Title: The Repairing & Restoration of Violins - 'The Strad' Library, No. XII.
Author: Petherick, Horace, 1839-1919
Language: English
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THE REPAIRING & RESTORATION OF VIOLINS.



PRINTED BY E. SHORE & CO.,
3, GREEN TERRACE, ROSEBERY AVENUE, LONDON, E.C.



[Frontispiece: HORACE PETHERICK.]



_"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. XII._
THE REPAIRING & RESTORATION OF VIOLINS.


BY
HORACE PETHERICK.

_Of the Music Jury, International Inventions Exhibition South
Kensington, 1885; International Exhibition Edinburgh, 1890; Expert in
Law Courts, 1891; Vice-President of the Cremona Society_.


ILLUSTRATED BY THE AUTHOR.



London:
THE STRAD OFFICE, 3, GREEN TERRACE, ROSEBERY AVENUE, E.C.
D. R. DUNCAN, 186, FLEET STREET, E.C.

New York:
CHARLES SCRIBNERS' SONS, 153-157, FIFTH AVENUE

1903.



CONTENTS.

                                                              PAGE
CHAPTER I.--Introductory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   1

CHAPTER II.--Slight Accidents--Modern Restorers--"Chattering"--
     The Proper Sort of Glue--Its Preparation and Use  . . . .   3

CHAPTER III.--Minor Repairs--Cramps and Joints--Violin Cases--
     Rattles and Jars--Loose Fingerboards--Atmospheric
     Temperature--Old-Fashioned Methods of Repairing--Modern
     Ways--A Loose Nut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  13

CHAPTER IV.--Injuries to the Head or Scroll--Insertion of Fresh
     Wood--Colouring of White Wood--Separation of Head from
     Peg-box and Re-joining--Stopping Material for Small Holes
     or Fractures--The Peg-box Cracked by Pressure . . . . . .  28

CHAPTER V.--Fracture of Peg-box and Shell--Chips from this
     Part--Filling up of Same--Restoration to Original Form,
     after Parts have been Lost--Worn Peg-holes, Re-filling or
     Boring Same . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  46

CHAPTER VI.--Loosening of Junction of Graft with Peg-box, and
     Refixing Same--Grafting, Different Methods of Performing
     this--Lengthening the Neck--Old and Modern Method--Renewal
     of Same--Inclination of Neck and Fingerboard with Regard
     to the Bridge--Height of Latter, and Reason for It  . . .  58

CHAPTER VII.--Finishing the Fingerboard--Fixing the Nut--Size
     and Position of Grooves for the Strings--Filing Down the
     Graft--Smoothing, Colouring, and Varnishing Same  . . . .  84

CHAPTER VIII.--Injuries that can be Repaired from the Outside--
     Insertion of Fresh Wood in Fracture of the Ribs--The
     Effects of Climate on the Glue in Violins . . . . . . . .  92

CHAPTER IX.--The Glue Used by the Early Italian Makers--
     Insertion of Pieces of Wood for Repairing Lost Parts--
     Replacing Lost Rib and Repairing Interior without Opening
     when Possible--Securing Loose Lower Rib to End Block--
     Different Methods--Treatment of Worm-holes--Fixing on
     Graft on Neck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

CHAPTER X.--Ways of Removing the Upper Table and the Neck--
     Cleansing the Interior--Preservation of the Original
     Label--Closing of Cracks in Upper Table . . . . . . . . . 114

CHAPTER XI.--Getting Parts Together that apparently do not
     Fit--The use of Benzine or Turpentine--Treatment of
     Warped or Twisted Lower Tables  . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

CHAPTER XII.--Removal of Old Superfluous Glue by Damping--
     Replacing Old End Blocks by New Ones--Temporary Beams
     and Joists Inside for Keeping Ribs, etc., in Position
     while Freshly Glued . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

CHAPTER XIII.--Re-opening the Back to Correct the Badly
     Repaired Joint--A Few Words on Studs--Filling Up Spaces
     left by Lost Splinters--Matching Wood for Large Cracks,
     etc.  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

CHAPTER XIV.--Repairing Lost Portions--Margins of Sound Holes--
     Matching the Grain--Fixing and Finishing Off--Replacing
     with Fresh Wood Large Portions of Upper Table--Lost Parts
     of Purfling--Restoring It with Old Stuff  . . . . . . . . 155

CHAPTER XV.--Repairs to Purfling (continued)--Filling up an
     Opening Extending to the Whole Length of the Violin--
     Fitting the Core--Fixing it in Position and Retaining it
     There--Finishing the Surface  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

CHAPTER XVI.--Repairing Undertaken by People in Business not
     connected with that of Bowed Instruments--Removal of a
     Fixed Sound Post--Fitting a Fresh Part of Worm-Eaten Rib--
     Bringing Together the Loosened Joint of the Back Without
     Opening the Violin  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

CHAPTER XVII.--Insertion of Studs along the Joint Inside
     without Opening the Violin--Lining or Veneering a Thin
     Back  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

CHAPTER XVIII.--The Bar in Olden Times--The Modern One--The
     Operation of Fitting and Fixing the Bar--Closing and
     Completion of the Repairs--Varnishing of the Repaired
     Parts having Fresh Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186



PREFACE.


An ancient writer once asserted that "of making many books there is
no end"; had the violin been invented and used as far back as his day
he might have added, "and of repairs to violins," inasmuch as the number,
nature, and variety of the damages that constantly occur and find their
way into the presence of the repairer, are such as could not be counted
and seemingly are endless. The readers of the following pages will
therefore not expect to find every possible ailment to which the violin
is liable, mentioned and its appropriate remedy marked out. If the more
minute kinds of injuries are endless, they may yet be generalised under
a limited number of headings, or in groups. It is with the hope that
a sufficient number has been treated of, and the way of meeting
difficulties pointed out plainly enough to enable the intending
practitioner to follow on in the same lines, that this work is placed
before the public. All the repairings referred to, have, with the
accompanying annoyances and pleasures, been gone through by myself,
and therefore the present little work may be taken as the result of
personal experience and it is hoped may be acceptable to the readers.

H. PETHERICK.
_July, 1903_.



The Repairing and Restoration of Violins.



CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTORY.


The art of the old liutaro of Italy may be said to have become during
the last two or three centuries, identified with the art of
constructing such musical instruments as are played with the bow.

As was the case with other and kindred arts, that of violin making had
its rise in one of the old cities of Italy, where from small beginnings
it gradually spread to other places and over the borders, until there
are very few places of importance where it was not practised with some
degree of success, commercially if not artistically and acoustically
considered.

During the early period of the art, repairing was of a rough and ready
kind, chiefly in connection with damages sustained under ordinary
usage and accident; while extensive and costly renovating, such as is
so frequently undertaken at the present day, must have been of rare
occurrence, for the reason that it was then quite possible to get equal,
sometimes better, quality in quite new instruments which were being
sent forth every day by the resident makers. With the onward march of
time this has been changed; the art of the Italian liutaro having
reached its climax some century and a half back, the masterpieces
executed during that time are gradually diminishing in number and
cannot be replaced by instruments having a sufficiently high degree
of excellence; naturally enough the skill of the repairer has been more
and more in requisition, so much so, that many who have shown
exceptional ability for this kind of work have achieved a reputation
for it alone, among the large circle of dealers in the principal cities
of Europe. The necessities of the time have thus brought into
prominence a modification of the art of the old Italian liutaro, in
which there has to be displayed much more mechanical ingenuity if with
very little or no originality; the high class of artisan has become
strongly in evidence, while the artist has disappeared. It was in the
consideration of these facts that the idea was first suggested that
a work treating of the general methods adopted by professional
restorers for important work, coupled with helpful hints in the
management of minor injuries, would be interesting and acceptable to
amateur as well as professional repairers, besides the numerous
readers of THE STRAD, in the pages of which the following chapters were
first issued.

In sending out the matter in book form, some alterations and additions
have been, as usual, found advisable for completeness. All readers
readily admit the impossibility of touching upon one half of the
various accidents and ailments to which a violin is liable during its
usually long life; the most likely ones have therefore been taken, and
it is hoped that the suggested treatment of these cases may enable the
repairer to become sufficiently adept for undertaking such others,
serious, or slight, as may not have been here referred to.

Further, the author is hopeful that those readers who may feel
indisposed themselves to put into practice the various hints,
instruction, or advice, will be enabled by knowing how good repairing
is carried out, to select the proper kind of person into whose hands
they can safely intrust their cherished instruments.



CHAPTER II.

SLIGHT ACCIDENTS--MODERN RESTORERS--"CHATTERING"--THE PROPER SORT OF
GLUE--ITS PREPARATION AND USE.


Under the above title (dry and unpalatable as the subject may seem at
first sight to many) it is proposed to bring before the reader some
deductions from observations in general, and particulars in detail
that may be interesting as to the past, and suggestive as to the future.
In the first place, the simple art of repairing a violin--and as for
that, anything that has been fractured by accident or intent--will be
in the minds of many associated with the presence of some strong glue
or adhesive material, the right pieces to be attached, neatly or not,
as the skill or experience of the repairer may be sufficient or
available.

The nose or limb of a marble statue knocked off and lying in close
proximity to the main body may be thought to give little or no trouble
further than the collection of the fragments, the ascertaining of their
original relationship, the spreading of a sufficient amount of strong
cement over the raw surface and then pressing accurately into position;
easy work to a person endowed with average powers of mechanical
adaptation, under circumstances where the materials being of an
unyielding nature retain their form for any length of time. But if any
parts are lost different faculties and powers educated for the work
are requisite and brought to bear on the subject. The additions,
besides the estimated proportions and form, must necessarily be
composed of material differing in age, perhaps in quality, even when
of the same supposed class as the original, and make further demands
on the trained eye, both for discrimination of material and
appropriateness for the work in hand. There will be lastly, but not
least, the art of imitating old work, the consideration how far to go
and when to stop in the dressing up of new bodies in an old guise so
as to produce harmony of effect generally, and where possible in minute
detail. Thus far concerning the repair or restoration of objects of
art made from rigid materials, including hard wood carving.

Much ability, energy and patience have been expended on the reparation
of ancient art work in which materials of various degrees of hardness
and texture have been employed, and which require the attention of a
restorer of extended knowledge and mechanical dexterity. There is in
connection with all of this a kind of law keeping pace with the
necessities of the hour. If the works of art of a perishable nature
become recognised as more and more valuable during the onward march
of time, they receive proportional attention from upper-class or
highly skilled workmen. A costly work of art in need of repair or
restoration is placed in the hands of an artificer whose reputation
warrants the confidence of the owner. The works of art, however, with
which our subject is connected, differ in important particulars from
those for which gratification of the senses is to be favoured solely
through the medium of the eye; they not only frequently demand the
exercise of mechanical ingenuity of no mean order for purposes of
restoration in regard to general appearance, but further and
additionally, the no less important details concerned in a renewal,
so far as may be possible, of their powers for the exhibition of
acoustical properties such as were implanted in them by their original
constructors. In the instance of a re-uniting of separated pieces, the
insertion of fresh material to fill up spaces that must not be left
open, strengthening, or even renewal of such parts as may have become
worn away or--as is too often met with--"honey-combed" from the inroads
of those vandals of all time known as "the worm," all the supporting,
rebuilding of the interior and re-decoration of the exterior must be
taken chiefly as means to an end, that of the resumption of its rightful
position among friends or rivals in the same line.

This restitution becomes of increasing importance and necessity every
day, a condition arising from the verdict emphatically given by his
majesty the public that there are not any instruments of the violin
family ready to take the place--that is, worthily--of those made by
the principal masters of Italy during the two hundred odd years before
the commencement of the nineteenth century, and also that there does
not seem to be much probability of others arising at least for a few
generations to come. No wonder then that the most energetic searching
has been going on for a long time, not only in Italy but over the whole
of Europe, with the hope that in some out of the way court or alley
there may yet be reposing in obscurity some long forgotten,
unrecognised work by an old master of the art of violin making. Should
one be unearthed, if but a wreck of its former greatness or even a
portion, this is not refused but eagerly grasped and placed--not yet
in open daylight before the gaze of the world, but in the hands of a
specialist in re-vivifying these dry bones of a bygone age,
re-habilitating them--perhaps having by him or given him other
portions of a similar maker, or it may be--it has sometimes
occurred--the actual missing parts.

The specialist in the repairing and restoring art is now not of the
same class as in olden times. When the Amatis, Stradivaris, Guarneris
and the like were being turned out one after another, there was not
so much necessity for preserving all the pieces or splinters of
precious pine that had been separated by the fracture of the upper table
from any cause, there was a better remedy at hand, the nearest maker
would naturally be sought whose reputation was possibly more than local
and whose self confidence prompted him to make a fresh table rather
than devote time and labour for which adequate compensation could not
be hoped for. As a result, we frequently find old violins and their
kindred turning up with fronts and backs which, although fitting well
as regards size and outline, have been made by a distinctly different
workman, in some instances equal or even superior to the originator.
At the present day, however, this kind of restoration is much more
rarely attempted and is not resorted to unless the damage is very
extensive or vital portions have been irrecoverably lost.

The modern maker has no longer within reach, pine with requisite
acoustical properties, of which the old Italian masters seem to have
had so large a store, or if not, the knowledge where to obtain it. As
a consequence there has, in response to the pressure of necessity,
arisen a class of workmen some of whose dexterous conversion of a mere
bundle of splinters of an old master into the semblance of its former
grandeur of aspect would have astonished the original designers. These
modern restorers are not to be confounded with the minute imitators
or forgers, than whom they are much more clever, hard-working and
honest withal. The art of repairing and restoring has now become so
distinct from that of making, that many in the foremost ranks in the
increasing large army of restorers may never have made a violin
throughout. The faculties, skill and experience directed on the
restoration of a violin "on the sick list," differs from those
exercised by the first constructor whose mechanical dexterity is an
aid or secondary to other qualifications: whereas it is paramount in
importance in the constitution of a first class repairer.

The construction of a violin from beginning to end may be said to be
an art based on certain fixed principles, not all of them known, however.
When these are, as far as possible, acted upon by a workman of
sufficient intelligence and training, the progress of the work may be
considered as being in a fairly straight and open course. Not so with
the restoration of it after fracture or loss of parts great or small,
several different courses may be open as to treatment and this will
be as the temperament of the restorer will suggest or the exigencies
of the moment may demand. Temporary alleviation of symptoms--how to
make the thing go somehow--when there is no fiddle physician within
beck or call, is a problem frequently arising and very annoying,
necessity then being the mother of invention, often of a most curious
sort, as most professional repairers who have had the re-consideration
of the matter will have impressed on their memories. Among the most
frequent of simple ailments the fiddle tribe is subject to, is that
known as "chattering" or jarring, caused mostly by some parts having
become dis-united, perhaps through damp or accident sometimes of a most
trifling nature, and which henceforth, unless remedies are at once
applied, make themselves evident in this way, accompanying every note
that happens to be in unison with themselves, and lending discord
instead of harmony, expressing urgently their thirst and desire for
a small drink from the glue pot. Not unfrequently the exact spot where
the jarring or chattering takes place is not easy to find by mere
examination of the exterior, especially if the separation is fresh and
at a part where very little adhesion has taken place at any time, or
possibly the very slight portion of glue originally placed at the time
of construction, has, with the progress of time, gradually dried away.
Should this have occurred at the junction of the upper or lower tables
(most frequently the first), the sides, or ribs, the exact spot must
be found by gently tapping all round carefully, holding the instrument
meanwhile firmly at parts that are least likely to have become
disconnected or that are known to be perfectly sound. The tapping or
sounding can be done in the way usual with dealers and repairers, that
is, by the knuckle joints of the hand rapping round the instrument,
but this is sometimes deceptive, the tendons over the bones of the hand
interfering and occasionally causing a double sound, and so defeating
the efforts at discovery. A more delicate and therefore better means
of testing is by the use of a felted hammer of the kind and size acting
on the bass string of a grand pianoforte; this will be found very handy.
Should the rapping or sounding all round the border not reveal any weak
spot, we may be sure the seat of the complaint is to be sought for
elsewhere; possibly there is looseness in the interior and therefore
something requiring deeper consideration.

We will for the present assume that there has been no uncertainty in
locating the weakness, and that it is at the part before referred to
as the most frequent in showing signs of disorder--the upper table
losing its grip on the ribs. This is one of the many common ailments
that are teazing to the violin during its troublous career; a slight
accidental tap, or hastily putting the instrument to rest in a too
closely fitting case being often sufficient. Sometimes, on the reverse,
it is from being in too large a one, getting well shaken while being
taken home after some orchestral rehearsal; the joy of having mastered
Mozart or battered Beethoven for an evening is turned in the morning
to grief and vexation, when in response to the gentle persuasions of
the bow there are but chatters and jarrings. Under such circumstances
the treatment administered by the hands of non-practical or
inexperienced people is akin, more often than not, to that popularly
supposed to be effectual in suppressing slight functional disorders
of the human system; namely, a prompt and appreciable dose of medicine
for the one, a good stuffing of thick dark glue for the other. In both
cases it may well be said that not unfrequently "the remedy is worse
than the disease." Glue is a good thing in its way and when properly
applied, but not so if overdone, even if the kind is the best
obtainable.

A few remarks may here be offered as to the qualities that should be
present in good glue, especially with regard to violin repairing. Among
the makers of it, the glue which will absorb the largest quantity of
water ranks as the best. It will, after proper application, resist best
the action of moisture in the atmosphere, or in fact take longer time
before releasing the two surfaces it may have been holding in contact.
There is not much difficulty in getting glue very satisfactory in most
respects--as good animals die now-a-days as ever got into the gluepots
of the old masters--but it must be selected. That kind used extensively
in the German manufactories is said to be a fish glue, remarkably hard,
very light in colour and almost opaque. This is not to be recommended
for violin repairs; it holds the parts together with such tenacity that
fresh fractures are likely to be caused in undoing a portion, a process
often very necessary; professional repairers will tell you "it tears
the wood too much." The glues mostly in favour among upper class
repairers are those known as Russian, Cologne and Isinglass, all good;
they are light in colour, very firm, not too brittle, and transparent.
There are other varieties to be had of excellent quality and which
conform to the conditions required. Thick cakes of a dark brown colour
with an unpleasant odour should be avoided; they are too easily
affected by the atmosphere, turn bad in the gluepot under very little
provocation from damp warm winds, and spoil the look of good and refined
workmanship. There are many different kinds of glue sold under various
titles, some termed "liquid glue," others cement, apparently for
saving the very insignificant time and trouble in warming up the
orthodox solution; but none appear satisfactory in general and many
of them are even detestable. There are some adhesive materials used
in India where warmth and damp have their full play and make short work
of an old master's joints, but these cements of the Eastern Hemisphere
are likewise unsuitable for the kind of work under consideration, as
when once dried, being unaffected by damp to any extreme, they are of
course difficult to remove when further repairs have become necessary.

One of the special advantages of glue to the repairer is its yielding
to the direct application of moisture, so that in future repairings
the old stuff can be washed completely out and fresh glue used over
clean work. Let all amateur repairers therefore, abstain from seeking
after a vain thing of the nature of glue impervious to moisture. One
word more, as preachers say, and that is as to the preparation or
melting of the glue--simplest of processes--some pieces of selected
glue put into a small glazed gallipot with two-thirds of clean water
and left to soak during the night will only require warming in the
morning by placing the pot in a larger one and surrounding it with hot
water. The quantity of glue being varied according to requirement is
far preferable to the old-fashioned iron glue-pot which darkens the
glue and is in other ways objectionable. If the injury or want of
adhesion extends only to a trifling distance round the edge and has
happened at a time when good glue and proper appliances are not to hand,
the routine pursued must still be the same as if they were: first by
obtaining a well-worn table knife, the thinner the better (but if the
household knives happen to be new and strong you may call on some artist
friend, borrow his palette knife, clean it, have ready some clear water,
a cushion or a substitute, and some rather thick gum). If time will
allow, the strings should be taken off the violin, and then placing
it face downwards on the cushion, the knife having been dipped in the
water, can be inserted gently at the part requiring attention. (Diagram
1.)

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 1.]

You will soon tell by the sound in moving the knife about whether the
separation has been recent or of long standing, if the latter, the
slipping of the knife will cause a slight grating sound and when drawn
out will show signs of dirt. The knife must be rinsed and re-inserted
a sufficient number of times until all the evidence of dirt has
disappeared, the knife coming away clean and not gritty. Care should
be taken meanwhile to keep the violin on the tilt so that the water
introduced on the surface of the knife does not run inside but outward
to the edge; the parts should also each time be wiped by a clean
absorbent piece of cotton or linen. The knife can then be charged with
gum instead of water and inserted as before, the process being finished
by the wiping.

But now the question will arise how about the closing up and pressing
together of the parts. For this, assuming that the part to be rejoined
is not of great extent, the chin-rest--almost every player now uses
one--can be applied to the part and fixed in the usual way. If there
is not one to be had, some pieces of ordinary deal, the softer the
better--fire wood will do--cut into shape as depicted (Diagram 2) can
be fitted, but very loosely to allow of thin wedges being used to
tighten the grip (Diagram 3). They must be very gently pushed in, or
the border of the violin will be damaged. Some paper placed between
the wedge and the border will help in preserving the latter from injury
or marks. The above suggestions are only intended to be applicable when
the violinist may be out of reach of any professional or competent
repairer. Gum arabic or dextrine are not comparable with good glue for
repairs, although with care and attention to the details enumerated
here I have known it answer when in pressing haste, and even for a
permanency.

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 2.]

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 3.]



CHAPTER III.

MINOR REPAIRS--CRAMPS AND JOINTS--VIOLIN CASES--RATTLES AND
JARS--LOOSE FINGERBOARDS--ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE--OLD-FASHIONED
METHODS OF REPAIRING--MODERN WAYS--A LOOSE NUT.


The professional repairer is of course always provided with the well
known wooden screw cramps as used in all countries for centuries, but
if "up to date" men, they will have affixed the modern covering of cork
or leather at the parts coming into contact with the instrument. No
end of damage has been done at all times by neglect of this simple
precaution. Many gems from the old masters that would otherwise have
been matchless, are disfigured by an array of semi-circular dents or
bruises near the border. This is particularly noticeable when the
arching springs rather abruptly from a narrow channel and near the
purfling, or the rise commences from the border without channelling.
Here is shown the wisdom of the earlier Italian masters when
introducing the channelled model, the hollowing being a preservation
against damage by the impetuous repairer. Many otherwise excellent
workers are heavy handed, pressing all parts together very tightly but
not more securely. Good joints, cleanly and accurately cut, the
surfaces kept clean and not overloaded with good glue, are the best
for lasting, and of course for appearance.

Before leaving that part of our subject which is connected with damages
to the violin resulting from want of precaution or thoughtlessness,
it may be as well to refer to a frequent cause of disaster, often well
nigh ruin, by the use of badly fitting and badly constructed cases.
Innumerable as have been the varieties of style, shape and arrangement
of violin cases, there is still an opportunity for a new, good and
useful one that shall combine all or most of the requirements as regards
utility, portability, preservativeness and nice appearance. Those in
use for travelling with during the last century and the early part of
this, had the disadvantage of heaviness, besides their rounded forms
which prevented their being placed with a flat side downwards on a shelf
or convenient horizontal surface without some unsteady rolling; also
being often studded with brass nails like a coffin, a very grave
objection (diagram 4). The leather cases which require the instrument
to be placed in sideways have the advantage of giving good protection
against rain, but there is insufficient defence against accidental
violence; they are, further, more expensive than the foreign boxes made
of poplar wood, which are light and of sufficient strength when
carefully made. There was one good thing about the ancient cases,
however, the violin being inserted at the large end, the performer knew
at once whether the case was sufficiently capacious for the instrument.
Not so with those in common use at the present time, opening as a box.
To these may be laid the charge of causing an immense amount of
irreparable injury to numbers of violins of any standard of excellence
or costliness. This in the way mostly of depressions--"wells" as they
are termed by repairers--where the feet of the bridge rest. These are
caused by the lid of the case coming down on to the hard wood of the
bridge and pressing its feet like dies, into the comparatively softer
pine (diagram 5). It is a disfigurement to the violin and is sometimes
in a bungling manner altered by inlaying--badly in most
instances--square pieces of wood to bring the surface level. This kind
of damage to the violin has been attributed to the prolonged pressure
on the upper table by the strings being stretched up to modern pitch,
but this is a mistake, no strings at all playable would press
sufficiently hard and directly downwards to produce this result. The
double-cases in use are worse than the single, as they are necessarily
stronger and heavier. Both present the same difficulties in estimating
whether the violin with its bridge is too high for the roof inside when
the lid is closed. A good way of testing it is by rubbing a little soft
white chalk over the top of the bridge and then gently shutting the
lid down, which also should show no indisposition to do so; if on
lifting the lid any of the white chalk is seen to have changed places
and got on to the lining of the lid, put aside at once and for ever
the condemned case as being an unfit receptacle for your cherished
Cremona. Further, if the fit is at all tight, do not use pressure but
get another case, your violin would be a very bad one indeed for your
sympathies to fall in with a horrible suggestion once made by the maker
of a too closely fitting case for his friend's instrument, that he
should be allowed to take a shaving or two off the violin, it would
then go in nicely. As some excuse for this maker he was not an amateur
in this line, but a professional undertaker.

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 4.]

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 5.]

We may now shift our ground and notice another source of the
complaint--rattles, jars, chatters, or grunts, which ever may appear
the most appropriate title for another variety of annoyance to the
performer. Having found out with our felt-headed hammer, or if that
is not easily obtainable, a slender stick may be covered at the end
with almost any soft material enclosed within a piece of chamois or
soft leather, and tied so as to form a knob like a small drumstick.
Having tested the violin with it in the manner before referred to, and
there being no bad reports from the body of the instrument, the hurt,
seat of injury, or lesion, may be in the neck, fingerboard, or even
the scroll, any part being liable to give out its undesirable note,
or interfere with the proper emission of musical tone from the strings.
There is no portion of the violin that will not under certain
provocations join too willingly in the production of unwelcome sounds
if the exciting conditions are present--those of checked vibration,
or vibration that should be checked. An unsuspected cause may be
discovered by the tapping test to be lurking unseen, and often unfelt,
till one note being struck in unison or sympathy with the affected spot,
may cause it to speak in a decided manner. This is at the part where
the fingerboard parts from the neck over the instrument towards the
bridge--the rather thin glue, as it should be--may, through damp or
other causes, have lost its hold for but a short distance, and not be
evident while the fingers are pressing the strings over the part; but
when notes are struck nearer towards the nut, the pressure is relieved
and the fingerboard free to take its own part. This, although a trifle
in itself, requires for its cure proper attention with suitable
appliances.

After the removal of the strings, the first suggestion naturally
occurring will be to insert, with the blade of a knife, some glue and
leave it to dry. This is more likely than not to make matters worse,
as it should always be borne in mind that glued surfaces always require
pressing together, however well they may fit. Glue contracts as it
dries, and in the process apparently disperses and clings to any other
bodies rather than to itself. To put this in another way, if air is
allowed to insinuate itself between the two surfaces which it is
desirable to bring into closest conjunction, the contraction,
particularly if good, while in progress, will cause a separation in
the central mass of the glue, while the two surfaces will be left as
before, independent of each other, but more clogged. Pressure must
therefore be invariably brought to bear behind the opposing parts, so
as to drive out the air from between and prevent its re-admission--the
necessity of an exact correspondence of the parts will be obvious--at
the same time the glue is to some degree forced into the pores of the
surfaces, and when the moisture has dispersed among the myriads of
cells composing the structural growth of the wood and finally
evaporates from the external ones, the glue, having hardened, will hold
the parts together with a tenacity that can only be overcome by
prolonged application of moisture or actual destruction of the parts.

There is one very important consideration in connexion with glueing
operations that must not at any time be lost sight of--that of
atmospheric temperature. Much trouble may be brought about by
inattention to this help or obstruction, for it will act both ways
according to circumstances. In the glueing of important parts in the
construction of pianofortes, the operators are careful to have the
temperature of the surrounding atmosphere sufficiently elevated, as
well as heating those portions of the structure which are to be
accurately and lastingly joined, and particularly where hard woods and
smooth surfaces are brought together. The violin repairer must
strictly follow the same rule. The degree Fahrenheit at which glueing
operations are best conducted may be roughly estimated as nearly
seventy. The reason for this is that the nature of good glue is to
coagulate or "set" rapidly in a cool atmosphere and in this state--not
perceptible at once to the eye--it will resist a considerable amount
of pressure, the surfaces that should exactly cohere, slipping aside
and the whole work having to be done over again, perhaps with fresh
damage.

To return now to our loose fingerboard, an old fashioned and very clumsy,
inefficient way of fastening it after glueing, was to tie some string
round it, which of course getting much glue upon it during progress
had, when dry, to be torn or washed off. The modern, simplest and best
way is to have ready a soft wood mould with a square or flat back for
the under or circular part of the neck, and a similar but flatter one
to fit above on the fingerboard. These can be easily adjusted, and the
requisite pressure obtained by several screw cramps along its extent
(diagrams 6 and 7). It is not very often that the nut or small block
over which the strings pass on to the pegs gets loose, if it does, it
is the result of bad fitting and careless glueing. If it should happen
to come away, wash it, and when dry see that the under part to be stuck
to the fingerboard and the neck is quite square and level; warm it and
apply some strong glue to the two surfaces, and also to the parts with
which it is to come into contact, you can then place it in position;
press down and rub backwards and forwards once or twice, then leave
in the exact position required; if clean, accurately fitted and warmed,
it will not require any further pressing or clamping. If this part
should have been knocked off and lost, then a new one must be made.
For this purpose the hardest piece of ebony you can obtain is the best;
sometimes a nut of ivory or bone is used, but it has a staring effect,
although if properly done as above described, it holds well and wears
slowly. Some of the hard dark woods, cocoa wood and lignum vitæ, or
dark horn are adapted for this purpose. Rosewood is not so well suited,
as the ruts or grooves are soon made deep by the friction of the strings
in being wound up, and renewal is found obligatory sooner than with
the other.

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 6.]

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 7.]

Having selected a suitable piece of wood it must be cut or planed square
and equal in thickness. It should be as nearly the right length as
possible before being placed permanently in position, the ends being
very tough in cutting. If by miscalculation they are found to project
over the width of the fingerboard, they should be--when the glue is
quite dry--cut through with a small bow saw close up, a gentle, careful
filing will reduce them down level with the side of the fingerboard;
the surface should run easily with that of the peg box, which is not
always of the same width as the other, the arching can then be proceeded
with, a chisel being first used, then a rather close grained file for
further levelling and the finishing off with the finest glass-paper
or emery cloth, having a drop or two of oil in it; this will give a
smooth, dull polish agreeable to the eye. The grooves in which the
strings will have to rest must be marked out or pricked to measurement
so that the spaces may appear regular when the violin is strung up.
The distance apart being occasionally done to the caprice of the player,
measurement should be kept of this matter of detail from some well
regulated instrument as a standard to go by. When the exact spots for
the grooves are marked or pricked, a very small, round or "rat-tailed"
file may be used to work the wood down at the spot, care being taken
that the file is constantly held in an exact line with the direction
of the fingerboard, otherwise when strung up the appearance at the part
will be that of distortion and the string will even be checked in its
freedom in passing through the grooves, each of which should be made
to receive the string not too tightly nor too loose. Of course the width
of each groove must be in agreement with the thickness of the string,
the widest being the D, the G a little less, the A less still and the
E least of all; the E should be a trifle closer to the fingerboard than
the D or G, the last, having the widest swing during play, should be
raised further off the board than the others. The arching of that side
of the nut may also be left a little higher. The nut should also be
made to slant down towards the peg box (diagram 8), the grooves being
of a regular depth on this and not deeper at the top (diagram 9). When
all is ready for the stringing up, a soft lead pencil may be used for
blackleading the grooves, they are otherwise liable to arrest the
progress of the string towards the pegs when tuning up and suddenly
letting them go with a click, making the tuning uncertain and
difficult; if the wood is rather obstinate--it is not always alike--a
touch of beeswax of the size of a pin's head where the lead is placed
will be an effectual cure.

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 8.]

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 9.]

We may now leave this as finished, going to the other end of the violin
where another nut is used for supporting the tail-string as it comes
over to the end peg. This part is frequently done in a slovenly way,
even by some repairers of good repute; there is no reason why it should
not be as neatly done in all respects as any other part. It may be that
the supposition is uppermost in the mind of the repairer that, like
the nut at the fingerboard, the pressure of the strings will retain
it in position. This is a mistake, there is a great pull forward,
especially if the wood is hard and dry. The material should be selected
for its solidity and hardness like that for the other nut. In olden
times, say those of the early Italians, this part, owing to the small
amount of strain in consequence of low pitch, low bridge and short neck,
seems to have been treated with almost indifference, a very slight
piece of ebony, cherry, pear, or other variety of hard wood found in
Italy, sufficing for the purpose (diagram 10). It was left level with
the surrounding soft wood, or nearly so; there was no occasion for
raising it at the time, as the tail-string projected from the
underneath of the tailpiece instead of that almost universally now
known as the secret tie (diagrams 11 and 12). This latter necessitates
the use of a higher and more substantial nut, otherwise the tailpiece
would be close down to, if not touching, the table, causing a rattling.
Further, in accordance with mechanical law, the strain or pull forward
increases with the height of the nut. It is therefore obvious, that
unless well fitted and held strongly, the nut will be liable to be
wrenched forward out of position. This is more frequent than would be
suspected, and is sometimes a secret source of damage or bad influence
leading to disaster in other parts of the instrument. The same
observations concerning the preliminaries apply to the fixing of this
as to the other nut. The modern arrangement of the part leaves but
little to be improved upon.

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 10. OLDEST FORM OF NUT.]

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 11.]

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 12.]

The length and thickness of the nut required having been determined
upon, we will suppose ourselves in the presence of an old worthy from
Cremona requiring a fresh attachment, the wood selected--Mauritius
ebony for preference--and the measurement as follows, 5/16 in length
and thickness according to the width of the border, as the nut looks
best when the inner edge runs in a continuous line with that of the
purfling (diagram 13). In highly finished work and when the end of the
violin has a perceptible curve instead of being nearly straight, the
nut should be made to follow the course of the purfling, this will
require some care in the cutting and finishing of it. For this a piece
of almost any veneer cut to the exact flow or drawing of the line may
be used as a guide or template. The block from which the nut is to be
made having been cut quite level, the line can be traced with a fine
pointed pencil, or better, a fine pointed knife, and then shaped with
a sharp chisel. The block or nut can now be laid on the border, care
being taken that the tail pin comes immediately in a central position
in relation to it, and then with the sharp pointed knife a finely cut
line can be traced all round. The space now marked may be cleared away
down to the top of the end block with a clean, vertical wall on three
sides formed by the pine. If carefully done, the nut, at present only
a solid, squared block, will fit exactly, if too tight, a little shaving
off here and there of the pine will correct it. The nut, supposed to
be an exact fit, may be warmed and some fairly strong glue applied
(diagram 14). The raw surfaces of the pine and the exposed end block
are of course very absorbent and require an extra feed or two in order
that the final glueing of the nut and place of reception may have a
good holding. The nut, now squeezed into position, will not require
the clamp, but if time is no desideratum an application of that useful
tightener will ensure a firm hold, and moreover the superfluous glue
is forced out.

