to it. The
exceedingly compressed toes of this species also enable it to introduce
its long tarsi into the narrow crevices of the rocks. He saw it twist
and turn its legs in all directions in capturing its prey in marshy
places. Mr. Thomas Ayres also says that “the legs of this bird bend
backward at the knee in an extraordinary manner, very much as if they
were out of joint.”

The Banded Gymnogene is nearly twenty-four inches in length, and is of
a light grey colour, with black wings, the secondaries being grey like
the back, with a black band before the tip; the lower back is white
barred with black; the tail black with a white tip and a white bar
across the middle; the throat and chest are grey like the back, and the
rest of the under surface is white barred with black. The cere and bare
space round the eye are yellow when the bird is alive.

THE HARRIERS (_Circus_).

All the Harriers have a facial disc as in the Owls, though not so
distinct as in the latter group of birds. In both, however, the disc is
formed by a ruff of soft, close-set plumes, which encircle the face;
and hence in most classifications the Harriers have been considered
as being closely allied to the Owls, on account of their having this
“facial disc.” Their structure and habits, however, entirely do away
with the idea of there being any real affinity between these two groups
of accipitrine birds.

Before the draining of the fens in England, Harriers were by no means
uncommon in certain localities; but they are becoming rarer year by
year, as each favourite haunt passes from them under the dominion of
the agriculturist. Three kinds were found in England, of which the
Hen Harrier (_Circus cyaneus_) was the rarest; Montagu’s Harrier (_C.
pygargus_) was the most plentiful and the most widely distributed;
and the Marsh Harrier, or Moor Buzzard (_C. æruginosus_), the most
powerful. This is the species which has held its own best, as it is
still found breeding in some few places in the United Kingdom. The
habits of all the Harriers are very similar, and the genus Circus
is probably--with the exception of the Peregrine Falcons--the most
universally distributed of any Raptorial birds, for there is scarcely
any part of the world where a Harrier is not found.

THE MARSH HARRIER (_Circus æruginosus_).

This is an inhabitant of the Old World, where it enjoys a wide range.
It is one of the greatest robbers of eggs and young birds, being,
in countries where it is still plentiful, a great nuisance to the
sportsman, as, says Colonel Irby, “slowly hunting along in front, it
puts up every Snipe and Duck that lies in its course, making them
unsettled and wild.”[175] The same authority furnishes the following
interesting particulars about the habits of the present species:--“In
Andalusia, as well as in Morocco, over all low wet ground, the Marsh
Harrier is to be seen in vast numbers, particularly in winter. Great
quantities remain to breed, sometimes as many as twenty nests being
within three hundred yards of one another. The latter, loosely
constructed with dead sedges, vary very much in size and depth, and
are usually placed amidst rushes in swamps, but sometimes on the
ground among brambles and low brushwood, always near water, though
occasionally far from marshes. They begin to lay about the end of
March, and at that time fly up a great height, playing about, and
continually uttering their wailing cry. The eggs are bluish-white, and
usually four or five in number; they certainly vary in size and shape,
and are often much stained. Like the eggs of all the Harriers that I
am acquainted with, and many others of the Accipitres, when blown and
held up to the light they show a bluish tinge. I once found a nest
containing only one egg nearly ready to hatch, and saw another with six
eggs (three quite fresh, and the other three hard sat on). I believe
that if the first set of eggs be taken they lay again in a fresh nest,
as I found sets of fresh eggs as late as the 2nd of May.

[Illustration: MARSH HARRIER.]

“Cowardly and ignoble, they are the terror of all the poultry which
are in their districts, continually carrying off chickens, and, like
other Harriers, are most terribly destructive to the eggs and young of
all birds. On account of these propensities, I never let off a Marsh
Harrier unless it spoiled sport to fire at one. Sometimes, when at Casa
Vieja, and the Snipe were scarce, we used to lie up in the line of the
Harriers’ flight to their roosting-places; for they always take the
same course, and come evening after evening within five minutes of the
same time. Upon one occasion a friend and myself killed eleven, and
during the visit accounted for over twenty. I also upon every possible
opportunity destroyed the nest and shot the old ones; but it was the
labour of Sisyphus, for others immediately appeared. However, there was
a visible diminution of their numbers at Casa Vieja. I never saw rats
in their nests or crops, and believe they have not the courage to kill
them; small snakes, frogs, wounded birds, eggs, and nestlings unable to
fly, form the main part of their prey. I have seen the Marsh Harrier
hawking over the sea about two hundred yards from the shore, where
there was shallow water, but could not see what they were taking.”

THE HARRIER-HAWKS (_Micrastur_[176]).

These constitute a little genus of Hawks peculiar to the New World,
where they form a perfect link between the Harriers and the Goshawks.
In form they are stoutly-built birds like the latter, while they retain
the facial ruff of the Harriers, and hence the name of Harrier-Hawk
adopted for them here. Their habits are well described by a good
observer, the late Colonel Greyson, of the U.S. Army, who writes
of the largest species of the genus, the Harrier-Hawk (_Micrastur
semitorquatus_):--“Among the great variety of Hawks to be met with
in a single day’s excursion in the locality of Mazatlan, none are
so easily recognised as this peculiar and interesting species. I
have found it only in the heavy forests, or the immediate vicinity
of a thickly-wooded country, where its slender form and lengthened
tail attract our attention as it swiftly glides through the tangled
woods with that remarkable ease which we have often noticed in the
Sharp-shinned Hawk (_A. fuscus_). It appears to be strictly arboreal in
its habits, and possessed of wonderful activity, either in springing
from branch to branch without opening its wings, or rapidly darting
through the intricacies of the bush with apparently but little
difficulty. I have seldom seen one of these Hawks in an open country,
and have never seen one flying higher than the tree tops, where they
are met with. Its wings are rather short, and its flight is performed
by rapidly repeated strokes, only for a short distance at a time. It
preys upon various species of wood birds, which it captures by darting
upon them on the ground or in the bushes; but the Chachalaca is its
favourite game. This is a gallinaceous bird, or wild chicken, about the
size of, or lighter than, the common hen, and is entirely arboreal,
seldom running upon the ground, but is able by its peculiarly-formed
feet to cling to, or spring rapidly through, the thickest branches
with great agility; but this Hawk follows it with equal facility,
until an opportunity offers to strike its prey, then both come to the
ground together, the Hawk being the lighter bird. I witnessed a scene
of this kind that took place when I was endeavouring to get a shot at
a Chachalaca, as it was jumping about the very thick branches of an
acacia overgrown with lianas; it appeared to be in great distress,
uttering its harsh notes of alarm, and spreading its fan-shaped tail.
Suddenly I saw one of these Hawks pounce upon it; when with harsh
screams of terror and pain the Chachalaca dragged its captor to the
ground, where they struggled for a few moments, but the unfortunate
bird was soon overcome. The struggling and screams of the Chachalaca
created a great commotion among the denizens of the woods; far and
near were heard the harsh cries of other members of its family, and
the Urraca Magpie, with streaming tail and ludicrous gesticulations,
as well as the Blue-back Jay, and other birds in the neighbourhood,
gathered around to witness the scene of rapine. Suddenly appeared in
the midst of this clamour a larger Hawk (_Buteo Harrisi_, Aud.), which
rushed at once upon the captor of the Chachalaca. Unable to withstand
so heavy a charge, he was compelled to give up his honestly captured
prey to a superior force, thus proving the old adage that ‘might is
right.’ The slender but compact figure of our present subject was now
seen perched upon a neighbouring bough, scrutinising, with a vicious
eye, the more powerful but less active bird of prey, as he vainly
attempted to bear off the lifeless form of the Chachalaca; but there
was one yet mightier than he. I observed it for a few moments, then
shot it, as also the Long-tailed Hawk, thus securing all three.

“They build their nest of dry twigs and moss, which is placed in a very
tall tree, but below the higher branches. The only nest I have seen was
inaccessible, therefore I regret that I am unable to describe the eggs.”

THE CHANTING GOSHAWKS (_Melierax_[177]).

These birds are met with in Africa only, and they have received the
name of “Chanting” Goshawks from their song, which has been stated by
the French traveller, Levaillant, to be of considerable power, for he
says he has heard the male of the Cape species (_Melierax canorus_)
sing for hours together in the twilight of morning and evening, and
sometimes through the night. This, however, has been questioned by
Mr. Layard, who is well known as an authority on African birds, and
who observed the species in some abundance in certain parts of South
Africa. According to this observer, the bird will perch on the top of
a high tree, utter its “mellow piping whistle,” and fly off again. He
has also heard it call when flying. Now, although the Chanting Goshawks
may not have such powers of song as have been credited to them, it is
certain that they really have a more varied note than is the case with
other Goshawks, and the Red-faced Goshawk (_Melierax gobar_) is said to
whistle very much and better than _M. canorus_. About five different
species of Chanting Goshawks are known, all being from Africa: hence
the genus _Melierax_ is one of those forms characteristic of the
_Ethiopian region_, which embraces Africa below the Sahara desert.
One species only, the Many-banded Goshawk (_Melierax polyzonus_), a
frequent bird in Abyssinia and Senegambia, is known to wander beyond
the limits of the above-named region, as it occurs in Mogador, whence
living specimens have been more than once sent to the Zoological
Gardens.

The habits of the Chanting Goshawks are very similar to those of the
ordinary Goshawks of more northern climates, the larger species feeding
on Quails, Francolins, and other small game, reptiles, and locusts,
while the less powerful kinds devour small birds and reptiles. The
colour of the plumage is a pearly-grey in the South African Chanting
Goshawk (_M. canorus_), the belly being white with greyish cross-lines;
the rump is white; the primary quills black; tail dusky, tipped with
white and crossed by broad white bars; the cere and legs are red; the
iris dark brown. It measures about three feet in length. This style of
colouring is found in all the species, excepting one small one, which
is entirely black all over, save some white spots on the tail, and is
known as the Black Goshawk (_Melierax niger_).

THE TRUE GOSHAWKS (_Astur_).

These are represented nearly all over the world, every country having
one or more species of the genus Astur, excepting the continent of
South America, which possesses only two kinds, both of them rare and
of limited range. More than thirty different species of the genus have
been described, and they present great differences in size and style of
coloration, their habits varying equally, according to the strength and
power of the birds; but they are all remarkable for a very sturdy bill,
and thick-set legs and sharp talons. A Goshawk may always be told by
the latter characters, and by its short toes, which are perhaps smaller
in proportion to the size of the bird than in any other group of the
birds of prey.

These birds, and the Sparrow-Hawks, have very short wings, and have not
the same power of flight as in the true Falcons, which are long-winged
birds; and hence, in the old days of falconry, they were never
considered of such value as the Peregrine in the chase. They were also
called Hawks of the “fist,” as they were flown at game from the hand,
instead of soaring down on the quarry from aloft.

THE GOSHAWK (_Astur palumbarius_).

This is the largest and most powerful of all the genus, as it is also
the best known, being found all over the northern parts of Europe and
Asia. It used to be of more frequent occurrence in Britain formerly
than it is now; and although it can only nest in this country on the
rarest occasions in the present day, the author was introduced to
an old gamekeeper on the Marquis of Huntly’s estate at Aboyne, who
perfectly remembered the Goshawk breeding regularly at Glentanner. A
young bird is still captured now and then in autumn, one of the last
instances being that of a young male, who was captured in an area at
Hampstead, on the 3rd of August, 1872, and is now in the British Museum.

It will feed on nearly every kind of bird and animal that it is able
to catch, and in falconry it is principally employed to take Hares and
Rabbits; it will also take Pheasants and Partridges, a great number
of these latter birds being killed by the Goshawk in its wild state.
It is able to pursue its quarry with great dexterity through a wooded
country, and it possesses great powers of abstinence, so that, if its
prey escapes into cover for the time, the Hawk will often wait for its
re-appearance, and will generally exhaust the patience of the quarry,
and succeed in capturing it. During the daytime it remains solitary in
dark fir-forests, and comes out to feed in the morning and evening.
The nest is often a huge structure, being added to year by year; and
an immense nest is figured in Professor Newton’s “Ootheca Wolleyana.”
Some idea of the size may be gained from the story told by Mr. Wolley,
who climbed up to one that was placed a good height up in a large
Scottish fir, and when he stood on the same branch with the nest,
the latter still reached several inches above his head, so that the
building of this nest had probably been the work of several years.

The old birds are alike in plumage; but the female, as is the case
with all Goshawks, is larger than the male, measuring about two feet
in length, while the male does not exceed twenty inches; the wing
also, which is about twelve inches in the male, exceeds fourteen in
the female. The colour is grey, the head black, the sides of the face
white, streaked with black lines; below, the under surface of the body
is white, barred across with black cross-bars of ashy-brown; the under
tail-coverts are white; quills and tail ashy-brown, the tail feathers
tipped with white; cere yellow; bill bluish; iris orange. The young
birds differ considerably from the adults, being rufous below, with
longitudinal streaks of dark brown; the upper surface is brown, all the
feathers being margined with reddish-white.

[Illustration: GOSHAWK.]

In North America, a bird very similar to the Goshawk takes its place;
and a third species of the same group is found in Madagascar only. It
is, however, principally in the Malayan Archipelago that the greatest
number of species occur, nearly every island possessing a Goshawk
peculiar to itself.

THE SPARROW-HAWKS (_Accipiter_).

These may almost be called miniature Goshawks, as they are not only
short-winged birds like the latter, but they even have the same style
of plumage, consisting generally of a dark-grey back, a barred under
surface, and a piercing yellow eye. They may, however, be distinguished
from the Goshawks by their small, weak bill, and long, slender, middle
toe. With the exception of some of the Oceanic Islands, Sparrow-Hawks
are found all over the world, being plentiful even in South America,
where the rarity of the Goshawks has already been alluded to.

THE COMMON SPARROW-HAWK (_Accipiter nisus_).

This is an active and plucky little bird, which still holds its own
in England, notwithstanding the raids made upon its nest, and the
destruction of old birds by keepers. Nor can it be denied that the
Sparrow-Hawk, hatching its young about the time when the young chickens
and Pheasants are also being reared, will occasionally make a swoop on
the pheasantry, and carry off the chicks to feed its own offspring. The
principal food of this Hawk is small birds, in the pursuit of which
it is so eager that it has several times been known to dash through
a glass window, and be caught in the room; while Messrs. Salvin and
Brodrick, in their work on British Falconry, state that they have
“known a trained Sparrow-Hawk force itself to such an extent into a
blackthorn bush, where it had killed a bird, as to require to be cut
out.” Like the Goshawk, it is often trained for hawking, but is a
much more delicate bird to rear, and requires careful management when
young. Nevertheless, a well-trained Sparrow-Hawk will account for a
considerable number of birds; and in the work of the above-mentioned
authors is given an instance of one Hawk having killed 327 head in
less than two months, consisting of Sparrows, Blackbirds, Thrushes, a
few Partridges, and Linnets, more than two-thirds of the number being
Sparrows.

In size the female Sparrow-Hawk is considerably larger than the male,
measuring nearly sixteen inches in length, and nine inches and a half
in the wing. She is generally paler grey, never so blue as in the male,
nor is she so red underneath. A sign of age, by which a mature hen
Sparrow-Hawk may be known, is the presence of a tuft of rufous plumes
on the flanks, which is feebly developed in the young bird, but is a
conspicuous feature in the adult.

[Illustration: SPARROW-HAWK. (_After Keulemans_)]

The male is bluish slate-colour above, the quills browner and barred
across with darker brown, these bars being very distinct below; the
tail is barred with blackish-brown, and tipped with white; cheeks and
ear-coverts are rufous; under surface of body whitish, with narrow
bars of bright rufous, the under tail-coverts white, as are also the
under wing-coverts and axillaries, these two latter parts being spotted
with brown. Young birds are brown with rufous edges to the feathers;
underneath they are rufous, barred with brown on the flanks and breast,
the throat and fore-neck streaked with the same colour. The bars on
the tail are five in number in a young male, but as the bird increases
in age the number of bars decreases, and is generally only four in a
very old bird: the same takes place in the female. The range of the
Common Sparrow-Hawk is very similar to that of the Goshawk, being
extended all over Europe and Northern Asia, and into Northern China and
North-western India. Neither of the birds go to South Africa, and range
into the north-eastern portion of that continent only in winter.

THE THIRD SUB-FAMILY.--THE BUZZARDS (_Buteoninæ_).

These Hawks constitute a numerous assemblage of the birds of prey,
and lead on from the long-legged Hawks of the previous sub-family to
the Eagles, ending with the Great Harpy, which is, perhaps, the most
powerful bird of prey in the world. All the Buzzards have the tibia
much longer than the tarsus, but they may be distinguished from all the
Eagles, Kites, and Falcons by having the back of the tarsus “plated,”
and not “reticulated.” In the accompanying woodcuts is shown the hinder
aspect of a Buzzard’s tarsus (figure on p. 274), by which it will be
seen that the scales are arranged in plates, very differently from that
which takes place in the tarsus of an Eagle (figure on p. 274), where
the scales are reticulated.[178]

The Buzzards are more numerous in the northern parts of the world than
in the tropics, and a large decrease in the number of species takes
place in Central and Southern America, whilst in Oceania and Australia
they are altogether absent. As a rule, they are birds of plain plumage
and sluggish habits, possessing neither the courage of the Eagles, nor
the dash and adroitness of the Falcons, in capturing their prey. Africa
produces some species which, as regards plumage, are an exception to
the general rule, the Augur and Jackal Buzzards (_Buteo augur_ and
_Buteo jackal_) being rather handsome birds, their plumage being a
mixture of black and chestnut.

[Illustration: HIND VIEW OF TARSUS OF BUZZARD, SHOWING THE PLATED
ARRANGEMENT OF SCALES (A).]

THE COMMON BUZZARD (_Buteo[179] vulgaris_).

This is a strictly European bird, although it has been stated to occur
in Central Asia, and to sometimes wander into North-eastern Africa.
Like all other birds of prey, it is rather rare in Great Britain, but
it still breeds in certain localities, although the great majority of
specimens which are killed in Britain are found in the fall of the
year. The power of the Common Buzzards to attack large game is very
limited, and Mr. Robert Gray[180] observes:--“To many persons it will
seem unwise, I dare say, to call this Buzzard a useful bird in game
preserves, yet I cannot but think that if the experiment were made of
allowing it to fulfil the ends for which Nature designed it, our native
game birds would benefit by the trial. So far as my own observations
have extended, the Common Buzzard is just the kind of instrument wanted
to clear off sickly young birds, which, on arriving at maturity, yield
an offspring of a degenerate breed. Of somewhat sluggish habits, it
does not care to interfere with strong-winged birds, being content with
those that, through wounds or a naturally feeble constitution, are
unable to save themselves. In this way only strong birds are left, and
a healthy breed ensues. Let any of our proprietors of moors, who are
jealous of the daring prowess of Eagles and lordly Peregrines, act upon
this hint, and I will venture to say we should have fewer instances of
disease amongst game birds to chronicle.”

[Illustration:

HIND VIEW OF TARSUS OF SERPENT EAGLE, SHOWING THE RETICULATED
ARRANGEMENT OF SCALES.
]

Although the Buzzard does not quarter the ground like a Harrier, and
search for its prey on the wing, it may not unfrequently be seen
circling in the air at a considerable height, generally over the place
which contains its nest, but as a rule it perches on some stone or
similar resting-place, whence it watches for its prey. When flying it
utters a clear loud cry, which has been described as “mewing.” Its
principal food consists of Field Mice, but it also devours Moles, young
birds, the caterpillars of Hawk Moths (_Sphingidæ_), Grasshoppers,
and it will also occasionally feed on carrion, or on dead fish cast
up on the sea-shore. When migrating in the autumn, which it does in
considerable numbers together, a good many are caught for the purposes
of food, and the manner of catching them is thus described by Nilsson
in his work on the birds of Sweden:--“In October, when they pass
through Skåne on their passage to the south, they remain for some
time on the outermost point of land to await a suitable westerly
wind to cross. Large numbers collect and roost at night in the trees
(especially in the willows) which grow there. When the darkness sets
in, two men go in company to catch them, one with a sack, and the other
with a stout cudgel. The latter climbs quietly up into the tree, where
he can just distinguish the bird, whilst the other remains below; and
so soon as the climber has got up to where he can reach a bird, he
catches it by the legs with the left hand, and either twists its neck
with his right hand, or stuns it with a blow of the cudgel, and throws
it down to his companion on the ground, who crams it into the sack.
In this manner two men can catch thirty or forty in the evening, or,
according to Burgomaster C., as many even as seventy or eighty; and
Captain E. relates that twenty were obtained one evening from the same
tree. They are easiest to catch when it is dark and blowing hard, so
that the bird cannot easily hear the noise. In all, many hundreds are
caught annually, some of which are cooked fresh or made into soup, but
most are salted down and kept for use during the winter.”

[Illustration: COMMON BUZZARD.]

The nest of the Buzzard is generally placed on some non-evergreen
tree at various heights from the ground, but in Scotland it builds
on rocks. The usual number of eggs is three or four, and these are a
bluish-white, with reddish blotches. They vary a good deal in colour,
some being rather richly marked, while others are almost colourless.
The time of breeding is generally the month of April, or in severe
seasons, early in May. A Crow’s nest is occasionally taken possession
of. When the bird makes its own nest, this is formed of large branches
with a lining of grass, occasionally of a few feathers. No bird varies
more than the Buzzard in plumage, and many beautiful variations in its
dress take place before the adult plumage is gained. The old bird is
almost entirely brown above and below, the breast and abdomen generally
having a more or less barred appearance; the quills are brown, banded
with darker brown, and shaded with grey on their outer aspect; the tail
is ashy-brown, more or less inclining to rufous, and having twelve or
thirteen bars of darker brown. Young birds have a great deal of white
about their plumage, some of them being nearly cream-coloured. The size
of the adults is about twenty-two inches, and the sexes vary a little
in dimensions, the wing of the female being perhaps one inch longer
than that of the male.

The great utility of the Buzzard in destroying Mice ought to render
it an object of protection and encouragement, for the number of small
Mammals destroyed by these birds is immense. Brehm calculates that
when they have young they will destroy at least one hundred Mice a day,
and mentions that thirty Field Mice have been taken from the crop of a
single bird.

THE HARPY (_Thrasatus[181] harpyia_[182]).

[Illustration: THE HARPY.]

Although from its size and courage this bird is generally called the
_Harpy Eagle_, it is evident from its structure that it is a Buzzard,
as it possesses the “plated” tarsi of the latter group of birds. It is
an inhabitant of the New World, from Mexico through Central America to
Brazil and Bolivia. It is a very destructive bird, causing great damage
to the flocks, and even destroying calves, whence it is an object of
detestation to the stock-keepers in Mexico. It also feeds on deer and
on the large Macaws which are found in the forest it frequents. It
stands more than three feet and a half high, and has a large crest,
which, together with its powerful talons and glittering eye, gives
the bird an imposing aspect even in captivity. In the adult bird the
coloration is ashy-grey, inclining in very old examples to silvery grey
relieved by the dark ash-coloured wings and tail.

CHAPTER V.

EAGLES AND FALCONS.

THE EAGLES--THE BEARDED EAGLE, OR LÄMMERGEIER--A Visit to
their Nest--Habits--A Little Girl carried off alive--Habits
in Greece--Appearance--Von Tschudi’s and Captain Hutton’s
Descriptions of its Attacks--THE TRUE EAGLES--THE WEDGE-TAILED
EAGLE--Eye--Crystalline Lens--How Eagles may be Divided--THE IMPERIAL
EAGLE--THE GOLDEN EAGLE--In Great Britain--Macgillivray’s Description
of its Habits--Appearance--THE KITE EAGLE--Its Peculiar Feet--Its
Bird’s-nesting Habits--THE COMMON HARRIER EAGLE--THE INDIAN SERPENT
EAGLE--THE BATELEUR EAGLE--THE WHITE-TAILED EAGLE--A Sea Eagle--Story
of Capture of some Young--THE SWALLOW-TAILED KITE--On the Wing--THE
COMMON KITE--THE EUROPEAN HONEY KITE--Habits--ANDERSSON’S PERN--THE
FALCONS--The Bill--THE CUCKOO FALCONS--THE FALCONETS--THE PEREGRINE
FALCON--Its Wonderful Distribution--Falconry--Names for Male,
Female, and Young--Hawks and Herons--THE GREENLAND JER-FALCON--THE
KESTRELS--THE COMMON KESTREL--Its Habits and Disposition.

THE THIRD SUB-FAMILY OF THE FALCONIDÆ.--THE EAGLES (_Aquilinæ_).

As already explained, the Eagles may be distinguished from the Buzzards
by their reticulated tarsus; otherwise the proportions of the leg-bones
are similar, the tibia being considerably longer than the tarsus.

THE BEARDED EAGLE, OR LÄMMERGEIER (_Gypaëtus barbatus_).

The generic name of this Eagle is derived from two Greek words (γύψ,
a Vulture, ἀετός, an Eagle), and no name could have been better
chosen, for with the structure of an Eagle it combines many of the
habits of a Vulture, and has many ways in common with the Egyptian
Vulture (_Neophron percnopterus_). In Europe it is found only in the
mountainous parts of those countries bordering the Mediterranean basin,
and is now nearly extinct in Switzerland. In the mountains of Spain,
however, it is still to be met with in some quantities, and Mr. Howard
Saunders states that one or two pairs may be found in every range of
mountains. In Sardinia it is said by Mr. Basil Brooke to be decidedly
common, and during one of his visits to that island he obtained a very
curious nestling bird covered with down. “A pair of these birds,” says
Mr. Brooke, “are in possession of every separate range of hills, which
they appear to regard as their own territory, and from which they are
seldom to be found far distant. They are generally to be seen singly or
in pairs; but now and then I have observed three, and on one occasion
four together. As a rule they are most decidedly mountain birds, but
occasionally a single bird may be seen hunting over the plains and
cultivated lands, not flying more than one hundred yards high. The
nest of one found on the 18th of April was built on a broad ledge of
a precipitous cliff, about three hundred feet high, within twenty
feet of the top, and was completely sheltered from the severity of
the weather by a large overhanging piece of rock. After some trouble
I discovered a way by which, with a little care, I managed to get on
the ledge, much to the discomfort of the solitary inmate--a young
nestling, covered as yet with a pale yellowish-brown down. The nest
itself was an accumulation of dried sticks, with a cup-shaped hollow
in the middle, and had evidently been used for years. In it, and on
the surrounding ledge, were great quantities of the leg-bones and
feet of goats, &c., and a part of a fox’s lower jaw; these being in
all stages of putrefaction, the smell was abominable. The old female
on my first visit to the nest sat extremely close, and although I was
standing over her within seven or eight yards, would not leave her
young until I fired a shot, upon which she dashed off, dropping almost
perpendicularly, and was out of range before I could fire. She flew
over the valley and lit upon a high-projecting, rocky pinnacle, upon
which I could see her through the telescope, sitting quietly watching
all my proceedings. She returned to the nest shortly afterwards, on my
having retired to a little distance.”

In Algeria the Lämmergeier is said to feed largely on Land Tortoises,
which it carries to a great height in the air, and drops upon a
convenient rock, so as to break the shell. So much has been written
upon the habits of this bird that it would be impossible to give here
one tithe of the interesting notes which have been published in various
works and periodicals; but no history of the species, however brief,
would be complete without a passing mention of the little girl who
was said to have been carried off in childhood by one of these birds.
The history, believed by him to be well authenticated, is related by
Naumann as follows.--“Anna Zurbuchen, of Hatchern, in Bern Oberland,
born in 1760, was taken out by her parents, when she was nearly three
years old, when they went to collect herbs. She fell asleep, and the
father put his straw hat over her face and went to his work. Shortly
after, when he returned with a bundle of hay, the child was gone; and
the parents and peasants sought her in vain. During this time Heinrich
Michel, of Unterseen, was going on a wild path to Wäppesbach, and
suddenly heard a child cry. He ran towards the sound, and a Bearded
Vulture rose, scared by him, from a mound, and soared away over the
precipice. On the extreme edge of the latter, below which a stream
roared, and over whose edge any moment would have precipitated it,
Michel found the child, which was uninjured, except on the left arm and
hand, where the bird had probably clutched it; its shoes, stockings,
and cap were gone. This occurred on the 12th of July, 1763. The place
where the child was found was about 1,400 paces distant from the
tarn where it had been left asleep. The child was afterwards called
_Lämmergeier-Anni_, and married Peter Frutiger, a tailor in Gewaldswyl,
where she was still living in 1814.”

The circumstantial way in which the above narrative runs appears to
leave little doubt of its reality, but it is difficult to give it
credence, as the Lämmergeier has but little power in its feet, which
resemble those of the Vultures; and most of the stories of its prowess
have been discredited by the researches of modern naturalists. Dr.
Brehm observes:--“To my intense astonishment, the Spanish hunters did
not regard this bird in the slightest degree as a bold, merciless
robber: all asserted that it fed on carrion, especially bones, only
attacking living animals when driven by necessity. They called it
‘Quebranta-Huesos,’ or the ‘Bone-smasher,’ and assured me that this
favourite food was broken in a singular manner. My later observations
proved nothing which would justify my treating their statements as
otherwise than correct, so I was forced to come to the conclusion that
the Lämmergeier had been much maligned. Since my first account of this
bird, I have read a number of communications from other observers, and
gather from the whole that the Bearded Vulture is nought else than a
weak, cowardly bird of prey, gifted neither in mind nor body to any
great extent, and one that but rarely carries away small mammals. Its
food usually consists of bones and other carrion.”

Mr. Hudleston met with the Lämmergeier in Greece, where, however, it
was not common, and he writes of its habits as observed by him:--“He
is not a demonstrative bird like the Griffon, who may be seen sailing
about at a great height in the air, sometimes alone, but more often
in troops of from half a dozen to fifty, revolving in endless circles
round each other, that no corner may remain unseen. The Lämmergeier,
on the contrary, may be observed floating slowly, at a uniform level,
close to the cliffs of some deep ravine, where his shadow is perhaps
projected on the wall-like rocks. If the ravine has salient and
re-entering angles, he does not cut across from point to point, but
preserves the same distance from the cliff; and when he disappears
in any natural fissure, you feel sure of the very spot where he will
emerge on turning the corner of the precipice. Marrow-bones are the
dainties he loves the best; and when the other Vultures have picked the
flesh off any animal, he comes in at the end of the feast and swallows
the bones, or breaks them and swallows the pieces, if he cannot get the
marrow out otherwise. The bones he cracks by taking them to a great
height and letting them fall on a stone. This is probably the bird that
dropped a Tortoise on the bald head of poor old Æschylus. Not, however,
that he restricts himself, or the huge black infant that he and his
mate are bringing up, in one of the many holes with which the limestone
precipice abounds, to marrow, turtle, bones, and similar delicacies:
neither lamb, hare, nor kid comes amiss to him--though, his power of
claw and beak being feeble for so large a bird, he cannot tear his
meat like other Vultures and Eagles. I once saw a mature bird of this
species which had evidently swallowed a bone, or something uncommonly
indigestible, close to the _abattoir_ at Athens. He was in a very
uncomfortable attitude, and appeared to be leaning on his long tail for
support. After riding round in gradually decreasing circles till within
ten yards, I dropped off horseback and made a rush at him, but he just
managed to escape, and then rising slowly till about the height of the
Acropolis, made off towards the gorge of Phylæ, where there is an eyry.

“The Lämmergeier has an extremely ugly countenance; this becomes
perfectly diabolical when he is irritated, and shows the bright
red round his eyes. Altogether, what with his black beard, rufous
breast, and long, dark tail, he is an awful-looking beast, and has the
reputation of committing divers evil deeds--such, for instance, as
pushing lambs and kids, and even men, off the rocks, when they are in
ticklish situations. Nevertheless, he is a somewhat cowardly bird, has
a feeble, querulous cry, and will submit to insults from a Falcon not a
fourth his size or weight.”

[Illustration: BEARDED EAGLE, OR LÄMMERGEIER.]

Von Tschudi says that in Switzerland it will capture Hares, Martens,
Squirrels, Crows, and Woodcocks, and he states that a stomach was found
to contain five pieces of Bullock’s ribs two inches thick and from six
to nine inches long, a lump of hair, and the leg of a young Goat from
the knee to the foot. The bones were perforated by the gastric juice,
and partly reduced to powder. The stomach of another Lämmergeier,
examined by Mr. Schinz, contained the large hip-bone of a Cow, the
skin and fore-quarters of a Chamois, many smaller bones, some hair,
and a Heath-cock’s claws. Should a Lämmergeier see an old Chamois or a
Sheep or Goat grazing near a precipice, it will whirl round and round,
trying to torment and frighten the creature till it runs to the edge of
the cliff; and then, falling down upon it, the bird not unfrequently
succeeds in pushing it into the abyss below with one stroke of its
wings. Diving down after its mangled victim, it will begin by picking
out its eyes, and then proceed to tear open and devour the body. It
is only the smaller class of booty, such as Foxes, Lambs, or Marmots,
which can be carried off by the Lämmergeier, as its feet and claws, as
we have already remarked, are comparatively weak.[183]

In the Himalayas, where the species is also tolerably plentiful,
its habits vary somewhat, and it not unfrequently comes close to
habitations for offal or bones, and behaves in a very Vulturine manner.
Captain Hutton writes:--“Marvellous, indeed, are the stories told,
both by natives and Europeans, of the destructive habits of this bird,
and both accounts, I fully believe, have scarcely a grain of truth in
them: all I can positively say on the point, however, is that I have
known the bird well in its native haunts for thirty years and more,
and never once, in all that time, have I seen it stoop to anything but
a dead carcase. As to carrying off hens, dogs, lambs, or children, I
say the feat would be utterly impossible, for the creature does not
possess the strongly-curved, sharp-pointed claws of the Eagle, but the
far straighter and perfectly blunt talons of the Vulture. Day after
day I have seen them sweeping by along the face of the hill, like the
wandering Albatross at sea, and, like it, ever in search of offal,
which, when found, is not swept off the ground after the manner of the
Kite, but the bird alights upon it, as it would upon a Bullock, and
then, if the morsel is worth having, devours it on the spot, and again
launches itself upon its wide-spread wings and sails away as before.
There is no sudden stooping upon a living prey, as with the Falcon
tribe, but its habits and manners in this respect are, as far as I have
seen, entirely Vulturine.”

The Lämmergeier measures about three feet and a half in length, and
its outspread wings often extend to as much as nine feet in expanse. A
second species is found in Africa, the Southern Lämmergeier (_Gypaëtus
ossifragus_), which differs from the European one, in having the tarsus
bare, instead of being feathered to the toes.

THE TRUE EAGLES (_Aquila_).

In Australia no true Eagle is found, but a very powerful bird called
the WEDGE-TAILED EAGLE (_Uroaëtus[184] audax_[185]) inhabits that
country, differing from all its more northern relations in its very
long and wedge-shaped tail, which is like that of the Lämmergeier.

The true Eagles have a very powerful bill, with a festoon distinctly
marked in the edge of the upper mandible, which is, however, different
from the toothed bill of the Falcons, to be considered presently. They
nearly all possess a large bony shelf over the eye, which may serve
to protect that organ from the sunlight during some of the aerial
excursions the bird makes.

[Illustration: EYE OF EAGLE, SHOWING CRYSTALLINE LENS. (_After
Yarrell._)]

The orb of the eye in the Eagles is supported by a ring of bony plates,
numbering fifteen in the Golden Eagle. These bony plates are capable of
slight motion upon each other. The figure represents the crystalline
lens of the same bird, the lens being subject to great variety of form
in different birds. In the Eagle the proportion of the axis to the
diameter of the lens is as 3-8/10 to 5-7/10; in the Eagle Owl, which
seeks its prey at twilight, the relative proportions of the lens are as
6-7/10, to 7-8/10; and in the Swan, which has to select its food under
water, the proportions of the lens are as 3 to 3-8/10. Birds have also
the power of altering the degree of the convexity of the cornea. With
numerous modifications of form, aided by delicate muscular arrangement,
birds appear to have the power of obtaining such variable degrees of
extent or intensity of vision as are most in accordance with their
peculiar habits and necessities.[186]

In these birds is found a return of that difference in the size of
the sexes which was so noticeable in the Sparrow-Hawks, for in the
Eagles the female is decidedly larger than the male. There are two
convenient groups into which the Eagles may be divided, according as
they have feathered or unfeathered legs. All the true Eagles belong
to the first section, all the less noble and Serpent-eating kinds to
the latter section. Although they are birds of grand physique, it is a
question whether Eagles deserve the position they enjoy for nobility
of disposition: they are rapacious it is true, but not always brave,
for one Golden Eagle will give way to a Peregrine Falcon, while the
grand-looking IMPERIAL EAGLE (_Aquila heliaca_, see figure on p. 235)
is said by a good observer in India, Mr. A. O. Hume, C.B., to be no
better than a great hulking Kite. He adds:--“Much has been written
about the daring and fierceness of this Eagle. I can only say that in
India (where possibly the climate is subversive of courage), I have
never seen the slightest indications of these qualities. I have driven
the female off hard-set eggs, and plundered the nest before the eyes of
the pair, without either of them flapping a pinion even to defend what
a little Shrike will swoop at once to save; and I have seen a couple
of Crows thrash one of them soundly. As a rule, this species with us
is an ignoble feeder. I have generally found them gorged with carrion,
and after a good meal they will sit stupidly on a tree, or any little
mud pillar, and permit you to walk within thirty yards of them; but
before feeding they are somewhat wary, and can by no means always be
secured, even when seen sitting. On more than one occasion I have seen
Desert Rats (_Gerbillus erythrurus_) in their crops, and I once shot
one of a pair which were busy, on the line of rail at Etawah, devouring
a Bandicoot Rat (_Mus bandicota_), which some passing train had cut in
two. Occasionally, but rarely, I found that they had eaten Quails and
other birds. Once I shot a male which was dancing about on the ground
in such an astounding fashion that I killed it to see what the matter
was. The bird proved to have been choking. It had swallowed a whole dry
shin-bone and foot of an Antelope. The bone apparently could not be got
down altogether, and in trying to void it, the sharp points of the hoof
had stuck into the back of the roof of the mouth.”[187]

THE GOLDEN EAGLE (_Aquila chrysaëtus_[188]).

The Golden Eagle is so called from the tawny or golden-brown colour
which pervades the feathers of the neck in the old bird. Excepting in
certain places in “Caledonia stern and wild,” where it is protected, it
is a species which is becoming very rare in Great Britain, and but for
the intervention of a few large-minded proprietors in Scotland would
doubtless ere this have been extinguished. It is a much rarer bird
now than the White-tailed Eagle, and the last-named species is often
mistaken for it; but a little attention to one point will obviate all
fear of a mistake in this respect, the Golden Eagle having at all ages
the tarsus feathered to the toes, whereas the Sea Eagle belongs to the
bare-legged section of these birds.

A better description of the habits of the Golden Eagle probably does
not exist than that given by the late Professor Macgillivray:--

“See how the sunshine brightens the yellow tint of his head and neck,
until it shines almost like gold! There he stands, nearly erect, with
his tail depressed, his large wings half raised by his side, his neck
stretched out and his eye glistening as he glances around. Like other
robbers of the desert, he has a noble aspect, an imperative mien, a
look of proud defiance; but his nobility has a dash of clownishness,
and his falconship a vulturine tinge. Still, he is a noble bird,
powerful, independent, proud, and ferocious, regardless of the weal
or woe of others, and intent solely on the gratification of his own
appetites; without generosity, without honour, bold against the
defenceless, but ever ready to sneak from danger. Such is his nobility,
about which men have so raved. Suddenly he raises his wings, for
he has heard the whistle of the shepherd in the corry, and bending
forward, he springs into the air. Oh, that this pencil of mine were a
musket charged with buck-shot! Hardly do those vigorous flaps serve
at first to prevent his descent; but now, curving upwards, he glides
majestically along. As he passes the corner of that buttressed and
battlemented crag, forth rush two ravens from their nest, croaking
fiercely. While one flies above him, the other steals beneath, and
they essay to strike him, but dare not, for they have an instinctive
knowledge of the power of his grasp, and after following him a little
way they return to their home, vainly exulting in the thought of having
driven him from their neighbourhood. Bent on a far journey, he advances
in a direct course, flapping his great wings at regular intervals, then
shooting along without seeming to move them. In ten minutes he has
progressed three miles, although he is in no haste, and now disappears
behind the shoulder of the hill. But we may follow him in imagination,
for his habits being well known to us, we may be allowed the
ornithological licence of tracing them in continuance. Homeward bound,
his own wants satisfied, he knows that his young must be supplied with
food.

“Over the moors he sweeps, at the height of two or three hundred feet,
bending his course to either side, his wings wide spread, his neck
retracted, now beating the air, and again sailing smoothly along.
Suddenly he stops, poises himself for a moment, stoops, but recovers
himself without touching the ground. The object of his regards, a
Golden Plover, which he had spied on her nest, has eluded him; and
he cares not to pursue it. Now he ascends a little, wheels in short
curves, presently rushes down headlong, assumes the horizontal position
when close to the ground, prevents his being dashed against it by
expanding his wings and tail, thrusts forth his talons, and grasping
a poor terrified Ptarmigan that sat cowering among the grey lichens,
squeezes it to death, raises his head exultingly, emits a clear, shrill
cry, and springing from the ground pursues his journey.

[Illustration: GOLDEN EAGLE.]

“In passing a tall cliff that overhangs a small lake, he is assailed
by a fierce Peregrine Falcon, which darts and plunges at him as if
determined to deprive him of his booty, or drive him headlong to the
ground. This proves a more dangerous foe than the Raven, and the
Eagle screams, yelps, and throws himself into postures of defence;
but at length the Hawk, seeing the tyrant is not bent on plundering
his nest, leaves him to pursue his course unmolested. Over woods,
and green fields, and scattered hamlets speeds the Eagle, and now he
enters the long valley of the Dee, near the upper end of which is dimly
seen through the grey mist the rock of his nest. About a mile from it
he meets his mate, who has been abroad on a similar errand, and is
returning with a white Hare in her talons. They congratulate each other
with loud yelping cries, which rouse the drowsy shepherd on the strath
below, who, mindful of the lambs carried off in spring-time, sends
after them his malediction. Now they reach their nest and are greeted
by their young with loud clamour.

“Let us mark the spot. It is a shelf of a rock, concealed by a
projecting angle, so that it cannot be injured from above, and is
too distant from the base to be reached by a shot. In the crevices
are luxuriant tufts of _Rhodiola rosea_, and scattered around are
many alpine plants, which it would delight the botanist to enumerate.
The mineralogist would not be less pleased could he with chisel and
hammer reach that knob which glitters with crystals of quartz and
felspar. The nest is a bulky fabric, five feet at least in diameter,
rudely constructed of dead sticks, twigs, and heath; flat, unless in
the centre, where it is a little hollowed and covered with wool and
feathers. Slovenly creatures you would think these two young birds,
clothed with white down, amid which the larger feathers are seen
projecting, for their fluid dung is scattered all over the sticks,
and you see that, had the nest been formed more compactly of softer
materials, it would have been less comfortable. Strewn around, too, are
fragments of Lambs, Hares, Grouse and other birds in various stages of
decay. Alighting on the edges of the nest, the Eagles deposit their
prey, partially pluck off the hair and feathers, and rudely tearing up
the flesh, lay it before their ever-hungry young.”

The length of a male Golden Eagle is a little more than two feet and
a half, while the female attains at least three feet in dimensions,
with a wing three inches longer than that of her mate. The colour of
the plumage is dark brown, with a rich tawny hue on the back of the
neck and nape, the feathers of these parts being streaked with darker
brown; the tail is more or less mottled with grey at the base, and is
whiter in younger birds. The latter are often popularly distinguished
as the Ring-tailed Eagles. By some authors the Eagle which frequents
the mountains is considered to be a different species from that which
inhabits the plains, but as far as present experience goes it is the
younger birds which are more often met with in the latter localities,
being probably driven from their mountain homes by the older birds.
The Golden Eagle varies his choice of an eyry in different localities,
building in the British Islands generally on a rock, but in many other
countries nesting on a tree. It is found all over Europe and Northern
Asia, in mountainous districts, extending into China and even into the
Himalayas, whence the finest specimens are obtained. In North America
also the examples of the Golden Eagle seem to be very large, but are
not to be otherwise distinguished from European specimens.

THE KITE EAGLE (_Neopus[189] malayensis_).

