Furniture upholstery for schools

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Title: Furniture upholstery for schools
Author: Emil A. Johnson, B.S., A.M
Language: English
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FURNITURE
UPHOLSTERY

FOR SCHOOLS

EMIL A. JOHNSON, B.S., A.M.

_Assistant Professor of Manual Arts.
Bradley Polytechnic Institute,
Peoria, Illinois_

[Illustration: Decoration]

THE MANUAL ARTS PRESS
PEORIA, ILLINOIS
1919

PREFACE

The purpose of this book is to give information concerning the
methods by which upholstery work may be successfully carried on
in school shops. The added beauty and comfort given to furniture
by upholstery makes work of this character worth while. If period
furniture is to be reproduced or modified, the worker must understand
the art of upholstering.

The tendency to reproduce or copy good old pieces of furniture should
be encouraged, for only in this way may a student obtain a proper
background, from which may be developed a new style. New ideas,
derived from the best of the old, are likely to serve humanity in the
best way.

The study of the art of upholstery is an interesting one. It leads
into many avenues of interest and profit, such as the history and
methods of weaving; the processes of tanning and coloring; the
manufacture and history of textiles; and the like. Such correlation
is valuable, and each is distinctly educational.

I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to Prof. Chas. A. Bennett
for valuable suggestions and inspiration; to David H. Tingwall for
valuable help, and photographs; to A. C. Newell for suggestions on
the outlines; to Wm. F. Tuttle for the photographs of antiquarian
furniture taken at the Art Institute of Chicago; to Bessie Bennett
for certain information about the furniture; to John R. Fasier for
the drawing in Fig. 28; and to my former and present Bradley students
for inspiration and help.

The practical contents have been verified and corroborated by Henry
Euler, a practical upholsterer for fifty-nine years, and by Herman
Schwartling who has followed the trade for thirty years.

EMIL A. JOHNSON.

Peoria, Illinois, February, 1919.

CONTENTS

PART I

PAGE

CHAPTER I. HISTORICAL 7

CHAPTER II. TOOLS AND MATERIALS 11

Tools 11

Materials 11

PART II

UPHOLSTERY WITHOUT SPRINGS

CHAPTER III. UPHOLSTERING BOARD STRUCTURES 16

A Low Footstool 16

A Cart 17

A Leg Rest 17

A Footstool 21

Materials Required 23

CHAPTER IV. UPHOLSTERING CHAIR SEATS 24

A Chair Seat 24

A Set-in Seat 27

CHAPTER V. UPHOLSTERING A FRAMED STRUCTURE 28

Footstool 28

Procedure 29

Materials 36

Order of Procedure 37

Different Methods 37

PART III

UPHOLSTERY WITH SPRINGS

CHAPTER VI. MAKING A HARD-EDGE SEAT 38

Method 38

Process 40

A Queen Anne Stool 47

CHAPTER VII. RE-UPHOLSTERING 50

Old Furniture 50

CHAPTER VIII. SPRING-EDGE UPHOLSTERY 53

OUTLINES 60

INDEX 64

[Illustration: A QUEEN ANNE STOOL WHICH ILLUSTRATES A HARD-EDGE SEAT,
SEE CHAPTER VI.]

PART I

CHAPTER I

HISTORICAL

Upholstering in its broadest sense means the furnishing of a house
with draperies, curtains and other hangings; bedding; coverings
for couches, chairs and stools; and coverings for carriages and
automobiles.

The word upholster, or upholsterer, designates the workman who
hangs the draperies and attaches textiles or leather to furniture.
In the early days of the craft, as well as today, draperies had
to be hung in a manner that assured retention of their shape, and
textiles required stuffing and springs underneath to give the fabric
permanent form. This holding up attribute led to the use of the
words “upholder,” “upholster,” “upholstering,” and “upholsterer.”
These applied also to furniture huxters who held up their wares for
inspection when sold at auction.

“The old time castle or baronial hall, with its strong stone walls
and stone floors, was, so far as comfort went, little better than
the clay hut of the feudal serf; but when the ladies of the baronial
family had excogitated, or acquired the art of needlecraft, and had
become proficient therein, the “up-holder” sprang into being, as a
necessary adjunct to an important family. The ladies’ needlework
(tapestry) was obviously adapted to drape the rude stone walls of the
feudal hall, and the artisan who could drape or hang it effectively
and without injury was a useful dependent, or tradesman, who, as
he caused the tapestry to “hold up,” naturally became known as an
“up-holder,” or “upholsterer.”

“The Egyptians from the earliest times used upholstered couches,
chairs, and footstools,” says Richard Bitmead. “It is known, too,
that their neighbors, the Assyrians, excelled in weaving and
practiced the art of decorating draperies by the introduction of gold
in the woof. The rich carpets of Persia and the muslins of India were
in use for ages before the Romans set foot in Britain, and there can
be little doubt but that the Oriental people raised the art to a
very high standard, and long before the trade was known in Europe.
But at the present time, much more so than formerly, the progress
of the arts, the refinements of taste, the caprice of fashion, and
the habits and requirements of luxurious ease, which have extended
to all classes of society, have given a greater impetus to the trade
and a far higher importance to the art of upholstery than it has ever
before attained.”

Research shows that in the early seventeenth century, at the
beginning of the Jacobean period, stools, chairs, settees and sofas
were upholstered. Both seats and backs were padded and covered with
leather or textiles. Sometimes, instead of tacking the goods onto the
furniture itself, loose cushions were made to fit the frame. These
cushions were called “squabs.” With the introduction of leather in
upholstering, comfort was not the primary thought, but in common with
all structures of the period, durability was a first consideration.
So the leather utilized was thick and stiff, thus offering
durability, but little comfort.

The Flanders chair shown in Fig. 1 is done in leather. It is one
of two side chairs from the seventeenth century. One has a plain
leather back; the other is tooled, illustrating a decorative coat of
arms. The leather in this chair is made thick and rigid by the use
of a stiff paper core, on both sides of which is glued a jute-like
fabric, and over this the leather. This makes a five ply composition
of almost everlasting wearing qualities, but very susceptible to
checking and cracking.

The arm chair shown in Fig. 2 is Italian, from the early seventeenth
century. It has carved finials. Webbing is used as a foundation for
the seat, over which a jute-like fabric is fastened. A canvas fabric
is placed over this. The stuffing is placed over this and covered
with leather, which is nailed to the structure with large, flat,
brass-headed nails. The edging is a fabric gimp with fringed edge.