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 13.]

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 14.]

When the glue has had time to thoroughly dry and harden, the clamp may
be released, and a part at each end of the nut marked off for levelling
down to the surrounding forces by filing and glass-papering. The manner
and care with which this is done declares the excellence and
characteristics of the workman or firm by whom he is employed; almost
every repairer or house of reputation having their individualisms in
this respect, as also in that of the fingerboard nut (diagram 15). A
line having been ruled with precision along the upper central part with
the pencil or knife as before, a small gouge can be run along a hollow
which will face the bridge. To give this the best kind of finish a piece
of pine or soft poplar, such as is used for champagne wine cases, you
may look out for one about Christmas time, cut it to the shape of the
part to be finished thus (diagram 16), and with a piece of fine
glasspaper, slightly oiled, a few rubs backwards and forwards will be
necessary. The top of the back part can now be shaved gently down by
a small metal plane, a little filing will give the evenness and
rotundity required. The same treatment will be necessary for the under
part, which in good work is a continuation of the line of the edging
of the upper table. A section of the nut in its finished state will
be as in diagram 17.

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 15.]

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 16.]

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 17.]

The whole of the surfaces may now be finished with the finest emery
cloth and oil. This latter may be linseed, nut, poppy or castor oil
with turpentine, but do not use sweet or olive oil, it never dries,
but lurks about in the pores of the wood and turns rancid.

Before leaving this part of the instrument, it may be as well to take
a glance at the peg itself and its insertion at the centre underneath
the nut. This is in no respect an unimportant detail to be seen to in
the fitting up and regulation of a violin. In olden times the peg was
small, not half the size of those inserted in new violins of the present
day. The increase in the size seems to have been gradual and to
compensate for the hard wood of the peg pressing against the inner,
softer substance of the end block with the thin slice of maple used
for the ribs, both being insufficient to withstand the strain of the
tail-string. Consequently the peg is pulled upwards, sometimes
considerably out of position. This is especially likely to occur if
the hole has been bored too large or the peg is too thin or short. The
accurate fitting of these should have strict attention. Some modern
repairers, when they find that there are indications of a softer piece
of pine than usual having been used, enlarge the hole with a tool
specially made for the purpose, having two cutting edges, or with a
number of grooves having sharp ridges, others a rat-tailed file. The
latter is perhaps the best, as being less likely to split the fibres
of the soft pine. The tool is inserted, not directly in a line pointing
exactly midway between the upper and lower tables, but slightly upwards
or contrary to the tendency of the peg to accommodate itself to the
strain. When the parts under strain have settled down, the peg is seen
to be as near as possible horizontal with the length of the violin.
The best way, undoubtedly, is to make the peg an accurate but not too
tight fit, it should be sufficiently long to go right through the block.
In cases where the hole has been enlarged, badly directed or even made
ragged by a bad tool, it should be a stopped up very carefully with
a plug, neatly glued in, and a fresh hole bored. Sometimes this has
proved necessary from the carelessness of the original maker. The old
masters were not always exact with their mechanical fittings in
connection with the violin. The moderns, for obvious reasons, have paid
much attention to them. I remember coming across an Italian violin that
had changed hands frequently for the asserted reason of insufficient
tone. The maker having a renown for considerable power, it appeared
to me that the tone was possibly there, but that from some undiscovered
cause it was not properly emitted. On examination I found that the maker
had joined the ribs, not at the central part as usual, but too much
to the left, perhaps a pupil or assistant had bored the hole at the
junction. There were besides, some tinkerings by modern regulators
endeavouring to counteract the uneven strain over the instrument. The
right spot, or it may be called the axis of the instrument, having been
found, the peghole was neatly and permanently plugged, and a fresh one
bored, which allowed the strain to be better distributed. The result
was satisfactory and delightful; the tone of much power and purity had
free play in manifesting itself, and the violin was enabled to take
its rightful position among its brethren. A few words as to the right
spot for the peghole. This was treated by many of the old Italian
liutaros as a matter for mere guess work apparently, when there was
no join in the upper table, nor in the lower one, sometimes the lower
rib being continuous. The best spot, and therefore the right one, may
be fixed upon by finding the centre between the two inner edges of the
purfling on the upper table at the lower part, the same between that
of the upper, and drawing a faint line through the points with a piece
of soft white chalk cut to a point, and guided by a flexible rule or
straight edge down to the nut. If this line does not touch at the centre
of the nut, then the latter is out of place, and it should be rectified.
The line should pass through the centre of the nut, and immediately
underneath this and midway between the edges of the upper and lower
table will be the spot for the centre of the peghole. The line thus
made will not always be found to agree with the centre joint of the
pine; many of the old Italian makers may have not, from lack of wood
of the right sort and in equal widths, been able to do otherwise. At
times it may have been carelessness. Some of their roughly made violins
have the joint line over a quarter of an inch from the centre,
occasionally it will be not only wider on one side than the other, but
the thread or grain will diverge instead of running parallel with the
centre line. The judiciousness of careful measurement for the centre,
instead of relying on the joint line, will therefore be obvious. There
is not much to be said in preference of one kind of hard wood over
another for the end peg, it being a matter of fancy as to appearance.
Ebony being black and very hard, should perhaps take the preference
in wear, and acquiring a polish from the gentle friction it is liable
to. The old Italian end pegs were mostly of cherrywood, with lines
neatly turned round a centre of ivory or bone.



CHAPTER IV.

INJURIES TO THE HEAD OR SCROLL--INSERTION OF FRESH WOOD--COLOURING OF
WHITE WOOD--SEPARATION OF HEAD FROM PEG-BOX AND RE-JOINING--STOPPING
MATERIAL FOR SMALL HOLES OR FRACTURES--THE PEG-BOX CRACKED BY PEG
PRESSURE.


Leaving this part now, we can turn our attention for a time to
reparation of injury to the head or scroll. This interesting and often
highly artistic part of the general structure of the violin, and in
which no man since the time of the old Brescian, Gasparo da Salo, has
succeeded in effecting any permanent change of fashion, is subject to
as many knocks as any other part. A piece out of the ear or first turn
from the axis is, with a delicately carved scroll, so frequently seen
as to be almost fashionable; little pieces out of the edges further
off from the central part, are common disfigurements. Modern vandals
rub these parts down with a file or glasspaper, to make it nice and
even to their vision, saving themselves time and trouble. Many a
graceful scroll, carved with loving care and enviable dexterity by a
master of his art, has thus come to an untimely end. Should your
cherished Guarneri or Stradivari scroll got chipped or fractured by
accident and the piece drop, search for it at once, and when found,
if you have not good mechanical ability and experience in fitting such
delicate parts, it should, while fresh and free from soiling, be
entrusted without delay to the care of a professional repairer of
repute, but not to a provincial amateur or rough carpenter who would
probably make matters worse. On setting to work after a preliminary
inspection, the careful repairer will fit the parts together as they
are, to ascertain that there is nothing to prevent a close join of the
surfaces, sometimes a splinter will prevent a close fit of the
surfaces; this must be pushed into its right position or, if in the
interior, it may be better to remove it altogether. If the part is lost,
then the bare space must be carefully examined and the direction of
the grain and quality of the surrounding wood matched as closely as
possible; otherwise the most accurate fitting and finishing off will
not make a good restoration. The repairer of experience will have at
hand a large quantity of odds and ends of different kinds of maple,
curled or plain; perhaps old worn out necks or otherwise useless
fragments of relics of a bygone age, and not necessarily of musical
instruments. But sometimes these are not to be obtained, nothing but
new or modern wood, and it may be of good appearance and applicable
excepting for the colour. What is to be done? There is the drawback
to new white wood, that it is difficult to colour down to match the
surrounding wood, when it has been fixed, and besides, if the part
happens to be where there is any friction, the white wood soon makes
itself apparent, if not very conspicuous. It is advantageous,
therefore, to colour the wood artificially before placing in position.
There have been many ways adopted at times for meeting this requirement.
It must be remembered, however, that there is no perfectly successful
mode of artificially colouring wood so as to defy detection, but small
portions such as are under consideration at the present moment may be
treated so as to look tolerably well. Firstly, a well known, often tried,
but very bad method is to steep a piece of white new wood in a solution
of nitric acid and water. When dry, old age will seem to have crept
over and through it, but of a delusive and unnatural kind. The corrosive
properties of the acid still remain and gradually disintegrate the
fibres until the whole mass becomes rotten. It may be fairly termed
premature old age, as the lowering or toning down of the colour in wood
and other materials seems to be caused by similar, if not identical,
constituents of the ordinary atmosphere, but under different
conditions. Another way is lay the pieces of wood upon a stove with
a regulated heating power and watching for the exact degree of change
in the colour with continued heat. There is very little to be said
against it for small repairs, the degree of heat required for the
desired tint is insufficient to damage the wood but enough to harden
it, and if not too hastily done the colouring will go quite through.

Among other methods is tinting the wood by any of the various stains
sold for the purpose. Few of them are of any good to the violin repairer,
some choking the softer parts and leaving the harder ones or threads
standing out lighter when they should be darker. Their colour, if it
were not for this drawback, is sometimes good. Some of the
manufacturers of new musical instruments on the continent lower the
colour of the wood before varnishing by staining it with a solution
of bichromate of potash. Sometimes when dexterously applied the colour
is very good, but the stain is liable to make itself too evident in
parts where the wood may be a little more spongy than at others. Most
of the instruments treated in this way may be recognised at a glance,
the curl of the maple is brought out strongly, in fact overdone. With
small portions of wood for repairing this stain may, with much caution,
be used to advantage. It has the property of throwing up the threads
of the pine and the nutmeggy parts of the maple without impairing
seriously the clearness of the grain under the varnish. The preparation
of the solution is as follows--some pieces of bichromate of potash can
be put into any ordinary bottle of a convenient size and water poured
on to them. The water will take up a certain quantity in solution which
will be too strong for the repairer's use; some of it, say a gill, can
be put into an equal quantity of clear water, and then painted over
the wood to be coloured down. There will not be any perceptible
colouring for half-an-hour or so, but further exposure to good or
strong sunlight will gradually bring about a change from the slight
orange tint to the dull light brown approaching that produced by the
slow secret process adopted by "Old Father Time." It must be kept in
mind that bichromate of potash is a poison. There are other stains that
will bring a good colour to the surface of the wood, but are likely
to change colour when the varnish is applied. The whole work of careful
restoration may thus be upset in a moment. All stains should be
carefully and repeatedly tested before being applied to any work of
importance. Some repairers use a hastily made solution of powdered
colour such as burnt umber, and paint or rub it into the wood. This
process is to be condemned as resulting in opaqueness and giving a
tinkered aspect to the wood and work.

There are doubtless many substances or liquids capable of imparting
a tint resembling that alone caused by age, but experience only will
enable the repairer to decide which is best. It may be as well to point
out that some tinting substances are more suitable for colouring wood
of a dense quality than for a more open grained or spongy one. Much
will depend on the judgment exercised and skill in matching tints. When
it becomes absolutely necessary to use fresh white wood, this will
require more colouring than an older piece, but a rather strange thing
in connection with this is that if some of the varnish has been removed
from the parts adjacent to the freshly inserted wood, the old material
will require colouring down as well as the new, but not so much. This
seems like some indication that varnish does get lowered in tint as
age progresses; it may be, however, that the top surface of the wood
gets darker than the under parts from the action of light.

The final touching up or finish of the newly inserted wood and its
varnishing will have to remain over for the present, and will be taken
up after the mechanical work is concluded.

Having thus far got to work upon a fractured or lost piece that may
have been knocked off a projecting part of the scroll, there are other
injuries likely to occur to this part of the instrument and caused in
a variety of ways, some occasionally seeming mysterious in their origin.
Thus from a weakness or flaw in the grain of the wood, or it may be
from a blow having first started a crack and successive ones gradually
increasing the fracture, the scroll itself will come away bodily,
separating at the weakest part just behind the second turn. This is
a delicate matter for manipulation. If the fracture is quite new, the
raw surfaces uninjured and some properly prepared rather strong glue
is handy, then an almost instant application of it to both surfaces
and pressing them together, exactly fitting, will result in an
effectual and lasting junction of the parts. But supposing the breakage
to have occurred some time back and the parts to be separate and soiled,
the difficulties are much increased, as in the majority of cases no
purchase can be obtained whereby a good pressure can be directly
applied. Cramps cannot be applied, therefore, with any degree of safety,
even if a good grip can be obtained and with the safeguard of some
padding, as the first is bound to injure the wood around, leaving an
ugly imprint of the grip, and thus making things worse in appearance
instead of better. The other is likely to be productive of slipping
out of position, the hold not being retained, and vexatious results
ensuing with the accompaniment occasionally of unprintable language
coming from the repairer. The best way on all occasions will be found
to be that in which patience is not taken as a virtue but as necessity,
and the presence of Old Father Time altogether ignored, which may often
mean time saved. Constant practice may give facility in keeping pace
with that steady old party with the hourglass, but a good result is
seldom obtained when the clock is much consulted during the progress
of the work in hand. It is this which has caused the complete ruin of
many a damaged gem from Cremona's workshops of the olden time. We will
therefore suppose the repairer to be unfettered by time and that he
will be properly paid for work that will tend to restore the commercial
value, as well as the usefulness and beauty.

The main consideration will be the manner of getting a proper
attachment of parts that cannot be wedged or forced together at once,
in fact, to get a good purchase or leverage. This must be either
obtained indirectly or dispensed with altogether. For the former,
building up or "making," as it is termed, must be resorted to, and which
may include temporarily glueing fresh wood on to the old parts to be
separated or cut away afterwards. Many inexperienced repairers are too
apt to look upon all glueing as for permanency, but practice should
soon make it plain that all joinings are effected only for such length
of time as may be desirable. In making or building up a part from which
we can obtain a stand or commanding point from which to get a more direct
purchase, it may be necessary to glue one or more pieces of wood, cut
to a proper shape and stuck with a dab of thick glue and left until
dry. For this purpose the soft white wood or poplar referred to at the
beginning will be found useful, it is so easily cut with a chisel or
knife keen edged--this condition is an essential at all times. By the
bye, some readers may be thinking of the best means of getting a nice
clean edge to their knife or chisel. There are several kinds of oilstone
or hone in repute for giving a finishing or sharp cutting edge, England,
America and the European continent supplying them, the "Chalney
Forest" being the commonest known in England; the American "Arkansas"
or "Washita" are expensive when very good, but there is nothing that
can beat a well selected piece of "Turkey stone" with a nice even
surface to begin with. For obtaining a clean cutting edge, a few drops
of oil before rubbing will be sufficient. Olive or good mineral oil
will do, the latter preferably as it gradually evaporates; whereas
vegetable oils acquire a siccative property from contact with the
minute particles of steel; the stone then gets clogged and unworkable
till thoroughly cleansed. Mineral oil disappearing gradually leaves
but little residue, which can be now and again wiped off. In cases where
the utmost delicacy of surface cutting or close fitting is required,
and where no other tool but the chisel can be used, it may be as well
to have at hand a stout, smooth leather strap fixed at each end over
a piece of wood about twelve inches in length. The residue on the Turkey
stone can be taken off with a knife--care being taken that no dust or
grit is with it--and smeared on the strap with a little olive oil. The
chisel or knife used briskly and gently on this will after a few passes
become as near perfection of keenness as possible. After getting
everything in readiness, which will include the carving to shape, of
any wood that is to act as a support or fulcrum, these parts must be
made to fit as accurately as possible, and may not require glueing but
at one or two places and those selected to come in contact with those
of the original structure least liable to be affected or damaged. Thus
the interior of the peg-box will be found a convenient position from
which to build a support that shall reach up underneath the volute or
under turn of the scroll. Having well tried the parts as to the fitting,
the support or prop may be secured or glued in roughly to the lower
surface of the peg-box--presuming of course that the pegs have all been
removed--and left to dry hard. When so the parts had better be tried
for fitting again, and if any little inaccuracy shows itself, or the
pressure in glueing the fracture is likely to be uneven and the junction
be untrue, a little paper or card may be inserted or even glued in
between, or where judgment may dictate, to enable a good distribution
of the balance of pressure necessary. There can be no certain
description given of the size or form of the supports or made up parts
to be temporarily fixed; all must depend upon the estimation of what
is best to be done under the circumstances; it can be likened to
engineering on a minute scale, quite as interesting, but less dangerous,
while more comfortably conducted in your own home without exposure to
the baleful influence of unsympathetic elements.

The next and most necessary proceeding will be the cleansing of the
surfaces that are to be permanently joined. In most instances the
application of clean cold water in a sponge will be sufficient, but
where much grime and grease have accumulated different means must be
resorted to. Soap is not to be recommended but, and especially if the
surfaces are irregular, some pure benzine, applied or slightly
scrubbed in by a stiff brush, not too large, and the parts then wiped
repeatedly on a clean cotton or other absorbent rag. Pure benzine, if
not rubbed in too hard or too long, will not injure the adjacent varnish,
be it the delicate film on a thousand pound gem of Cremona or the flinty
covering of a less presumptuous output from Naples. When evaporation
is complete, it will be so in a few minutes, some clean water brushed
in and wiped away, will leave the surfaces in a state for receiving
glue.

The glue should be of good strength--the junction being intended to
be permanent--and applied in a warm atmosphere or the parts warmed a
little, as, under different conditions the glue will coagulate or "set"
(diagram 18). When the parts are placed properly in position, and the
outside blocks or buffers adjusted for opposing pressure, the cramps
may be applied and screwed fairly tight. If the surfaces meet well and
the pressure is properly distributed, the glue will ooze out at the
juncture of the fractured parts. This can be wiped off with a cloth,
but occasionally mended parts cannot be got at easily, if so the glue
must be rubbed away after cramps and moulds have been removed, by a
damp sponge or cloth and then wiped dry. Sometimes differently to the
above mentioned simple fracture, it may be of the kind described by
surgeons as comminuted or split into small fragments. This will be
found to be much more troublesome than the former; after cleansing as
usual, if the injured parts are actually separated from the main
structure, judgment must be exercised in selecting those portions--the
largest if possible--that when glued in, will act as a support for
others to be afterwards inserted. The same attention in kind and amount
will mostly bring about a satisfactory result, but frequently with this
class of fracture minute pieces may have been lost past recovery,
leaving a small gap here and there to be filled up somehow. These places,
if large enough, should have pieces let in according to the manner
before described. If they are too small for this treatment--a little
experience will enable the eye to judge at a glance--then the only
course will be to fill them up with some kind of paste or improvised
mixture. For this purpose a good "stopping" must be made. This has,
in olden times as well as the present, been a difficulty to meet. Many
kinds of material have been used, most of them having some
objectionable quality; some repairers keeping some kind, others
generally making further experiments. Among the various materials
plaster of Paris or common chalk worked up in glue has been frequently
used; it is certainly strong for some time after use, but gradually,
as age creeps on, contraction takes place towards the central portion,
and a small fissure all round is seen more and more evident, and which
gets filled with grime causing a very distinct black line, which draws
attention to the spot, the substance also being so much harder than
the surrounding wood, gets polished with a little friction and usage
and declares its unsympathetic nature; further, it is difficult to
colour successfully, or even well, and for these objections it should
never be used. Wax is another material that has been extensively in
use among the older English repairers, but it has very little to
recommend it except handiness, and that quality ought not to be placed
in the balance against much more important ones. It is not easily
colourable; with usage the top surface gets wiped off, leaving a hollow.
Powdered wood with shellac, or the latter with some heterogeneous
materials have also failed, as the alcoholic solution destroys the
surrounding varnish.

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 18.]

Sealing wax has also in turn been used with no better result. Other
substances are met with whose precise nature is not known, odd mixtures
made up in a hurry at the moment of requirement, but no material or
mixture has been found to excel that made with wood and glue. Many,
perhaps the majority of instances in which this has been used, have
also been failures; not from any inherent defect in the substance, but
from lack of proper management. Different varieties of wood have been
tried, a great drawback being the contraction when the glue dries; this
is markedly the case when a hard wood, powdered by glass-paper, is used.
The granulations and their hardness are also objectionable, and if
ground up too small, contraction to a greater degree takes place, and
the repairer's object is defeated. Long experience has shown that the
disintegrated fibres of soft pine, not powdered, offer the best
security against contraction, it can be made strong or weak according
to the thickness of glue used, is always at hand, and on the whole gives
the least trouble. It requires little or no colouring, and moreover
approaches nearest in character--or can be made to do so--to the
surrounding material. If there is a selection possible, the well known
soft grained American pine should in preference be used. There is a
good and a bad way of managing the process to ensue. To roughly seize
a chump of wood and begin filing it away anyhow, collecting the residue
and making a rough paste, will bring disappointment, as sure as houses
built with wrongly mixed mortar. To put method into the matter, a piece
of clear, knotless, soft, grained wood should be obtained and cut to
a cylindrical form (diagram 19). A flat file of rather fine
texture--this may be according to the size of the instrument to be
repaired--should be worked against it at right angles. The file (not
glass or sand-paper) must not be of the toothed kind, but grooved. The
shower of particles sent off during the action of filing, will consist
of a number of minute silky fibres, which, of course, must be collected
together, placed upon a clean porcelain dish, or palette, and worked
up with glue--strong--for filling spaces in the maple, and weaker, if
used for the pine of the front table. It can be tucked into the crevices
as required by the end of a small, worn, or pointed knife. Some portions
will remain above the surface and, in fact, will not go in completely,
owing to the fibrous, or threadiness of the mass, but this constitution
is the safeguard against its contraction, the glue in drying clinging
round the fibres instead of to itself. When dry and hard the projecting
portions can be neatly levelled off. If, as will sometimes happen, a
little hole or two can be perceived, perhaps under magnifying power,
the process can be repeated on a minute scale. By attention to the above
there will be but small risk of contraction, and if cleanly done there
will not be much trouble in colouring the part to match the
surroundings.

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 19.]

We can now advance another step and notice a frequently occurring
fracture that is caused by the constant pressure and tuning up of the
A peg, at a part which in many violins, owing to the peculiarity of
design, is a very weak one, the grain of the wood above the peg being
short and liable to overstraining by impetuous performers. Being one
of the most inconvenient positions on the instrument for working upon,
if the repairing is not effected in a methodical manner, it is nearly
certain to come undone again. The crack is more often than not
unperceived for a considerable time by the performer, and meanwhile
grease and dirt work their way secretly into the pores of the wood.
A repairer may take a glance at the state of the fracture, whip out
some glue, paint a little on each side, wriggle the whole well at the
risk of extending the wound, get in a little more glue, and let that
harden under pressure from the cramps, which--unless extraordinary
care and skill is exercised, damage other portions of the work--replace
the peg and send the instrument home again apparently as sound as new
(diagram 20). This treatment, if resorted to immediately after a sudden
and clean fracture, may be effectual for some time, but if, as above
mentioned, it has begun secretly and enlarged by degrees, the kind of
repairing described will serve but a few turns of the peg, when crack
it goes once more. Off to the fiddle hospital again, where it may be
possibly subjected to a repetition of the treatment, especially if the
owner is of an economical turn of mind as regards "bill of costs."

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 20.]

Under the above circumstances of combined age and dirt, some repairers
would dare to increase the fracture or pull the scroll quite off in
order to get at the part, cleaning it well before glueing it on again.
This is making things worse, particularly as this part of the violin
is one of the most awkward at which to apply direct strong pressure
on a good and neat junction.

Sometimes the first mode is resorted to with the addition of what is
called bushing the peg-hole, that is, after the glueing performance
has been gone through, it will last strong enough while the hole is
being enlarged, a cylindrical plug of wood being inserted, and glued.
This is levelled down and re-bored, to suit the peg or a fresh smaller
one. This treatment is to be avoided if possible, as it is accompanied
by a more or less disfigurement of the "cheeks" of the peg-box, and
at the best is uncertain. A much more sure and neat method is, in the
first place to clear all dirt and grease away possible, and gently work
some clean water into the crack, repeatedly wiping with a clean cloth.
When sufficiently done, some strong glue may be worked in, in like
manner, cramps and pads applied and the parts brought neatly in
contact.

When the glue is thoroughly hard and dry, on the inside of the peg box
extending each side of the crack and beyond the peg hole, a space must
be cut away having straight sharp sides to the depth of about 1/16 of
an inch, perhaps a trifle less. It must be done with keen edged
chisels--size according to requirement--and the walls made as even as
a piece of plate glass. Sometimes, in consequence of the shortness of
the peg box, it will be necessary to make the cut away space extend
further upward, and into the solid part. In all instances it will test
the mechanical dexterity and patience for cutting in confined spaces.
When this has been accomplished to satisfaction, a piece of maple
without curl or knot must be cut a little thicker than what has been
removed, but as to superficial area, fitting to a hair's breadth if
skill will allow.

Some old scrolls, particularly among the old Italians, are made of
beech or other tough woods; in these instances the material must be
matched according to the means at the disposal of the repairer. In
cutting the small veneer of wood to be placed in position, care should
be taken that when fitted in, the grain should run as nearly as possible
at right angles with that of the part to be repaired. If this is attended
to, with all other necessary precautions, there will be little cause
for fear of the part going bad again, in fact it should be actually
stronger than before.

It may occasionally happen that both sides of the peg-box have been
strained and split, with accompanying conditions of previous bad
repairing and dirt. The same treatment will suggest itself for the
"double event" as sportsmen say. But the two fractures are really as
easily repaired--that is, with proper care and skill--as the single
one. This is because the same cramps can be used for joining the two
fractures simultaneously. For this operation the cut out space
referred to close by, if not covering the peg-hole, will have to be
repeated on the opposite side with great exactness, so as to allow of
a single fitting up and filling the intermediate space, the grain
running as described before, and which will therefore be--when placed
in position--with the end of the grain towards the spectator--looking
towards the front of the peg-box. It should be neatly and very closely
fitted (diagram 21). In carving the blocks that are to be used outside
the peg-box for evenly distributing the pressure, precautions must be
taken not to cut them of equal thickness, or when the pressure is
applied, they are likely to slip, particularly when the peg-box
diminishes rapidly in width under the volute. They must therefore be
cut more or less wedge like, according to the modelling or proportion
of the parts, so that when placed on, the screwing of the cramp will
be direct. When this is done to satisfaction, the usual process advised
for the glueing may be proceeded with, and being carefully seen to be
in proper order, the cramp with pads against the outside cheeks of the
peg-box may be screwed on rather tightly. When quite dry, the cramp
being unscrewed, the side block of wood will be found firmly adhering,
with the superfluous glue squeezed up from between the surfaces by the
pressure.

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 21.]

The next proceeding will be to level down the projecting parts of the
block in front, to the line of the throat. This being accomplished with
great neatness--the line of old work and new wood being exactly level,
a line may be drawn with a pencil or cut with the point of a knife over
the block as a continuation of the inner surfaces of the peg-box. If
carefully managed the knife point is preferable, a piece of stiff card
or very thin veneer may be cut to the width, bent over and the point
run down each side. The advantage of the knife line is that you have
already a cut to work up to. After this the chiseling out or mortising
can be proceeded with. The tool must be very keen edged, and as the
cutting has in great part to be done against the grain, no violence
must be exercised; rapidity will only come with regularity in taking
off thin shavings. When all the surfaces have been carefully pared down
until, as regards thickness and evenness of line and surface, the
peg-box is just as it left the hands of the original maker, there will
remain to be done the clearing of the wood at each of the peg-holes
which will have been covered by the block perhaps wholly or more than
half way. In the case of the double fracture this will be found to be
in the same condition on both sides. The hole will require continuing
through the fresh wood, in fact re-boring so far as this is concerned.
It will be a more or less delicate operation to prevent splitting the
wood, especially if from shaving down to the surrounding levels, it
is not very stout.

To guard against catastrophy, a small hole should be bored exactly in
the centre. Particular attention must be paid to this, or the whole
work may be spoilt and a fresh block or bushing of the hole be found
necessary, and much of your work to be done again. The small hole may
be drilled if you have the necessary means at hand, if not a small
brad-awl may be used, not of the usual round kind, but square. Such
brad-awls are, I believe, known as chairmender's brad-awls. If one
cannot be obtained, an ordinary round one can, with a little trouble,
be filed square. The advantage of this form of awl is that it does not
split the wood and can be used with safety and certainty where one of
the ordinary pattern would be certain to split and spoil the work.
Several sizes may be used to enlarge the aperture, the square edges
breaking away the sides without causing an extended crack in the
direction of the grain. When sufficiently enlarged, recourse may be
had to the rat-tailed or circular file. Here again much care must be
taken, as the toothing of the file is arranged somewhat in the fashion
of a screw, and if the tool is used one way it soon buries itself,
becomes tightly wedged and will inevitably split the surrounding wood.
It must therefore be turned in a direction that may be called backward,
the revolutions to the left instead of to the right. It will take a
little more time than might be expected, but the result will be more
satisfactory, free from danger of splitting and the interior surface
of the hole be made smooth. The use of one, a degree or two finer in
tooth will give enough finish. A constant look out must be kept that
the tool is working properly in the centre; should it be found working
a little too much to one side, it must be removed and the opposite part
gently cut away by a slender sharp knife so that the equality may be
restored.

Caution must be exercised that the action of the tool is arrested at
the right moment, that is, when the opening made in the fresh wood is
worked closely up to that of the old; the tool should not be allowed
to work against the walls of the old aperture, as there is much risk
of damage or enlargement and the necessity of a fresh peg, which is
to be avoided, if the set of pegs have been doing their duty well and
are free from splits. In the fitting of the peg, a degree of tightness
into the new wood will be found advantageous; the surface being fresh
and softer than that of the old, soon accommodates itself during the
insertion and revolution of the peg, whereas the process will have been
going on a long time with the old walls which have become hardened.
After a few turns with the inserted peg, the fitting of it will have
been tested, and if satisfactory, it may be taken out; a piece of soft
chalk stroked down and followed by a piece of very dry old soap in the
same manner at the parts coming into contact with the interior walls
of the aperture and will stop any squeaking or catching. The proportion
of soap to chalk must be varied, the one, soap, being increased
according to the catching or jerking and lessened if there is too much
slipping and no grip. It may be as well to note at the same time that
the peg should be quite circular, or it will revolve by fits and starts
notwithstanding soap and chalk, or any other mixture.



CHAPTER V.

FRACTURE OF PEG-BOX AND SHELL--CHIPS FROM THIS PART--FILLING UP OF
SAME--RESTORATION TO ORIGINAL FORM, AFTER PARTS HAVE BEEN LOST--WORN
PEG-HOLES, RE-FILLING OR BORING SAME.


We may now take another degree lower down and study the treatment best
for a fracture similar to that last described, but which, if at one
of the lower peg-holes, may appear quite as difficult to manage, if
not more so, as at the upper part, in consequence of the curved form
of the shell or lowest part of the grooved back of the scroll. Firstly,
the cleansing must be effected and drying, as previously with the upper
fracture, bringing or pressing the parts together for testing their
accuracy of fit. The cramp must be again brought into use. Owing to
the wider and deeper hollowing of the back at this part and the longer
and often very unequal continuation of the line of contour, the shell
or tail end sometimes curling up more abruptly than usual, an increase
in the substance of the padding against the cramp will be found
necessary. A piece of cork cut or filed to the shape will prove handy
and effective. The superficial area of the interior walls of this part
of the peg-box being much greater, the thickness ditto, there is seldom
a necessity for fitting a block of wood in the manner before mentioned,
unless as sometimes it is found, the part has been so worm-eaten as
to be too weak for its work of supporting the pegs and sustaining the
strain of the strings. In that case, excision of the "honey-combed"
part is obligatory and a slice of wood must be let in as before explained.
Sharp shaving with a minimum of force will be required. Should the
worm-eaten portion extend to the outsides or "cheeks" of the peg-box,
it would be well to insert here also another slice of fresh wood as
before, the length according to requirement, but in these instances,
the portion of the head piece under consideration being lower down and
broader, the grain of the inside slice may run continuously with the
original wood. It will also be inserted first, and not until the glue
is quite hard will the arrangements for the outer one be commenced.

Especial care will be required in the management of the cramps--one
or two may be necessary--as, if mere padding is placed between the iron
and the wood, the latter, being in a state equivalent to rottenness,
will be crushed together and the shape will be ruined. As a preservative
against accident a piece of soft wood, perhaps a quarter of an inch
in thickness, and cut in width and shape equal to that of the "cheek"
of the peg-box, and placed over the part with a piece of paper against
the varnished surface, will enable the rotten portion to keep its form,
the pressure being distributed; care must be exercised in carving the
block of wood that it reaches over and quite on to the sound parts.
When the glue has hardened perfectly and the cramps have been removed,
the careful shaving down and finishing of both the inner and outer
blocks or slices may be proceeded with. If the burrowings and tortuous
course of the obnoxious depredator give indication of its having been
of huge proportions for its species, for these creatures vary in size
from a small pin to nearly an eighth of an inch in diameter, and the
tunnellings are not very close together, then pieces of fresh wood
matched carefully and fitted in the manner before described, must be
inserted and glued in. This will, if the wood is much riddled, be much
like mosaic work, the fitting in of the pieces running here and there
over the surface. The contour, however, is preserved by this treatment,
it being difficult, unless the repairer has considerable artistic
knowledge, to keep or reproduce the exact form if the half or more of
the peg-box and adjacent portions are cut clean away as is often done.

Scrolls of masterly design and execution are frequently met with
mounted on a peg-box, selected or carved, without the least reference
to the style of the original, imparting to the whole a hideously mixed
and vulgar aspect. Save then, every morsel of the original work that
you possibly can, especially if it be the work of old Italian makers,
as it will be sure to have about it some points of interest, or that
will call for your admiration of its artistic merits. Bear in mind that
at the present day utility and low price are "to the front."
Unfortunately for art, a very large section of the public called
musical, ignore the artistic aspect of the violin, apart from its
individual authorship and monetary equivalent, and think almost
solely--not always in the right way--about its working or sounding
capacity. To them one sort of curled heading to the peg-box is as good
as another, if strong enough, the whole of this part of the mechanism
being simply dedicated to the winding up of unwilling "catgut." The
old masters, their pupils, and modern imitators, have thought
otherwise and treated this portion of the structure as that in which
they could concentrate much of their best artistic talent. To them it
has been the crowning head piece of the work, and requiring for effect
the closest attention in detail. Every part of it has received, by each
master, a distinctive touch of tool, or conception of design, that the
modern repairer should earnestly "read, mark, learn, and inwardly
digest," so that if a small portion is by carelessness, or unavoidable
accident, chipped off, the contour may not by restoration (?) be spoilt,
or the flow of line ruinously disturbed. Some remarks might be made
by some admirers of high finish in its simple sense, about the bold
unfinished gouging of some of the old Italian makers, and queries
whether the irregularities should be studiously followed up by the
repairer, as it should unquestionably be with work of high refinement
and minute finish. The answer is at once simple and conclusive, every
part that can be preserved should be so, and well studied, that the
new work may be a continuation of the old to the minutest detail, even
to the accidental emphasis of tooling left by the maker.