This extraordinary bird bears the above name from its resemblance
generally to a Kite, and also from its plumage, which in the young bird
is wonderfully Kite-like, so that a dead specimen carelessly examined
might be taken easily for one of the latter birds. One moment’s search,
however, would dispose of the illusion, for no one who has once heard
of the foot of this Eagle could ever forget it or mistake it for that
of any other raptorial bird, the talons being longer and more slender
in proportion to the size of the foot than in any known Eagle; they
are also nearly straight. The inner claws are the longest, and that
excellent observer, Captain Vincent Legge, points out that they seem
“especially adapted for the work of carrying off loose and fragile
masses, such as the nests of small birds, as they would naturally form
its chief means of grasp when such an object was being held by both
feet during the process of flight.” This last sentence gives an insight
into the habits of the bird, which are on a par with its remarkable
structure. It might well be called the “Bird’s-nesting Eagle,” for it
seems to be the only bird of prey which systematically lives by the
robbery of smaller birds’ nests; only on very rare occasions, and when
pressed by hunger, has it been known to attack larger game or worry the
poultry-yard. It is almost always on the wing, and the Lepcha-hunters
near Darjeeling speak of it as the bird “that never sits down.” It
is found in the Himalayas and in other wooded districts of India,
and occurs but more sparingly in the Malayan peninsula and islands,
ranging to some of the Moluccas, but probably visiting the latter only
on migration. But it is in Ceylon that it is, perhaps, more plentiful
than in any other locality, and the best account of its habits is
that given by Captain Legge, whose words are subjoined. “This fine,
long-winged Eagle is, on account of the singular structure of its feet
and its curious habits, one of the most interesting, but, at the same
time, perhaps the most destructive of raptors to bird-life in Ceylon.
It subsists, as far as can be observed, entirely by birds’-nesting,
and is not content with the eggs and young birds which its keen sight
espies among the branches of the forest-trees, but seizes the nest in
its talons, decamps with it, and often examines the contents as it
sails lazily along. Furthermore, Mr. S. Bligh informs me that he once
found the best part of a bird’s nest in the stomach of one of these
Eagles which he shot in the Central Province. Its flight is most easy
and graceful. In the early morning it passes much of its time soaring
round the high peaks or cliffs on which it has passed the night, and
about nine or ten o’clock starts off on its daily foraging expedition.
It launches itself with motionless wings from some dizzy precipice,
and proceeding in a straight line, till over some inviting-looking
patna-woods it quickly descends with one or two rather sharp gyrations,
through, perhaps, a thousand feet, and is in another moment gliding
stealthily along just above the tops of the trees. In and out among
these, along the side of the wood, backwards and forwards over the
top of the narrow strip, it quarters, its long wings outstretched
and the tips of its pinions wide apart, with apparently no exertion;
and luckless indeed is the Bulbul, Oriole, or Mountain Finch whose
carefully-built nest is discovered by the soaring robber.”[190]

The size of the Kite Eagle is about thirty inches in length, and the
colour is entirely black, with some indistinct bars of ashy-grey on the
tail. Besides the Eagles that have been alluded to already, there are
the Hawk-Eagles (_Nisaëtus_), remarkable for their long legs, and the
Crested Eagles (_Spizaëtus_), which have a beautiful long crest hanging
from the hinder part of the head.

THE COMMON HARRIER EAGLE (_Circaëtus[191] gallicus_).

This, which is also called the “Jean-le-Blanc,” is one of the
best-known of all the bare-legged section of the Eagles. The genus
_Circaëtus_, to which it belongs, contains five species, of which four
are peculiar to Africa, the _C. gallicus_ being found all over Southern
and Central Europe, and extending into India, where it is not at all
unplentiful. In its nature this bird is rather sluggish, though in
confinement it is very untamable, and wears a thoroughly fierce aspect,
as could be seen by any one who examined the specimen in the Zoological
Gardens. Its ferocious appearance was heightened by its peculiar eye,
which is very large, of a bright yellow, with a very small black pupil,
whereas the pupil in most birds of prey is rather large.[192]

THE INDIAN SERPENT EAGLE (_Spilornis cheela_).

This is a beautiful bird, having the under surface mottled with white
spots or “ocelli.” All the Serpent Eagles, of which there are several
species, are characterised by a similar style of plumage, and by a
full, thick crest of feathers springing from the occiput and hind
part of the head. They are found all over India and Ceylon, Southern
China, and the Burmese countries, the Malayan Peninsula, Sunda Islands,
Borneo, and Celebes. The Ceylonese species, which is a small race of
the Indian bird, is stated by Layard to feed on Snakes, Lizards, and
other reptiles and insects, and to be particularly partial to the large
trees on the banks of tanks, from them swooping down on the frogs which
came up to sun themselves on the floating logs or reeds. The Indian
species of Serpent Eagle is a powerful bird, and is said to capture
Pheasants during the breeding season and bring them to the nest. Mr.
Hume has generally found small Snakes in their stomachs; once as many
as fifty together were found, all scarcely bigger than large Worms; and
an instance was brought to his knowledge of a Cobra some two feet and a
half long having been found dead, but uninjured, in one of these birds’
stomachs. Mr. Thompson, a frequent contributor to Mr. Hume’s “Rough
Notes,” tells of one which he had alive, and which was kept along with
two little Indian Owls (_Carine brama_), a Carrion Crow, and three
large green Woodpeckers, and who killed and ate up every one of the
latter, though well supplied with other fresh meat.

THE BATELEUR EAGLE (_Helotarsus[193] ecaudatus_[194]).

This is a very remarkable bird, which might also with propriety be
called the Short-tailed Eagle, as it is the only species known in which
the wings exceed the tail in length. It is found in Africa only, where
it is by no means rare in the southern and north-eastern quarters of
the continent. In Damara Land, according to Mr. Andersson, it builds
its nest on trees, selecting generally one of such a terribly thorny
nature that the nest is always difficult of access. Occasionally,
however, a rock is selected for the breeding-place. When in captivity,
this bird changes the colour of the face, exactly as the Brazilian
Caracara already alluded to; the bare skin round the nostrils and eyes,
which is generally brilliant coral-red, fading to pale orange-yellow.

[Illustration: BATELEUR EAGLE.]

The Bateleur Eagle is about two feet in length, and has an enormous
crest of plumes. The colour is black, with a large maroon-coloured
patch on the shoulders and on the back, the tail being also of this
colour. Sometimes individuals with pale, cream-coloured backs are
found; but at present it is not known whether these are a different
species, or whether they constitute only a pale variety of the ordinary
Bateleur.

THE WHITE-TAILED EAGLE (_Haliaëtus albicilla_[195]).

Sea Eagles are absent from South America, but probably from no other
country of the globe. Both Europe and North America are inhabited
by large and powerful species; and throughout Africa and Madagascar
the handsomely-marked species _H. vocifer_ occurs. One of the most
widespread is the White-bellied Sea Eagle; it is found round the coasts
of Australia and all the Molucca Islands, ranging as far as India and
Ceylon, and as high as Cochin China.

The White-tailed Eagle, which, from its being an inhabitant of the
British Islands, is the species most familiarly known of all the Sea
Eagles, is still met with in some of the northern parts of Scotland,
and in the Hebrides; but as it is a bird which creates a good deal
of havoc among lambs at certain periods of the year, the war of
extermination which has been waged against it has now contributed
considerably to the increasing rarity of the species on these coasts.
The breeding of this Sea Eagle has been well described by Mr.
Woolley.[196] He says:--“On the coasts, the Sea Eagle chooses a roomy
and generally sheltered ledge of rock. The egg which Mr. Hewitson
figures (Eggs, Br. B., ed. 3, pl. iv., fig. 2) is one of two which I
took on the 23rd April, 1849, on one of the most northern points of our
island. The nest was very slightly made of a little grass and fresh
heather loosely put together, without any sticks; but two or three
‘kek’ stalks were strewn about outside. There was a good thickness of
guano-like soil upon the rock, which made much nest unnecessary. Two
or three Guillemot’s beaks, the only unmanageable part of that bird,
were not far off. The eggs were laid two days before when I went to
reconnoitre; and I never shall forget the forbearance which a friend
who was with me showed, at my request, as he lay, gun in hand, with
the hen Eagle in full view upon her nest not forty yards below him.
Her head was towards the cliff, and concealed from our sight; whilst
her broad back and white tail, as she stood bending over her nest on
the grassy ledge, with the beautiful sandstone rock and sea beyond,
completed a picture rarely to be forgotten. But our ears, and the
air we breathe, give a finish to Nature’s pictures which no art can
imitate; and here were the effects of the sea, and the heather, and
the rocks, the fresh warmth of the northern sun, and the excitement
of exercise, while the musical yelping of the male Eagle came from
some stand out of sight. Add to all this the innate feeling of delight
connected with the pursuit of wild animals, which no philosopher has
yet been able to explain further than as a special gift of our Great
Maker, and then say whether it is not almost blasphemy to call such a
scene a ‘picture!’ Upon this occasion, I made some remark to my friend,
when the hen Eagle showed her clear eye and big, yellow beak, her head
full of the expression of wild nature and freedom. She gave us a steady
glance, then sprang from the rock, and with ‘slow winnowing wing’--the
flight-feathers turning upwards at every stroke--was soon out at sea.
Joined by her mate, she began to sail with him in circles farther and
farther away, till quite out of sight, yelping as long as we could
hear them, Gulls mobbing them all the time. To enjoy the beauties of
a wild coast to perfection, let me recommend any man to seat himself
in an Eagle’s nest. The year before this I took the young ones out
of the same eyry late in July. It was my first attempt at an Eagle’s
stronghold, and I shall never forget the interest of the whole affair;
a thunderstorm coming on just before, making it necessary to cut drains
in the peat with our knives, to divert the torrents of water; our
councils about the best mode of attaching the ropes; the impertinence
of a young lad who, stationed to watch for my signals, was rendered
quite useless by his keen sense of the ridiculous on seeing me, in my
inexperience, twisting round and round at the end of the rope; the
extraordinary grandeur everything assumed, from the nest itself; the
luxurious feeling of exultation; the interest of every plant about
it--I know them all now; the heaps of young Herring-Gulls’ remains, and
the large fish-bone; but, above all, the Eaglets fully able to fly, and
yet crouching side by side, with their necks stretched out and chins on
the ground, like young Fawns, their frightened eyes showing that they
had no intention of showing fight.

“Very gently, as a man ‘tickles’ trout, I passed my hand under them,
and tied their legs together, and then tried to confine their wings.
They actually allowed me to fasten a handkerchief round them, which,
however, was soon shaken off when they began to be pulled up. When the
men had raised me, the string attached to my waist lifted one Eaglet,
and presently the second came to the length of his tether. Great was
the flapping of wings, and clutching at rocks and grass. I had many
fears that the string or the birds’ legs must give way; but, after much
hard pulling, I got them safely to the top, and they are now (1853)
alive at Matlock amongst rocks, where I hope they may breed; but,
though five years old this season, they have not yet quite completed
the adult plumage. Their dutiful parents never came near them in their
difficulties; but I am happy to say that in 1850 (the year after I took
their eggs), they carried off their young, through the interest I was
able to exert in their favour. They had shifted their position; and
they changed again in 1851 to a rock with an aspect quite different,
and more than a mile away. In 1847, to please the shepherds, the young
were shot in the nest, which was built in the spot where I visited it
the two following years. There was no sea-weed about this nest either
time that I saw it; but a friend writes me word, that two which he
examined last year on the sea-cliffs of this island, and which he
carefully described to me, were principally made of that material, as
Mr. Hewitson also had found them in the Shetland Islands. On one of
these two occasions, the old Eagle made a dash near my informant, with
a ‘fearful scream,’ and such was the tremendous character of the rocks,
that his ‘hair gets strong’ when he thinks of them. These two nests,
both occupied, were not more than a mile and a half apart.”

[Illustration: WHITE-TAILED EAGLE.]

THE SWALLOW-TAILED KITE (_Elanoides furcatus_).

The forked tail which is characteristic of the Kites reaches in
the present species its greatest development, so that the name of
Swallow-tailed Kite is by no means inappropriate. On five occasions
the bird has been captured in England, and it is doubtless during its
migration that the bird is driven to Britain by some adverse wind.
Its range is extensive, as it is numerous during the summer in some
of the southern States of North America, and it migrates to South
America, whence it frequently appears in collections from Brazil and
Columbia. Mr. Audubon gives the following account of the Swallow-tailed
Kite:--“The flight of this elegant species of Hawk is singularly
beautiful and protracted. It moves through the air with such ease and
grace, that it is impossible for any individual, who takes the least
pleasure in observing the manners of birds, not to be delighted by
the sight of it whilst on the wing. Gliding along in easy flappings,
it rises in wide circles to an immense height, inclining in various
ways its deeply-forked tail, to assist the direction of its course;
dives with the rapidity of lightning, and, suddenly checking itself,
re-ascends, soars away, and is soon out of sight. At other times, a
flock of these birds, amounting to fifteen or twenty individuals, is
seen hovering around the trees. They dive in rapid succession amongst
the branches, glancing along the trunks, and seizing in their course
the insects and small lizards of which they are in quest. Their motions
are astonishingly rapid, and the deep curves which they describe, their
sudden doublings and crossings, and the extreme ease with which they
seem to cleave the air, excite the admiration of him who views them
while thus employed in searching for food.

“In the States of Louisiana and Mississippi, where these birds are
abundant, they arrive in large companies in the beginning of April, and
are heard uttering a sharp plaintive note. At this period I generally
remarked that they came from the westward, and have counted upwards of
a hundred in the space of an hour, passing over me in a direct easterly
course. At that season, and in the beginning of September when they
all retire from the United States, they are easily approached when
they have alighted, being then apparently fatigued, and busily engaged
in preparing themselves for continuing their journey, by dressing and
oiling their feathers. At all other times, however, it is extremely
difficult to get near them, as they are generally on wing through the
day, and at night rest on the highest pines and cypresses, bordering
the river-bluffs, the lakes, or the swamps of that district of country.

“They always feed on the wing. In calm and warm weather they soar to an
immense height, pursuing the large insects called _Musquito Hawks_, and
performing the most singular evolutions that can be conceived, using
their tail with an elegance of motion peculiar to themselves. Their
principal food, however, is large Grasshoppers, Grass Caterpillars,
small Snakes, Lizards, and Frogs. They sweep close over the fields,
sometimes seeming to alight for a moment to secure a Snake, and
holding it fast by the neck, carry it off, and devour it in the air.
When searching for Grasshoppers and Caterpillars, it is not difficult
to approach them under cover of a fence or tree. When one is then
killed, and falls to the ground, the whole flock comes over the dead
bird, as if intent upon carrying it off. An excellent opportunity is
thus afforded of shooting as many as may be wanted; and I have killed
several of these Hawks in this manner, firing as fast as I could load
my gun.

“The Fork-tailed Hawks are also very fond of frequenting the creeks,
which, in that country, are much encumbered with drifted logs and
accumulations of sand, in order to pick up some of the numerous
Water-snakes which lie basking in the sun. At other times they dash
along the trunks of trees, and snap off the pupæ of the Locust, or that
insect itself. Although when on the wing they move with a grace and
ease which it is impossible to describe, yet on the ground they are
scarcely able to walk.

“I kept for several days one which had been slightly wounded in the
wing. It refused to eat, kept the feathers of the head and rump
constantly erect, and vomited several times part of the contents of its
stomach. It never threw itself on its back, nor attempted to strike
with its talons, unless when taken up by the tip of the wing. It died
from inanition, as it constantly refused the food placed before it in
profusion, and instantly vomited what had been placed down its throat.”

THE COMMON KITE (_Milvus ictinus_[197]).

Times have changed in England since the number of Kites to be seen
flying about London Bridge could form a subject of astonishment to a
foreign traveller visiting that country; but less than three hundred
years ago this was the case, though now the species has been all but
banished from the land. It may still occasionally nest in some parts of
Wales and of Scotland; but in the latter country places where formerly
the species bred plentifully now know it no more. The Kite builds its
nest of sticks on a large tree, but occasionally also on rocks, and it
is generally composed of a mixture of materials, such as bones, &c.,
and the lining usually contains a good many rags; so that Shakspere,
with the knowledge of natural history which always distinguished him,
was quite right when he said--

“When the Kite builds, look to lesser linen.”

The presence of the Kite in London was useful in the old days, as its
food consists by preference of offal, though it also devours Moles,
Frogs, and unfledged nestlings, Rabbits, Snakes, and fish. The forked
tail of this species--which serves as a rudder to the bird when flying,
as it often does, in circles aloft--easily distinguishes it from all
other British birds of prey. The length of the bird is about two feet,
and the general colour of the upper plumage is rufous, most of the
feathers being edged with that colour. Below, it is rufous-brown, with
a narrow streak of blackish down the feathers; the quills are black;
the tail rufous-brown, deeply forked, and crossed with seven or eight
bars of black. The species is found all over Europe, but becomes
gradually rarer in the eastern parts.

THE EUROPEAN HONEY-KITE (_Pernis apivorus_).

This bird is generally known as the Honey-Buzzard, though from the
reticulations on the hinder aspect of the tarsus it has evidently
nothing to do with those birds, even if its soft and kite-like plumage
did not show its affinities to the Kites. Its nostril is also peculiar,
and is closed in by a membrane, which doubtless forms a protection
from the stings of insects when the bird is attacking a Bee’s or
Wasp’s nest. Its habits have been well described by Brehm.[198] This
bird is, perhaps, the most timid of all European birds of prey, but
is remarkable for its good temper. Its movements are in the highest
degree clumsy; its flight is bad, heavy, and slow, and is generally a
short one, and the bird shows a great disinclination to rise to any
considerable height in the air; in short, its whole bearing evinces the
most lazy disposition. It will sit for hours on a stone boundary wall,
on a solitary tree or sign-post, or on some other elevated spot, quite
contented, watching its prey, which consists of the following:--Insects
of all descriptions, Beetles, Caterpillars, Dragon-flies, Gadflies,
Worms, Frogs, Snakes, Lizards, and destructive Rodents, which form its
principal food; besides which it is very fond of hunting for the nests
of the Humble-bee and Wasp, and of feeding on their larvæ. This bird
also, unfortunately, destroys the young, and especially the eggs, of
such of the smaller birds as it comes across while hunting for insects;
this causes it to be looked upon as a disagreeable and hateful enemy
by all birds. Crows and Rooks mob the Honey-Buzzard with almost the
same eagerness as they chase the Eagle-Owl, and all small birds make
a great noise at its appearance. In the summer it also feeds on buds,
blossoms, bilberries, other wood-berries, and even leaves. This habit
distinguishes it from all other German birds of prey.

[Illustration: COMMON KITE.]

“The Honey-Buzzard reaches us somewhat late in the year, and commences
to build its nest when the other Raptors have hatched their broods. The
nest is very flat, and is placed on the highest of our forest trees;
it is principally constructed of green twigs, mixed with dead sticks,
and is lined with moss, hair, and feathers. It generally contains three
eggs, of a rusty yellow ground, very thickly blotched and spotted with
dark reddish-brown. They are somewhat small and rather long in shape.
Of these rarely more than two are hatched. The young ones are at first
fed with Caterpillars, Flies, Beetles, Worms, &c., which the old birds
collect in their crops, and then throw up; later they are treated to
pieces of Wasps’ nests filled with larvæ, Frogs, Mice, young birds,
&c. The parent birds still continue to feed their young long after the
latter have left the nest. Both young and old birds remain in company
almost till the moulting season comes round, when they migrate more to
the southward.”

The Honey-Kite inhabits, during the summer, the greater part of Europe,
and flies away to Africa to pass the winter. In India it is represented
by a species which goes through similar changes of plumage, but may
always be recognised by its long crest. The phases through which the
Honey-Kite passes are most remarkable, the bird being sometimes nearly
all white, at other times all black; and this plumage seems to occur
at any age, sometimes in youth, sometimes in old age; and hence this
is called a melanism (μέλας, black). Many birds of prey are subject
to this melanism, but none more so than the Honey-Buzzards, and their
representatives in America, the Tooth-billed Kites (_Leptodon_).

ANDERSSON’S PERN (_Machærhamphus[199] Anderssoni_).

This remarkable bird bears the name of one of the most intrepid, as
well as one of the most unassuming, of African travellers, the late
Charles John Andersson, who discovered it during his residence in
Damara Land in South-western Africa. So rare is it, and so difficult to
obtain, that he only managed to procure two specimens in the space of
ten years, though constantly on the look-out for the bird. He writes
concerning it:--“On the 10th of March, 1865, I obtained one specimen,
a female, of this singular bird at Objimbinque, Damara Land. It was
shot by my servant, who observed another, probably the male. I imagine
that I have myself observed it once or twice in the neighbourhood
of Objimbinque just before dusk. When brought to me I instinctively
suspected the bird to be a feeder at dusk or at night, and called
out, ‘Why, that fellow is likely to feed on Bats!’ And truly enough
so it turned out; for on dissection an undigested Bat was found in
the stomach; and in another specimen, subsequently killed by Axel,
there were several Bats in the stomach.”[200] It is probably owing to
this habit of feeding in the evening that the bird is so difficult
to procure, as is the case with many of the Goat-suckers, which are
also night-feeding birds. Since Mr. Andersson’s death, two or three
specimens of his Pern have been sent from Madagascar, but in the
intervening portions of the African continent it is as yet unknown.

The colouring of this species is plain, being of a chocolate-brown
colour, with a long crest springing from the back of the head; above
the eye is a white spot, and another below the eye; the throat and
chest are white, with a streak of dark brown down the centre of the
throat; the quills and tail are banded the bars showing paler below.
The length of the bird is about seventeen inches.

Only one other species of the genus _Machærhamphus_ is known, and this
is Westermann’s Pern (_M. alcinus_), which is an inhabitant of Malacca,
where it is almost as rare as Andersson’s Pern is in Africa. It has
lately been sent from South-eastern New Guinea, and may ultimately be
found to inhabit some of the Moluccas.

THE FIFTH SUB-FAMILY.--THE FALCONS (_Falconinæ_).

In all the true Falcons and in the allied genera the bill, which was
simply festooned in the Eagles, Kites, and Buzzards, becomes very
distinctly toothed, and in some genera even two teeth are present. In
these birds, too, the cere is strongly shown, and is generally of a
bright yellow colour.

THE CUCKOO-FALCONS (_Baza_).

These birds have the soft plumage of a Honey-Kite, and yet possess the
toothed bill of a Falcon, so that they are placed among the Falconinæ;
but, because of their Kite-like plumage, they follow close to the
Perns and Honey-Kites. They not only possess the usual tooth of the
Falcon’s bill, but a second is actually present, so that there is no
difficulty in recognising a member of the genus _Baza_. The American
Cuckoo-Falcons (_Harpagus_) are the only other birds of prey which have
a double-toothed bill.

The name of “Cuckoo”-Falcon has been given to these birds on account
of their actual resemblance to a Cuckoo, in the grey colour of the
back with the reddish bars on the under surface. They have also a very
large yellow eye. The distribution of the genus _Baza_ is singular, and
it is one of those forms which does not occur in Europe, but exhibits
the affinity which is often seen between certain African and Indian
birds. About nine different kinds are known, each having its own
limited range. Thus Swainson’s Cuckoo-Falcon (_B. cuculoides_[201])
is found in the forest country from Senegambia to Gaboon in West
Africa, and is replaced by _Baza Verreauxi_ in the forests of Natal.
In Madagascar a third species (_B. madagascariensis_) occurs, and on
crossing the Indian Ocean a fourth kind (_B. ceylonensis_) is found
inhabiting Ceylon. Malacca and the Sunda Islands have their own Baza
sumatrensis, the Philippines _B. magnirostris_, the island of Celebes
_B. erythrothorax_, the Moluccas and New Guinea _B. Reinwardti_, and
Northern Australia, _B. subcristata_. None of these birds appear to
be migratory, and their geographical distribution is interesting when
traced out on a map of the world.

From their shy and retiring habits, but little has been recorded of
their life. Verreaux’s Cuckoo-Falcon is said to frequent the dense bush
in Natal, and Captain Harford shot one in that country while engaged
upon an ant-hill, and their food appears to consist of Grasshoppers
and Mantidæ, while another observer took from the stomach of one of
these birds remains of a green Mantis, of Locusts, and of a Chameleon.
This species is one of the largest of the Cuckoo-Falcons, measuring
seventeen inches in length, and the colour is dark ashy-grey; deeper
ash-colour on the head and crest; the sides of the face, throat, and
chest, are clear ashy; the breast white, banded across with pale rufous
brown; the under tail-coverts being pure white; both the wings and tail
are barred with dark brown. The sexes of these birds differ very little
in size.

THE FALCONETS (_Microhierax_[202]).

This name is applied to a genus of tiny Falcons, which are peculiar
to the Indian region. One of them, the Indian Falconet (_Microhierax
cærulescens_), is found in the Himalayas and the Burmese countries. A
second one is peculiar to Assam, a third to the Philippine Islands,
and a fourth to the interior of China, while the fifth and remaining
species is found in the Malayan Peninsula and the Sunda Islands.

Not one of these little Hawks is seven inches in length, and even to
this day there are many authors who think that they are Butcher-birds
or Shrikes, and not Hawks at all. They are, however, true Falcons,
though of very small size, and are said to be used by native chiefs for
hawking insects and Button-quails, being thrown from the hand like a
ball; but this story has been discredited of late, the Besra, a small
Sparrow-Hawk, being probably the bird alluded to. The Falconets are
known to sit solitary on high trees, and according to native accounts
they feed on small birds and insects.

THE PEREGRINE FALCON (_Falco peregrinus_[203]).

This noble bird justifies his name of _peregrinus_, by his distribution
over the earth’s surface. The ordinary Peregrine, which is still
found in suitable places breeding on British coasts, is met with all
over Europe and Northern Asia, ranging into South Africa and India
in winter, extending throughout China to the Sunda Islands, and the
Philippine Archipelago. In North America he is also widely distributed,
and is as plentiful as in Europe. In the southern hemisphere the
Peregrines, though strictly of the same type as the European bird,
are always darker in colour, and have blacker faces and heads. The
Australian Peregrine is called _Falco melanogenys_,[204] and extends
its range from the Australian continent to New Caledonia and the New
Hebrides, and as far north as Java. In South Africa the resident
Peregrine is a very small, dark-coloured bird, and is called _Falco
minor_. This species is also met with in North-eastern Africa, and even
ranges into the Mediterranean, as it has been shot in Rhodes, Sardinia,
and Morocco. Again, in Chili, another dark-faced form occurs, the
_Falco nigriceps_,[205] not unlike its Australian relative.

To write a history of the Peregrine Falcon would be almost to write
a history of falconry, and although it would be beyond the limits
of the present work to enter deeply into the subject, a few words
must be said about it here. The art of falconry probably came from
the East, where it is still practised, and an ancient bas-relief was
found by Sir Austen Layard, among the ruins of Khorsabad, depicting a
falconer with a Hawk on his wrist, thus proving the antiquity of the
pursuit. In Great Britain it was formerly much in vogue, and in Salvin
and Brodrick’s work on “Falconry in the British Islands” there will
be found an interesting _résumé_ of the art, as performed in Great
Britain, from ancient times down to the present. It is lamentable
to think of the way in which these noble birds, once the pride and
favourite of monarchs, are now shot down and classed as vermin. The
strict way of preserving game which has been common of late years, and
the general use of firearms, have, no doubt, been the chief causes of
the destruction of the larger Falcons, and it will take some time to
disabuse the vulgar prejudices of gamekeepers, and of some proprietors,
as to the mistake that is made in killing off every kind of raptorial
bird indiscriminately. A protest which was penned by Mr. G. E. Freeman,
in his “Falconry,” is worthy of reproduction here:--“All Hawks, when
they have a choice, invariably choose the easiest flight. This fact is
of the last importance in the matter before us. I confess that I at
once give it the chief place in this argument. Who has not heard of the
Grouse disease? It has been attributed, sometimes respectively, and
sometimes collectively, to burnt heather; to heather poisoned from the
dressings put on Sheep; to the Sheep themselves cropping the tender
shoots and leaves of the plant, and thus destroying the Grouse’s food;
to the tape-worm; to shot which has wounded but not killed; and perhaps
to other things besides. It may be, I doubt not, correctly referred to
any or to all of these. Of this, however, there appears no question
that from whatever cause it springs it is _propagated_. A diseased
parent produces a diseased child. Now, I say that when every Hawk is
killed upon a large manor, the balance of Nature is forgotten, or
ignored; and that Nature will not overlook an insult. _She_ would have
kept her wilds healthy; destroy her appointed instruments, and beware
of her revenge!”

[Illustration: PEREGRINE FALCON.]

The Peregrine Falcon has always been celebrated with falconers for
its superior dash and courage. The female is much the larger and
more powerful bird, and is called the “Falcon,” the male being known
as the “Tiercel.” The young birds reared from the nest are called
“Eyes,” and the immature specimens, from their more rufous colour, are
distinguished as the “Red Falcon” and the “Red Tiercel.” When a bird
has been caught wild in the full plumage it is called “Haggard.” The
principal flight of the “Falcon” was at the Heron, and many anecdotes
are told of the encounters between these two antagonists in mid-air.
The evidence of Falconers, however, goes to show that the impalement
of the Hawk by the Heron’s bill is a rare occurrence, and it is only
when the birds come to the ground that the presence of the man is
required to rescue the Falcons from their dangerous foe. The Heron,
on being pursued, endeavours to avoid his pursuer by mounting high
into the air, the Falcon meanwhile doing his best to rise above him
and strike the quarry to the ground. Generally, two Falcons were
employed in the chase, and while the Heron avoided the stoop of one
by changing his position suddenly, the other was ready to stoop from
above, until, by a successful swoop, the Heron would be mastered and
borne to the ground with the two Falcons in close embrace. Then was
the time for the good falconer to be at hand to save his Hawks from
the Heron. In a wild state the Peregrine feeds on Grouse of all kinds,
Pheasants, Partridges, Ducks, Pigeons, Plovers, &c., but it does not
so often visit the poultry-yard as the other Hawks, preferring the
open country or the sea-coast. In this latter locality, the Falcon
feeds on the various sea-birds, such as the Puffins, Auks, Guillemots,
and as it flies back to its nest with food for its young, it will
sometimes in very wantonness rip up a Gull or other sea-bird if it
happens to get in the way as it rushes by. The nest is generally large,
and composed of sticks and herbaceous plants, excepting in localities
where none of the latter exist, when it is made of grass. The site
chosen is some sea-cliff or high precipice inland, where there is
sure to be some difficulty in reaching the nest, which is generally
harried by means of a rope. They build in the same localities for years
together, and Professor Newton gives an interesting record of such
an occurrence,[206] when he mentions a hill in Lapland, where a pair
of Falcons had a nest when it was visited by the French astronomical
expedition in 1736, a nest being re-discovered in the same place in
1799 by Captain Skjöldebrand, and again by the late Mr. Woolley, in
1853. Near the site of its nest the Peregrine brooks no intruder,
and will even attack an Eagle, an instance having been recorded of
one of the latter birds being stunned and brought to the ground by a
Peregrine, who broke its own wing in the attempt, and was liberated
by the shepherds to mend its wing as best it could, in gratitude for
having delivered their aquiline enemy into their hands.

[Illustration: HOODED FALCON.]

In Holland, where until recent years hawking was largely carried on
under the auspices of the king, there is a well-known place, called
Valkenswaard, where a good many Hawks are trapped every autumn during
migration, and it is from the neighbourhood of this village that many
of the most celebrated falconers have come. At the same time England
has also produced many celebrated adepts at the art, which is generally
carried on from father to son; and one of the Barr family, with a high
reputation as a falconer, a few years ago exhibited his trained birds
in the neighbourhood of London. The writer has also seen some fine
sport in Huntingdonshire, with Lord Lilford’s Hawks, in a large extent
of open country near Great Gidding.

[Illustration: FALCON’S HOOD.]

The male Peregrine is of a bluish-grey colour, narrowly barred with
black, the wings darker; the cheeks, ear-coverts, and moustache, black,
the entire sides of the head being sometimes of this dark aspect;
underneath, the body is white, with more or less of a reddish tinge,
and crossed with black bars; tail grey, broadly barred with black and
tipped with white. The length is about fifteen inches, that of the
female about seventeen; and the wing is fourteen inches and a half in
length instead of about twelve, as in the male. In plumage the hen bird
is very similar, but is generally of a richer rufous hue below.

Besides the Peregrine Falcons there are a host of smaller species
of the genus _Falco_, varying much from the above birds in size and
style of colour, but of exactly the same form, and having much the
same habits. The Hobby (_Falco subbuteo_) and the Merlin (_F. æsalon_)
represent these smaller Falcons in the British Islands.

THE GREENLAND JER-FALCON (_Hierofalco candicans_).[207]

Besides the Peregrine, there were used in falconry, in England, the
Noble, or Jer-Falcons, birds which were much prized, although they did
not possess the same fire and dash in pursuit of their quarry exhibited
by the former bird. There are five distinct kinds of these northern
Jer-Falcons, without mentioning the Saker Falcon of South-eastern
Europe, which also belongs to the genus _Hierofalco_. The best known
is the Greenland Jer-Falcon, which, as its name implies, is an
inhabitant of Greenland and North America, young birds only occurring
in the British Islands during migration. This species is nearly pure
white in colour when fully adult, the back and wings retaining small
spots of black, the entire head and breast, and especially the tail,
becoming pure white as the bird gets older and loses the spots and
bars which characterise its immature dress. An unfailing mark by which
a Greenland Jer-Falcon can be told at any age is the light yellowish
bill and cere, and the absence of arrow-shaped bars on the flanks,
which in young birds are longitudinally streaked with brown, but are
never barred. All the other Jer-Falcons have distinct bars across the
flanks, as well as bluish bills and regularly barred tails. They are
four in number, the Norway Jer-Falcon (_H. gyrfalco_), the Iceland
Jer-Falcon (_H. islandicus_), Holböll’s Jer-Falcon (_H. Holbölli_), and
the Labrador Jer-Falcon (_H. labradorus_). They are nearly all peculiar
to the countries whose names they bear, the Norway bird not occurring
anywhere out of Europe and Northern Asia, one specimen having been
known to occur in England; it seems also to emigrate to Central Asia,
as a single bird was procured during the last Yarkand Mission. All the
Jer-Falcons have shorter toes than the Peregrines, in which the outer
toe is very long, while in the other birds the outer and inner toes are
about equal in length.

When in a wild state the Greenland Falcon feeds upon Ptarmigan, Geese,
and on the sea-birds which frequent the cliffs where it takes up its
abode. It evinces great courage in defending its nest.

THE KESTRELS (_Cerchneis_).

These form a group of short-toed Hawks, like the foregoing, but are
much more numerous in species, and are found distributed all over the
world, with the exception of some of the Oceanic Islands. More than
twenty different kinds of Kestrel are recognised by naturalists, and
they are more insect-feeding birds than the bolder and nobler Falcons
which have just been spoken of. The commonest and best known of all is

THE COMMON KESTREL, OR WIND-HOVER (_Cerchneis tinnunculus_).[208]

This species gains its name of Wind-hover from a very pretty and
graceful action with which it hangs suspended in the air, as if by a
thread, keeping itself balanced by a constant winnowing of the air
by its wings, and from this position it scans the ground below for
a stray Mouse which may venture out of its hole, for mice and small
birds constitute its principal food. It is frequently to be seen in
the autumn hovering about a field of sheaved corn in the twilight,
selecting a position about forty feet in the air, and occasionally
stooping down on some prey in the stubble below. Should it not succeed
in its pounce, it flies a little way in a few easy circles, and
again commences to hover over a new part of the field. Insects also
form a staple article of food to the Kestrel, who devours them while
in full flight, passing its leg up to its bill, and the author has
met with an instance of a Kestrel hawking for insects over a stream
in the late evening. This Hawk is, unfortunately, often confounded
through the ignorance of gamekeepers with the Sparrow-Hawk, and
suffers consequently for the misdeeds of the latter, a fact much to be
regretted, for it is a very useful bird, owing to the number of mice it
destroys; indeed, a writer in Macgillivray’s “British Birds” computes
that a single Kestrel would destroy upwards of ten thousand mice
during its stay in Britain. It will also catch birds, but in limited
numbers, and then generally only during the breeding season, when its
young require constant food. Although of a less ferocious nature and
aspect than the Falcons, the Kestrel, nevertheless, often shows forth
his accipitrine temperament in a way that would scarcely be expected
from his mild-looking dark eye, which has nothing of the ferocity of
the yellow iris of the Sparrow-Hawk. Some young birds belonging to the
writer, consisting of three females and a male, being left without
food for a few hours by the person in whose charge they were placed,
forgot their fraternal affection, and the larger hen birds set upon
the male, who was not so large or strong as they were, and devoured
him completely. When shooting in a sandy island near Heligoland also,
the writer wounded a Dunlin, which floated on the water a considerable
distance out at sea, and whilst waiting for the waves to bring the bird
in to land a Kestrel hove in sight and made a swoop at the Dunlin,
which the latter avoided by a rapid dive. Twenty-three times the Hawk
repeated the manœuvre without success, until the poor little wader
became exhausted, and was borne in the talons of his relentless foe
towards the rock of Heligoland, about a mile off. This action had been
witnessed also by Messrs Seebohm and Nicholson, from other parts of
the same sandy island, and the latter kept pace with the Kestrel as it
skirted the beach, in the hopes that it might cross the island when a
shot would perhaps have caused the bird to drop his exhausted quarry.
The Hawk, however, kept well out at sea, and regained his rocky home,
though he was several times seen to pause in his flight and take a
tighter grasp of his victim.

[Illustration: COMMON KESTREL.]

The nest of the Kestrel is often placed in towers and old buildings,
and the bird is sometimes to be seen round the Nelson monument in
Trafalgar Square, but a tree is more frequently the site selected, when
an old Crow’s or Raven’s nest is often chosen. The hen bird, as is the
case with most Hawks, sits very close, and will often require a stick
or stone to be thrown close to the nest before it will move off, and
the sudden drop which it gives is often the means of saving its life,
as the chance of a successful shot is difficult. The eggs are from four
to six in number, and are rather handsomely coloured, being blotched
with rufous on a white ground, and are not unfrequently entirely rufous.

In most of the Kestrels the sexes differ conspicuously in colour, the
females being barred. This is the case in the common species, where
the male has a blue head and tail. In the size of the sexes there is
little or no difference, each measuring about twelve inches and a half.
In winter, when there are fewer mice and beetles about, the Kestrel
shifts his quarters, and becomes to a certain extent migratory: at this
season of the year it visits India and Africa, not extending, however,
so far down the latter continent as some of the European birds go. It
is abundant at certain seasons in north-eastern Africa and Senegambia,
but seldom goes as far as the Cape. The most easterly occurrence that
is known of the Common Kestrel is the island of Borneo, though it is a
common bird in China. It should be mentioned, however, that the Kestrel
is always darker in colour from Japan and China, so much so that many
naturalists consider it to be a distinct species from the British bird.

[Illustration: OSPREY.]

THE SECOND SUB-ORDER.--PANDIONES.

CHAPTER VI.

THE OSPREYS AND OWLS.

THE OSPREY--Distribution--Food--How it Seizes its Prey--Nesting
Communities--STRIGES, or OWLS--Distinctions between Hawks and
Owls--Owls in Bird-lore and Superstition--Families of the
Sub-order--THE FISH OWL--PEL’S FISH OWL--THE EAGLE OWL--Dr. Brehm’s
Description of its Appearance and Habits--THE SNOWY OWL--HAWK
OWLS--PIGMY OWLETS--THE SHORT-EARED OWL--THE LONG-EARED OWL--THE BARN
OWL--The Farmer’s Friend--Peculiar Characters--Distribution.

THE OSPREY, OR FISHING EAGLE (_Pandion haliaëtus_).

The Osprey is one of the most cosmopolitan of the birds of prey, being
found all over the world, with the exception of the continent of South
America and some of the Pacific Islands. Specimens from Australia
and the Moluccas are generally smaller than those from Europe or
America; but as the size of the species appears to vary in different
localities, the Australian form cannot be considered other than a
permanently smaller race. Everywhere the habits of the Osprey seem to
be very similar, the bird never being found away from the vicinity
of water, unless it be sometimes during the breeding season, when
it makes its nest at some distance from its feeding haunts. Its food
consists entirely of fish, and it is capable of carrying off one of
considerable size; in the capture of its prey it is greatly aided by
its reversible toes, and by the roughness of the sole of the foot,
which is covered with minute spikes, and these are, of course, of great
assistance to the bird in holding such a strong and slippery prey as a
large fish often proves to be. Professor Newton writes of one living
in the Zoological Gardens, that “when a fish was given to it, it was
observed to seize it across the body, placing the inner and outer
toes at right angles with the middle and hind toes, and, digging in
the claws, it held the fish most firmly by four opposite points, not
relaxing its hold or altering the position of the toes, but picking
out the portions of flesh from between them with great dexterity.”
Occasionally, the Osprey attacks a fish beyond its strength, and it is
then drawn under the water, and drowned. Mr. Dresser saw this happen in
the Bay of Fundy, when a Fish Hawk was unable to release itself from a
heavy fish, and, after being dragged under the water time after time,
was ultimately carried out to sea, and disappeared. Mr. Collett, of
Christiania, tells us that in one of the Norwegian lakes a huge Pike
was caught, with the remains of an Osprey’s skeleton still attached
to its back. Sometimes, on landing its prey, the bird is unable to
extricate its talons, and is captured alive. The nest of the Osprey is
a large structure, and is variously situated, according to the nature
of the locality. It is generally placed on a tree; but in situations
where there are no trees the position chosen is on a large rock or
stone, very often on the islands in the middle of the lakes which it
frequents. The eggs are generally three in number, sometimes four, and
are very beautiful, varying from a rich red to a buffy-white colour,
with large reddish and brown markings. In Europe it is found nesting
invariably in pairs, but in North America large communities are found;
and Dr. Brewer relates that sometimes as many as “three hundred pairs
have been observed nesting on one small island; and when a new nest is
to be constructed, the whole community has been known to take part in
its completion. They are remarkably tolerant towards smaller birds, and
permit the Purple Grakle (_Quiscalus purpureus_) to construct its nests
in the interstices of their own.”

THE THIRD SUB-ORDER.--STRIGES, THE OWLS.

The principal distinctions between Hawks and Owls (_Striges_) have
been already pointed out (p. 255); but there are still some other
smaller characters to which a passing allusion must be made. It would
be difficult, for instance, for the merest novice in the study of
ornithology to mistake an Owl, when seen alive in a cage, or even in a
case of stuffed birds, its enormous head and short neck being unlike
those of any of the other birds of prey. The neck of some Owls is,
indeed, so short and contracted, that it is with difficulty that any
intervening curve between the nape and the back, which would mark a
perceptible neck as in most Hawks, can be detected. Again, the Owls
have their eyes directed forwards, so that they confront the spectator;
while most of the other birds of prey turn their head more or less
on one side when their attention is diverted, and do not look one
straight in the face as an Owl does. The cere is almost always hidden
by bristles in the _Striges_, and the latter have a very distinct
facial disc, surrounded by a curious ruff, somewhat similar to that of
the Harriers (_Circus_, p. 268), and Harrier-Hawks (_Micrastur_, p.
270). The external ear-opening is a complicated organ in the Owls, and
differs considerably, the orifices often being of different form on
either side of the head; and in one species, Tengmalm’s Owl (_Nyctala
tengmalmi_), the ear-openings are of different shape in the skull
itself.

[Illustration: SKULL OF TENGMALM’S OWL.]

To those interested in bird-lore, a most entertaining study might
be afforded by tracing the superstitions with which Owls have been
regarded in all countries, and in the earliest times. Such a study was
begun by the late Mr. Broderip, in his “Zoological Recreations,”[209]
where he quotes from the ancient writers many passages, which show that
Owls were as much regarded as birds of ill-omen by the inhabitants of
Greece and Italy in olden times as they have been in England up to
the present day. Nor is the infatuation confined to Europe, as later
on are quoted instances of superstitious dread of the Owls in Morocco
and West Africa; while they are equally held in fear in many Eastern
countries.

The Athenians alone seem to have had a regard for these birds, and an
Owl is found on the reverse side of many of their coins, the bird being
sacred to their guardian deity, Athené. The species figured is probably
the Little Owl (_Carine noctua_), a bird which is common in Greece. It
is difficult to guess why the Owl came to be regarded as the embodiment
of wisdom, unless it was from its having been sacred to Minerva, the
Goddess of Wisdom, who is sometimes represented as the Owl-headed
goddess.

[Illustration: LITTLE OWL.]

“The Owlet’s wing,” writes Mr. Harting,[210] “was an ingredient in the
cauldron wherein the witches prepared their ‘charm of powerful trouble’
(_Macbeth_, Act iv., sc. 1); and with the character assigned to it by
the ancients, Shakspere, no doubt, felt that the introduction of an Owl
in a dreadful scene of a tragedy would help to make the subject come
home more forcibly to the people, who had, from early times, associated
its presence with melancholy, misfortune, and death. Accordingly, we
find the unfortunate Owl stigmatised as the ‘obscure,’ ‘ominous,’
‘fearful,’ and ‘fatal’ ‘bird of night.’ Its doleful cry pierces the ear
of Lady Macbeth while the murder is being done:--

‘Hark! Peace!
It was the Owl that shriek’d, the fatal bellman,
Which gives the stern’st good-night.’