The arm chair illustrated in Fig. 3 is Italian, from the sixteenth
century. It has carved finials but no turned work. The leather back
is tooled, and gilded with an elaborate design. The leather seat has
been blocked up from below to maintain the original appearance, and
the leather is not the same grade as used on the back. Round headed
nails, of two sizes, and the fringed gimp, complete the ornamentation.

[Illustration: FIG. 1]

[Illustration: FIG. 2]

The chair shown in Fig. 4 is an English ladder-back side chair from
the seventeenth century. Here we have both comfort and practicability
combined. The seat is built up with webbing, canvas and stuffing, and
covered with a needlework tapestry. It is finished with a fringed
gimp with brass headed nails.

Not only does upholstery add comfort to furniture, but it reflects
the conditions in the life of a people. Alice F. Schmall said
recently: “With the accession of James I to the throne of England
the style of dress changed to trunk hose and padded doublet, and
the carven forms of furniture gave place to upholstery. There is a
sense of dignity and refinement about a really fine chair; and the
modern upholstered chair, which Chippendale developed, shows that our
ancestors were fully alive to its advantages in the way of comfort.”

[Illustration: FIG. 3]

[Illustration: FIG. 4]

Good modern upholstery is to a great extent a copy of the older
forms. Newer goods are utilized but old methods of application are
retained. The cheaper forms of upholstery are, however, entirely
modern. While formerly there existed no cheap upholstery, today wire
and band iron are used in place of webbing, and tufting is done by
machine.

CHAPTER II

TOOLS AND MATERIALS

TOOLS.—The only tools needed in simple upholstery, besides those
in the average manual training shop, are a gimp hammer, a webbing
stretcher, a pair of scissors, a regulator and straight and curved
needles. In Fig. 5, from left to right are illustrated: webbing
stretcher, regulator, gimp hammer and a pair of scissors.

The webbing stretcher may be made by driving nails into a formed
piece of wood as shown, 3½ inches wide by 7 inches long. Then cut or
file off the heads and file each to a sharp point.

The regulator is a long wire sharpened at one end and used for
sticking thru the muslin cover to rearrange the stuffing, to insure
evenness. This tool may be made from a heavy wire bent in the form of
a ring at one end, and sharpened at the other. Scissors 8 inches or
more in length are more convenient than smaller ones.

Two needles are required, a straight double pointed one 12 inches
long, and a curved single pointed one 6 inches long. Several other
kinds will facilitate work, however. A straight, double pointed
6-inch needle is convenient for sewing springs to webbing and
triangular pointed needles are best adapted for sewing leather.

Skewers are upholstery pins, usually 3 or 3½ inches long. They are
pointed on one end and bent in a circle on the other. These are used
in doing welt-edged work, or wherever it is necessary to hold goods
temporarily while adjusting the work.

All these tools may be purchased from any firm dealing in upholstery
supplies.

MATERIALS.—Webbing is our first consideration in the matter of
materials. The two best kinds are L. M. C. and B. F. M. The former
has a closer weave and is of better quality than the latter. It will
withstand great strain before its elasticity gives out. It is good
policy to purchase the better grade inasmuch as it costs but 30 cents
more for a 72-yard piece. L. M. C. comes in two widths, 3½ inch and
4½ inch, with the former width in more general use. The 3½ inch
variety may be purchased for about $1.65 per 72-yard roll.

Burlap is the best material to use over webbing and over springs. It
will not rip and tear as readily as most textiles and it is therefore
a preferred material. Burlap comes in three weights: light (8 oz.),
medium (10 oz.), and heavy (12 oz.). The medium weight is best
adapted for our work. This may be purchased for 9 cents a yard. It
is 40 inches wide. Used burlap may ordinarily be purchased at local
dry-goods stores for about 5 cents per pound. Even considering waste,
this is much cheaper and quite as good as new burlap for the work
intended.

[Illustration: FIG. 5]

Several kinds of material may be employed for stuffing. The very
best material available is curled horse hair. It is also the most
expensive, costing from 30 to 65 cents per pound depending upon
quality. The stuffing recommended for such work as ours is tow.
This may be purchased by the 100-pound bale at a cost of 2 cents
per pound. There are three grades of tow: fine, medium and coarse.
The fine variety should be used, for the coarser kinds are hard to
manipulate and result in uneven surfaces after a period of use.
Even with the medium grade of tow it is necessary to use a layer
of wadding over it to prevent ridges showing thru the cover. Other
stuffing materials are moss, kapok, alva, and excelsior. Cork
shavings are generally used for boat cushions.

When cloth is desired between the stuffing and cover, unbleached
muslin should be used. In cheaper work this is eliminated. In our
work we will find it advantageous, for it gives to the seat the
proper shape, and permits better and smoother work on the final
covering. After the application of the muslin, if it is found that
the seat is not of the desired shape, more stuffing may be added or
the stuffing may be distributed by the regulator. Muslin 36 inches
wide may be obtained for 7 cents a yard from any local dry-goods
store.

Wadding is a kind of stuffing arranged in sheets. It is used over
other stuffing. Its function is to give a smooth, even appearance to
the seat or cushion. Wadding is invariably used over curled hair to
prevent the ends of the hair from penetrating the cover. It may be
purchased in sheets 30 × 36 inches; the one pound quality at 35 cents
per dozen sheets.

It is generally desirable to place cloth under the seat to prevent
dust from falling to the floor from the seat, and to exclude moths
from the stuffing. Cambric is desirable for this purpose. It has a
finish which makes it dust-proof, but it tears easily and cannot
supplant the muslin used over stuffing. Cambric comes in a 24-inch
width and costs about 5½ cents per yard.

There are innumerable varieties of fabrics adapted for outside
coverings, and good taste and judgment must be used in selecting
proper kinds for certain jobs. It is obvious that office and library
furniture require coverings of a different quality and kind from
that of the living room; and dining room furniture from that of the
bedroom. A footstool may properly be given a covering of different
character from a chair seat. In the selection of figured goods great
discretion is necessary. The figures on fabrics for a chair seat or
back should manifestly be smaller and more subdued than those for a
sofa or davenport. A sense of good design needs to be developed here,
for proper selection is essential, both as regards color, figure, and
adaptability to the particular structure, and its placement.

The first piece of tapestry woven in this country was completed in
1893. It was for a chair seat. The second was a counterpart of the
first and is now in the Field Museum of Chicago.

Tapestry may be defined as printing in colored threads. The most
perfect work in tapestry is produced on vertical looms, but one-third
more work may be accomplished on horizontal looms in the same length
of time. A Gobelin workman on a vertical loom produces on an average,
one square yard of tapestry in 300 working days. The art in this work
is the graduation of shades. In the best days of tapestry weaving,
between 1450 and 1550, but twenty to sixty shades were known, while
today we have knowledge of over 14,000.