The fact must not be overlooked, that rough as some work looks at a
glance, it has been, by masters of their art, properly thought out
beforehand. Rapidity of execution, coupled with fine artistic style,
is not to be acquired within a short space of time. In most of the
apparently rough hewn scrolls of the Italian masters there is to be
seen the result of experience in cutting, perhaps, hundreds of them
previously. If we examine closely the mannerism of the different
schools with regard to that seemingly insignificant termination of the
back grooves called the shell; the different ways, breadths, depths
and direction of the gouging will be found to give, not only an accurate
indication of the country, or city, in which it was carved, but with
it the school, or style to which the maker belonged, besides his own
individuality. As a landmark for distinguishing these interesting
particulars, every part of the scroll of an old master, with its
belongings, no less than any other part of the instrument, should be
treated by the repairer with much reverence for its age and respect
for the talent expended on it in course of its construction. That this
is not always acted up to I am reminded by an instance that came under
my personal knowledge many years since.

A repairer and maker of some experience was examining a violin by one
of the old Italian makers, that had, underneath the shell a rather
sudden demarkation at the part where the graft had been fitted in. He
remarked to the party who brought the violin, that if it were his own,
or had been requested to put it in good order, he would file or
glasspaper down the edge round the lower part of the shell, so as to
make it conform with the modern work. The violin was not entrusted to
his care, nor do I think many others were, judging by after events.
Trust not any violin of value or interest to this class of repairer,
or grief will count you for its own and mortification that of the
fiddle.

Occasionally small pieces get chipped off the lower rim of the shell;
the latter under these circumstances, as before observed, should never
be rubbed smooth with glasspaper or cut down. It is not a difficult
position to get at and small pieces can easily be inserted. This part
also is so fashioned that a comparatively small loss of the edge,
especially at the sides, will alter the whole character and reduce a
most elegant and masterly form to that associated with mere rubbish.
Three or four scrolls of Stradivari's are in my recollection as having
been under such treatment and the contour being destroyed there was
little about the general shape to remind the spectator of the beautiful
design as it left the maker's hands. But, it may be remarked by a
fortunate discoverer of an old gem, my Amati has lost all this part,
cut away perhaps because of its being quite past recovery, and the
question arises what had better be done under these circumstances? The
answer, seek some party who has an Amati with this part perfect or in
excellent preservation. Take some moderately firm veneer and after
careful measurement cut pieces to fit as exactly as possible the parts
answering to those of your own instrument that are missing. The line
from the lowest part or edge of the shell and reaching right over the
top of the scroll will require earnest attention and accurate fitting.
For the next stage the pegs must be taken out as a matter of course.
Number each one with a pencil for identification when reinserting; lay
a piece of veneer flat on the outside of the peg-box reaching up a little
past the top of the scroll; to do this nicely a segment should be cut
away where the volute intervenes, and with the pencil, mark carefully
on each side a line neatly against the back and front. With a sharp,
narrow knife cut away the veneer up to the outside of the line, leaving,
if cleanly done, an exact pattern of the throat or exterior of the
peg-box (diagram 22). Next, as the veneer will not bend sufficiently,
cut a piece of rather stout paper, and after laying it against the back
of the scroll, a rough tracing can be made and cut to exactness by
degrees, trying it against the model and correcting until satisfactory.
As this part of an Italian violin is not cut so mechanically as many
people imagine, another and perhaps quicker way, if means are to hand,
is to use thin paper and with some heelball, used by shoemakers, rub
the edges that may be felt through and under the paper held in position
against it. If the paper is kept from shifting a very good clear line
can be obtained. The process may be adopted for the other parts instead
of using the veneer, the latter would, however, be useful as a permanent
guide or template, keeping its shape. This would not apply of course
to tracing of the back part, which must of necessity be of a material
that will bend or fold over.

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 22.]

Having procured a piece of sycamore, very old if possible, and with
the closest resemblance in curl, texture and colour to the scroll to
which it is to be attached; it must be squared up and made equal so
that the tracings of the two sides of the throat may be placed in
position and transferred. This must be done so accurately that the new
throat shall not be out of the square or twisted. More, of course, will
be traced down than will be actually left, the reason will soon be
perceptible. If the tracing is clear and well defined it will not
require touching; but if any part is not well brought up, it may be
made sufficiently so by carefully running a pencilled line over the
fainter one. The next step will be to get rid of the superfluous wood.
This will be most readily done by a bow-saw after securing the block
of wood in a vice, if these are not within reach, it can be done at
a sawing mill where steam saws of different sizes and degrees of tooth
are ready at a moment's notice and the removal of any sized masses of
wood hard or soft is effected with remarkable precision and rapidity.

When the sawing is complete, the fining down, or smoothing of the sawn
surfaces may be proceeded with. This may be done with a file, having
one side curved, the other flat, and of rather fine tooth; a glass
papering will then complete the process so far as the profile view is
concerned. Further progress will be made when the tracing of the back
is transferred, the paper pattern being laid, or wrapped round, after
being accurately adjusted.

The outside wood can be removed in the same manner as last described,
with the finishing, or semi-polishing to the required degree. There
will be thus cut out a replica in the solid or uncarved state of the
whole of the part adjoining the scroll and downwards, which will be
ready for the further process of joining on to the scroll itself. To
this end, the surfaces that are to be glued together at the junction
will have to be got into proper shape and condition, that is, both
pieces must have flat faces, that when put together, will allow the
line at the top of the scroll to run continuously and truly as if forming
an original carved homogeneous work. The faces must be cut by a very
sharp chisel, until fitting as nearly air-tight as possible. For highly
finishing off these parts a small steel scraper should be used and
turned round, working it in several directions. If the scraper is quite
straight and sharp, it will with gentle handling bring the surfaces
very flat, no movement or wriggling being perceptible when placed
together, or there may be in very good work a slight kind of suction
by the air being driven out from between them. The work will be then
ready for glueing. The wood should be quite warm, the glue fresh and
strong. A few seconds or so may be well spent in brushing or working
the glue into the pores of the two surfaces to be opposed. If they are
as perfect, or true as possible, a little rubbing together will be
sufficient for an effectual and lasting junction without the use of
cramps; but if there is any doubt on the subject, then the process
described previously for joining the parts together after fracture had
better be gone through.

When the whole is thoroughly dried and the glue which has exuded from
between the opposing surfaces has been cut or chipped away, the gouging
of the grooves down the back may be commenced, care being taken to
follow the lines from the scroll downwards and gradually finishing
backwards and forwards according to the grain. Different sized gouges
will, of course, be required for this work, according to the fashion
or type of the violin. A glass papering of the parts will complete the
matter so far as the exterior is concerned. Some restorers might
recommend the glueing on of the scroll to be proceeded with earlier,
or before the block has been finally reduced and cut to shape. There
is not very much preference one way or the other; in the one above
detailed we avoid the risk of fresh damage to the scroll while sawing
and cutting, the rough or more violent tooling being done before the
junction is effected. It would be as well to let the new wood be of
full measurement to allow of fining down the new surface to meet that
of the old, which may possibly have some lustrous varnish upon it, and
which every good restorer would do his utmost to preserve. After this
is all satisfactorily done, the lines may be traced which are to act
as guides for the hollowing of the peg-box.

For this purpose a rather small chisel of the kind known among cabinet
makers as a mortising chisel will be required. Gently and by degrees
the mass of superfluous maple will have to be removed. It must be borne
in mind that maple or other tough wood will not bear the forcing that
a piece of pine will. A hard-wood workman is essentially a man of
degrees, the tougher the wood the less must be shaved off at a stroke.
The strong, massive form of the mortising chisel is used in order that
there may be as little spring as possible in it while cutting and so
prevent a hacking of the parts instead of a clean cut surface; indeed,
no other proportioned tool can be used with any degree of facility.
It must not be ground to a very acute angle, or the objections that
are sought to be avoided will reappear in another form. Great care must
be taken that the mortising does not extend to a depth that will cause
the back to be thin and weak. This mistake is often seen to have been
committed in very valuable instruments, especially such as have the
two grooves deeply modelled, or the contour downwards from the volutes
is much indented. At times, on the other hand, sound judgment has been
perceptibly directed to this part and instead of cutting away wood to
allow of freedom in the winding of the strings over the pegs, the holes
for these have been filled up and re-bored nearer to the front edges.
Many most excellent old Italian makers seem to have been rather
careless with regard to the exact position of the peg-holes, making
them to be equi-distant from each other. There might have been little
or no objection to this in the days when the strain on the pegs was
not near what it is in the present times of very high pitch. The shaft
of the old pegs used in Italy at the time of the great masters, was
not half as thick as is thought expedient now. Towards the latter end
of last century and the beginning of this, more attention was paid to
the matter, and we accordingly find the two upper peg-holes much closer
together and the two lower ones ditto.

Concerning the refilling or "bushing" as it is termed of the peg-holes,
a few words may not be out of place. For the purpose the holes must
be enlarged more or less or there may not be sufficient of the new wood
to hold together when the re-boring takes place. The cutting must be
truly circular and very sharply done, no tearing of the wood must be
perceptible, but a clean, almost polished surface inside. A solid
cylinder must be cut with great exactitude, of maple or the same kind
of wood if obtainable as the scroll. The old makers did not invariably
use maple, perhaps being unable to obtain it in sufficient quantities
for their business purposes. It is useless to think of cutting the
cylinder or rod any other way than with the grain, it is seldom if ever
done, and moreover involves an expenditure of time and labour that
brings no adequate return. The enlargement of the hole must be effected
by a good form of tool and this in good condition; peg-hole cutters
and fluted rimers are sold for the purpose. When the cylindrical rod
is cut and rounded to make an exact fit, a portion can be cut off a
trifle longer than will be apparently necessary so as to allow of
finishing off. If satisfactory in all respects, recourse may now be
had as to the solution of glue, which should be quite fresh and strong,
as this is to be for a permanency. The rod or portion should be warmed
if the season is cold, the glue allowed to settle round for a moment
while some should be placed on the inner surfaces of the hole in which
the cylinder is to form a solid fixture. When inserting the cylinder
it should be worked round a little, but not jammed in with violence.
Your reliance in repairing must not be in force but accurate fitting.
The opposite hole to be used for the same peg must be made and treated
in the same manner. Some repairers, for economy of time, would make
a fresh enlargement right through the two opposite holes and push the
rod through both and glueing same at one process, cutting it away from
the interior of the peg-box when the glue has hardened, but this is
risky work. One hole is sure to be larger than the other and the fitting
scarcely likely to be accurate both sides.

When a sufficient time has elapsed for the glue to dry, a piece of hard,
but not too thick, cardboard should have a hole made so as to allow
of placing on the projecting part of the rod, which can be now sawn
off close to the card. When this is completed and the card removed,
a sharp flat chisel will then reduce it to the absolute level of the
surrounding plain.

The next stage will be that of re-boring a fresh hole in a proper
position. This must be carefully calculated, so that when complete the
whole of the four strings will be independent of each other, the A
string not being in friction with that of the G or the D not touching
the E. If this is not attended to, much trouble will be given to the
performer, the jerking or catching of the string during the winding
up, not being caused by any difficulties with the fitting of the peg
itself but by the string pressing on and being checked by the peg of
another. The boring of the fresh hole and fitting of the peg is of course
a similar operation to that just described, with the difference that
the peg must be more conical, whereas the plugging must be as near equal
in diameter as possible along the whole of its length. The preparation
of the fresh peg to fit the new hole will be already evident as to its
requirements. There is one detail to be noticed, however, that of
boring the hole for the reception of the string. Of course the E will
not require so large an aperture as the D. The latter will require the
largest aperture of the four. If this operation is not conducted in
a methodical manner, with a proper knowledge of the best treatment
according to the material used for the peg, splitting will ensue, which
is trying to the temper. When a peg is once split it had better be thrown
aside as useless, the strain on it being unsupported by the solidity
of the material. No wooden peg that has been split in the operation
of boring for the string should be retained. It being necessary to use
wood of the hardest or toughest consistency, the splitting tendency
is increased as the grain is closer. There is discussion as to the best
material for pegs, and here in my opinion the old Italian makers were
wise in choosing the cherry wood seemingly abundant enough at their
command. It is not so hard and brittle as ebony. Another wood was used
by them, a kind of dark walnut, straight in the grain, but a little
firmer than the rose wood so fashionable at the present day, which has
a waxy consistency but accommodates itself to the jamming by the
impetuous amateur who will have his way.



CHAPTER VI.

LOOSENING OF JUNCTION OF GRAFT WITH PEG-BOX, AND REFIXING
SAME--GRAFTING, DIFFERENT METHODS OF PERFORMING THIS--LENGTHENING THE
NECK--OLD AND MODERN METHOD--RENEWAL OF SAME--INCLINATION OF NECK AND
FINGERBOARD WITH REGARD TO THE BRIDGE--HEIGHT OF LATTER, AND REASON
FOR IT.


In our progress downwards from the scroll and its adjoining parts,
before quite leaving it we may refer to a disorder sometimes occurring
when the neck is modern and grafted on to the old scroll. There are
several ways, or fashions it may be termed, in which this is effected.
The most usual method pursued in England and Germany is that of sawing
the head off at a part below the end of the shell and then chiselling
a level passage so far as a straight surface makes it necessary along
the floor of the peg-box. The sides are treated in the same way but
the width across diminishes as they proceed upward. The solid graft
is shaped, inserted, and afterward hollowed, but of this more presently.
Like all other parts of the instrument, the junction or insertion of
the neck or graft sometimes gets loose, from bad fitting chiefly, bad
glue or prolonged exposure to damp. When the sides or back part give
warning that they are likely to part, they should be loosened still
more or separated and a little clean water on a brush inserted in the
cleft where discoverable, the parts being pressed and worked together
until clean, for all cracked or loosened joints will be found more or
less dirty and greasy. Some strong glue can be then worked in, both
sides pressed together by cramps and left to dry. The backing of a flat
piece of soft wood with an interleaving of stout paper or, better still,
millboard, must not be forgotten. If, as sometimes happens, the
flooring of the peg-box threatens to part from the graft in contact,
the same course of working out dirt and inserting good glue must be
pursued. In pressing the back or shell of the scroll, this being of
short and sometimes abrupt hollowing, the pressure on the substance
of the wood direct would be dangerous to its form. The fibres of the
wood at the edge are necessarily very short and brittle. A thick piece
of cork should, therefore, be placed between the cramp and the hollow
grooving or shell, a small block of moderately hard wood being placed
inside the peg-box as an opposing pad or buffer, the cramp may then
be screwed down fairly tight. The two operations, glueing and pressing
the side parts and that in connection with the shell, must not be
attempted simultaneously.

We may now, being on the part as it were, take up the subject of grafting
and the different and best means of performing this somewhat exacting
operation. Accurate calculation and sharp straight cutting are
absolutely necessary for even moderate success in this undertaking.
As before mentioned, there is more than one method of securing a neck
to an old head. Each one carried out with the necessary skill and
neatness can be made a lasting and highly finished piece of joinery.
The mode adopted in England (see diagram 25) is the most ready and gives
the least difficulty in a difficult undertaking. The solid end of the
graft is chiselled or planed off to a slightly wedged form with a
straight or square upper end which is measured to reach when inserted,
nearly or just up to the lowest of the upper two peg-holes. Great care
has to be taken in the cutting that the sides are equal, otherwise the
scroll, when fitted, will look awry.

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 23. Old method of lengthening neck, the dotted
lines show it shifted forward and the part above the button cut away.]

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 24. Modern French method of grafting head.]

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 25. Modern English method of grafting head.]

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 26. Foreign secret method of grafting
occasionally met with.]

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 27. Method occasionally met with, Italian.]

Another method has been known as the French, and when neatly done is
one of the most sparing of the old wood (see diagram 24), but it is
beaten in this respect by another foreign method (diagram 26), which
is less evident to the eye, although requiring more skill in accurate
cutting and adjustment. Another yet more secret I have only seen in
an Italian grafting, and it may be native; no join whatever is seen
in a front view nor in the peg-box if this part is at all soiled or
dusty, as is usually the case. This is owing to the join--there must
be one of course--being each side at the angles formed by the walls
of the peg-box. This is counterbalanced however by the necessary
cutting away of the central line or ridge at the back for a considerable
distance. If done accurately and artistically, all very well, but this
is not likely to be always the case, although a comparatively easy bit
of work with the original lines each side as a guide. This method of
grafting is puzzling when successful, as little or nothing is
perceptible from the front and not much, unless searched for, at the
back.

On measuring the different parts of an old violin in its original
condition, we shall find the neck, taking from the edge of the upper
shoulder of the instrument to a point where the nut is placed, to be
not much more than four and a half inches, whereas our modern necks
measured at the same parts would give five inches and an eighth. The
old length taken at this part alone would give too short a fingerboard,
causing the fingers to hamper each other, especially in the upper part
of the register, where so many modern composers seek for effective
passages. The neck must, therefore, to meet the requirements of the
day, be lengthened. In the earlier part of the present century there
was a method much in vogue for effecting this without interfering with
the head and while keeping the greater part of the original neck
(diagram 23). This was done by firstly removing the fingerboard,
probably worn into ruts; the middle of the thickest or lowest part of
the neck attached to the body had then to be loosened and removed, often
no doubt a troublesome task owing to one, two and sometimes three nails
being in the way, this in consequence of the habit of the old makers
of attaching the neck with its scroll before closing up the body of
the violin. Having accomplished this, the repairer chiselled off two
square pieces, one on each side at the same end, and then fitted longer
blocks with the grain running the same way. These were afterwards cut
down to the proper form, so that the terminating part under the
fingerboard increased the length of the neck to the modern standard.
Of course, when fitted into the original space or socket from whence
the neck was taken, the rounded part going to or above the button was
now too large, this part was therefore cut, filed and finished down
to the required size and shape.

This method of lengthening the neck, however, went out of fashion as
connoisseurs and performers, finding the old necks so frequently
devoid of figure--the reason being probably that plain wood answered
best for the cutting of the volutes--made the repairers remove the
whole of the neck and substitute one of the best figure they could
obtain.

This forced fresh attention to the splicing as it is termed of the
scroll to the neck or graft, and the method has continued to the present
time of clearing away the whole of the neck and using handsome wood.
Further impulse was given to the practice by the fact of the
fingerboards put by the old makers rising so little above the body of
the instrument. The bridge was made very low to accommodate this state
of things. The increased rapidity of the movements of the bow from one
string to another over the middle ones in the performance of modern
music made a higher one absolutely imperative, as the heel of the bow
would too frequently chip pieces from the waist curves. There were thus
three good reasons at least for placing an entirely new neck on an old
violin; firstly the plain wood of the original maker, shortness and
the low angle with regard to the plane of the body.

In order, therefore, that everything may be accomplished with
sufficient exactitude, we will begin with the roughly sawn block ready
for measuring and shaping up for its destined purpose. The scroll,
which is to be replaced on a neck according with modern ideas, we will
suppose to be on an Italian violin that has come down to us from the
early part of the last century. The violin tuned up to the present
concert pitch and music of our period having many of the modern style
of difficulties, would prove utterly inadequate to the task of giving
out its tones in a manner expected of it.

In proceeding to work then, the workman executing this modification
having selected his block of curled maple, planes it to an oblong of
equal breadth. He calculates as to the best position for showing off
the curl on each side of the neck when finished. Having decided which
is to be the upper part or that covered by the fingerboard, this is
planed to a good level and smoothed. A line drawn with a good pointed
pencil or pointed knife, and sharply defined, is then drawn down the
whole length exactly in the centre. At the end which is intended for
the thickest to be inserted in the body of the instrument an equal width
each side must be marked. Near the other end, at a distance that shall
correspond with the opening of the peg-box, an equal width each side
of the line must be marked off as at the other end. These two
measurements will represent as nearly as possible the width of the neck
along its course at the junction of the fingerboard. From the point
representing the opening of the peg-box one of two lengths upwards must
be decided upon; if the splicing is to be effected in the manner common
in this country, a greater length will be required than for that of
the French style. This latter is more to my fancy than the other, as
there is less of the original wood lost. If for the former, a length
of wood beyond the opening will be required of two inches, if for the
latter or French a little over one inch and a half will be enough. The
central line has of course been continued for the whole length of the
wood. The waste wood at the end can now be sawn off down to the line.
The next measurement will be, supposing the French style is
adopted--that of the extreme width of the end, which will be given by
taking a point at half the thickness of the peg-box wall at the part
and similarly placed on the other or opposite and taking the width
between the two. This divided equally and marked on the wood of the
new graft each side of the central line will give the narrowest width
of the part to be inserted in the peg-box. The outside may be then
removed by the saw vertically. There will now be necessary the marking
off a part on the graft that shall represent the thickness of the nut
or the distance between the end of the fingerboard and the peg-box
opening; the breadth across, or we may call it the length of the upper
part of the nut, will be exactly that of and at the part where the
opening will be made in the peg-box for the reception of the graft.

The wood to be cleared away outside the lines which mark the width along
the course of the fingerboard will be the next proceeding; it may be
done neatly with a rather fine toothed saw and then carefully planed
up closer to the lines, barely touching them. It is preferable to leave
the sides for the present at right angles with the top surface, although
they will not be kept so for long, but by thus working the measurements
are facilitated. Going to the lower or wider end a line must be
accurately marked quite square with the long central line, if not
accurate the whole work will be thrown out of truth. On the sides there
may now be marked and roughly sawn away (diagram 28) so much of the
wood that shall leave enough for the cylindrical part that is to be
finally rounded and finished off for handling. Care must be taken that
the rounding commences underneath, a little away from the part that
will be fitted into the peg-box. This of course must be according to
measurement or template kept for the purpose if graftings are likely
to be wanted in the future. There will now be required the marking
of the exact form of the part that is to be inserted in the body of
the violin, or more strictly speaking, into the upper block. This is
done easily from a pattern cut to shape and size for instruments of
average proportions. Sometimes, owing to the height of the ribs, the
pattern cannot be applied so as to fit; in that case fresh lines must
be drawn to measurement as with the central one on the fingerboard
plane.

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 28.]

The line dividing the part exactly in the middle must be accurately
done, the distance at the narrowest or lowest part that is to be glued
on to the button carefully marked, allowing the top part when placed
in position to be a quarter of an inch above the border (diagram 29).
The width of the lowest portion must be mainly guided by the size of
the button, which, although there is an average of a rough kind, is
sometimes small, at others very wide. The width must be taken of the
button, carefully divided into two equal parts to be marked on each
side of the central vertical line (diagram 30). All below what is
necessary to keep may now be cut away, the surface being kept parallel
with the fingerboard plane. The parts outside the slanting lines may
be hewn away, the surface running evenly with the outer lines of the
fingerboard width so far as it extends, which will not be more than
about an inch.

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 29.]

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 30.]

The next process will be that of excavating the part that is to receive
the root or end of the neck. If the instrument has been accurately
constructed with the join running down precisely in the centre, the
line already marked on the root of the neck will be a safe guide for
marking each side of the join the width of the portion to be cut away.
The depth inward of the cutting should be an average of a quarter of
an inch. In case the already excavated part in an old and much repaired
instrument is roughly torn about and made unequal in its measurements,
attention must be fairly directed to this part separately; that is,
if too much wood has been cut away on one side it must be replaced by
fresh, after clearing away irregularities in order that a good fit may
be accomplished. The fresh wood must be neatly inserted or placed in
position and may be held in position during the hardening of the glue
by supports or wedges placed across from side to side. When quite fit
by reason of its dryness, the distance from the centre must be marked
and the fresh wood cut away to the required depth and width with a keen
edged chisel and small shavings cut at a stroke, as there will be some
cutting against the grain to be done besides working in a confined
position.

Great regard must be paid during the process of cutting this part that
the corners or angles are quite cleared out, or the neck when inserted
as a trial or rehearsal will not give a truthful report of the accuracy
of the incisions owing to some insignificant portions sticking up and
causing the neck to look awry. So far we may take the fitting as having
been accurately done to the central line down the middle of the
instrument; but now comes a further process in connection with the
adjustment of the neck, and that is, the rise and inclination of the
level of the fingerboard in relation to the bridge which is to be fitted
eventually.

The average--it may almost be called the standard--height of the violin
bridge is one three-eighth inches. There are occasions when this
measurement may be departed from, as in the instance of a high model,
when an eighth, or even more, may be taken off with advantage. This
must not be taken as necessary for the proper emission of the tone from
a highly built instrument. The raising of the bridge in modern times
is due to other causes, the most important being that of allowing better
play or room for bowing rapidly over from side to side without rasping
the border at the waist. It is an alteration which accompanied the
lengthening of the neck and stop in the early part of the last century.

To obtain a proper setting or inclination of the neck, several ways
are adopted by repairers. They vary according to the kind of guide or
pattern used. This is usually cut from a piece of hard wood, sycamore
or pear. It is sometimes made as a double guide in the adjustment of
both the inclination and the elevation of the under part of the
fingerboard above the body of the instrument at the junction of the
neck. This we will call No. 1. The other, No. 2, is similar, but has
the height of the bridge only as a fixture, the rise of the end of the
neck above the border being higher and lower at discretion. Another
way, No. 3, is somewhat like No. 1, but would be used when the
fingerboard is glued on before the setting. This should only be done
by a fitter of some experience, as a little error in calculation is
likely to lead to disaster. With each the application of the guide,
or pattern, is the same, namely the testing of the exact coincidence
of the inclination of the top surface of the bed under the fingerboard
(diagram 31), or above the latter as shown in diagram 32. While getting
the right inclination, in both instances it will be found necessary
to ease the fitting of the neck into its socket, as the difference of
the angle at which the neck is inserted causes an increase in the
tightness of the contact of the parts. The lower part of the facing
that is to be inserted in the socket, will have to be made to go into
it at an angle conformable to that of the inclination or set of the
neck. This will require executing with precision, and great care will
have to be exercised that the squareness or rectangular disposition
of the upper part already fitted and adjusted to the middle line down
the instrument is not interfered with. It will be well to test this
as the work proceeds. Some of the lower part, that coming into contact
with the button, will have to come away in order that all parts may
fit, and when fixed, form a homogeneous rigid part of the structure.

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 31.]

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 32.]

To ensure complete success in all the foregoing operations, every tool
in use must be well sharpened, and all the guide lines accurately drawn.
Part of the neck left rough and projecting beyond the button may be
left for future manipulation, but the joints that are to receive
glue--if done by a workman of skill and experience--will fit almost
air tight. With regard to this, the parts likely to give the amateur
most trouble will be the exact fitting of the flat opposing surfaces
of the root or squared end of the neck or graft with the socket. It
will be necessary to get a perfectly flat surface. In the first place,
glass papering must be avoided, not from unsuitableness of material,
for in that respect it is a temptation, but from the difficulty of
regulating the pressure of the hand; with the exercise of the utmost
care in handling the glass paper, even when it is backed by a piece
of hard wood, there will be found, when the test comes, a rotundity
of surface that was deemed impossible under the circumstances. Careful
scraping of the surfaces must be chiefly relied on for exactness. As
good a mode of proceeding as any is as follows--after the first roughing
into shape and then flat chiselling has been done to as great a nicety
as possible, all the irregularities--there are sure to be some--can
be worked down with the edge of a straight square file, used very
steadily and crossways repeatedly. This done sufficiently and tested
with some hard and truly cut substance, metal preferably, will be an
exactly flat surface for working upon the final or finished surface.
The next thing used will be a carefully sharpened and keen edged steel
scraper. To put this tool into proper order for the purpose, it must
be sharpened on a hone, not exactly at right angles, as the first
impulse would suggest. The hone, or stone, must be quite flat and unworn.
If done carefully, a nice level edge will be perceptible along its
course, but it is not yet at its best. Placing it on a bed of hard wood,
or evenly shaped mass of iron, projecting over and held firmly in
position, a good stout brad-awl may be passed along from end to end,
keeping the awl perfectly flat on the horizontal surface. The scraper
may now be turned over and process repeated, but not in the same manner
or angle, for the awl will be held vertically with the handle downwards
and firmly pressed along the edge at right angles with the horizontal
plane, this will cause a burr right along which will have a razor-like
sharpness and cutting power. This scraper can now be applied (not too
heavily) over the filed down surface, and thus work down finally all
irregularities left by the file. The adaptation of this tool will at
once be perceptible in the fine whitish soft shavings that will come
off during its application. A little repetition across and across
should give an almost perfect level. Different sized scrapers may be
used for the other surfaces where it is desirable to obtain the most
accurate fitting. If all the processes have been properly carried out,
the parts when tried by inserting the neck or graft for trial, should
fit together without the slightest looseness or wriggling. They will
now be ready for permanently glueing together.

It will be seen after perusing the above that the fitting of the neck
or graft to an old violin, well or badly preserved, is a task not to
be overcome easily and satisfactorily without much care and no little
practical experience.

The whole of the work must be well looked over and tested as to the
accurate fitting in all respects; nothing must be left uncertain or
loose; in fact the flat surfaces for a perfectly successful result at
the junction of all the parts should be as nearly as possible air-tight.

Having seen that the glue of good quality is strong and clean, the
surfaces that are to come in contact may be brushed over with it. For
this purpose a small hog-hair brush of about three-eighths of an inch
wide is handy. Where the grain or threads of the wood run parallel with
the surface--this being less absorbent than the other parts,--there
will be less painting over required, but where the grain comes end
upwards to the surface the glue will be rapidly absorbed. The painting
over these parts must be repeated, the glue as a matter of course being
kept warm--all the work ditto, until absorption ceases. This is a
matter of some importance, as in many instances joints have become
loose or broken apart, not from the perishing of the glue or damp, but
from the want of this precaution on the part of the repairer during
this preliminary proceeding. It must be borne in mind that this is to
be a permanent junction, not to come apart from any jarring or rough
usage; it is also to be one of the most rigid, and only to be separated
by a saw or chisel in the hands of some future repairer when it shall
be absolutely necessary. Sufficient glue having been applied the work
may be put aside.

It will now be apparent to those who have possibly done a little glueing
that the whole of the wetted portions have to some degree swollen, and
therefore if the junctions were brought together they would be found
too tight and refuse to meet. Just so; and that is one of the reasons
for placing the work aside until the glue has dried at all the parts
painted with it. When after a sufficient time has elapsed the work is
examined, it will be found to have contracted to its old size and form.
There will not be the necessity for waiting till the glue is at its
hardest; probably time will not allow of this, some days being
absolutely required, but it must, for the next process, be very firm
and seemingly dried through.

Examination will reveal the fact of the whole of the surfaces that have
been wetted, being raised or roughened under the foregoing operations.
Recourse must now be had to our small scrapers again. These will again
be applied carefully across and across the surfaces, until, in the
judgment of the operator, the surfaces are level and clean. Particular
care must be taken with the edges, angles and corners, that the
superabundant glue is removed. The right angle of the scraper will be
used for this purpose, and should a small particle or two, at any angle
or corner, refuse to budge at the request of such a light tool as a
scraper, the powers of a sharp chisel must be brought to bear upon the
subject, and the obstacle removed. Close attention should be paid to
the above, as in the operation of first glueing, the wood, or woods,
having unequal absorbing powers, will swell in accordance therewith,
and upset the calculations that have been so carefully made for the
close junction of the parts. For first rate work, the scraping must
be so carefully and accurately done down to the surface of the different
parts, as to leave little or no glue above the surface of the wood.
The desired result will thus be secured, that of the pores of the wood
being closed or filled up. For the next stage the glue will not be
necessarily quite so strong, a degree weaker will do. Everything must
be ready to hand, including a cramp of sufficient size and strength.
Before proceeding further, however, the manner of the application of
the cramp must be considered. And now, how are we to obtain a direct
pressure of the cramp on the largest surface, and which would have to
be in one direction, end to end of the violin, seemingly a perfectly
impracticable matter? The answer is, it is not practicable, hence the
above numerous injunctions as to preliminaries, and which have to do
with counterbalancing the impossibility of direct and strong pressure.
The only pressure that can be applied directly is that of a nearly
perpendicular one, the cramp grasping the button from underneath, with
a proper guard or padding of millboard, or cork, cut into shape.

A full brush of glue will now be passed over the whole of the surface
of the socket, or receptacle for the root of the neck; which latter
must an instant after be treated in the same manner. The two must be
treated as one operation, and in a warm atmosphere. In the summer time
no extra precautions will be necessary; but in cool weather the strong
glue will soon set if the parts to be operated on are not kept in close
proximity to a heating stove, or fireplace, or the apartment kept at
summer heat. The neck and socket being thus kept at a warm temperature,
the former will be firmly thrust into position, and with hand pressure
put as close as possible. The superfluous glue will ooze out all around
at the junction of the different parts; if it does not, that will be
a sign that there is a looseness somewhere, or the surfaces have not
been forced together close enough. This must be seen to at once, the
parts separated and examined. It may be that the failure has happened
through carelessness in allowing a chip to get in, or a piece of grit
has prevented the opposing surfaces coming together. This being
removed by a small knife, the brush, with a little more fresh glue,
may be passed over the surfaces again, and the fitting this time should
be perfect. The cramp and padding should be at once placed in position
and screwed down tightly. All glue appearing above the joints should
be carefully wiped away with a cloth kept ready to hand for the purpose;
it is better to do that now than have to scrape or cut it away when
hard; it will also save time.

Ample time must be allowed for the glueing to thoroughly dry. This must
be estimated according to the conditions of the time and place. In very
warm weather, or where the atmosphere is heated artificially, the time
consumed in the drying and hardening is less than when the air is
saturated with moisture.

When on examination the dryness is such as will warrant the removal
of the cramp, this can be done. If all the measurements, fitting and
precautions have been duly attended to, the neck or graft, with its
line in the centre--supposing the present method is that adopted before
the fingerboard is placed in position--will form an exact continuation
of a line down the centre of the violin. A look down from end to end,
or placing a long straight edged rule against the line, will be a way
of testing this: if all is correct, the line will be perfectly straight
and not bent. Should the latter be the case, the measurements, or
fitting, in some respects, will have been inaccurate. It would be very
provoking to find it so after all the trouble undertaken, and many
instances are to be seen where the work has been left in this condition,
and the stringing up and regulation has been, not only under great
disadvantages, but absence of comfort in playing, and indeed the proper
emission of the tone has been sacrificed. If the violin is one that
is worthy of being performed upon with skill, there is only one
alternative to putting it aside as useless, that of having the neck
sawn off and the whole process of renewal gone through, with the aim
of next time being more careful and true.