_Macbeth_, Act ii., Sc. 2.

And when the murderer rushes in immediately afterwards, exclaiming--‘I
have done the deed. Didst thou not hear a noise?’ She replies--‘I
heard the Owl scream.’ And later on--‘The _obscure bird_ clamour’d the
live-long night.’” (_Macbeth_, Act. ii., Sc. 3.)

The awe, no doubt, with which this bird is regarded by the
superstitious, may be attributed in some measure to the fact of its
flying by night.

“Deep night, dark night, the silent of the night,

* * * * *

The time when Screech-Owls cry and Ban-Dogs howl.”

_Henry VI._, Part ii., Act i., Sc. 4.

And yet, strange to say, the appearance of an Owl by day is by some
considered equally ominous:--

“The Owl by day,
If he arise, is mocked and wondered at.”

_Henry VI._, Part iii., Act v., Sc. 4.

“For Night-Owls shriek, where mounting Larks should sing.”

_Richard II._, Act iii., Sc. 3.

Should an Owl appear at a birth, it is said to forebode ill-luck to the
infant. King Henry VI., addressing Gloster, says:--

“The Owl shrieked at thy birth, an evil sign.”

_Henry VI._, Part iii., Act v., Sc. 6.

While upon any other occasion, its presence was supposed to predict a
death, or at least some dire mishap:--

“The Screech Owl, screeching loud,
Puts the wretch that lies in woe
In remembrance of a shroud.”

_Midsummer Night’s Dream_, Act v., Sc. 2.

When Richard III. is irritated by the ill-news showered thick upon him,
he interrupts the third messenger with

“Out on ye, Owls! Nothing but songs of death?”

_Richard III._, Act iv., Sc. 4.

The same author, from whom the above Shaksperian illustrations are
quoted, alludes further to the superstitious dread of the Owl, which
exists likewise amongst the Dyaks of Borneo, and in Ceylon a Wood-Owl,
belonging to the same genus _Syrnium_, to which the English Wood-Owl
belongs, is known as the “Devil-bird,” and is held in great fear.
Colonel Irby, writing of the Barn-Owl,[211] tells the following story
from the MS. of the late Mr. Favier, of Tangier:--“The inhabitants
of Tangier consider this bird the clairvoyant friend of the Devil.
The Jews believe that their cry causes the death of young children;
so in order to prevent this, they pour a vessel of water out into
the courtyard every time that they hear the cry of one of these Owls
passing over their house. The Arabs believe even more than the Jews,
for they think that they can cause all kinds of evil to old as well
as young; but their mode of action is even more simple than that
of their antagonists the Jews, as they rest contented with cursing
them whenever they hear their cry. Endeavouring to find out from the
Mahometans what foundation there is for the evil reputation of this
species, I was told this: ‘When these birds cry they are only cursing
in their own language; but their malediction is harmless unless they
know the name of the individual to whom they wish evil, or unless they
have the malignity to point out that person when passing him; as the
Devil sleeps but little, when there is evil work to be done he would
infallibly execute the command of his favourite if one did not, by
cursing the Owl by name, thus guard against the power of that enemy,
who is sworn to do evil to all living beings.’ Having learned the
belief of the Mahometans relative to this Owl, it was more difficult
to find out exactly that of the Jews, who, when questioned by me, knew
not how to answer, except that the act of pouring water in the middle
of the courtyard is a custom of long standing, in order to avert the
evil which the Owl is capable of doing; that is to say, the water is
poured out with the view of attracting the evil spirit’s attention to
an object which distracts him, and so hides from him the infant which
the Owl in its wickedness wishes to show him.”

The late Mr. Waterton, in an entertaining essay on the habits of the
Barn-Owl, says:--“Among the numberless verses which might be quoted
against the family of the Owl, I think I only know of one little ode
which expresses any pity for it:--

‘Once I was a Monarch’s daughter,
And sat on a lady’s knee;
But am now a nightly rover,
Banish’d to the ivy tree.

Crying, hoo, hoo, hoo, hoo, hoo, hoo.
Hoo, hoo, hoo, my feet are cold;
Pity me, for here you see me,
Persecuted, poor, and old.’”[212]

The Owls are divided into two families, the first of which is called
_Bubonidæ_, and the second _Strigidæ_. In the latter family are
represented only two genera, _Strix_ and _Heliodilus_, which contain
six species, all the remaining Owls, about one hundred and ninety in
number, belonging to the _Bubonidæ_. The breast-bone in the latter
family always shows two or more clefts or indentations, and there
are no “serrations” on the middle claw, whereas the Barn-Owls always
have the inner edge of the middle claw serrated, that is, with a
small, toothed margin, like the teeth of a saw (_serra_, Lat., a saw;
_serratus_, notched like a saw), and the breast-bone has no clefts
in its hinder edge. The _Bubonidæ_ embrace two sub-families, the
_Buboninæ_, which have no _operculum_, or fold of skin, closing in the
ear, and the _Syrniinæ_, which have a very large _operculum_. It seems
natural to commence the classification of the Nocturnal Accipitres
with the Bare-legged or Fishing Owls, as the structure of this part
very much resembles that of the Osprey, which was the concluding
representative of the Diurnal Accipitres. The thigh feathers are thick,
and fit close to the leg; the tarsus and toes are bare; the outer
toe is reversible; and the soles of the feet are covered with tiny
spicules, which serve to hold fast their finny prey in the same manner
as do those of the Osprey.

THE FISH OWL.

The following account of the Indian Fish Owl (_Ketupa[213]
ceylonensis_) is taken from the work by Captain Vincent Legge, R.A.,
on the birds of Ceylon:--“This large Owl loves the vicinity of water,
haunting the banks of rivers, tanks, inland salt lagoons, the borders
of sea-bogs, and woods surrounding rice-fields. All who have visited
the tanks in the north and east of Ceylon must be familiar with the
fine bird, which so often is surprised napping in the lofty trees
growing on the embankments, or so-called ‘bunds.’ Its powers of vision
in the day are not quick, but they are tolerably clear. On hearing the
footsteps of man, it raises its large ear-tufts, and bending down its
head, stares steadily down from its lofty perch among the green boughs,
and as soon as it becomes aware of the nature of the intruder on its
retreat, launches itself out of the tree, and is not easily approached
a second time. It is much more common in wild forest country, combined
with water, than in cultivated districts. It sallies out in the evening
with great regularity. As soon as the sun begins to sink behind the
surrounding forest, it may be noticed flapping noiselessly round some
secluded cheena, or leisurely crossing the lonely tank, resounding
at the hour of sunset with the buzzing of innumerable frogs, to the
nearest conspicuous tree, and there gives out its sepulchral groan.
This gloomy salutation is usually responded to by its mate, who perches
close at hand, and answers by a double note, the two lonesome sounds
resembling the words _gloom--oh, gloom_. At night I have often heard
these notes repeated by a pair without intermission for many minutes.
Layard remarks that, when alarmed during the day, they utter a loud
hiss, subsiding into a growl. They appear to have an accustomed place
of roosting, for Mr. Houldsworth notices that they ‘perched day after
day on the same branch!’ This is very often in an exposed situation,
and it frequently falls to their lot to be mobbed by a flock of
garrulous Bulbuls, King-Crows, and other Owl-hating small birds. Fish
is the favourite food, and, in fact, the usual diet of this species;
but when this is not procurable, small mammals, reptiles, and even
insects are devoured by them. In the stomach of one, for example, I
found a Snake (_Haplocercus ceylonensis_), and some large Beetles. As
a proof of their miscellaneous diet, and also of their voracity, I may
mention that a pair of Fish Owls, which were kept by Sir Charles Layard
in the same aviary with a Brahmin Kite, fell one night upon their
luckless companion, and, after slaughtering him, forthwith proceeded to
devour him completely. Further, Mr. Hume records, in ‘Nests and Eggs,’
finding the remains of Quails, Doves, and Mynahs in the nest of a pair
on the Jumna. It has also been stated that they feed on the carcases of
the Gavial and Crocodile.”

[Illustration: EAGLE OWL.]

PEL’S FISH-OWL (_Scotopelia peli_).[214]

The African Fish-Owls are exactly like the Indian as regards their bare
legs, but they have no tufts on their heads. Three different kinds
are known, and they are all rare birds, frequenting the rivers and
inland lakes of the African continent. Pel’s Fish-Owl was discovered
on the Gold Coast by Mr. Pel, the Dutch commandant at Elmina, nearly
forty years ago. The specimen procured by that gentleman flew across
the river Boutry, and settled among some shady boughs on the other
bank, when it was knocked down with the blow of a gun. The following
account of one of these rare birds, from the Barra country, Senegambia,
is given by Mr. John Henry Gurney, who had the specimen alive in
his possession for a long time: it was presented to him by Colonel
O’Connor, C.B., who is the author of the accompanying “Sketch of Nero,
the Owl, a Fetish Bird.” The colonel writes[215]:--“During seven
years’ exploration of Western Africa, I only met one of the species
of the Owl ‘Nero.’ He was brought ‘a chicken,’ full of pen-feathers,
or rather down, of a delicate straw-colour, and very thick, from a
lagoon in the Barra country. No native would admit ‘Nero’ as a visitor;
and when the bird was installed in Government House, the servants and
head people came in a body to remonstrate, asserting ‘he was a Gumbi
Owl, a Fetish!! and would destroy and kill whatever object he looked
on.’ The chief groom (an old soldier, who had charge of the poultry)
insisted that ‘every cock and hen would go dead.’ Strangely enough,
an epidemic broke out, and carried off from fifty to sixty head of
fowls; and each day the groom placed the defunct birds on the steps of
Government House, to meet the eye of Mrs. O’Connor, seeming to exult
in the mortality amongst the feathered tribe. ‘You see wid your own
eye, Missus, dat debil Jumbi bird, he go kill all de fowls. Governor
tink he hab long head, but he no sabey Owl. Suppose you put him in
de stable, he see Nelly (Mrs. O’Connor’s favourite mare), de horse
he go tumble down dead.’ Death at last ceased to reign amongst the
poultry population, and Nero became my principal pet; he ranged over
the piazza, perching on the branch of a tree; he was fed regularly by
the orderly on roasted fish, but he often came to the dinner-table,
and flew down for scraps of meat, bread and butter, which he took
gently from myself or from Mrs. O’Connor, permitting us to rub his
head, crest, neck, and back, seemingly enjoying the caressing. But he
would snatch meat or bones from the Cat or Dog; and when the Eagle was
introduced into his company, he beat him in a most unmerciful manner
away from his peculiar and original position of the piazza, the Eagle
being one of the fiercest and most pugnacious of African birds, brought
from the upper part of the Gambia river near ‘Wallie,’ and, when in
vigour, able to carry away a kid or small lamb. Nero luxuriated in a
tub of water, frequently washing himself, and perching on the rim until
dry. He was wont to go out to the garden or fields, where instantly
an immense commotion arose among all the birds. The larger ones flew
round the Owl, keeping a very civil distance, the smaller birds flew
away; but Nero treated both alike with sovereign contempt. He would
return of his own accord to the roosting-place in the piazza, and when
put out and confined for some days, rejected all food, and pined until
restored to his perch. With me he was as tame as any Canary, and, after
an absence of two months, recognised my voice when I went to his cage
at Oatlands (Devon), appearing much pleased by my taking him out for
a walk on the grass. Many natives from the interior told me ‘they had
never seen such a bird before; but they considered him _unlucky_.’ I
really think Nero is nearly _sans_ any relations, and certainly devoid
of all friends in Western Africa.”

Pel’s Owl measures nearly two feet in length, and has the wing sixteen
inches and a half. Its colour is a deep rufous bay, with black
transverse bars; below it is light bay, with heart-shaped bars of
black; the iris is dark-brown, whereas in the Indian Fishing Owls it is
always yellow.

THE EAGLE OWL (_Bubo ignavus_).[216]

This and its relative, the Virginian Eared Owl of America, are the
largest of all the family. It is found all over Europe and Siberia,
extending even to China and the Himalayas, but the few instances of
its capture in Great Britain have been probably those of birds escaped
from confinement, as it is by no means an uncommon species in aviaries
in England. As it is not, strictly speaking, a British bird, recourse
must be had to the writings of Continental naturalists for an account
of its habits, and the following extract is made from Dr. Brehm’s “Bird
Life” (p. 567):--“The Eagle Owl is somewhat fantastic in appearance,
usually sitting with its feathers so much ruffled as to make it seem
much larger than it really is. ‘In that large, shapeless mass of
feathers,’ says Naumann, ‘one can scarcely distinguish the limbs; the
half-closed eyes hide their glorious rays; suddenly it opens them
wide, bends the head and upper part of the body forwards, swaying from
side to side, and raising first one foot and then the other, begins to
tremble, winks slowly with the eyelids, spits like a cat, and snaps its
bill. When angry its eyes flash fire, it bends forward with hanging
wings, ruffles its plumage as much as possible, and snapping and
hissing, dashes furiously at the enemy.’

“This bird seems less courageous than surly and quarrelsome, and yet it
is asserted that it will fight to the death with the Golden Eagle, when
attacked by the latter. The Eagle Owl is a powerful bird, and as there
are no bounds to its fury, it is but rarely that anything escapes from
its grasp. Though strictly nocturnal in its habits, it always keeps a
good look out for its own safety in the daytime, and is ever shy and
cautious. Keen of sight and hearing, it takes wing while the danger is
still far off. Like other Owls, this bird is fond of pressing itself
against the stem of a tree, with unruffled feathers, so as to closely
imitate the stump of a tree, and thus escape detection. Inasmuch as
deep clefts in the rocks, or the thickest of trees, are its usual
retreats, the Owl is often passed over, which fact is undoubtedly an
advantage, for the day birds mob it whenever they see it. They may
possibly have made it the savage, spiteful bird it is, inasmuch as
their system of constant irritation would be sufficient to try the
temper of the mildest individual. Thus nothing remains for the Owl but
to evade its disturbers, and hide itself as long as possible; but woe
betide it if discovered, for then the friends of daylight treat it to a
‘charivari’ without equal.

“The first to arrive on the scene is the ubiquitous Crow, conducted
thither by some inquisitive warbler who has discovered the enemy’s
retreat. The Crow thoroughly understands what the little fellow means,
and hastens to convince itself of the truth of the information. Having
satisfied itself, it retires noiselessly, but only to carry the news
to its relatives. Now they flock in from all sides to take part in
the fight, with an eagerness worthy of the boldest man; greeting one
another with hoarse and scornful croaks, the sooty tribe hasten as
fast as they can to the scene of action. The mockers surround the poor
old ‘Grand Duke,’ at first at a respectful distance, though they are
fully determined effectively to disturb its siesta. There sits the
Owl, rolling its eyes, spitting, snapping its beak, and ruffling its
feathers, now hopping from one leg to another, now raising and lowering
its feathered horns by turns; mad with rage, bemoaning its fate, and at
loggerheads with the whole world, it awaits the turn that matters may
take; at the same time, be it remembered, every Crow takes good care
not to lay hold of the irritated gentleman; nothing less than a Raven
dares to rely on its own strength. One of these, however, will run a
tilt at the dark knight, using its sharp beak as a lance; but before
the latter has time to raise the terrible claw, the Raven makes good
its retreat, prepares for another rush, and darts like an arrow, so
as to use its weapon effectively. The Owl now loses the last remnant
of patience, and seeks safety in flight. Oh, unlucky wight! this is
all the black swarm have been waiting for, the Crows being far its
superiors on the wing. Giving vent to exulting cries, they dart down
from above with such unerring aim and force as to scatter the poor
brute’s feathers in clouds to the wind: they rise again with a mighty
noise that heeds no secrecy, as though they sought to proclaim to the
world at large all the fell deeds committed by this Prince of Darkness,
while other knights advance to battle. All Hawks and Falcons, ay, the
proud Eagle even, answer to the call, and hasten to take part in the
fray. Now the Owl must, perforce, either beat a hasty retreat or remain
on the field. In any case, however, the Owl is thoroughly worried, and
sometimes really damaged, before it finds refuge in some thick tree or
rocky cleft, where it hides itself as closely and as silently as its
rage will permit, until quit of the Crows.

“The detestation in which the Eagle Owl is held by all diurnal birds
is not ill-founded, for this bird preys on every living creature
it can overcome, assassinating them in the most abominable manner
while they are asleep. Its quarry is as follows:--Fawns of the Roe
Deer, Hares, Rabbits, Hamsters, Rats, Moles, Mice, Capercailzie,
Black-game, Hazel-hens, Pheasants, Partridges, Rooks, Jays, Magpies,
Snakes, Lizards, and Frogs; Rooks seem to be its favourite morsel.
No wonder, then, that they pay their enemy out if they can only see
an opportunity. It assassinates them; they attack it in open day.
The Eagle Owl generally breaks the spine of the smaller animals close
to the head, and, cracking the remaining bones, devours its prey,
skin and all; the heads of the larger birds it pulls in large pieces
which it swallows. It, however, always devours a portion of the hair,
feathers, or scales as well, and wastes away if fed on flesh alone. The
indigestible portions of the meal are thrown up in large round pellets
or ‘casts.’ With larger animals, it lays open the skin of the belly,
and eats out the flesh from inside. If it finds that there is too much
for one meal, it carefully replaces the skin, and hides the remainder
in some dark cranny or corner until required again. This Owl drinks
rarely, slaking its thirst generally with the blood of its victims. If
food is plentiful, it gorges itself; but in times of dearth it can go
without food for weeks together.

[Illustration: SNOWY OWL.]

“By the last fortnight in March the Eagle Owls commence preparations
for breeding. At this season may be heard their hollow, muffled cry of
‘poohoo, poohoo,’ which is distinguishable at a great distance through
the woods, and it is not to be wondered that the timid are frightened
at it. In the silent, dark recesses of the mountain forest a variety of
noises, well calculated to make one’s flesh creep, fall upon the ear:
the shrill, mocking laugh, a sound as of snarling hounds; the whoop of
the hunter, the snorting of Horses; these are all calculated to impress
the uneducated and superstitious with the truth of the legend of the
wild huntsman. Even to the ear of the better-informed, these hideous
cries, the loud screech of the female, or the ‘poohoo’ of the male,
intermingled with the snapping of the beak and curious miaulings, sound
somewhat weird; and the boldest of mortals can scarcely repress a cold
shudder when a company of these forest spirits favour him with one of
their demoniacal nocturnal concerts. Doubtless these sounds represent
the battle-cries of the males when fighting for the females, and take
the place of the song of the Nightingale when telling its tale of love.

“After the Owls have paired these cries are heard less frequently,
both birds being now fully occupied with their nursery operations. The
large nest is composed outwardly of branches and sticks, and is lined
with dry leaves and small twigs. It is built, and generally placed in
either the cleft of a rock or in a hole in some ruined tower; the nest
is never built in a tree but from necessity. The two or three eggs are
also often found lying on the bare surface of the rock, without any
nest whatever. They are round, cross-grained, and white, and somewhat
larger than a hen’s egg. The young are hatched in about three weeks.
They are usually two in number, rarely three; they look, on their first
appearance, like balls of cotton-wool, and keep up a constant hissing
or shrill whistle. They remain a long time in the nest, and are so
abundantly provided with food by the parent birds, that one is sure to
find a large heap of provisions at the nest. The Owlets often betray
their presence to their innumerable enemies by their cries, and suffer
much persecution in consequence. When about eight weeks old they are
able to fly, though they still remain for some time longer under the
care of the old birds. These latter rarely wander far from a particular
neighbourhood, and usually build in the very same place the following
year.”

[Illustration: SHORT-EARED OWL.]

Besides the Eagle Owls, the sub-family _Buboninæ_ contains the Snowy
Owl (_Nyctea[217] scandiaca_[218]), all the Hawk Owls (_Surnia[219]
Ninox_[220]), and the Pigmy Owlets (_Glaucidium_[221]). Many of the
birds belonging to this latter genus are not much bigger than a
Sparrow. They are found nearly all over the world, with the exception
of Australia and Oceania, and one species, the European Pigmy Owlet
(_G. passerinum_[222]), is by no means uncommon in many parts of the
Continent, though it has not yet been met with for certain in the
British Islands.

The sub-family _Syrniinæ_ contains only three genera, the Horned Owls
(_Asio_[223]), the Wood Owls (_Syrnium_[224]), and the Tengmalm’s Owl
(_Nyctala_[225] _tengmalmi_), the latter having been already noticed
(p. 297) as possessing the curious difference in the ear-opening on
each side of the skull. Of the Horned Owls two species are found in the
British Islands, viz., the Short-eared Owl (_Asio accipitrinus_[226]),
and the Long-eared Owl (_A. otus_[227]). The former of these birds is
often seen in the daytime, and is said to hunt for its prey on dull
days, when it will fly at small birds as well as mice; and Mr. Low,
writing on the birds of the Orkneys, where the Short-eared Owl breeds,
says that he has found in the nest the remains of a Moor-fowl (Red
Grouse), two Plovers, besides the feet of several others; and the
same writer states that during the breeding season it becomes very
impudent, and will even seize and catch up chickens from the doors, and
also chase pigeons in open daylight. Although resident in the British
Islands, a large migration of the species takes place in autumn, and
it is not unfrequently shot by sportsmen in the turnip-fields; while
Bewick mentions the recurrence of twenty-eight individuals being
flushed in a turnip-field in November, being probably attracted to
the locality by an abundance of food. It may also be occasionally
found in marshes near the sea-shore, as occurred once to the writer,
who started a Short-eared Owl from the sedgy bank on the west side
of Pagham Harbour, in the early part of September. When winged, it
boldly faced its pursuer, erecting the little tufts on its head and
fiercely snapping its bill, as is the manner with all Owls in defending
themselves.

[Illustration: FACE OF THE BARN OWL.]

Its relation, the Long-eared Owl, is a bird of different habits, and,
instead of breeding on the ground as the foregoing species does,
it selects a dark wood or clump of firs, appropriating a deserted
Squirrel’s “dray,” or adapting the nest of another bird to its own
requirements. Macgillivray gives the following account of a young
specimen which he had in confinement:--“An individual of this species,
which was sent to me in winter by the Rev. Mr. Adam, having been left
at night perched on the back of a chair in my drawing-room, tore to
tatters six valuable skins of birds from the Rocky Mountains, and an
equal number of nearly equally rare specimens from India. A young bird
which I kept for some time, on perching, stood at first with the body
inclined, afterwards nearly erect, and slept in the latter posture,
with its neck rather extended, its feathers drawn close, and its tufts
recumbent. When irritated, it raised its plumage, threw its body
forward, and uttered a sharp cry. It seized its food with its bill; if
large, transferred it to one of its feet, but if otherwise, retained
it in its bill. In flying, it carried a small object in its bill, but
a larger in its foot. It could close one eye while the other remained
open, and when placed in a strong light, frequently drew the membrane
over the lighted eye, while the other remained unsheathed, though for
the most part it winked with both simultaneously. The irides contracted
unequally, according to the degree of light. When perched at night, it
sometimes emitted a clicking noise, like that of a spring, with its
bill; but when provoked, it neither hissed nor snapped, but uttered
a shrill, tremulous, plaintive cry, or succession of short notes,
erecting its tufts at the same time.”

THE BARN OWL (_Strix[228] flammea_[229]).

This is essentially the friend of man, frequenting villages and
homesteads where he is protected, and extending his range where
civilisation precedes him, being attracted doubtless by the Mice and
Rats, which are also the accompaniments of civilisation. The number
of small mammals which one of these birds will devour ought to be his
passport to the protecting care of the farmer and agriculturist, but
it is seldom that an Owl of any kind meets with approval on taking up
his residence on an estate. Facts, however, are stubborn things, and in
the hope that a more generous reception may be afforded to these useful
birds, the following quotation is made from Professor Newton:--“Owls,
like other birds of prey, as already mentioned, return by the mouth
the indigestible parts of the food swallowed in the form of elongated
pellets. These are found in considerable numbers about the usual haunts
of the birds, and examination of them reveals the nature of the food,
and shows in nearly every case the great services they render to man
by the destruction of Rats and Mice.”[230] The infallibility of the
evidence thus afforded as to the food of the Owls is as complete as
the way of obtaining it, by those who have the opportunity, is simple.
Several German naturalists have made some very precise researches on
this subject. The following results, with regard to the three commonest
species of Owls, are those afforded by the investigations of Dr. Altam,
as communicated by him to the German Ornithologists’ Society during its
meeting in 1862:--

+--------------+-----------------------------------------------------+
| | REMAINS FOUND. |
| +---------+----+----+-----+-----+------+----+----+----+
| | | | | | | | | | B |
| | | | | | | S | | | e |
| |No. of | | | | V | h | M | B | e |
| |Pellets | B | R | M | o | r | o | i | t |
| |examined.| a | a | i | l | e | l | r | l |
| | | t | t | c | e | w | e | d | e |
| | | s. | s. | e. | s. | s. | s. | s. | s. |
+--------------+---------+----+----+-----+-----+------+----+----+----+
|Tawny Owl | 210 | -- | 6 | 42 | 296 | 33 | 48 | 18 | 48 |
|Long-eared Owl| 25 | -- | -- | 6 | 35 | -- | -- | 2 | -- |
|Barn Owl | 706 | 16 | 3 | 237 | 693 |1,590 | -- | 22 | -- |
+--------------+---------+----+----+-----+-----+------+----+----+----+

Colonel Irby, in the work which has already been alluded to, says of
the Barn Owl:--“Almost exclusively feeding on Rats and Mice, they
deserve every encouragement and support that can be afforded them;
but from being in all countries regarded with superstitious awe and
dislike, they are more or less persecuted on that account; and in
England, through the ignorance and stupidity of gamekeepers, who
fancy that they kill game (_i.e._, feathered game), they suffer most
severely. This excuse is ridiculous, for old birds they have not the
power to kill, and young Pheasants and Partridges, at the time the Owls
are on the feed, are safely being brooded by the parent bird.” Those
who wish to encourage and increase Owls, and have not hollow trees or
buildings where they nest, may always gratify their wishes by fixing
an empty barrel (about an 18-gallon size) horizontally in the fork of
any large tree, cutting a hole in one end large enough for the birds
to enter; but the hoops of the cask should be screwed on, or it will
soon fall to pieces. Not only the Barn Owl, but the Tawny Owl (_Syrnium
aluco_) also will use barrels, or “Owl-tubs.” The difficulty, however,
is to keep out the Jackdaws, but when once the Owls have established
themselves, there is no fear of that intrusion. The late Mr. Waterton
was a well-known admirer of the present species, and he devotes one
of his “Essays on Natural History” to the Barn Owl, from which a few
passages are extracted:--“Up to the year 1813 the Barn Owl had a sad
time of it at Walton Hall. Its supposed mournful notes alarmed the
aged housekeeper. She knew full well what sorrow it had brought into
other houses when she was a young woman, and there was enough of
mischief in the midnight wintry blast, without having it increased
by the dismal screams of something which people knew very little
about, and which everybody said was far too busy in the churchyard at
night-time. Nay, it was a well-known fact, that if any person were sick
in the neighbourhood it would be for ever looking in at the window,
and holding a conversation outside with somebody, they did not know
whom. The gamekeeper agreed with her in everything she said on this
important subject, and he always stood better in her books when he had
managed to shoot a bird of this bad and mischievous family. However, in
1813, on my return from the wilds of Guiana, having suffered myself,
and learned mercy, I broke in pieces the code of penal laws which the
knavery of the gamekeeper and the lamentable ignorance of the other
servants had hitherto put in force, far too successfully, to thin the
numbers of this poor, harmless, unsuspecting tribe. On the ruin of the
old gateway, against which tradition says the waves of the lake have
dashed for the greater part of a thousand years, I made a place with
stone and mortar, about four feet square, and fixed a thick oaken stick
firmly into it. Huge masses of ivy now quite cover it. In about a month
or so after it was finished a pair of Barn Owls came and took up their
abode in it. I threatened to strangle the keeper if ever, after this,
he molested either the old birds or their young ones; and I assured the
housekeeper that I would take upon myself the whole responsibility of
all the sickness, woe, and sorrow that the new tenants might bring to
the Hall. She made a low courtesy, as much as to say, ‘Sir, I fall into
your will and pleasure,’ but I saw in her eye that she had made up her
mind to have to do with things of fearful and portentous shape, and to
hear many a midnight wailing in the neighbouring woods. I do not think
that up to the day of this old lady’s death, which took place in her
eighty-fourth year, she ever looked with pleasure or contentment on the
Barn Owl, as it flew round the large sycamore trees which grow near the
ruined gateway.

“When I found that this first settlement on the gateway had succeeded
so well, I set about forming other establishments. This year I have had
four broods, and I trust that next season I can calculate on having
nine. This will be a pretty increase, and it will help to supply the
place of those which in this neighbourhood are still unfortunately
doomed to death by the hand of cruelty or superstition. We can now
always have a peep at the Owls in their habitation on the old ruined
gateway whenever we choose. Confident of protection, these pretty birds
betray no fear when the stranger mounts up to their place of abode.
I would here venture a surmise that the Barn Owl sleeps standing.
Whenever we go to look at it we invariably see it upon the perch, bolt
upright, and often with its eyes closed, apparently fast asleep. Buffon
and Bewick err, no doubt unintentionally, when they say that the Barn
Owl snores during its repose. What they took for snoring was the cry of
the young birds for food. I had fully satisfied myself on this score
some years ago. However, in December, 1823, I was much astonished to
hear this same snoring kind of noise, which had been so common in the
month of July. On ascending the ruin, I found a brood of young Owls in
the apartment.

[Illustration: BREAST-BONE OF THE BARN OWL.]

“Upon this ruin is placed a perch, about a foot from the hole at which
the Owls enter. Sometimes, at mid-day, when the weather is gloomy, you
may see an Owl upon it, apparently enjoying the refreshing diurnal
breeze. This year (1831) a pair of Barn Owls hatched their young, on
the 7th of September, in a sycamore tree, near the old ruined gateway.

“If this useful bird caught its food by day, instead of hunting for it
by night, mankind would have ocular demonstration of its utility in
thinning the country of Mice; and it would be protected and encouraged
everywhere. It would be with us what the Ibis was to the Egyptians.
When it has young, it will bring a Mouse to the nest about every twelve
or fifteen minutes. But in order to have a proper idea of the enormous
quantity of Mice which this bird destroys, we must examine the pellets
which it ejects from its stomach in the place of its retreat. Every
pellet contains from four to seven skeletons of Mice. In sixteen months
from the time that the apartment of the Owl on the old gateway was
cleaned out, there has been a deposit of above a bushel of pellets. The
Barn Owl sometimes carries off Rats. One evening I was sitting under a
shed, and killed a very large Rat as it was coming out of a hole about
ten yards from where I was watching it. I did not go to take it up,
hoping to get another shot. As it lay there, a Barn Owl pounced upon
it, and flew away with it. This bird has been known to catch fish.
Some years ago, on a fine evening in the month of July, long before it
was dark, as I was standing on the middle of the bridge, and minuting
the Owl by my watch as she brought Mice into her nest, all on a sudden
she dropped perpendicularly into the water. Thinking she had fallen
down in epilepsy, my first thoughts were to go and fetch the boat; but
before I had well got to the end of the bridge, I saw the Owl rise out
of the water with a fish in her claws, and take it to the nest. When
farmers complain that the Barn Owl destroys the eggs of their Pigeons,
they lay the saddle on the wrong horse; they ought to put it on the
Rat. Formerly, I could get very few young Pigeons, till the Rats were
excluded effectually from the dovecot. Since that took place it has
produced a great abundance every year, though the Barn Owls frequent
it, and are encouraged all around it. The Barn Owl merely resorts to
it for the purpose of concealment. If it were really an enemy to the
dovecot, we should see the Pigeons in commotion as soon as it begins
its evening flight; but the Pigeons heed it not. Whereas, if the
Sparrow-Hawk or Hobby should make its appearance, the whole community
would be up at once; proof sufficient that the Barn Owl is not looked
upon as a bad, or even a suspicious character, by the inhabitants of
the dovecot.”

The colour of the Barn Owl, which is a bright orange buff, mottled
with ashy-grey on the upper surface, and white below, distinguishes
it from any other Owl. The oval form of the disc is also to a great
extent peculiar, as is also the serrated edge to the middle claw, which
has been referred to before (p. 300). The breast bone is likewise
remarkable, as it has no clefts in the hinder margin.

The range of the present species is very considerable, as it is found
all over the New World, from the northern and middle United States
down to Patagonia and the Falkland Islands. In the Old World it occurs
in equal plenty, but does not extend very high north, being a rare
visitant to Denmark and Sweden. Although common in Poland, it is
only sparingly distributed throughout Russia, and even appears to be
entirely absent in many Central and Southern parts. The same may be
said of Turkey. It is not known at present from Siberia or China, but
is found throughout Africa, India, Australia, and the majority of the
Oceanic Islands. Nearly all Owls have two distinct phases of plumage--a
grey one, and a red one. This is especially the case in the little
Scops Owls, which have tufts of feathers on the head like the Eagle
Owls, of which they may be said to be representations in miniature.
The Barn Owls are no exception to this general rule of the family; but
owing to the light colouring of the bird, it is not so perceptible
as in some of the other species of Owls. Even in England, however, a
short study of the species will show the student that some individuals
are much redder underneath, instead of being white, and are profusely
freckled with grey above; and this dark coloration does not depend upon
the age of the bird, nor is it a difference of sex. In some islands,
such as the Cape Verde group, San Domingo in the West Indies, the
Falkland Islands, and the Galapagos, the Barn Owls are almost always
dark-coloured, and light ones are very seldom found. On the other
hand, in Australia and Oceania the species becomes peculiarly light in
plumage, and dark individuals are the exception.

THE SECOND ORDER.--PICARIAN BIRDS (_Picariæ_).[231]

CHAPTER VII.

THE PARROTS.

Characteristics of the Order--The Sub-orders--ZYGODACTYLÆ--THE
PARROTS--Their Talking Powers--Sections of the Family--THE
GREAT PALM COCKATOO--THE PYGMY PARROTS--THE AMAZON PARROTS--THE
AMAZONS--THE GREY PARROT--Court Favourites--Historical Specimens--In
a state of Nature--Mr. Keulemans’ Observations--THE CONURES--THE
ROSE-RINGED PARRAKEET--Known to the Ancients--Habitat--Habits--THE
CAROLINA CONURE--Destructive Propensities--THE PARRAKEETS--THE
OWL PARROT--Chiefly Nocturnal--Incapable of Flight--How this Fact
may be accounted for--Dr. Haast’s Account of its Habits--THE
STRAIGHT-BILLED PARROTS--THE BRUSH-TONGUED PARROTS--THE NESTORS--THE
KAKA PARROT--Skull of a Parrot--The Bill.

The birds which are contained in this order are of very different
forms, but they possess one character which, although an osteological
one, is found throughout nearly the whole group, and that is, the
double notch in the hinder margin of the sternum or breast bone.
In all the true _Passeres_, or perching birds, only a single notch
is observed. The hind toe, which in the true perching birds is an
essential character, and is separately movable, possessing its own
distinct flexor muscle, is in the Picarians not of so much account, its
flexor muscle being joined to the common flexor of all the toes; it is
sometimes absent altogether. If the Parrots have certain characters
in common with the _Accipitres_, the Cuckoos and the Plantain-eaters
undoubtedly show affinity to the Game-birds, while most of the other
families have peculiar structures which render them quite distinct
from the ordinary mass of true perching birds or Passeres. It may be
remarked that the eggs of most of the _Picariæ_, so far as we are
acquainted with them, are glossy white, and that the majority of them
breed in the holes of trees or of rocks, and that they are as a rule
bad nest-builders. The greatest exception to the above description of
the nesting of these birds is met with in the family of Goatsuckers
(_Caprimulgidæ_), some of whom lay their eggs on the ground, the eggs
being beautifully marbled with streaks and spots.

[Illustration: COCKATOOS.]

Within this great Picarian order there are two large sub-orders, called
respectively the Scansorial and the Fissirostral[232] _Picariæ_. The
Scansorial birds are also sometimes known as the Zygodactylæ,[233] or
yoke-footed birds, because they have their toes arranged in pairs,
two in front and two behind, and their name of Scansores is given to
them because most of them are climbing birds, and run up trees and
rocks with great facility, though in different ways. Parrots, for
instance, use their bills in climbing from branch to branch, while
Woodpeckers have very powerful feet and stiffened tail-feathers,
which support them as they cling to the bark of the trees, the bill
being chiefly employed to prise off the bark in order to get at the
insects underneath. Cuckoos do not climb trees in the same manner as
the Woodpeckers, though they have true zygodactyle feet: the present
writer has, however, seen a common Cuckoo (_Cuculus canorus_) cling
with both feet to the trunk of a huge elm while it picked off insects
from the bark. It must not be supposed, however, that the above are the
only birds which climb trees, for among the true Passeres, or perching
birds, there occur such birds as the _Dendrocolaptidæ_ in South
America, who have stiffened tails exactly as the Woodpeckers, while
the Tree-creepers are just as expert as the last-named birds, and yet
cannot be placed in the same order as the Scansorial (_Picariæ_), for
they possess a simple passerine foot, with three toes in front and one
behind.

The Fissirostres, or wide-gaping birds, are also called Gressorial
Picariæ, as their toes are more or less connected together, which gives
them a very flat sole to the foot. They generally hunt for their food
from some selected spot, ordinarily a post or a dead bough, whence
they take flights after their prey, usually returning to the same spot
to devour it. Their flight is active and swift, their gape extremely
large, and the head correspondingly big, and in many instances clumsy
and ungainly. The feet are generally small and weak.

SUB-ORDER I.--ZYGODACTYLÆ.

FAMILY I.--THE PARROTS (_Psittaci_).

Just as the Monkeys have been placed at the head of the Mammalia on
account of their high development, so the Parrots, from their general
cleverness, and especially on account of the facility with which
they can talk, have been considered the highest order of birds, and
placed at the beginning of the class. It is impossible for some people
to avoid the conclusion that these birds think and reason, and the
_à propos_ or sometimes _mal à propos_ way in which they introduce
speeches, coupled with the look of wisdom which they assume while being
spoken to, seems to show that the brain is being employed in thinking.
A friend in Manchester told the writer of a parrot-show in the North of
England, where the talking powers of each bird were made the subject
of a prize competition. Several of the birds had exhibited their
prowess, and at last the cover was removed from the cage of a Grey
Parrot, who at once exclaimed, on seeing the company to which he was
suddenly introduced, “By Jove! what a lot of Parrots!” an observation
which gained him the prize at once. Instances of famous talking birds
might be multiplied by the hundred, and it is wonderful to read some
of the stories which have been related of Parrots, whose fame has been
recorded in many popular works, leaving no doubt that these birds often
possess the power of reason of a very high order; at the same time,
it must be confessed that many of the Corvine birds, such as Ravens,
Jackdaws, and Magpies, do not fall far short of their Scansorial
friends.

The Parrots are divided into two large sections, firstly the Parrots
proper (_Psittaci proprii_), and secondly the straight-billed Parrots
(_Psittaci orthognathi_[234]). These two sections together contain six
families, of which five belong to the first and one to the second. The
true Parrots have a powerful and swollen bill, especially as regards
the lower mandible, which is much inflated, curved, and flattened in
front, the cutting edges (_tomium_) indented just behind their tip. The
sub-family which has to be noticed first are the _Camptolophinæ_[235]
or Cockatoos, which are birds entirely of the Australian region, being
confined to Australia and the Molucca Islands. The bill is higher
than it is broad, with a very distinct indentation of each side of
the cutting edge of the mandible, the tip of the bill short, rather
strong and perpendicular, the head crested in all except the Pygmy
Parrots (_Nasiterna_). This family contains at once the largest and the
smallest of the Parrots.

THE GREAT PALM COCKATOO (_Microglossus[236] aterrimus_[237]).

This is one of the most powerful of all the Parrot tribe, measuring
about twenty-four inches in length, and having a bill of unusual
thickness and power. Its black plumage also renders it a conspicuous
species, the only relief to this sombre colouring being the greyish
crest and the dull crimson cheeks. Its home is New Guinea, but it
is also found in the Cape York Peninsula in Australia, where it was
discovered by John Macgillivray during the voyage of the _Rattlesnake_.
He writes as follows respecting it:--“This very fine bird, which is
not uncommon in the vicinity of Cape York, was usually found in the
densest scrub among the tops of the tallest trees, but was occasionally
seen in the open forest land perched on the largest of the _Eucalypti_,
apparently resting on its passage from one belt of trees or patch of
scrub to another. Like the Black Cockatoos, or _Calyptorhynchi_, it
flies slowly and usually but a short distance. In November, 1849, the
period of our last visit to Cape York, it was always found in pairs,
very shy, and difficult of approach. Its cry is merely a low short
whistle of a single note, which may be represented by the letters
‘_Hweet-Hweet_.’ The stomach of the first one killed contained a few
small pieces of quartz and triturated fragments of palm-cabbage, with
which the crop of another specimen was completely filled; and the idea
immediately suggests itself, that the powerful bill of this bird is a
most fitting instrument for stripping off the leaves near the summits
of the _Seaforthia elegans_ and other palms to enable it to arrive at
the central tender shoot.”

THE PYGMY PARROTS (_Nasiternæ_).

These Parrots are represented by seven little manikins which are
found in New Guinea and the adjacent islands, each particular island
possessing its own peculiar species. Not one of these little birds
exceeds a Sparrow in size, the largest being a little over three inches
and a half in length. Owing to their small size and the resemblance of
the green colouring to the forests they inhabit, they are not easily
seen, and until recent years were very hard to procure. In the island
of Mafoor in the Bay of Geelvink, N.W., New Guinea, Baron von Rosenberg
says that he found it common near Roemsaro, and several specimens, both
alive and dead, were brought to him by the natives. They bred there in
January and February, nesting in hollow trees and laying two eggs, the
size of those of the English Bottle Titmouse. Their food consists of
fruit.

THE AMAZON PARROTS (_Androglossinæ_).[238]

This, the second sub-family, consists of the true Parrots, of which
the ordinary Grey Parrot (_Psittacus erythacus_) is the type. It also
includes all the Green Parrots of America, which are called Amazons,
as well as the Lories (_Eclectus_) and Love-birds (_Agapornis_). The
head is moderately smooth, without any highly-developed crest, as in
the Cockatoos, and the tail is short, or of only moderate length. The
tail-feathers are generally broad and obtuse, in a few widening at the
tip, or sharp at the end. In the genus _Prioniturus_, which inhabits
the Philippine Islands, and some of the Moluccas, the two centre
feathers have the shafts produced, and ending in a small spatule, or
racket.

THE AMAZONS (_Chrysotis_).[239]

[Illustration: AMAZON PARROT.]

These Parrots are entirely American, and are the only birds of the
New World which can compete in talking powers with the African Grey
Parrots, who, however, far surpass their American relatives. About
thirty species of Amazon are known, all of them confined within the
limits of the Neotropical region, which comprises the whole of Central
and Southern America, south of an imaginary line drawn through Northern
Mexico. The West India islands are also included in this area, and
most of them are inhabited by a species of Amazon. The habits of
all these Parrots seem to be very similar, and a good account of
the Active Amazon of Jamaica (_Chrysotis agilis_) is given by Mr.
Gosse[240]:--“All the Parrots are gregarious, cunning, watchful, noisy,
mischievous; and thus are like the Monkeys. This and the Yellow-billed
Parrot [Mr. Gosse’s name for _C. agilis_ is the Black-billed Parrot]
are so much alike in manners and general appearance, that a description
of one applies nearly to the other. Flocks varying from half a dozen
to twenty or thirty fly hither and thither over the forest, screeching
as they go, and all alight together on some tree covered with berries.
Here they feast, but with caution. On a slight alarm one screams,
and the whole flock is on the wing, vociferous if not musical, and
brilliant if not beautiful, particularly when the sun shines on their
green backs and crimsoned wings. They generally prefer lofty trees,
except when, in June, the ripe yellow plantain tempts them to descend,
or when the blackberry shines upon the pimento. Of the latter the
flocks devour an immense quantity, and the former they destroy by
cutting it to pieces with their powerful beaks, to get at the small
seeds. One day in January, when the pimento on the brow of Bluefields
Mountain was about ready for picking, being full-sized, but yet green
and hard, I observed large flocks of Black-bills, and a few Parrakeets,
flying to and fro with voluble chatter, now alighting to feed on the
hot, aromatic berry, now flying off, and wheeling round to the same
neighbourhood again. They were not at all shy, but, with unusual
carelessness of one’s proximity, scarcely moved at the report of the
gun which brought their companions to the ground. Of two which I shot
on this occasion, I found the craws stuffed with the cotyledons of the
seed alone, the most pungently aromatic part of the berry; the fleshy
part having been, as I presume, shorn off by the beak and rejected.
When alighted, as is often the case, on a dry branch, their emerald hue
is conspicuous, and affords a fair mark for the gunner; but in a tree
of full foliage, their colour proves an excellent concealment. They
seem aware of this, and their sagacity prompts them to rely on it for
security. Often we hear their voices proceeding from a certain tree, or
else have marked the descent of a flock upon it, but on proceeding to
the spot, though the eye has not wandered from it, and we are therefore
sure that they are there, we cannot discover an individual. We go
close to the tree, but all is silent, and still as death; we institute
a careful survey of every part with the eye, to detect the slightest
motion, or the form of a bird among the leaves, but in vain; we begin
to think that they have stolen off unperceived, but on throwing a
stone into the tree, a dozen throats burst forth into cry, and as many
green birds rush forth upon the wing. The screaming of this and the
following species differs from that of the Parrakeet, so far as to be
easily distinguished. That of the latter consists of a series of harsh
screeches, of comparative length; that of the Parrots is less shrill,
more broken into short and rapid articulations, forming a series of
varying length, separated by momentary pauses. It is, in fact, much
more like a hurried chattering.”