“Brocade” is the term applied to any material having a raised
pattern. Formerly the name referred to materials with embroidered
patterns upon colored fabrics. “Chintz” is the term applied to
cotton cloth printed with a floral or bird design. “Denim” is a
strong, twilled cotton fabric. “Gunny” is jute-cloth. “Burlap” is a
substitute for gunny cloth.

There are three classes of coverings in upholstery: genuine leather,
textiles, and leather substitutes. Leather substitutes, or so-called
artificial leather, is well adapted for beginners in upholstery,
and is inexpensive. It is manufactured in 50 and 54-inch widths,
and costs from 60 cents to $1.75 per yard. Trade names of leather
substitute are Marokene, Chase Leather, Hercules, Victor Leather,
Pantasote, Mole Skin, Mule Skin, etc. The better varieties are very
durable and very closely resemble leather. Genuine leather costs from
16 to 36 cents per square foot in the whole hide or full skin, and up
to 75 cents per foot cut to size. Cloth or textiles cost from $1.00
to $3.00 per yard in the general run of grades. They may cost as high
as $10.00 per yard. Tapestry may run into prohibitive costs. Some of
the best textiles are tapestries, brocades, velvets, plushes, satins
and hair cloth; cheaper ones are velours, chintz, reps, and denims.

Gimp is a narrow edging used for covering raw edges of the cover and
heads of common tacks which secure the cover. It comes in rolls of 25
to 36 yards. Black imitation leather gimp costs 20 cents a roll of 25
yards, and brown or Spanish, 35 cents. Cloth gimp costs from 2 to 3
cents a yard.

Three kinds of nails may be used in the work outlined: solid leather,
Perfection and Metalene. Metalene is perhaps the most satisfactory.
These come in the following numbers with attendant sizes; No.
230—½-inch head; No. 240—⅜-inch head; No. 250—7/16-inch head; No.
260—9/16-inch head, and No. 270—¾-inch head. No. 250 is used in our
work. They cost 80 cents per thousand in the plain, and 90 cents in
Spanish effect.

Upholstery springs may be purchased from 3 to 16 inches in height.
They cost 6 cents a pound and weigh from 22 to 100 pounds per gross.
On this basis the cost of the large ones approximates 4 cents apiece.
The 9-inch springs are most frequently used, and their cost is a
trifle over 2 cents apiece. It is better to purchase springs longer
than necessary than to obtain them too short, for they may easily be
tied down. They should be twice as long as the width of the rails
into which they are placed.

Spring twine is needed for tying the springs. No. 60 four-ply Italian
hemp serves this purpose very well. This can be purchased for 27
cents a pound in one-pound balls.

Stitching twine is also needed for spring and stitched edge work. For
this purpose No. 252 elm flax stitching is used. This costs 30 cents
per half-pound ball.

The prices quoted are wholesale. Retail prices vary so much in
different communities, and even in different places in the same
community that they cannot be given with any fair degree of accuracy.
The wholesale prices quoted will, however, give some idea of the cost
of materials to the workman. At present, however, even wholesale
prices are very unstable. All prices above are pre-war prices.

PART II

UPHOLSTERY WITHOUT SPRINGS

CHAPTER III

UPHOLSTERING A BOARD STRUCTURE

A LOW FOOTSTOOL.—This project is chosen for the first work in
upholstery for the reason that it involves the simplest processes
possible. Nailing a piece of leather or strips of leather across a
frame cannot be dignified by the term upholstery. Therefore, such
work is not to be considered under this head. The structure, in
addition to the simple upholstery processes involved, requires but
elementary bench work in wood in its construction.

After staining the stool take a small amount of tow, pull it out
thoroly with the hands until all uneven bunches are eliminated;
then spread it out evenly on the top of the stool as illustrated
in Fig. 6. Then place a piece of muslin over this, tacking it with
4-oz. tacks ¼ inch from the edges of the board. The muslin should be
folded over on itself at the edges, and stretched very taut. Tack
each side first, then work toward corners. This method of tacking
insures a smooth, taut surface, and should be followed always. Use
the regulator, Fig. 7, to even out any irregularities and to force
the tow well out toward the outer edges of the muslin. Then lay a
piece of wadding over this to make a smooth surface; see Fig. 7.
Next stretch a piece of Marokene leather of the color desired over
the previous layers and secure it with 2½-oz. tacks. These should be
placed about 2 inches apart, ¼ inch from the edges of the stool, and
surplus fabric trimmed to ⅛ inch from edges. Finally, cut a piece of
gimp and secure with Metalene nails as shown in Fig. 8. Fold the gimp
at the corners and splice at the last corner. Place the nails equal
distances apart on parallel edges. Be sure that the leather, gimp
and nails harmonize with each other and these with the final color of
the stool.

A CART.—The different processes for upholstering a cart, illustrated
in Fig. 9, are identical to those just described, with the exception
that a margin is left at the edges of the seat. The cart suggests a
very practical application of simple upholstery, either in covering a
wood seat or in replacing a worn upholstered seat.

[Illustration: FIG. 6]

A LEG REST.—The processes of upholstering the leg rest shown in
Fig. 10 vary substantially from those already discussed. Here is
the first introduction to a hard edge. Reference to Fig. 10 will
show how this edge is made. Chamfer the upper arris of the seat as
wide as the tack head and drive the tacks in at right angles to the
chamfer. This method avoids splitting the corners. The near side of
the illustration shows a piece of burlap tacked with two-thirds of
its width overhanging. Use 4-oz. tacks for this purpose, and tack in
such a way that the heads of the tacks are _even with the edge_ of
the seat.

After the burlap has been secured in this way insert a small roll
of tow or a strand or two of welt cord under the burlap at the edge
of the seat. The diameter of this roll may vary from ¼ to ½ inch as
desired. Bring the burlap over and around the firmly packed tow or
cord, and tack down extremely close to the roll, keeping the roll
round. Special effort should be made to keep the roll smooth and
even, for its form determines the final form. The rear side of the
illustration, Fig. 10, shows the completed roll.

[Illustration: FIG. 7]

Strips of webbing may be employed in place of burlap. Webbing is a
closer woven fabric than burlap, and in consequence produces a more
even roll. And webbing cord is preferable to tow for it requires less
time to place and results in a smooth edging.

The strip of soft wood shown in the illustration is called an
upholstery block. Gimp and muslin are secured to this block. Without
these blocks, one at each end, the cover could not be placed without
much labor and resulting unsightly folds at the corners.