Supposing, however, the neck is truly set and all is satisfactory, the
next stage will be the laying of the fingerboard. This should be of
good, close and straight grained ebony, free from knots. Fingerboards
are usually sold in the rough; that is, with the upper surface, or
rounded part trimmed down to an approximate curve. They are cut to
lengths of about ten inches and a half to three quarters. Should the
violin require a fingerboard less in length than this, a small portion
must be sawn off, preferably from the small end. Great care must be
exercised that it is done in right angles with a central line drawn
from end to end. As the drawing of this line would entail some trouble,
the under, or flat surface can be placed face to face with one that
is known to be quite true, and a line with a fine pointed pencil made,
or better, a scratch with the point of a small knife, guided by the
true end of the perfect one. A fine toothed and sharp saw will remove
the unnecessary wood. In doing so, precautions must be taken against
splintering and spoiling the wood. To prevent this, a piece of waste
wood, cut slightly out of the square, should be placed against the stop
of the bench, so that when the ebony is placed against it, the sawing
can be done flush with the side of the bench. The saw should be fine,
in good condition, and gently used, or the line made will be ragged,
ebony being brittle and splintering stuff, requiring some humouring
in this respect. If the sawing is accomplished neatly and vertically
true--this last is very essential--there will be little to do in
trimming the surface of the end that is to come against the nut when
near completion. A piece of fine glasspaper wrapped round a squared
piece of pine, will make a good surface. The reduction of the width
of the fingerboard at each end will then be proceeded with. In the case
of an old neck being retained, the width of it at each end can be taken
by compasses and marked on the flat side of the ebony. A thin shaving
should be allowed for in finishing off. But we are on the work of a
new neck; therefore the marking off should be done to some general
standard. A good one may be reckoned as follows, for a violin of
fourteen inches long and average width--total length of fingerboard,
exclusive of nut, ten and a half inches--greatest width, one inch and
five-eighths, width at nut, one-sixteenth under an inch. The ebony will
be planed neatly down, with vertical sides, to these measurements. The
height, or rise of the sides of the fingerboard above the maple,
three-sixteenths of an inch, which may be kept for the whole length.
The reducing to the requisite width and depth should be done with the
plane in good order, a metal one for this kind of work being the best.
The surfaces that are to be glued together must now be considered. An
untidy looking black line along the neck at the junction of the ebony
and maple goes far to spoil the general effect; a glance at this part
will at once be sufficient for declaring whether the neck and
fingerboard has been fitted by a neat and competent repairer. A
frequent cause of the dark line--it is really a want of proper fitting
together of the parts--is the hastily planing the two
surfaces--straight enough possibly--and delay while the glueing
operation is in progress. The fact of ebony being almost equally
affected by moisture as other woods--in fact, more so than some--must
not be lost sight of. Coupled with this curling of the wood under the
influence of damp is the want of proper regulation of the pressure after
glueing and placing the parts in opposition. An old-fashioned method
of uniting these parts is still pursued by some repairers--the surfaces
are planed evenly, the glue is applied over them, they are clapped
together and string tied tightly as possible. Diagram 7 will show a
modern and improved method, that of a mould of soft wood for back and
front of neck and fingerboard. In affixing the fingerboard many
repairers have left a gouged channel reaching from the nut to the end
or insertion of the neck. This may be seen sometimes on turning the
part towards the light. The intention seems to be from an economical
view, that of removing the ebony, if necessary, without injuring the
glued surfaces by pouring a little water down the passage and waiting
till the damp enables the fingerboard to be pulled off without fracture.
This tedious operation is wholly unnecessary, for the time spent would
be worth more than a new one with its trimming up. Some repairers have
used a toothed plane on the level surfaces to enable the glue to grip
well. This is another mistaken idea. The fingerboard should not be
treated as a permanent part of the structure never to come undone, it
should be so secured as to last as long as required under fair usage,
but in case of violence it is best that it should snap clear from the
neck than hold tight enough to distribute, or concentrate, the strain
on other and more delicate parts of the structure. Experience has
suggested the following as generally best for all practicable purposes.
The surfaces having been made true under the plane--this should be
tested before the parts are glued, when, if true, there will be no line
or the very faintest one seen. Along the middle of the ebony a very
shallow gouged channel may be made, about half-an-inch wide and just
deep enough to prevent the glue from touching when the fingerboard is
placed in position. The level across over this channel from side to
side can be tested by a metal straight edge or truly trimmed scraper.
Occasionally from damp or the action of the plane the surfaces of both
maple and ebony become slightly arched; in reducing this the scraper
may be used with good effect, and a smaller one to take the least shaving
more off near the channel, the even pressure when applied will close
the outer edges more effectually.

The glue to be used under present circumstances should not be strong,
and if the atmospheric temperature is below sixty, or perhaps not down
to that, the surfaces of fingerboard and neck should be warmed. When
all is ready, see that the ebony is placed evenly in the centre and
then proceed to apply the cramps in the manner before described
(diagrams 33 and 34). The one placed over the button and the arch of
the fingerboard in opposition to it must be sufficiently large, and
the hollowed soft wood mould, or pad, should be more highly arched than
the fingerboard, so that when pressed down, the outer edges, and not
the centre of the latter, should receive the greatest pressure. The
other cramps having been screwed down under the same conditions, the
work can be placed aside to dry and harden. When a reasonable time has
elapsed, according to atmospheric conditions, as in cold, damp weather,
more time should be allowed, but under all circumstances the most dry
and sufficiently warm locality should be chosen; the cramps may be
removed, and of course the moulds too.

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 33.]

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 34.]

We must now see to the working down of the graft or neck, not only to
the requisite dimensions, but for the finish with some effort at style.
By this last is meant such attention to evenness of contour from the
button along to the edging of the shell, as shall be strong enough
without looking heavy or clumsy; much of the nice appearance of this
portion of the work depends upon the neatness of the workman. Assuming
the button to be of the normal standard, or we may say, well calculated
with regard to size for good effect--a good average width of this at
the base where the curved line springs from the border is
thirteen-sixteenths, and the projection forward--as it is not a
geometrical curve--a half an inch. Some of the old Italian makers left
the button very large, others small. The latter never pleases the eye
of the connoisseur, who, accustomed to the proportion given it by the
best masters (also the modern makers), thinks it looks poor and
incomplete. As the neck or graft has hitherto been left but roughly
hewn out, it will be projecting for some little distance beyond that
which would be occupied by any button of average dimensions. Supposing
the button to be too small, or injured, and an addition necessary, for
the next move we shall require a pair of compasses; with these, after
finding a centre of the segment of a circle formed by the outer edge
of the button, with the other point find the distance inward, or the
proper segment that is to be retained, bearing in mind that every
possible part of the original button should be preserved; putting the
point of the compass on the central spot as lightly as circumstances
will allow, a thin scratched line must be made with the other point.
Here we may remark that screw compasses should be used, so that distance
apart of the feet may be kept rigid, as the width and the same circular
scratch marked on the button must now be marked on a piece of maple,
or, as is sometimes done, on ebony. The grain of either should run in
the same direction as that of the button, or if done aslant it will
look ugly when worn a little. The materials being matched, the fresh
piece should be reduced in thickness to very little over that required
for the height of the edging for the button; it should be a small cake
of wood large enough to cover and leave a margin where it is to be
fitted.

The wood of the button outside of the scratched line will now be cut
away down to the raw wood of the new graft; it must be done with small
and sharp chisels, carefully paring it down, leaving the edge up to
the scratched line quite perpendicular and smooth all round: the
strictest attention to this is necessary, so that the fitting on of
the fresh edging may be done with exactness. We now take up the little
cake of ebony, or maple, as selected, with the scratched line, which
should be made from a central point close to the edge as possible: if
this is a difficulty, the centre may be taken further in, the circular
line also and the superfluous wood cut away to the central point, but
not in a way to interfere with the equipoise when the edging is placed
on for fitting; if this is not seen to, the edging will, when finished,
look awry. The middle within the scratched line may now be first gouged
away and the wood cut with a sharp knife close up to and at exact right
angles with the plane. A rounded file may with care be used to make
a more even surface or run. If all this is done with precision, the
parts may be tried together for testing--the glueing may be seen to
and the cramping done, with care that the fresh portion does not slip
during the process out of its place. Some repairers would be tempted
to rely upon the exact fitting, and simply slide the parts together,
squeezing them well, but this is always risky. The work may now be put
aside to dry.

The next proceeding will be that of working down or levelling both the
ebony fingerboard and the graft, or neck. The first, in the state
usually sold, will have an apparently well-finished off arching that
may sometimes be near enough for letting alone after a little polishing
down, but as a general rule it is not so, and further, if having been
long "in stock," it may have settled down a little out of the straight
during the seasoning process. Recourse should be had to the plane, a
rather small metal one in good order with a keen edged iron. This must
be closely regulated, or the surface worked upon will not be even but
torn; hard woods, as before observed, require humouring and working
down gently. The exact arching--in good work--of the ebony should be
governed by a cut mould, one for each end. These may be made of some
hard wood or metal, such as zinc, and if truly made will last any length
of time. They should be trimmed to fit some fingerboard that has been
ascertained to be just the thing in its arching. It may be as well to
observe that some violinists prefer using a rather flatter fingerboard
than others, but the medium is without doubt the best, and is not
difficult to arrive at. The plane must be gently worked along from end
to end of the fingerboard with as little pressure as possible,--hence
the careful regulation and sharpness,--or you will find after a short
time that instead of a nice even line, which must be tested from time
to time by a straight edged rule, there will be a curved one, and this
will necessitate further working down to the danger of losing thickness
and sufficient strength in the ebony. If attention is paid to this,
and a satisfactory even run of surface is obtained, glass-paper on a
piece of straight, soft wood, but not of the finest degree, will be
suitable for the present.

We now return to the modelling of the neck from the lower part of the
back of the scroll down to the button. This last, with its fresh edging
or shield, will require another scratched line, making two
semi-circular ones; it must be done from the same centre and calculated
to allow of the wood being hewed away outside, leaving the full
measurement when finished off.

A chisel will now be brought into requisition for removing the useless
wood outside the line last marked. The cushion or sandbag must be
brought into use, the violin put face downwards, the fingerboard
resting in a hollow. The neck or most convenient part for holding the
whole with firmness must be held tightly, the chisel then worked
downwards from the button, but not too far so as to cut into the portion
that is to gradually enlarge, or form the quarter of a circle or the
thickest part of the neck.

We shall now use a strong coarse wood file and turn the instrument round
and about, work away the neck until just outside of what will be left
when the polishing down takes place.

The curves should all be balanced well even while in the rough and the
contour viewed from all points should be regular. The other end of the
graft will require the same kind of attention, care being taken that
too much wood is not removed. The level from each end must be seen to,
leaving just sufficient wood to allow for fining down; the proportions
must be well calculated, thus the upper end under the nut will be hewn
down thinner than the part approaching the button, the line from each
end being made quite even and the curving of the semi-circular shaft
gradually tapering upwards. The glass-paper file before referred to
will now come into service; it should be made of a nicely-squared plate
of wood about six inches in length by about two and a half inches in
width, with about one third of an inch in depth. We may call one side
the front, the other the back; the edges of the former should be rounded
down to a semi-circular form. All we have to do in making this useful
file complete is to lap a piece of glasspaper of the degree of grain
required round it, nearly meeting at what may be called the back for
the time being. The surface with the rounded edging, or, as we have
called it, the front, covered with rather strong grained paper, will
be worked to make an even course all along the shaft, guarding all the
while against working too much at one spot. The paper file may, after
a sufficient working along the surface, be exchanged for one or two
degrees finer, rubbing it in the same manner. For good mathematically
even work, the graft should be turned round frequently, so that the
light may throw up any little inaccuracies that may occur and which
require individual attention. Here it may be remarked that if possible
all repairing would be best done in an apartment that has as little
reflected light as possible. The reason for this will soon be apparent
when the fining down or polishing stage is commenced. One window, and
that not too large, will be found advantageous. Little irregularities,
however trifling, are best seen under such a light. Much rough work
may very possibly be the consequence of badly-arranged light rather
than inability or indifference of the workman. Repairs executed under
unfavourable circumstances as above will often look very well until
turned about in fresh and different lights, as they are sure to be,
and then the faultiness becomes a surprise to the executant.

The glasspaper filing must be continued for some time and with several
finer degrees until the surface appears perfectly even and seemingly
quite finished, but the stages are not yet complete.



CHAPTER VII.

FINISHING THE FINGERBOARD--FIXING THE NUT--SIZE AND POSITION OF
GROOVES FOR THE STRINGS--FILING DOWN THE GRAFT--SMOOTHING, COLOURING,
AND VARNISHING SAME.


We now turn our attention to the finish of the fingerboard, which must
have its sides attended to for appearing in good trim. For making a
nicely worked surface each side, some preparations will have to be made.
Firstly, the nut having been cut to the width, or nearly so, of the
narrowest end of the fingerboard and glued into position, it will have
to be filed down to the height at which it is to remain above the end.
The arching will have to be higher in the centre than at each side,
in order that when the strings are drawn over tightly, the thickest,
or D string, shall have more room to swing than the thinnest, or E.
The arching will thus be unequal, the lowest part being at E, next a
rise sufficiently for the A, then a further rise for the D, and
afterwards a drop again to a little higher than the A; this will be
enough for the swing of the G. The grooves for each of these strings
must follow in the same order. They will not be equi-distant in one
sense, as that would cause them to appear unequal when the strain is
on them.

Probably the best way of securing a uniform appearance and the easiest,
after one good result, is to cut a metal template with a spike at the
central point or middle of where the string is to rest. These points
will be found unequal when pricked on to the surface of the nut. A very
small, round file should now be used carefully with the run of the
fingerboard, or the strings when wound up will look as if pulled aside
out of the straight line. The file must be placed exactly on the spot
that has been pricked and worked backward and forward as indicated.
The ruts must be examined frequently for ascertaining whether they are
sufficiently deep. The height of each rut above the fingerboard cannot
well be given in fractions of an inch, as they must be regulated to
the convenience of the performer. A hard, rasping, orchestral player,
with a heavy, unsympathetic bow arm, will require the ruts higher above
the board than a soloist of refined taste. The relative heights, one
with another, must be the same in both cases. When the ruts are finished,
recourse must be had to the glasspaper file again to round the top
surface of the nut with an inclination downwards toward the peg-box.
This is an arrangement requiring care, as, when the nut is level with
the fingerboard, there is danger of the strings jarring. When finished
sufficiently even the ruts may require a little further attention, as
it is difficult to at once complete them. The two parts are perhaps
best worked one with another, neither being finished off in one working
and left.

We may now proceed to the further progress of the sides of the
fingerboard; this, of course, can only be done when all is settled about
the nut, this part requiring to be a continuation, notwithstanding the
rise upward of the line from end to end. Preparation must be made for
guarding the upper table of the violin from injury, from slips of the
glasspaper file during the backward and forward movement. A good way
to prevent this is to make a millboard or thick brown paper shield with
a part cut away to allow the neck to have a hold. By putting this over
the upper table and underneath the fingerboard a part will project
forward on each side of the neck; it must be held in position by one
hand, while the other holds the paper file, which will be worked along
the sides of the fingerboard, at the same time being held nearly
vertical. After some little time the part where the ebony joins the
graft will appear worked down quite smooth, some finer degrees of the
paper will reduce the surface to almost a polish. The nut receiving
a part of the working will now present an appearance--as regards form
only--of having been left from a reduction of the fingerboard stopping
short at a straight line.

This part now, if the fitting of the fingerboard to the graft has been
neatly done, will show no line of glue or joint, but simply the
difference of material. The upper edges of the ebony may be rounded
down along to the end, but less at the lowest.

The whole affair, however, is not yet complete, as the surface to be
varnished must be made ready for it. If left in the present condition,
players who are very fastidious would be complaining of the work not
standing well or deteriorating under use. The cause of this
deterioration will be that the moisture from the hand in using this
part of the instrument in the raw state makes the grain swell as if
wetted; this would occur to some extent even if fully varnished. This
must therefore be anticipated by passing a soft, fully haired and
wetted brush, or damp sponge, over the whole of the new work. When dry
the whole surface will appear rough, or if of soft texture, somewhat
corrugated; this must again be levelled down with some of the finest
glasspaper, great care being taken that all the parts, and angles
especially, are worked over. If the corners are not equally attended
to with the rest--and to do this properly the angle of the steel scraper
may be used with good effect--there will be a roughness at the part
over which the varnish will settle, become rough when dry, and give
the appearance of untidy corners. If the scraper with right angles is
insufficient to clear the corner satisfactorily, one with a rather
acute angle will be found to do the work; it must be sharp, and gently
used (or ridges small, large, or both, will become evident), working
across first one way then the other until the appearance is quite up
to the exactions and desire of the eye.

Another wetting will be of some further benefit for a good and lasting
surface. When dry the roughness will not be so obtrusive as in the first
instance, and the application of the finest grain of glasspaper, or
a piece that has been under use for some time and got a little stale
will give the desired surface. The action of the glasspaper over the
surface should be continued for some time, until there being less and
less powder routed up the surface, it assumes a polished appearance,
and if the whole work is well done it will suggest a kind of finish
that looks too good to spoil by covering up with varnish. But the latter
is a necessity; if not really varnish in the usual sense of the term,
a substitute must be used, and here we touch a little upon the confines
of fashion or individual fancy.

It may not be generally known that the old Italian makers--I mention
these as they have always been looked up to as guides for almost
everything in connection with violin facture--varnished the whole of
the neck--which under present circumstances we call the graft--with
the same varnish and thickness of it as the rest of the instrument.
We never see such a thing now, and if a maker were to send forth his
new violins in this manner or trim, he would be looked upon as eccentric.
Nevertheless at one time it was universal. Probably the increased
number of movements of the hand, and especially the thumb, to meet the
requirements of more florid execution and in connection with the growth
of the ability among players for performing much music on the higher
positions or shifts, showed very soon how the coloured varnish looked
patchy under wear. This fashion of covering over the most handled part
of the instrument with the coloured varnish then became discarded.

"Appearances must be preserved" was found to be an axiom almost forced
upon the makers and repairers, and, as time went on, the substitution
of strongly curled wood for necks or grafts, in place of the plainer
material hitherto used, gradually settled down into the present
fashion. Now-a-days the skill of the repairer is exercised in the
various treatment of this part. Players vary in their tastes or whims,
some liking a perfectly smooth or polished surface as more suitable
to their handling than what they understand as an unvarnished neck,
others like it the other way as not so likely to slip, there being a
little more hold or resistance. Anyhow, the raw wood cannot be left
simply glass-papered, this would be speedily followed in use by an
accumulation of dirt and grease unpleasant to the eye, and to the touch,
clammy and unwholesome. It will therefore be as well to consider the
two modes of treatment. In either case the parts of the graft near the
insertion in the socket and at the other end where the peg-box is fitted
will require varnishing down.

Before active operations commence a fair examination should be made
of the colour or complexion of the body of the violin. Very often this
has no attention paid to it, with the result of a hideous contrast
between the neck and the ribs adjoining, a sign of bad workmanship and
carelessness. The materials at hand for making a good match must then
be thought over, the most appropriate selected and the number of coats,
if possible, determined upon. This latter will be taken in a general
sense, as an exact number will not be possible; appearances are in this
process deceptive and must be regulated by the exigencies of the moment,
but what can be calculated is the question of one or two applications
only (which would result in a cheap and common appearance) or a number
with the same materials carefully laid to the satisfaction of the
repairer.

Without plunging into the whirlpool of the best or particular gums,
resins and their individual mode of application, a matter that will
take up hereafter our more undivided attention, it may be taken as a
certainty that the varnishing materials used for the parts under
consideration must be of an alcoholic solution, no other would "set,"
evaporate or dry with sufficient rapidity to allow of handling: or,
as we may put it in another way, that would lose tackiness within a
convenient time.

Most people are aware of the nature of an oil varnish during the drying
process, there is firstly the "setting," that is, all the volatile
particles dispersing; secondly, the real drying or hardening which
ensues with sufficient time or age; both accompanied with some degree
of contraction, and until the process is complete, handling or friction
of any kind has to be carefully avoided. This will at once show its
unsuitableness for repairs and restorations, especially of the kind
now under consideration. The same process has to be gone through in
the drying of a spiritous or alcoholic varnish, but it is so much the
more rapid in consequence of there being only the alcohol to disperse,
leaving the resin in a comparatively dry state.

Colouring will be the chief consideration after the resin has been
selected, and on this the judgment of the operator will have to be
centred. For obtaining the effect desired or that is fashionable at
the present day, one or two coats or paintings will be commenced at
the corners where the graft is inserted in the upper ribs and gradually
being thinned off as the curved part rounding upwards from the button
dies away. Sometimes in consequence of the fresh wood appearing very
white--it is not always possible to obtain aged wood--some colouring
material or stain mixed with the first two wettings will subdue the
staring aspect, this may be continued along the graft and bring up the
figure or curl more prominently. Often between the curves each end of
the graft repairers force very strong stain, this being sometimes
common writing ink; when varnished over the effect is violent and
common even when nicely done. The best that can be recommended is some
sufficiently dark wood stain--sold at most of the oil and colourmen's
shops--and rub it in, allowing it to dry and then finishing off as
before described.

If the neck is to be left unvarnished, as it is termed, the colouring
and fining off can be followed with a rubbing of good oil, linseed,
raw or boiled, it must be really rubbed in and vigorously frictioned
up and down with a dry cloth--or after an application of the same kind
with some old fine flannel. This will drive in the oil, consolidating
the whole, and as it will dry inside after a time, keep a good smooth
surface under usage.

Some repairers continue to varnish or polish along the sides of the
fingerboard to the extremity. There is no objection to this, and if
very neatly done, the general effect is enhanced. The varnishing of
the whole of the fingerboard is perhaps not so good in general, too
much glare seeming to obtrude itself, but the filling up the pores with
the varnish and then working it down to a dull surface has a good effect
and helps in the resistance to wear. The polishing of the neck, or
fingerboard with it, may be effected by making a small ball or dabber
of about half an inch in diameter of fine grained flannel; this should
be covered with another surface of closer material such as calico, but
large enough to enclose the little bunch and to be tied up with a piece
of string. A portion of varnish being placed ready in a smaller saucer
or any convenient porcelain article with a shallow even bottom, the
ball or dabber will be moistened with some linseed oil and then its
rounded face dipped in the varnish and rubbed briskly, but lightly,
over the surfaces to be polished. These surfaces rapidly absorb the
polish, while the oil in the dabber allows it to pass over without
clinging. The rubbing should be continued until a smooth, glassy
appearance comes and you feel sure that the wood has imbibed enough
of the polish; this treatment may be continued over all the parts at
which it may be desirable to have an even shining surface. The work
may now be put aside for some hours, so that the evaporating and
hardening may take place. When this has been ascertained to be
satisfactory, the surfaces may be wiped gently with some soft,
absorbent material which will take away any superfluous particles of
oil that may have been accidentally left in the process of rubbing.
If there should be some uneven, clotted, or rough parts observable,
a small ball or dabber made in the same way as the preceding, but used
with spirit and oil instead of varnish, will work these down to a proper
condition. For the dead surfacing, care must be taken that all is quite
hard enough. Taking a small piece of flannel of fine texture doubled
up and with its face well oiled, having some rotten-stone powder at
hand, dip in the latter and rub as before lightly round and round over
the parts to be dead polished; this will give a nice refined, even
appearance, with comparatively little glare. A final wipe off with a
soft cloth as before, will bring matters to a conclusion.



CHAPTER VIII.

INJURIES THAT CAN BE REPAIRED FROM THE OUTSIDE--INSERTION OF FRESH WOOD
IN FRACTURE OF THE RIBS--THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE ON THE GLUE IN VIOLINS.


We may now take this portion of the work as finished and turn to the
consideration of repairs of fractures or filling up of parts last. It
is early yet to think of opening the instrument for the purpose of
rectification of anything that appears to have gone wrong either with
the general structure or with small details. A golden rule to be
observed by all repairers is that of never opening an instrument--that
is removing the upper or lower table--until all other means of
correction have proved futile. Extensive repairs to the interior may
be accomplished without opening after a very careful look over with
proper calculation. There are several reasons for keeping the above
rule well in mind, among them, that if the violin is old and has
undergone much affliction while under the hands of many doctors, some
of these possibly belonging to the "heroic school," it may be found
that the last visitant of the interior had straightened, bent, or
contracted and held some of the parts together while the glue was in
process of drying and that sufficient time had not elapsed since the
occurrence for the strained parts to settle down under their new
condition. An opening of the violin, removal of upper or lower table
or any large portion, must be undertaken after due consideration and
every precaution has been taken that nothing shall be disturbed if the
reparation can be accomplished without. An opening of the instrument
for the purpose of one repair may lead to the necessity of half a dozen
before closing up again. Our opening ceremony will therefore be
postponed until a future occasion, and we will confine ourselves to
the consideration of such external injuries of ancient or recent origin
that may be with the least inconvenience restored to ordinary health
or even strength. The numbers of such and their varieties are more than
can be related, the curious manner of their occurrence, too, would be
an addition that would indefinitely prolong the story.

Taking, therefore, small injuries or fractures that can be repaired
from the outside, among the first coming to mind and not infrequently
seen, is at the corners, a small piece of the projecting part of the
rib--one of the upper or lower sets; this may have caught against
something and got lifted away from the block, it may be on one side
or the other, in size perhaps little more than an eighth of an inch,
but all the same requiring immediate attention, or dirt will get in
and make an adjourned repair more difficult if not wholly impossible
to obscure.

According to the condition, age and date of the injury, so the treatment
must be. If the injury is quite recent and the fractures are quite clean,
some good thick glue placed on the exposed surface and the lifted piece
placed back in position may remain there with no further attention than
the wiping off when dry of any superfluous glue that may have exuded
when pressing the part on. This has been a simple matter, but if the
part knocked away is lost, a different course must be pursued. As it
would be impossible to find a piece of fresh wood to fit a ragged or
irregular-shaped hollow, there is but one method to proceed upon, that
of clearing a regular space with a sharp pointed knife. The walls of
the space or opening should be as clean in line as possible, also quite
vertical. A small keen-edged chisel may be found advantageous, as, by
its aid, using it with the angular or sharpened side downwards, the
floor of the excavation can be reduced to a fair level. This
hollowing-out should not be too deep, leaving as much as possible of
the bare wood uncut, only enough being removed for a good holding
surface. If this is done neatly, the opening will be like that of a
box into which will be fitted the fresh wood. As to this last it should
be selected to match both with regard to texture and age whenever
possible, also in continuation of the run of the grain, so that when
fitted it should look as much like the surrounding wood as possible,
that is, when free of varnish. In cutting the wood to the required size
it should not, as in the instance of the aperture, be made with
perfectly upright sides, but the parts that are to go into the aperture
should be a fraction less than the outer, so as to allow of its being
pressed in and fitting very closely all round. As the parts under
consideration lie in the curved parts on the structure, to fit a piece
in with success, it should also be bent with a requisite curve; if this
is not attended to, and the clear varnish comes over it when being
finished off, there will be a glistening of the grain underneath when
shifted about in the light. To avoid this, which is apt to draw
attention to the repaired parts, a larger piece of veneer than
necessary should be first bent into the proper curve and the part nearly
small enough cut from it and then made to fit. The bending of the piece
can be effected by steeping it in some hot water, pressing it into form;
being but a small portion, it will probably retain its inclination;
if large enough and obstinate it must be kept bent by some means until
dry, when it will show no disposition to revert back to its old form.
If these particulars are all attended to with care, the piece of wood
or veneer will only require a little pressure--the opening being gone
over with strong glue--to retain its form in proper position. In case
of failure under these conditions and the parts not holding together
as they should, another course must be adopted.

It will be most likely that some grease is the cause of the
non-adherence of the parts. The remedy will be that of using a little
benzine on a brush and wiping or mopping out with a small piece of linen
on the end of a pointed stick of soft wood, after which, when quite
dry, some fresh glue must be applied, and the parts pressed together
and held in position.

Ingenuity and the perception of the adaptation of means to an end will
constantly be called into exercise, and at a part of the instrument
such as is at present under consideration, will be often severely taxed.
Want of purchase or no direct pressure being possible, or at least
perceptible, will be the complaint of the operator, but this can always
be overcome with a little patience.

Now supposing that a piece has come off at the upper part of the waist
curve, and if narrow or the curve is sudden it will at first sight be
a little puzzling as to keeping pressure on the fresh part, even if
cut sharply and ready to be deftly inserted. The difficulties will be
considerably lessened, if not disposed of, if we take up a portion of
soft pine or poplar, cut it in a moment or two to shape, so as to very
loosely fit the upper curve or part we are about to glue, and not quite
reaching the lower or usually larger curve of the waist; a small piece
of cork placed between the wood to be inserted and that which is to
press it while in position and another piece of cork of a wedge form
can be squeezed in at the other end, so as to prevent the varnish being
injured and to tighten the pressure, which will not be necessarily
great if the fitting is good.

Another kind of repair not unfrequently necessary, and which should
not be delayed, is caused by the parting of the two ribs at the angle,
in consequence often of accidental knocks and over weak glue. This is
a more difficult part at which to get direct pressure than almost any
part of the instrument. Many repairers would lift up the loose part
or parts, both being occasionally loose, brush a little glue in,
squeeze the parts together and leave them. When dry the ends will under
this treatment seldom be found to meet properly as in their original
condition. The best mode of repairing will be found that of proceeding
by degrees, overcoming the enemy in detail. Thus firstly, we must
observe whether the junction or construction of this part has been
effected in the old Brescian manner--that is, the two equal parts being
brought together, or according to the later method, the end of the
middle rib being placed in position first, trimmed to a feather edge
and the upper left thick and slightly overlapping it and afterwards
trimmed into shape. In both instances the under surfaces must be
cleaned and all the hard old glue softened and cleared out, if
unfractured the surfaces of both corner block and rib fitting will be
as originally left by the maker. In either style of construction it
will be best to proceed first with the middle rib and support or prop
it against the block in the way before mentioned. When quite dry we
can remove the pressure and get to work at the other. After being quite
sure that no hard glue or foreign particles remain between the surfaces
to prevent a perfect fit as in the original condition, a small mould
cut from soft wood again and of a size and shape that will fit loosely
the semi-circular part must be cut, and some soft paper got ready to
go between as a protection for the varnished part. If the parts are
not much worn away, or the front and back plates are in fair condition,
the rib may be glued and the screw cramp, cork or paper of course being
used as a protector, and the rib will be held in position. If this is
not sufficient for getting a close and accurate fit, the soft wood mould
mentioned above must be placed, and a slight pressure gained by a wedge
of wood gently inserted and pressed home. This mode of repair, it will
be borne in mind, is when the upper and lower plates are in fairly good
condition. Different treatment would be adopted if both were separated
or the upper one taken off.

Sometimes the cramping, although sufficient for getting a good mend
where there is a good extent of surface, will not be quite the thing
for a small part, perhaps a slight opening at the extreme edge; in this
instance a wooden mould, cut in a few minutes from a flat board large
enough to allow of an oval aperture being made that will admit of the
body of the violin being passed through. This being done and a small
wedge being here and there judiciously inserted, will enable the
operator to get enough purchase, or advantage may be taken of the
juxtaposition of the cramp, and using both to gain the requisite
pressure against the bend of the rib in the manner before mentioned.

There are as a matter of course extremely numerous kinds of fractures
or injuries arising from almost as many different causes. If time and
space permitted, they might be classified and each credited to their
different agencies. Sufficient for our purpose, however, will be the
separation of them into three divisions: firstly, those which may be
the outcome or result of ordinary wear and giving way of parts through
atmospheric influence, such as damp or excessive dryness, or both at
times, in combination with varying temperature. People are apt to debit
the climate of Britain with many shortcomings and the cause of much
undoing of good work in the fiddle world and the prevention of its being
accomplished in the concluding stages of fiddle facture.

Much of the good quality attached to Italian instruments has been
attributed to the beautiful and dry air of Italy. Now that Italy has
beautiful air no one can deny, that is, while not standing in the
streets of some of the most interesting cities therein, but that it
is dry generally is perhaps going beyond the mark; remember it is a
very mountainous place with some exceptional portions, this may be
easily verified by a glance over a good map of the place, or better,
a tour by railway from the northern provinces down as far as Naples.
Knowledge is fairly general as to mountainous districts, much more than
plains, being the localities where rain is most frequent, the more or
less saturation of the atmosphere following as a matter of course.

But let Italian fiddles speak for themselves, otherwise than through
the medium of gut strings. The first makers of violins in Brescia used
no side linings, but trusted to the most excellent quality of their
glue for holding back and front to the ribs. That their trust was not
misplaced in many instances is proved by the work in its primitive
condition remaining intact to the present day. With the rise of the
Cremonese school, delicacy in treatment of detail became fashionable;
makers found that in order to give expression to their ideas in as many
particulars as possible over the work, especially in respect of
refinement in the curving of the ribs, less thickness of wood in these
parts would have to be used, especially when of very decided curl; but
this would not hold well except in the driest districts. The system
was then introduced of using the thin slips of wood running from block
to block; the thickness of these, although slight, added to the thin
substance of the rib, allowed a better holding power to back and front.

The fact is here evident that the glue, of exceeding good quality--and
that it was so will be corroborated by all repairers who have had to
do with the old Italian instruments--was too easily affected by the
damp of the atmosphere.

Further evidence frequently turns up among the great numbers of old
Italian instruments gathered from all sorts of places, of the efforts
at combating the effects of damp. Some of the means adopted by various
repairers, apparently in the smaller towns--judging by the bad, even
extraordinary woods used--have been very curious, many interesting,
others primitive, even stupid. At about the same time the Amatis were
introducing the use of side-linings, Giov. Maggini was trying other
means of preventing the parting of the upper and lower tables from the
ribs by damp. A method he adopted, and which many later makers
imitated--if it did not occur to them spontaneously--was by cutting
a groove all round and inserting the ribs. It will be obvious from this
that no linings were used in these instances. That his efforts were
not followed by success may be concluded from the fact that he did not
persevere with the system. The simple method of his master was fallen
back upon and thicker ribs placed in position. When we come across one
of those grooved tables it will probably be found--as might have been
anticipated by Maggini had he known beforehand of the course to be taken
by his art, which was at the time almost a local one--that a repairer
has at one time thought it necessary to lift the ribs from one or the
other plate, and almost, of course, bungled over it. This will be seen
in the irregularity of the fitting of the ribs, which have been
ruthlessly cut or torn out of the groove, some portions being left in.
Taking them out was found to be unprofitable work, with a general result
of a wretched wreck remaining, instead of the whole original being
there but shifted a little, from the glue losing its hold while
perishing from the action of moisture.