THE GREY PARROT (_Psittacus erythacus_).

This familiar cage-bird is a native of Africa, and it would appear
to have been a favourite in England for a longer period than can be
traced. They were held in great estimation at the court of the “Merry
Monarch” Charles II., for his Queen Catharine of Braganza had a
parrot-keeper, at a salary of £36 per annum, while the maids of honour
received only £10 a year each, and the “mother of the maids” £20 per
annum. Therefore, the custodian of the Parrots was better paid by £16
than the lady who held the very responsible post of care-taker of
the maids of honour.[241] A Grey Parrot which lived for forty years
with the Duchess of Richmond and Lennox, who died in 1702, and who
was a celebrated beauty at the court of Charles II., is preserved in
Westminster Abbey along with the effigy of that lady, having survived
its mistress only a few days.

It is strange that for a bird which has so long been one of the chief
pets in Europe, so little is known of its habits in a wild state,
and at the present time not a single authentic egg of this species,
taken in its native haunts, is known to exist. Occasionally it lays in
confinement a white egg, like other Picarian birds, but it is probably
from the care with which the species selects its breeding-place
that it has been so difficult to find their nest and eggs. The only
naturalist who appears to have discovered the latter appears to be the
celebrated natural history artist, Mr. Keulemans, who spent nearly
two years in West Africa, and has written the best account of the
Grey Parrot in a state of nature,[242] as observed by him on Ilha
do Principe, or Prince’s Island, in the Bight of Biafra. Here it is
very common, and breeds in the month of December in the very thickest
forests. Only one pair breed in each tree, laying five eggs in a hole
thereof, but a large number nest in close proximity to each other,
many hundreds breeding in the same area, according to the above-named
author. Both parents take a share in the rearing of the young birds,
sitting by turns, the one who is thus relieved bringing food to its
mate and feeding it out of its crop, which method is also adopted in
the care of the young birds. The food of the Grey Parrot is stated to
consist of palm-nuts, the arocat (_Laurus persea_), the banana (_Musa
paradisea_), goyare, mango, and many other fruits of a smaller size;
but it always gives the preference to palm-nuts. On Prince’s Island,
writes Mr. Keulemans, there is “a very lofty mountain, reaching some
1,200 feet above the level of the sea, and called by the natives ‘Pico
de Papagaio,’ or Peak of the Parrots. On the slope of this mountain,
and extending far up its side, is a magnificent forest. The trees are
of great size and height, and their trunks and branches give support
to the lianas and other climbing plants, which hang about them in
luxurious folds. The density of the forest is so great that it is only
with the greatest difficulty and toil that the explorer can force his
way through it; while to the Parrots who come up there every night it
presents no obstacle, but gives them, under the shelter of its thick
foliage, a secure and pleasant resting-place.”

Another observer in West Africa, Dr. Reichenow, found the Grey Parrot
breeding in West Africa in the low-lands along the streams and groves
of mangrove, and the great difficulty of traversing these swamps is,
according to him, the reason why their breeding habits are not better
known. They are very destructive to the crops of Indian corn, which
they visit in large flocks, wasting as much as they consume. They
proceed to roost in flocks, selecting the same route each night; and
Governor Ussher says that, whilst up the river Addo, near Lagos, he
has seen them crossing at sunset from their feeding-grounds to their
roosting-places, when they presented the appearance of one continuous
flock passing at a great distance overhead, their screams and
chattering being heard long after darkness has set in. They are said
by some travellers to be very good eating, but by others to be only
good for soup.

[Illustration: GREAT MACAWS.]

The Grey Parrot in his native haunts is an unsociable bird, and a
curious story is told by Dr. Dohrn, and confirmed by Mr. Keulemans,
respecting the species in Prince’s Island. As has already been stated,
the Parrots are extremely common there, but not a single Kite is met
with on the island. On the neighbouring island of St. Thomas there
is an abundance of Black Kites but not a single Parrot, between whom
and the Kites a constant warfare is waged, so that, should one of the
latter get driven over to Prince’s Island he is almost immediately set
upon by the Parrots and slaughtered; and the compliment is returned if
a Parrot is so unfortunate as to land uninvited on St. Thomas’s. On
the coast the chief enemy of the Parrots is the Vulturine Sea-Eagle
(_Gypohierax angolensis_).

[Illustration: GREY PARROT.]

The colouring of the Grey Parrot is simple, being of a clear
bluish-grey, with a red tail. About the face the skin is white, and
covered with a soft, velvety feathering, amongst which there is a
plentiful supply of white powder, as any one knows who scratches the
head of “Polly.” This powder is present in most of the family, but not
to the same degree as in the grey species. The young bird in the nest
is stated to have the tail dark-grey instead of red, and it is more of
a brownish-grey colour, not so clear as in the old bird, while the iris
is grey instead of yellow.

The CONURES (_Conurinæ_) are the third sub-family of Parrots,
and are represented largely in America, only one genus, _Palæornis_,
being found in India and Africa. They have the head devoid of a crest,
with a very long graduated tail, and short and weak tarsi. Amongst the
best-known species of this sub-family may be mentioned the Great Macaw.

THE ROSE-RINGED PARRAKEET (_Palæornis torquatus_).

[Illustration: ROSE-RINGED PARRAKEET.]

This Parrot is probably the species of which we have the earliest known
record, as Onesicritus, who was admiral of the fleet of Alexander
the Great, is said to have brought from Ceylon a specimen of a green
Parrot with a red neck. Many authors have supposed that the large
Alexandrine Parrakeet (_Palæornis eupatrius_, or _Alexandri_) was the
species referred to, but the habitat of this bird is now known to be
the island of Java, and the Rose-ringed Parrakeet is more probably the
bird intended. Professor Sundevall, the great authority on Aristotle,
believes that the present bird was the only Parrot known to the
ancients, being brought into Europe probably from Nubia. Other species
were not seen in Europe before the end of the Middle Ages, and the
West African species, such as the Senegal Parrot (_P. senegalus_), in
1455, and the Grey Parrot even later; the latter not being described
before Aldrovandus, about the year 1600. American species were brought
already in 1493 by Christopher Columbus, and many Indian species after
the circumnavigation of Africa about the year 1500. The present bird is
common in India and Ceylon, and is, moreover, one of the few species
of birds which are common to the Indian Peninsula and the continent of
Africa, as it is a well-known bird in Nubia and Abyssinia, and on one
occasion a flock has been seen in the neighbourhood of Port Elizabeth
in the extreme south of the continent. According to Dr. Jerdon, it
is one of the most common and familiar birds in India, frequenting
cultivated ground and gardens, even in the barest and least wooded
parts of the country, and it is habitually found about towns and
villages, constantly perching on the house-top. It is very destructive
to most kinds of grain, as well as to fruit-gardens. Burgess says
that they carry off the ears of corn to trees to devour at leisure,
and Jerdon has observed the same sometimes. When the grains are cut
and housed it feeds on the ground in the stubble cornfields, also in
meadows, picking up what seeds it can; and now and then takes long
flights, hunting for any tree that may be in fruit, skimming close and
examining every tree; and when it has made a discovery of one in fruit,
circling round, and sailing with outspread and down-pointing wings
till it alights on the tree. It associates in flocks of various size,
sometimes in vast numbers, and generally many hundreds roost together
in some garden or grove. At Saugor all the Parrakeets, Mynahs, Crows,
Bee-eaters, &c., of the neighbourhood, for some miles around, roost
in company in a large grove of bamboos; and the deafening noise heard
there from before sunset till dark, and from the first dawn of day
till long after sunrise, gives to the listener the idea of numberless
noisy steam machines at work. Many of the flocks of Parrots are very
late in returning, and fly along quite low, skimming the ground, and
just rising over a tree, house, or any obstacle in the way, and, for
several nights in succession, several Parrakeets flew against the wall
of a house, on the top of a hill in Saugor, and were killed. The
Rose-ringed Parrakeet breeds both in holes in trees, and very commonly
in the south of India about houses, in holes in old buildings, pagodas,
tombs, &c. It lays four white eggs. Its breeding season is from January
to March. Adams states that he has seen this Parrakeet pillage the
nests of the Sand Martin; but with what intent he does not guess at.
Its ordinary flight is rapid, with repeated strokes of the wings,
somewhat wavy laterally, or arrowy. It has a harsh cry, which it always
repeats when in flight, as well as at other times. Mr. Philipps remarks
that the Kite will sometimes swoop down on them when perched on a tree,
and carry one off in its talons; also that Owls attack these birds by
night.[243]

The length of this species is about sixteen inches and a half. It is
green with a black band extending from under the chin backwards nearly
to the nape, and having a rose-coloured collar round the hind neck. The
bill is cherry-red, the feet greyish, and the iris pale yellow. The
female does not possess the rose-coloured collar, but has instead a
narrower one of emerald green.

THE CAROLINA CONURE (_Conurus carolinensis_).

The Conures are inhabitants of the New World, and are very abundant
in South America, but one species, the Carolina Conure, penetrating
into the Nearctic region above the line of North Mexico. It is a very
handsome bird, but is rapidly decreasing in numbers, and becoming
restricted in its range, so much so, that in places where it was once
plentiful it is now no longer to be found at all. Even in 1842, when
Audubon wrote, they were then fast diminishing, and are now confined
to the Southern and South-western States, as far west as the Missouri
river. The food of the Carolina Conure is stated to consist chiefly
of the seeds of the Cockle-burr (_Xanthirum strumarium_), but it is
also very partial to fruit of all kinds, and it is owing to the way in
which it has been shot down that it is now so rare, for Mr. Audubon
describes the immense damage done by a flock of Conures to stacks of
grain, which they covered in such numbers that they presented to the
eye the same effect as if a brilliant-coloured carpet had been thrown
over them. The farmers resented the attacks on their property to such
an extent that the same naturalist states that he has seen hundreds
killed in the course of a few hours, the survivors, after each shot,
flying round for a few minutes, and then settling again in a place of
most imminent danger. Even in confinement the birds seem to develop
their destructive propensities, destroying wood, books, and, in short,
everything that comes in their way, while from their incapability of
talk, and their harsh, disagreeable voices, they are not much esteemed
as pets. As Audubon observes, the woods are the habitation best fitted
for them, and there the richness of their plumage, their beautiful
mode of flight, and even their screams, afford welcome intimation that
the darkest forests and most sequestered swamps are not destitute
of charms. According to the same observer, they deposit their eggs,
without making a nest, in the bottoms of such cavities in trees as
those to which they usually retire at night. Many females deposit their
eggs together, and he believed that the number laid by each hen bird
was two; the eggs were greenish-white, and nearly round, and the young
are at first covered with soft down, such as is seen in nestling Owls.
The colour of this Parrot is green, the head and neck bright-yellow,
and the forehead and region of the eye scarlet; the bill is white, the
feet pale flesh-colour, and the iris hazel; the length of the bird
being about fourteen inches. The female is like the male, but the young
bird has the head green instead of yellow.

THE PARRAKEETS (_Platycercinæ_).

These form the fourth sub-family, and are remarkable for their slender,
smooth tarsus, which is formed as in most birds; and the voice is
more agreeable than in the other genera, the members of which, almost
without exception, have a harsh and unpleasant cry. They are mostly
inhabitants of Australia, whence come several of them well known as
cage-birds, such as the King Parrakeet (_Platycercus scapulatus_), the
Rosella, or Rose Parrakeet (_P. eximius_), and in America they are
represented by the single genus _Bolborhynchus_.

[Illustration: ROSELLA.]

THE OWL PARROT (_Strigops_[244] _habroptilus_[245]).

The genus _Strigops_ is the sole representative of the fifth
sub-family, the _Strigopinæ_. It is one of the most remarkable of all
the Parrots, and is met with only in New Zealand. The face shows a disc
exactly as in the Owls, whence the name, and the wing is very short,
convex, and rounded. In its habits this bird is chiefly nocturnal, but
not entirely so; the most remarkable fact connected with it being,
perhaps, its unwillingness to fly. Thus Dr. Buller, F.R.S., in his
excellent work on the “Birds of New Zealand,” writes:--“All who have
studied the bird in its natural state agree on this point, that the
wings, although sufficiently large and strong, are perfectly useless
for purposes of flight, and that the bird merely spreads them to
break the force of its fall in descending from a higher point to a
lower, when suddenly surprised; in some instances even this use of
them is neglected, the bird falling to the ground like a stone. We
are naturally led to ask how it is that a bird possessing large and
well-formed wings should be found utterly incapable of flight. On
removing the skin from the body it is seen that the muscles by means
of which the movements of these anterior limbs are regulated are very
well developed, but are largely overlaid with fat. The bird is known to
be a ground-feeder, with a voracious appetite, and to subsist chiefly
on vegetable mosses, which, possessing but little nutriment, require
to be eaten in large quantities; and Dr. Haast informs us that he has
sometimes seen them with their crops so distended and heavy, that the
birds were scarcely able to move. These mosses cover the ground and the
roots or trunks of prostrate trees, requiring to be sought for on foot;
and the bird’s habit of feeding at night, in a country where there are
no indigenous predatory quadrupeds, would render flight a superfluous
exertion, and a faculty of no especial advantage in the struggle for
existence. Thus it may be reasonably inferred that _disuse_, under the
usual operations of the laws of nature, has occasioned this disability
of wing; for there is no physiological reason why the Kakapo should not
be as good a flier as any other Parrot.”

[Illustration: OWL PARROT. (_After Keulemans_)]

The Kakapo, as it is called in New Zealand, meaning a “Night Parrot,”
is becoming rarer every year, as the places which it affects become
more and more accessible to the colonists. From the long accounts
of its habits given in Dr. Buller’s work, the following note of Dr.
Haast is selected, as it gives a good idea of the habits of this
singular species:--“So little is known of this solitary inhabitant
of our primæval forests, that the following short narrative of
observations, which I was fortunate enough to make during my recent
West Coast journey, may interest you. Although I was travelling almost
continuously for several years in the interior of these islands, it was
only during my last journey that I was enabled to study its natural
history. I was well acquainted with its call, and had often observed
its tracks in the sands of the river-beds and in the fresh-fallen snow,
but I had not actually seen it. The principal reason for this was, that
formerly I had no dog with me; and consequently it would only be by the
greatest accident that this bird, not at all rare in those untrodden
regions, could be obtained. The true habitat of the Kakapo is the mossy
_Fagus_ forest, near mountain streams, with occasional grassy plots;
but it also lives both on the hill-sides, amongst enormous blocks of
rock, mostly overgrown with roots of trees and a deep covering of moss,
and on wooded flats along the banks of the larger rivers, liable to be
inundated by heavy rainfalls or by the sudden melting of the snow....
It is a striking fact, that--with the exception only of the valley of
the river Makarora, forming Lake Wanaka--I never found the Kakapo on
the eastern side of the Alps, although extensive _Fagus_ forests exist
there also. It appears to have crossed the main chain at the low wooded
pass which leads from the source of the Haast to that of the Makarora,
and reached the mouth of this river at Lake Wanaka, where probably
the absence of forest put a stop to its farther advance. It is very
abundant in the valley of the last-mentioned river, and is found even
in the Makarora bush, notwithstanding that numerous sawyers are at work
there. When camped on the borders of that forest we continually heard
its call near our tents; but none of the sawyers had any idea of the
existence of such a large bird in their neighbourhood, although the
irregular shrill call had sometimes attracted their attention. It also
occurs in the valley of the Wilkin, but is less numerous there, which
may be accounted for by the existence of wild dogs in this locality. We
may therefore safely assume that from the junction of this river with
the Makarora the Kakapo ascended toward the sources of the former. In
the valley of the Hunter, only divided by a mountain-range of great
altitude but with some low saddles, no sign of it was to be observed,
although large _Fagus_ forests would appear to offer a propitious
abode. This bird has hitherto been pronounced to be of true nocturnal
habits; but I think, from observations I was able to make, that this
opinion ought to be somewhat modified. It is true that generally an
hour after sunset, the dense foliage of the forest giving additional
darkness to the country, its call began to be heard all around us.
It then commenced to rove about, and, attracted by the glare of our
camp-fire, frequently came close to our tent, when the heedless bird
was immediately caught by our dog. But as we met with it on two
occasions in the daytime, occupied in feeding, and as I observed that
it knew and understood perfectly well the danger which approached, we
may assume that it has, at least in this respect, some relation to
diurnal birds. In order to show why I come to this conclusion, I will
particularise the two occurrences I have mentioned, as they appear
to bear directly upon some other important points in the structure
of this bird. When returning from the West Coast, we observed in the
afternoon (the sky being clouded) a Kakapo sitting on the prostrate
trunk of a tree in the open forest. When about ten yards from it, the
bird observed us, and disappeared instantly in its hole, whence, with
the aid of the dog, we afterwards took it. It is clear that in this
case the bird was not overtaken by the coming day when far from its
abode, but that it left its retreat voluntarily during daylight. The
second instance I shall mention is more striking, and shows that the
Kakapo feeds also during the day. It was towards evening, but still
broad daylight, when we passed along the hill-side near a deep rocky
gorge, and saw a large Kakapo sitting on a low fuchsia-tree, about ten
feet from the ground, feeding on the berries. When close to it, the
bird saw us, and instantly dropped down as if shot, and disappeared
amongst the huge fragments of rocks strewed along the hill-side. But
the most remarkable circumstance was, that the frightened bird did not
open its wings to break its fall, but dropped as if it did not possess
any wings at all. In order to see whether they would fly, or even
flutter, when pursued by an enemy, I placed on the ground a full-grown
specimen, which had been caught by the dog without being hurt. It was
on a large shingle-bed, so that the bird had ample room for running
or rising on the wing, if for this purpose it wanted space. I was not
a little astonished to observe that it only started running towards
the nearest point of the forest, where a dark shadow was apparent, and
it went quicker than I had anticipated, considering the position of
its toes and its clumsy figure, its gait resembling closely that of
a Gallinaceous bird in its movements. As I was standing sideways to
it, I thought that it kept its wings closed upon its body, so little
were they opened; but my companion, who was equally anxious to see
how our prisoner would try to escape, and who stood a little behind
it, observed that it opened its wings slightly, but without flapping
them in any degree, using them apparently more for keeping its balance
than for accelerating its movements. This would almost lead to the
conclusion that the Kakapo does not travel far, especially as I have
already shown that its whole structure is ill adapted for running.
But having myself frequently followed its tracks, and found them to
extend a great distance over the sandy reaches along the river, such
a conclusion as that suggested above would be erroneous. It must be
exceedingly fond of water, because in many localities its tracks were
observed for half a mile over shingle and sand to the banks of the
river; and I am unable to explain the curious fact, unless the object
be to mix river water with the enormous mass of pulpy vegetable matter
which is to be found in its crop. With the exception of two specimens,
the crops of which were filled with the large berries of a small-leaved
_Coriaria_, by which their flesh was flavoured, all the birds examined
by me had their crops widely distended by a mass of finely-comminuted
vegetable mosses, weighing many ounces.

“I carefully examined the subterranean abode of this bird. From the
account given by the natives, I thought that it would be found living
in well-excavated holes, resembling in their construction those of
the Fox or Badger; that the entrance would be so small as to enable
only the inhabitants to enter, and thus to exclude larger animals from
persecuting it. This, however, is not the case; because, with one
exception, all the specimens obtained were either in fissures amongst
rocks, or in cavities formed by huge blocks tumbled one over another,
and overgrown with moss, or in holes formed by the roots of decayed
trees. The cavities in the rocks were generally sufficiently large
to allow of my dog, a good-sized Retriever, freely entering them.
The openings to the other holes were smaller, and it was sometimes
necessary to cut away a few roots at the entrance. Inside, the cavity
was invariably of very large size, because we could plainly hear the
dog advancing several yards before commencing his scuffle with the
occupant; and on returning with the bird in his mouth, he always
emerged head foremost, thus proving that the chamber was large enough
to enable him to turn himself round. Before he had become accustomed to
the work, the dog was often punished severely by the bird’s powerful
beak and claws; but he ultimately became quite an expert, always
seizing his prey by the head and crushing the skull.

“The holes or abodes of the Kakapo were not only on the mountain sides,
but also on the flats near the river banks which are liable to be
overflowed. There can be no doubt that when a sudden inundation takes
place the bird can save itself upon a bush or neighbouring tree. I do
not think, however, that it can climb the boles of standing trees,
because it never resorted to them during the night or when persecuted
by the dog--except in one single case, when the bird ascended a leaning
tree close to our camp, and remained till the dog had given up the
attempt to obtain it. But, notwithstanding that almost all the abodes
that came under examination were natural cavities, I met with one hole
that seemed to have been regularly mined. On the northern bank of the
river Haast, just below the junction of the river Clarke, a large
flat occurs, formed by deposits of sand, over which a thin layer of
vegetable mould is spread, and on which a luxuriant vegetation has
sprung up. The river, in washing against these deposits, has in some
cases formed nearly perpendicular banks, about six to eight feet high.
At one spot, about two feet below the surface, several rounded holes
were observed, and the dog tried in vain to enter them. After carefully
scenting the ground, he began to scratch the surface with his paws, and
soon succeeded in widening the entrance sufficiently to admit his body,
and he immediately afterwards emerged with the bird in his mouth. There
is no doubt in my own mind that this hole at least had been excavated;
and the burrowing faculty of the bird may be considered so far
established. On a flat in the valley of the Makarora, the dog brought
one from the interior of a hollow drift-tree, which was lying amongst
sedges and grasses in an old river channel. There never was more than
one individual in the hole, although very often, within twenty or
thirty yards of it, another specimen would be scented out by the dog,
the two being generally of opposite sexes. At night-time, in visiting
our camp fire, they generally came in pairs, the two being successively
caught by my dog, a single or sometimes a repeated angry growl from
the bird informing us that he had hold of it. These circumstances lead
me to conclude that during the day each inhabits separately its own
hole, and that only after dark do they meet for feeding and for social
intercourse.”

In size, the Owl Parrot is about twenty-six inches in length, and is of
a dark sap-green colour, varied and mottled with dark brown and yellow;
the face is lighter, being darker brown, the ear-coverts mixed with
yellow; the belly and under tail-coverts, as well as the wing-lining,
are rather brighter yellow than the rest of the under surface. The tint
of green varies a good deal: from light yellowish to dark sap-green.

THE STRAIGHT-BILLED PARROTS (_Psittaci orthognathi_).[246]

In this second section of the Parrots only one family is known, all the
members of which are easily recognisable by their straightened bills,
the lower mandible being gently compressed, and not bulged out, with a
nearly straight tip, the cutting edges with scarcely any indentation.
With the exception of the Lorikeets (_Loriculus_), members of which
are found in India and the Indo-Malayan region, the whole family is
Australian, being confined to that continent and the adjacent Molucca
Islands, New Zealand, and the islands of Polynesia.

[Illustration: LORIKEET.]

THE BRUSH-TONGUED PARROTS.[247]

The Brush-tongued Lorikeets are all birds of very beautiful colouring,
and are mostly found in Australia, the Moluccas, some few species
extending through the Oceanic Islands. All seem to be very similar
in their habits, an account of which is given by Mr. Gould. He
says:--“This arboreal group of honey-eating Lorikeets, if not so
numerous in species as the seed-feeding Parrakeets, is individually as
abundant, and more universally dispersed, being found in every part
of Australia yet visited. In their structure, habits, food, and mode
of nidification, no two groups of the same family can be more widely
different than these forms: the pencilled tongue, the diminutive
stomach, thick skin, tough flesh, and fœtid odour of the _Trichoglossi_
presenting a decided contrast to the simple tongue, capacious crop
and stomach, thin skin, delicate flesh, and freedom from odour of the
_Platycerci_; besides which, the _Trichoglossi_ possess a strong _os
furcatorium_, which bone is wanting in the _Platycerci_. Hence, while
the _Trichoglossi_ are powerful, swift, and arrow-like in their flight,
the _Platycerci_ are feeble, pass through the air in a succession of
undulations near the ground, and never fly to any great distance.
The mode in which the two groups approach, alight upon, and quit the
trees is also remarkably different--the _Trichoglossi_ dashing among
and alighting upon the branches simultaneously and with the utmost
rapidity, and quitting them in like manner, leaving the deafening
sound of their thousand voices echoing through the woods; while the
_Platycerci_ rise to the branch after their undulating flight, and
leave them again in a quiet manner, no sound being heard but their
inward piping note. The eggs of the _Trichoglossi_ are from two to four
in number; those of the others are more numerous.”

THE NESTORS (_Nestor_).

These Parrots, which are only found in New Zealand, are generally
placed with the other Brush-tongued Parrots. “In all Parrots the fleshy
tongue ends anteriorly in a dilated portion, supported by a narrower
neck. This tip is much like the end of a human finger, as mentioned by
most observers; and its function is similar also, for it is employed
by the bird as a third prehensile organ in connection with the upper
and lower beak, any solid substance being held by the tongue and upper
beak, while the mandible is freed to give another bite. Continuing the
simile of the finger, the tip is directed forwards with the nail-like
portion downwards, the part corresponding to the free edge of the nail
appearing along the lower margin of the anterior rounded surface.[248]
In the _Trichoglossi_, this ‘nail,’ or horny plate, is stated to be
present; but on the superior surface of the tongue, between the lateral
edges of the unguis, or nail, there is an arrangement of retroverted
papillæ, forming a spinous covering, and their mechanism is such that
when the tongue is protruded beyond the mouth to grasp any object,
the papillæ stand upright, or are even directed somewhat forward. In
Nestor,” continues Professor Garrod, “there are no papillæ of this
description; but the tongue is here, as Dr. Buller says, ‘soft, rounded
on the edges, with a broad central groove,’ and it is as smooth as in
other Parrots. Therefore, the Kaka Parrot cannot in this point be said
to approach the _Trichoglossini_ (badly so called). The peculiarity of
the tongue of _Nestor_ consists in the fact that the interior edge of
the unguis, or nail, always free (though for a very short distance)
and jagged in the other birds of the class, is here prolonged forwards
beyond the tips of the tongue for about one-tenth of an inch, as a
delicate fringe of hairs with a crescentic contour. In the living bird
the mouth is moist, as in the Lories, and not, as in the Cockatoos and
others, dry and scaly.”

[Illustration: TONGUE OF NESTOR.

(_After Garrod._)]

The members of the genus _Nestor_ are entirely confined to New Zealand,
the species of Philip Island (_Nestor productus_) being now extinct.
Their habits, like those of all New Zealand birds, are sufficiently
curious, one of them, known as the “Kea” (_N. notabilis_), actually
feeding on raw flesh, as is noticed by Dr. Buller:--“Those that
frequent the sheep stations appear to live almost exclusively on
flesh. They claim the sheep’s heads that are thrown out from the
slaughter-shed, and pick them perfectly clean, leaving nothing but
the bones.” An eye-witness described this operation to Dr. Hector as
follows:--“Perching itself on the sheep’s head or other offal, the bird
proceeds to tear off the skin and flesh, devouring it piecemeal, after
the manner of a Hawk; or at other times holding the object down with
one foot, and with the other grasping the portion it was eating, after
the ordinary fashion of Parrots.” Dr. Buller also mentions instances of
tame Parrots devouring their comrades in captivity; but the Kea is the
only Parrot known to eat flesh when flying wild.

THE KAKA PARROT (_Nestor meridionalis_).

This Parrot is best described by the above-named ornithologist in the
work on the Birds of New Zealand, to which frequent reference has been
made in these pages:--“Sprightly in its actions, eminently social, and
more noisy than any other inhabitant of the woods, the Kaka holds a
prominent place among our native birds. Being semi-nocturnal in its
habits, it generally remains quiet and concealed during the heat of the
day. If, however, the sportsman should happen to find a stray one, and
to wound instead of killing it, its cries of distress will immediately
rouse the whole fraternity from their slumbers, and all the Kakas
within hearing will come to the rescue, and make the forest echo with
their discordant screams. Unless, however, disturbed by some exciting
cause of this sort, they remain in close cover till the approach of
the cooler hours. Then they come forth with noisy clamour, and may be
seen, far above the tree-tops, winging their way to some favourite
feeding-place; or they may be observed climbing up the rough vine-clad
boles of the trees, freely using their powerful mandibles, and assuming
every variety of attitude, or diligently tearing open the dead roots of
the close epiphytic vegetation in their eager search for insects and
their larvæ. In the spring and summer, when the woods are full of wild
blossom and berry, these birds have a prodigality of food, and may be
seen alternately filling their crops with a variety of juicy berries,
or sucking nectar from the crimson flowers of the rata (_Metrosideros
robusta_) by means of their brush-fringed tongues. With the earliest
streaks of dawn, and while the underwoods are still wrapped in
darkness, the wild cry of this bird breaks upon the ear with a strange
effect. It is the sound that wakes the weary traveller encamped in the
bush; and the announcement of his ever active Maori attendant--‘Kua
tangi te Kaka’--is an intimation that it is time to be active. But
although habitually recluse during the day, it is not always so.

[Illustration: KAKA PARROT.]

“During gloomy weather it is often very active; and sometimes even in
the bright sunshine a score of them may be seen together, flying and
circling about high above the tree-tops, uttering their loud screams,
and apparently bent on convivial amusement. When the shades of evening
bring a deeper gloom into the depths of the forest, and all sounds are
hushed, save the low hoot of the waking Morepork, or the occasional
_cheep-cheep_ of the startled Robin, the Kaka becomes more animated.
It may then be heard calling to its fellows in a harsh rasping note,
something like the syllables ‘_t-chrut, t-chrut_,’ or indulging in a
clear musical whistle with a short refrain. It is strictly arboreal
in its habits, and subsists to a large extent on insects and their
larvæ, so that it is probably one of our most useful species. Where
they exist in large numbers they must act very beneficially on the
timber forests; for in the domain of Nature important results are often
produced by apparently trivial agencies. Like all the honey-eaters,
while supplying their own wants, they do good service with their
brush tongues by fertilising the blossoms of various trees, and thus
assisting in their propagation; while, on the other hand, the diligent
search they prosecute for insects and grubs, and the countless numbers
daily consumed by each individual, must materially affect the economy
of the native woods. On this latter point Mr. Potts has furnished
the following valuable note:--‘Although so often accused of injuring
trees by stripping down the bark, from careful observation we do
not believe a flourishing tree is ever damaged by its beak. It is
the apparently vigorous, but really unsound, tree that is attacked,
already doomed by the presence of countless multitudes of insects of
many varieties, of which it is at once the food and refuge, either
in their perfect or larval state. In the persevering and laborious
pursuit of this favourite food, the Kaka doubtless lends his assistance
in hastening the fall of decaying trees; the loosened strips of bark
dissevered admit to the exposed wood rain and moisture collected from
dews and mists, to be dried by evaporation by the heat of the sun,
by the desiccating winds, only to become saturated again. Under this
alternation the insidious fungi take root, decay rapidly sets in, the
close-grained timber gives place to a soft spongy texture, branches
drop off, and gradually the once noble-looking tree succumbs to its
fate; but its gradual decay and fall, the work of years, has proved
beneficial to the surrounding plants: the dropping of the branches
admits light and air to the aspiring saplings, assists in checking the
undue spread of lichens and epiphytes; and when the old stem falls,
tottering down from its very rottenness, its place is supplied by
vigorous successors.’

“In estimating the value of the labours of the Kaka as an insect-eater,
it should not be forgotten that the family of Woodpeckers is entirely
absent from our bird-fauna, and that upon this indefatigable climber
devolves some share of the duty of representing that peculiar group of
forest birds. How diligently the insects are sought for by the Kaka may
be judged from the heaps of bark chips that lie beneath the decaying
trees. Often it may be noticed on the ground tearing away the mossy
clothing of the huge gnarled roots that spread around; even the soft
rotten boughs are gnawed to obtain the larvæ of some of the larger bush
insects.”

The Nestors vary immensely in colour, so that many of the plumages
now known to be only occasional varieties have been supposed to be
specifically distinct. They are birds of large size, and have the cere,
or fleshy portion at the base of the bill, rather strongly developed,
the bill being large and powerful. The colour is of an olivaceous
brown, with a dash of dark red, the crown grey, and the ear-coverts
shaded with orange, the cheeks with dark red, as also are the lower
back, rump, and upper tail-coverts and abdomen.

The structure of the bill of the Parrots is so remarkable as to be
worthy of a more extended description than could be given to it when it
was incidentally referred to in our account of the osteology of birds
in general. The way, however, in which the upper and lower jaws are
connected with the skull was there explained, and a reference to the
description on pp. 241-2 will save the necessity of much repetition
now. That account embraced all members of the class of birds; here we
are dealing only with certain peculiar modifications.

If the skull of an adult bird of any familiar type, such as a Crow,
be examined, it will be seen that the bones of the upper jaw are
apparently continuous, and form one piece, with those of the forehead
and sides of the head. There is nothing that looks like a joint, or
“articulation,” between the bill where it is attached to the forehead
above, or to the long jugal arch (“quadrato-jugal”) that runs each
side to reach the quadrate bone, or to the flattened bones that help
to form the palate below. But if the skull of this same bird had been
carefully examined in an earlier stage of its existence, it would
have been found that the bones were at first distinctly separate at
the three points here indicated, and were merely connected by a soft
membranous substance. In many birds this “inter-osseous” membrane
connecting the bones of the upper mandible with the skull proper never
becomes true bone at all, but remains throughout life more or less soft
and flexible. And by this means a sort of elastic joint is established,
conferring upon the beak a certain range of up and down motion.

Now in Parrots, more conspicuously than in any other birds, each
of these joints, not alone that of the beak with the forehead, is
converted into a true hinge-like articulation, so that the upper
jaw can be raised to a very considerable extent; and to effect this
motion the muscles of the palate are developed into a somewhat complex
apparatus.

If the figure be examined, the actual relations of the bones can be
readily made out. At _a_ is seen the line where the bill is articulated
to the frontal bones. At _b_ is the joint which the bill makes with the
long jugal bone (_j_). And at _c_ is its articulation with the palatine
bone (_pl_).

[Illustration: SKULL OF THE GREY PARROT.]

But it is not this mobility of the upper mandible alone that gives
the characteristic aspect to the Parrot’s face. There are several
other points in which Parrots agree, with a wonderful uniformity,
among themselves, and differ from most other birds. Besides the
absence of certain important processes, called “basi-pterygoid,”
the ploughshare-like bone, or “vomer,” is altogether wanting. The
maxillo-palatines are very largely developed and spongy; they unite
with one another in the middle line, and with the thick wall of bone
into which the _septum nasi_ is in Parrots strongly ossified, and thus
fill up almost the whole base of the beak. The long palatine bones
proper are remarkably flattened from side to side for most of their
length; their hinder edges are more or less notched, and quite free
from any bony attachment; and they are united at about the hinder third
of their length by a plate-like extension from each. The scoop-like
lower mandible, with its tip that seems to have been cut off “square,”
to be out of the way of the strongly-hooked upper jaw, is too familiar
to call for any particular description.

THE SECOND ORDER.--PICARIAN BIRDS. SUB-ORDER I.--ZYGODACTYLÆ.

CHAPTER VIII.

CUCKOOS--HONEY GUIDES--PLANTAIN-EATERS--WOODPECKERS--TOUCANS--BARBETS.

THE CUCKOOS--THE BUSH CUCKOOS--THE LARK-HEELED CUCKOOS, OR
COUCALS--THE COMMON CUCKOO--Its Characteristics--Mrs. Blackburn’s
Account of a Young Cuckoo Ejecting a Tenant--Breeding Habits--The
Eggs--The Call-notes of Male and Female--Food--Its Winter Home--Its
Appearance and Plumage--THE HONEY GUIDES--Kirk’s Account of
their Habits--Mrs. Barber’s Refutation of a Calumny against the
Bird--THE PLANTAIN-EATERS--THE WHITE-CRESTED PLANTAIN-EATER--THE
GREY PLANTAIN-EATER--THE COLIES--THE WHITE-BACKED COLY--THE
WOODPECKERS--How they Climb and Descend Trees--Their Bill--Do they
Damage Sound Trees?--THE WRYNECKS--THE YAFFLE--THE RED-HEADED
WOODPECKER--THE SPOTTED WOODPECKER--THE TOUCANS--Mr. Gould’s Account
of their Habits--Mr. Waterton’s Account--The Enormous Bill--Azara’s
Description of the Bird--Mr. Bates’ History of a Tame Toucan--THE
BARBETS--Messrs. Marshall’s Account of the Family--Mr. Layard on
their Habits.

THE SECOND ORDER OF ZYGODACTYLE PICARIAN BIRDS.--THE CUCKOOS
(_Cuculidæ_).

Within the limits of this family are comprised birds of very different
habits and of very different structure, some being inhabitants of the
ground and of the thick bush, whilst others are lovers of the open,
and are birds of very strong flight. Without being able to climb up
the trunks of trees, like our Woodpeckers, the Cuckoos possess the
zygodactyle foot of the climbing bird in a very perfect degree. They
differ from others of the Scansorial group by the position of the
nostrils, which are placed rather low in the upper mandible, not far
from the cutting edge of it. There are three sub-families of Cuckoos,
distinguished by the form of the wing: the first of these has the
wings short, rounded, and with from two to six, or even seven, of the
primaries slightly indented in the middle. They have the feathers of
the thigh close-set, and not over-hanging like those of a Hawk, as is
the case with the true Cuckoos.

THE BUSH CUCKOOS (_Phænicophæinæ_).

These birds have representatives in India, Australia, and Africa, and
even South America. Some of them are of very varied and beautiful
plumages, and many of them reach the size of a moderate game-bird. The
first genus of these Bush Cuckoos contains

THE LARK-HEELED CUCKOOS, OR COUCALS (_Centropus_).

These are remarkable for the form of the hind toe, which is furnished
with a straight nail or claw, very strong, always equalling and often
surpassing the length of the hind toe itself. These Lark-heeled Cuckoos
do not occur in Europe, but are found all over Africa, India, and
Burmah, to China, and throughout the Malayan Archipelago to Australia.
They frequent the thick bush, and have a very similar call-note, which
has been rendered by some observers as resembling the syllables “_bop
bop_,” while on the West Coast of Africa, from their cry “_hoot,
hoot_,” they have been nicknamed by the colonists the “Scotchman.”
Writing of the Eyebrowed Lark-heel, Mr. Thomas Ayres says:--“This bird
frequents the dense bush, and principally lives amongst impenetrable
creepers, where it hunts about in search of the insects which it feeds
upon; if disturbed, it flies but a short distance. The note is a loud,
melancholy, cooing noise; they call most in wet weather. They are fond
of getting up into trees that are covered with creeping plants, and
sunning themselves; they generally fly on to the lower part, and then
gradually hop upwards till they gain the top, but they can fly a very
short distance at a time, and are easily caught if chased out into the
open grass, though they lie very close, and it requires a good dog to
find them. If disturbed, they immediately fly to the thickest cover
near at hand, and commence running, like the Rails.” Mr. Ayres says
that they feed on Grasshoppers, Caterpillars, and other insects; but
Mr. Rickard, another excellent field naturalist, in South Africa has
found a small Snake and Locusts in their stomachs, one having a small
bird--a White-eye (_Zosterops_)--inside him. The Lark-heeled Cuckoos
are not parasitic, like the true Cuckoos and many others: that is to
say, they build their own nests, and do not employ the nests of other
birds to place their eggs in. When hatched, the young birds are very
curious, being covered with long hairs and bristles. In colour the
Lark-heels are for the most part rufous, with black heads, but some
of them are almost entirely rufous, the shafts of all the feathers
much stiffened, so that the plumage lies very close, which must be of
advantage to birds who have to climb a great deal amongst the lianas
and creepers of tropical forests.

Of the Indian Coucal (_Centropus bengalensis_) an interesting account
is given by Mr. Gammie, which affords a very good idea of the habits
of these Bush Cuckoos. He says:--“This species has increased largely
of late. Among grassy scrub, up to 3,500 feet, it is now abundant,
where, only a few years ago, it was rarely to be found. In the earlier
part of the rainy season its odd, monotonous notes are to be heard
in every direction. I am not sure that the male calls, but have shot
the female--as I found by dissection--when calling. It has a call of
a double series of notes: ‘_whoot, whoot, whoot, whoot_;’ then, after
a pause of four or five seconds, ‘_kurook, kurook, kurook, kurook_.’
The ‘whoot’ is quite ventriloquistic, sounding as if it came from a
distance of six or seven yards from the bird. Before calling, it seats
itself about five feet from the ground; then you see it draw its neck
and body together, slightly puffing out its body-feathers, raising its
back, and depressing its tail, and for every ‘whoot’ there is a violent
throb of the body, as if the bird was in great pain; at the same time
the motion of the throat is scarcely perceptible, and its bill is
closed. Then, as if greatly relieved, it stretches itself out, the
feathers fall smooth, and with open mouth and throbbing throat comes
the ‘kurook,’ without the slightest attempt at ventriloquism. When
searching for the caller, one must take no notice of the ‘whoot,’ but
wait for the ‘kurook.’ It feeds almost entirely on Grasshoppers, and
frequents the open, scrubby tracts only. I have never once seen it in
larger forests.”[249]

The Malkohas are another remarkable group of the Bush Cuckoos, and are
found throughout India, Ceylon, the Indo-Malayan region and islands, as
far as the Celebes. The genera differ principally in the shape of the
nostril; and although differences of structure are usually considered
sufficient characters on which to found distinctions of genus, some
ornithologists are of opinion that the variation in the form of the
nostril only separates them as species. One of the most remarkable of
these Bush Cuckoos is the _Carpococcyx radiatus_ of Borneo, which,
when alive, is stated by Mr. Wallace to resemble a Pheasant in
appearance and gait. It lives much on the ground, and is often caught
by the Malays in the snares which they set for Argus Pheasants and
other game-birds. In Madagascar they are represented by the Couas
(_Sericosomus_), of which there are no less than ten species found
in that island. They are the inhabitants of the Palestrina forests,
where their monotonous notes are often heard. The cry of the Blue
Cuckoo is said by Messrs. Pollen and Van Dam to resemble the syllables
_cir-cir-cir_, while that of the Crested Coua (_S. cristatus_) is
_toc-toc-toc_. When calling, the latter bird raises its crest and flaps
its tail and wings. Its flight is difficult and generally descending,
and the bird never flaps its wings when it flies. It is ordinarily seen
on the lower branches of the trees, and loves to repose during the
great heat of the day in the sheltered parts of the trees, resting on
the branches and puffing out its feathers.

In America there are several allied forms of Bush Cuckoos, many of
which frequent the ground, one of the most interesting being the
_Geococcyx californianus_, which is called the “Road-runner,” and is a
bird of such powers of running that it is sometimes hunted on horseback
and pursued with hounds, a test of fleetness in which it is said often
to make a longer race than its pursuers anticipated.

THE COMMON CUCKOO (_Cuculus canorus_).