After the corner strips are placed and the rolls formed, place
sufficient tow on the seat to produce a slightly rounded top when the
tow is pressed down firmly with the hands. The tow must be picked,
that is, pulled out thoroly to make it even and fluffy. Place over
this a piece of muslin, tacking it temporarily at the center of each
side with several 2½-oz. tacks. These should be only partly driven, a
process called slip-tacking or loose-tacking. Stretch it tightly, and
bring the threads of the muslin in line with the edges of the seat.
Next pull out the tacks from one side and re-stretch the muslin by
stroking it several times with the left hand, always holding it with
the right. Do this on each side in succession. An expert workman will
hold the tacks in his mouth and the hammer in the right hand during
the whole process. After the muslin has been placed use the regulator
and re-distribute the tow should any unevenness exist. This process
is called regulating.

[Illustration: FIG. 8]

[Illustration: FIG. 9]

Next place the cover. Whether it be genuine leather, leather
substitute or textile fabric, proceed as with the muslin omitting
folding the edges. Stretch the cover tightly and tack with 2½-oz.
tacks. Place the tacks a small fraction of an inch from the lower
edge of the board so the trimming of the cover may be easily done.
Apply the gimp. This covers the raw edges of the materials and tack
heads. Start at the right-hand corner, fastening it with a 2½-oz.
tack. Carry it across to the left-hand corner and fasten with another
tack. Fold it upon itself so as to form a definite crease then twist
it over and carry it up and along the soft wood strip to the next
corner. Repeat this process to the starting point; then cut the gimp
off flush with the bottom of the board and secure with a tack. As
the forty-five degree folds are made, the gimp nails should also
be driven in place. Fig. 11 shows the steps in making the folds at
the corners. Space distances equally and place all gimp nails. A
desirable distance is from 1½ to 2½ inches—depending on the cover
material. A quick way to place these nails is to drive a nail in the
middle of an edge, then one in the half way points between this and
each corner, and so on. This process gives good eye training. Fig. 12
shows completed leg rest.

[Illustration: FIG. 10]

[Illustration: FIG. 11]

A FOOTSTOOL.—The upholstery operations on the stool shown in Fig.
13 are very similar to those on the leg rest. The rolls are formed
identically but are placed on four sides. Special care must be
exercised to keep the corners firm and even, and in line with other
parts of the rolls. The cover needs folding at the corners to make
it smooth. The gimp runs continuously around the edge without folds.
This form of stool requires a greater amount of upholstery material
than the first form, and is not as pleasing in structural design, but
is a more comfortable structure.

[Illustration: FIG. 12]

[Illustration: FIG. 13]

MATERIALS REQUIRED.—This stool, with top 9×14 inches requires the
following materials for upholstering:

QUANTITY MATERIAL SIZE

2 pieces Burlap 3×14½ inches
2 pieces Burlap 3×8 inches
70 Tacks 4 ounce
10 ounces Tow
1 piece Muslin 11×18 inches
60 Tacks 2½ ounce (For muslin and cover)
1 piece Marokene 12×17 inches
46 inches Gimp
14 Metalene Nails

CHAPTER IV

UPHOLSTERING CHAIR SEATS

[Illustration: FIG. 14]

[Illustration: FIG. 15]

A CHAIR SEAT.—The typical upholstered seat is undoubtedly that of
the dining chair. The processes involved are very simple. A shallow
rabbet should be run along the inside edges of the seat frame, say
about ⅛ inch deep and ¾ inch wide. This will permit the gimp to run
flush with the top of the seat frame when all work is completed.

First decide on the number of lengths of webbing that will be
required for the given area. Then, using the best of webbing, take
one end and tack with 10-oz. tacks. If hard wood is used in the
structure and it tends to split, use smaller tacks, say 8-oz. or
6-oz. Stretch the strand of webbing with the webbing stretcher, and
tack as illustrated in Fig. 23.

When four tacks have been driven in cut the webbing off 1 inch beyond
the row of tacks; fold over, and tack down with three tacks placed
between the four previous ones. Folding the ends over rather than
under is better practice, for the fold protects the webbing at the
points of greatest strain. Use as many tacks as the wood will permit,
for many tacks distribute the strain over all threads of the webbing.
After the lengths of webbing have been attached from front to back
weave lengths thru these from side to side as shown in Fig. 14, and
secure in the same manner. The illustration shows the underside of
the seat.

[Illustration: FIG. 16]

Next tack burlap over the webbing with 4-oz. tacks. Cut the burlap
slightly larger than the opening, including the rabbet, and fold the
edges over in tacking. Stretch the burlap slightly to prevent sagging
in the opening, but not so tight that the webbing will not support
practically all the weight.

[Illustration: FIG. 17]

[Illustration: FIG. 18]

Now place the stuffing, tow, picking it and working it into shape.
Over this secure muslin and then lay a sheet or two of blue-sheet
wadding over all. Place the leather substitute, and the gimp and
nails. The gimp is nailed against the rabbet edge, Fig. 15. These
processes have been described and need no repetition here. The
finished seat frame is shown on a dining chair in Fig. 16. The back
of the chair is also upholstered, practically in a manner identical
to the seat. On the rear of this back a piece of leather substitute
of same color and finish as the front is tacked and the edges covered
with gimp. It is a good practice to tack a piece of cambric under the
seat frame for sanitary reasons indicated in a previous chapter.

A SET-IN SEAT.—This form of seat is very convenient for any chair or
stool where a set-in seat is desired. Cleats on which the seat rests
may be screwed or nailed to the rails, or the rails may be rabbetted
to receive them. Corner blocks may also be utilized for the purpose.
In addition the seat may be fastened to these rests with screws. This
usually prevents the chair from squeaking, due to a loose seat.

In constructing the wood frame for this kind of seat allow at least
3/16 inch for the thickness of materials. More allowance should be
made for thick material and genuine leather.

[Illustration: FIG. 19]

Attach webbing and burlap in the usual manner; then form the hard
edge as described previously. The hard edge is shown in Fig. 17
together with tow, wadding, and muslin, and Fig. 18 shows the seat
ready for the covering after the trimming of the raw edges. The
finished seat placed in a rocker is illustrated in Fig. 19.

CHAPTER V

UPHOLSTERING A FRAMED STRUCTURE

FOOTSTOOL.—A stool which makes a very interesting problem for simple
upholstery is shown in Fig. 20. This is typical of that class of
structures on which the coverings completely hide the rails, leaving
only the legs exposed. The rails should be placed ⅜ inch below the
rounded part of the legs, and be at least ⅞ inch thick. Inside
arrises of the rails should be rounded with a rasp to prevent the
webbing from eventually being cut thru. The framework of such a
structure is shown in Fig. 21. Attach the corner blocks as shown in
Fig. 22; then properly stretch the webbing and tack it in place.
The webbing is the ground work of upholstering, and the durability
of the work depends to a considerable degree upon its quality and
proper application. Use the original roll of webbing. This enables
the worker to use the webbing stretcher without waste. Both ends
should be used. This permits the utilization of the two free ends,
and allows freer work. Fig. 23 illustrates the method of using the
webbing stretcher.