CHAPTER IX.

THE GLUE USED BY THE EARLY ITALIAN MAKERS--INSERTION OF PIECES OF WOOD
FOR REPAIRING LOST PARTS--REPLACING LOST RIB AND REPAIRING INTERIOR
WITHOUT OPENING WHEN POSSIBLE--SECURING LOOSE LOWER RIB TO END
BLOCK--DIFFERENT METHODS--TREATMENT OF WORM-HOLES--FIXING ON GRAFT ON
NECK.


Here, before proceeding further, it may be as well to call attention
to the kind of damage done by the atmosphere. We speak of the glue
perishing. Under most circumstances this will not occur, but under
exceptional ones it will. If good in the first instance, it will be
perfectly sound and strong as ever at the end of three hundred years.
I have found this to be so in the work of Gasparo da Salo and his pupil,
Giovanni Paolo Maggini, besides other makers nearly contemporary. What
particular kind of glue they used I am unable to say, possibly they
did not know very much more themselves beyond what they believed was
the best obtainable in their day and city. When the perishing has
occurred there must have been very much moisture in the atmosphere of
the locality in which the violin rested for some time, as the best glue
will absorb the most moisture before losing its firmness, or power of
adherence. Prolonged exposure to damp allows chemical change to take
place and then all adhesive quality is lost; when dry air afterwards
attacks it, the parts of the instrument that should have been held
firmly together are released, with results that may be serious in
degree according to the position of the part affected.

To continue the consideration of the repair of a violin that has been
constructed with grooves for holding the ribs. A long and troublesome
piece of work would be the loosening and taking away of the fragments
of rib inserted in the groove and cut away by some repairer from the
rest or standing rib; it is therefore preferable in ordinary and neat
repairing to clear the parts that may be ragged or begrimed, firstly,
by washing with a stiff brush of appropriate size and wiping with a
clean cotton rag repeatedly; when the rag ceases to be soiled or
discoloured after wiping, the parts may be taken as fairly clean. A
sharp knife will take off any projections that may be prominent and
prevent the proper placing of the rib in position; if the
irregularities give indication of fitting well, the parts may have at
their approaching edges a touching with strong, hot glue, and the
cramps with protection applied as before for other joinings.

The probabilities, however, are, that through bad treatment, added to
wear and tear, the parts will not fit under any circumstances, then
the only course will be to make an even surface at the part broken away,
and then fit a piece of fresh wood therein. If the aperture made is
not of large extent and not wide, or more than the thickness of an
average piece of veneer is required, then the fresh wood need not be
bent, but cut neatly for fitting, and after glueing, as usual, slipped
in with a part projecting beyond the surrounding surface. When quite
dry it may be pared down carefully with a sharp knife, or if not
manageable on the curve of the rib, a chisel of size according to the
amount of room; being a narrow slip, after the colouring down and
varnishing has taken place, it will be but slightly noticeable. The
same treatment can, of course, be adopted for either upper or lower
part of the rib; the middle rib position will give the most trouble,
owing to its concavity, but care and patience will overcome the
difficulties of the situation. Should there have happened an accident
by which a hole of some extent is rent in the ribs--either upper, lower,
or middle--it is not absolutely necessary that the instrument be opened
to accomplish the repair; bear in mind the advice given before, not
to open a violin which has been in good going order if the repair can
be effected without.

As we are presumably working on disabled violins that are valuable,
perhaps old friends, or interesting specimens of a particular school,
to select the best mode of restoration is our aim. For this purpose
we will call to our aid some low class violin, new or old, that is of
no value except for our purpose. If several are within reach we can
select one with wood that matches as near as possible the one under
process of restoration. Being already bent to shape, a portion may be
found somewhere about it, that with a little exercise of judgment can
be cut out to shape, and as in manner pointed out before, be placed
over the aperture of the fracture. Care must be taken that it quite
covers the part, while being likely to fit sufficiently well as regards
figure or curl and direction of grain. The sides cleanly cut should
not be quite vertical with the general plane, the inner surface being
a shade smaller than the outer, thus enabling the operator, with a
little pressure, to insert it, when glued, quite neatly. No
instructions or suggestions with regard to fitting will counterbalance
clumsiness of handling. In operations of this kind, delicacy of
handling equal to anything required in watch repairing will be
obligatory, that is if restoration of a high class is intended.

It would be impossible to deal with, touch upon, or even to recount
every possible injury to a violin that might be repaired without the
removal of the upper table, but there are still some remaining that
will be worth considering, if only for the purpose of restraining the
tendency to open the instrument upon too trivial a pretext. One
instance occurs to memory at the present moment, in which a violin,
the constant companion and closest friend of its owner, met with an
accident that seemed to him well-nigh total destruction, at any rate,
necessitating much renewal with undoing and plastering up of fractures.
To the fiddle physician it was promptly taken, carefully scanned, and
the owner told that it would be all right in a few days. Will it have
to be taken all to pieces? asked the anxious owner. Not if it can be
possibly helped, was the reply. The violin was called for in due time,
and in answer to inquiries it was fetched and seen to be in as good
going order as before the time of the accident. There was no apparent
evidence of damage, no sign of fracture or any neatly-laid patches,
there were the ribs as sound as when new, no cracks to be seen. How
did you manage that? said the owner, and you say there was no necessity
to take the front off? Easier far, replied the repairer, the more there
is left undisturbed the more assistance will these parts give you
during the progress of restoration, and as you seem curious and
desirous of solving the mystery of this renovation I will relate how
it was accomplished. You are no doubt fully aware that your violin is
of a size and shape well-known in the trade as a "Strad pattern;" well,
there are thousands of violins in any number of degrees of quality
similar in form and size, in fact, for us modern makers there are too
many about. Catching the peculiarities of pattern with my eye at a
glance, the difficulties to be overcome were not very numerous or great.
I saw there was no reunion of parts of the ribs to be thought of, as
they had gone, and your violin being a modern copy of ordinary
pretensions, it would not serve our purpose to join four-fifths of new
rib to the remainder, and so to make a clean and satisfactory renovation
a fresh rib would best answer. Taking down from a shelf a number of
loose parts of violins put aside for such occasions as the present,
I soon found a middle rib that matched in most particulars those of
your violin. It had the additional advantage of being better for the
keeping, as regards colour or looking less new.

The first proceeding was to clear out all the useless fragments of the
spoiled rib, search every corner and see that there were no splinters
left, and remove projecting particles of glue. All edges that were to
come in contact with the fresh rib were washed, and where permissible,
the surfaces made even by a slight levelling, finely shaving them with
a sharp tool. The fresh rib was then tried, and being of full size and
requiring more than the least pressure to get it placed, some little
shaving down here and there was found necessary, and when done it was
tried again carefully and repeated perhaps three or four times, when
all parts seemed to fit sufficiently well. Each time the rib was
inserted there was, of course, nothing projecting whereby it might be
withdrawn; to accomplish this, a bent wire of sufficient strength
passed through the most distant of the two sound holes gave it a push
out again. When the piece was found to fit with accuracy, little
remained to do beyond glueing the edges that were to come together,
and after seeing that every part was in right position, the screw cramps
were applied with sufficient force and no more, the superfluous glue
wiped away and the whole left to itself. When sufficient time had been
allowed for drying, the cramps were removed, a little cleaning of parts
effected and the fresh work varnished in a manner so as to match nearly
as possible with the rest of the instrument, and there you have your
violin with a fresh rib inserted without removing anything but the
damaged part. It was really, as you may have perceived, the easiest
way of working the thing, there being no secondary process to be gone
through, nothing but cramping down, varnishing and finishing off.

Another instance comes to my mind of what can be done in the way of
alteration of the interior without removing the upper table. It came
within my own experience many years back, and the violin was one owned
by myself at the time. It had got into a condition not unfrequently
seen after bad repairing, that of the fingerboard sinking down too near
the table through absence of proper support or sufficient grip of the
end of the table where the neck is inserted. Being unable to attend
to the matter myself at the time, I sought the aid of a friend living
close by, a clever amateur violin maker and mechanical constructor of
other things beside. He was not very long setting matters right, and
my violin seemed in no danger of further getting into disorder from
the same cause. I asked him how he had managed the rectification of
the matter; did he take the upper table off? "Oh no, without that. I
simply opened or loosened the left side of the table about and above
the upper corner, then, having cut and glued a slight thin wedge-shaped
piece of wood, through the narrow opening caused by the loosening of
the table, I passed it on a thin knife long enough to reach to the upper
block, between which and the part of the upper table which was not
holding I carefully thrust it and tucked it in, finally glueing and
cramping again the part of the table that I had purposely loosened."

This was a clever operation, successful but very risky, and not to be
lightly undertaken by anyone without much experience and even natural
ability for mechanical adaptation of means to an end. There was much
danger, from the narrowness of the approach to the work from the side
opening, of missing the mark and dropping the piece of wood with great
difficulty of recovery, and, further, the chance of cracking the upper
table by straining the opening for the admission of knife and wedge
of wood. I heard of the violin but a few days since, and have no reason
to suppose there has been occasion to have any further repairs done.

Among other mishaps occurring at times, and which from their position
seem difficult to remedy, is that of the lower rib becoming detached,
or losing its hold on the block; this is more liable to take place when
there is a join running up and past the tail pin hole. Both sides may
be loose or one only. When, as in a great many of the old Italian violins,
the rib is continuous, it very seldom gets detached. Here the advantage
of simplicity of construction is made evident. The rib being of one
piece running round the lower end right past the tail pin was not, as
too often supposed, done for a saving of time by one operation, but
for strength and neatness. When in two parts, sometimes with a piece
of purfling inserted--each side is subject to damage either by the
tampering with the tail pin, the nut above, or during repeated removals
of the upper table. Exposure to damp will, as a matter of course, affect
the original glueing of these parts as soon as any other. The detachment
from the block may remain unnoticed for some length of time, until
getting worse by degrees one part may be seen to be lifted or warped
away from the join. If without this appearance suspicion is aroused
in some way as to looseness, it can be verified or not with little
trouble by tapping with a felt-headed piano-hammer, when the sound,
which should be quite solid, will, on the contrary, be rattling.

Seemingly the repair of this part is an awkward matter from the absence
of any purchase for pressing the parts and retaining them in position
when freshly glued. The difficulty is more apparent than real, as there
are several ways of overcoming this obstacle. To begin with one. The
tail pin will, of course, be removed; if fitting rather tightly and
of good length, use may be made of it.

As usual all the parts to be glued must be cleansed by a brush and clean
water, sopping up the moisture after each application, pressing
repeatedly the loose parts until they seem to be clean enough. A piece
of soft pine or poplar will now be cut that will be just wide enough
to go easily over the parts lying over the block and which of course
cover all the loose parts that require fixing: it may be a trifle under
a quarter of an inch in thickness. One side must be shaped to fit the
parts over the block when pressed against them and should be a sort
of mould. A hole will now be pierced to admit the cylindrical part of
the tail pin, or if not long enough, a made substitute with a similar
rim. It should be tried by passing it through to the tail pin hole,
and if it fits tight enough to sustain itself against some pulling we
can proceed. The fit should be close enough so that when the peg is
passed through the hole in the mould and the latter pressed by this
means against the rib or the two parts on to the block, all should be
held firmly in position. Taking them apart again, strong glue should
be applied by a brush to the surfaces that will meet or be worked in
as when the cleansing was going on. The peg and the mould--with a piece
of paper on its face to prevent adhesion--may then be pressed in to
hold tight until hard and dry. The same method may be pursued with the
exception that in place of the peg a screw--if one is to hand large
enough--may be inserted. In this case it should be a very loose fit
to the hole, the grip will be obtained by rolling up a piece of paper
and inserting it in the tail pin hole, the screw can then be used against
this inside without damaging the block.

Another way of accomplishing the desired result will be by a stout
leather strap and buckle passed round over all the ribs of the
instrument; the same sort of mould will be used and applied in the same
manner. The strap will need holding in position at the upper or neck
end over the button, a string over the fingerboard will be sufficient;
at the other end over the mould a wedge of soft wood according to size
will enable the pressure towards the block to be regulated. Another
contrivance with the same mould, for this must always be used, is by
getting a wire with a turned or screwed end fitted with a head or nut,
the other end can be bent to right angles, but not too much length used
or it will not go through the tail pin hole. When in position, having
been passed through the hole in the mould, the right angled or bent
end will catch against the inner surface of the block, the head or nut
being then screwed round will tighten and press the mould towards the
block with enough grip for the purpose if all the rest is in proper
order.

Should these contrivances not be to hand or are found inconvenient,
yet another method is that of using the screw-cramp. A portion of
mill-board or cork being placed to protect the parts of the upper and
lower table between which the end block is situated, the screw can be
turned tight enough to allow of a wedge of wood being inserted between
the back of the cramp and the mould without risk of shifting; it can
then be left until dry and hard.

Occasionally there will be not only the detachment from the block, but
there will be the accompaniment of a split in the rib. There will be
in this instance a preliminary cleansing of the split and joining
together before proceeding with the other part. The reason for doing
this is that the pressure on towards the block is apt to widen instead
of closing the crack. The most usual way of mending a crack, or there
may be more than one, is by the use of a small hand vice. A piece of
stout card placed between the teeth of the vice to prevent an imprint,
the part to be joined will, after cleaning and glueing, be brought
closely as possible together and the vice screwed up. For this process
the help of another person will be almost absolutely necessary, as two
hands will be required for holding the parts together while the second
person holds the vice and turns the screw to order. When dry and
unscrewed the parts joined will require a little scraping of the
superfluous glue, washing away at a thin part as this is would be
dangerous; if brought together neatly the rib can then be pressed on
the block in the manner before explained.

The same process will be gone through when a portion of fresh rib has
to be inserted at this part, owing to loss of a piece through violence
or the ravages of the worm. In the latter case searching inquiry should
be made with a pointed wire or pin and the direction of the boring
operations ascertained, as it may be necessary to insert a larger piece
than was originally intended to avoid a large smash or general collapse
at the part where the greatest strength should be. There is often too
great a tendency shown in repairing, especially in preparation for the
market, as, for instance, when an old master has been unearthed in some
farmhouse or out of the way place on the Continent, to make a clean
sweep of a somewhat riddled part, the repairer trusting too much to
his imitative powers on new wood with new varnish, and we may say with
new ideas on old facts; it is seldom that the result is far from hideous.
Better trace the tortuous course of a whole family of worms and fill
up with a cement or plugging than, as is too often the case, cut a huge
slice away, for if so the instrument according to the extent begins
to assume a composite character, it may be ten out of twelve parts gem
of an old master and two parts modern trash, hateful to the eye of the
connoisseur.

While touching upon the subject of worm-holes, a few words more may
not be out of place when contemplating the ravages of these voracious
creatures. Almost all devotees to the "gentle art" of fiddling have
a great horror of the possible presence or the ungauged depths of the
mysterious tunnellings the entrance or exit to which will cause a start
of dismay in a searcher after the beautiful, when, in an otherwise
perfectly preserved specimen of art by one of the giants of old, his
eye alights upon that sharply defined circular hole, cut with no
uncertainty of purpose, but with a ruinous intent, for it is business
with the boring party to consume the whole, if possible, at its leisure
and in quietude. This last is an important item in the consideration
of the circumstances under which the "gem of art, old master, Cremona,
real Strad," or whatever title the wooden structure may have been
sailing under. Those who have suffered much from the Italian
fiddle-hunting mania--a condition mostly chronic or quite
incurable--but who may have kept their "considerating cap" well poised
on their head, will know that the worm-eaten fiddles are often devoid
of evidence of usage, sometimes even in the absolute sense of the term.

Such a one we may suppose before us now; after lying neglected for
generations, or since the time when it was bought by one of our
periwigged ancestors from the maker, perhaps after a little haggling
about the price, which most likely was one hundredth part of its
commercial value at present. It was placed many years since in its
present comfortable case, after being taken out of the old ragged
leather covered one, with the brass nails along its side. Tradition
has it that in long bye-gone days it used to hang suspended from a nail
in the oak panelling of the "old house at home," but that during a more
recent generation and less musical one, it was placed aside in the old
case, as being somewhat interesting from having been brought over to
England from some place in Italy during the reign of James II. Later
on it was taken from this old case, and placed in one of modern
construction, and occasionally was taken out for musical people to see,
some of whom expressed their admiration for its elegant form, others
for the singular transparency of its varnish. None had come forward
with the request to hear what it had to say for itself or what its tone
was. But the day came round at last when someone more inquisitive than
usual, by nature as well as by training, having inquired as to the
possibility of seeing the antiquity, was afforded the rare opportunity
and treat of seeing a perfectly preserved Cremona, nearly as possible
untouched; the connoisseur was informed that no one had been known to
have played upon it. The case is brought forward and opened, the violin,
with perhaps one very brown string dangling from it, is taken gently
up, the left hand encircling the neck, while the forefingers and thumb
of the right, hold the lower part near the tail-piece.

The violin is turned first one way, then the other, and sideways for
viewing the ribs and the beautiful play of light through the varnish,
the fine curl of the maple with the slightest movement, almost giving
an impression of hastily shifting from one row to another, in fact,
looking as if the wood were gifted with life. Steadily turning it about,
the connoisseur at last breaks out with the exclamation, this is the
most wonderful thing I have met with in my life, it is almost perfect,
practically new, looks, perhaps, but a dozen years old. What a
beautiful design, what colour, and splendid wood, both the pine and
maple, the workmanship, too, having that wonderful freedom of handling
which moderns find so impassable a barrier to success with their
"imitations of the antique!" Lost in admiration for some minutes, the
connoisseur's critical faculties after a while begin to assert
themselves, and he is on the look out for flaws or defects that may
mar the completeness of the whole; it might be a little more this or
that with advantage, not quite so fine in one respect, although perhaps
better in another than the one owned by his friend Smith; but oh! a
wormhole! that settles it, done for! perhaps the thing is riddled, or
even "honeycombed" in parts. The delight at finding a work of art in
apparently so perfect condition is succeeded by a more than
counterbalancing sense of frustrated hopes, schemes for acquisition
of the gem being dissipated at once by that small circular opening just
at the under part of the edging there near the corner. Our friend takes
his departure, but cannot help talking of the "find" to the dealer and
repairer of whom he purchases his strings. This person takes another
view of the affair, and resolves to see the thing and perhaps acquire
possession, so that like his customer, he gets permission to inspect
the violin. It is brought out as in the other instance and he turns
it about, gives it a sly pinch here and there, looks for any light
coloured dust or powder inside and does not see any, a shake or two
with the same result. The subject of parting with the instrument at
a fair price is at length broached to the owner, who would like to know
what Mr. ---- would be prepared to give for it, but this party means
business and not valuation gratis for the owner; he therefore dilates
upon the difficulties attending the keeping of a large stock of such
articles, besides the thing having been bored so much by worms can never
take its place again among prominent examples of the maker, and it would
want a lot of playing upon even if possibly well restored. Mr. ----
finally departs as owner of a finely preserved Cremona violin, not
exactly for a "mere song," but a few judiciously selected sentences
and fewer pounds. Out of the house his steps are lighter and swifter
as he gets nearer his premises. When arrived he takes it to the
repairing room; removing it from the case he again examines it, and
with a smile says to his chief repairing help--here, what d'ye think
of that? This workman, who has not studied as an enthusiastic
connoisseur during the many years of his working on the premises, takes
it up, looks it well over, and then observes--"well, at first I thought
it was a good modern copy, but now if I don't think it's a real one!
Well, I never! it is, too! look at that stuff all over it." This was
his manner of criticising varnish when it seemed to him of good quality.
"I would like to have some of that! a worm-hole though. Don't know how
far that goes." "We'll soon see," says the other. After a few turns
over again amidst remarks of admiration expressed in different ways,
the fiddle is brought into a good light and preparations made for
opening it. "Why, I don't think it's ever been opened before," says
one. "Certainly not," says the other. "Now," says the dealer, "you had
better do it," and the workman proceeds thus--first removing the
tailpiece and with a "post setter" lifting the sound post out carefully
through the right sound hole, he removes the tail pin, and holding the
instrument to let as much light as possible into the interior, looks
through the pin hole and observes--"No patch in this, Mr. ----, fresh
as a new-laid egg--original bar too,--however, let's go ahead." The
fiddle is then laid face downwards on a cushion or soft pad and held
in position with the extended palm of the hand. The operator then takes
what has been once in use as a table knife, but is now thin and smooth
with wear, keeping the left hand firmly in position and the knife in
the other, he casts his eye round for any portion that may seem looser
or more lightly glued than the rest. It has been very neatly done
however, and one part seems as good as another. "Stop a moment," says
his companion, "let's have another look inside, maybe we shall see how
the worms have been going about by the light passing through."

It is taken again to a window; the sun fortunately is streaming in and
so enables master and man to proceed under favourable conditions. The
dealer patiently turns the violin about so that the rays of the sun
may penetrate wherever possible through the material; after a while
he hands the violin to his workman--"you have a look, James, I cannot
see any traces--I don't think the worm has gone very far, seemingly
only a short distance from the opening." James looking again, and
coming to the same conclusion, the violin is again taken to the
operating table and the knife taken in hand.



CHAPTER X.

WAYS OF REMOVING THE UPPER TABLE AND THE NECK--CLEANSING THE
INTERIOR--PRESERVATION OF THE ORIGINAL LABEL--CLOSING OF CRACKS IN
UPPER TABLE.


I recollect many years back, when in company with a violinist of some
note, we were talking over various details in connection with the
reparation and regulation of violins of a high class, particularly
those of the great masters. The fact of so many fine instruments having
fractures of the same kind and in the same position was remarked as
being curious, why so numerous as to form a very large majority? Well,
said the professor, at one time cracks were really fashionable, and
an instrument well endowed with them was thought to emit its tone more
freely, especially if it had been somewhat stiff before. This might
account for some, but not so many coming from all parts, I observed,
from their similarity I am inclined to their being due to one principal
cause, that of carelessness on the part of repairers in former times
and some even of the present. It is through hurry or want of method
in removing the upper table, should it be necessary. A repairer once
confessed to me that he had sometimes caused these fractures in his
impetuousness while going through this preliminary; his excuse was one
frequently made for all sorts of bad work, clumsiness and want of
judgment, that people would not pay for proper time and care being
expended, and so when he cracked the front while taking it off, he glued
it up again.

As generally is the case, more than one method can be pursued for
removal of the upper table. A somewhat original one was recommended
to me once as being very successful and causing the table to part from
the rest beautifully without risk of fracture, and that was, firstly
to obtain some vessel holding boiling water and with a suitable pipe
attached for throwing a fine jet of steam against the glued parts
requiring separation. Not having seen this done, or tried it myself,
I am unable to speak for or against this process, but there appears
to be some risk of damaging the varnish in the vicinity while the steam
is forced against the small space for operating upon. I was assured
that this was an excellent mode of separation, there being no tearing
about or splintering of the wood. It might be a good method where there
is perceptibly much impasto of glue, and which, while almost readily
yielding to the penetrative power of steam, is a great nuisance under
ordinary circumstances. Another method would be that of getting some
lengths of soft cotton rag or other substance that would retain
moisture well when wetted; these could be laid all round, tucked
closely against the junction of the upper table and ribs and left for
a reasonable time or kept wetted in dry weather. This, if not quite
causing a disjunction, would facilitate the operation of the knife in
the usual way. I think, however, that any departure from the rule of
using the knife is very rare indeed, any other means necessarily taking
time and taxing the patience.

We will now return to the dealer and his assistant or repairer. The
matter in hand with them is business, and therefore a regular routine
is gone through when the instrument is worthy of first class repair,
and everything conducive to the best results in up-to-date regulation
has to be calculated and carried out in minute detail. Searching eyes
will go over all the fresh parts, looking for any possible inaccuracy,
any slip of the tool or ruggedness where a fine, even surface ought
to be. In order that all may be conveniently attended to, the first
proceeding will be that of sawing off the head and neck, this is done
rather close to the body of the instrument. Under present circumstances,
more care than usual with modern violins has to be exercised, as the
repairer knows that it was customary with the old Italian makers to
secure the neck to the upper block by one, two, or at times even three
nails. They were driven in from the interior before the final closing
up or fixing of the upper table. Sometimes a screw is found in the same
place instead of nails. These arrangements point to a want of
confidence in glue by these old masters, notwithstanding the evidence
we have of their using the finest quality only. In separating the neck
from the body, it will obviously be wise to act in a very cautious manner,
or the saw may come suddenly upon the nails or screw, and there will
be a grating of teeth, and perhaps upsetting of the temper of the
performer. It will therefore be a consideration for the repairer
whether the instrument has been previously opened, or is in that very
rare condition, as the maker left it. Economy of time and labour always
more or less being a desideratum, in the supposed instance before us,
that of an untouched old master, our repairer having had experience
with many Italian violins of different degrees of merit, first proceeds
by removing the old fingerboard. This being short and less massive than
the modern kind, presents but little difficulty. The cushion filled
with sawdust or sand, is now called into requisition. Placing the
violin on its back and tilting it up so that the button and the back
of the scroll press equally on the yielding surface, it is held in
position with some degree of firmness, the fingers of the right hand
being placed underneath the wide end of the fingerboard, a sudden pull
upward causes the fingerboard in most instances to part with a snap.
Should it refuse to do so, other means must be resorted to. The
fingerboard may be one of the old inlaid kind, or veneered pine, and
worth keeping as a curiosity, in which case the saw must be applied
to any part of the neck for removing wood that will not be required
again, piece-meal, until the board is free, when it can be further
cleared at leisure.

Our repairer, not finding in the fingerboard under his hands any
particular merit, it being besides worn into ruts near the nut by
performers of the early schools, who used but little more than the first
position, moreover, coming away with ease, proceeds to the sawing
process. The presence of nails or screw he believes to be fairly certain,
therefore instead of sawing down close and even as possible with the
ribs, the saw line is made at an angle downward and outward toward the
head, or say at an angle of some forty-five degrees, beginning at about
a quarter of an inch away from the borders of the upper table. The cut
thus made would be free from any nail or screw, unless of extraordinary
dimensions. (Diag. 35.)

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 35.]

In the case of a modern violin, the saw cut could be made close to the
border and downward to within a short distance of the button, where
another cut at right angles and parallel to the surface of it will free
the neck completely. The violin, now as before, is placed front
downwards on the cushion or pad, some repairers would hold it on their
knees, but only in the absence of either means. In the present instance,
being a prize and sure to eventually pay for any amount of trouble and
skill expended, the violin is treated in a manner that long experience
and judgment dictate as safest. Opening the instrument has been agreed
to as being absolutely necessary, the old short bar would certainly
prove inadequate to withstand the pressure from above if the violin
and its fittings were to be subjected to modern regulation under
present conditions. Everything being ready, the operator with steady
hands inserts the knife with a sudden push at the under part of the
edging--from the position of the violin the knife would now be above
it--at the lower quarter of the instrument, this having the largest
curve and therefore being weakest in resistance to the plunge of the
knife. As the thin bladed knife is worked along, there is a tendency
to stick occasionally. This is counteracted by running along, or
slightly wiping the surface of the knife, a cotton rag, with the
smallest touch of oil upon it; this will enable the knife to go quite
smoothly. Great care is exercised that the knife is held on an exact
level with the plane of the pine table, or there will be great risk
of running the knife into the pine instead of lifting it away from the
joint. Evidence of bad judgment in this respect is not infrequently
to be met with on otherwise well repaired instruments. A series of sharp
cracking sounds come forth as the knife works its way in. It is worked
along in either direction until near the corner block or near the nut.
At this part, the violin being in the original state as fresh from the
hand of its maker at Cremona, the treatment will be slightly different
to what it would be after modern regulation.

The knife will come to a full stop here, and be taken out for proceeding
with the release of the table on the opposite side. It will be as a
matter of course, necessary to place the violin the other end foremost,
the larger end being furthest from the operator; the knife, as before,
being inserted at the large curve in the same manner and for the same
reason, finally stopping as before at each end. The principal reason
for stopping at the end is that with most of the old Italian violins
there is a short wooden pin, probably used for temporarily securing
the table in position before the final glueing down. These wooden pins
of hard or tough consistency being driven in firmly, offer considerable
resistance to the passage of the knife if the latter is forced through.
Most of the violins having these pins originally, give evidence of the
exertions of the repairer to press the knife through these obstacles
at the risk, ofttimes with certainty, of breaking up or smashing the
fibres of the surrounding portion of the pine. Of a dozen old Italians,
perhaps on an average ten will be found with this part broken, jagged,
or having a portion of fresh wood inserted where ruffianly treatment
has bruised the threads of the pine past remedy. Our professional
repairers, being men of experience, further, both having a natural
disposition and qualification for their calling, know better than to
use much violence in this part of their work, so taking the knife away,
the operator cleanses it from all glue or resinous particles, and when
perfectly dry, passes the slightly oiled rag again over both surfaces.
The knife being inserted again and again, is pressed round about the
pin and thrust forward so that the increasing thickness of the blade
may act as a long wedge, this gradually lifts the table away, leaving
the pin standing.

The lower end will require the same treatment for easing the upper table
round the pin. In original condition most of the old Italian violins
would not give further trouble, but some later or middle period ones,
instead of the small piece of ebony or other hard substance slightly
inserted or laid half way through the table, have an ebony nut going
quite through and down in a triangular form nearly to the tailpin. In
these instances a small knife held vertically and pressed along between
the parts of the ebony touching the pine will enable the table to come
away gradually in the manner indicated. We now may suppose ourselves
again in the presence of the repairers, operator and master; the upper
table has been successfully and cleanly released from the blocks and
along the upper edging of the ribs, very few splinters here and there
are left, giving double evidence of neat glueing on the part of the
maker and systematic care on that of the modern repairer.

Being now quite free and gently lifted off, the table is turned about
for a moment and attention is directed to the interior. The two men
look at all the parts with very different eyes. One with eager
expectancy, critical eye and much experience, sees at a glance much
that intensely interests him, confirms certain views of the old methods
of working, whether the wood was white and new when the violin was
constructed, how a little of the precious material enveloping the whole
structure had dropped through the sound holes during the process of
varnishing; watches the form of the drops whether they indicate a thin
or a thick solution of the resinous particles, whether these have
cracked or blistered in the Milanese or Venetian manner, whether they
show signs of having set at once or remained soft and running for a
time; the corner and end blocks, their material, and whether the same
as those linings let into the middle ones and their being finished off
before or after the placing in position. The joint of the back too,
and if there remained any evidence of system in working different to
what we moderns would do? These and other queries passed rapidly
through the mind of the dealer and connoisseur, more of the latter than
the former, and that is why he was not more successful by many degrees
than any others of the fraternity. To be a dealer in the strictly
business sense of the term, a number of valuable violins must to him
be no more than potatoes in a basket to a greengrocer, _i.e._, what
they appear worth.

His assistant--a good accurate mechanic in almost all respects, sees
in this unearthed "old master," "gem of antiquity," or _chef d'oeuvre_
of Italian art, nothing but the interior of a dirty brown box with a
rolling ball of fluff resting in one of the corners.

There are perhaps few things more disappointing than the interior of
a violin when opened for the purpose of repairing. Be it a matchless
gem of Cremona's art or an old and common Tyrolese worth but a few
shillings, the difference to an ordinary observer is so slight as to
be uninteresting, indeed to connoisseurs of experience there is not
the variation sufficient to excite curiosity to the extent of opening
the instrument on that ground solely. The raw and unvarnished wood,
with the parts between the threads swollen from damp, begrimed and
repeatedly washed by repairers, presents anything but a pleasing
spectacle even when the interior of a fine "Strad" or Joseph is laid
bare. Many years ago a friend owning a fine Cremonese viola asked me
to open it and find out the cause of some buzzing or rattling within
that had not been evident till that time. After an examination, finding
that opening it would be absolutely necessary, I asked him whether he
would like to see the interior of what he had paid so much for; it might
not prove an enjoyable sight from the roughness and dirt of ages in
combination with clumsily executed repairs while in unskilful hands;
being unaccustomed to such sights he wisely restrained his curiosity
and waited till all was placed right again.

But to our dealer and workman again; the former, taking up the two
portions alternately, at last makes the remark, "Clean work, James,
inside as well as out, good tool work, they had some steel in those
days, plenty of glass-papering here apparently, unlike some others
made at the same period, time seems to have been no object. Possibly
the maker was well paid for his work, if not he ought to have been."
To these observations the workman only gives a sniff in reply. He thinks
that all this can be quite equalled at the present day, if a fellow
is really well paid; but this is reckoning with only a part of the
subject. A further exclamation of admiration comes from his
chief--"Think, James, what a wonderful draughtsman this old Italian
was; mind you, this is not a copy, traced from something else as we
should do now-a-days, but a first idea, an original design; it is in
some respects a departure from the man's best known patterns, good as
them, however, although differing; look at the way those lines run from
point to point, what ease! the tenderness with which the sound holes
are drawn, the lightness and freedom! that man was a born artist if
ever there was one!" Another sniff from James, who doesn't believe in
born anything, but that good work comes with good tools and a reasonable
prospect ahead of good remuneration for extra trouble. "Don't see, sir,
why we can't put a bit of purfling round as clean as that! some of those
French copies are as cleanly purfled as any part of this!" He is
released from the necessity of further illustration by his chief
interposing: "Quite true, James, and if these mechanical copyists had
put as much energy into efforts at truly original and artistic designs
as they have in copying that which seems to have been laid down for
their guidance, they would have advanced very many steps further than
they have done in the essentials of the art--in the highest sense of
the term--of making violins. But we must get to work, there are lots
of repairs of all sorts for us to get through the next fortnight, and
as there is comparatively little anxious work about this job we will
get it out of hand!"