The true Cuckoos, of which the English bird is the type, differ from
the Bush Cuckoos in being more _Accipitrine_, or Hawk-like, in their
appearance, and having long thigh-feathers, like the majority of the
birds of prey. The nostril is swollen and rounded. It would be easy to
write a complete book on this mysterious bird, whose habits and cry
have rendered it an object of interest in all countries and from very
early times. The popular superstition concerning the nestling--that the
young Cuckoo, when sufficiently grown, and having no further use for
the little foster-parent to whose care it owed its life and well-being,
used to devour the latter--has often been held up as an “awful example”
to ungrateful children who become a burden and a shame to their parents
when they are unable to provide for them any longer. The idea of the
young Cuckoo devouring its protector is no doubt erroneous, and,
as Brehm puts it, has arisen from the oft-recurring spectacle of a
little Wren or a diminutive Gold-crest placing food in the wide-gaping
mouth of the young Cuckoo, which, indeed, without much stretch of the
imagination, might swallow it. In Mr. Gould’s “Birds of Great Britain”
there is a picture showing the _dénouement_ of the young Cuckoo’s
story, when, still callow and blind, it is represented as disposing of
some unfortunate little Tree Pipits which were hatched along with it
in the same nest. This incident was sketched by Mrs. Hugh Blackburn,
who thus describes the occurrence:--“The nest (which we watched last
June, after finding the Cuckoo’s egg in it) was that of the common
Meadow Pipit (Titlark, Mosscheeper), and had two Pipit’s eggs besides
that of the Cuckoo. It was below a heather bush on the declivity of a
low abrupt bank or highland hill-side, in Moidart. At one visit the
Pipits were found to be hatched, but not the Cuckoo. At the next visit,
which was after an interval of forty-eight hours, we found the young
Cuckoo alone in the nest, and both the young Pipits lying down the
bank, about ten inches from the margin of the nest, but quite lively
after being warmed in the hand. They were replaced in the nest beside
the Cuckoo, which struggled about till it got its back under one of
them, when it climbed backwards directly up the open side of the nest,
and hitched the Pipit from its back on to the edge. It then stood quite
upright on its legs, which were straddled wide apart, with the claws
firmly fixed half-way down the inside of the nest among the interlacing
fibres of which the nest was woven, and stretching its wings apart and
backwards, it elbowed the Pipit fairly over the margin so far that its
struggles took it down the bank instead of back into the nest. After
this the Cuckoo stood a minute or two, feeling back with its wings, as
if to make sure that the Pipit was fairly overboard, and then subsided
into the bottom of the nest. As it was getting late, and the Cuckoo
did not immediately set to work on the other nestling, I replaced the
ejected one and went home. On returning next day, both nestlings were
found dead and cold out of the nest. I replaced one of them, but the
Cuckoo made no effort to get under it and eject it, but seated itself
contentedly on the top of it. All this I find accords accurately with
Jenner’s description of what he saw. But what struck me most was this:
the Cuckoo was perfectly naked, without the vestige of a feather, or
even a hint of future feathers; its eyes were not yet opened, and its
neck seemed too weak to support the weight of its head. The Pipits
had well-developed quills on the wings and back, and had bright eyes,
partially open; yet they seemed quite helpless under the manipulations
of the Cuckoo, which looked a much less developed creature. The
Cuckoo’s legs, however, seemed very muscular, and it appeared to feel
about with its wings, which were absolutely featherless, as with
hands; the spurious wing (unusually large in proportion) looked like a
spread-out thumb. The most singular thing of all was the direct purpose
with which the blind little monster made for the open side of the nest,
the only part where it could throw its burden down the bank. I think
all the spectators felt the sort of horror and awe at the apparent
inadequacy of the creature’s intelligence to its acts that one might
have felt at seeing a toothless hag raise a ghost by an incantation. It
was horribly ‘uncanny’ and ‘gruesome!’”

[Illustration: COMMON CUCKOO.]

The above account of Mrs. Blackburn’s graphically describes the
ejection of its foster-brothers and sisters by the nestling Cuckoo;
and this brings us to the next part of the subject, viz., the breeding
habits of this curious bird. As is well known of the hen bird, it
never makes its own nest, but it is believed that during its stay in
Europe it lays altogether about eight eggs, all of which are deposited
in the nest of some other bird. The variation in the colour of the
Cuckoo’s eggs is very great, from a white speckled egg, like that of
the Water Wagtail, or the dark brown mottled egg of a Lark or Pipit,
to the blue egg of the Hedge Sparrow; while Mr. Dresser states that he
has seen even green eggs, and is of opinion that the same female will
lay similarly coloured eggs. The researches of ornithologists during
recent years sufficiently prove that the female Cuckoo lays her egg
upon the ground, and then deposits it in the nest of a bird whose egg
resembles the one she has just laid; hence it is probable that a hen
Cuckoo killed with a broken egg in its mouth is the rightful owner of
the latter, and has not been sucking the eggs of some other bird, as
the species is often supposed to do. The writer has on many occasions
found Cuckoos’ eggs in the nest of the Water Wagtail in Berkshire, the
latter bird being frequently selected by the Cuckoo as her victim; and
he can affirm that the eggs were in all cases similar to those of the
Wagtail, but were a little larger in size. In due time the young Cuckoo
is hatched, the rightful owners of the nest ejected, and for weeks the
powers of the unhappy foster-parents are exercised to the utmost in
feeding the gaping and constantly-complaining occupant of their domain.
Even when the young Cuckoo has outgrown the nest, and is strong enough
to fly about, he is still attended by his foster-parents. So great is
the instinct of the young Cuckoo to receive food from other birds, that
a specimen in the Zoological Gardens which managed to live through
the winter and put on his full plumage in the following spring, on
the appearance of a Hedge Sparrow in the same aviary, fluttered down,
and with drooping wings and open bill solicited food from his small
companion.

The reason for the parasitic habits of the Cuckoo is hard to discover,
but it appears probable that the number of males greatly exceeds that
of the females, and one observer has calculated that the preponderance
of the former sex over the latter is as much as twenty-five to one.
This would seem to be too large an estimate, but the proportion is
probably about five males to one female. The latter may not only be
distinguished by its somewhat darker plumage, and a certain red colour
on the chest (which is more apparent when the bird is alive), but has
a somewhat different note from that of her mate, and calls _cuckoo_
in a much sharper and less emphasised way than the male bird. Thus,
if the call of the female be represented by the syllables _cŭck-oo_,
the responsive utterance of the male would be _coo-coo_. The female
has also another call-note, which may be described as “whittling,”
and is well expressed by Brehm as _kwikwikwik_, the sound of which is
quite sufficient to set all the male Cuckoos within hearing cuckoo-ing
with might and main. Thus it happened to the writer, on a still,
quiet evening in spring a few years ago, to be fishing beneath a
large elm-tree on the river Thames, when a female Cuckoo flew into
the topmost boughs and uttered her peculiar note. From four different
points of the compass she was answered by male birds, who one and
all directed their flight toward the tree where she was perched. A
tremendous scrimmage ensued, and apparently a fight took place, but,
being suddenly alarmed, they all took flight in different directions.
It is certain that during the breeding season the Cuckoo is a very
passionate bird, and loves to call until, from sheer hoarseness, he
is obliged to stop; sometimes his cry comes from the middle of a
thickly-wooded tree, at other times he will sit on a bare dead branch,
or swing in the breeze from the top of a fir-tree. The female bird
is more retiring and keeps nearer the ground, so that it is possible
to shoot her by hiding behind a tree as she hunts after insects
near one of their favourite haunts. The same plurality of males has
been observed by the author during the spring at Avington Park, in
Hampshire; and on one occasion, when the female was shot, the note of
the males was scarcely heard again, as if they had disappeared from the
vicinity.

Brehm remarks:[250] “The note itself, and the manner in which it is
emitted, are typical of the bird’s habits and character. The same
abruptness, insatiability, eagerness, the same rage, are noticeable in
its whole conduct. The Cuckoo is a greedy feeder, and a discontented,
ill-conditioned, passionate fellow: in short, a decidedly unamiable
bird. Its food consists entirely of insects and their larvæ; young
Cuckoos, alone, will sometimes eat berries; Cockchafers, Fern-beetles,
Moths, and Dragon-flies are favourite morsels, and Caterpillars
(especially the hairy species, which no other birds ever devour)
being preferred. The hairs of these creatures cling so close to the
inner membranes of the stomach that the use of the magnifying glass
is necessary to convince one that they do not form part and parcel of
that organ. Its keen sight enables the Cuckoo to see Caterpillars from
a great distance, when it flies quickly to the spot, seizes them, and
returns to its perch, without spending much time over the operation
or climbing about after them. The bird is so constantly on the move
that it always manages to obtain sufficient food--which is saying a
great deal, for its stomach is large and its powers of digestion almost
unlimited. Thus it would be a most useful bird, did it not cause so
much damage while breeding.”

The Cuckoo resembles a Hawk so much in flight that even a practised eye
sometimes fails to distinguish it from a Kestrel at first sight. There
is, however, a certain pointed look about the body of the bird which
distinguishes it from a Hawk; if near enough, the flat, obtuse head of
the latter making the bird appear as if it had no head at all.

[Illustration: GREAT SPOTTED CUCKOO.]

Lastly, one word as to the winter home of the Cuckoo. It is always
known in England as the “harbinger of spring,” and with the exception
of the Swift, who very rarely makes a mistake in the period of his
advent, there is no bird whose arrival may be considered so certain a
sign of that genial season of the year. Just as the Swifts, however,
sometimes come in for some cold weather, which proves fatal to many
of them, so the Cuckoos have been known to have been detained by cold
winds in the south of England, where they have remained in flocks until
the weather was more seasonable and they could distribute themselves
over the country. They are seldom heard of in the height of summer;
and, as the old rhyme says, “in June he changes his tune, in August
go he must.” And it seems certain that this bird leaves England early
in that month, but not entirely, as young birds--perhaps the later
offspring--are seen as late as September. The old ones arrive in Egypt
on their way south before the young birds, which are somewhat later;
and in Berkshire the writer shot three young Cuckoos during the first
week in August, a few years ago, out of a flock of birds on migration,
which, like himself, had apparently taken shelter under a wood from
an approaching thunderstorm. These specimens are now in the British
Museum, and are of slightly different ages. The Cuckoo is a well-known
bird at the Cape of Good Hope during the English winter, and specimens
are in the national collection. It is much rarer on the west coast
of Africa, but was shot by Governor Ussher near Cape Coast Castle,
evidently on migration. The main route of the birds visiting the Cape
in winter is, however, evidently down the Nile Valley and along the
east coast to the Cape Colony and South Africa generally. A second line
of migration extends to India, and it probably goes further, and has
been found in the island of Celebes. In Asia, however, and Australia,
there are several species of Cuckoo, very like the English bird, but
smaller and differing in voice, which have not been sufficiently
studied to enable one to say whether they are actually distinct or not.

The Cuckoo when adult is ashy-grey, with a white breast, barred across
with narrow lines of greyish-black; the tail is long, barred with white
on the outer feathers, and spotted with white on the centre ones; the
bill is black, with a little yellow at the gape and at the base of the
lower mandible; the feet and the eye are yellow; the length of the bird
is about thirteen inches. The female is a trifle smaller, and has the
chest slightly tinged with rufous. The young bird is quite different,
being blackish, mottled with yellow and grey, and having a good deal
of white about the hind neck. Rarely in England, but more often on the
Continent, the Cuckoo is red instead of grey, and this is called the
“hepatic” plumage. It is found also in Owls, Goatsuckers, and a few
other birds, and exists in almost all the true Cuckoos.

THE THIRD FAMILY OF THE ZYGODACTYLE PICARIAN BIRDS.

THE HONEY GUIDES (_Indicatoridæ_).

[Illustration: HONEY GUIDE. (_After Keulemans._)]

These constitute a small family of Scansorial birds allied to the
Cuckoos, and, like the latter, they are parasitic, and lay their eggs
in other birds’ nests. Eleven species are known, of which eight are
peculiar to Africa, one is found in the Himalaya Mountains, one in the
Malayan Peninsula, and one in Borneo. The Asiatic members of the group
are extremely rare, and our knowledge of the habits of these birds is
derived from a study of the African species: so that it is not yet
known whether the Asiatic Honey Guides deserve the name of _Indicator_,
which is applied to the birds on account of their being “indicators,”
or “pointers out,” of Bees’ nests containing honey. Dr. Kirk thus
described their habits in the Zambesi district:--“The Honey Guide is
found in forests, and often far from water, even during the dry season.
On observing a man, it comes fluttering from branch to branch in the
neighbouring trees, calling attention. If this be responded to--as the
natives do by whistling and starting to their feet--the bird will go
in a certain direction, and remain at a little distance, hopping from
one tree to another. On being followed, it goes farther; and so it will
guide the way to a nest of Bees. When this is reached, it flies about,
but no longer guides; and then some knowledge is required to discover
the nest, even when pointed out to within a few trees. I have known
this bird, if the man, after taking up the direction for a little,
then turns away, come back and offer to point out another nest in a
different part. But if it does not know of two nests, it will remain
behind. The difficulty is that it will point to tame Bees in a bark
hive as readily as to those in the forest. This is natural, as the Bee
is the same; the bark hive--‘Musinga,’ as it is named--being simply
fastened up in a tree, and left for the Bees to come to. The object
the bird has in view is clearly the young Bees. It will guide to nests
having no honey, and seems equally delighted if the comb containing
the grubs be torn out, when it is seen pecking at it.” Many of the
natives of South Africa believe that the bird will occasionally guide
the traveller, through sheer malice, to a Leopard or an Elephant; but
on this point there seems some little doubt, to judge from a letter
of Mrs. Barber, an accomplished lady and good observer in South
Africa:--“What I wrote to you in a former letter is the opinion of many
old bee-hunters in this part of the country, who have no faith in the
popular belief that leading to the Leopard is done on purpose. My nine
brothers, who were all brought up in this country, were all of them
great hunters, as well as sportsmen; and during all the years of their
experience, while they were living at Tharfield, where Bees’ nests were
exceedingly plentiful, and where they were constantly in the habit of
following these birds, never once did the Honey Guide ever lead them
_purposely_ to any noxious animal. Many times, in following the bird
through dense woods, have they started various kinds of creatures;
but if they did not neglect the bird for the purpose of hunting, she
would continue her flight towards the Bees’ nest, regardless of the
startled animals. One of my brothers once, while following a Honey
Guide through a dense forest near the Kowie, passed directly through
a drove of wild Pigs. They were, of course, more frightened than he
was, and rushed about in every direction; but my brother knowing the
popular belief, and wishing to test it, took not the slightest notice
of the wild Pigs, but passed on, keeping his eye on the bird, who went
steadily on her way, until she arrived at the nest she intended to
show, regardless of the Pigs. I have other reasons for not believing
the story. Why should the Honey Guide waste her time in leading people
to Leopards, Jackals, Wolves, and so forth? These creatures are not
her natural enemies; she would gain nothing by doing it--no advantage
whatever; and I have ever found that in nature there is nothing done in
vain, or in an empty, purposeless manner. There is always a reason for
the peculiar habits and actions of birds and animals of all kinds; and
therefore, why should a bird which does not even rear her own young,
and has not the care of a nest, fear or care about these animals? Why
should the Honey Guide, unlike all animals, do this thing without any
reason for doing it? And again, when the bird has arrived at the nest
she intends to show, there is an alteration in the notes of her voice.
An old bee-hunter knows this in an instant, and knows when he ought
to commence searching for the nest. Now, this alteration never takes
place when animals of various kinds are startled in passing through
the forest while following the bird. Hence I conclude that she does
not intend to show where these creatures are, or the alteration in her
voice would take place.” Some of the Indicators are not of the same use
in guiding to Bees’ nests, and are consequently held in less repute.
They are all birds of similar coloration, being generally of a dull
grey, tinged with yellow or olive, and they vary considerably in size,
the larger species, such as _I. major_ and _I. sparrmanni_, measuring
about eight inches in length; while the smallest species, _I. exilis_,
from the Gaboon, does not exceed four inches. Although coming very
close to the Cuckoos in the natural classification, the small bill,
the thick-set, stout plumage, and the nine primaries in the wing, in
addition to their peculiar habits, easily distinguish the Honey Guides
as a separate family.

THE FOURTH FAMILY OF THE ZYGODACTYLE PICARIAN BIRDS.

THE PLANTAIN-EATERS (_Musophagidæ_).

These may be called a strictly Ethiopian family of birds, every single
member being found in Africa, and nowhere else. They have very much the
appearance of game-birds, and are all remarkable for their beautiful
crests, which they are able to elevate or depress at will. Although
belonging to the Scansorial, or climbing birds, they do not always
keep their toes in pairs, but being of a lively disposition they hop
continually from bough to bough, and the outer toe is seen as often
placed in front with the others as it is directed backwards along with
the hind toe. With the exception of the Grey Plantain-eaters, all the
other species have beautiful red primaries; and the writer was informed
by the late African traveller, Jules Verreaux, that the bird often gets
caught in violent showers during the rainy season, when the whole of
this brilliant red colour in the wing-feathers gets washed out, and the
quills become pinky-white, and after two or three days the colour is
renewed, and the wing resumes its former beauty.

THE FIRST SUB-FAMILY OF THE MUSOPHAGIDÆ.--THE MUSOPHAGINÆ, OR TRUE
PLANTAIN-EATERS.

THE WHITE-CRESTED PLANTAIN-EATER (_Corythaix musophaga_).

[Illustration: WHITE-CRESTED PLANTAIN-EATER.]

This is perhaps the best known of the whole family of these curious
birds, being the commonest species in South Africa, where it is
plentiful in the forest districts of the Knysna, and the south coast
as far as Natal, and the wooded districts of the Eastern Transvaal. It
is known by the name of the Louri, or Lory, and the following brief
account of its habits is given by Mr. Layard:[251]--“The Plantain-eater
feeds on fruits, and frequents the highest trees, rarely, if ever,
descending to the ground, over which it can, however, travel with great
rapidity if brought down by a shot. The motions of this species are
very graceful and light, and performed with an ease and rapidity that
delight the eye of the beholder. Strange to say, though we inquired
carefully, we never could obtain any information respecting the
nidification of this beautiful and common bird. Mr. Atmore, however,
states that the eggs are white; but this must be from hearsay, as he
writes: ‘How difficult it is to find these forest birds’ nests! The
Lories are breeding now, but for the life of me I cannot find a nest.
The young ones go in troops, and are delicious eating; the old ones in
pairs. We never shoot specimens out of a troop except for the pot.’
An old forester told him that the eggs were white, both the latter
and the nests being like those of Pigeons. Mr. Rickard says: ‘I once
found an egg in a bird I shot at East London (January 27th); it was
pure white, and the size of a tame Pigeon’s.’ Mr. Bowker writes: ‘I
once found a Louri’s nest. It was just like a Dove’s, built of sticks
laid horizontally, and about the size of a large dinner-plate, placed
about ten feet from the ground in the centre of a round bush. The old
bird flew out as I walked up. I found five young birds in the nest;
they were almost full-grown, but their tails rather short and stumpy,
crest just showing, but I cannot remember whether the red on the wing
was showing or not. On my getting up to the nest they all flew out,
and were killed by my Dogs before I could come to the rescue. The
bush was twenty or thirty yards from the edge of a large forest, and
I was rather surprised at this nest, as I had been told they built in
hollow trees.’” In size this species is about nineteen inches long; the
general colour is green, with a broad white tip to the feathers of the
crest, the abdomen and vent are blackish, the quills brilliant carmine.

The false Touracoes, as Dr. Sclater calls them, do not possess the red
colouring of the wings, but are for the most part of a uniform grey
colour. The best known species is

THE GREY PLANTAIN-EATER (_Schizorhis concolor_).

This is also found in South Africa, but in different districts to the
White-crested Plantain-eater. Where the range of the latter ceases
that of the present bird begins, and it is found throughout the
Matabele country and the Transvaal as far as the Zambesi, and westwards
through Damara Land to Angola. Mr. Andersson writes:--“It is partial
to localities abounding in large trees; and when prominently perched,
with crest erect, it is not unlike a gigantic Coly. It also climbs
and flies like the Colies, which it strongly resembles in its general
habits. It is usually found in small flocks, and feeds on berries and
seeds, especially those of mistletoe and of other parasitical plants,
and also on fruits, young shoots, and insects. The Damaras call this
species ‘Ongoro-oroquena,’ from the extraordinary and almost human
cry with which it frequently startles the traveller who is passing
near its perch. It is sometimes very easy to approach these birds,
whilst at other times they are so shy that they will defy the utmost
exertions which may be made to obtain them. On January 5th, 1867, I
obtained three eggs of this species, of a dull bluish-white colour,
at Omapja, from a boy, who told me that the nest which contained them
was composed of sticks roughly put together, and situated in a tree
at some distance from the ground; and on March 1st I met with a nest
in Ondonga placed in a tree, but at no great elevation, which also
contained three eggs, much incubated.” Dr. Exton, also, who has been
through the Matabele country, writes as follows:--“In travelling
through the Bechuana country one often comes upon a party of five or
six of these birds, hiding from the mid-day heats under the sheltered
portions of dense foliage near the centre of a large tree. Whilst yet
undisturbed, the crest lies flat on the head, and can only be seen as a
tuft projecting from the occiput. But their first act on becoming aware
of an intruder is to run along the branches, either to the summit of
the tree or to the extremity of a branch commanding a good look-out,
where, with crest fully erected and well thrown forward, they keep up
a constant reiteration of their note. If but little alarmed they move
rapidly from branch to branch, frequently jerking up the crest, and
assuming an attitude of attention. Again, after flight from one tree
to another, on alighting, they first rest on a branch, with the body
somewhat horizontal and the tail drawn nearly to the perpendicular,
as if assuring themselves of their equilibrium, and then raising
the body, elongating their neck, and at the same time elevating
the crest, they seem to take an observation as to the security of
their new position. So much is this a habit of the bird, that during
the conversational difficulties of my earlier intercourse with the
Bechuanas, when inquiring for the nest of Schizorhis (the native name
of which is ‘Ma-quaai’), as soon as it dawned upon the mind of a native
what bird I meant he has imitated its note, accompanied by a sudden
jerking up of the hand, with his fingers extended to the utmost, as
if at the same time to mimic the elevation of the crest. Dr. Sclater
mentions that ‘Mr. J. J. Monteiro, speaking of the Grey False Touraco
(_S. concolor_), as observed in Benguella, expressly states that the
crest-feathers are always carried erect.’ In my own experience, the
observation of Schizorhis was an every-day occurrence; and, as I have
stated, when undisturbed (also when in flight) very little of the
crest is to be seen, but is invariably carried erect on the least
alarm. I may here mention a peculiar scream of _S. concolor_. I was
one day walking along a low ridge of rocks, from which I flushed an
Owl--the common _Bubo maculosus_--that flew to some distance to a clump
of trees. Presently I heard an agonised scream, such as is made by a
young Antelope when seized by a Dog; and so exact a repetition of the
sound was it that even my Dogs were deceived by it, and rushed off in
the direction whence it came. I also sent a Kaffir boy, and presently
followed myself, when I discovered it was the frightful scream of
_Schizorhis_, of which a party were collected round the Owl I had
previously disturbed, and whose presence appeared to be the exciting
cause. At a later period I had a second opportunity of verifying this
observation.”

[Illustration: COLIES.]

THE SECOND SUB-FAMILY OF THE MUSOPHAGIDÆ.--THE COLIINÆ, OR COLIES.

Like the foregoing sub-family, the Colies are confined to Africa.
They have decided affinities with the true Plantain-eaters, but are
distinguished at a glance by their long tails, the feathers of which
are much pointed, and become smaller and narrower towards the outside
of the tail. They are most dexterous climbers, as was well seen in the
captive specimens of the Chestnut-backed Coly, which were brought by
Cameron from Angola, and lived for some time in the London Zoological
Gardens.

THE WHITE-BACKED COLY (_Colius capensis_).

The Colies are known in the Cape Colony by the name of _Muisvogel_,
or Mouse-bird, and they are not uncommon, ranging about in small
families of from six to eight individuals. Mr. Layard says that they
fly with a rapid, though laboured flight, generally at a lower level
than the object at which they aim, and on nearing the latter they rise
upwards with a sudden, abrupt curve. They creep among the branches like
Parrots, and hang suspended head downwards, without inconvenience; and
it is said that they invariably sleep in this position, many of them
congregated in a ball. The nest was found by Mr. Andersson in Damara
Land, between September and December. It was placed in a small bush,
and was composed externally of grass and twigs, lined internally with
softer grass, and the eggs were dull white, and, according to his
observations, always three in number. Mr. Andersson states that the
bird “is gregarious in its habits, being found in flocks by day, and
also when roosting at night. Its flight is short and feeble, seldom
extending beyond the nearest bush or tree, on reaching which it usually
perches on one of the lower branches, and then gradually glides and
creeps upwards through the foliage, using both bill and feet for that
purpose. It is essentially a fruit-eating bird, but I believe when
hard pressed for its regular food it does not despise insects and the
young shoots of plants. Its flesh is palatable.” The Colies as a rule
are dull-coloured brown birds, but they have a long crest. The present
species is perhaps the handsomest, being ash-coloured, and having
the lower back and rump purple glossed with red, while a white line,
bordered on each side by a broad black one, extends from beneath the
shoulders to the rump. The bill is bluish-white, and the feet bright
red. The length of the bird is thirteen or fourteen inches.

THE FIFTH FAMILY OF THE ZYGODACTYLE PICARIAN BIRDS.--THE WOODPECKERS
(_Picidæ_).

These are perhaps the most typical of all the yoke-footed or climbing
birds, as they are most expert climbers, being aided in the latter
operation not only by their long toes, which are arranged as usual
in this order in pairs, but by their stiffened tail, which enables
them to climb with great rapidity up the perpendicular trunks of
trees. If they wish to descend a little way they do not turn and come
down head-foremost, as a Nuthatch would do, but they let themselves
down by a few jerks, still keeping an oblique position, with the
tail downwards. The bill in almost every member of the family is
wedge-shaped, and very powerful, and with this organ a Woodpecker taps
vigorously at the bark, which he sometimes also prises off to get at
the grubs or insects underneath. These latter, as they endeavour to
escape, have little chance against the intruder, who, in addition to
the stout bill which discloses their place of concealment, possesses
a peculiar tongue, which is capable of being protruded to a long
distance, is furnished with minute barbs at the end, and is covered
with a glutinous fluid from which the insects are unable to free
themselves. The Woodpeckers nearly all procure their food in the above
manner, but occasionally frequent the ground, and the Green Woodpecker
(_Gecinus[252] viridis_) commits great ravages among ant-hills. The
resting-place is generally a hole excavated by the bird itself in a
hollow tree, and the eggs are white. Among the most aberrant of the
Woodpecker family are the Wrynecks (_Iÿnx_[253]), of which one species
is well known in England under the name of the “Cuckoo’s mate.” The
Wrynecks are all birds of beautiful mottled plumage, and do not have
a stiffened tail like a true Woodpecker. They are found in Europe, in
India, North-Eastern and Southern Africa. Woodpeckers, on the other
hand, are extremely plentiful in the New World, and are distributed
all over Africa, Europe, and Asia, but are not found in the Australian
region, no Woodpecker occurring beyond the Island of Celebes in the
Moluccas.

[Illustration: Fig. 1.--“HYOID” BONE OF ADULT FOWL.

(_After W. K. Parker._)

(_ch_) Cerato-hyals; (_bh_) the so-called Basi-hyal; (_b.br_)
Basi-branchial, or Uro-hyal; (_c.br_, _e.br_) together form the
thyro-hyal.
]

One great peculiarity in the anatomy of the Woodpeckers is the
structure of the tongue, and its relation to the hyoid bone and its
horns, or cornua. (For a description of this part in the Mammalia,
see Vol. I., p. 168.) In Birds the hyoid bone is a much more complex
structure than in the Mammalia. Besides forming the basis of the
otherwise mainly muscular substance of the tongue, it is continued
backwards in most birds as a double chain of bones, each pair of which
bears a separate name significant of its importance; and the whole is
apparently quite distinct from the skull above and from the larynx
below. Its composition in the common fowl is best rendered intelligible
by reference to the accompanying woodcut (Fig. 1). It represents the
entire hyoid apparatus divested of all muscular and other surrounding
tissues. The upper part of the figure is that nearest to the tip of the
tongue, and the references to the lettering become clear in the course
of the subsequent description.

[Illustration: Fig. 2.--SIDE VIEW OF DISSECTION OF HEAD OF COMMON
GREEN WOODPECKER.

(_Half natural size. After Macgillivray._)

(_u_, _l_) Upper and Lower Mandibles; (_t_) Barbed Tip of Tongue;
(_th.h._) Thyro-hyal Bone of Right Side, with its Muscle and Sheath;
(_o_) Right Orbit; (_n_) Right Nostril; (_s.g._) Right Salivary
Gland; (_m_, _m_) Muscles of Neck; (_œ_) Œsophagus; (_tr_) Trachea;
(_r.m._) Rectractor Muscles of Tongue wound round Trachea.
]

Another woodcut (Fig. 2) shows a side view of a dissection of the head
of the common Green Woodpecker (_Gecinus viridis_), and a reference to
the explanation of the lettering on it will give a general idea of the
whole.

The tip of the tongue (_t_) is a slender, flattened, horny point,
bearing on its sides and upper surface a number of very delicate
bristles, or prickles, directed backwards, an arrangement eminently
useful to the bird for enabling it to extract its insect food from the
recesses to which its beak, by reason of its size and hardness, could
not readily, nor with sufficient quickness, gain access. This tip is
further rendered a more efficient instrument for this purpose by its
being constantly moistened by a very viscid saliva secreted by two
particularly large salivary glands (Figs. 2, 3, and 4, _s.g._); and it
was long ago remarked by Sir Charles Bell, in his essay on “The Hand”
(Bridgewater Treatise, 1837), that the same muscles that effected the
protrusion of the tongue exerted a simultaneous pressure upon these
glands, so that the first result of the muscular contraction is to
lubricate the tongue, while the rest of its force is spent in shooting
it out with marvellous rapidity.

[Illustration: Fig. 3.--UPPER VIEW OF SKULL OF GREEN
WOODPECKER.

(_After Macgillivray._)

(_th.h_, _th.h._) Thyro-hyal Bones; (_i_) Point of their insertion;
(_s.g._, _s.g._) Salivary Glands.
]

Behind this barbed and horny tip, the tongue is a slender worm-like
body, of which the core is the anterior prolongation of the hyoid bone.
The fore-part of this core, more like a bristle than a bone, is known
to anatomists as the “glosso-hyal,” and it is immediately succeeded
posteriorly by the “cerato-hyal.”[254] Behind this is the “basi-hyal
” (Fig. 1, _b.h._), the last bone to enter into the formation of the
tongue proper. From this basi-hyal springs the pair of bones--the
“thyro-hyals”--which attain the remarkable degree of development for
which the birds now under consideration are distinguished. From each
side of the hinder portion, then, of this basi-hyal bone diverge these
important “thyro-hyals” (Fig. 1, _c.br._, _e.br._). They, in the
Woodpeckers (compare Fig. 3, _th.h._), extend outwards and backwards to
pass one on each side of the neck until they curl upwards and forwards,
converging to meet one another on the upper part of the back of the
head; thence they run along together, ploughing themselves a furrow
in the skull-top till they reach almost to the right nostril. Each
of these curved and highly elastic bones is surrounded by a delicate
sheath, whose inner surface is kept constantly moist and lubricated
by its own secretion; and this sheath is attached to the bone of the
skull at its junction with the upper mandible, as is shown in the
accompanying woodcut (Fig. 3, _i_).

[Illustration: Fig. 4.--DISSECTION OF HEAD OF GREEN WOODPECKER
VIEWED FROM BELOW.

(_After Macgillivray._)

(_l_) Lower Mandible; (_f_) Base of Tongue; (_th.h._,
_th.h._)Thyro-hyals; (_s.g._, _s.g._) Salivary Glands; (_m_, _m_)
Muscles of Neck; (_œ_, _œ_) Œsophagus; (_tr_) Trachea; (_e.m._,
_e.m._) Extrusor Muscles, which thrust out the Tongue; (_r.m._)
Retractor Muscles of Tongue wound round Trachea; (_c.tr._, _c.tr._)
Cleido-tracheal Muscles, binding Trachea to Shoulder-girdle.
]

Enclosed in the sheath here spoken of, and along the concavity of each
bone, is a muscle which has a fixed attachment to the crura of the
lower mandible on each side (Fig. 4, _e.m._, _e.m._). The contraction
of this muscle shoots the tongue out in two different ways. In the
Green Woodpecker the extremities of the thyro-hyal bones are themselves
attached to the mandible, while the curvature of the bones makes a loop
that hangs low down on each side of the neck (see Fig. 2, _th.h._).
As the muscle is shortened this loop is raised up, and the free tip
of the tongue is consequently projected; and since the muscle is on
the inner, or concave, side of the curve, a very small shortening on
its part makes a great addition to the apparent length of the tongue.
Sir Charles Bell elucidates this action by comparing the great effect
on the curve of a fishing-rod’s flexible top that a small tightening
of the line has. But while this is the case in many species, there
are others in which the sheath alone is attached to the bones of the
forehead, and the bones themselves slide along inside together with the
contracting fibres of the muscle, thus producing the same result as was
obtained in the other case by the loops hanging low down in the neck.

The tongue, whose length is thus so extraordinarily increased, is
drawn back to its original position within the bill by another pair
of muscles, one on each side, which are attached to the basi-hyal.
These take their origin from the trachea, around which (as shown in
Figs. 2 and 4, _r.m._), in many species, they are curiously wound in
their course. And, since the bones are at the point of their greatest
curvature when at rest, it is obvious that this action of withdrawal
is materially assisted by the elasticity of the prolongations of the
hyoid bones themselves; for it is a well-known law that Nature never
lets power run to waste, but always utilises forces of mere elasticity
or rigidity when by their means the expenditure of nervous energy and
muscular contractility can be saved.

[Illustration: WRYNECK.]

It may be observed that this curious development of the bones of
the tongue is not confined to the Woodpeckers; in the Sun Birds
(_Nectariniidæ_) of the Old World, and the Humming-Birds (_Trochilidæ_)
of the New, this same adaptation of means to ends obtains. Even in the
Picidæ themselves many variations have been noticed, in addition to
those above alluded to; for instance, in the Yellow-billed Woodpecker
(_Sphyrapicus[255] varius_) of North America the horns of the hyoid do
not reach so far as the eye, so that the tongue, with its bushy tip in
this case, is only extensible in a very slight degree; while in the
Hairy Woodpecker (_Picus villosus_) the thyro-hyals curve spirally over
the right orbit so as to reach entirely around the eye, to be inserted
at its lower posterior margin.

[Illustration: GREAT BLACK WOODPECKER AND GREAT SPOTTED WOODPECKER.]

Considerable difference of opinion exists as to the damage done by
Woodpeckers in tapping sound trees, and many a poor bird pays the
penalty of his life for his supposed destructive propensities. Mr.
Waterton argues strongly on the side of the bird, and alleges that
only rotten and unsound trees are attacked for the sake of a nesting
habitation, or for the purpose of getting insects; but that this is not
always the case was proved by the writer himself in the spring of 1878,
when a boy was sent up to a hole in a beech-tree in Avington Park, in
Hampshire. The tree was still perfectly sound, so sound, indeed,
that the bird had evidently given up the idea of inhabiting it for
that year, and had betaken himself elsewhere, after having excavated
a round hole to the depth of two or three inches. In the same tree,
a little lower down, was a similar hole, evidently made the previous
year, when the bird had “tapped” the tree, and it was clear that he
had returned again in the succeeding season, and had tried a little
higher up in the trunk, to see if there were any chance of procuring a
domicile. This proceeding must have injured the tree, and was the work
of a Green Woodpecker, or Yaffle, whose laughing note was heard from
another quarter of the park, even as the above examination was being
conducted. In this part of Hampshire, though the bird is not persecuted
by the owner of Avington, Mr. Edward Shelley, or by his keepers, the
Green Woodpecker is rare; but in certain parts of Huntingdonshire the
writer can remember to have found it very plentiful in his school-days,
and it was a never-failing object in a country walk, flitting from
tree to tree in front of the observer, and always keeping a sharp
look-out from the opposite side of the trunk on which he settled. This
species appears in old pieces of poetry under the various names of
Yaffle, Woodwele, or Woodwale, Whetile, and it is in some places called
“Hewhole,” Woodhacker, &c.[256]:--

[Illustration: GREEN WOODPECKER.]

“The Skylark in ecstasy sang from a cloud,
And Chanticleer crowed, and the Yaffil laughed loud.”

_The Peacock at Home._

“The Woodwele sang, and would not cease,
Sitting upon the spray;
So loud he wakened Robin Hood
In the greenwood where he lay.”

Ritson’s Edition of _Robin Hood_, vol. i., p. 115.

“There the Jay and the Throstell
The Mavis menyd in her song,
The Woodwale fard or beryd as a bell
That wode about me rung.”

_True Thomas._

Some Woodpeckers seem to make storehouses against the winter, by
pecking holes in a tree, and an interesting example of a piece of bark,
in which a Red-headed Woodpecker (_Melanerpes formicivorus_)[257] had
placed a store of acorns, is to be seen in the British Museum.

Another British species, the Lesser Spotted Woodpecker (_Picus[258]
minor_), is a bird of different habits, frequenting fruit-gardens
in the autumn, and doing very little damage to trees in the nesting
season. It generally selects the rotten branch of an old poplar-tree,
and hollows out a hole in so perilous a situation that it is difficult
to climb to, and, indeed, the whole bough is often brought down by
the first gale in the ensuing winter. Here its small wedge-shaped
bill speedily makes an excavation, and at some little distance down
in the hollow interior it lays its glossy white eggs on the touchwood
and decaying wood. Both sexes assist in the preparation of the nest;
and in mild winters they sometimes begin with the commencement of the
year to look out for their future home. The selection of this appears
to be a matter of no small anxiety, for several trees are examined
in turn, and often at long distances apart. The birds at the time of
incubation keep up a continual signalling one to the other, which is
produced by a rapid whining noise caused by tapping on the thinner
branches of the dead trees. This call-note, if it may be called such,
is generally heard in the early morning, and ceases as soon as the
nesting operations have finally commenced. Besides this note, they have
also one like the “laugh” of the Green Woodpecker, but, of course,
much reduced in accordance with the difference in the size of the two
birds. The little Spotted Woodpecker may often be seen hanging on to,
and climbing round, the slender twigs of the outer branches of a tree,
and looks much like a Creeper or a Nuthatch, which it does not greatly
exceed in dimensions.

THE SIXTH FAMILY OF THE ZYGODACTYLE PICARIAN BIRDS.

THE TOUCANS (_Rhamphastidæ_).[259]

The Toucans, with their clumsy bills, have much the aspect of
Hornbills, which they may be said to represent in South America, to
which continent they are entirely confined, but by this time the
student knows that they have really little to do with each other,
beyond a certain outward similarity, as the Toucans belong to the
Scansorial, the Hornbills to the Fissirostral, section of the
_Picariæ_. It is not possible to give a long account of the habits of
individual species of Toucans, and a general sketch of their manners
and customs is extracted from the monograph of the Toucans written by
Mr. John Gould.[260] To him the late Prince Maximilian, of Neuwied, an
excellent observer, during his travels in South America writes:--“The
_Rhamphastidæ_ are very common in all parts of the extensive forests of
the Brazils, and are killed in great numbers at the cooler portion of
the year, for the purposes of the table. To the stranger they are of
even greater interest than to the natives, from their remarkable form,
and from the rich and strongly-contrasted style of their colouring,
their black or green bodies being adorned with markings of the most
brilliant hues--red, orange, blue and white--the naked parts of the
body dyed with brilliant colours, the legs blue or green, the irides
blue, yellow, &c., and the large bill of a different colour in every
species, and in many instances very gaily marked. The colouring of the
soft parts is, however, so evanescent, that, to determine the species
with accuracy, they must be depicted during life or immediately after
the birds are killed. Common as these birds are in their native wilds,
it is exceedingly difficult to detect their breeding-places; it is
certain that they deposit their eggs in the hollow limbs and holes of
the colossal trees so abundant in the tropical forests, but I never
was so fortunate as to discover them. The stomachs of the specimens I
examined contained nothing but the remains of fruits, principally of
the softer kinds, for which, indeed, they have such a liking that they
resort in great numbers to the plantations in the vicinity of their
native haunts, and commit sad havoc among their favourite delicacies.
I was informed that they frequently steal and eat young birds, but no
instance of their doing so came under my own observation, and I never
detected the remains of animal food in their stomachs. Mr. Waterton’s
opinion agrees with mine, that they feed solely upon fruits; but Azara,
among others, states that they also feed upon animal substances. The
specimens we saw in a state of domestication were very voracious and
perfectly omnivorous, but they seem to be purely frugivorous in a state
of nature, a fact which was, indeed, confirmed by the Brazilian natives
whom we questioned on the subject. In their manners the _Rhamphastidæ_
offer some resemblance to the Crows, and especially to the Magpies;
like them they are very troublesome to the birds of prey, particularly
to the Owls, whom they surround and annoy by making a great noise, all
the while jerking their tails upwards and downwards. The flight of
these birds is easy and graceful, and they sweep with facility over
the loftiest trees of their native forests, their strangely-developed
bills, contrary to expectation, being no encumbrance to them. The voice
of the Toucans is short and unmelodious, and is somewhat different
in every species. The feathers are used by the Indians for personal
decoration, especially the yellow breasts of the birds, which they
affix to their heads on each side near the temple, and also to the ends
of their bows.”

[Illustration: TOUCAN.]

Mr. Waterton, in one of his Essays, has the following remarks:--“There
are three species of Toucan in Demerara, and three diminutives, which
may be called Toucanets. The largest of the former frequents the
mangrove-trees on the sea-coast. It is never seen in the interior
until you reach Macoushia, where it is found in the neighbourhood
of the river Tacatou; the other two species are very common. They
feed entirely on the fruits of the forest, and, though of the Pie
kind, never kill the young of other birds or eat carrion. The larger
is called _Bouradi_ by the Indians (which means _nose_), the other
_Scirou_. They seem partial to each other’s company, and often resort
to the same feeding tree, and retire to the same shady noon-day
retreat. They are very noisy in rainy weather at all hours of the
day, and in fair weather at morn and eve. The sound the _Bouradi_
makes is like the clear yelping of a puppy-dog, and you fancy he
says ‘_Pia-po-o-co_,’ and thus the South American Spaniards call him
_Piapoco_. All the Toucanets feed on the same trees on which the Toucan
feeds, and every species of this family of enormous bill lays its eggs
in the hollow trees. They are social, but not gregarious. You may
sometimes see eight or ten in company, and from this you may suppose
they are gregarious, but upon a closer examination you find it is only
a dinner party, which breaks up and disperses towards roosting-time.
You will be at a loss to conjecture for what end Nature has overloaded
the head of this bird with such an enormous bill. It cannot be for
the offensive, as it has no need to wage war with any of the tribes
of animated nature, for its food is fruits and seed, and those are
in superabundance throughout the whole year in the regions where the
Toucan is found. It cannot be for the defensive, as the Toucan is
preyed upon by no bird in South America, and, were it obliged to be
at war, the texture of the bill is ill-adapted to give or receive
blows, as you will see by dissecting it. The flight of the Toucan is
by jerks. In the action of flying it seems incommoded by this huge,
disproportionate feature, and the head seems as if bowed down to the
earth by it against its will. If the extraordinary size and form of
the bill expose the Toucan to ridicule, its colours make it amends.
Were a specimen of each species of Toucan presented to you, you would
pronounce the bill of the _Bouradi_ the most rich and beautiful one.
It is worthy of remark that all these brilliant colours of the bill
are to be found in the plumage of the body and the bare skin around
the eye.” Space will not permit of a long extract from the works of
d’Azara (the only field naturalist of any fame that Portugal has yet
produced), but a few notes of this traveller, made in Paraguay, differ
from the foregoing accounts, and show that in the southern portion
of their range the habits of some of the Toucans vary to a great
extent. So voracious does d’Azara consider them, that on this account
he places them among the birds of prey, and writes:--“The Toucans,
contrary to all appearances, destroy a great number of birds, and,
on account of their long and strong beak, are respected and feared
by all species. They attack and drive them from their nests, and in
their very presence eat their eggs and young; these they draw from
the holes with the long beak, or throw down nest and all together. It
is credibly reported that the Toucans do not even respect the eggs or
young of the ‘Aras’ (Macaws) and Caracaras, and if the fledglings are
too large or too strong to be lifted from the nest, they dash them
to the ground, as if it were their nature not only to devour, but to
uselessly destroy. The bird, in flying, presents the point of his bill
against the wind, so that it does not offer more resistance than that
of other birds in which the head and superficies are equal in extent;
besides which, the conformation and specific lightness of this long
beak cannot impede flight, because the highest points of the bird
being the bill itself and the anterior portion of the body, they form
no obstacle, the wind first taking effect upon the point of the bill.
When in a state of repose, the Toucan carries its bill rather more
elevated than a horizontal line that would pass through the eyes, and
when closely looked at, it looks like a false bill, because its base
exceeds the breadth of the head, which presents the appearance of being
enclosed in a case. In addition to these singularities, the nostrils
are placed behind the aforesaid base. The tongue is very narrow and of
an equal thickness throughout. It is entirely osseous, and resembles
somewhat a feather two lines in width, furnished with an osseous
fringe, which is directed from behind forwards, so that the tongue,
stiff and unyielding, takes no part in the direction of the food nor in
the formation of the note, which, in the first two Paraguayan species,
is confined to the single syllable ‘_rae_.’ The mandibles are very
distinctly dentated at their edges, these dentations not corresponding
at all above and below, nor are they even relatively symmetrical. The
beak itself is a thin osseous sheath, filled with a number of empty
cellules. The eye is large, and surrounded by a triangular naked
space, puffed up, and very pretty. The foot is very short and stout,
and covered nearly to the heel with long scales, harsh to the touch.
The outer toe, as well before as behind, is the longest. The claws
are much flattened and curved, as in the Woodpeckers. The tail is
composed of ten feathers. The Toucan flies at a moderate height, and
in a straight horizontal line, flapping its wings occasionally with
some noise. The flight is quicker than the smallness of the wings
would lead one to believe. It perches towards the top of the highest
trees, and though unable to climb after the manner of Woodpeckers, it
still progresses with speed, hopping from branch to branch. It pays
great attention to all that takes place in its vicinity, advancing
with fear and diffidence, like the ‘Uruca’ and the ‘Acahes.’ There is
no perceptible difference between the two sexes, nor do I believe that
the species exists towards the south beyond 28°, nor that it drinks.
It rarely settles on the ground. The Toucan hops obliquely and very
awkwardly, with the legs separated about a hand’s breadth. When it
takes young birds from the nest, pieces of meat or fruit, it throws
them in the air, as a juggler his balls, and by a quick movement of the
beak repeats this action until the food is in a favourable position for
being swallowed, and then by another movement gulps it down its large
throat. If the mouthful be larger than the orifice of the gullet, the
Toucan abandons it without seeking to divide it.”