[Illustration: FIG. 20]

PROCEDURE.—Fold the end of the webbing over about 1 inch and tack
with five 10-oz. tacks as near the middle of the rail as possible.
This is illustrated in Fig. 24. The ends of the webbing should be
folded over and not under, as suggested before. The tacks will hold
better. The middle length of webbing should be placed first to
facilitate equal spacing between strands. The other free end of the
bolt of webbing should be tacked on the opposite side in like manner
to assure proper spacing. Fig. 24 shows the ends tacked and stretched
from the same side, but in tacking them from the opposite sides it
tends to prevent splitting, for the last ends are to be secured with
seven tacks. After the first end is secured with five tacks use the
webbing stretcher and pull the webbing across, extremely taut, and
fasten with four tacks while thus stretched. Do likewise with the
second strand. Cut each piece about an inch from the tacks; then fold
over and tack with three tacks. Before tacking the two long strands
they should be woven thru the shorter strands as illustrated in Fig.
24. The openings between strands should not exceed 2 inches.

[Illustration: FIG. 21]

Cover the webbing with burlap. The edges of this should project
slightly beyond the ends of the webbing, as illustrated in Fig. 25.

It is desirable, in fact essential, in all upholstery to keep the
cover away from the wood as much as possible. This prevents the cover
from becoming worn or cut, and avoids a hard, uncomfortable edge for
the occupant of the upholstered structure.

[Illustration: FIG. 22]

[Illustration: FIG. 23]

A simple expedient to avoid this contact with wood is to attach
a hard edge all around the top of the rail. This edge is made by
tacking strips of burlap on in such a manner that tow may be rolled
in them. They are then retacked behind the roll. The first row of
tacks should be placed so that the heads run flush with the outer
edge of the rail. The strip of burlap on the farther side of the
stool shown in Fig. 26 is fastened in this way. The roll on the near
side is complete. On the left end the burlap is shown partly rolled
back to reveal the tow in place. The tow must be thoroly worked in
with the finger to produce an even, smooth edge, and the burlap drawn
tight to make it firm.

[Illustration: FIG. 24]

Fig. 27 shows all four rolls in place ready for the corner or
upholstery blocks, providing the first form of corner blocks
illustrated in Fig. 22 have not been attached. The first form of
block is preferred by most workmen. In Fig. 26 is shown the second
form of corner block in place. This is fitted behind the rolls,
and is cut in a manner to avoid short grain, which has a tendency
to split. Corner blocks are required when gimp is run continuous
around the edge of the cover. These are secured with several brads,
against both posts and rails. Take tow and pick it over thoroly; then
place it upon the stool making a rounded heap from the top edges of
the rolls. Pack and work into place very thoroly to secure an even
seat. The hands easily detect uneven areas, and may be more readily
depended upon than the eyes.

[Illustration: FIG. 25]

[Illustration: FIG. 26]

[Illustration: FIG. 27]

Now stretch and tack the muslin in place. Fig. 28 shows the processes
completed. Slip-tack it in the centers of four sides with two or
three tacks to a side. Slit the muslin diagonally from the corners to
a point immediately inside the legs. Fold the edges under; work from
the center toward the corners, and tack the muslin permanently. Keep
the muslin smooth and drawn tightly.

[Illustration: FIG. 28]

The covering is placed practically in the same manner as the muslin.
Great care must be exercised to avoid cutting too far at the corners,
to have the material fit snugly, and to have the whole job firm and
smooth. If, after the gimp has been placed, portions of the covering
show below, these may be trimmed easily with a sharp knife or chisel.

The method of fastening gimp has been explained. Fig. 29 illustrates
the scheme of tacking, folding and nailing. In Fig. 30 are shown
different treatments in the placing of gimp. The right-hand stool
requires no roll, inasmuch as the gimp is fastened on the top of the
rails.

[Illustration: FIG. 29]

[Illustration: FIG. 30]

MATERIALS.—The following materials are required for upholstering a
stool such as illustrated in Fig. 20:

QUANTITY MATERIAL SIZE

2 yards Webbing L. M. C. 3½ inches
5 dozen Tacks 10 ounces.
1 piece Burlap 12×18 inches
2 pieces Burlap 3×8 inches
2 pieces Burlap 3×13 inches
¾ pounds Tow, fine
1 piece Muslin 14×20 inches
1 piece Wadding 10×16 inches
1 piece Marokene 19×25 inches
1 piece Gimp 2½ yards
5 dozen Metalene Nails

[Illustration: FIG. 31]

ORDER OF PROCEDURE.—The following order of processes in upholstering
may be considered standard:

1. Rasp inside arrises of rails.
2. Apply webbing.
3. Fasten burlap.
4. Secure rolls on top edges.
5. Fasten corner blocks.
6. Pack with tow.
7. Place muslin.
8. Place the covering.
9. Tack gimp in place.
10. Place nails.

DIFFERENT METHODS.—This type of footstool may be treated in a variety
of ways. Webbing may be omitted as a base for the upholstery and a
board substituted, preferably some thin stock. Instead of bringing
the cover down to the lower edge of the rails as in Fig. 20, a
shallow rabbet may be run and the upholstery brought to the edge of
this as shown in Fig. 31. Or it may be treated in the manner shown on
the footstool illustrated in Fig. 30. In this instance it would be
similar to a pad seat. The rails of the stool should here be placed
even with the chamfer on the legs. The stool may also be upholstered
with a welt edge. This method is very desirable when the worker is
limited to small pieces of tapestry or leather. Welt-edged work will
be described in a chapter on spring-edge work.

PART III

UPHOLSTERY WITH SPRINGS

CHAPTER VI

MAKING A HARD-EDGE SEAT

The hard-edge seat as it is technically termed is relatively simple
when compared with other kinds of upholstering, but it is probably
the most important of the group. The edge of the seat needs to be
stuffed and sewed in a manner that makes it hard and firm, while
the center is springy. With a working knowledge of this class of
upholstery one may make some of the finest pieces of furniture
without difficulty. The directions to be given may be modified to
suit any particular piece of work in this group.

METHOD.—Construct a frame 18 × 24 inches outside dimensions, and
3 inches deep. Employ a simple butt joint, secured with nails
and reinforced with corner blocks as shown in Fig. 32. A light,
close-grained wood, as poplar, basswood or pine is preferred to hard,
open-grained wood.