The violin is now subjected to another and final inspection before the
active treatment is commenced. "How about that wormhole, James, that
we were worrying over before the separation of the upper table?"
"That's just what I've been looking at, sir, and as it doesn't go more
than a quarter of an inch into the wood--I've tried it with this bit
of wire--the maker must have cut this bit of pine from a worm-eaten
log, perhaps because it was old and likely to give a good tone!" "There
you're wrong, James!" the chief interposes--he is rather inclined to
snub his assistant when that essentially practical man gives any
indication of a flight of fancy--"the 'worm' is no sign of age, I have
known it to affect wood that has been cut but a year before its discovery,
and do you think those old Italians were such fools as to make fiddles
that would be only fit to be heard when tried by their descendants two
hundred years after they died?" James collapses, and getting a basin
with some warm water, a cloth and a piece of sponge, proceeds to smear
the latter up and down and round the sides of the instrument. The sponge
and water soon show signs of the work in hand. "Very dirty, sir, hasn't
been washed for a hundred years, I should think! There's a ticket, too,
but I can't make out much of it. I'll wash it over a bit." He then begins
to try the deciphering, taking one letter at a time. "There's a large
H at one part, the next is A or O and then U or N, and next to it there's
R or D; its either London or perhaps its one of those we came across
the other day, Laurentius something." "It's neither one nor the other,"
his chief almost roars, while rapidly striding across the room to his
assistant, who hastily hands over the portion of the violin, glad to
leave the regions of speculation. "There's nothing about that fiddle
having any connection with any place but Cremona," and the chief bumps
down into a chair to further study the mysterious ticket. "You have
not improved that ticket by washing it, the date has gone and the
greater part of the print; you should never wash a ticket, that is how
the very large majority of even well preserved ones have lost the date
or part of it written with ink in which gum has been one of the
ingredients and which is easily dissolved, the best way after dusting
it is to get some bread and rub gently over the surface, and if that
does not bring out the letters or figures you may mostly consider them
past recovery."

James does not think much of this attempt at instilling wise maxims
into his prosaic constitution, and replies "I don't think you could
have seen more letters before I washed the ticket than after, sir, the
plainest were what I read out, which looked more like London than
anything else. There was another word underneath which I think was alum,
that's English, isn't it?" This is intended as a kind of parting shot
in a contest during which he has been slightly uncomfortable. The chief
answers rather snappishly, "No! that's Latin. I must tell you that at
the time so many of the finest fiddles were made the use of Latin was
very fashionable, being used much on monumental decorations,
signatures to works of art generally, down to the prescriptions of
doctors, which we have not got rid of yet; that is the former, the latter
are always with us and will be. But stop! why, after all, this is not
the original ticket, I think it is one pasted over another! hand me
that camel hair brush and the water." This being done, the wetted brush
is repeatedly passed over the ticket so as to keep it moist till the
water has soaked through and dissolved sufficiently the glue or gum
that held it close. After a while, the corner is gently lifted up with
the aid of a pointed knife, the end caught hold of and pulled; by degrees
the whole of the upper ticket is lifted off, leaving to the pleased
eyes of the chief the original ticket in all the better preservation
for being covered up. "Yes, there it is! I knew I was right, a fine
Nicolas Amati! I believe that top one is the remains of a Laurentius
Guadagnini Alumnus Stradivarius, which some wiseacre thought a more
appropriate title."

The Guadagnini ticket is laid by till dry and then placed in a small
drawer in which are a number of others of various makers and
nationalities; it may emerge from its obscurity some day and become
of use so far as the condition or its legibility will allow.

The upper table is taken in hand again by the chief, turned over
repeatedly and both sides of the border carefully examined for the
presence of any cracks, long or short, old or new, the latter being
scarcely expected, as the assistant is of a sufficiently cautious
disposition naturally and as yet has not been debited with any charge
of injury to his work from over haste or carelessness. "There is a very
small crack at the lower right side about one inch from the centre,
I think, but let us be certain, have you got your glue in good order?"
"Quite," is the reply, "fresh and strong too, sir." "Just see if that
mark is really a crack or not." The assistant takes the portion in hand,
holds it to the light, examines it from different angles of vision,
and finally resolves to test it in the following way; holding the plate
of pine carefully with the left hand, with the right holding a "camel
hair" dipped in clear water, he passes it over the possible crack, then
taking the plate again in both hands, with the thumbs placed on each
side of the mark, the fingers being underneath, it is very gently bent
backward and forward, and the wetted part closely watched. Presently,
the water is observed to gradually disappear, having worked its way
into the crack. "It is one, sir, but quite clean as if newly done."
By this time, the slight bending, or what is really the case, the
opening and shutting of the crack by the movement, causes some minute
white bubbles to appear along the course, these give an indication of
the extent of the fracture, which is something over an inch in length.
"I think it is the result of the contraction of the wood from being
kept in such a dry place, it is not a repairer's crack, which would
have extended further into the centre," so the chief observes, "get
the hand vice ready with the paper, and I will hold the parts together."
At this time, the fresh warm glue is being applied in a similar way
to that of the clear water, the latter enables the glue to work in or
follow the course of the moisture, and similar, but whiter, small
bubbles are seen along the direction of the crack under the
manipulation as before described. The small hand-vice, having several
layers of stout white paper or card inserted at the opening or between
the teeth, is slackened to receive the part of the border to be held
together. The chief, holding the plate with the fractured part furthest
from him, and consequently in front of his assistant, it is held in
position firmly by both hands. "One moment, James!" he exclaims, "this
border has had little or no wear, and the surface is so fresh, that
if we use card or paper alone we shall leave a mark of the pressure,
hand over those thin pieces of cork and let us put them between the
paper and the metal of the vice, there, that will be better for standing
the pressure, more elastic you see." The vice under the fresh
conditions is now applied, the parts of the table or plate are brought
together accurately and held tightly in position by the fingers, the
glue exuding from the crack where it can be seen just beyond the reach
of the paper, the screw is turned tightly by the assistant, and with
the remark, "that will do," the whole is left to him for placing aside
while drying.



CHAPTER XI.

GETTING PARTS TOGETHER THAT APPARENTLY DO NOT FIT--THE USE OF BENZINE
OR TURPENTINE--TREATMENT OF WARPED OR TWISTED LOWER TABLES.


"We will now," says the chief, "have a look at that old Brescian violin
that I bought last week, it is in that set of drawers by the bench there,
the third from the top." The assistant gives a look in the direction
that would strike a spectator as expressive of doubt whether a violin
could be even squeezed by hard pressure into any of the drawers.
Nevertheless he obeys, opens the drawer, and seeing only a brown paper
parcel tied with thin string, takes it out and holding it up says, "do
you mean this paper bag, sir?" "Yes, that is it." The paper bag is
brought to the table at which the chief is sitting and who undoes the
string and paper, letting loose a number of begrimed pieces of
veneer-like wood, some of these fractured, the upper and lower tables
comprising three parts, a head that some modern makers would think ugly
enough to cause a nightmare, with its short heavy neck as left by the
maker about three hundred years back. The condition of the whole
concern was suggestive of its having been raked up from some out of
the way dust heap that had, after the oblivion of a century, at last
caught the eye of a modern sanitary inspector. There was only one sort
of person to whom it would be at all inviting, that of our chief above
mentioned. "Now that is what I call a bargain, James," he begins, when
turning over the pieces one by one; "all perfect, not a part lost. I
bought it of a dealer in the country who said he could not get the parts
together, they would not fit, and he was glad to get rid of the lot
with as little loss as possible." James at this moment has been placing
the two tables of the violin together and remarks, "I don't think these
belong, sir, the back is nearly a quarter of an inch shorter than the
front and narrower too." "Never mind that," is the answer, "the style
is the same, the purfling, the work and the varnish are the same, it
was all together at one time and looked well enough, and it will have
to go together again and possibly look much better, and you will have
to do it under my instruction, as you proceed, it will repay for all
the trouble and time spent upon it by its appearance and tone. The man
who sold it to me said that its former owner told him he had a good
try at getting it together and failed. This is the direction in which
they have both made their mistake, they treated the unmechanical old
Italian work as they would a modern copy of a Cremonese maker, and which
had been built upon a machine cut block that served for ever so many
warehouse fiddles; these old Italians had to use the hand bow saw, which
was not adapted, unless great care was taken, for getting very true
upright sides, hence the upper and lower tables are as often as not
differing in size, sometimes the upper is largest, at others the lower.
Occasionally the length may be the same with the width differing. Now
you had better set to work and wash all that muck from the pieces, be
careful not to separate any parts that may be fairly well fixed. I want
you to do this cleaning in my manner, not that which you were accustomed
to before coming here. I know the too frequently pursued method of
putting the whole collection of parts in a tub of water and there
letting them float about until the glue has dissolved and left the wood,
but the following is preferable. Firstly, get some hot water sufficient
for your requirements as you proceed, renewing it occasionally. Your
piece of sponge you always have ready, and your cotton cloth as usual.
I have cut down a hog hair brush of half-an-inch in width, you can use
other sizes according to convenience. Being cut abruptly across, they
can be used as small scrubbing brushes after dipping in the hot water.
The advantage is that of your being enabled to leave untouched or even
dry, certain parts which you are not desirous of interfering with. The
occasional sopping up with the sponge and cloth will show the progress
that is made. The dark, dirty glue of the modern fiddle tinker will
gradually wash off, leaving frequently the ancient, light coloured
stuff in quite a fresh state and sharply defined, further, it will
sometimes give you a hint as to the exact position which the adjacent
pieces held originally. There will not be any necessity for scrubbing
very hard with the cut-down brushes; if this is done the surface of
the wood will suffer; a little patience as one part after another is
cleansed and the whole completely denuded of its covering of dirty glue
and grime, and it will be perceptible that there is method in this,
and consequently the most rapid real progress.

"Occasionally there will be found in and about old repairings or
tinkerings lumps of pitch-like substances, hard or soft as the occasion
has seemed to the workman to require, or possibly the only stuff
obtainable, if not with the idea of a damp resisting material. These,
as you know, will be treated in your usual manner, that is, removing
with a blunt knife for a large piece and a piece of fine flannel wetted
with some pure benzine, which having a strong affinity for any oily
particles, absorbs them rapidly and leaves a clean surface. Spirit of
turpentine will also answer the purpose, but is less rapid in its action
and does not evaporate so completely, leaving a slight residuum of
resin. Alcohol of any degree of strength must be kept quite away from
the work, as even supposing it specially adapted as a solvent for
removing the objectionable material that may be found clinging
anywhere, it has such destructive action upon the old Italian varnishes
that the slightest drop on the surface will cause irreparable injury.
Keep it quite clear of your repairing work, it is not absolutely
necessary under any circumstances, although it is very tempting to a
slovenly repairer."

We will now suppose that the instructions have been duly carried out,
the different parts have now resumed their original condition of
cleanliness and have a wholesome aspect. One or two of the ribs left
standing and even undisturbed since being placed in position by the
maker about three centuries back, serve as a guide respecting the
projection of the edging over the ribs. After carefully noting this,
and damping round the inner edge, these are removed and placed aside.
The chief and his assistant are now enabled to thoroughly examine the
work of this product of a by-gone age. It is none the worse for being
clean. The comments upon the tool-marks now visible after the
dispersion of the grime are of a rather opposite character, the
connoisseur noticing the manner of working over the surface by the old
Italians as being different to that pursued now; the assistant sees
nought but rough gougings and scratchings as with a notched or blunted
tool, and concludes that the old makers were not as good workmen as
the moderns. "Now, James," says the other, "you have been doing little
else than repairing since you took up with this business, and have never
had the opportunity of working a violin from the beginning, straight
off the stocks, without being drawn away to some other work. Consequent
upon this your work has not so much distinctive character, much effort
at mere smoothness being apparent and in excess of good style. These
old Italians were designing and making new violins day after day for
their livelihood. Repairing, when they could make equally good, fresh
instruments, was to them of secondary importance, and so we find
restorations in the olden times were of a kind we should now call very
indifferent, if not altogether bad."

The lower table or back of good sycamore is now turned about and well
scrutinised by James, who now remarks, "this back is warped, I think
that is why the last two owners could not make the other parts fit well,
what is to be done with it, we are not likely to make a better job of
it than they were with a back twisted like that?" The reply is, "that
old Brescian maker was not likely to turn out a new violin with such
a twisted spine! that condition has arisen since and is not a
constitutional defect, it has been caused by damp and straining, and
being repaired while in the strained condition, it retained the twist;
we must alter that. Fortunately, the back is in one piece, so we shall
not have the trouble about the joint, although with the necessary extra
care the treatment would have to be much the same. Now, first of all,
get a cotton cloth sufficiently large when folded once or twice to cover
a surface such as the violin back presents. It must now be well soaked
with water till it holds as much as possible without dripping. The
violin table will now be placed with the varnished side downwards, the
wetted cloth placed over it. Be sure that the surfaces of cloth and
wood are in contact by gently dabbing it down all over. It can now be
placed aside for about three or four hours in order that the moisture
may soak into the wood for some depth. Meanwhile we may determine upon
and get ready the means whereby the warping, as far as possible, if
not wholly, may be got rid of. It must be borne in mind that the wood
which was cut in its natural state from the tree and mostly with the
grain, will be disposed, under the influence of damp, to return to the
original form or condition in a more or less degree. Under good
management, that is to say, with a sufficient amount of damp and no
more, it almost seems to try to resume its old condition. This will
be borne out by watching the effect of much wet upon any wood that has
been previously bent into shape, or upon the separated ribs of a violin.
The efforts of the wood to return to its original conformation will
be apparent in the instance of the ribs, perhaps provoking, as the
re-bending without injuring the varnish, which may happen to be of the
most lustrous and delicate description, is often a matter of great
difficulty, and at times an impossibility."

It was for the purpose of avoiding the risk of such defacement that
the brushing away of the glue and grime by parts at a time was
recommended, although the time consumed by taking the parts in detail
may often be a drawback. If the ribs are quite saturated, as when left
to float in water, they will be sure to come out nearly straight, and
the varnish, if not of the kind that has been worked well into the wood,
irrecoverably spoilt. Even when quite so, the trouble does not end here,
for the wood having taken nearly its own form again, will have to be
bent, with all its attendant troubles, into shape. Complete saturation
of any part of the violin should therefore be avoided.

The "making" or arrangement of whatever may be needful for getting rid
of the warp or twist of the back plate will now have to be decided upon.
There is generally more than one way of getting over a mechanical
difficulty, and in the present instance there may be many, but the one
promising to be most successful and offering the least number of
obstacles to success will have attention. The repairer takes in hand
some of the softest wood obtainable, say American pine, or if any is
easily obtainable, poplar; that kind known as "black poplar" is perhaps
as free from hard thread as any, a couple or more of slabs about three
or four inches wide and two or three longer than the upper and lower
widths of the back, with about a quarter of an inch of thickness. An
opening is bored in each, one in which the upper or smaller part will
pass through, the other sufficiently large to admit the lower or larger
half. The opening must of course be enough for admission of the rise
or modelling and a little more. The object of this will soon be apparent.
When the inner surface of the back plate has absorbed sufficient
moisture from the wet cloth, this being so in the judgment of the
operator, the wood will have lost very much of its resisting power to
twisting by the hands. Advantage is taken of this condition, and each
piece or collar of wood passed over the proper portion of the back like
a loop. If fitting tolerably close, all the better; but it may require
a soft wedge or two in parts to keep it from shifting after being placed
in position. In some instances more than two or even three or four
pieces may be of advantage where the tendency to twist is irregular.
The operator now gets a short plank of ordinary wood, of even surface,
straight, and true as possible in each direction; lifting the violin
table with the loops of wood attached and placing it on the plank, some
of the loops will be raised up on one side while others are depressed
at the same. In the case of the simple warp, one of the two will vary
in rise or a different angle to the plane. The process now is simple,
and the loop rising at one side will be pressed down and held in position
by either a weight or any contrivance handy. It should be done a little
more than seems necessary for restoring the even line of the edging,
which can be fairly well seen by looking along from end to end; this
is to allow of a slight recoil when the loops or wooden cramps are
removed.

For a more determined twist the extra depression of one part can be
accomplished by inserting layers of wood under the opposing parts so
as to get more distance for the remaining one.

Nothing is now required but the drying thoroughly. This will be
according to temperature and moisture present in the atmosphere; no
artificial means should be resorted to.

Not the slightest injury will accrue from the process described,
provided due care is taken that there is no overstraining, and the
damping is neither excessive nor insufficient. The result of the former
is likely to be an inequality in the bending, the line or level of the
edging when looked at along its course, will look uneven, as if some
upheaval had taken place here and there. Courage and caution are
faculties brought to bear strongly and continuously on the subject by
every repairer with a reputation for success. Without the former, many
attempts which might have ended successfully have proved to be failures
and to require doing over again; and insufficiency of the latter is
what is so strongly evident in a very large majority of so-called
"restored" violins. The cases may have been considered by the repairers
as requiring heroic treatment, overstraining, excision of an
unnecessary amount of the old wood, making too much of a clean sweep
of parts that may have afforded food and lodging for bore worms being
too evident, besides the saving of time and trouble.



CHAPTER XII.

REMOVAL OF OLD SUPERFLUOUS GLUE BY DAMPING--REPLACING OLD END BLOCKS
BY NEW ONES--TEMPORARY BEAMS AND JOISTS INSIDE FOR KEEPING RIBS, ETC.,
IN POSITION WHILE FRESHLY GLUED.


To the workroom we will again return. The back has had ample time to
dry while the assistant James has been doing other work of an ordinary
or trifling character. The loops or collars are gently released, put
aside for future use, and the now much less warped back is brought for
the chief's inspection. "That will do, James, nicely, I think, now you
will be able to go ahead with the other parts, and perhaps we shall
be successful enough when the whole is finished to make those people,
when they see it, rather regretful at their hasty disposal of the paper
full of scraps of old Brescia. While we are in the bending mood, however,
we will get that Lorenzo Guadagnini into a little better trim, you left
it on that shelf over there last week." James fetches it, a rather
woe-begone affair to an ordinary observer; it had been cut open, the
head sawn off, placed inside, the upper table laid on and a string
passed round the waist and tied with a loose knot. "Look at it, James,
and tell me what is wrong and the remedy." The string is untied, and
the parts laid on the bench and examined one by one. "In excellent
preservation, sir, in most respects, although it has been opened many
times and a heap of glue left about it." An inch rule is taken up and
passed over the separated parts for comparison; some slight expression
of amazement passes over James's features, re-measurement ensues, and
turning to his chief he remarks, "I didn't see that at first, sir, it's
worse than that old Brescian; just look here, sir, the ribs are not
upright, but bending inwardly; across the upper part they are so much
out of the perpendicular that when the upper table is laid carefully
on, instead of there being the eighth of an inch of overlapping border
it is nearly a quarter of an inch each side; and what is more curious,
the ribs do not seem to have been unglued since they were first put
there, excepting a small part at the upper and lower ends, and see,
sir, when I put the upper table on it is like an arch, and to press
that part down on to the ribs will send a crack along from the sound
hole on either side, which will simply be breaking up the whole affair
by degrees." "Well, what method would you propose for correcting all
this and making a good restoration of it, James? Give it a look over
carefully and tell me." The assistant well knows the attendant
circumstances connected with a good restoration or a bad one; if left
as it is, it may be sold "in the trade" for so much, if badly restored
it will fetch less, if well done it will be worth to the outside world
a considerable sum, and if it should go well as regards the emission
of its doubtless fine tone, the value as a whole would be greatly
enhanced. Much thinking and careful calculation is therefore
concentrated on the subject, and after awhile James says, "Well, sir,
this lot of glue all round may as well come off first as last, there's
no doing anything with it as it is." With this his chief agrees; so
he sets to work, not with a chisel or any cutting instrument, he is
so far advanced in his methodical working to know from experience that
it is next to impossible to avoid injuring the sharply defined and level
edge of the rib as left by the maker originally if such rough treatment
as filing, chipping or cutting is resorted to; he therefore adopts a
milder course of treatment. Taking a few pieces of cotton cloth or white
sheeting--old calico is equally efficient--he folds them into several
layers, and when so about four inches long by about three-quarters of
an inch in width. Nearly a dozen of these are got ready. After being
soaked in water, they are taken out and slightly squeezed so that they
no longer drip. One by one they are placed all round on the edge of
the ribs close to each other so that no vacant space is perceptible
between each, and after a gentle patting down with the fingers along
the course they are left to do their work quietly, more effectively,
too, by far, than any steel tool with the brute force necessary for
ploughing through that most obstinate of materials, hard, dry glue.
These folds of cotton material James calls his poultices for drawing
the impurities away from the system; they, in the present instance,
afford him time to think over the sort of engineering that will task
his energies to some extent.

Leaving the poultices to their work, the old Brescian is again taken
in hand under the direction of the chief. "Now, James, let us look over
the parts again. The next step must be getting the end blocks attached
to the back. We have got that into a tolerably straight line again,
so that we can work on the affair almost like a new fiddle. Those old
blocks, well I should like to retain them if possible, but on looking
over them very little discernment is sufficient to conclude that fresh
ones will be not only better but necessary. In the first place, they
are very small, were roughly cut in the first instance, and since have
been meddled with by would-be restorers; good new ones properly fitted
will be far better than old ones added to, necessarily for strength.
Some of that old pine, or as good, that French willow will suit our
purpose. We will choose the latter. See that the grain runs
perpendicularly or at right angles with the cut surface that is to be
glued down. Chop or split it, don't saw it into shape, and then you
can finish it off when glued into position, when you will not find you
have to cut against the grain." This, as a matter of course, is
conformed to, the blocks split off the bulk or plank, sawn to a little
over the proper length or height to allow of finishing, and then the
surface to be glued is made even and squared with the part against which
the ribs will be hereafter glued. The lower end one will of course
require a trifle of curving to allow of the ribs following the course
of the curve of the border; this the assistant duly sees to by trying
it in position until it appears to be satisfactory. The parts of the
blocks to be left facing the interior of the violin he leaves roughly
done to shape and size of those in modern violins, that being found
the best from experience since the demise of the old masters of Italy.
The upper one is left more protuberant, or nearly semi-circular; the
reason for this is that the strain upon both upper and lower table at
this end is greater than at any other part, therefore if the block is
too narrow there is not enough grip or extent of glued surface, a
frequent result of which is the lowering of the fingerboard, and a
buckling of the surface underneath of the upper table, a condition much
to the detriment of the proper emission of the tone. Great attention
should always be paid this particular part. Many repairers seem fearful
that the air-space of the interior of the violin will be lessened by
a projecting block. A little consideration will enable them to see that
for effectiveness of purpose the form of the interior of almost any
violin will not--from its curved surface--allow of an over large block
with a flat glueing surface above and below.

These conditions having been seen to, the assistant with some freshly
made glue paints over the surfaces of the ends that will be fastened
to the lower table. As this is to be for a permanency, the glueing must
be of the best. When dry, the surface is scraped even and the usual
glueing and cramping done.

To Lorenzo Guadagnini again; sufficient time being allowed for the
moisture in the folds of cotton to affect and be absorbed by the glue,
the assistant fetches it from its enforced retirement, brings it to
the light carefully, lifts up one of the poultices, touches the glue
with the tip of a small knife and is satisfied. The glue has been
softened and is now little more than a jelly attached to the prominent
parts of the ribs. The first thing will be to get some rag or paper,
place it handy and remove one of the wet pads or poultices, then with
the small knife, kept for such purposes, being blunt and worn smooth,
the glue or jelly is carefully scraped away. The advantage of using
the blunt knife will be evident, as it does not cut the surface as it
passes over it. The point is occasionally used for any corner that may
require it. After this a small sponge or rag dipped in warm water is
passed over the edges and removes what is left untouched by the knife.
This is repeated with each separate pad in succession all round and
when completed the work is put aside and allowed to dry. A previous
examination of the inside surface of the upper table had shown the
necessity of similar treatment, but not to such an extent.

Not much time expires before the assistant brings the parts before his
chief. "As clean almost as when new," is the exclamation of the latter;
"it really wants little more than a new or proper bar and then glueing
together." "Yes, but about that difference of measurement, sir, across
the upper and lower parts." Here the assistant takes the upper table
and places it like a lid on a box; turning it back downwards for better
inspection, he says, "it's nearly a quarter of an inch out, the border
overlaps frightfully, you would not glue it up like that, would you,
sir?" "Certainly not," says the other, without the least sign of
annoyance on his features. Turning to his man he says, "Now, James,
here is a nice little instance where you can study with much interest
and profit the subject of cause and effect. You drew my attention to
the excellent preservation, and you have removed what appeared to you
at first sight the only impediment to perfect restoration, that of the
coarse glueing. You have rightly observed that the back has never been
removed, and yet the ribs bend inwardly when tested and seem to require
a smaller upper table. The reason is plain after you have given the
matter some right consideration. The maker, as you know, was an
excellent artificer and was a pupil of the great Stradivari. Now here
is the cause; the violin has been, as you know, opened several times
by persons more or less unfitted for the proper performance of such
an operation, fiddle tinkers I call them, and with a pot of thick dirty
brown and repulsive looking glue, have with a coarse brush dabbed it
all round and then screwed the lid down. The successors in this ghastly
process have not had the decency to treat the instrument as worthy of
much care, and so with dirty cloths and glue have again repeated the
work, if it may be dignified by such a term, spoliation is perhaps a
better one. Now we know that the violin has been separated and left
so, being merely tied up, and been in that dirty little den of ravening
wolves or tinker dealers for nobody knows how long, with the rays of
the sun falling on it for many days; the result is as we see, the back
has contracted and drawn the ribs in to some extent, it is glue-bound,
we will set it free, the wood itself will help us, as if glad to resume
its former occupation; give me that soft brush with clean water." This
being handed to him, the chief with repeated and careful strokes and
dippings of the brush passes over the surface, going round but leaving
untouched the label, which seems to have remained undisturbed: the
joint down the centre is avoided in a similar way. After some time,
as the moisture has penetrated the wood, he turns to the assistant,
saying, "now, James, try the front on"; this is done, and the latter,
thinking he will just catch his master, says, "fits exactly now, sir!
but won't it come back again beautifully as it dries." "Well, that is
just what we are going to prevent, James; while this is wet, cut some
soft sticks of wood and place them across from one side to the other,
don't wedge them in tightly, as many as will keep up an even pressure
all along." This does not take long, the sticks are inserted like so
many little joists across, and the curious looking structure is once
more placed aside to dry.

While James was cutting and then placing the sticks of various lengths
across, his chief was close by suggesting now and then some trifling
variation in the adjustment. "Don't put them all with the same strain,
give a look now and then as you proceed, in order to ensure against
an over amount of pressure--there, that will be enough! if too much
against the large curves, it will bulge out too far, and the shape will
go." While proceeding he was now and then cautioned as to this kind
of insertion of pieces or joists. Very frequently old Italian
instruments of free design are most unequal in their curves, one side
having a different curving to the other; they are, indeed, seldom
exactly the same on both sides, as modern makers try to make them. It
will be evident, then, that care must be taken that a flat or large
curve should be treated with more or less pressure than other parts.
(Diag. 36.) When this inequality is very apparent, a double system of
joists must be adopted thuswise, get two pieces of strong wood, say
plain light mahogany, some three-quarters or an inch in thickness, and
square along its course. The ends are to be cut so that they will rest
within the body of the instrument easily, barely touching each end
between the upper and lower linings, if at all. The two ends will touch
or rest against the upper and lower end blocks and the pressure, when
the sticks are placed across, will be against these, the pushing
outward of parts of the ribs or linings being regulated to a nicety.
Should one or more of the sticks or joists be accidentally cut too short,
a small wedge of soft wood inserted at either end as may be deemed best
will correct matters. As the violin at present under consideration is
suffering from simple contraction and the linings are fairly stout,
the joists will be arranged so as to keep up a gentle pressure on the
upper ones. A very considerable amount of effective restoration can
be done by means of this system of joists carried out with judgment.
The two large supports,--sometimes one only may be necessary,--will
be found of great use for a variety of purposes other than the one being
referred to; they can be used not only for pressing against, but for
the opposite, as when a rib or portion of it has from some
cause--perhaps fracture or thinness--bulged outwardly. It will be
perceptible at once that for direct pressure against a part of the ribs,
situated near the upper block, that the little joist will slip unless
a nick is made for its reception in the large support or beam. This
is so evident that a reminder seems scarcely necessary.

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 36.]

When it so happens that contraction must be resorted to on a rib or
part, it has to be brought back; then one, two or more holes may be
bored in the mahogany beam and recourse made to some bent iron wire,
which, perhaps, has the preference in use over other material, as it
can be shaped or pressed to a curve, one end being inserted in a hole,
the other placed outside the offending part and with a soft pad or wood
wedge against the old material to be brought back.

The special advantage of iron wire is that it can be gently hammered
into such form as will enable just enough pressure to be exerted at
any particular place as may be thought proper. This is, of course,
assuming that some iron substance is at hand that will answer the
purpose of an anvil. The thickness of the iron wire must depend upon
the requirements and size of the work in repair, a viola of course
taking stouter wire than a violin, a 'cello still more so. A useful
average for violin work would be an eighth of an inch diameter. Strong
wire however is not always to hand, time also is occasionally short;
when so, wood must be resorted to, cutting it with a sharp knife to
a form that will clasp or allow of the requisite purchase at any point;
more room, however, is taken up with this method, and possibly not so
much at a time will be accomplished.

A stock of soft wood in the plank should always be at hand on a
repairer's premises, soft American pine of about a quarter of an inch
thick being very useful for all sorts of purposes in connection with
the "making," as it is termed in the business.

Supposing now that a reasonable time has elapsed for the thorough
drying out of all damp, the assistant is now requested to bring both
the old Italian violins for inspection by his chief. The latter gives
a look over both in turn, and says, "I think you may take those sticks
out of the Guadagnini, it must be dry enough by this time." This being
done, the upper tables of both are fetched and tried on, "there," says
the chief, "they fit as near as we want them to, and we might almost
say they cured themselves." As the Guadagnini had nothing further to
be done to it, James is told to proceed with the glueing and closing
up.



CHAPTER XIII.

RE-OPENING THE BACK TO CORRECT THE BADLY REPAIRED JOINT--A FEW WORDS
ON STUDS--FILLING UP SPACES LEFT BY LOST SPLINTERS--MATCHING WOOD FOR
LARGE CRACKS, ETC.


Regarding the glueing and closing up process, we will defer the matter
for the present. While the assistant is going through the necessary
routine in connection with that most important part of the repairing
of a violin, the master has been looking over a few of the things that
are to be operated upon some time or other. Going to a sort of store
cupboard, he fetches from thence a violin in fair condition generally,
but with one sad defect, the back has at one time been open, that is,
the joint down the middle, either through damp affecting the glue or
from violence, had parted and had been badly repaired; the two surfaces
being brought together and glued, but not evenly, one side being a
trifle higher than the other. "James," he calls out, "this old Pesaro
fiddle is worth putting right; when you have finished what you are about,
put the wet rags on this as far along the joint as may be necessary,
set them better and closer, it is the fine varnish all over that will
make it worth while."

James having finished the closing up of the Guadagnini and taken the
instrument with its array of screw cramps into a place where it could
repose uninterfered with until quite dry, returns and looks over the
violin just brought forth from its retirement. "It seems to me, sir,
this back will have to come off before we can properly bring those two
halves together." The other scans the work again, turns it over, tries
its strength between his fingers and thumbs, and concludes with "Well,
I think you are right, it is quite worth the extra labour and had better
be done so." The matter being settled, James takes a seat, and, with
the violin resting on his lap and held by his left hand, the broad bladed
knife in his right is inserted with a carefully calculated thrust
underneath the border and edging. There is not much difficulty;
sometimes the violin is turned in a contrary direction when there is
a disposition for the grain to tear up here and there.

At last the back is free, the corners and blocks have caused a little
trouble in the progress of the knife around, the wood being hard and
tough on both sides of the knife. It would have been slower work with
a violin of later and more careful construction. In the present
instance there are no linings to struggle with. "Now," says the workman,
"we can get to work at this joint much more easily."

After being examined again by both, the rags are again brought into
requisition. The back is laid varnished side downwards and a "poultice"
applied as far along the joint as appears necessary. Meanwhile other
work, such as fitting and finishing, is proceeded with.

A proper length of time has to elapse,--in the present instance it will
be longer than that for the purpose of merely softening the glue. The
damp has to work its way down at the junction of the two parts, a rather
slow process at the best of times; the back now under treatment being
of full average thickness causes some extra time to be taken up.

After repeated examinations, the joint, being gently tried each time,
gives evidence of the glue having softened. "You must clear out that
black stuff," interposes the chief, when the rag or poultice has been
lifted off. James accordingly, having some warm water and a small
hog-haired brush already to hand, proceeds to gently scrub the brush
along the course where the ugly black line is seen. It is necessary
to do this both sides, the varnished one receiving milder attention
than the other. Frequent dippings of the brush in water, gently
scrubbing away the glue and wiping the brush on a cloth, working the
joint backward and forward between the fingers, are details of the
process gone through in a leisurely yet business-like manner; much care
is exercised that no strain is made on the good and unwetted part of
the joint.

At last the old glue having by degrees been got rid of, the outer
moisture is absorbed by a gentle wiping of the cloth along the course
of the joint.

The next movement is simply putting the plate away to dry. To attempt
any glueing together of the parts while they are swollen with moisture
would be to make matters worse than before, as the edges are too soft
to bear interference, besides which, the sharpness of them is difficult
to perceive while wet and semi-transparent.

We will now, after the time allowed for drying, see the work proceeding
under the hands of the workman. After trying the parts, that is,
bringing the separated edges together for seeing whether a fresh and
clean join can be effected, some soft wood at hand is cut for the
combined purposes of mould and cramp. The piece used is about nine
inches long by about one in width and a quarter of an inch thick. Marking
off on this thickness, and a trifle over the greatest width of the back,
the lower part of which is to be inserted, wood is cut away to the depth
of about a quarter of an inch; within this again a further cutting is
made to fit the modelling or rise of the curve of the back. This will
admit the plate loosely. On placing it within, the two halves are
squeezed together by soft wood wedges of necessary size inserted
between the edges of the plate and the wood cramp; if necessary, another
wedge on one side or the other of the joint is placed for bringing both
to a proper level. After trying this without glue, the pieces are
removed, glue of good strength is put on the surfaces to be joined and
the whole put in position again. The lower end of the joint near the
purfling will require a little additional cramping together.

This part of the process is one of the very few instances where more
than a couple of hands are of advantage, if not of actual necessity,
the reason being that the two parts or halves of the back which have
to be brought to an exact level must be held in position by two hands
very firmly, while a cramp (with paper padding and cork between the
teeth) is screwed rather tightly by another person. It is then as usual
laid by to dry.

After a satisfactory time has elapsed, the wooden tie, mould or cramp,
as we may call it, with its small wedges is removed, the metal screw
cramp at the end is unfastened, the paper removed, and the joint is
found to be much improved, if not quite up to the original state as
when new. There is of course some superfluous glue to be cleared away,
this having oozed out when the glue was first applied, there is also
a portion of paper adhering where the screw cramp was attached over
the border. This is done by wiping with a damp rag until it is clear,
finishing with a dry one.