[Illustration: BILL OF TOUCAN.]

Mr. Bates, in his “Naturalist on the River Amazon,” makes some further
allusions to the Toucans and their bill, which will be found well worth
the reading. He also gives the following history of a tame bird (Vol.
ii., p. 341):--“One day, whilst walking along the principal pathway
in the woods near Ega, I saw one of these Toucans seated gravely on
a low branch close to the road, and had no difficulty in seizing it
with my hand. It turned out to be a runaway pet bird; no one, however,
came to own it, although I kept it in my house for several months. The
bird was in a half-starved and sickly condition, but after a few days
of good living it recovered health and spirits, and became one of the
most amusing pets imaginable. Many excellent accounts of the habits of
tame Toucans have been published, and therefore I need not describe
them in detail; but I do not recollect to have seen any notice of
their intelligence and confiding disposition under domestication, in
which qualities my pet seemed to be almost equal to Parrots. I allowed
Tocáno to go free about the house, contrary to my usual practice with
pet animals. He never, however, mounted my working-table after a
smart correction, which he received the first time he did so. He used
to sleep on the top of a box in a corner of the room, in the usual
position of these birds--namely, with the long tail laid right over on
the back and the beak thrust underneath the wing. He ate of everything
that we eat (beef, turtle, fish, farina, fruit), and was a constant
attendant at our table--a cloth spread on a mat. His appetite was most
ravenous, and his powers of digestion quite wonderful. He got to know
the meal-hours to a nicety, and we found it very difficult, after the
first week or two, to keep him away from the dining-room, where he
had become very impudent and troublesome. We tried to shut him out by
enclosing him in the back yard, which was separated by a high fence
from the street on which our front door opened; but he used to climb
the fence and hop round by a long circuit to the dining-room, making
his appearance with the greatest punctuality as the meal was placed
on the table. He acquired the habit afterwards of rambling about the
street near our house, and one day he was stolen, so we gave him up for
lost. But two days afterwards he stepped through the open doorway at
dinner-hour, with his old gait, and sly, magpie-like expression, having
escaped from the house where he had been guarded by the person who had
stolen him, which was situated at the farther end of the village.”

THE SEVENTH FAMILY OF THE ZYGODACTYLE PICARIAN BIRDS.

THE BARBETS (_Capitonidæ_).[261]

[Illustration: PEARL-SPOTTED BARBET.]

These are climbing birds of somewhat brilliant coloration, distributed
over the tropical portions of both hemispheres, but absent in Europe,
Northern Asia, Australia, and the Moluccas southwards from the Sunda
Islands. “Though strictly arboreal in their habits,” write Messrs.
Marshall, in their exhaustive work on the family,[262] “and living
only in forest districts or open countries interspersed with groves
of trees, they are neither shy nor difficult to approach. When
the districts in which they are found happen to be at all thickly
populated, the Barbets show no disposition to retreat to more secluded
quarters, but take up their abode in gardens, and frequently breed
in trees close to the houses. They usually keep to the tops of the
trees, but may occasionally be seen creeping among the branches of
small bushes and underwood. Their food is fruit, seeds, buds, and
occasionally insects; these latter are very seldom resorted to in Asia,
more frequently in Africa, and with some American species they form
the staple food. They are not gregarious, though a great number may
sometimes be seen together in a fig-tree at the fruit season. They
live in pairs during the breeding season, which is in the spring, and
commence moulting in September. They rarely, if ever, descend to the
ground, and appear to move from tree to tree only when compelled to do
so in search of food, or when disturbed by an intruder. Their flight
is powerful, but heavy and undulating, like that of a Woodpecker. A
curious instance of their disinclination to travel is seen in the fact
of the Himalayan Lineated Barbet (_Megalæma hodgsoni_) and the Hoary
Jungle Barbet (_M. caniceps_) never crossing the narrow valley of the
Deyra Doon, though both are abundant in their respective boundaries;
also that the Blue-faced Barbet (_M. asiatica_) is confined to the
valley of the Jumna, in the district between Mussooree and Simla,
though there are many other valleys apparently equally suitable. When
not in pursuit of food, the Barbets sit motionless among the foliage
near the tops of the trees, and exhibit none of that vivacity which
is so marked a characteristic of the Passerine birds, amongst which
they have been sometimes erroneously classed. Their voice is loud and
ringing, consisting almost always of one, two, or three syllables,
given out with extraordinary power, and may be heard at midday or
on a moonlight night when all other sounds are hushed. Some of the
American species have, in common with the Toucans, the habit of jerking
their tail up over their back when they utter their call. The male
and female sometimes keep up what appears to be a ‘calling-match’
for about ten minutes, and then suddenly cease. As far as is known,
they all build in holes of trees, which they make for themselves in
soft or decayed branches. No lining is needed for the nest, a few of
the broken chips being left at the bottom of a hole. The entrance is
circular and neatly bevelled, resembling that of a Woodpecker. The
hole is generally about eight or ten inches deep, varying, of course,
with the size of the bird. They lay three or four shining white eggs,
with rather thin shells, and rather elongated, blunt, oval in shape,
both ends being nearly similar. They are laid in the latter end of
April and beginning of May in Northern India. Barbets are occasionally
caged, but they are very seldom brought to England, and do not bear
confinement very well; consequently, little is known of them in this
country, except to ornithologists. An interesting account of one of
them (_Megalæma zeylanica_) in captivity, by Mr. Layard, will be found
quoted below. Their plumage, though very brilliant, is tasteless and
too gaudy, and their shape is heavy and ugly, which will account for
their skins not yet having been promoted to the positions with which
pretty birds’ feathers are generally associated in the minds of the
non-ornithological public.” Mr. Layard’s account is as follows:--“The
Brown-headed Barbet is common in Ceylon, and universally distributed.
It feeds on fruits and berries of all kinds, which it swallows entire.
It does not, that I know of, devour small birds when in a state of
nature, but one kept in a large aviary at Colombo destroyed all the
little _Amadinæ_ placed with it. Not content with snapping them up when
within his reach, he would lie in wait for them behind a thick bush or
the feeding-trough, pounce upon them unawares, and, after beating them
a little on the ground or perch, swallow them whole. When this cannibal
came into my possession he was confined in a smaller cage than that
in which he had at first been secured. This seemed to displease him,
and he went to work to find some means of escape. He narrowly examined
every side and corner to discover a weak spot, and having detected one,
applied himself vigorously to bore a hole through it, as a Woodpecker
would have done. Grasping the bars with his feet, he swung himself
round, bringing his whole weight to bear upon his bill, which he used
as a pickaxe, till the house resounded with his rapid and well-aimed
blows. On being checked from exercising his ingenuity in this manner,
he became sulky, and refused to eat or offer his call of recognition
when I approached him. In a day or two, however, he apparently thought
better of the matter, resumed his labours upon another spot, and fed as
voraciously as ever, devouring huge slices of bananas, jungle fruits,
the bodies of any small birds I skinned, &c.”

THE SECOND ORDER.--PICARIAN BIRDS. SUB-ORDER II.--FISSIROSTRES.

CHAPTER IX.

THE JACAMARS, PUFF BIRDS, KINGFISHERS, HORNBILLS, AND HOOPOES.

THE JACAMARS--THE PUFF BIRDS--THE KINGFISHERS--Characters--THE
COMMON KINGFISHER--Distribution--Its Cry--Habits--After
its Prey--Its own Nest-builder--Mr. Rowley’s Note on the
Subject--Nest in the British Museum--Superstitions concerning the
Kingfisher--Colour--Various Species--CRESTED KINGFISHER--PIED
KINGFISHER--Dr. Von Heuglin’s Account of its Habits--New
World Representatives--OMNIVOROUS KINGFISHERS--THE AUSTRALIAN
CINNAMON-BREASTED KINGFISHER--Macgillivray’s Account of its
Habits--THE LAUGHING JACKASS of Australia--Its Discordant Laugh--The
“Bushman’s Clock”--Colour--Habits--THE HORNBILLS--Character--Their
Heavy Flight--Noise produced when on the Wing--Food--Extraordinary
Habit of Imprisoning the Female--Native Testimony--Exception--Fed by
the Male Bird--Dr. Livingstone’s Observations on the point, and Mr.
Bartlett’s Remarks--Strange Gizzard Sacs--Dr. Murie’s Remarks--Mr.
Wallace’s Description of the Habits of the Hornbills--Capture
of a Young One in Sumatra--THE GROUND HORNBILLS--South African
Species--Kaffir Superstition regarding it--Habits--Mr. Ayres’ Account
of the Natal Species--How it Kills Snakes--The Call--Habits--Mr.
Monteiro’s Description of the Angola Form--Turkey-like
Manner--Wariness--Food--THE HOOPOES--Appearance--Distribution--THE
COMMON HOOPOE--Habits--The Name--How does it Produce its Note?--THE
WOOD HOOPOES--Habits.

THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.

THE JACAMARS (_Galbulidæ_).[263]

These birds are usually of metallic green plumage, with long beaks and
wedge-shaped tails, and are found only in Central and Southern America,
where they seem to represent the Bee-eaters of the Old World. Not many
notices have appeared of their habits, the best being that given by Mr.
Waterton, in his “Wanderings” in Demerara:--“A bird called Jacamar is
often taken for a Kingfisher, but it has no relationship to that tribe:
it frequently sits in the trees over the water, and as its beak bears
some resemblance to that of the Kingfisher, this may probably account
for its being taken for one. It feeds entirely upon insects. It sits on
a branch in motionless expectation, and as soon as a Fly, Butterfly, or
Moth passes by, it darts at it, and returns to the branch it had just
left. It seems an indolent, sedentary bird, shunning the society of all
others in the forest. It never visits the plantations, but is found at
all times of the year in the woods. There are four species of Jacamar
in Demerara; they are all beautiful, the largest rich and superb in the
extreme. Its plumage is of so fine a changing blue and golden green,
that it may be ranked with the choicest of the Humming Birds. Nature
has denied it a song, but given a costly garment in lieu of it. The
smallest species of Jacamar is very common in the dry savannas. The
second size, all golden green in the back, must be looked for in the
Wallaba Forest; the third is found throughout the whole extent of these
wilds; and the fourth, which is the largest, frequents the interior,
where you begin to perceive stones in the ground.”

THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.

THE PUFF BIRDS (_Bucconidæ_).

In general form the Puff Birds are not unlike Kingfishers, some of
which they resemble in their habits, feeding chiefly on insects,
which they catch in the air. In many respects also they resemble the
Bee-eaters (_Meropidæ_), and may be considered as representing the
last-named family in South and Central America, to which countries they
are entirely confined. Of the Long-winged Puff Birds (_Chelidoptera
tenebrosa_) the late Prince Maximilian of Neuwied gives the following
account:--“It is not rare in most provinces of South Brazil, and very
common in many of them. It is found in certain spots sitting still and
immovable upon the high isolated branches of the forest trees. From
time to time it flies after an insect in the air, and falls back again
to its place like a true Fly-catcher. It is a stupid, still, melancholy
bird, but likes to sit high, and not low and near the ground, like
other Puff Birds. As in form and colour it rather resembles a Swallow,
the Brazilians call it _Andurinha do mato_ (Wood Swallow). The
resemblance is greatest when the bird sits upon the ground, for its
feet are little adapted for walking, and it consequently shuffles along
as a Swallow does. Its flight is light and undulating. Sitting upon a
high point, whence it can overlook the neighbourhood, it often emits
a short call-note. It is anything but timid, and very easy to shoot.
It is usually found where the woods are varied with open country, on
the edges of the woods, but likewise in the interior of them. The
food of these birds consists of insects, of which I have found the
remains in their stomachs. On the Rio Grande del Belmonte I observed
how these birds nest. In the month of August I saw them enter a round
hole in a perpendicular sand-bank on the river, like a Kingfisher’s.
After digging about two feet in a horizontal direction, we found two
milk-white eggs upon a bad lining of a few feathers.”[264]

THE THIRD FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.

THE KINGFISHERS (_Alcedinidæ_).

The Kingfishers are a very varied family, including within their limits
birds of very different form and habits. The bill is always long and
powerful for the size of the bird, producing, in some of the smaller
species, a top-heavy and ungainly aspect; but this organ is modified
according to the habits of the birds, and is strictly in accordance
with the functions which it has to perform. The foot is similar in all
Kingfishers, the sole being very flat, and the toes joined together for
the greater part of their length, so that the birds always have a very
firm support to their bodies. The legs are very short and weak, the
wings powerful, and the gape very wide. The Kingfishers may be divided
into two sub-families, distinguished by the form of the bill, which is
long and compressed in the fish-eating Kingfishers (_Alcedininæ_), of
which the European bird is a type, with a distinct ridge or keel along
the upper mandible; while in the _Daceloninæ_, which have a stouter and
flatter bill, with a smooth and rounded culmen, the food is varied,
consisting more of insects than of fish.

THE COMMON KINGFISHER (_Alcedo[265] ispida_).

[Illustration: COMMON KINGFISHER.]

This is, perhaps, the most brilliantly-coloured bird there is in
England, but by reason of its shy habits and wonderfully quick flight
it is not often observed, excepting as a flash of bright blue on
the river side, appearing for an instant and gone the next. It is,
however, by no means uncommon in many of the rivers in the south of
England, particularly during the month of October, when a partial
migration of the species evidently takes place. At this season of
the year, the writer once observed a Kingfisher on the ornamental
water in St. James’s Park. Beyond the British Islands it is found in
most parts of the European continent, being replaced in the East by
the little Indian Kingfisher (_A. bengalensis_), a miniature of the
English bird, but with a much longer bill. The following account of the
habits of this bird, the result of several years’ close acquaintance
with the species on the river Thames, is taken from the author’s work
on this subject[266]:--“When in a wild state, flying along the banks
of a stream, or sitting patiently at watch for its finny prey, the
Kingfisher is a beautiful sight. Often has it been our good fortune to
witness the bird at close quarters, but this is by no means easy to
accomplish, owing to the extreme wariness of the bird from repeated
persecution. The presence of the Kingfisher in one’s neighbourhood
can be detected from some distance by the faint cry which falls upon
the ear from afar. This note, which is a shrill, but not unmusical,
scream, generally consists of two syllables, but is very difficult
to render in language. Naumann gives it as _ti-ti_, which is by no
means a bad representation of the cry; and these syllables are quickly
repeated as the bird leaves its perch and skims over the stream. The
flight is rapid and very direct, the bird speeding like a bullet a
little height above the surface of the water. When suddenly disturbed,
it utters its cry shortly after leaving its perch, and then flies
for some distance in silence; but when passing unmolested from one
resting-place to another, its shrill note may be heard at frequent
intervals. Just before perching, the cry is uttered three or four
times successively--_ti-ti-ti_. When resting, it sits uprightly,
with the glance directed downwards, motionlessly scanning the stream
beneath, intent on the capture of any fish or water insect which may
come within its reach. Its unerring dive seldom proves fruitless; and
when secured, a few smart raps on its perch, to which the bird always
returns, deprive the victim of life, after which it is immediately
swallowed. Except in the early morning, it seldom chooses a very open
position for its resting-place; but in the autumn, when the migration
is in progress, at break of day it is not unusual to see two, or even
three, birds in company on a rail or on the side of a punt; in the
day-time, however, it loves solitude, and seldom more than one can
be seen at once, and then it affects more shady and secluded haunts.
In general it is a lonely bird, jealous of intrusion, especially
from individuals of its own species. Each pair appears to choose and
maintain a particular hunting-ground, and should one Kingfisher enter
upon the domain of another, it is speedily and effectually ousted by
the rightful owner with cries of rage. So fierce is the animosity
displayed by these birds, that when excited in combat they fly heedless
of obstacles, and thus occasionally meet their death in their headlong
career.” An instance is on record of two Kingfishers flying with such
violence against a window that both pursuer and pursued met their death
on the spot. The present species does not always pounce on its prey
from a perch, but will occasionally fly out over the mid-stream, and
hover in the air like a Kestrel Hawk; and after making an unsuccessful
plunge, will repeat its hovering position over the same spot, until its
efforts are rewarded with success. It has been seen also to dash into
the water several times in succession, which movement has been supposed
to be for the purpose of attracting fish to the spot by disturbing the
water; it is, however, more probable that in this exercise the bird is
taking a bath. The young have exactly the same cry as their parents,
but the note is less shrill. On leaving the nest, they often congregate
in some well-shaded locality by the side of the stream, where food is
brought to them by their parents, and the presence of the nestlings is
often betrayed by their shrill pipings. The bill in the young birds is
very short, and has a little white tip to it; in the adult male it is
entirely black; but the female may always be distinguished by the base
of the lower mandible being red.

That the Kingfisher makes its own hole is now an ascertained fact,
and the following note on the subject was published in 1866 by Mr. G.
Dawson Rowley:--“Though the subject of the Kingfisher (_Alcedo ispida_)
is somewhat stale, yet, in consequence of the remarks which I have
just read in the October _Quarterly_ on ‘Homes without Hands,’ I send
you the following notes, made this spring, in order to set at rest, if
possible, a mistake regarding the breeding of this bird. Modern writers
on the Kingfisher are hardly more free from error than even Ovid or
Pliny. The bird is a true miner, and makes a nest of fish-bones; but,
as no rule is without an exception, when it cannot find a suitable bank
to bore in, it has been known to nidificate in abnormal situations; and
when abundance of proper fish are not to be caught it is obliged to do
without bones.

“From many years’ constant watching, I can exactly tell the probable
position of the hole, and the day it will be begun. Accordingly, on
Thursday, March 29, I sent two witnesses to a particular spot on the
River Ouse, St. Neots, Huntingdonshire. They observed that there was
on that day positively no hole of any kind, no vestige of hole, in
that bank. On Easter Monday, April 2, I sent a keeper to the place.
He reported the hole as begun. On the same day I went in a boat,
and, putting a reed up, found it by actual measurement about fifteen
inches deep, the moulds being quite fresh outside. Droppings of the
bird (which was seen constantly leaving the hole) were visible in two
places. There was also a shallow hole a little to the left of the
above-mentioned one. This was a failure--either from caprice or some
other cause abandoned. We observe the same in Woodpeckers, which will
sometimes bore in three or four places before they get one to their
liking, a circumstance I particularly remarked in a pair of the Greater
Spotted Woodpeckers (_P. major_) last spring. Between March 29 and
April 2 the Kingfisher had made two holes. I thought it best now to
leave the place, only receiving from the keeper each morning a report,
as he went by in his boat, how the bird was going on.

“Saturday, April 7, I made a memorandum: ‘I again observe fresh moulds,
but not, as we consider, to-day’s, but yesterday’s: hence I suppose
the hole to be nearly finished, if not quite.’ Here, I should say,
after taking these nests constantly for nearly thirty years, I find
twenty-one days is the correct time, from the commencement of the
excavation to the end of laying seven eggs. I never had the luck to
find eight; Mr. Gould, however, informs me he once did. ‘Saturday,
April 21. Opened the hole situated in the perpendicular bank to keep
off Water-rats. Found by measurement the entrance was twelve inches
from the surface of the ground, and about five feet from the water. The
length of the ascending gallery was eight inches and a half, and the
oval chamber six inches in diameter more. The top of the chamber was
nine inches from the surface of the ground. It contained the usual nest
of fish-bones, which was one inch and a half deep; and the same, with
the seven fresh eggs, are now before me, with two other nests from the
same locality. The bird flew off after the first dig, which I commonly
made so as to cover up the hole again without disturbance if the
full number of eggs had not been laid. There was no excrement in the
chamber, but much just outside in the gallery.’ The size of the chamber
is just sufficient for the owners to turn round pleasantly. When the
young birds, which I have seen in every stage, have been some time in
the nest, of course the hole gets very foul. Here, then, is a case,
capable of being attested by two or three witnesses step by step--and
concerning which there can be no doubt--where the Kingfisher is proved
to have made its own hole. I have known it when driven from one bank by
floods to revert to an old hole of its own making in the previous year;
but never has there been an instance of its taking up with the abode of
its most deadly enemy, the Water-rat. It is hard to prove a negative,
but it is certainly a most unlikely thing for a Kingfisher to enter a
rat-hole. No one who has seen the eggs of this species _in situ_ as
often as I have can deny that the fish-bones are placed with the design
of making a nest.”

In the British Museum may be seen a nest of the Kingfisher, which was
taken by Mr. Gould under the following circumstances:--“On the 18th
of April, 1859, during one of my fishing excursions on the Thames,
I saw a hole in a precipitous bank, which I felt assured was the
nesting-place of a Kingfisher; and on passing a spare top of my fly
rod to the extremity, a distance of nearly three feet, I brought out
some freshly-cast bones of fish, convincing me that I was right in
my surmise. The day following I again visited the spot with a spade,
and, after removing nearly two feet square of the turf, dug down to
the nest without disturbing the passage which led to it. Here I found
four eggs placed on the usual layer of fish-bones. These I removed with
care, and then replaced the earth, beating it down as hard as the bank
itself, and restored the turfy sod. A fortnight after the bird was seen
to leave the hole again, and my suspicions were aroused that she had
taken to her old breeding quarters a second time. I again visited the
place on the twenty-first day from the date of my former exploration,
and upon passing the top of my fly rod up the hole, found, not only
that it was of the former length, but that the female was within. I
then took a large mass of cotton-wool from my collecting-box, and
stuffed it to the extremity, in order to preserve the eggs from damage
during my again laying it open from above. On removing the sod and
digging down as before, I came to the cotton-wool, and beneath it was
formed a nest of fish-bones the size of a small saucer, the walls of
which were fully half an inch thick, together with eight translucent
pinky-white eggs, and the old female herself. This nest I removed with
the greatest care; and it is now deposited in the proper place for so
interesting an object--the British Museum. This mass of bones, then
weighing 700 grains, had been cast up and deposited by the bird and
its mate in the short space of twenty-one days. Ornithologists are
divided in opinion as to whether the fish-bones are to be considered
in the light of a nest. Some are disposed to believe them to be the
castings and fæces of the young brood of the year, and that the same
hole being frequented for a succession of years, a great mass is at
length formed; while others suppose that they are deposited by the
parents as a platform for the eggs, constituting, in fact, a nest;
and I think, from what I have adduced, we may fairly conclude this is
the case: in fact, nothing could be better adapted to defend the eggs
from the damp earth.” In ancient times there was a legend that when
the Kingfishers made their nests--which were supposed to float upon
the top of the sea--fine weather was always allowed to prevail.[267] A
custom used formerly to be in vogue in England of turning a Kingfisher
into a weathercock; and, according to the late M. Jules Verreaux,
this practice is pursued in France even in the present day, where the
bird is mummified and suspended by a thread with extended wings in
order to show the direction of the wind. Mr. Harting alludes to these
superstitions in his “Ornithology of Shakespeare” (p. 275). It was
formerly believed that during the time the Halcyon, or Kingfisher, was
engaged in hatching her eggs, the water, in kindness to her, remained
so smooth and calm that the mariner might venture on the sea with the
happy certainty of not being exposed to storms or tempests; this period
was therefore called, by Pliny and Aristotle, “the halcyon days.”

“Expect Saint Martin’s summer, _halcyon_ days.”

_Henry VI._, Part i., Act i., sc. 2.

It was also supposed that the dead bird, carefully balanced and
suspended by a single thread, would always turn its beak towards that
point of the compass from which the wind blew. Kent, in _King Lear_
(Act ii. sc. 2), speaks of rogues who--

“Turn their _halcyon_ beaks
With every gale and vary of their masters.”

And, after Shakspere, Marlowe, in his _Jew of Malta_, says:--

“But how now stands the wind?
Into what corner peers my _halcyon’s_ bill?”

The Common Kingfisher measures about seven inches from the tip of his
bill to the end of his tail. The colour of the upper parts is blue,
greener on the mantle and scapulars, and beautiful rich cobalt on the
back, rump, and upper tail-coverts; the head is blue, barred with
black, the wings blue, with spots of brighter cobalt on the coverts; in
front of the eye is a spot of rufous, this being also the colour of the
eye-coverts and under parts; the throat is white, and there is a patch
of white on each side of the neck; the cheeks and sides of the breast
are blue, the bill is black, the feet red. The female is coloured
like the male, but can always be told by the red colour at the base of
the under mandible. This is also present in young birds of both sexes,
but the latter can readily be distinguished by their shorter bills.

[Illustration: PIED KINGFISHER.]

Species of the genus _Alcedo_ are distributed over the greater part
of the Old World, extending even into the Molucca Islands, but in
Australia and the Papuan group they are represented by the genus
_Alcyone_, comprising Kingfishers of similar form to the English bird,
but distinguished by the absence of the inner toe. In Africa and
Madagascar some beautiful little crested Kingfishers (_Corythornis_)
are met with, the largest of which scarcely exceeds five inches in
length. A very familiar species on the banks of the Nile is the Pied
Kingfisher (_Ceryle[268] rudis_), one of the commonest birds in Africa
and India, and of this species Dr. von Heuglin writes[269]:--“It
lives in pairs, is sociable, and, except during the breeding season,
more friendly with members of its own species than other Kingfishers,
and often several pairs dwell in the same neighbourhood. It sits and
watches along the shore on overhanging branches, on roofs, walls,
brickets, rocks, and even on the ground, but seldom pounces from the
latter on its prey. From time to time it takes a flight over shallow
clear water, also right across the river or from one island to another,
sometimes very low, generally, however, several fathoms above the
surface. Its flight is not very swift, but straight, and steadied
by quick, fluttering motions of the wing--not rushing, like that of
_Alcedo ispida_--and it rises and falls according to will and with
great agility. One often sees it, after taking a start by several
quick flaps of the wing, and gliding on for a distance, suddenly, with
one quick movement, alter the direction of the flight and suddenly
stop and hover. When hovering, the bill is held straight down, and
the hind part of the body and tail also rather lowered. Directly it
catches sight of its scaly prey it turns up, lays its feathers close
to the body, and drops like a stone into the water, remaining often
over ten seconds below the surface. It seldom misses its mark, and
devours the fish it has captured either on the wing or at one of its
resting-places. The voice is a shrill whistle, at the same time chirpy,
or at times snickery. During the pairing time the males often fight on
the wing, and roll together, calling loudly, nearly to the surface of
the water. In Egypt the breeding season is our spring; according to
Adams, as early as December. The nest, consisting of a small heap of
clean dry grass, is placed in a horizontal hole about arm’s depth in
a steep bank, and contains four to six pure white roundish eggs, the
shell of which is rather rough compared with that of _Alcedo ispida_.
Often several nest-holes are close together. The plumage of the young
much resembles that of the adult. There is scarcely any bird on the
Nile tamer than the Black and White Kingfisher.” The genus _Ceryle_,
to which the foregoing species belongs, is largely represented in the
New World, one of the best known being the Belted Kingfisher of North
America, and an unusual circumstance in fish-eating Kingfishers is
characteristic of the genus, viz., a difference in the colouring of the
sexes. The Stork-billed Kingfishers (_Pelargopsis_[270]) are the most
powerful members of the sub-family, some of them measuring nearly a
foot and a half in length.

More difference in form and size is perceptible in the omnivorous
Kingfishers (_Daceloninæ_), where some of the little three-toed species
of _Ceyx_ do not exceed five inches in length, whereas the Great
Laughing Jackasses of Australia (_Dacelo_) attain the dimensions of
more than a foot and a half. The smaller birds of this section feed
almost entirely on insects, and the Rose-cheeked Kingfisher of Africa
(_Ispidina[271] picta_) feeds principally on Grasshoppers and small
Locusts, while its representative in Natal (_I. natalensis_) is said to
feed entirely on Butterflies and insects caught on the wing. They are
often found along the banks of rivers, but never catch fish. The large
genus _Halcyon_ is distributed all over Africa, and ranges throughout
Southern Asia, through China, to Japan, inhabiting also the islands
of the Malay Archipelago and the entire Continent of Australia. These
birds prefer a mixed diet, and, in addition to an occasional fish, they
will also eat crustacea, small reptiles, and insects. Perhaps the most
beautiful of all the Kingfisher family are the _Tanysipteræ_,[272]
which are found only in New Guinea, the adjacent Moluccas, and
the north-east peninsula of Australia. These birds have only ten
tail-feathers, the middle pair being very much longer than the rest,
and ending in a spatule or racket. They live entirely in the forests,
feeding on insects, and they are said to roost in the holes of rocks by
the side of small streams. The best known species of _Tanysiptera_ is
the Australian Cinnamon-breasted Kingfisher (_T. sylvia_), which was
discovered by the late Mr. John Macgillivray, who gives the following
account of its habits:--“This pretty _Tanysiptera_ is rather plentiful
in the neighbourhood of Cape York, where it frequents the dense bushes,
and is especially fond of resorting to the sunny openings in the
woods, attracted, probably, by the greater abundance of insect food
found in such places than elsewhere. I never saw it on the ground, and
usually was first made aware of its presence by the glancing of its
bright colours as it darted past with a rapid arrow-like flight, and
disappeared in an instant amongst the dense foliage. Its cry, which
may be represented by _whee-whe-whee_ and _wheet-wheet-wheet_, is
usually uttered when the bird is perched on a bare, transverse branch,
or woody, rope-like climber, which it uses as a look-out station, and
whence it makes short dashes at any passing insect or small Lizard,
generally returning to the same spot. It is a shy, suspicious bird,
and one well calculated to try the patience of the shooter, who
may follow it for an hour without getting a shot, unless he has as
keen an eye as a native, to whom I was indebted for first pointing
it out to me. According to the natives, who know it by the name of
_Quatawur_, it lays three white eggs in a hole dug by itself in one of
the large ant-hills of red clay which form so remarkable a feature in
the neighbourhood, some of them being as much as ten feet in height,
with numerous buttresses and pinnacles. I believe that the bird also
inhabits New Guinea; for at Redscar Bay, on the south-east of that
great island, in long. 146° 15′ E., a head strung upon a necklace was
procured from the natives.”

[Illustration: LAUGHING JACKASS.]

The largest of all the Kingfishers are the Laughing Jackasses of
Australia, this curious name being given to the bird from its strange
note and peculiar look, both of which can be appreciated by any
visitor to the London Zoological Gardens, where there is generally one,
if not two, out of the seven species known. Of the bird in its native
haunts a very good idea is given us by the “Old Bushman,” the late Mr.
Henry Wheelwright, which is here taken from a little work called the
“Bush Wanderings of a Naturalist.” “About an hour before sunrise the
bushman is awakened by the most discordant sounds, as if a troop of
fiends were shouting, whooping, and laughing around him in one wild
chorus: this is the morning song of the ‘Laughing Jackass,’ warning his
feathered mates that daybreak is at hand. At noon the same wild laugh
is heard, and as the sun sinks into the west it again rings through the
forest. I shall never forget the first night I slept in the open bush
in this country. It was in the Black Forest. I woke about daybreak,
after a confused sleep, and for some minutes I could not remember
where I was, such were the extraordinary sounds that greeted my ears;
the fiendish laugh of the Jackass, the clear, flute-like note of the
Magpie, the hoarse cackle of the Wattle-birds, the jargon of flocks
of Leatherheads, and the screaming of thousands of Parrots as they
dashed through the forest, all joining chorus, formed one of the most
extraordinary concerts I have ever heard, and seemed at the moment to
have been got up for the purpose of welcoming the stranger to this land
of wonders on that eventful morning. I have heard it hundreds of times
since, but never with the same feelings that I listened to it then. The
Laughing Jackass is the bushman’s clock, and being by no means shy,
of a companionable nature, a constant attendant about the bush-tent,
and a destroyer of Snakes, is regarded, like the Robin at home, as a
sacred bird in the Australian forests. It is an uncouth-looking bird, a
huge species of land Kingfisher, nearly the size of a Crow, of a rich
chestnut brown and dirty white colour; the wings slightly chequered
with light blue, after the manner of the British Jay; the tail-feathers
long, rather pointed, and barred with brown. It has the foot of a
Kingfisher; a very formidable, long, pointed beak, and a large mouth;
it has also a kind of crest, which it erects when angry or frightened,
and this gives it a very ferocious appearance. It is a common bird in
all the forest throughout the year; breeds in a hole of a tree, and the
eggs are white; generally seen in pairs, and by no means shy. Their
principal food appears to be small reptiles, grubs, and caterpillars.
As I said before, it destroys Snakes. I never but once saw them at
this game: a pair of Jackasses had disabled a Carpet-Snake under an
old gum-tree, and they sat on a dead branch above it, every now and
then darting down and pecking it, and by their antics and chattering
seemed to consider it a capital joke. I can’t say whether they ate the
Snake--I fancy not; at least the only reptiles I have ever found in
their stomachs have been small Lizards. The first sight that struck me
on landing in London was a poor old Laughing Jackass moped up in a cage
in Ratcliffe Highway. I never saw a more miserable, woe-begone object.
I quite pitied my poor old friend, as he sat dejected on his perch;
and the thought struck me at the time that we were probably neither of
us benefited in changing the quiet freedom of the bush for the noise
and bustle of the modern Babylon.” The Common Laughing Jackass has the
sexes alike, but in all the other species the male has a blue tail and
the female a red one.

THE FOURTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.

THE HORNBILLS (_Bucerotidæ_).

These birds are found in Africa, India, and throughout the Malayan
region and Molucca Islands, as far as New Guinea. They are birds of
rather ungainly appearance, nearly every species having a casque, or
helmet, which is developed in every variety of shape, and in some of
them reaches an extraordinary size. The flat soles which were alluded
to in the Kingfishers are here developed in a greater degree, and the
toes are united together in exactly the same way. The flight, however,
of the Hornbills is very different from that of the Kingfishers,
being heavy and performed with an abundance of noise: so much so that
some explorers in South-eastern New Guinea have been led to speak
of a bird whose wings, when flying, produced a noise “resembling
a locomotive,” but which was doubtless made by the large Hornbill
(_Buceros[273] ruficollis_), which frequents that part of the world.
They are generally found on very lofty trees and at a great height,
which makes them difficult to shoot; and Governor Ussher says that
in ascending the lonely forest-clad rivers of North-western Borneo
the only sign of life is often a solitary Hornbill flying across at a
great height in the air. Wallace states that the Rhinoceros Hornbill
(_Buceros rhinoceros_), a native of the Malayan Peninsula and Borneo,
finds the exertion of flying so great that it is compelled to rest at
intervals of about a mile; and the same author says that he heard the
Great Hornbill (_Dichoceros bicornis_) more than a mile off, so that
the amazement caused by one of these large birds to the travellers in
New Guinea, as mentioned above, does not seem so very inexplicable. The
voice of the last-named species is said to be very harsh and grating,
and the noise it makes is compared by Wallace to something between the
bray of a Jackass and the shriek of a locomotive, and is not to be
surpassed, probably, in power by any sound that an animal is capable
of making. Tickell says that its roar re-echoes through the hills to
such a degree that it is difficult to assign the noise to a bird;
and Wallace observes that this is kept up so continuously as to be
absolutely unbearable. The flight is heavy, and performed by repeated
flappings of its huge wings. It usually flies in a straight line, and
sails only when about to alight upon some tree.[274]

[Illustration: GREAT HORNBILL.]

The food of the Hornbills consists principally of fruits, but under
certain circumstances they become to a great extent omnivorous, and
will devour anything, some of the species searching the ground for
Lizards, which they devour readily, both when wild and in confinement;
and the Pied Hornbill (_Anthracoceros malabaricus_) is stated by Mr.
Inglis to be very fond of live fish, which it catches in shallow pools.
The way he discovered this predilection for an abnormal diet was as
follows: he possessed a tame Otter and three tame Hornbills; at feeding
time the Otter was placed in a tub containing live fish, and these,
when closely pressed, would jump out to escape from their pursuer,
and were immediately swallowed by the Hornbills. Mr. Inglis has also
found bones of fish in the stomachs of birds which he had shot; and the
natives of the Naga Hills affirm that when these Hornbills are intent
on fishing they can be approached sufficiently close to be killed by a
stick.

By far the most curious habit belonging to these birds is that which
takes place during the breeding season, when the male bird plasters
the female into a hollow tree, there to hatch her eggs, nor does he
release her until the young ones are nearly full grown. It is scarcely
possible to conceive a practice more detrimental to the well-being of
any bird than this. The exertion of feeding himself as well as his
wife and nestlings must entail a serious strain upon the male, while
the destruction of the latter must inevitably ensure the starvation of
the female and of the young birds. This curious habit has been well
attested by observers in Asia as well as in Africa; and the writer once
received from an old negro collector on the West Coast of Africa, who
rejoiced in the name of St. Thomas David Aubinn, and styled himself
“Royal Hunter to the King of Denkera,” an adult female of the Black
Hornbill (_Sphagolobus atratus_), together with a nearly full-grown
young one, which, he said, had been taken by him together out of the
hole of a tree; and the habits of the Hornbill in this respect were
given by him in the following words: “When the female go to sit, the
male he her shut in tree. If he no bring food, then she angry. If he no
then bring food, then she more angry--swear. If he no then bring food,
then she curse him for die. Man--beef--beefy--beef!”

If the last sentence is intended to represent the enraged Hornbill,
it is evident that the noises produced by the bird are not of that
startling character ascribed to the Eastern species by Wallace, as
mentioned above. All accounts seem to agree that the female is shut
in the hollow of a tree; but Dr. Kirk noted an exception, on native
authority, and therefore one which must be confirmed by future
research. This is the Crested Hornbill (_Bycanistes cristatus_), which
is a common bird on the river Shiré, where it goes in large flocks, and
roosts regularly in the same places. “The natives say that the female
hatches her eggs in a hole underground, in which she is fastened by
the male.” Our astonishment at the imprisonment of the female Hornbill
is not lessened when it is found that the male bird keeps her supplied
with food by a most curious process, which accounts for the statement
of Dr. Livingstone[275]:--“The first time I saw this bird was at
Kolobeng, where I had gone to the forest for some timber. Standing by
a tree, a native looked behind me and exclaimed, ‘There is the nest of
Korwe.’ I saw a slit only, about half an inch wide and three or four
inches long, in a slight hollow of a tree. Thinking the word Korwe
denoted some small animal, I waited with interest to see what he would
extract. He broke the clay which surrounded the slit, put his arm into
the hole, and brought out a Tockus, or Red-beaked Hornbill, which he
killed. He informed me that when the female enters her nest she submits
to a real confinement. The male plasters up the entrance, leaving
only a narrow slit by which to feed his mate, and which exactly suits
the form of his beak. The female makes a nest, of her own feathers,
lays her eggs, hatches them, and remains with the young till they are
fully fledged. During all this time, which is stated to be two or
three months, the male continues to feed her and the young family. The
prisoner generally becomes quite fat, and is esteemed a very dainty
morsel by the natives; while the poor slave of a husband gets so lean
that on the sudden lowering of the temperature, which sometimes happens
after a fall of rain, he is benumbed, falls down, and dies.” At a
meeting of the Zoological Society on the 25th February, 1869, Mr. A.
D. Bartlett produced a curious envelope, which had been thrown by a
Wrinkled Hornbill (_Anorrhinus corrugatus_) in the Zoological Gardens
of London, which was found to contain plums or grapes well packed
together; and Mr. Bartlett came to the conclusion that it was by means
of fruit packed together in such a wrapper that the male fed the female
during her confinement in the hollow tree. In 1874, Dr. Murie exhibited
to the same society some similar envelopes, or, as he more properly
called them, gizzard sacs, which had been thrown up by a specimen of
Sclater’s Hornbill (_Bycanistes subcylindricus_) in the same way as by
the previous bird. On examination, these gizzard sacs proved to be the
interior lining of the bird’s stomach; and it was evident, from the
short time that elapsed between the throwing up of the envelopes, that,
as Dr. Murie observed, the bird in the interval had made a new one, and
got rid of it also, without apparently being any the worse. One can
readily imagine, however, that this process, being continued during the
long period that the female is shut up in the bole of the tree, must
tend greatly to weaken the bird. The habit of feeding his mate seems
to be inherent in every Hornbill, even in captivity, for Mr. Bartlett
observes:--“The tame male Hornbill is particularly distinguished at all
seasons by this habit of throwing up his food, which he not only offers
to the female, but to the keepers and others who are known to him.
The male Concave Hornbill (_Buceros cavatus_) now in the Gardens will
frequently throw up grapes, and, holding them in the point of the bill,
thrust them into the mouth of the keeper, if he is not on the alert to
prevent or avoid this distinguished mark of his kindness.”

Mr. Wallace thus describes the habits of the Hornbills, as observed
by him during his travels in the East, and he points out certain
peculiarities, proving that the old systematic position of these birds
near the Toucans of America is erroneous:--“From an examination of
the structure of the feet and toes, and from a consideration of their
habits, we are led to conclude that the Hornbills are Fissirostral
birds, though of a very abnormal form. Their very short legs and united
toes, with a broad flat sole, are exactly similar to those of the
Kingfishers. They have powerful wings, but their heavy bodies oblige
them to use much exertion in flight, which is not therefore very rapid,
though often extended to considerable distances. They are (in the
Indian Archipelago, at least) entirely frugivorous, and it is curious
to observe how their structure modifies their mode of feeding. They are
far too heavy to dart after the fruit in the manner of the Trogons;
they cannot even fly quickly from branch to branch, picking up a fruit
here and a fruit there; neither have they strength or agility enough to
venture on the more slender branches with the Pigeons and Barbets; but
they alight heavily on a branch of considerable thickness, and then,
looking cautiously round them, pick off any fruits that may be within
reach, and jerk them down their throats by a motion similar to that
used by the Toucans, which has been erroneously described as throwing
the fruit up in the air before swallowing it. When they have gathered
all within their reach they move sideways along the branch by short
jumps, or, rather, a kind of shuffle, and the smaller species even hop
across to other branches, when they again gather what is within their
reach. When in this way they have progressed as far as the bough will
safely carry them, they take a flight to another part of the tree,
where they pursue the same course. It thus happens that they soon
exhaust all the fruit within their reach; and long after they have
left a tree the Barbets and _Eurylaimi_ find abundance of food on the
slender branches and extreme twigs. We see, therefore, that their very
short legs and syndactyle feet remove them completely from the vicinity
of the Toucans, in which the legs are actively employed in moving about
after their food. Their wings, too, are as powerful as those of the
Toucans are weak; and it is only the great weight of their bodies that
prevents them from being capable of rapid and extensive flight. As it
is, their strength of wing is shown by the great force with which they
beat the air, producing a sound, in the larger species, which can be
distinctly heard a mile off, and is even louder than that made by the
flight of the great Muscovy Duck.” Mr. Wallace[276] also describes the
capture of a young Hornbill in Sumatra:--“I returned to Palembang by
water, and while staying a day at a village while a boat was being made
water-tight, I had the good fortune to obtain a male, female, and young
bird of one of the large Hornbills. I had sent my hunters to shoot,
and while I was at breakfast they returned, bringing me a fine large
male of the _Buceros bicornis_, which one of them assured me he had
shot while feeding the female, which was shut up in a hole in a tree. I
had often read of this curious habit, and immediately returned to the
place, accompanied by several of the natives. After crossing a stream
and a bog, we found a large tree leaning over some water, and on its
lower side, at a height of about twenty feet, appeared a small hole,
and what looked like a quantity of mud, which I was assured had been
used in stopping up the large hole. After a while we heard the harsh
cry of a bird inside, and could see the white extremity of its beak put
out. I offered a rupee to any one who would go up and get out the bird,
with the egg or young one, but they all declared it was too difficult,
and they were afraid to try. I therefore very reluctantly came away.
In about an hour afterwards, much to my surprise, a tremendous loud,
hoarse screaming was heard, and the bird was brought me, together
with a young one, which had been found in the hole. This was a most
curious object, as large as a pigeon, but without a particle of plumage
on any part of it. It was exceedingly plump and soft, and with a
semi-transparent skin, so that it looked more like a bag of jelly, with
head and feet stuck on, than like a real bird.”