The webbing is fastened in place as described in Chapter V, using but
three strands crosswise and two the lengthwise of the frame. This is
a different type of work, and the suggestions as to spacing do not
apply here as in the footstool just described. The webbing is placed
so that the springs, six in number, stand over the laps. A distance
of about 3 inches should be left between the outer edge of the frame
and the springs. The webbing is 3½ inches wide, and the No. 3 springs
used are 5 inches across. These dimensions determine that the strands
of webbing should be 3¾ inches from the outer edge of the frame.

Place springs in position turning the bent ends up. Sew these to the
webbing with stitching twine using a 6 or 12 inch double-pointed
needle. Make at least three loops around the bottom coil, fastening
it securely to the webbing. Pull the twine taut and tie the final end
to a nearby stitch. Fig. 33 illustrates the method of sewing.

[Illustration: FIG. 32]

Next the springs are tied with spring twine to keep them in an
upright position, and to prevent breaking down and bending. The twine
also supports the burlap and stuffing above it. After the springs are
tied down the twine should receive all the pull from the reaction.
Upon the permanency of the webbing and spring twine depend the
lasting qualities of the seat. The twine generally deteriorates or
breaks first, and then the webbing. To insure a relatively permanent
seat tie the springs eight times, that is, place four strands across
each spring, one from front to back, one from side to side, and two
diagonals. Multiply the dimension of the frame by one and two-thirds
to determine the lengths of twine required.

[Illustration: FIG. 33]

[Illustration: FIG. 34]

THE PROCESS.—Tie a simple knot in one end of a length of twine.
Drive a 10-oz. tack thru this into the top edge of the frame and in
line with the centre of the spring. Then stretch the twine across
the top of the springs to the opposite side of the frame; pull the
springs down with it until the outer side of the coil is about 6
inches from the bottom and the inner side about 7 inches. Adjust the
springs to stand vertical. Grasp the twine and spring nearest the
fastened end with the thumb and forefinger of the left hand; hold
them, while with the right hand pass the free end of the twine down
inside the coil, up on the left hand side of the fastened end, down
inside the coil again, up on the right hand side of the fastened
end, and thru loop thus formed. Pull it tight. This is called a
clove hitch knot. Its advantage is that it does not loosen even after
the twine over the top of the wire wears off. With the easier knot
the entire twine loosens immediately after the top wears. A careful
examination of Fig. 34, and a little practice will clarify the method
just described. Pull the twine taut to the other side of the coil
and form another knot. This time, however, the twine is passed down
on the outside of the coil first and up on the inside. Before tying
the second spring space it at the top a distance equal to that at the
bottom. When the second end is to be tied, drive a tack part way into
the edge of the frame and wind the twine once and a quarter around
it, pull it tight enough to bring the springs down properly, and
drive tack securely. Drive a second tack close to the one at the end.
The twine should be fastened in just this way so that in moving up
and down with the springs it will not wear away against the head of
the tack.

[Illustration: FIG. 35]

All other twines are fastened and tied in practically the same
manner. However, care must be exercised that the springs are not
drawn down lower with successive strands of twine, or an uneven
strain and wear will result. The last twine should be tied to all
others crossing at the spring centers, to prevent twine wearing at
these points. A study of Fig. 34 should make clear any doubtful point.

Tack a piece of 10 or 12-oz. burlap on the top edge of the frame with
4-oz. tacks, folding the edges over as they are being tacked. Fasten
it just tight enough to insure smoothness, avoiding pulling the
springs down lower. As previously stated all spring reaction strain
should fall on the twine exclusively. Sew the burlap to the springs
with a curved needle and stitching twine. This keeps the burlap in
position, prevents wearing, and helps to unify the seat.

Place the stuffing. Work over about 5 pounds of tow, and work it down
and out over the seat until it extends about 3 inches beyond the
frame as shown to the left of Fig. 35. Be careful to keep the tow
even at all times, especially at the edges.

[Illustration: FIG. 36]

Place a piece of light burlap, 6 or 8-oz. weight over the tow. It
should be large enough to be slip-tacked on the sides of the frame.
Stitch thru the two layers of burlap and the tow with a 12-inch
double-pointed needle. The row of stitching should come just outside
the edge of the springs. Each stitch should be about 3 inches long,
and it is formed by passing the needle up and down thru the burlap.
After all four sides have been stitched pull the twine tight. Begin
at the first stitch and pull each taut in succession. Finally take
a few stitches thru the center of the seat at irregular intervals,
thus making the seat firm and compact. Do not stitch around the loose
coils of the springs.

[Illustration: FIG. 37]

[Illustration: FIG. 38]

Now release the slip tacking and roll the loose edges of the burlap
under the tow. Drive tacks thru that part of the burlap which comes
in contact with the top edge of the frame, beginning at the center of
each of the four sides and working toward the corners. Use precaution
to make all sides equal. Tack the corners last. Should they be too
full, due to the overlapping of the burlap, cut away some burlap and
remove the necessary amount of tow to keep the corner even with the
sides.

We now arrive at that process in the development of the seat from
which this class of upholstery derives its name. The stitching of
the rolled edge already formed is rather difficult, and care must be
exercised to assure a neat appearing seat. Stitch the edge around
to the number of two or three rows. Use a 6-inch curved needle, and
beginning at the left-hand end of one of the rolls, start the needle
about 1½ inches from the row of tacks, and allow it to emerge about
1½ inches from the row of stitching. About 1½ inches to the right
insert the needle into the roll again about ¾ inch from the row of
stitching, and allow it to emerge about ¾ inch from the row of tacks.
Tie the end of the twine around the other with a double slip knot.
Insert the needle again about 1½ inches to the right, up thru the
roll, and down as before. Repeat this operation around the four sides
of the seat, regulating as the stitching progresses. The right-hand
needle in Fig. 36 shows the first row of stitching. Always insert
the needle at a right angle to the roll, for the arc of the needle
gathers in considerable tow which is forced into the roll as the
twine is pulled taut.

The second row of stitching is also illustrated in Fig. 36. The
stitches in this operation are not made in a zig-zag manner as in
the first row. The needle is inserted about ½ inch above the first
row of stitching and allowed to emerge at the same distance on top.
Work to the left at an interval of ¾ inch and use the double slip
knot as previously. Pass the needle to the right about 2½ inches and
insert it as at first, then carry it back again about ¾ inch and push
it thru the roll allowing the end to project; then loop the twine
around the point. See left-hand needle in Fig. 36. Repeat on all
four sides. After the second row of stitching is completed a third
row of stitching may be made. Then place more stuffing on the top
of the seat, rounding out all irregularities. This is called double
stuffing, and work of this kind is termed double stuffed work. Hair
is extremely resilient, and used for this purpose adds life to the
seat. Moss will answer the purpose. Place a layer of cotton batting
over this. Then a piece of muslin is finally tacked over all. Fig. 37
shows the muslin partly tacked, and the two layers of material rolled
back. Keep the muslin smooth, especially at the corners, cutting away
all surplus material.