There is yet a little more attention necessary at times when the
repairing of a back of the kind just described has been gone through.
Backs of violins of a standard of excellence both high and low are not
always as robust in their substance as might be desirable, so when a
trifle weak there is more strain on the middle line or joint than when
the wood is stout. In this case a few studs are advisable. On this detail
of repairing nearly always resorted to by repairers, a few words will
not be out of place. For the present we will only treat of the back.
The size, disposition and shape of these is by no means an unimportant
matter. At various times and places different sizes and shapes have
been the fashion. Often apparently merely a matter of caprice, these
strengthening discs have been used to such an extent, both in size and
number, as to defeat the very object the restorer has had in view. No
repairer would think it worth while to cramp or keep pressed down by
any means the studs that he may think proper to place in position. To
obviate this he uses very strong glue; if a good workman he will see
that the course along which the studs are to lie is quite clean, a slight
washing with a brush or sponge will set this right.

Now it follows as a matter of course that the surface of the part, owing
to the modelling, is somewhat concave, and so as the studs are
invariably cut from a flat strip of veneer, if they are very large,
the glue in hardening and of course shrinking during the process will
leave a hollow space in the middle, or maybe on one side, where the
drying happens to commence. There will be thus a lessening of the
strengthening by the stud, and sometimes a jarring of the loose parts,
giving an immense amount of trouble in finding out the obscure seat
of the nuisance when the instrument may be otherwise in good order.

There should be then a distinct limit to the size of any studs that
experience and judgment may dictate as indispensable. Three-eighths
of an inch square may be taken as the limit to which it is safe to go.

The studs should be cut from fairly stout veneer, and for the present
purpose, that of the back, usually of sycamore, the same kind of wood
is preferable to any other.

They should be trimmed so as not to require much if any finishing when
attached and dried, as all trimming with edged tools afterwards is
likely to be attended by occasional slips of the chisel.

The glue at hand being fresh and very strong, a piece of steel wire
or knitting needle of convenient length will be a desideratum, the
point being stuck in slightly and only deep enough to enable the stud
to be lifted thereby and held upside down while a globule of glue is
laid or dropped upon it. It is then turned over and laid on the desired
spot and pressed there.

If the point of the needle is nicely polished it will allow of pressing,
and a turn round will release it, leaving the stud in position; if on
the other hand the point is too prolonged, rough and sharp, the stud
will probably be pulled off again. It will thus be perceptible that
the best shape will be rather obtuse but very smooth. When the stud
is in position and the glue setting or chilling, an additional pressure
with a small rod of wood or hard material will drive the glue out from
the edges and the work may be left to itself.

A word or two as to shape. Sometimes circular discs of sycamore are
met with, at others square. Lozenge shape is frequently met with, and
this I am inclined to favour most, as there being an acute angle at
each end there is a corresponding increase of holding surface with the
least amount of wood. These should be cut so that the grain does not
run with that of the joint, nor in exact opposition to it, but
diagonally.

There is a method much to be deprecated that was fashionable in some
parts of Europe in the last century, of strengthening the middle joint
of the back by first cutting out a lozenge or square space and then
fitting and filling with a stud. When dry, the parts are levelled and
glass-papered over. This system, although looking very neat, the
surface being quite smooth, will hold good for a time, but when this
has elapsed with wear and damp attacking it, the supposed remedy is
much worse than the disease, the whole joint being in danger of
disarrangement and splitting, necessitating even further heroic
treatment.

Should the studs when firm and dry seem to require a little finish,
the chisel must be carefully handled with angular or sharpened surface
downwards, the thinnest shavings being taken carefully off. A slight
touching with glass paper may be allowed to take away the crudeness
of the chisel marks.

When breakages of different degrees have to be treated at other parts
of the back, small studs may be used, particularly when the fractures
are fresh, free from dirt and fit well. In these instances, after the
glueing together has been effected, studs of not more than a full eighth
of an inch will be found sufficient. It is scarcely necessary to add
that they may be thinner in substance also. If, however, there be
sufficient substance of wood, the fractures and joints brought well
together and fitting closely and neatly, then studs are better
dispensed with altogether, the simplicity of the whole being less
impaired.

It must be always borne in mind that the smaller the amount of fresh
wood introduced into an injured violin the better. In instances where
a part is lost or so broken as to be little less than pulverised, there
is only one course open, that of paring down the sides of the aperture
so that the fresh wood may be accurately fitted to it.

The back being repaired to the chief's satisfaction, the instrument
is further closely examined in order that any other damage which may
be discovered shall be seen to for a time convenient for the final
closing and fitting up. Just at the moment announcement is made of the
arrival of a parcel directed to the chief, "With care, fragile."

"Another patient for our hospital," he observes. "Oh, it's from that
professor who was here some time since. I thought from his remarks and
careless manner he was a likely man to lead his violin into danger,
if not into inextricable difficulties; let us see what is the matter.
Open the box, James, take the fiddle out, there is probably a letter
placed with it to save postage." James dutifully proceeds with the work
while his chief retires to make a short note concerning some other
matters.

"You're right, sir, there is a dirty envelope stuck between the strings
and fingerboard." This is taken away and handed to the chief, who runs
a small knife along the edge and releases the epistle, which runs as
follows:--

SIR,--In this morning I have great trouble as I walk the stairs down
my violin chest open itself, and my violin go to the bass, and when
I was to pick him up he was bad break in one two place. I am sorry to
come to you as good doctor to finish him soon, and please charge no
large.

Truly yours,
HERMANN GROSZHAAR.

"Capital English for him," says the chief, to which James answers in
a careless sort of undertone, "There's a little English, but less
capital about him, wanted to borrow five bob from me when he came last."

The violin, after being taken from the case, is closely examined by
the chief, who turns it round about, tapping it here and there and
holding it up to the light. At last, handing it to James he says:--"Not
so much as I should have expected after the terrible occurrence
described in the letter; the fiddle is a good one, so it deserves proper
attention, no matter who owns it. Just look about the case and find
if you can the small piece that has come from this place in the front
table."

James looks earnestly about the interior of the violin case without
success. "No sign of it here, sir, there's nothing at all but a little
bit of sweetstuff," he says, taking out a small white disc from one
of the side pockets.

"Well, we must proceed to work without it, so get that box out with
the odd pieces of old wood; I've no doubt you will find a piece that
will match the grain of the pine to a nicety; we must have the upper
table off, better do it first."

This proceeding, of a kind as described before, having occupied some
minutes, the upper table is held by the chief while the assistant gropes
among the odds and ends of pine and in a minute or two finds a piece
which is pronounced to suit admirably. "Now, James, there appears to
be only this portion seriously injured, and another, almost a splinter,
running along the part adjoining. It will be compulsory to cut a
well-squared opening for the fitting, you will be careful to make the
walls of this part contract as the descent is made, so that the wood
inserted is slightly wedge-shaped. You will at the same time be careful
and bear in mind that this fresh wood will have to match so nicely,
that when inserted properly the threads or grain will appear continuous
and not broken to the eye of any person but the experienced critic.
To please this person, however, you will have not only to make the lines
of the grain follow through evenly, but so fit your wood as to be in
the direction of the growth of the plank from which the table was cut.
You see this aperture is on the slant or curve about midway between
the bridge and part near the tail-piece. Many repairers, even when
inserting fresh wood with exceeding neatness, neglect this precaution,
and, in consequence, when the part is finished and varnished over,
there is but little indication of repair when looked at from one
standpoint, but from another or a removal of the light, this fault is
very conspicuous. A frequent attempt to conceal this is made by
covering the part with dull varnish that will not allow of much light
passing through; sometimes an entirely opaque plastering is pasted
over, obscuring the grain of the old and new wood alike in the locality,
and thus making what is known as a botch."

For the execution of such repairs as these there will not be any
necessity to open the violin. They will really be more conveniently
effected without, there being more support and leverage where
required.

A long crack while fresh will take the glue readily and be as secure
as required when dry. It should be placed along the line to the extreme
ends or a little over, and with gentle pressure alternately each side
the glue will be gradually drawn in. This should be continued for some
time, until there is little disposition shown for more absorption.

The superfluous glue will now be wiped off; should there be any tendency
on one side or the other to remain higher, thus causing a ridge which
must be most carefully guarded against, a piece of tape or ribbon tied
round the violin at the part, and a small wedge of soft wood inserted
between the tape and the elevated edge, will bring it to a proper level,
when it may be put aside to dry and harden.

When sufficient time has elapsed for this according to atmospheric
conditions, the binding may be removed and the surface along the crack
wiped with a damp rag until only the line is apparent.

If the foregoing is done neatly and cleanly, there will be very little
evidence of damage remaining. In such instances as the present there
may be occasionally necessary two, three or more bindings with proper
wedges, according to the length of the crack, the size of the violin
and the model. If the latter is rather high, or of the kind called by
our French neighbours _bombé_, the disinclination for the edges to come
evenly together without help will be much greater, and therefore
binders and wedges should be at once made ready after a glance at the
model.



CHAPTER XIV.

REPAIRING LOST PORTIONS--MARGINS OF SOUND HOLES--MATCHING THE
GRAIN--FIXING AND FINISHING OFF--REPLACING WITH FRESH WOOD LARGE
PORTIONS OF UPPER TABLE--LOST PARTS OF PURFLING--RESTORING IT WITH OLD
STUFF.


As the repairing now under consideration is of a kind requiring not
only skill, but experience in the handling of the tools and necessary
appliances connected therewith, we will still suppose ourselves in the
trained repairer's rooms at the rear of his premises, and that
professors and amateurs frequently call at the shop in front with
violins of various kinds with all sorts of injuries that they are
desirous of having put right.

Just at this moment a lady of highly fashionable appearance glides in,
followed by her footman carrying a violin case. She has brought a violin
that has been laid aside and forgotten for a long time at a friend's
house, for generations in fact, it used to be in repute as a violin
by Cremona. It has been given to her daughter, who is making great
progress under the guidance of one of the most eminent performers of
the day, and she wishes to have it put in good playing order if it is
worth the expense.

The footman obediently brings forward the case, unfastens the string
that holds the lid down, the hinges being out of working condition,
and places it on the counter; the lid being raised, a strong mousy odour
comes forth.

Our chief takes the violin from the hands of the man and turns it over,
raises his eyebrows and remarks, "Yes, madam, the violin has been sadly
neglected, the case having been left open mice have been residing in
the snug retreat afforded them." "Yes," is the lady's rejoinder, "I
believe the case was found a little way open, my friends have not been
musical at any time and took no interest in the matter. Is it a good
violin, Mr. ----?"

"Good, madam? it is very fine, one of the masterpieces of Cremona. The
mice have turned the sound-holes into doorways, the nibblings have gone
nearly half through one of the wings."

"Wings!" says the lady. "I was not aware of there being any wings to
a violin." "No, ma'am," is the answer; "wings is a technical term we
use to express that slender part with the straight cut line at the lower
end of the sound hole. We shall have to open the violin to repair that
part properly."

"I hope that will not ruin the instrument," observes the lady. "Can
you not do the repair without?" "We could, ma'am, if we wished to save
time and run a risk." "Oh, please don't run any risk with it, now that
I know that it is a valuable instrument I must ask you to take extra
pains and do it in your best manner."

"If you would like to see the violin open, I will get my assistant to
do it now, it will take but a minute or so. Here, James, open this fiddle
and bring it here again."

There is not much waiting, the upper table has not been very obstinate,
and James soon reappears with the loose parts, which he hands to his
chief. The lady, rather eager at first to see if there is anything
curious about the inside of a violin, rather shrinks away when it is
brought near. "It is in a very dirty condition," the chief observes,
"but we shall soon get that all right," he adds, "by giving it a wash."

"But will not wetting it spoil the tone?" the lady asks. "Not in the
least, ma'am," is the reply. "In fact, it will be improved, as at
present there is so much grease and filth that the vibration would be
seriously interfered with. When it is quite clean there will be more
freedom, and the true character of the tone declared."

The lady having departed, the chief takes the violin parts to the
workroom. "This is a fine thing," he says to James.

"I thought so too, sir," he replies, "got some fine stuff on it, fiery
like, nothing the matter with it but those mouse nibblings."

"That will require careful work, James, think you can do it
sufficiently neat and make the new wood match well?"

"I think so, sir. Some of that old pine that we had sent us last week
will match thread for thread."

"Well, give it a clean out first, James." This is at once commenced,
and with the aid of some clean water, a sponge and stubby brush,
followed by the application of a clean dry rag or duster, the interior
presents a fairly clean appearance.

"I see you have been careful about the label, James. It was not possible
to decipher it when smothered with dirt, but we can read it now. Yes,
what I thought, original ticket without a doubt. Joseph filius. Bring
me that bottle of benzine and the hog-hair brush." This being done,
the chief takes the brush wetted with the benzine and carefully brushes
about the corners and other parts where the grease has refused to come
away under the ordinary treatment. Each application is followed by a
wiping of the cloth held in readiness.

"There," he says at last, "it is quite fresh and wholesome. Don't
suppose Mr. Mouse will go in again."

"Now, James, what do you propose doing? making a clean sweep of the
ragged parts with the knife or letting in angular portions in the German
manner?"

"Well, sir, on looking close at it perhaps the best way will be to act
both ways, cut that part straight through and fit the splinters along
there."

"Yes," says the chief, "I think that way will save as much of the old
material, if not more, than any other. Take pains with it and mind the
small joinings are clean and sharp."

James retires with the upper table to his bench, where the different
necessary excisions are proceeded with.

The next stage is that of glueing pieces of wood at the back of and
across the sound holes. The object of this is to get more strength and
leverage for pressing home the fresh wood to be inserted. From the
neglect of this precaution many instruments have had cracks and other
damages caused, making matters worse than before and necessitating
much more work in rectifying it. After the necessary time, the glue
being hard and dry enough, James begins the matching of the parts with
pieces of old wood from the carefully hoarded pile in a box kept for
the purpose; first one piece, then another is tried, until the right
one is obtained for each requirement, both in respect of colour and
matching of the thread or grain. The surfaces to come in contact and
be fixed are minutely fitted, the larger ones only at present, the
smaller gaps are left.

All being ready, strong glue is applied to the parts which are to be
united and they are pressed together, help toward adjustment being
obtained from the wood glued across.

Being left to dry, and this being complete, the cramps or wedges, as
may have seemed appropriate, are removed, the cross pieces cut away
and the glue washed off.

The paring down of the fresh wood to the level of the surrounding parts
has now to be very carefully done. The adjacent curves must be studied
and the surfaces of the fresh parts worked until by testing, not only
by the sight, but passing the finger across, the surface feels as one
piece.

For the small parts that require levelling, small pieces of glasspaper
attached to a stick of pine shaped according to requirement will be
found useful.

The fresh wood will of course be projecting some way beyond the edges
or course of the line of the sound holes, the exact outline of which
it is most desirous to continue.

This is about to be attended to by James, who thinks it a small matter
to continue the line with his sharp knife, but his master happened to
catch sight of his first strokes and sees his intention in time. "Stop!"
he calls out, "not another stroke; just take a tracing of the opposite
or corresponding part of the other sound hole and trace it down, don't
trust to your eye unless you consider yourself an artist of experience
and able to actually draw with your knife.

"You must attend to another thing besides the tracing of the contour.
When you cut up to the line that you take as a guide, you must see that
you make the walls of the opening at the same angle downwards, and your
fresh wood in every respect of form an exact continuation of the old
work."

The repair so far as the wood work is concerned is finished. It has
now to receive the varnishing and touching up in detail for matching
so as to arrest as little attention as possible as a repair.

"There are two fiddles, sir, that a party brought here yesterday. They
seem very far gone; one of them has lost quite a quarter of the upper
table, it has had a bad smash and the pieces have not been saved."

"Well, James," is the reply, "there is only one course to pursue, that
is, to put a fresh piece of wood, join it as neatly as possible and
match the varnish. I think we have a piece of old stuff sent us by an
Italian dealer that will suit that exactly." The store of odds and ends
of pine is rummaged over and the piece, with some pencil notes on it
of date, etc., brought out and compared with the fractured fiddle.
"Could not be better, James," says the chief. "Now take off that table,
or what remains of it, and pare the ragged edges at the part near the
sound hole.

"At that part you had better shave it at an angle from the upper surface
and make a corresponding start on the fresh wood; they must both fit
to a nicety, and when so the old wood will overlap the fresh stuff.
You will take care to have the upper surface of the fresh wood a little
above the level of the old, to allow of finishing down to a good level
when the time comes for the final touches."

This is all seen to, the large slice of wood is for the present left
square at the top, it is thick enough to represent the appearance of
the slab of wood used by the original maker before the table was cut
into form. There is some gouging to be done and shaping of the parts
adjoining the old wood.

It has, of course, been necessary to provide a sort of mould for fitting
and pressing from above the thin shaved edge of the old material on
to the new. Precaution, however, is taken to firstly glue the parts
that are to be brought together at the joint. This will prevent the
shaved surfaces from slipping when pressure is applied.

These parts of the process having been done and the glue dried
sufficiently, the under surface is levelled all round as a continuation
of the under part of the old border.

The table, therefore, can now be laid flat, and should fit well on to
the ribs and linings as it did before the fracture. James now has
recourse to the advice of his chief as to the best course to pursue.

"Shall I trace the other side, sir, and mark it down on the fresh wood
so as to make it balance?"

"Certainly not," answers his chief, "this is what you must do. Lay the
table on the ribs as if you were about to glue it down, you can let
it be held in position by a couple of screw-cramps, then, with a lead
pencil, take as a guide the ribs, holding it so that a mark can be made
all round representing the projection of the new edging. A short piece
of a pencil laid flat against the ribs and moved round, would perhaps
be the most convenient."

James proceeds dutifully to work, marks the edging, and then, after
removing the screw-cramps, roughly hews away the wood to near the line.

Much care and more delicate manipulation has to be exercised now, or
the precaution of the pencil line will prove to be next to useless.

Files of different degrees of tooth are employed until quite an even
contour is obtained and a precise line, the continuation of the pattern,
is seen.

The next proceeding will be to mark the thickness of the edging all
round. For this purpose a cut line is better than a mere mark, as the
cutting up to it is easier and safer. The purfling tool may be regulated
and adapted in this case, after which the table will be laid flat,
carefully considered, and the more detailed gouging commenced. A small
pair of calipers will prove handy for measuring the depth of the
channelling of the original parts and gouging down carefully until a
corresponding modelling has been effected.

If the original work is sharply defined and a distinctly shaped border
is present, then the work must be proceeded with as in the instance
of making a new copy of a violin.

Some little difficulty may appear when the question of matching the
purfling arises. The assistant opens a drawer close by, selects a
likely piece, compares it with that on the violin, and then shows it
to his chief, who examines it in a similar manner. "Yes," he says, "I
think that is sufficiently like, in fact, it will not be possible to
get nearer, it is a bit of that old stuff, is it not, that we have kept
by for an emergency? Have you got the groove cleanly cut and routed
out?"

"Yes, sir," is the answer; "I noticed about the depth that would be
wanted at that little part where the old stuff had been snapped short
at the fracture."

"Well, that will do, James. Be careful to cut the ragged end with a
clean angle, doing the same with the fresh stuff--fit the parts
accurately, and when you insert the purfling see that the end is pushed
home so that as little as possible is seen of the junction of the two
ends."

With these injunctions borne in mind, James proceeds to the work.
Having had some experience in this branch of the repairing art, and,
further, this being to him a more interesting part than others of the
proceedings, he at once sets to work.

Having roughly measured the length of the piece of purfling to be
inserted, he finds that it will be necessary to bend it to the curves
of the groove made for it. To force it in while in its present condition
would not do, as it is nearly straight; for, although it has served
to go round a violin in years gone by, it has almost resumed its old
condition through the action of the natural damp in the atmosphere.



CHAPTER XV.

REPAIRS TO PURFLING (CONTINUED)--FILLING UP AN OPENING EXTENDING TO
THE WHOLE LENGTH OF THE VIOLIN--FITTING THE CORE--FIXING IT IN POSITION
AND RETAINING IT THERE--FINISHING THE SURFACE.


Many old Italian violins bear indications of the haste of the maker
to get the purfling done, and so without the delay of any intermediary
process the purfling has been pressed in with great risk and
sometimes an inevitable result of fracture.

In the present instance, the violin having all the evidence of great
care having been expended on its construction and finish, the repair,
to be as successful as possible, must be carried out on the same
principle, every little deviation of curve being well imitated. For
the bending of the purfling there may be, of course, any number of
methods. According to the consistency of the material, so the
management must be.

At present the piece of purfling, having been taken from a portion of
an old violin bought for the purpose of breaking up and using for
repairs, is very dry and rather brittle. The light coloured part or
central portion is of some hard wood that refuses to accommodate itself
easily to the requirements of the moment; this is found to be the case
on trying a small portion with the fingers--it goes with a snap on very
little attempt being made to bend it.

James having met with this kind of thing before, knows more than one
way of meeting the difficulty. As is often found, a rough and ready
way is good for a small amount of work such as he has before him.

He takes a candle and lights it. He has always at hand a jar of water
ready for any damping required in the number of little odd jobs
constantly occurring. Placing the jar of water within easy reach, he
dips the purfling into it once and then wipes it with his handy cloth.

Taking the two ends with the fingers of each hand he passes it backward
and forward near the flame of the candle, using a gentle pressure to
make it assume a crescent or bow shape. The heat causes the damp to
evaporate and steam the materials, and the purfling will gradually
assume the required curve.

When this latter happens to be short or sudden, another dip and heating
may be necessary.

This being successfully accomplished, recourse is now had to the glue
pot, a pointed piece of wood is dipped into it, and a small streak of
glue is laid in the groove. The purfling is now carefully inserted along
the course, pressed in and left to dry.

After a sufficient time has elapsed, James looks over it, and finding
all things ripe for finishing, takes a gouge of a size that will suit
the channelling of the particular model adopted by the maker.

Great care is necessary to shave off but a small portion as the gouge
is passed along. The latter has a very keen edge, or it will tear instead
of cut. It is used here and there in contrary direction, as the grain
of the several parts of the purfling does not run quite level. A curved
file, and finally a little glasspapering, will complete the matter so
far. There will be for the finishing of the whole of the fresh wood
a further process to go through, that is, a slight damping.

This can be done with a small fine grained sponge or a moderately wet
camel hair brush. This is for the purpose of slightly raising the grain.
If this is not done at this time the soft part of the grain may show
its automatic tendency to swell after the final process of varnishing
has been gone through. When quite dry, fine glasspaper is used to reduce
the surface to an almost polished level, after which some clear oil,
having good drying qualities, is brushed lightly but completely over
all portions of the fresh work.

It will not be absolutely necessary that this should be quite dry and
hard before proceeding with the varnishing down to the tint of the old
and surrounding work.

This being a separate and independent branch of the art of restoration,
will be treated apart hereafter.

For the present we will be content to know that this varnishing, a very
delicate process in connection with the repair, is undertaken by the
chief himself, who sets to work at once and in a manner as if it were
a true labour of love, there being no hurry, but careful time-ignoring
attention to matching and calculation of effect. Just before settling
down with colours, essences, solvents and brushes, he gives directions
to his man James to "finish up the crack or fracture in that old
'Stainer' lying on the shelf there behind."

When it is taken down from its place of repose, James looks at it for
a moment and then observes, "Rather an awkward job, this, sir! It is
more than a crack along the whole length of the fiddle; somebody has
been at it trying to mend it and made it positively worse. The edges
are quite apart. You can see through in some places, and in others there
is a lot of black hard glue."

The chief now has a look over the damaged part and then remarks, "The
thread of the pine happens to be very straight, and that will lessen
the trouble."

"Right, sir," is James's rejoinder, "not like that Genoese fiddle that
we had some time back with the very curly bit of pine that looked as
if the tree had been growing at the side of a rock and trying to look
round the corner. Fitting a straight piece along the centre of that
fiddle was no joke."

"Well, James, wash all that filthy dark glue away, and when quite dry,
run a thin chisel along each side of the hole, taking fine shavings
off until the upright walls have a sharp clean edge."

The washing out is at once commenced, and when finished, the upper table,
which of course had been removed some time back for ascertaining the
necessary amount of repairing, is placed apart for drying.

While this is in process, another violin is taken in hand. It has a
different kind of fracture, which it has been thought well for
appearance sake should be re-opened and made tidy, in fact, obscured
as much as present skill will allow of.

The fracture, although not one of very common occurrence, is of a kind
well known to professional repairers. It has been caused by a twist,
possibly while being handled by some clumsy or heavy-handed repairer
of olden times, and hastily filled with polluted glue, pressed together
and left to itself. It is not at right angles with the plane of the
instrument, but at a very acute one, very little evidence of it,
possibly none, being seen from the inside.

The first step taken by the repairer is the cleansing and removal of
all foreign particles likely to interfere with the adhesion of the
surfaces to be brought into contact. As there is present much grime,
and this not free from a suspicion of the presence of grease, James
has recourse to the bottle of benzine, into which he dips a small brush,
working it backwards and forwards, wiping it on an absorbent rag and
re-applying the liquid.

This does not take very long; the evaporation being rapid, the wood
is soon ready for the next stage, which is that of removing the dark
glue and other foul matters from the irregular surface.

This requires the application of warm water, by means of a stiffer
implement, used in fact as a small scrubbing brush; the moisture
between whiles is pressed in and out by the fingers with repeated
wipings and re-wettings.

After a while, being satisfied that the surfaces of the fracture are
clean to the desired degree, James allows the wood to partially dry.
In the meanwhile, he cuts a couple of pieces of wood to fit the back
and front of the table, so that with folded paper as a pad the parts
may be pressed together. All being in readiness, fresh strong glue is
inserted all along the opening, the repeated pressing being kept up
until he is sure that the glue has penetrated every part. The
superfluous glue oozing from the inside, after a slight squeeze along
the course, is lightly wiped off, the moulds applied back and front,
and the cramps fixed.

Other little odds and ends of repairing have occupied the attention
of the assistant during the time of waiting for the drying of the
before-mentioned upper table of the Stainer. This latter being of full
model, although not resembling the swollen or bolster-like form of many
imitations of the master, requires special attention with regard to
fitting in of the fresh wood or core.

The fresh wood must not be bent, or the matching of the grain with the
old material will be impossible, and the repair when completed will
be strikingly conspicuous. It must therefore be inserted in such a
manner that when pared down, the direction or flow of the grain will
exactly coincide in all respects with the rest of the table. The fact
must be recognised that although the threads may be perfectly straight
from end to end, yet they may rise higher at one end than the other
or not run level with the plane of the table. (Diagram 37.)

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 37, showing half length of core inserted before
being pared down, and with grain.]

This being duly calculated by James when cutting the piece that is to
be inserted as a core, the table with its opening extending nearly from
end to end is placed on an even surface facing upwards, as when on the
instrument. The core is then tried in the aperture. Perhaps a thin
shaving or two is found necessary, when finally it is sufficiently
exact. The next stage is that of getting ready the means of holding
or pressing all the parts together till dry after glueing. Taking a
flat piece of wood, perhaps the one just used, and placing the table
down, a pencil line is traced on the board round the violin table as
if for the purpose of copying the pattern. Two straight lines are now
ruled on each side touching the most projecting part of the upper and
lower curve (Diagram 38.)

[Illustration: DIAGRAM 38.]

On the outside of each line, but touching it, a strip of wood about
a quarter of an inch square is pegged or nailed down.

The table or plate when placed flat between these two small bars of
wood, is within an acute angle, and can be held tight or not according
to the degree of pressure with which it is pushed toward the smaller
end.

It will at once be perceptible that a trifling pressure forward of the
table towards the small end will result in the raising of the central
part and the widening of the opening instead of closing it.

There must be, therefore, some means adopted to counteract this, and
these are not difficult to fix upon. In lieu of pressing the table
forward with risk of damaging the part of the border that will come
in contact with the two fixed bars, it will be carefully tried as to
fitting the exact position it is to take when glued, that is,
sufficiently forward in the space between the bars that will only admit
the table with a slight rise in the arching, the joint or part holding
the core being in a more open condition as a consequence.

The exact place or point of contact is marked with a soft pencil or
piece of chalk on border and bar. The table being taken away, the parts
requiring it will be carefully glued.

Placed in position again, necessary means are taken that the surface
or plane on each side of the core are quite level with each other; if
they are not so, they will, after the necessary paring down of the core
has been completed, cause an ugly, uneven appearance. To prevent this,
therefore, the parts must be adjusted by the application of the fingers
on one side or the other, or gently tapped by a piece of wood
sufficiently heavy until exactness of level is made sure.

There is now necessary a weight to be applied along the whole length
of the junction for keeping all in position until the glue is quite
dry and hard.

Any kind of weight may be applied, the smaller and heavier in proportion
to size the better, as so much more can be seen when several are used
instead of one and that of larger dimensions.

These being placed in position, the table with its adjusted weights
is placed away for drying.

When time has elapsed for this to be satisfactorily accomplished the
table is taken in hand again, the weights lifted off and a slight tap
at the upper with a piece of soft wood will set it free.

The part of the core now rising above the upper or varnished side of
the table is pared down very gently, care being taken that the chisel
does not work into the varnish on either side of the core, and that
it is not driven against the grain, as by so doing the wood is nearly
certain to be torn instead of cleanly shaven.

A close examination of the surface is now made, if found quite
satisfactory, it may receive its final polishing by the application
of some very fine glass paper wrapped round a piece of cork, with a
little clear oil dabbed on it. This will give a dead smooth surface.
If the above directions are carried out with clean and sharp work, the
line along the table marked by the presence of the core will be so slight
as to appear little more than the thread of the wood, in the highest
class of repairing it will be nearly exact.

The part of the core projecting on the under side of the table is easily
disposed of by a gouge in the same manner as described for the action
of the chisel on the front.

The operations just described are of a kind that should not be
undertaken without considerable experience, as, indeed, ought to be
the case with many other repairs, the requisite dexterity of handling
not coming at once even with much natural ability.



CHAPTER XVI.

REPAIRING UNDERTAKEN BY PEOPLE IN BUSINESS NOT CONNECTED WITH THAT OF
BOWED INSTRUMENTS--REMOVAL OF A FIXED SOUND POST--FITTING A FRESH PART
OF WORM-EATEN RIB--BRINGING TOGETHER THE LOOSENED JOINT OF THE BACK
WITHOUT OPENING THE VIOLIN.


We will now move down to the front portion of the premises again, where
the chief has been pondering over some instruments with damages of
different kinds and degrees. Some have been sent for repair, but have
nothing apparently wrong about them. The little note sent with them
is simply to the effect that "they do not go well" and the owners would
like them put in order. A tap is given here and there with his knuckles,
and this kind of test is sufficient in one instance to get an
acknowledgment from the violin itself that its ribs do not adhere to
the back as they should. Another betrays no looseness anywhere, and
there is no fracture perceptible on a close examination; this is put
aside so that it may be strung up properly, when it will probably give
out some distinct evidence of internal wrong, if not of some external
injury, which being fresh and clean is not easily affected by mere
tapping.

In the midst of his meditations over the different possibilities, a
gentleman enters accompanied by a young lady, probably his daughter,
who carries a violin case. He enters upon his subject at once,
saying:--"I have brought a violin for your inspection, it was left
behind by a friend who went abroad some time back and he lately wrote
over saying that my daughter might find it useful, as he had been told
by his father that it was at one time an instrument with excellent
sounding qualities. He is not a player and he kept it shut up for a
long time and seemingly forgot all about it. We of course soon got the
case from its hiding place, opened it and took the violin out. My
daughter here found two strings had snapped and put on others. When
she tried it with her bow, however, most unpleasant sounds came out.
My daughter proposed that it should be taken to a shop in our
neighbourhood where she gets her music; she says they are very nice
people, and so she took it there and they told her 'it would be put
in order by the next morning,' which of course seemed very prompt. My
daughter has tried it since it came home, but it seems to have even
less sound than before."

"Let me have a look at it, please," says our chief. The violin is at
once taken out of the case by the young lady and handed to him. The
chief looks over it, turns it about once or twice, and asks: "Did you
put this into the hands of a repairer who professed any knowledge of
violins?" The answer is--"Well, the people that my daughter took it
to said they had intrusted the violin to their best pianoforte repairer,
who had worked in one of the principal manufactories in London." The
chief observes: "A piano is very different to a violin, sir; the
repairer of one has to deal with curved surfaces, and wood of two kinds
only, the other with flat ones and other woods and metals." "I hope
the treatment has not ruined the instrument, can it be restored, will
it be of much value?" says the gentleman. "Well, it is not of much value
as a musical instrument in its present condition, but when properly
restored would command a considerable price. The restoration will cost
some pounds and be a fairly good investment."

"You had better do it and to your best ability," answers the gentleman,
"and please send it home when done."

The two visitors make their departure and then James is called for a
moment by his chief, "Hi! James, just look at this bit of repairing."

The assistant takes the violin in his hands, looks over it and laughs.
"Not trained properly, sir, at mending; what a plaster it has got
underneath the bridge! and there's a large one underneath the post too;
there's strength there if nothing else."

"Well, James, we must get both of those out and put something in more
to the purpose, the gentleman wants it done well and we must make it
sound properly to please him and his daughter. From the manner in which
those patches are inserted and their thickness--they are stouter than
the tables themselves--there would be very little tone. Well I never!
they've glued the sound post in."

This discovery caused a good laugh from both. "We must have the upper
table off at once, James," continued the chief. "But how about the post,
sir?" interposes his assistant; "it looks as if it will hold on tight."
"Well, you must take a fine chisel and work it in two before you commence
the opening."

James retires to his corner, and taking up a small chisel stuck in a
short handle of his own fitting, he inserts it carefully through the
right sound-hole, chipping the post gradually down one side, then
turning the violin round on the cushion, he works away at the post
through the other, and although from the extra distance from this, the
chisel has a weaker hold, there is less substance to work through, the
greater part having been worked away at the first attack.

The way is now clear for removing the upper table, which James does
after some trouble in working his knife along between the edging and
the upper part of the ribs, in consequence of the glueing having been
done with a bountiful hand, and the parts pressed together tightly,
so much so as to show very distinctly where the screw cramps had been
wound up.

The exposed interior is brought before the gaze of the chief, who looks
at it for a while, then remarks, "Very bad, but I have seen the like
often before, and suppose will do so many times again.

"Give it a cleaning, James, they've fastened the plaster on to the dirty
wood, and I expect the hold is very slight if at all in parts."

"No, sir, I tapped it about, and found some hollow spaces that would
admit my small knife; the plaster had not been cut evenly, and then
not pressed equally all over. The back seems about as bad, although
it being thick does not need any support."

"No, James, the repairers, if we may give them such an honourable title,
wanted to show that something had been done for the money charged. Give
the interior a clean out with warm water and sponge, leave some wet
rags over those plasters, and when the damp has soaked through, you
can soon get your gouge underneath and pull them off, washing the
surfaces afterwards."