One genus of these Hornbills is so remarkable as to demand a special
notice.

THE GROUND HORNBILLS (_Bucorax_).

[Illustration: GROUND HORNBILLS OF ABYSSINIA.]

These are an African form, of which there are two or three kinds,
distinguished by the casque, which is open in the birds from Abyssinia,
compressed and shut in the South African species (_B. cafer_). Of the
habits of the latter bird several accounts have been written, from
which a few extracts are made; and the first is from a letter sent by
Mr. Henry Bowker to Mr. Layard, after the publication of the latter’s
“Birds of South Africa”[277]:--“There are many superstitions connected
with the ‘Bromvogel.’ The bird is held sacred by the Kaffirs, and is
killed only in times of severe drought, when one is killed by order
of the ‘rain-doctor,’ and its body thrown into a pool in a river. The
idea is that the bird has so offensive a smell that it will ‘make
the water sick,’ and that the only way of getting rid of this is to
wash it away to the sea, which can only be done by heavy rains and
flooding of the river. The ground where they feed is considered good
for cattle, and in settling in a new country, spots frequented by these
birds are chosen by the wealthy people. Should the birds, however, by
some chance, fly over a cattle kraal, the kraal is moved to some other
place. They are mostly found in groups of from three to six or seven,
and build their nests in hollow trees, or in the hollow formed by three
or four branches striking off from the same spot. They roost in tall
yellow-wood trees, and commence calling about daylight. I never saw one
eating carrion, as stated in your book, though I have frequently seen
them near the bones of dead cattle, picking up beetles and worms. They
will eat meat, mice, and small birds, and swallow them by throwing them
suddenly in the air, and letting them drop down the throat in falling.
I once had a tame one, and noticed this particularly. It is very weak
on the wing, and when required by the ‘doctor,’ the bird is caught
by the men of a number of kraals turning out at the same time, and a
particular bird is followed from one hill to another by those on the
look-out. After three or four flights it can be run down and caught by
a good runner.”

Mr. Ayres’ account of the species in Natal, though often referred
to by other writers, is so excellent that no work treating of South
African birds can omit it, and is therefore reproduced here in its
entirety:--“In the stomach of the male were snakes, beetles, and other
insects. These birds are gregarious, and to be found here all the year
round, but are not very plentiful, generally three or four, sometimes
more, being found together. They are very fond of hunting for their
food on ground from which the grass has been burnt; with their strong
bills they peck up the hard ground and turn over lumps in search of
insects, making the dust fly again. Having found an insect or other
food they take it up, and giving their head a toss, the bill pointing
upward, appear to let the food roll down their throat. They also kill
large snakes in the following manner, viz.:--On discovering a snake,
three or four of the birds advance sideways towards it with their
wings stretched out, and with their quills flap at and irritate the
snake till he seizes them by the wing-feathers, when they immediately
all close round and give him violent pecks with their long and sharp
bills, quickly withdrawing again when the snake leaves his hold. This
they repeat till the snake is dead. If the reptile advances on them
they place both wings in front of them, completely covering the heads
and most vulnerable parts. Their call, which consists of but one note
repeated--a deep and sonorous _coo-coo_--may be heard at a great
distance. I have myself heard it, under favourable circumstances, at
a distance of nearly two miles. The call of the female is exactly the
same _coo-coo_, only pitched one note higher than the male. The latter
invariably calls first, the female immediately answering, and they
continue this perhaps for five or ten minutes, every now and then, as
they are feeding. Their flight is heavy, and when disturbed, although
very shy, they seldom fly more than half a mile before they alight
again. At a distance they would easily be mistaken for Turkeys, their
body being deep and rather compressed, similarly to those birds, with
the wings carried well on the back. The little pouch on the throat
they are able to fill with air at pleasure, the male bird sent to me
to London doing this before he died. I think their principal range of
country is on the coast and from twenty to thirty miles inland. They
roost on trees at night, but always feed on the ground.”

In Angola, where the bird is called by the natives _Engungoashito_,
Mr. Monteiro had great difficulty in procuring specimens, on account
of the superstitious dread in which they are held by the natives. He
says:--“They are found sparingly nearly everywhere in Angola, becoming
abundant, however, only towards the interior. In the mountain range in
which Pungo Andongo is situated, and running nearly north and south,
they are common, and it was near the base of these mountains that I
shot these two specimens. They are seen in flocks of six or eight (the
natives say always in equal numbers of males and females). Farther in
the interior I was credibly informed that they are found in flocks of
from one to two hundred individuals. The males raise up and open and
close their tails exactly in the manner of a Turkey, and filling out
their bright cockscomb-red, bladder-like wattle on their necks, and
with wings dropping on the ground, make quite a grand appearance. They
do not present a less extraordinary appearance as they walk slowly
with an awkward gait, and peer from side to side with their great eyes
in quest of food in the short grass, poking their large bills at any
frog, snake, &c., that may come in their way. Their flight is feeble
and not long sustained. When alarmed, they generally fly up to the
nearest large tree, preferring such as have thick branches with but
little foliage, as the _Adansonia_, ‘Muenzo’ (a wild fig). Here they
squat close on the branches, and, if further alarmed, raise themselves
quite upright on their legs in an attitude of listening, with wide open
bills. The first to notice a person at once utters the customary cry,
and all fly off to the next tree. They are very wary, and the grass
near the mountains being comparatively short, with but little scrub
or birch, it is very difficult to approach without being observed by
them from the high trees. I followed a flock of six for upwards of two
hours, crawling flat on my stomach, negro fashion, before I obtained
a chance of a shot, when I was so fortunate as to break the wing of
a male without otherwise injuring it. It was quickly captured by the
blacks. They are omnivorous in their food; reptiles, birds, eggs,
beetles, and all other insects, mandioca roots, ginguba or ground-nuts,
constitute their food in the wild state. In confinement I have fed this
bird upon the same food, also upon fresh fish, which it showed itself
very fond of, as well as on entrails of fowls, &c. On letting it loose
in Loanda in a yard where there were several fowls with chickens, it
immediately gulped down its throat six of the latter, and finished
its breakfast with several eggs! The note or cry of the male is like
the hoarse blast of a horn, repeated short three times, and answered
by the female in a lower note. It is very loud, and can be heard at a
considerable distance, particularly at night. They are said to build
their nests on the very highest _Adansonias_, in the hollow or cavity
formed at the base or junction of the branches with the trunk.”

The present species is of a very large size, measuring about forty
inches in length, and about nineteen inches in the wing. It is entirely
black, with the exception of the primary quills, which are white; the
bill and legs are black, but the bare skin on the neck and round the
eye is bright red in the male, but blue in the female.

THE FIFTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.

THE HOOPOES (_Upupidæ_).

Different as these birds are in appearance and habits, ornithologists
now agree that from their structure they must be placed in close
alliance with the Hornbills, with which they are more particularly
connected by the Wood Hoopoes. Instead of the ungainly figures and
top-heavy-looking casques of the Hornbills, the Hoopoes are remarkable
for their graceful carriage and elegant figure, in which the beautiful
crest plays an important part. They are particularly at home in the
desert countries, where their sandy-coloured plumage is no doubt a
great protection to them; and a story is told that the Hoopoe, if it
sees a Hawk approaching, will throw itself flat on the ground, and by
twisting its wings round in front and remaining motionless, with its
bill pointing upwards, it will look like a piece of old rag, and thus
escape detection.

Not more than five species of Hoopoe are known, all inhabitants of
the Old World, and the most widely distributed is the Common Hoopoe
(_Upupa epops_) of Europe, which visits England during the spring and
autumn migration, and at least one instance of its breeding in that
country is known. Mr. Howard Saunders states[278]:--“In the year 1847
a pair of Hoopoes nested in a hole of an old yew-tree in a shrubbery
of an old-fashioned garden at Leatherhead, Surrey. The proprietor was
very anxious that the birds should not be disturbed, and a strict veto
was placed upon any bird’s-nesting in the shrubbery--a severe trial
to our boyish propensities; but we were afterwards rewarded by seeing
the parent birds with their young strutting about upon the lawn. As
well as I remember, there were five young ones besides the two old
birds.” The species is found all over central and southern Europe in
summer, being in some places very plentiful; but it is a rare visitor
to the northern parts, and has disappeared from some countries, like
Denmark, for instance, where the felling of the old and hollow forest
trees has deprived it of its accustomed breeding-places. In some places
the bird is disliked, and in Scandinavia, where it occurs only in the
southern and central portions, it bears a bad name among the peasantry,
who suppose it to be a foreboder of war and hard times, and from this
circumstance its name of Härfugel or “army bird,” is derived. The
Chinese also have an objection to them, branding them by the name of
“Coffin-bird,” as they often breed in the holes of exposed Chinese
coffins. On the other hand, according to Canon Tristram, in the Sahara
the Arabs have a superstitious veneration for the Hoopoe, and its
magical properties enter largely into the arcana of the Arab “hakeem.”
He says that great numbers of Hoopoes resort to the M’zab cities and
frequent oases in winter, where they strut about the courtyards and
round the tents with the familiarity of barn-door fowls. Mons. Favier
says, that in Tangier the superstitious Jews and Mahomedans both
believe that the heart and feathers of the Hoopoe are charms against
the machinations of evil spirits.

[Illustration: COMMON HOOPOE.]

The ordinary name of Hoopoe is derived from the note of the bird, and
in most European languages the latter suggests the vernacular names.
Thus, in Bulgaria it is called _Poo-poo_, in Valentia _Put-Put_,
_Bubbula_, &c., in Italy, _Poupa_ in Portugal, and so on. Mr. Swinhoe
writes of the bird and its note as follows:--“I have already described
the peculiar way in which the Hoopoe produces its notes--by puffing out
the sides of its neck, and hammering on the ground at the production
of each note, thereby exhausting the air at the end of the series of
three, which makes up its song. Before it repeats its call, it repeats
the puffing of the neck with a slight gurgling noise. When it is able
to strike its bill, the sound is the correct _hoo-hoo-hoo_; but when
perched on a rope, and only jerking out the song with nods of the
head, the notes more resemble the syllables _hoh-hoh-hoh_. Mr. Darwin
makes use of this last fact to show that some birds have instrumental
means to produce their music. It is not to this point, however, that
I wish to call attention, but to the fact of the bird’s puffing out
the sides of its neck. It is generally supposed that the song of a
bird is produced by actions of the lower larynx on air passing up the
bronchial tubes onwards and outwards through the main tube, or trachea.
The trachea of the Hoopoe is not dilatable, but its œsophagus is; and
the puffing of the neck is caused by the bulging of the œsophagus with
swallowed air. There is no connection between the œsophagus and the
trachea, and apparently no organ at the entrance to the former that
could modify sound. What action, then, can this swallowed air be made
to take in the production of the bird’s notes? Pigeons have strikingly
large air-crops, which they empty with each _coo_, and refill before
they _coo_ again. Many birds swell out the throat when calling or
singing, and others move it up and down. These actions must also be
caused by the swallowed air in the œsophagus, and must modify the
sounds in some way, as variously used, adding power and richness in
some cases, or giving ventriloquistic effect in others. This question
seems never to have been enquired into before, and I throw out the
hint in hopes that others may help to elucidate the matter with their
investigations.”

The length of the Common Hoopoe is about one foot; the upper surface
is greyish-brown, the wings and shoulders black barred with white, the
rump being pure white; on the head, which is tawny-coloured, is an
enormous crest, the feathers of which have a black tip, before which
is a narrow white bar; the tail is black; with a white band at about a
third of its length from the end; underneath the body is pale cinnamon,
white on the abdomen and under tail coverts, the flanks striped with
brown. The sexes are alike in colour, excepting that the female is a
little paler.

THE WOOD HOOPOES (_Irrisor_).

All the birds belonging to this section of the Hoopoes are remarkable
for their very long and strongly graduated tails, for their brilliant
metallic plumage, which is always dark, and inclining more or less to
black--instead of a sandy colour, as in the true Hoopoes--and most
of them for their very curved, scimitar-like bills. They are all
natives of Africa, and have a remarkably loud, chattering note; and
from its harsh and resounding voice the Red-billed Wood Hoopoe (_I.
erythrorhynchus_) is known among the Dutch at the Cape as “Cackala,”
or the “Chatterer.” The late M. Jules Verreaux told the writer that
the noise made by these birds is tremendous, and that on one occasion
he was attracted by an uproar, which seemed to indicate that something
unusual was the matter. On proceeding to the place whence the noise
came, he was astonished to find on the low branch of a tree three of
these birds, perched one on the back of the other, betokening by their
drooping wings and repeated chatterings the utmost consternation and
fright. The cause of this was not far to seek, for just below the birds
was a cobra, balancing himself in an erect attitude, and perfectly
motionless, the only indication of life being the incessant flicking
of the animal’s tongue. The cacklings of the birds became feebler and
feebler, until at last the bottom one fell off the perch and dropped
into the extended jaws of the snake, which were ready to receive it;
while the other two birds, apparently freed from the spell of the
reptile’s eye, took to instant flight. Having his gun in his hand,
M. Verreaux shot the snake immediately; but on going to rescue the
bird, found that the latter was quite dead. Mr. Thomas Ayres, who has
studied the species in Natal, says:--“The food of these birds consists
almost entirely of a species of cockroach, which they take from the
crevices of rough-barked trees, and in search of which they creep
about the trunk and branches somewhat similarly to the Woodpeckers.
In this manner their tail-feathers frequently become much worn. From
four to eight of these birds are generally together, and frequent busby
country. They have a loud chattering note, and are extremely restless
in their habits. They have a peculiarly powerful and disagreeable
smell.” Mr. Andersson’s account of the species is as follows:--“It
lives in small flocks--probably consisting of entire families--which
frequent trees, chiefly of the larger kinds, and examine them most
assiduously in search of insects and their larvæ, which they extract
from crevices in the wood and from beneath the bark. These birds climb
like Woodpeckers; and their long tails come into constant contact with
the rough surface of the trees, by which the tail-feathers are much
injured. When they have finished their examination of one tree they
move to the next convenient one, but not all together, as a short
interval generally elapses after the departure of each individual.
The moment flight is decided on, they utter harsh discordant cries or
chatterings, which are continued until they are all safely lodged in
their new quarters. These harsh notes are also heard when they conceive
themselves in danger from either man, beast, or bird; and they thus
often betray their presence.”

The present species measures about seventeen inches, the tail being
about ten out of that number, and being thus three inches longer than
the body of the bird. The colour is black, glossed with green on the
head, back, and under surface, with blue on the throat, purple on the
wings and tail, and having a bronzy gloss on the shoulders. All the
tail feathers, except the two centre ones, have a white spot near the
tip and across the wings a white bar. The bill and legs are bright
coral red.

CHAPTER X.

THE BEE-EATERS--MOTMOTS--ROLLERS--TROGONS--NIGHTJARS, OR
GOATSUCKERS--SWIFTS--HUMMING BIRDS.

THE BEE-EATERS--Their Brilliant Plumage--Colonel Irby’s
Account of the Bird in Spain--Shot for Fashion’s sake--THE
MOTMOTS--Appearance--Mr. Waterton on the Houtou--Curious Habit of
Trimming its Tail--Mr. O. Salvin’s Observations on this point--Mr.
Bartlett’s Evidence--THE ROLLERS--Why so called--Canon Tristram’s
Account of their Habits--Colour--Other Species--THE TROGONS--Where
found--Peculiar Foot--Tender Skin--Inability to Climb--Their
Food--THE LONG-TAILED TROGON, OR QUESAL--Mr. Salvin’s Account
of its Habits--Its Magnificent Colour--How they are Hunted--THE
NIGHTJARS, OR GOATSUCKERS--Appearance--Distribution--The Guacharo,
or Oil-bird--“Frog-mouths”--Mr. Gould’s Account of the Habits of the
Tawny-shouldered Podargus--How it Builds its Nest--Mr. Waterton’s
Vindication of the Goatsucker--What Services the Bird does really
render Cattle, Goats, and Sheep--Its Cry--The Common Goatsucker--THE
SWIFTS--THE COMMON SWIFT--Migration--Their Home in the Air--Where
they Breed--Nest--Tree-Swifts--The Edible-Nest Swiftlets--Mr.
E. L. Layard’s Visit to the Cave of the Indian Swiftlet--THE
HUMMING BIRDS--Number of Species--Distribution--Professor Newton’s
Description of the Bird--Mr. Wallace on their Habits--Wilson on the
North American Species.

THE SIXTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.

THE BEE-EATERS (_Meropidæ_).

The Bee-eaters are among the most brightly plumaged of the Picarian
birds, and are distributed over the whole of Africa, India, the
Moluccas, and Australia. One species (_Merops apiaster_) visits Europe
in the summer, being, however, nowhere so common as in the countries of
the Mediterranean basin, though they occasionally wander to England.
Colonel Irby[279] gives the following account of the Bee-eater in
Southern Spain:--“The bird did not appear to me to be quite so common
in Morocco at the end of April as on the Spanish side of the Strait,
where, during April, May, June, and July, it is one of the most
conspicuous birds in the country; at that season, Andalusia without
Bee-eaters would be like London without Sparrows. Everywhere they are
to be seen; and their single note, _teerp_, heard continually repeated,
magnifies their numbers in imagination. Occasionally, they venture into
the centre of towns when on passage, hovering round the orange-trees
and flowers in some patio or garden. Crossing the Strait for the most
part in the early part of the day, flight follows flight for hours in
succession. When passing at Gibraltar, they sometimes skim low down to
settle for a moment on a bush or a tree, but generally go straight on,
often almost out of sight; but their cry always betrays their presence
in the air. In some places they nest in large colonies; in others there
are, perhaps, only two or three holes. When there are no river-banks
or barrancos in which to bore holes, they tunnel down into the ground,
where the soil is suitable, in a vertical direction, generally on some
slight elevated mound. The shafts to these nests are not usually so
long as those in banks of rivers, which sometimes reach to a distance
of eight or nine feet in all; the end is enlarged into a round sort
of chamber, on the bare soil of which the usual four or five shining
white eggs are placed. After a little they become discoloured from the
castings of the old birds, the nest being, as it were, lined with the
wings and undigested parts of Bees and Wasps. Vast numbers of eggs and
young must be annually destroyed by Snakes and Lizards. The latter are
often seen sunning themselves at the entrance of a hole among a colony
of Bee-eaters; and frequently have I avenged the birds by treating the
yellow reptile to a charge of shot. The bills of Bee-eaters, after
boring out their habitations, are sometimes worn away to less than half
their usual length; but as newly-arrived birds never have these stumpy
bills, it is evident that they grow again to their ordinary length. It
has often been a source of wonder to me how they have the exertion to
make these long tunnels: the amount of exertion must be enormous; but
when one considers the boles of the Sand-Martin, it is perhaps not so
surprising after all. During my stay at Gibraltar, Bee-eaters decreased
very much in the neighbourhood, being continually shot on account
of their bright plumage, to put in ladies’ hats. Owing to this sad
fashion, I saw no less than seven hundred skins, all shot at Tangier
in the spring of 1874, which were consigned by Olcese to some dealer in
London. However, the enormous injury these birds do to the peasants who
keep Bees fully merits any amount of punishment, but, at the same time,
they destroy quantities of Wasps. After being fired at once or twice,
they become very wary and shy at the breeding-places; and the best way
to shoot them is to hide near the _colmenares_, or groups of _corchos_,
or cork bee-hives, which in Spain are placed in rows, sometimes to
the number of seventy or eighty together; and it is no unusual thing
to see as many Bee-eaters whirling round and swooping down, even
seizing the bees at the very entrance of their hives. The reason of
their early departure in August is to be accounted for by the simple
fact that bees cease to work when there are no flowers, and by that
time all vegetation is scorched up.” The Bee-eater suffers probably
less from the fashionable rage after its plumes than do some of the
bright-coloured birds, as it goes in winter to South Africa, where it
rears another brood of young ones.

[Illustration: AUSTRALIAN BEE-EATER.]

THE SEVENTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.

THE MOTMOTS (_Momotidæ_).

[Illustration: BILL OF MOTMOT.]

These birds are peculiar to the New World, being found from Mexico
southwards through the whole of Central America and the South American
continent. Their general plumage is green, and the majority of the
species have a large racket at the end of the centre tail-feathers,
formed by the bird itself, as detailed below. Mr. Waterton gives an
account of the Motmots in Demerara, and he was the first to point out
that the racket in the tail was produced by the bird’s own action.
He writes:--“The Houtou ranks high in beauty amongst the birds of
Demerara. His body is green, with a bluish cast in the wings and tail;
his crown, which he erects at pleasure, consists of black in the
centre, surrounded with lovely blue of two different shades; he has a
triangular black spot, edged with blue, behind the eye, extending to
the ear; and on his breast a sable tuft, consisting of nine feathers,
edged also with blue. This bird seems to suppose that its beauty can
be increased by trimming the tail, which undergoes the same operation
as one’s hair in a barber’s shop, only with this difference, that it
uses its own beak, which is serrated, in lieu of a pair of scissors.
As soon as his tail is full-grown, he begins about an inch from the
extremity of the two longest feathers in it, and cuts away the web on
both sides of the shaft, making a gap about an inch long. Both male
and female adonise their tails in this manner, which gives them a
remarkable appearance amongst all other birds. While we consider the
tail of the Houtou blemished and defective, were he to come amongst us,
he would probably consider our heads, cropped and bald, in no better
light. He who wishes to observe this handsome bird in his native
haunts must be in the forest at the morning’s dawn. The Houtou shuns
the society of man; the plantations and cultivated parts are too much
disturbed to engage it to settle there. The thick and gloomy forests
are the places preferred by the solitary Houtou. In those far-extending
wilds, about day-break, you hear him articulate, in a distinct and
mournful tone, ‘Houtou, houtou.’ Move cautiously on to where the sound
proceeds from, and you will see him sitting in the underwood, about
a couple of yards from the ground, his tail moving up and down every
time he articulates ‘houtou.’ He lives on insects and the berries among
the underwood; and very rarely is seen in the lofty trees, except the
bastard Siloabali-tree, the fruit of which is grateful to him. He makes
no nest, but rears his young in a hole in the sand, generally on the
side of a hill.”

[Illustration: MOTMOT.]

In confirmation of Mr. Waterton’s remarks, a paper was published by Mr.
Osbert Salvin in the “Proceedings of the Zoological Society” for 1873
(p. 429):--“Some years ago (1860) this Society possessed a specimen of
_Momotus subrufescens_, which lived in one of the large cages of the
parrot-house all by itself. I have a very distinct recollection of the
bird; for I used every time I saw it to cheer it up a bit by whistling
such of its notes as I had picked up in the forests of America. The
bird always seemed to appreciate this attention; for though it never
replied, it became at once animated, hopped about the cage, and swung
its tail from side to side like the pendulum of a clock. For a long
time its tail had perfect spatules; but towards the end of its life
I noticed that the median feathers were no longer trimmed with such
precision; and on looking at its beak I noticed that from some cause or
other it did not _close properly_, but gaped slightly at the tip, and
had thus become unfitted for removing the vanes of the feathers. Since
the subject has been revived by Dr. Murie, it occurred to me that Mr.
Bartlett could hardly have failed to watch this bird during its moults,
and whilst the tail-feathers were growing. I accordingly wrote to him,
and received the following reply:--

‘DEAR SIR,--During the several years the Motmot lived here I
had many opportunities of watching its habits; and _I have seen the
bird in the act of picking off the webs of the central feathers of its
tail_, and have taken from the bottom of the cage the fragments of web
that fell from the bird’s bill. As the bird lived here for some years,
its bill got rather out of order, that is, it did not close properly
at the point; and consequently the picking off the web at last was
imperfectly performed, and the two sides of the tail-feather presented
an unequal and unfinished appearance. I noticed also that the Motmot
frequently threw up castings, after the manner of the Kingfishers and
other birds that swallow indigestible substances.--Yours faithfully,
A. D. BARTLETT.’

[Illustration: TAIL-FEATHERS OF MOTMOT. (_From the Proceedings of the
Zoological Society._)

(A) Tail of _M. lessoni_: two Central Rectrices shaded; (B) Tail of
_M. mexicanus_: the Central Rectrices, not fully grown, are shaded;
(C) Tail of _M. lessoni_, with stems of Central Rectrices partially
denuded; (D) Tail of _P. platyrhynchus_, with Central Rectrices not
symmetrical.]

“The point is further elucidated by the examination of skins in our
collection. We have a number of specimens of various species in which
the central tail-feathers were growing when the birds were shot. The
drawings now exhibited show some of them. Figure A represents the
tail of a young _Momotus lessoni_ in its first plumage. The central
tail-feathers are here untouched; they merely show the reduction in
the breadth of the web in the part which is subsequently denuded. Of
this more anon. Figure B shows the growing feathers of the tail of a
specimen of _Momotus mexicanus_; in this a few vanes have been removed
from the left-hand feather. Figure C shows the process of denudation
still further advanced. In all these three birds it will be noticed
that the feathers in question have grown symmetrically, both being of
nearly equal length. Figure D represents the tail of a _Prionirhynchus
platyrhynchus_, where these feathers have not grown symmetrically, but
the left-hand one has been developed sooner than the right-hand one.
What has happened? The bird expecting to find two feathers upon which
to operate has commenced to nibble not only the left central rectrix,
but also the next rectrix on the right-hand side! But it seems to
have not felt very certain about the state of its tail, for it has
wandered off to one of the others, and commenced nibbling it also.
When, however, the proper right-hand feather appeared, these mistakes
have been discovered, and the work recommenced in the usual way. I
can interpret in no other way the state in which the feathers on the
right-hand side of the tail of this bird appear.”

THE EIGHTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.

THE ROLLERS (_Coraciadæ_).

These birds constitute a family of birds which are strictly denizens
of the Old World, and are remarkable for their bright plumage. The
vernacular name of Roller is given to them from their habit of mounting
or “rolling” in the air. Canon Tristram, in describing the habits of
the European species (_Coracias garrula_) in Palestine, writes as
follows:--“On the 12th of April I reached Ain Sultan (Jericho) alone,
and remained there in solitude for several days, during which I had
many opportunities of observing the grotesque habits of the Roller. For
several successive evenings, great flocks of Rollers mustered shortly
before sunset on some _dôm_ trees near the fountain, with all the noise
but without the decorum of the Rooks. After a volley of discordant
screams, from the sound of which it derives its Arabic trivial name of
‘Schurkrak,’ a few birds would start from their perch, and commence a
series of somersaults overhead, somewhat after the fashion of Tumbler
Pigeons. In a moment or two they would be followed by the whole flock,
and these gambols would be repeated for a dozen times or more. Every
where it takes its perch on some conspicuous branch or on the top of
a rock, where it can see and be seen. The bare tops of the fig-trees,
before they put forth their leaves, are, in the cultivated terraces,
a particularly favourite resort. In the barren Ghor I have often
watched it perched unconcernedly on a knot of gravel or marl in the
plain, watching apparently for the emergence of beetles from the sand.
Elsewhere I have not seen it settle on the ground. Like Europeans in
the East, it can make itself happy without chairs and tables in the
desert, but prefers a comfortable easy-chair when it is to be found.
Its nest I have seen in ruins, in holes in rocks, in burrows, in steep
sand-cliffs, but far more generally in hollow trees. The colony in
the Wady Kelt used burrows excavated by themselves; and many a hole
did they relinquish, owing to the difficulty of working it. But so
cunningly were the nests placed under a crumbling treacherous ledge,
overhanging a chasm of perhaps one or two hundred feet, that we were
completely foiled in our siege. We obtained a nest of six eggs, quite
fresh, in a hollow tree in Bashan, near Gadara, on the 6th of May.
It is noticed by Russell among the birds of Aleppo.” The colour of
the Common Roller is very beautiful, and we can well understand the
significance of the Turkish name “Alla Carga,” or Beautiful Crow. The
back is pale cinnamon-brown; the wing-coverts pale blue, excepting
those on the edge of the wing, which are rich ultramarine; the quills
brownish-black, deep ultramarine underneath; the secondaries with more
blue on the outer web; the forehead white; the crown of the head and
back of the neck pale blue; the lower back and rump ultramarine; the
upper tail-coverts greenish-blue; the tail blackish-brown, the feathers
blue at the base, the two centre feathers dull green; cheeks and throat
pale blue, streaked with silvery blue; the under surface of the body
pale greenish-blue. The total length is twelve inches. One curious
feature about the European bird is that the outer tail-feather tends
towards a point at the tip, as if there was an inclination to become
elongated; and in Africa there is a species which actually differs from
the European Roller only in having the outer tail-feathers elongated to
an extent of several inches.

In Madagascar, that wonderful island which produces so many peculiar
forms of bird life, there are found the Ground Rollers (_Atelornis_),
extraordinary birds which live entirely on the ground, and only come
out at dusk. Their flight is said by M. Grandidier to be very weak,
so that the birds are never found above the lowest branches. They are
rather local in their habitat, but where they do occur seem not to be
uncommon. The Cyrombo Roller (_Leptosoma discolor_) is also a native
of Madagascar, and has at first sight much the appearance of a Cuckoo,
of which family of birds it was for many years considered to be a
member. The head is extremely large in this bird, and the region of
the nostrils densely plumed; but the latter, instead of being placed
near the base of the bill, as in most Rollers, are situated nearly
in the middle of the upper mandible. Messrs. Pollen and Van Dam give
an interesting account of this bird in their notes on the “Birds of
Madagascar”:--“The natives of the north-west of Madagascar give this
bird the name of Cyrombo. It has the curious habit of hovering in the
air, and uttering a very loud note, striking its wings against its body
as it calls. This cry, resembling the syllables _tu-hou_, _tu-hou_,
_tu-hou_, goes on increasing in force. Nowhere have we found this bird
in greater numbers than in the forests in the neighbourhood of the
bays of Boény and Jongony, in the south-western portion of the island
of Mayotte. The racket that they make during the whole journey is
truly wearisome. Although very active as criers, these birds are lazy
and stupid. As soon as they are perched on the branch of a tree, they
remain, so to speak, immovable, and in perpendicular position, so that
it is easy to see them and knock them over. When seen in this position,
they look like birds impaled. We suppose that they live in polyandry,
because one always sees three times as many males as females; often
we have seen three males in company with one single female, and all
allowed themselves to be killed one after the other. In fact, when one
is killed, the others do not fly away, but content themselves with
merely moving from one branch to another. These birds live principally
on Grasshoppers, but they devour also Chameleons and Lizards, which
gives to their flesh a disagreeable odour, like that we observe in the
Common Cuckoo. In preparing these birds we often found them with a
species of large parasite of the family of the Ornithomyiæ, of a dirty
green colour. We were never able to study the propagation of this bird;
but while in Mayotte we saw an individual make a nest of rushes in the
hole of a great ‘Badamier’ (_Terminalia Catappa_). These birds when
they cry puff out the throat, so that this portion of the body has the
appearance of a pendent bag. When wounded, they erect the feathers of
the forehead and ears as well as those of the throat, all the while
distributing well-aimed blows with the beak. The Cyrombo plays a great
part in the chants and religious recitations of the Malagasy natives.
The French colonists of Mayotte call this bird the ‘Parrot.’ It is
common at Madagascar and Mayotte, and has, according to Mr. Sclater,
been found in the island of Anjounan.”

[Illustration: BLUE ROLLER.]

THE NINTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.--THE TROGONS
(_Trogonidæ_).

These beautiful birds are found both in the Old World and the New, but
are inhabitants of the tropical latitudes only. In Africa two species
only are known, nor does another species occur until the coast of
India is reached, and then in the forests of the peninsula and of the
Himalayas there are some beautiful red-breasted representatives of the
family, whence throughout the Malayan peninsula and the Sunda Islands
some of the handsomest Trogons occur. But it is in America, from Mexico
southwards, that the larger number of species is met with, no less
than thirty-three out of a total of forty-six Trogons being peculiar
to the New World. Their habits vary somewhat, as all the Old World
members are insectivorous, while the American species principally feed
on fruit, and only devour insects in a secondary manner. The Trogons
may be distinguished not only by their broadened bill, but by the foot,
where the first and second toes are turned permanently, two in front
and two behind. This is a different arrangement to that of the Cuckoos
and other climbing _Picariæ_, where the fourth toe is permanently or
temporarily turned backwards as well as the first. The skin of these
birds is remarkably thin and tender, so that their preparation is by
no means an easy matter, and their appearance is also detracted from
by a scantiness of plumage on the nape, where a great want of feathers
takes place. Mr. Wallace, writing of the birds of this present family,
remarks:--“As an instance how totally unable the Trogons are to use
their feet for anything like climbing, we may mention that the Trogons
of South America feed principally on fruit, which one would think they
would get by climbing or walking after, if they could. But no; they
take their station on a bare branch about the middle of the tree, and
having fixed their attention on some particularly tempting fruit, they
dart at it, seize it dexterously on the wing, and return to their
original seat. Often, while waiting under a fruit-tree for Chatterers
or Pigeons, have we received the first intimation of the presence of a
Trogon by the _whir-r-r_ of its wings as it darted after a fruit. It is
curious that this habit seems confined to the Trogons of America. In
the East I have never yet observed it, and in the numerous specimens I
have opened, nothing has been found but insects. The African Trogons
also appear to be wholly insectivorous.”

Again, in his “Naturalist in Nicaragua” (p. 122) Mr. Belt writes:--“The
Trogons are general feeders. I have taken from their crops the remains
of fruits, grasshoppers, beetles, termites, and even small crabs
and land shells. The largest species, the Massena Trogon (_Trogon
massena_), is one foot in length, dark bronze-green above, with the
smaller wing-feathers speckled white and black, and the belly of a
beautiful carmine. Sometimes it sits on a branch above where the army
of ants are foraging below, and when a grasshopper or other large
insect flies up and alights on a leaf it darts after it, picks it up,
and returns to its perch. I sometimes found them breaking into the,
nests of the termites with their strong bills, and eating the large
soft-bodied workers, and it was from the crop of this species that I
took the remains of a small crab and land shell (_Helicina_). They take
short, quick, jerking flights, and are often met with along with flocks
of other birds--Flycatchers, Tanagers, Creepers, Woodpeckers, &c., that
hunt together, traversing the forests in flocks of hundreds, belonging
to more than a score of different species, so that while they are
passing over the trees seem alive with them. Mr. Bates has mentioned
similar gregarious flocks met with by him in Brazil; and I never went
any distance into the woods around St. Domingo without seeing them.
The reason of their association together may be partly for protection,
as no rapacious bird or mammal could approach the flock without being
discovered by one or other of them; but the principal reason appears
to be that they play into each other’s hands in their search for
food. Creepers and Woodpeckers and others drive the insects out of
their hiding-places under bark, amongst moss and withered leaves. The
Flycatchers sit on branches and fly after the larger insects, the
Flycatchers taking them on the wing, the Trogons from the leaves on
which they have settled.”

THE LONG-TAILED TROGON, OR QUESAL (_Pharomacrus[280] mocinno_).

This beautiful species is mentioned in Willughby’s Ornithology, which
was published some two hundred years ago, in which book an appendix is
devoted to such birds as the author suspected to be “fabulous;” and
the Quetzaltototl of Hernandez was placed in this category, nor was it
till the French traveller Delattre visited Guatemala, and published
his account of the habits of the bird in 1843, that it was restored
to its proper position as one of the most beautiful of the feathered
tribe: it is now by no means rare in collections. The best account
of the habits of this species--and, indeed, of any Trogon--is that
given by Mr. Osbert Salvin, in his paper entitled “Quesal-shooting in
Vera Paz,”[281] in Guatemala. He writes from his diary:--“Off to the
mountains at last, with a fine day and a fair prospect of success.
The road, after crossing the river, strikes off to the northward--a
mountain track winding among the hills. Soon after entering the forest,
a river crosses the path--a foaming torrent--a fall into which gives
no hope of escape. A felled tree, one of the largest of the forest,
forms the bridge, over which, slippery with moss and foam, we have
to pass. For ourselves it is nothing; but I must say I tremble for
the Indians, each of whom carries his 75 lbs. of cargo. In the worst
and most slippery part, the foothold is somewhat improved by the tree
being notched with a ‘machete;’ but still it is as dangerous a pass
as I ever crossed. After half-an-hour’s delay, we reach the other
bank. One ‘mozo’ only turned faint-hearted, and another carried his
pack across. From the river the path becomes very precipitous, and
we continue to climb till we reach the foot of a rock, where we find
a deserted rancho, and take possession. A fire having been made to
heat the pixtones, we dine, and afterwards start for the forest close
by to look for Quesals. On entering, the path takes the unpleasant
form of a succession of felled trees, which are slippery from recent
rains, and render progress slow. My companions are ahead, and I am
just balancing myself along the last trunk, when Filipe comes back
to say that they have heard a Quesal. Of course, being especially
anxious to watch as well as to shoot one of these birds myself, I
immediately hurry to the spot. I sit down upon my wide-awake in most
approved style close to Cipriano, who is calling the bird, and wait,
all eyes and ears, for the result. I have not to wait long. A distant
clattering note indicates that the bird is on the wing. He settles--a
splendid male--on a bough of a tree, not seventy yards from where we
are hidden. Cipriano wants to creep up to within shot, but I keep him
back, wishing to risk the chance of losing a specimen rather than miss
such an opportunity of seeing the bird in its living state, and of
watching its movements. It sits almost motionless on its perch, the
body remaining in the same position, the head only moving slowly from
side to side. The tail does not hang quite perpendicularly, the angle
between the true tail and the vertical being perhaps as much as fifteen
or twenty degrees. The tail is occasionally jerked open and closed
again, and now and then slightly raised, causing the long tail-coverts
to vibrate gracefully. I have not seen all. A ripe fruit catches the
Quesal’s eye, and he darts from his perch, hovers for a moment, plucks
the berry, and returns to his former position. This is done with a
degree of elegance that defies description. The remark has often been
made by persons looking at stuffed Humming-birds, ‘What lovely little
things these must look in life, when they are flying about!’ But they
do not. Place a Humming-bird twenty yards from you, and what do you see
of its colours, except in the most favourable position and light? This
is not the case with the Quesal. The rich metallic green of the head,
back, and tail-coverts reflects its colour in every position, whilst
the deep scarlet of the breast and the white of the tail show vividly
at a distance, and contrast with the principal colour of the body.
The living Quesal strikes the eye by its colour at once. It stands
unequalled for splendour among birds of the New World, and is hardly
surpassed among those of the Old. Such are my reflections, when a low
whistle from Cipriano calls the bird nearer, and a moment afterwards it
is in my hand--the first Quesal I have seen and shot.

[Illustration: LONG-TAILED TROGON, OR QUESAL.]

“The cries of the Quesal are various. They consist principally of a low
double note, ‘_whe-oo_, _whe-oo_,’ which the bird repeats, whistling
it softly at first, and then gradually swelling it into a loud but not
unmelodious cry. This is often succeeded by a long note, which begins
low, and after swelling, dies away as it began. Both these notes can be
easily imitated by the human voice. The bird’s other cries are harsh
and discordant. They are best imitated by doubling a pliant leaf over
the first fingers, which must be held about two inches apart. The two
edges of the leaf being then placed in the mouth, and the breath drawn
in, the required sound is produced. Cipriano was an adept at imitating
these cries, but I failed in producing them for want of practice.
When searching for Quesals, the hunter whistles as he walks along,
here and there sitting down and repeating the other notes. As soon as
he hears a bird answering at a distance he stops, and imitates the
bird’s cries until it has approached near enough to enable him either
to shoot it from where he stands, or to creep up to within shot. The
female generally flies up first, and perches on a tree near the hunter,
who takes no notice of her, but continues calling till the male, who
usually quickly follows the female, appears. Should the male not show
himself, the hunter will sometimes shoot the female. Thus it is that
so large a proportion of males are shot. The flight of the Quesal is
rapid and straight; the long tail-feathers, which never seem to be in
his way, stream after him. The bird is never found except in forests
composed of the highest trees, the lower branches of which (_i.e._,
those at about two-thirds of the height of the tree from the ground)
seem to be its favourite resort. Its food consists principally of
fruit, but occasionally a caterpillar may be found in its stomach.”

The distinguishing character of this fine Trogon is the long tail of
the male bird, which measures about three feet in length. The colour of
the upper parts is golden green, as well as the throat and fore neck;
the breast is bright scarlet, and is overshadowed by some beautiful
drooping plumes, which spring from the shoulders, and hang gracefully
over the wings; the outer tail-feathers are white, with black bases,
and the bill is yellow. The female has a black bill, and is much
smaller, and she does not possess the long tail and decorative plumes
of the male.

THE TENTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.--THE NIGHTJARS, OR
GOATSUCKERS (_Caprimulgidæ_).

[Illustration: MOUTH OF GOATSUCKER.]

From the adjoining woodcut it will be seen that a Nightjar is
indeed a Fissirostral, or wide-gaping bird, and this large mouth is
characteristic of the whole family. Their soft mottled plumage, their
large eyes, and their habit of flying by night, have induced many
naturalists to place them in close proximity to the Owls, with which
family of birds, however, they have nothing further in common. Members
of the family of Goatsuckers are distributed nearly all over the world,
with the exception of the islands of Oceania, and a great difference
is observable in their size and form, and to some extent in their
habits. Thus the Guacharo, or Oil-bird (_Steatornis[282] caripensis_),
is met with only in the island of Trinidad, where it is also called
_Diablotin_, and where it inhabits the inmost recesses of caverns,
either by the sea or inland. The birds spend the entire day in these
dark recesses, and come out only at night to procure their food, which
consists of the fruits of different palms, the seeds of which are
rejected, and form, with the droppings of the birds, a thick flooring
of guano in some of the caves. Sometimes the bird forms a huge cradle
of this deposit, apparently for the greater security of its young
ones; and one of these singular nests, if such they may be called, is
exhibited in the British Museum. The nestlings become very fat, and
are sometimes eaten, but according to M. Léotand, in his work on the
Birds of Trinidad, there is a certain odour about them which makes them
unpalatable to the appetite of most people.

[Illustration: OIL-BIRD.]

In India and in the Malayan Archipelago is found a group of Nightjars
belonging to the genus _Batrachostomus_[283] popularly known as
“Frog-mouths;” their place is taken in Australia and New Guinea by the
giants of the family--the _Podargi_, examples of which are generally
to be seen in the London Zoological Gardens. Of the Tawny-shouldered
_Podargus_ (_P. strigoides_[284]) Mr. Gould gives the following
account:--“Like the rest of this genus, this species is strictly
nocturnal, sleeping throughout the day on the dead branch of a tree, in
an upright position across, and never parallel to, the branch, which
it so nearly resembles as scarcely to be distinguished from it. I have
occasionally seen it beneath the thick foliage of the _Casuarinæ_, and
I have been informed that it sometimes shelters itself in the hollow
trunks of the _Eucalypti_, but I could never detect one in such a
situation; I mostly found them in pairs, perched near each other on
the branches of the gums, in situations not at all sheltered from the
beams of the midday sun. So lethargic are its slumbers, that it is
almost impossible to arouse it, and I have frequently shot one without
disturbing its mate, sitting close by; it may also be knocked off
with sticks or stones, and sometimes it is even taken with the hand.
When aroused, it flies lazily off, with heavy flapping wings, to a
neighbouring tree, and again resumes its slumbers until the approach
of evening, when it becomes as animated and active as it had been
previously dull and stupid. The stomach of one I dissected induced
me to believe that it does not usually capture its prey while on the
wing, or subsist on nocturnal insects alone, but that it is in the
habit of creeping among the branches in search of such as are in a
state of repose. The power it possesses of shifting the position of the
outer toe backwards, as circumstances may require, is a very singular
feature, and may also tend to assist them in their progress among the
branches. A bird I shot at Yarrundi, in the middle of the night, had
the stomach filled with fresh-captured Mantis and Locusts (_Phasmidæ_
and _Cicadæ_), which seldom move at night, and the latter of which are
generally resting against the upright boles of the trees. In other
specimens I found the remains of small Coleoptera, intermingled with
the fibres of the roots of what appeared to be a parasitic plant, such
as would be found in decayed and hollow trees. The whole contour of the
bird shows that it is not formed for extensive flight or for performing
those rapid evolutions that are necessary for the capture of its prey
in the air: the wing being short and concave in comparison with those
of the true aërial Nightjars, and particularly with the Australian
form, to which I have given the name of _Eurostopodus_.