[Illustration: FIG. 39]

Use a cover of soft material rather than one of leather or
substitutes. Secure it in place like the muslin, only tack it under
the lower edges of the frame and fold it carefully at the corners as
illustrated in Fig. 38. The process of blind stitching is plainly
shown. When the seat has been covered tack a piece of cambric
underneath. The hard-edge seat is then finished. Fig. 39 shows the
completed cricket.

Figs. 40 and 41 illustrate double stuffed hard-edge seats utilized in
chairs. The rocker in its entirety is the product of a young woman, a
student in the author’s class.

A QUEEN ANNE STOOL.—This stool also has a hard-edge seat but the
method followed is a modification of the one just described. In the
former the upholstered seat was built over a box or frame, and fitted
snugly into the cricket base. In this project the upholstery is
fastened permanently to the rails; it becomes an integral part of the
structure. The edge is blind stitched. The webbing cannot be tacked
directly to the rails; they are too weak to withstand the strain,
and in this instance are curved or formed, which precludes tacking
webbing underneath. In such instances the webbing is folded several
times and tacked thru the folds against the inner sides of the rail.
If the rails are not sufficiently strong strips may be screwed on as
reinforcement. This has been done in this instance as shown in Fig.
42. Frequently on such structures a brace or two is placed across
between the long rails.

[Illustration: FIG. 40]

[Illustration: FIG. 41]

The identical method of upholstering is followed from this point on
as in the cricket, up to the point of stuffing. This seat is shallow
requiring considerably less tow. Place just a sufficient amount to
prevent the springs from being felt under pressure from the hand;
then place and secure the burlap in the usual manner.

[Illustration: FIG. 42]

Next sew the hard edge with a 12-inch straight double-pointed
needle. Begin about ¾ inch above the rail, and permit the needle to
emerge above about 4 inches from the edge. The left-hand needle in
Fig. 43 shows the method. Pull the needle up to its eye as shown in
the middle needle; then bend the point toward the lower edge. As
it emerges toward the right loop the twine around the needle and
pull it thru. This brings the twine around the tow, pulls it down
firmly toward the lower edge and holds it there. This operation is
frequently called blind hard-edge stitching. The Frontispiece shows
the finished stool, and Fig. 44 another stool employing the same form
of seat.

[Illustration: FIG. 43]

[Illustration: FIG. 44]

CHAPTER VII

RE-UPHOLSTERING

The first evidence of deterioration in much old spring upholstered
furniture is a sagging seat. If attended to at the first indication
of sag the fault may be remedied by simply retacking the webbing
which most likely has pulled away from the rails. If the sag is
not remedied shortly the stuffing begins to shift, and the exposed
springs will soon cut or wear a hole thru the cover. Then the seat
is practically beyond repair, with the exception of the utilization
of the springs. Should the springs show evidence of rust, or if they
have lost their temper and resiliency, new ones are required. The
best policy is to repair a seat at the first indications of sag,
providing the materials generally are worthy of repair.

[Illustration: FIG. 45]

In Fig. 45 is shown a small rocker with webbing and springs placed,
and springs properly tied. This seat is a reconstruction job. Note
that the cords are secured inside the rails, and that the webbing
is tacked underneath the rails excepting on the front rail where it
is fastened inside. This is necessary because of the curve on the
bottom of the front rail. It shows the base for a hard-edge seat,
and is treated in the same manner as the Queen Anne stool previously
described. The one exception is that the goods are to be stretched
over the faces of the rails and tacked underneath.

OLD FURNITURE.—Many heirlooms and other pieces of old furniture may
be repaired by reglueing and replacing parts, or by re-upholstering,
and the whole refinished so that it will compare favorably with fine
pieces of furniture. A piece of furniture of this kind is illustrated
in Fig. 46. The treatment of the seat is somewhat different from that
described before. The front edge has a hard edge, identical to that
described in Chapter VI. The edges at the sides and back need no
sewing; at least, they require very little stitching.

[Illustration: FIG. 46]

[Illustration: FIG. 47]

The webbing is tacked on the inner edges of the back, otherwise the
rabbet would prove too shallow to permit the gimp to run flush with
the wood surface. The stuffing should be stitched to the burlap and
webbing. This holds all firmly together.

To upholster the arms tack twine over the edges, forming loose loops
into which stuffing may be placed. This twine holds the stuffing in
place while the muslin is being tacked and the proper shape or form
given to the arms. Then place the cover over this, carefully folding
and drawing at the corners. Tack firmly in place and attach the gimp.

Fig. 47 illustrates an overstuffed chair. The processes described
for making a hard-edge seat are followed on a chair of this kind. It
requires patience to upholster, but when covered with a good piece
of tapestry results in a very valuable and comfortable piece of
furniture.

In Fig. 48 is illustrated a rocker which shows examples of both loose
and attached pads on a single structure. The seat is a hard-edge
loose pad, made in a manner identical to the cricket, but with a
curved front which increases the difficulty of the work. The arms are
loose pads held by means of dowels. The back pad is fastened to the
frame by means of screws, secured before the back part of the cover
is attached. With substantial upholstery work this type of chair is
both serviceable and comfortable.

[Illustration: FIG. 48]

CHAPTER VIII

SPRING-EDGE UPHOLSTERY

The two examples of furniture illustrated in Fig. 49 are two types
which are upholstered in a very different manner from any of the
processes described thus far. This is spring-edge work, and is very
generally employed on sofas, lounges and settees. In upholstery of
this kind the springs must be placed flush with the outside of the
frame. This necessitates bending the springs out somewhat.

Fig. 50 shows a chair of this type with webbing attached and the
method of stitching the springs to the webbing. Note the spacing
of the webbing. Fig. 51 shows a top view of the same seat. Notice
that the springs are flush with the outside surface of the rail.
The spring wire is shown attached and formed. This form must be
accurately made for it determines the final outline of the seat.
The wire is fastened near the ends to the upholstery blocks, with
staples, and to the springs by means of stitching twine coiled and
tied. There is on the market a certain metal clip for fastening the
coil and wire together. These clips are attached by means of a pair
of special pliers.