[Illustration: COMMON GOATSUCKER.]

“Of its mode of nidification I can speak with confidence, having
seen many pairs breeding during my rambles in the woods. It makes
a slightly-constructed flat nest of sticks, carelessly interwoven
together, and placed at the fork of a horizontal branch of sufficient
size to ensure its safety; the trees most frequently chosen are the
_Eucalypti_, but I have occasionally seen the nest on an appletree
(_Angophora_) or a swamp-oak (_Casuarina_). In every instance one
of the birds was sitting on the eggs, and the other perched on a
neighbouring bough, both invariably asleep. That the male participates
in the duty of incubation I ascertained by having shot a bird on the
nest, which, on dissection, proved to be a male. The eggs are generally
two in number, of a beautiful immaculate white, and of a long oval
form, one inch and ten lines in length by one inch and three lines in
diameter.

[Illustration: WHIP-POOR-WILL.]

“Like the other species of the genus, it is subject to considerable
variation in its colouring, the young, which assume the adult livery at
an early age, being somewhat darker in all their markings. In some a
rich tawny colour predominates, while others are more grey. The night
call of this species is a hoarse noise, consisting of two distinct
sounds, which cannot correctly be described. The stomach is thick and
muscular, and is lined with a hair-like substance, like that of the
common Cuckoo.”

Mr. Waterton gives the following notes on Goatsuckers in his
“Wanderings” (p. 139):--“When the sun has sunk in the western woods,
no longer agitated by the breeze, when you can only see a straggler or
two of the feathered tribe hastening to join its mate, already at its
roosting-place, then it is that the Goatsucker comes out of the forest,
where it has sat all day long in slumbering ease, unmindful of the gay
and busy scenes around it. Its eyes are too delicately formed to bear
the light, and thus it is forced to shun the flaming face of day, and
wait in patience till night invites him to partake of the pleasures her
dusky presence brings. The harmless, unoffending Goatsucker, from the
time of Aristotle down to the present day, has been in disgrace with
man. Father has handed it down to son, and author to author, that this
nocturnal thief subsists by milking the flocks. Poor injured little
bird of night, how sadly hast thou suffered, and how foul a stain has
inattention to facts put upon thy character! Thou hast never robbed man
of any part of his property, nor deprived the kid of a drop of milk.

“When the moon shines bright you may have a fair opportunity of
examining the Goatsucker. You will see it close by the Cows, Goats,
and Sheep, jumping up every now and then under their bellies. Approach
a little nearer--he is not shy: ‘he fears no danger, for he knows no
sin.’ See how the nocturnal flies are tormenting the herd, and with
what dexterity he springs up and catches them as fast as they alight on
the bellies, legs, and udders of the animals. Observe how quiet they
stand, and how sensible they seem of his good offices, for they neither
strike at him nor hit him with their tails, nor tread on him, nor try
to drive him away as an uncivil intruder. Were you to dissect him and
inspect his stomach, you would find no milk there. It is full of the
flies which have been annoying the herd.

[Illustration: LYRE-TAILED NIGHTJAR.]

“The pretty mottled plumage of the Goatsucker, like that of the Owl,
wants the lustre which is observed in the feathers of the birds of day.
This at once marks him as a lover of the pale moon’s nightly beams.
There are nine species here (Demerara); the largest appears nearly the
size of the English Wood Owl. Its cry is so remarkable that, having
once heard it, you will never forget it. When night reigns over these
immeasurable wilds, whilst lying in your hammock, you will hear this
Goatsucker lamenting like one in deep distress. A stranger would never
conceive it to be the cry of a bird; he would say it was the departing
voice of a midnight murdered victim, or the last wailing of Niobe for
her poor children before she was turned into stone. Suppose yourself
in hopeless sorrow, begin with a high loud note, and pronounce ‘Ha,
ha, ha, ha, ha, ha, ha!’ each note lower and lower, till the last
is scarcely heard, pausing a moment or two betwixt every note, and
you will have some idea of the moaning of the largest Goatsucker in
Demerara. Four other species of the Goatsucker articulate some words
so distinctly that they have received their names from the sentences
they utter, and absolutely bewilder the stranger on his arrival in
these parts. The most common one sits down close by your door, and
flies, and alights three or four yards before you as you walk along
the road, crying ‘Who are you, who-who-who-are-you.’ Another bids
you ‘Work away, work-work-work-away.’ A third cries mournfully,
‘Willy-come-go, willy-willy-willy-come-go.’ And high up in the country
a fourth tells you to ‘Whip-poor-will, whip-whip-whip-poor-will.’ You
will never persuade the negro to destroy these birds, or get the Indian
to let fly his arrows at them. They are birds of omen and reverential
dread. Jumbo, the demon of Africa, has them under his command, and
they equally obey the Yabahou, or Demeraran Indian Devil. They are
receptacles for departed souls who come back again to earth, unable to
rest for crimes done in their days of nature; or they are expressly
sent by Jumbo or Yabahou to haunt cruel or hard-hearted monsters, and
retaliate injuries received from them. If the largest Goatsucker chance
to cry near the white man’s door, sorrow and grief will soon be inside;
and they expect to see the master waste away with a slow consuming
sickness. If it be heard close to the negro’s or Indian’s hut, from
that night misfortune sits brooding over it, and they await the event
in terrible suspense.”

The common Goatsucker, which is also popularly known as the “Fern Owl,”
or “Nightjar,” visits England only in the spring, when it arrives from
Southern Africa, and distributes itself over the country. It is by
no means an uncommon bird, but is rarely seen, owing to its habit of
coming out only at night, or at least in the twilight. They may then
often be disturbed from the ground in a country road, when they take
to flight in a heavy manner, often making a flapping noise, which
appears to be caused by bringing the wings sharply together above the
body of the bird. The call-note may be described as “churring,” and
is disagreeable in sound; it is generally uttered by the Goatsucker
when sitting on a low branch of a tree or on a railing. It should be
mentioned that the Caprimulgidæ do not, as a rule, sit crosswise on a
branch, but always along the latter; their favourite haunt, however,
is generally the ground, and it is supposed by some naturalists that
the curious pectinated claw is used by the Goatsucker for scratching
the ground. Dr. Günther, F.R.S., who kept one of these birds alive,
says that it frequently used its comb-like claw for this purpose. Other
people have thought that its claw was intended for clearing away the
_débris_ of moths and other insects, which would clog the bristles on
the bill. The true use of this comb-like appendage on the foot has not
yet, however, been thoroughly determined.

[Illustration: FOOT OF THE COMMON GOATSUCKER.]

THE ELEVENTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.

THE SWIFTS (_Cypselidæ_).

These birds, with the Humming-birds, are separated from the other
Fissirostral _Picariæ_ by many anatomical characters, the chief being
the arrangement of the feather-tracts on the body, which are quite
peculiar; the muscles are also unlike those of the other families, and
hence these two groups are often divided off by modern naturalists
under the name of _Macrochires_.[285]

THE COMMON SWIFT (_Cypselus apus_).[286]

In the beginning of May the Common Swift comes to Great Britain and
the rest of Europe, after passing his winter sojourn in South Africa.
He is one of the latest arrivals, as he comes only when summer has
fairly begun and fine weather is pretty well assured; again, in autumn,
he is almost the first of the summer migrants to take his departure,
and the absence of the Swifts from their accustomed haunts is a sure
sign of the approach of the fall of the year. So incumbent does this
early migration seem to be upon the species, that the Swifts have been
known to leave their young to perish of starvation rather than delay
their departure if cold weather suddenly approaches. All birds appear
to have at times a failure of instinct, and the Swift is no exception
to the rule, for sometimes they are caught in some cold weather on
their arrival, and it is not uncommon to find them benumbed with cold,
and fluttering helplessly or even lying dead on the ground. In this
latter position they are peculiarly helpless, their little legs being
unable to raise them so as to give them the proper momentum to rise
into the air again, while their long wings are much in the way, and
only assist in their entire discomfiture. The home of the Swift, then,
is in the air, and here his evolutions are most rapid, and performed
with extreme quickness and yet with consummate ease. For his breeding
home he often selects water-spouts on lofty buildings, such as the
English cathedrals, or else places his nest under the roofs of houses,
to the edge of which he is able to shuffle, and then to launch himself
suddenly down, after which his course is easy. In the evening there
is generally a little gathering of Swifts together, when they fly
screaming round and round the buildings in which their nests have been
placed, separating again for a few moments to rejoin in an excited
flock, which passes with incredible swiftness and much noise round the
edges of the towers or homesteads. When about to migrate, however, they
are silent, and the flocks which may be seen coursing along the sides
of the downs in the southern counties of England in August utter no
sound, as if impressed with the gravity of the long journey they are
about to undertake.

[Illustration: COMMON SWIFT.]

Macgillivray describes the nest of the Common Swift as follows:--“It is
very rudely constructed, flattened, about six inches in diameter and
half an inch thick; composed of particles of Aira cæspitosa, straws
of oats, wheat, and grasses, intermixed with fibrous roots, moss,
wool, cotton, hair, and feathers of the domestic fowl, partridge, and
rook. These materials are confusedly felted and agglutinated, the
glueing matter being of a gelatinous, not of a resinous, nature, and
in extremely thin shreds, which crackle, but do not readily burn,
when flame is applied to them. There is, however, a small quantity of
the membranous scales of the Scotch fir, together with some resinous
matter, in one of these nests.” The eggs are generally two in number,
of a long oval shape, and entirely white.

[Illustration: TREE SWIFT.]

[Illustration: EDIBLE-NEST SWIFTLETS.]

Swifts appear to be found all over the world, the most graceful being
perhaps the Tree Swifts (_Dendrochelidon_), which inhabit India and
the Malayan region. In this same part of the world are also found the
Edible-nest Swiftlets (_Collocalia_), which breed in caves, their
nests being eaten by the Chinese and other Asiatic people. Dr. Jerdon
says:--“The nest, when pure and of the first make, is composed entirely
of inspissated mucus from the large salivary glands of the bird.
It is very small, bluntly triangular in form, and slightly concave
within; of a semi-transparent, fibrous sort of texture, bluish-white
in colour, and with the fibres, as it were, crossed and interlaced.
When the nests of the first make are taken away, the second nests are
mixed with feathers, and occasionally other foreign substances. The
eggs are two in number, and pure white.” Mr. E. L. Layard gives the
following account of a visit to a cave inhabited by the Indian Swiftlet
in Ceylon:--“I have at last visited the cave in which _Collocalia
nidifica_[287] builds, and will now, with the aid of my journal, give
all the information I can, sending you birds skinned and in spirit,
and a young nestling taken from the nest with my own hand. The cave is
situated at a place called Havissay, about thirty-five miles from the
sea and twenty from the river, and about 500 feet up a fine wood-clad
hill, called Diagallagoolawa, or Hoonoomooloocota. Its dimensions are
as follows:--Length between fifty and sixty feet, about twenty-six
broad, and twenty high. It is a mass of limestone rock, which has
cracked off the hill-side, and slipped down on to some boulders below
its original position, forming a hollow triangle. There are three
entrances to the cave; one at each end, and one very small one in the
centre. The floor consists of large boulders, covered to the depth of
two or three inches with the droppings of the birds, old and young,
and the bits of grass they bring in to fabricate their nests. The only
light which penetrates the cavern from the entrances above mentioned is
very dim. When my eyes, however, got accustomed to the light, I could
see many hundreds of nests glued to the side of the fallen rock, but
none to the other side, or hill itself. This I attribute to the fact
of the face of the main rock being evidently subject to the influence
of the weather, and perhaps to the heavy dews off the trees; but for
this, the side in question would have been far more convenient for
the birds to have built on, as it sloped gently outward, whereas the
other was much overhung, and caused the birds to build their nests of
an awkward shape, besides taking up more substance. I was at the spot
a few days before Christmas, and fancy that must be about the time
to see the nests in perfection. This is corroborated by the fact of
my finding young birds in all the nests taken by me, and by what the
old Chinaman said, that the ‘take’ came on in October. I find that
they have three different qualities of nests, and send two for your
inspection. The best is very clean, white as snow, and thin, and is
also very expensive. The most inferior are composed of dry grasses,
hair, &c., but I could not detect anything like the bloody secretion,
as described (‘though only under peculiar circumstances of exhaustion’)
by Mr. Barbe, even in a fresh nest. I was in the cave late (after 5
P.M.) in the evening of a day which threatened rain, but the
old birds were still flying round the summit of the mountain at a vast
altitude, occasionally dashing down into the cave with food for their
nestlings. By daylight next morning I was on foot, but the birds were
before me, hawking on the plain below and all about the hills. I have
found the birds here, in Colombo, in Kandy, and all along the road we
went. I could learn nothing of the number of eggs laid, nor of their
colour. I found one bird in each nest. The Chinese who live on the
spot pretend not to understand anything asked them, and the apathetic
Cingalese have never taken the trouble to see for themselves, so they
could give me no information. The aspect of the country, broken and
rugged, coupled with the numerous flocks of birds I saw flying round
the various hills, leads me to think there must be many breeding-places
yet undiscovered. One, however, was pointed out, but we had not time to
visit it. I could not hear of any other kind of _Swift_ breeding there,
but have just received such information as leads me to suppose that _C.
fuciphaga_ builds near Jaffna on some rocks overhanging the sea. I may
further add that there were no Bats in the cave with _C. nidifica_, nor
did I see any bird of prey, save a fine _Hæmatornis_, which I shot. The
Cingalese name for _C. nidifica_ is _Wahlæna_.”

[Illustration: WHITE-THROATED SPINE-TAILED SWIFT.]

THE TWELFTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.--THE HUMMING
BIRDS (_Trochilidæ_).

These exquisite little creatures are perhaps the largest family of
birds known, numbering, at the present day, nearly five hundred
species. It is simply impossible in a work like the present to do
more than allude to a family, the full description of which by Mr.
Gould has occupied five large folio volumes. An immense variety of form
and colour is presented to us. All the birds are of small size, some
of them being no larger than Hawk-moths, to which in their manner of
flight they bear considerable resemblance.

[Illustration: SWORD-BILL HUMMING BIRD.]

In some countries Humming-birds are tolerably common, but some
species are of extreme rarity, such, for instance, as the _Loddigesia
mirabilis_, which was discovered forty years ago, and still remains
represented by a single specimen in the collection of the late Mr.
George Loddiges, and of which a reward of fifty pounds, offered by Mr.
Gould, has not succeeded in obtaining a second example. As a rule,
Humming-birds are a Neotropical family, that is to say, the vast
majority of the species occur in South America, and do not wander
above the line of Northern Mexico; but a few species are found in
the Southern United States, while one occurs in summer even in North
America, ranging as far as, and even breeding in, Canada. Professor
Newton writes:--“Wilson, Audubon, Mr. Gosse, and several others gifted
with the ‘pen of a ready writer,’ have so fully described, as far
as words will admit, the habits of different members of the family
_Trochilidæ_, that it is unnecessary to say much on this score.
Their appearance is so entirely unlike that of any other birds that
it is hopeless to attempt in any way to bring a just conception
of it to the ideas of those who have not crossed the Atlantic; and
even the comparison so often made between them and the _Sphingidæ_,
though doubtless in the main true, is much to the advantage of the
latter. One is admiring the clustering stars of a scarlet _Cordia_,
the snowy cornucopias of a _Portlandia_, or some other brilliant and
beautiful flower, when between the blossoms and one’s eye suddenly
appears a small dark object, suspended as it were between four short
black threads meeting each other in a cross. For an instant it shows
in front of the flower; an instant more it steadies itself, and one
perceives the space between each pair of threads occupied by a grey
film; again another instant, and, emitting a momentary flash of emerald
and sapphire light, it is vanishing, lessening in the distance as it
shoots away, to a speck that the eye cannot take note of--and all this
so rapidly that the word on one’s lips is still unspoken, scarcely the
thought in one’s mind changed. It was a bold man or an ignorant one
who first ventured to depict Humming birds flying; but it cannot be
denied that representations of them are often of special use to the
ornithologist. The peculiar action of one, and probably of many or all
other species of the family, is such, that at times in flying it makes
the wings almost meet, both in front and behind, at each vibration.
Thus, when a bird chances to enter a room it will generally go buzzing
along the cornice. Standing beneath where it is, one will find that
the axis of the body is vertical, and each wing is describing a nearly
perfect semicircle. As might be expected, the pectoral muscles are
very large; indeed, the sternum of this bird is a good deal bigger
than that of the common Chimney Swallow (_Hirundo rustica_). But the
extraordinary rapidity with which the vibrations are effected seems to
be chiefly caused by these powerful muscles acting on the very short
wingbones, which are not half the length of the same parts in the
Swallow; and accordingly, great as this alar action is, and in spite
of the contrary opinion entertained by Mr. Gosse, it is yet sometimes
wanting in power, owing, doubtless, to the disadvantageous leverage
thus obtained; and the old authors must be credited who speak of
cobwebs catching Humming birds. On the 3rd of May, 1857, a bird of this
species flew into the room where I was sitting, and after fluttering
for some minutes against the ceiling, came in contact with a deserted
spider’s web, in which it got entangled, and remained suspended and
perfectly helpless for more than a minute, when by a violent effort it
freed itself. I soon after caught it, still having fragments of the web
on its head, neck, and wings; and I feel pretty sure, that had this
web been inhabited and in good repair, instead of being deserted and
dilapidated, the bird would never have escaped.”

[Illustration: WHITE-BOOTED RACKET TAIL.]

[Illustration: COMMON TOPAZ HUMMING BIRD.]

Mr. A. R. Wallace has written the following account of the habits of
Humming birds on the River Amazon:--“The greater number of species
that frequent flowers do so, I am convinced, for the small insects
found there, and not for the nectar. In dozens, and perhaps hundreds,
of common flower-frequenting species which I have examined, the crop,
stomach, and intestines have been filled with minute beetles, ants, and
spiders, which abound in most flowers in South America. Very rarely
indeed have I found a trace of honey or of any liquid in the crop or
stomach. The flowers they most frequent are the various species of
_Inga_ and the papilionaceous flowers of many large forest trees. I
have never seen them at the bignonias, or any flowers but those which
grow in large masses, covering a whole tree or shrub, as they visit
perhaps a hundred flowers in a minute and never stop at a single one.
The little Emerald Hummer I have seen in gardens and at the common
orange (_Asclepias_), which often covers large spaces of waste ground
in the tropics. But there are many, such as _Phaëthornis eremita_ and
some larger allied species, which I have never seen at flowers. These
inhabit the gloomy forest-shades, where they dart about among the
foliage; and I have distinctly observed them visit in rapid succession
every leaf on a branch, balancing themselves vertically in the air,
passing their beak closely over the under surface of each leaf, and
thus capturing, no doubt, any small insects that may be upon them.
While doing this, the two long feathers of the tail have a vibrating
motion, apparently serving as a rudder to assist them in performing
the delicate operation. I have seen others searching up and down stems
and dead sticks in the same manner, every now and then picking off
something, exactly as a Bush Shrike or Tree Creeper does, with this
exception, that the Humming-bird is continually on the wing. They also
capture insects in the true Fissirostral fashion. How often may they
be seen perched on the dead twig of a lofty tree--the station that is
chosen by the tyrant Flycatchers and the Jacamars--from which, like
those birds, they dart off a short distance, and after a few whirls and
balancings return to the identical twig they had left. In the evening,
too, just after sunset, when the Goatsuckers are beginning their search
after insects over the rivers, I have seen Humming birds come out of
the forest and remain a long time on the wing--now stationary, now
darting about with the greatest rapidity, imitating in a limited space
the evolutions of their companions the Goatsuckers, and evidently for
the same end and purpose.”

Wilson, the poet-naturalist, observes of the North American species as
follows:--“Nature in every department of her works seems to delight
in variety, and the present subject is almost as singular for its
minuteness, beauty, want of song, and manner of feeding, as the Mocking
Bird is for unrivalled excellence of note and plainness of plumage.
This is one of the few birds that are universally beloved, and amidst
the sweet dewy serenity of a summer’s morning his appearance amongst
the arbours of honeysuckles and beds of flowers is truly interesting.

“‘When morning dawns, and the blest sun again
Lifts his red glories from the Eastern main,
Then through our woodbines, wet with glittering dews,
The flower-fed Humming bird his round pursues;
Sips with inserted tube the honied blooms,
And chirps his gratitude as round he roams;
While richest roses, though in crimson drest,
Shrink from the splendour of his gorgeous breast,
What heavenly tints in mingling radiance fly!
Each rapid movement gives a different dye:
Like scales of burnished gold they dazzling show,
Now sink to shade, now to a furnace glow.’”

[Illustration: CRESTED HUMMING BIRD.]

PRINTED BY CASSELL & COMPANY, LIMITED, LA BELLE SAUVAGE, LONDON,
E.C.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The genus _Ovis_.

[2] _Ovis Poli._

[3] The genus _Capra_.

[4] “Falling from a height, it protects its whole body, between its
horns, from shock, and receives upon its horns the concussion of the
huge stones.”

[5] The genus _Gazella_.

[6] _Saïga tartarica._

[7] _Panthalops Hodgsoni._

[8] _Æpyceros melampus._

[9] _Antilope bezoartica._

[10] The genus _Cephalophus_.

[11] The genus _Tetraceros_.

[12] The genus _Eleotragus_ and its allies.

[13] _Oreas canna._

[14] _Strepsiceros kudu._

[15] _Euryceros Angasii._

[16] The genus _Tragelaphus._

[17] The _Damalidæ_.

[18] The genus _Catoblepas_.

[19] _Rupicapra tragus._

[20] The genus _Oryx_.

[21] _Portax picta._

[22] _Ovibos moschatus._

[23] _Bos taurus._

[24] The genus _Bison_.

[25] The genus _Bubalus_.

[26] _Antilocapra americana._

[27] _Moschus moschiferus._

[28] _Camelopardalis giraffa._

[29] _Alces machlis._

[30] The restricted genus _Cervus_.

[31] _Cervus elaphus._

[32] The genera _Pseudaxis_ and _Dama_.

[33] _Dama mesopotamica._

[34] The genus _Rusa_ and its allies.

[35] _Rusa Alfredi._

[36] _Rucervus Duvaucelli._

[37] _Rucervus Eldi._

[38] The genus _Cervulus_.

[39] _Capreolus caprea._

[40] _Hydropotes inermis._

[41] _Elaphurus Davidianus._

[42] _Transactions of the Zoological Society_, Vol. VII. p. 333.

[43] _Rangifer tarandus._

[44] _Tragulidæ._

[45] _Camelus dromedarius._

[46] _Camelus bactrianus._

[47] _Auchenia._

[48] In the young there are four of these small additional teeth, but
the outer pair disappear after a short time.

[49] The upper teeth always constitute a larger segment of a smaller
circle than the lower ones.

[50] The genus _Heliophobius_ among the Mole Rats is described as
having six molars on each side in both jaws; but the number in this
genus appears to be variable, the sixth molar being often undeveloped.

[51] See Note on p. 83.

[52] Having the hind feet hand-like.

[53] See _Arvicola rutilus_, p. 117.

[54] Dr. Coues has proposed this generic name for the American Jumping
Mouse, as the names _Jaculus_ and _Meriones_, given to the genus by
various authors, had been previously used for other groups.

[55] Described almost at the same time by M. Bravard under the name of
_Typotherium_. We here employ M. Serres’ name.

[56] Waterton’s “Wanderings,” pp. 161, 284.

[57] _Arctopithecus castaniceps._

[58] _Bradypus torquatus_, or _Bradypus crinitus_.

[59] _Arctopithecus flaccidus._--_Arctopithecus Ai._

[60] _Cholœpus didactylus._

[61] _Cholœpus Hoffmanni._

[62] _Orycteropus capensis_ (Geoffroy).

[63] The uterus is double, and the placenta is disc-shaped, and is cast
off (deciduate). There are chest and inguinal. teats. The vertebræ
are--seven cervical, thirteen dorsal, eight lumbar, six sacral,
twenty-five caudal.

[64] The muscle called pronator quadratus is a fleshy band, four-sided
in shape more or less. One side is attached to one of the bones of
the fore-arm, the ulna in front above the wrist; and the other and
opposite side adheres to the radius. The ulna being motionless, the
muscle contracts and pulls the radius over, so as to turn the back of
the wrist forwards, or upwards. The prone position is thus produced,
and hence the name of the muscle. The other muscle which produces this
movement is fixed to the fore-arm in front, near the inner elbow, and
it is long, having a tendon which is implanted on the radius. As this
muscle contracts, it pulls the radius over the ulna, and makes the
wrist take up a prone position. It is called the pronator teres.

[65] Genus _Manis_.

[66] _Manis tetradactyla_ (Linn.).

[67] _Manis gigantea_ (Illiger).

[68] _Manis brachyura._--_Manis pentadactyla_ (Linn.).

[69] _Myrmecophaga jubata._

[70] It is certainly remarkable that the brain of this animal should
present numerous convolutions, whilst the brain of the Sloth has
barely any. The commissures of the brain are large, especially that of
the centre, or corpus callosum, and also the anterior. The uterus is
simple, the os is double, and the placenta is said to be discoidal.

[71] _Tamandua tetradactyla._

[72] _Cyclothurus didactylus._

[73] _Dasypus gigas_ (Cuvier).

[74] _Dasypus Tatouay_ (Desmarest).

[75] _Dasypus sexcintus_ (Linn.).

[76] _Dasypus villosus_ (Desmarest).

[77] _Dasypus minutus_ (Desmarest).

[78] _Dasypus Peba_ (Desmarest).

[79] _Dasypus (Tolypeutes) apar_ (Geoffroy).

[80] _Chlamydophorus truncatus_ (Harlan).

[81] The _Macropodidæ_.

[82] _Macropus giganteus_ (Shaw).

[83] The presence of the pouch, or marsupium, containing the teats,
involves many structural and physiological peculiarities which separate
the Marsupialia, in a classificatory sense, from the rest of the
Mammalia. The Great Kangaroo, which may be considered a fair example
of the Marsupials, has in the female a set of skin muscles, around the
pouch, beneath the skin, which close it. The milk, or mammary gland,
has four long, slender teats in the pouch, and beneath the skin of
it is a muscle called the cremaster, which is largely developed. It
spreads over the surface of the gland, and its action is to squeeze it
and to force out the milk through the teat. There is thus protection
for the young, and milk is given forth, without the effort of the young
in sucking. The reason for this is obvious. The Great Kangaroo, which
is often as tall as a man, is pregnant for about thirty-nine days
only, and then a little one, not bigger than a thumb, is born; it is
not completely formed, and is blind and cannot move itself. The mother
places it in her pouch, and it fixes on to a teat, where it hangs for
about eight months, and then it begins to look out of the pouch. The
duration of the life of the young in the womb is thus very small, and
it has no placenta there, which in the other and non-marsupial Mammalia
forms the life-union between the mother and the offspring before its
birth. Thus, the Marsupials form one great group of Mammalia which
are “implacentalia,” without placentas or “after-births,” and all the
other Mammalia are “placentalia,” and have this link between mother
and young. In all the Mammalia hitherto described the young come into
the world by a single passage. In those now under consideration (the
Marsupialia) there is a double passage, and the womb is separated
into two portions, being double; so they are termed Didelphia. The
marsupium has two remarkable bones more or less in relation to it,
and all animals thus furnished are termed Marsupialia, and they form
two sections or sub-orders--(1) The Marsupiata proper, with marsupial
bones, mostly with pouches, and with inflected lower jaws. (2) The
Monotremata, which have marsupial bones, depressions in the skin, when
suckling, like ill-developed pouches, and beak-like jaws in front,
which are not inflected.

[84] See Footnote 83 on previous page.

[85] Waterhouse’s “Natural History of the Mammalia,” order Marsupiata,
from which much of this description of the order has been taken.

[86] R. Owen, “Marsupialia;” “Todd’s Cyclopædia of Anatomy and
Physiology.”

[87] See also Vol. I., page 58, Note.

[88] Mr. Gould’s works on Australian animals, occasionally quoted by me.

[89] _Macropus leporoides_ (Gould).

[90] _Macropus rufus_ (Desm.).

[91] _Macropus agilis_ (Gould, sp.).

[92] _Dendrolagus ursinus_ (Müll.).

[93] Sub-genus _Hypsiprymnus_.

[94] _Hypsiprymnus rufescens._

[95] _Hypsiprymnus penicillatus._

[96] _Hypsiprymnus murinus._

[97] Description by E. P. Ramsay, F.L.S., and communication from Sir R.
Owen to Linnean Society, London.

[98] _Phascolomys wombat_ (Peron and Lesson). φάσκωλος, a pouch, and
μῦς, a mouse.

[99] _Phascolarctus_ (pouched-bear) _cinereus_.

[100] _Phalangista ursina._

[101] _Phalangista (Cuscus) maculatus._

[102] _Phalangista vulpina._

[103] _Phalangista fuliginosa._

[104] _Phalangista Nana._

[105] _Petaurus sciureus_ (Shaw).

[106] _Petaurus ariel._

[107] _Petaurus breviceps._

[108] _Petaurus pygmæus._

[109] _Tarsipes rostratus._

[110] _Perameles lagotis._

[111] _Perameles Gunnii._

[112] _Perameles fasciata._

[113] _Perameles doreyanus._

[114] _Perameles moresbyensis_ (Rams.).

[115] _Chœropus castanotis_--χοῖρος, a hog; and πούς, a foot.

[116] _Myrmecobius fasciatus_--μύρμηξ, ant; βίος, life.

[117] _Dasyurus ursinus._

[118] _Dasyurus macrurus_, or _maculatus_.

[119] _Dasyurus Maugei_ (Geoffroy).

[120] θύλακος, a pouch.

[121] _Thylacinus cynocephalus._

[122] _Phascogale penicillata._

[123] _Didelphys virginianum._

[124] _Didelphys D’Azaræ._

[125] _Didelphys cancrivora._

[126] _Didelphys crassicaudatus._

[127] _Chironectes variegatus._

[128] The sub-genera Halmaturus and Heteropus, Osphranter,
Lagorchestes, and Petrogale, are included in Macropus, and many other
sub-genera relating to the other families merely complicate the
classification. Bettongia, Potoroiis, are sub-genera or artificial
groups of the genus Hypsiprymnus; Cuscus, Trichosurus, Pseudochirus,
and Dromicia, are groups of Phalangistidæ; Petaurista, Belideus, and
Acrobata are divisions of the genus Petaurus; Macrotis is a sub-genus
of Perameles; Antechinus is a division of the genus Phascogale;
Sarcophilus is a sub-genus of Dasyurus. These are unnecessary
sub-divisions.

[129] μόνος, one; τρῆμα, opening.

[130] _Echidna hystrix_ (Cuvier). Much confusion has been produced by
Illiger, who changed the generic title to Tachyglossus, ταχύς, quick,
and γλῶσσα, tongue; but the name given by Cuvier must stand, except in
the minds of those zoologists who delight in novelties, and believe
that the use of long words carries wisdom. Lately more confusion has
been produced by the introduction of the generic term _Acanthoglossus_,
which we do not admit or use.

[131] _Ornithorhynchus anatinus._

[132] Dr. Brehm: “Bird-life,” pp. 503, 504.

[133] Huxley, “Anatomy of Vertebrates,” p. 274.

[134] παλαιός, old; ἄρκτος, north: _i.e._, the northern division of the
_Old_ World.

[135] νέος, new; ἄρκτος, north: _i.e._, the northern division of the
_New_ World.

[136] νέος, new; τροπικός, tropical: _i.e._, the tropical division of
the _New_ World.

[137] Dr. Sclater, F.R.S., originated, in 1858, this scheme of the six
zoogeographical divisions of the globe.

[138] In the preparation of this chapter, the author begs to
acknowledge the assistance he has received from his friend Professor F.
Jeffrey Bell, B.A.

[139] These lines are thus translated by Mr. Hayward:--“I hurry on
to drink his everlasting light--the day before me and the night
behind--the heavens above, and under me the waves. A glorious dream!
as it is passing, he is gone. Alas! no bodily wing will so easily keep
pace with the wings of the mind! Yet it is the inborn tendency of our
being for feeling to strive upwards and onwards; when, over us, lost in
the blue expanse the lark sings its thrilling lay; when, over rugged
pine-covered heights, the out-spread eagle soars; and, over marsh and
sea, the crane struggles onward to her home.”

[140] These plates may become united with one another in the middle
line, and the birds that possess this arrangement have been called
_Desmognathæ_ (δεσμός, “a bond;” γνάθος, “jaw”); or they may be
separated by a more or less narrow cleft, in which case the birds in
which this is found are called _Schizognathæ_ (σχίζω, “I cleave”). As a
matter of fact, the term Schizognathous is confined to those birds in
which the above-mentioned vomer is pointed in front, while where it is
truncated the birds are called _Ægithognathæ_ (αἴγιθος, “a sparrow,” as
the character is seen in these birds). In these groups, however, the
Ostriches, or running birds, which are distinguished by having no keel
to their sternum, are not included; nor in them is the vomer narrow
behind. This broad character of the hinder end of the vomer is seen
also in one group of birds with a keeled sternum--the Tinamous--which
are consequently distinguished from other “Carinate” birds by the term
_Dromæognathæ_ (_Dromæus_, the Emu).

[141] The presence or absence of it, or of the other muscles, is used
as a means for arranging the smaller divisions of the larger groups
into which the two first-named sub-classes are, by the aid of other
anatomical facts, divided. One striking advantage of this system, as
suggested by the late Prof. A. H. Garrod, is that the characters of
the _ambiens_ have been observed to go hand in hand with certain other
characters. Thus, the cæca found at the end of the small intestine
are always present in the Homalogonatæ, or birds having the normal
arrangement of knee-muscles; but in this connection there is another
structure to be mentioned, namely, the so-called oil-gland, or gland
by the secretion of which the bird “preens” its feathers, and which is
always set in the skin in the region of the tail. Now this “uropygial,”
or oil-gland, may or may not be provided with a tuft of feathers, and
as there may or may not be cæca to the intestine, it follows that--(1)
the gland may be tufted and there may be cæca, or (2) the gland may
have no feathers and cæca may be present, or (3) there may be no
cæca and a tufted gland, or (4) there may be no cæca and no tufts
(the possible arrangement of neither being present is found in a few
Pigeons). But this is not the place to follow out the details of this
classification.

With regard to the proposition made by a French observer, M. Alix,
that birds should be divided into the Homœomyarii, Entomyarii, and
Ectomyarii, according to the character of certain of the flexor muscles
at the back of the leg, it seems only necessary to remark that so far
anatomical investigations have not supported his views, while his
system would separate birds which seem to be closely allied.

[142] Compare Vol. I., p. 213

[143] _Accipitres diurni_ of authors.

[144] _Accipitres nocturni_ of authors.

[145] _Machærhamphus Anderssoni._

[146] _Accipitrinæ._

[147] _Falco_, a Falcon.

[148] Πανδίων, a Greek mythological name.

[149] στρίγξ, an Owl.

[150] “Song of Hiawatha,” Book XIX.

[151] “Essays on Natural History,” 1866, p. 17.

[152] “Notes on the Birds of Damara Land and the adjacent countries of
South-west Africa,” 1872, p. 3.

[153] 1864, p. 307.

[154] 1859, p. 277.

[155] _Vultur monachus._

[156] _Gyps fulvus._

[157] J. H. Gurney: “Descriptive Catalogue of the Raptorial Birds in
the Norfolk and Norwich Museum.”

[158] οὖς, ὠτός, an ear; γύψ, a vulture.

[159] _Auricularis_, having ears.

[160] A mythological name.

[161] περκνός, dark-coloured; πτερόν, a wing; so called from the colour
of its wings.

[162] “Ornithology of the Strait of Gibraltar,” p. 31.

[163] σάρξ, flesh; ῤάμφος, a bill; so called on account of the fleshy
wattles on the base of the bill.

[164] _Gryphus_, a mythological name, a Griffon.

[165] καθαρτής, a scavenger.

[166] _Papa_, a pope.

[167] D’Orbigny, “Voyage dans l’Amérique Meridionale,” p. 30.

[168] ῤίν (ῤίς), ῤινός, a nose; _gryphus_, as before, a Griffon, or
Vulture; so called on account of its peculiar perforated nose.

[169] _Helotarsus ecaudatus._

[170] _Serpentarius_, a devourer of Serpents.

[171] _Secretarius_, a secretary.

[172] _Proceedings of the Zoological Society_, 1856, p. 348.

[173] Gymnogene: from two Greek words (γυμνός, bare, naked; γένυς, a
cheek).

[174] _Polyboroides_: like a _Polyborus_ or Caracara.

[175] Col. Irby, “Ornithology of the Strait of Gibraltar,” p. 34.

[176] μικρός, small; _astur_, a Goshawk. See “Lawrence’s Birds of
Western and North-Western Mexico.” “Memoirs of the Boston Soc. of Nat.
Hist.,” Vol. ii., p. 299.

[177] μέλι honey; ἱέραξ, a Hawk.

[178] _Rete_, Lat., a net, so called on account of the network pattern.

[179] _Buteo_, Lat., a Buzzard.

[180] “Birds of the West of Scotland,” p. 46.

[181] θράσος, daring; ἀετός, an Eagle.

[182] ἄρπη, a bird of prey.

[183] “Sketches of Nature in the Alps.”

[184] οὐρά, a tail; ἀετός, an Eagle.

[185] _Audax_, bold.

[186] Newton Ed., Yarrell’s “British Birds,” i., p. 19.

[187] “Rough Notes on Indian Ornithology,” p. 145.

[188] χρυσός, gold; ἀετός, an Eagle.

[189] νέος, new; πούς, a foot: meaning that there was something novel
and extraordinary about its foot.

[190] “Birds of Ceylon,” p. 49.

[191] κίρκος, a Harrier; ἀετός, an Eagle.

[192] Ibis, 1865, p. 253.

[193] ἕλω (αἱρέω), to lift; ταρσός, a tarsus.

[194] Ecaudatus, Latin, meaning “without tail,” on account of its
shortness.

[195] ἁλιάετος, a Sea Eagle.

[196] “Ootheca Woolleyana,” p. 47.

[197] ἰκτῖνος, a Kite.

[198] “Bird-life,” p. 543.

[199] μάχαιρα, a sharp knife; ῥάμφος, a bill.

[200] Andersson’s “Birds of Damara Land.” Edited by J. H. Gurney, 1872,
p. 22.

[201] Lit., like a Cuckoo.

[202] μικρός, small, tiny; ἱέραξ, a Hawk.

[203] A wanderer.

[204] μέλας, black; γένυς, a cheek.

[205] _Nigriceps_, black-headed.

[206] “Ootheca Woolleyana,” p. 93.

[207] ἱερός, sacred; _falco_, a Falcon; _candicans_, white.

[208] κερχνηίς, or κέρχνη, Gr., a Kestrel; _tinnunculus_, Lat., a Hawk.

[209] pp. 82, 95.

[210] Ornithology of Shakspere.

[211] “Ornithology of the Strait of Gibraltar,” &c., p. 56.

[212] “Essays on Natural History,” p. 8.

[213] _Ketupa_, a “barbarous” name, with no meaning.

[214] σκότος, darkness; πέλεια, a Dove, with a covert allusion to the
name of the discoverer (Sclater).

[215] Ibis, 1859, p. 447.

[216] _Bubo_, a Horned Owl (Vergil); _ignavus_, dastardly--an
inappropriate title for so fine a bird.

[217] νύκτιος, nightly, _i.e._, a bird of night--a most inappropriate
title for the Snowy Owl, which is a day-flier.

[218] _Scandiaca_, Scandinavian.

[219] A proper name.

[220] A “barbarous” name, of no meaning.

[221] From γλαυκός, blue or grey.

[222] Passerine, or Sparrow-like: _i.e._, of the size of a Sparrow.

[223] A proper name.

[224] Σύρνιον, a proper name.

[225] νυκταλός, nocturnal.

[226] Like a Hawk.

[227] ὦτος, long-eared Owl.

[228] στρίγξ, an Owl.

[229] Fiery; flame-coloured.

[230] Newton’s edition of Yarrell’s “British Birds,” Vol. I., p. 147.

[231] From _Picus_, a Woodpecker.

[232] _Fissus_, cleft; _rostrum_, a beak.

[233] ζυγόν, a yoke; δάκτυλος, a toe.

[234] ὀρθός, straight; γνάθος, a jaw.

[235] κάμπτω, to bend; λόφος, a crest.

[236] μικρός, small; γλῶσσα, a tongue.

[237] Very black.

[238] ἀνήρ, a man; γλῶσσα, a tongue.

[239] χρυσός, gold; οὖς, an ear.

[240] “Birds of Jamaica,” p. 266.

[241] G. D. Rowley, “Ornithological Miscellany,” Vol. I, p. 175.

[242] “Natural History of Cage-birds,” Part I.

[243] Jerdon, “Birds of India,” I., p. 258.

[244] στρίγξ, an Owl; ὤψ, a face, _i.e._, having the appearance of an
Owl.

[245] ἁβρός, soft; πτίλον, feather.

[246] ὀρθός, straight; γνάθος, jaw.

[247] _Trichoglossi._

[248] Professor Garrod in _Proceedings of the Zoological Society for
1872_, p. 787.

[249] “Stray Feathers,” 1877, p. 385.

[250] “Bird-life,” p. 595.

[251] Sharpe’s edition of Layard’s “Birds of South Africa,” p. 141.

[252] γῆ, earth, and κινέω, I shake; _viridis_, green.

[253] The classical Greek name, from its double note sounding like the
exclamation ἰΰ, hence the verb ἰΰζω, I cry out.

[254] Compare Fig. 1, _ch._; this bone usually exists in a paired
condition, but in Woodpeckers and some other birds it appears single
by the confluence of its members. In many birds the “basi-hyal” is
succeeded by the “uro-hyal” (Fig. 1, _b. br._), a bone altogether
absent whenever the tongue is capable of extraordinary protrusion.

[255] σφῦρα, a hammer; _picus_, a woodpecker.

[256] Yarrell, “British Birds,” vol. ii., p. 137.

[257] μέλας, black; ἕρπω, I creep; _formicivorus_, ant-eating.

[258] Linnæus. A proper name.

[259] From ῥάμφος, a bill.

[260] “Monograph of the _Rhamphastidæ_, or Family of Toucans,” by John
Gould, F.R.S. Introduction.

[261] From _Capito_, the principal genus: a proper name.

[262] “A Monograph of the Capitonidæ, or Scansorial Barbets,” by C. H.
T. Marshall and G. F. L. Marshall (1871).

[263] _Galbula_, a proper name.

[264] Sclater, “Synopsis of the Fissirostral Family Bucconidæ,” 8vo,
1854.

[265] _Alcedo_, a Kingfisher.

[266] Sharpe’s “Monograph of the Alcedinidæ, or Kingfishers.”

[267]

“Perque dies placidos hiberno tempore septem
Incubat alcyone pendentibus æquore nidis.”--Ovid, _Met._ xi. 745.

[268] κηρύλος, a sea-bird of the halcyon kind.

[269] “Ornithologie Nord Ost Afrikas,” p. 185.

[270] πελαργός, a stork; ὤψ, a face.

[271] Diminutive of _Ispida_, a Kingfisher.

[272] τανύω, to stretch; πτερόν, a wing.

[273] βούκερως, having the horn (κέρας) of a cow (βοῦς).

[274] Elliot: “Monograph of the Bucerotidæ, or family of the
Hornbills,” Part IV.

[275] “Missionary Travels in South Africa.”

[276] “Malay Archipelago,” Vol. I., p. 212.

[277] See Sharpe’s Edition of Layard’s “Birds of South Africa,” p. 122.

[278] Sharpe and Dresser, “Birds of Europe,” Part VII., 1871.

[279] “Ornithology of the Strait of Gibraltar,” p. 66.

[280] φᾶρος, a mantle; μακρός, large.

[281] Ibis, 1861, p. 138.

[282] στέαρ, στέατος, fat; ὄρνις, a bird.

[283] βάτραχος, a frog; στόμα, a mouth.

[284] Owl-like.

[285] μακρός, long; χείρ, a hand, in the sense of a wing of a bird.

[286] Cypselus, a swift; α, not; πούς, a foot.

[287] Nest-building.

*** End of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "Cassell's Natural History, Vol. 3 (of 6)" ***

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