Fig. 52 shows the seat in a natural view. Note the method of tying
the springs. This is different from the method previously described.
The twine is brought down inside of a spring and tied to a second or
third coil instead of over the outside top coil. This permits the top
coil to lie horizontal, and braces the spring so it remains vertical.
Fig. 51 also illustrates this method. A twine is also tacked to the
top of the frame and carried up to the spring wire and down to the
frame again. It is clearly shown in Fig. 52. This twine braces the
springs and prevents sagging, and results in a vertical motion rather
than partially horizontal when the seat is used.

Over this spring work a piece of burlap is then placed and tacked
with 4-oz. tacks on the top edge of the frame, as illustrated in Fig.
53. This burlap must fit tight enough to be smooth, but care must be
exercised that it does not fit so tight as to result in the pulling
down of the springs. Next place a layer of tow over the burlap.
Follow with another piece of burlap, and sew onto the spring wire
instead of tacking to the frame as in a hard-edge seat. Next form the
hard edge, and finish off with tow or moss as described previously.

[Illustration: FIG. 49]

Fig. 54 shows the various steps in the building up of a seat. After
the tow has been placed lay on a piece of blue sheet wadding or a
layer of cotton batting. Lay the cover over this and tack it loosely
upon the frame and upholstery blocks at the back; stretch toward the
front and fasten underneath the spring wire with skewers, and secure
it in a similar manner at the sides. Then adjust it carefully; tack
permanently at the back, and then sew just under the spring wire.
These stitches may be seen at the left in Fig. 54.

[Illustration: FIG. 50]

[Illustration: FIG. 51]

[Illustration: FIG. 52]

[Illustration: FIG. 53]

[Illustration: FIG. 54]

The next step is the placing of the welt edge. This edge is clearly
shown in Fig. 55. Just below the turn of the top piece a beading may
be seen. This is the welt edge, and immediately below is the band.
In Fig. 54 is shown a close view of the welt edge. The process of
making it is as follows: Fold a narrow strip of cloth around a soft
cord. Hold it against the seat with the edges down; turn the band
inside out and sew its lower edge. Run the curved needle thru it and
the welting so that the seam comes immediately above the seam which
fastens the top cover to the seat. Sew from right to left, for then
the piece may be handled conveniently with the left hand while sewing
is done with the right. Three pieces are manipulated in this work;
the cord, the narrow band of cloth folded around the cord, and the
front band. This process may be simplified if a sewing machine is
employed. Then the welting cord may be sewed into the top edge of
the front band. When this is sewed to the chair seat but one piece
remains to be managed.

The front band should be draped or folded at the corners. This fold
may be noticed at the corners of the chair seat in Fig. 55, and it
allows the band to run about the corner full and smooth. This is all
the more necessary because some stuffing is placed behind the band to
keep the band from falling in when the edge of the seat is pressed
down.

[Illustration: FIG. 55]

[Illustration: FIG. 56]

In Fig. 56 is shown the gimp. It is generally fastened with gimp
tacks, but in very fine work it is glued in place. Glueing has a
distinct advantage where the gimp must be placed around curves for
then it may run continuously rather than in a series of straight
lines between tacks, as is necessary when tacks are employed.

In Fig. 57 are shown a series of problems in upholstery; in Fig. 58,
the application of such type problems to structures of a distinctly
useful nature.

[Illustration: FIG. 57]

[Illustration: FIG. 58]

OUTLINES

GROUP I.—FIRST METHOD—UPHOLSTERING A PLAIN BOARD SURFACE.

GROUP I.—SECOND METHOD

GROUP II.—UPHOLSTERING A FRAMED STRUCTURE.

GROUP III.—HARD-EDGE UPHOLSTERY.

GROUP IV.—SPRING-EDGE UPHOLSTERY.

INDEX

(NUMBERS REFER TO PAGES)

Brocades, 14

Burlap, 12, 16, 23

Cambric, 13, 27, 46, 61, 62

Chase Leather, 14

Chintz, 14, 15

Cricket, 46, 62

Denim, 14, 15

Fabric, 7, 8, 13, 18, 20

Footstool, 13, 16, 28, 35

Gimp, 15, 16, 20, 23, 32
Hammer, 11
Tacks, 58

Gunny, 13

Hair, 46
Cloth, 15

Hammer, Gimp, 11

Hard-edge, 17, 27, 31, 38

Italian Hemp, 15

Knot, Clove Hitch, 41
Double Slip, 45

Leather, Artificial, 14, 46, 60
Genuine, 14

Leg Rest, 17, 21, 60

Loose Cushions, 8

Marokene, 14, 16, 23, 36

Metalene, 15, 23

Mole Skin, 14

Moss, 13, 46, 54, 60

Mule Skin, 14

Muslin, 13, 16, 23

Nails, 9, 15, 16, 37
Leather, 15
Metalene, 15, 36
Perfection, 15

Needles, Curved, 11, 45, 57
Double Pointed, 11, 39, 48
Triangular Pointed, 11

Overstuffed, 52

Pad Seat, 52

Pantasote Leather, 14

Plush, 15

Queen Anne Stool, 6, 47, 50

Regulator, 11, 13, 16, 19

Reps, 15

Re-upholstery, 50, 51

Satin, 15

Scissors, 11

Seat, 17, 24, 27
Frame, 25, 26

Skewers, 11

Slip-Tack, 34, 43, 45, 61

Springs, 12, 15, 38, 53

Spring Edge Twine, 15, 39
Wire, 53, 54, 57, 63

Squabs, 8

Stitching, 15, 43, 45
Blind, 46, 47, 48, 62
Twine, 15, 38

Stools, 16, 21, 23, 28

Stuffed-Double, 46

Stuffing, 11, 12
Alva, 13, 60
Cotton Batting, 46, 60
Cork Shavings, 13, 60
Excelsior, 13, 60
Curled Horse Hair, 12, 46
Kapok, 13, 60
Moss, 13, 46, 60
Tow, 12, 16, 23, 32

Tacks, 16, 17, 23

Tapestry, 7, 14

Textiles, 7, 14, 60

Tools, 11

Tow, 12, 16, 23, 32

Tufting, 10

Twine, 15, 40

Tying Springs, 15, 53, 62, 63

Upholstery, 11, 21
Blocks, 18, 28, 31, 53, 54

Velours, 15

Velvet, 15

Wadding, 13, 16, 26, 27, 36, 60

Webbing, 11, 18
B. F. M., 11
L. M. C., 11, 12
Stretcher, 11, 25, 28

Welt Cord, 18, 57, 58
Edge, 11, 37, 57, 63

*** End of this LibraryBlog Digital Book "Furniture upholstery for schools" ***

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