This having been done as requested, the two parts are again brought
before the chief, who forthwith takes a pair of calipers; these he
applies carefully to both upper and lower tables in turn, moving them
over in all directions. "I declare, James," he then observes, "there
is no necessity for any patches or plasters anywhere; there is a very
weak upper rib that has been so knocked about by several mendings, and
spoilt inside and out, besides being riddled by insects, that we must
make or fix a fresh piece in its place. Now, this fiddle being worth
the trouble, you must see if you can make the repair so neat as to be
almost invisible even when closely examined."

"Well, sir, I'll try at it," is the reply, this being a kind of repair
that James will take much pleasure in, to show his dexterity of handling
and clean cutting.

The first thing is to hunt among some pieces of old ribs for a part
that will match well. This takes some time. At last an old rib is found
that appears just the thing--a part of it only will be required.

The next requisite is a mould or piece of wood cut exactly to the curve
of the inside of the rib; this must not be roughly done, or any idea
of "near enough" being thought of; if it does not fit exactly, then
the pressure to come against it will be unequal in parts. If cut from
a little block of soft wood the cutting will not take long, and the
trouble be amply repaid by the result.

An exterior mould will be as necessary as an interior, and if the
original rib is of fairly equal substance, the two moulds may be tried
one against the other, and should fit nicely.

The ragged openings and rotten part of the original rib having been
carefully examined with regard to the size of the fresh piece to be
inserted, a line is marked by soft chalk as to the position and extent
to be covered by the fresh wood. The aperture to admit the fresh piece
of rib must be determined upon exactly, and be cut with the utmost
neatness. Before doing this, however, the question must be gone into,
and settled definitely, as to whether the fresh piece is to be pressed
on from the outside or from the inside.

The choice must be in favour of the more convenient, or that which will
be most likely to lead to the best results. As the sides of the aperture
taken longitudinally must be cut at an acute angle and not upright,
the convenience of cutting the edges of the opening from the outside
will be decidedly better and more handy for obtaining the desirable
sharpness of edge.

As a matter of course, the piece must be tried on again and again until
it is clearly a good fit all round. When in a satisfactory state it
will, when tried finally, be elevated a trifle above the surrounding
wood.

The angle at which the upper and lower portions fit has no need to be
cut so acutely as at the ends.

Everything being ready, including some strong clean glue, this latter
will require painting over the surfaces that are to be closed together
until absorption has ceased, and not before this are the parts to be
brought home, or the absorption or soaking into the wood will continue,
leaving no glue for holding the two surfaces.

When quite ready, the interior block of wood or mould will be held in
position by the hand.

As usual, the piece of paper on the face of the mould will be used for
preventing the glue holding on to it. The piece of fresh rib is now
placed in position, and the outer mould (faced with paper, of course),
applied. The screw cramps are now affixed, tightly wound up, and left
for drying.

After ascertaining that all the glued parts are perfectly dry and
therefore hard, the cramps, moulds and paper may be removed. If any
paper should be found adhering a moistened rag will easily remove it.

The next proceeding will be that of levelling down and removing any
unevenness, on the outside especially. If the fitting has been very
accurately effected there will not remain much to do in this line. For
the inside a piece of glass-paper folded over a curved block of wood,
or the actual mould that has been in use, will serve the purpose if
not too large. This can be rubbed backward and forward till the surface
is level. For the outside a slightly different treatment will be
preferable, that is, a portion of glass-paper of the finest grain
placed as before in front of a block of wood. There is no necessity
for it being a very close fit so long as it is even in surface.

This should have some oil of a drying nature put on the surface, a little
dabbed on with the tip of the finger will be enough.

A fine surface, after a little passing backward and forward over it,
adding a little oil now and then, will be obtained.

The advantage of the use of oil is, firstly, the ease in use and the
smoothness of the surface and absence of harshness, secondly, as it
will have penetrated the wood to some extent it will prevent the varnish,
that eventually will have to be applied, from sinking into the pores.

Many otherwise excellent repairs have been spoilt from the neglect of
this simple precaution; without it, the glass-paper leaves a dry,
finely torn or raw surface which absorbs very readily the coloured
varnish that will, in sinking, look much more intense, uneven and
totally unlike the surrounding old varnish, which, it is most desirable,
should be as closely as possible imitated.

All these particulars, rules, and precautions, having been carefully
attended to by James, the instrument is at last brought by him in as
advanced a state as possible to his master, the latter always reserving
to himself the final touches or finishing and regulating.

About this time another caller, an amateur in a state of great
excitement, brings a violin case hurriedly in, and coming up to the
chief without any ceremony, says, while undoing the buckle of the
straps binding the leather covering: "Oh, my favourite violin is ruined,
its back is broken, and I feel sure you can't do it up; it is a Venetian
Montagnana that I have had so many years, and that you--yes, even
you--admired. You don't say much as a rule in favour of anything I bring
you, but you said this was the only good thing I had about me; it is
past your power to put right again, I am afraid." "Then why did you
bring it to me," says the chief, "if it is impossible for me to remedy
the breakage? let me see it."

The case having been nervously opened by the owner, the violin, after
a glance, is lifted out by the chief, the owner looking on in a state
of great perturbation. "Please be very careful," he says, as the
practised hand of the master turns it about, looks at it here and there,
over one way and then the other. "Why, its back is not broken; where
is the fracture?"--"Don't you see, all the way down, it is quite loose
and open?"

Another turn round or so, and the chief exclaims, "Oh, you mean the
joint of the back is open--that is not broken; I did not see it at first
as the light was going in the same direction; we can put that right
again for you."--"Here, James!" he calls out, "just look at this; is
it past our mending?" James casts his eye over it for a second or two,
and says, "No sir, I've done up that kind o' thing over and over again."
Then, turning to the owner, "Two against one, you see."

The amateur looks at the instrument with great earnestness for a moment
or two, then observes: "You will have, I suppose, to take it all to
pieces to do that kind of repair, eh?"

"Oh no," replied the chief, "we shall close that up without undoing
any part of it except taking the strings and sound-post away." At this
moment he has inserted the post-setter and pushed the post a little,
which proceeding causes the back to open wider, the mouth of the owner
opening widely also, accompanied by an increase in the general
appearance of anguish.

"There now," says the repairer, "just that little extra pressure from
the sound-post enables us to see how far the opening extends; it is
not all the way along, and there does not appear to be anything to
prevent it coming together evenly again."

The chief now dexterously, with the point of the "setter," takes the
sound-post out, the owner looking on with some amount of astonishment.

"You call in the day after to-morrow, sir, and I hope you will find
it as right as ever."

These words have a cheering effect on the owner. "You are sure that
will not be too soon," he observes. "Oh no," replies the other, "we
shall put three or four studs along the centre, inside, and that will
prevent it going again."

"But how," rejoins the owner, "are you going to put studs along the
joint inside without opening the instrument?"--he was getting
interested.

"Well, you leave that to us, sir, and we will tell you afterwards."
This was said in consequence of a fear that the amateur would be using
the time of the establishment, and as a result the amateur and owner
walked away satisfied.



CHAPTER XVII.

INSERTION OF STUDS ALONG THE JOINT INSIDE WITHOUT OPENING THE
VIOLIN--LINING OR VENEERING A THIN BACK.


At the appointed time, not any earlier, the amateur makes his
appearance, inquiring somewhat anxiously as to whether the violin was
finished, or more precisely speaking from fear, whether the repairer
had succeeded in restoring the instrument to playing order? "Oh, yes,"
is the response, "and goes better than it could have done for some time
back. You see its complaint has been coming on for some time, beginning
with a slight opening at the lower part, and continuous playing with
the strain of tuning up now and then extended it, until the time when
it became of such magnitude that you could not help observing it. Being
gradual in its progress, the tone getting worse by gentle degrees, was
also unobserved by you."

On this, the violin being handed to its owner, a close examination is
made all over the outside, and through the sound-holes.

"Well, really," the owner at last breaks out with, "it is most
beautifully done! I should not have thought it possible, and however
did you manage to get all those little squares of wood ranged in a line
inside, and you said you would do it without breaking open the violin,
and--tell me how it was done!"

"Then I will keep my promise if you have patience. It is not a very
difficult matter to those used to such things; you see the first thing
was to get the outer part clear of any impurities that would prevent
the glue from getting a tight hold of the surfaces that are to be held
in contact; the next, to work some strong glue along the course of the
joint, this by gentle and regular pressure alternately each side of
the line, is gradually drawn in, the whole length is then wiped with
a cloth and pressure applied to keep the joint closed, and the whole
allowed to dry. When so, the interior is attended to, a clean damp brush,
small enough to pass down either of the sound-holes, is worked
backwards for a short time along the joint, just enough to remove the
slight accumulation of dust and prepare the wood for the reception of
glue. Then the little squares of sycamore being ready, are pricked in
the centre with this pointed iron wire, and taken up one by one; on
each occasion a globule of strong glue is dropped on the under surface.

"The wire with its attachment of stud and globule is carefully passed
down through the sound-hole, which one must depend much on
circumstances and light available, being cautiously lowered until the
little square of wood is exactly over the joint and gently pressed down
on to it.

"Care is taken, of course, to place it on the exact spot; if not
accurately in position, a slight push with the same wire or another
or greater strength is given, and then a little more pressure on the
top.

"When this is done, others are inserted in the same way, and as far
along the joint as can be reached with the wires. After having dried,
the glue which had oozed up round the square will be found to have
decreased so much as to be but little perceptible--thus you see how
it was done. Do not try this yourself unless you have become expert
by long practice in repairing generally, as you may probably find this
more taxing to your nerves than you may be aware of, besides finding
it a difficult and dirty job getting any mislaid pieces out again."

This last piece of friendly advice is quite to the taste of the amateur,
who, being a non-practical man, is wise in abstaining from meddling
in directions for which he has no natural bent, and unlike the numerous
tribe of would-be repairers who think that any person who can use glue
and cut a piece of wood can engage in the restoration of such a small
instrument as a violin.

Our amateur, when arrived home, naturally enough shows his restored
violin to his friends, one of whom has been looking at it for some time,
and at last says: "That's the repairer for me, where does he live? My
violin is sadly in want of proper attention, and I think it requires
stronger measures for its cure than yours."

The address is readily given, and the instrument duly taken round to
our chief and his assistant. The statement having been made as to
recommendation, after an inspection of the very nice restoration of
his friend's violin, the new-comer takes out his violin from its case
and places it before the chief, who turns it over and over, looking
at each fraction of an inch without seeing much the matter with it.

The owner at last breaks in with the remark that a violin maker residing
where he lately came from had told him that the instrument would never
go properly unless the back was re-lined--that was perhaps the term
used.

The chief then rejoins: "I think the repairer was very likely hitting
the mark when he said that; this is one of those old violins of the
Brescian school, which are often too thin in the back for modern usage,
and there is no other resource but that of lining--or veneering, some
would call it--the back. If you like I will open it, and ascertain
whether it is so with this instrument."

Consent is given, and the chief goes to the back of his premises, and
returns with a much-worn table knife. Sitting calmly down before the
new arrival, and resting the instrument face downwards on his lap, he
proceeds with sundry slow but strong thrusts of the knife round the
junction of the ribs with the upper table; the cracking sounds emitted
as the knife gradually works its way along are rather trying to the
owner, who, however, has confidence in the reputation of the
master-hand at the kind of work. After a little extra pushing here and
there, and lifting gently to ascertain whether the parting is complete,
the upper table is at last lifted quite clear of the rest.

The owner at once asks, "Is the back in a very bad state?" "Well," is
the reply, "it is in such a dirty condition that it is not possible
to tell.--Here, James, bring me that water and sponge!" These being
at once brought, with a cloth in addition, the chief at once begins
bathing the inside, giving a heavier rub in different parts, as some
appearances suggest the extra treatment.

At last, after some few minutes of this application, the cloth is
applied, and the interior assumes a cleaner aspect.

"Never being cleaned out since it was made, I should think," is the
observation, "excepting once," he adds, as his practised eye lights
on a small, but thick stud resting over a small crack at one side, "and
that was a very long time ago, possibly a hundred and fifty years."
"Does it require the 'lining'--I think that is what it was called?"
"Yes, it will be so much better for it, almost necessary."

The owner soon after departs, and the chief and his assistant proceed
to work upon the violin. In general condition it happens to be very
good, the one opening referred to being the time at which the modern
bar had been attached in place of the very old and small-sized one.
The fingerboard being old is easily removed by a sudden pull or jerk.
After further cleaning with the aid of a hog-hair brush, this being
adapted for getting more completely into the corners, both parts of
the violin--they have both had a cleaning and looks more wholesome--are
placed aside to dry.

When this has taken place to the satisfaction of both master and man,
the back is rubbed over with an oiled rag, the object of this being
to prevent the mould now to be taken from sticking to it.

Some good plaster of Paris is mixed, and a sufficient quantity placed
on it till a coating an inch and a half in thickness is produced; this
amount is necessary owing to the tendency to get out of form or warp
if too thin, failures having often resulted therefrom.

When well hardened, this mould is lifted off; it comes away easily,
showing a perfect facsimile in reverse of the back of the violin. This
is carefully wiped, and any small specks of plaster that may be adhering
are picked off.

The mould has now to be dried, as it would otherwise--from the large
amount of moisture within it--undo the back, or any cracks that may
have been glued up.

Placing in a moderately warm oven is as good a method as any, the natural
drying by open air, even in sunny weather, being a long process.

After being tested and found to contain no moisture whatever, the mould
is placed upon a bench, and the surface which has been in contact with
the curved form of the back receives a slight oiling with a brush. This
will prevent as much as possible injury to the varnished surface of
the violin when placed in it. This may be further helped by a sheet
of soft paper or soft cotton being placed between, when the back of
the violin is laid in the mould.

Before proceeding further, there will necessarily be the preparations
made in connection with the piece of veneer that is to be glued to the
back.

In order that this may be as equally as possible pressed into the shape,
there must be another mould made; this will be of some soft wood that
will cut easily into shape, and be made to fit as near as can be to
the back.

Next a layer or portion of cork about one-eighth of an inch thick, and
large enough to cover the whole of the veneer, will be required. Some
repairers would prefer india rubber or other yielding substances,
which will fit into any unevenness while sustaining great pressure.
This last will be caused by the press or large cramp, which must be
very strong.

All the foregoing being ready to hand, the veneer being cut down to
the amount required, perhaps to a pencilled line marked on it for width
and length, it will be wetted; being of slight substance, it will soon
absorb sufficient moisture to remain damp during and over the time the
other preparations are made.

All being in readiness, the back being laid down accurately in its bed
of hard plaster of Paris, the cloth or paper having been placed between,
the cleansed and dried surface of the table is brushed over with the
strong glue which, if the apartment is of sufficiently high temperature,
will not coagulate or set, but give time for the brushing of glue on
one side of the veneer. This is at once placed in position on the glued
surface of the violin table; it is then covered with some thin, soft
paper, the cake of cork or india rubber being laid over it. More
carefully than all, the carved piece of wood that is to be pressed down
must be exactly in its right place, and above this, other slices, so
that the pressure may be distributed well, and not merely on one spot.

For this a goodly pile will be of advantage; to be quite scientific
in its proportion, an imaginary line drawn from the central point of
the pressure above to the outside or margin of the field of pressure
at the lowest part, should not be at more than an angle of forty-five
degrees.

Attention being paid to the foregoing, and the press or large screw
cramp being already in position, the pressure, which must be great,
is applied.

The glue will be seen oozing out between the surfaces of the table and
its veneer; this can be wiped off easily, and save the trouble of
removal when dry and hard.

Necessarily, a longer time will be consumed in thorough drying and
hardening in a case like this than in an ordinary repair in which the
atmosphere can more readily obtain access. When quite ready, the
pressure and the pieces of wood, paper, cork, or indiarubber can be
one by one released, and the simple veneer, now firmly attached to the
lower table of the violin, can have its edges trimmed round with gouge,
chisel, or scraper, and finally glass-papered to a good finish.

When neatly done, the edging of the veneer will decline gradually in
thickness, and die off all round.

There is nothing further to be done now, but seeing that the bar is
right in proportion, position, and fitting.



CHAPTER XVIII.

THE BAR IN OLDEN TIMES--THE MODERN ONE--THE OPERATION OF FITTING AND
FIXING THE BAR--CLOSING AND COMPLETION OF THE REPAIRS--VARNISHING OF
THE REPAIRED PARTS HAVING FRESH WOOD.


Much false reasoning upon insufficient premises has at times on and
off been bestowed upon the subject of the bar and its supposed mysteries.
Space at command will not allow of a dissertation on this detail of
the constitution of the violin. A few remarks will perhaps be
sufficient for present purposes. When violins were first sent forth
by their inventor, Gasparo da Salo, the bar was sometimes omitted,
possibly in all the earliest ones, the strain on the upper table being
then slight as compared with that of the present day--at others it was
very short and weak. The substance of the upper table was considerable,
and much over that which the later and modern makers approve of, and
thus there was a counter-balance.

At the present time still stronger bars are inserted, and very
frequently without rule or reason. Occasionally a coarse bar will allow
of good results as regards the emission of the tone, the length and
thickness happening to be suitable to the proportions in detail of the
instrument. A weakness at each end of the bar is an oft-recurring cause
of bad going with regard to the vibrations.

From this we may infer that when the bar was first thought of and
inserted it was simply with an idea of supporting the part over which
the third and fourth strings were stretched, and that as the tension
of the strings became greater in consequence of the rise in the pitch,
so the bar had to be increased in strength, that is, longer and deeper.
The discovery or unearthing of an old master in its original condition
will therefore be followed by the opening and re-barring for the
emission of the tone according to modern ideas; these may be summed
up as the getting of the largest amount of tone accompanied by freedom
of vibration or ring.

As the removal of a defective or weakly bar and its renewal and fixing
in accordance with the best knowledge of the subject is an operation
that should be seldom attempted by other than an experienced
professional repairer, it may be as well to pay another visit to our
chief and his assistant, James.

After some lapse of time we find on looking in at the establishment
that there is no perceptible change in the working or general routine;
violins innumerable have come and gone and still seem likely to do so
for ever.

The chief has been occupying a few minutes looking through a newspaper,
not so much in connection with his business, which, as no doubt will
have long since been perceived, is a private or personal one, he is
simply keeping up with the times in reading about what is going on
outside his own little world.

James, notwithstanding his lesser amount of artistic and scientific
knowledge than the chief, has been steadily improving in his own way,
that of implicitly following directions put forward for his guidance
and given with so many axioms, the result of long experience and
watchfulness. It is a warm day and really heavy work would not be to
the disposition of either master or man.

Looking through the doorway into the workshop at the back, James can
be seen sitting as quietly and contentedly as his master in the front.
He is engaged on some fitting of small pieces into some fractures of
the upper table of a Stradivari. Having been told to do them neatly,
cleanly and with every precaution, experience and deft handling of
tools, he has got these latter into nice cutting order. The finest and
even semi-transparent shavings will have to come from the fractures
and the portions of wood to be inserted therein. James has by this time
acquired considerable neatness in the treatment of "delicate jobs,"
as he calls such as the present. His tools have had special attention
in the keenness of their edge and he thinks that when all is finished
the violin will be as good as new, and very little of the damage done
while in charge of the owner will be perceptible unless hunted for.
He argues within himself that the greatest amount of expenditure of
muscle work and fitting together of ever so many parts has been done
by himself, and therefore the honour ought to be principally his, in
fact the fiddle is more of his make than that of old Strad. His
ruminations are stopped rather suddenly by the voice of the chief, who
calls out, "I say, James, what about the re-barring of the Maggini that
Miss Winks left a week back?"

"Well, sir, she called again yesterday, and said she didn't think it
would be done, because we seemed slow people, but intended to call again
in three days."

"Perhaps you had better set to work, James. Have you got everything
ready for placing the bar?"

"Yes, sir, everything except the bar itself, which is not cut to shape
yet."

"Well, let me see it. Is it of nice straight grain and from the stock
of that old Italian?"

"Yes, I've picked out a piece that appears to me just the thing; it
only wants the curve cutting to fit the upper table, and that is quite
clean and regular without any slips of the tool in cutting the old one
out, which I think was the original one."

The chief gives two or three glances over the work, his accustomed eye
being ready to catch any little fault likely to have been made by his
man.

"That surface, James, for a Maggini, is remarkably even; as often as
not the gouge marks are left, making a close fit of the bar an
impossibility, let me see the bar."

The piece of wood is produced; the Maggini being a full fourteen inches
in length of body, the proposed bar is cut to ten and a half inches
in length and seems to the chief to be satisfactory.

"You can now go on, James; let me see the bar before you glue it in."

The upper table of the Maggini and the bar are taken away by James,
who goes at once to work with the necessary preparation for placing
the bar in position correctly.

With a rather soft lead pencil he marks off the length from each end
of the table that the bar will occupy, that is, a little over at the
lower end than the upper, the exact distance from the joint or central
line, a trifle, perhaps eighth of an inch nearer at the upper part,
letting the middle or thickest part of the bar be at the spot where
the foot of the bridge will rest.

After this the bar, at present straight and about three-quarters of
an inch high all along its course, has marked upon the part that has
to remain uppermost some indication to the fancy of the operator that
will keep in mind which end is to be placed at the upper part.

This being done, he commences with a chisel to cut away portions at
each end, and tries on the surface of the part to be fitted to. After
two or three times the chiselling has to be more finely done until the
closest fit possible is obtained; it is then ready for fixing. The bar
is as yet quite straight along the upper part. With regard to the
levelling of the bar to the curve of the interior part of the upper
table, there used to be a custom in the repairing business of "putting
the bar in with a spring" as it was termed. The repairers always spoke
of it as "the regular thing to do," but on being asked questions as
to how much and under what circumstances the "spring" would be best
one way or the other, became somewhat reticent, possibly from fear of
being led into some scientific depths from which it might not be easy
to extricate themselves. James, however, has been taught differently
in the management of this portion of his work; he having found from
close examination that the rise of the curving on the outside on the
bar side was quite high enough, went on with the operation.

Had the bar side been in a sunken condition, his chief would have
required him to restore the elevation by the wetting process before
alluded to.

The accessories, glue and cramps being in readiness, two pieces of
thick hard brown paper are folded together to go over the varnished
surface of the upper table. This will be quite thick enough, as any
more will cause a liability to press the bar into the wood when under
the influence of the damp of the glue. This result is often seen in
violins that have been through the hands of inexperienced repairers,
there being an elevation at each end where the bar terminates when the
violin has been strung up.

Cramps are used of sufficient width for reaching over the border at
each end and quite on to the end of the bar. James, after his repeated
trials as to the closeness of the relation of the curve of the bar to
that of the table, takes it to the chief as commanded, who expresses
his satisfaction and orders the completing process to be gone through.

The curved surface of the bar is wetted and some glue placed along,
the part of the table with which it is to be in contact is also wetted,
but not much. After a few minutes for the glue to soak in, the final
glueing is done along the course on the table and the curved course
of the bar; the latter is then placed in position and first one cramp
at one end is fixed, then the other; the screwing down is very gently
done, James, from experience, knowing just how much and no more. The
hard brown paper between the cramps and their padded or corked ends
prevents any injury to the varnish.

For the central and adjacent portions of the bar to be pressed, James
uses at times wooden cramps with a longer reach, and treating all parts
of the bar with gentle but sufficient pressure, being meanwhile careful
that the pressure is not directed on one side but direct downwards;
he knows that if this is not strictly attended to, the bar will be
twisted and when dry, or even finished, will not appear straight but
curved along its course.

James having seen that this part of the operation has proceeded
satisfactorily, places the table away to dry, and when so, the cramps
are removed and the table examined by the chief. All being assumed to
be satisfactory, James is told to go on with the shaping down of the
bar, which is done with a chisel held with the bevel downwards, this
being safer and less likely to slip.

This having been done to the curving desired by the chief, the
glass-papering to a nice even surface and finish is proceeded with,
and the operation may be said to be completed.

We now come to the closing down of the upper table. This last is a final
process that when done clumsily, hurriedly, or in many ways improperly,
has been the cause of much damage, if not positive destruction, to many
good or valuable works of the great masters and others.

Before deciding upon the precise moment for this important stage of
repairing, there should be a most careful investigation of the
condition of the whole of the interior of the instrument.

Without this there is the possibility of fine splinters of wood, or
cracks, being left unattended to that may announce themselves when all
is supposed to be in readiness for the bow, by a jarring, or, when the
bow is applied, by a buzzing which will take all the knowledge,
experience and guessing, perhaps more, that can be brought to bear upon
the matter without any practical result, excepting perhaps that of the
necessity of re-opening.

If found out before closing down, neighbouring parts should be rigidly
examined, as a slight, almost invisible fracture, will, on testing,
be frequently found to be much more extensive than was at first
suspected.

Gentle tappings may be tried and testings of resistance to bending at
the same, keeping the light at right angles to enable the slightest
opening or fracture to show itself and be at once placed under treatment.
When every test proves the instrument to be sound and ready for closing
up, preparations may be commenced.

There is probably no one of the different details of repairing that
gives more evidence than this of the kind of workman engaged upon it.

It may almost be said that this is rarely done as it ought to be in
the manner that can be described as being good in every way for the
purpose, and neatly done.

The bad manner of closing has been, more frequently than any other,
the means of putting the whole instrument out of order, gradually
distorting, if not actually bringing it to ruin as a work of art, and
to destruction as a means of producing good musical sounds.

Judging by the ways adopted by many inferior grades of repairers,
professional and amateur, the closing down of the upper table is
thought to be a trifling matter and simply that of passing some glue
on a brush rapidly round where the ribs are to come into contact with
the table, clapping it down, placing the cramps round, screwing them
tight, and, if the weather is cold, acting with more rapidity.

Ten minutes may be said to be the average time that this performance
takes, and in the majority of cases is thought to be a good one.

But not so by a really competent, painstaking repairer. From his view
this operation is to be one of the most cautiously conducted ones in
the whole series of joinings in connection with the repairing or
constructing of the violin.

As with other processes, there is more than one way of doing a thing
and that well.

I recollect in early days being acquainted with an exceeding dexterous
amateur in cabinet making, the principal part of whose furniture, in
a large house, was his own individual and unaided workmanship. He also
combined with this the making of violins, and of them I have a
recollection of their exceedingly neat workmanship, being, in fact,
ahead in that respect of many professional makers of the time. I often
received from him hints as to the best methods of overcoming many little
mechanical difficulties.

Once I was telling him about the dexterous manipulation required in
fixing accurately and swiftly the upper table. There was the difficulty
of getting perhaps the two end parts in position and fixing with
sufficient rapidity before the glue had stiffened or set at the other
parts.

He asked me why I wanted "to do this all at once, instead of a part
at a time? He never did it."

He then proceeded to show me that the glue might be applied to the two
end blocks and the corresponding parts of the table that were to be
affixed, and these cramped exactly and with comparative ease, in their
proper position. This being done, a very thin worn table knife could
be used for working in glue at the other parts and the cramping down
proceeded with as before.

Another way suggested itself to me some time after, which in careful
hands would be still more adapted for accurate fitting. It is as
follows:--Having seen that the opposing surfaces or parts that are to
be affixed to each other are quite level, fit each other, have been
cleaned and are free from any oiliness or greasy particles, the glue
is neatly brushed round the parts requiring it, both upper table and
ribs being treated. The corner and end blocks, if new, will require
more than one coating, and these to be allowed to dry, as the end of
the grain is very absorbent.

Assuming that the glue is sufficient in quantity all round, it may be
allowed to dry.

The upper table can now be tested for a good fit by laying it, and
noticing whether the marginal projection over the ribs is regular or
not; in some instances a little humouring or averaging of this
projection has to be made, especially when the instrument is very old,
and bears evidence of much trouble under the hands of repairers of
different degrees of skill, experience and patience.

This being found satisfactory, a slight brushing of thin glue over the
upper and lower end blocks will be enough before placing the table in
position and cramping them down.

For the other parts the thin knife will be sufficient, wetted and worked
between, the cramps being applied as before.

This way of closing up dispenses with all cause for hurry. The exact
amount of glue can be calculated without danger of over-loading, and
the next necessary opening for repairs can be effected without the
least risk of damage to the margin of the upper table. By this method
there is no occasion for wiping superfluous glue from underneath the
over-lapping edge, as there will not be any perceptible, or, indeed,
present, when tidily done.

Sufficient time being allowed for drying--a little longer for the end
blocks, these being more hidden and slowly affected by the
atmosphere--the cramps may be removed.

As a final process, the varnishing over the parts that have been
repaired may be touched upon.

The success of this so much depends upon the natural talent of the
operator for matching colours and mixing of different gums for
obtaining as close as possible resemblance to the surrounding work,
that any hard and fast rules concerning it cannot be laid down.

An alcoholic mixture is almost invariably used for the covering of raw
repairs, time scarcely ever being available for the use of an oil
varnish.

The most commonly used basis is a lac varnish. The ease with which this
is dissolved and manipulated is a temptation to use it at times when
it would be the least desirable for the imitation of old varnish. One
great fault in connection with it is its retaining a glare on the
surface when hardened, and the undesirable aspect is given of polished
spots where repairs have been going on. There is only one way of
counteracting this--by mixing other gums or resins that have less or
but little glare when hard. Those of a very astringent quality should
be avoided, as when dry their pulling power or contraction is very great,
and a cracked surface not at all like the rich fused appearance of many
of the old masters, but dry and uninteresting, will make itself too
evident.

By a carefully-calculated mixture of soft and hard gums, with a little
transparent colouring matter when necessary, a very good if not highly
successful imitation of the surrounding work can be accomplished, such
as will prevent the repair "catching the eye" too soon, for it must
do so eventually when hunted for. The density of colouring and
thickness of the principal component parts must always be studied, as
the same depth of tint by a very thin layer as that of a thick one will
not have the same effect, and one or the other, when making a contrast
with the adjacent old surface, will be conspicuous as a failure.

A few hints may be acceptable as to material and the management of it.
We will assume, for instance, that a portion of the upper table of a
rather deep brown-red old master has been repaired, and a slice of
comparatively light coloured or new wood has been inserted as a
necessity, the grain as a matter of course having been matched to the
best of the ability of the repairer.

The first step taken will be that of putting a nice clean even surface
over the fresh wood, and in such a manner, that on passing the hand
or finger over it, no lumps, edges, or rough spots are felt. Having
brushed the dust or powdered wood away, the colour of the wood will
have to be lowered or subdued, otherwise the whiteness will obtrude
itself and stare through any carefully selected varnish. This, for good
effect, will be found advisable with the repairing of any old
instrument.

The precautions to be taken at this stage are respecting the quality
or disposition of the stain (as we may call it). The stains ordinarily
sold for colouring wood are quite useless for present purposes, as they
are absorbed between the threads, leaving these by contrast very light
and the reverse of what is desirable.

A very weak solution in water of bichromate of potash will lower the
colour sufficiently for most purposes, and when quite dry the wood will
(having swelled with the moisture) require the fine glass-papering
again, after which, the next stage can be proceeded with.

The solution of nitric acid in water should be avoided, as, although
giving a fairly good lowering of the tint, it destroys the soft parts
of the wood, and, further, causes an odour that may cause annoyance
to the musician and suspicion to the expert.

Another solution may be recommended, that of the black liquorice, which
is a transparent brown, and naturally hard. Judgment will have to be
exercised in the management of either of the above solutions that they
are not put on too heavily.

The staining being effected, a slight coat of a diluted or light tint
of the upper or deeply coloured varnish may be painted over and left
to dry.

If time is not an important item for consideration, a turpentine
varnish may be applied.

An excellent first colouring can be effected with the transparent
preparation of gamboge. This material has for long, perhaps always,
been in request for coloured varnish, as it can be used with (after
due preparation) either alcohol, turpentine or oil. If dissolved in
the last, the drying will take so long as to be practically useless
to the repairer. The turpentine solution is more rapid, but not
sufficiently so for the restorer under ordinary circumstances.

It will be therefore plain that an alcoholic solution of gums or resins
will have to be relied on for obtaining the best results when time is
limited.

The solution of gamboge in alcohol is, when used alone, too weak or
insufficient in body; it is therefore advisable to incorporate with
it some other material of a resinous or gummy nature, but such as will
not impair the transparency. Among the most useful are the bleached
or white shellac. This, as it leaves the manufactory, is not always
in a condition for immediate use by the restorer; it should be washed
in water and then dried well, pounded up and placed in a bottle with
about four-fifths of alcohol; after remaining in solution for some days
the clear portion can be poured into another bottle and retained for
use.

This, when used alone in its colourless condition, will possibly have,
when dry, too much glare upon its surface, but the colouring matters
put into it may oppose this sufficiently.

The use of a little gum guacum in solution will be found occasionally
advantageous; this gum is fairly hard and will lower the colour and
prevent too much of an approach to gaudiness, that is, if a highly
coloured varnish has been found necessary. When it is desirable to
dispense with lac of any kind in the varnish, other materials can be
found that will perhaps answer the purpose as well, if not better; a
solution of benzoin has no colour sufficient in itself and therefore
may be used as a priming or mixing with the gamboge or with dragon's
blood if that is desirable; the latter, like the gamboge, requires
something to give it body.

Dragon's blood will soon let the operator know that its power of
colouring to a staring degree will require suppression. To lessen its
strength the following may be taken as an excellent means, and will
reduce the violence _ad libitum_. With a lighted candle, wax for
preference, smoke a piece of clean glass, and with a camel hair brush
remove the black and stir it carefully with the coloured varnish. Care
must be taken that too large a quantity is not put in, or an unpleasant
tone, even blackness, will be the result.

With regard to the strength of the red, the same precautions must be
taken: on comparing the varnish of a very red old master of Italy, say
a Landolphi, with some made with a fairly strong solution of resin and
dragon's blood, the violence of colour in the latter will be very
apparent. At a little distance off the old master will look very modest
while the other will seem coarse and vulgar.

For softening purposes a very small quantity of gum thrus may be used,
too much will result in tackiness.

For hardening, sandarac has its place and usefulness, although, as with
the naturally soft gums and resins which return to their original
condition after the solvent has evaporated, great care must be taken
to use a very small proportion.

A mixture of sandarac and shellac will result in an extremely hard and
almost insoluble varnish, a very undesirable covering for a musical
instrument of any kind as it wears badly, that is, suddenly and harshly
with a rough fractured edge, instead of the gentle thinning-away under
usage, seen with a delicate yielding material.

Acroydes is an Australian "grass gum," with very little recommendation,
as in any considerable amount, it impairs the transparency of the other
gums with which it may be mixed.

For a brown colour, a little burnt sugar will give a good tint, although
too much will spoil the consistency of the other ingredients, and the
whole will be easily affected by damp. Aloes, of which there are several
kinds, have been used as a colouring ingredient, but the results are
not on the whole to be considered as good.

Of the different lacs, or as it ought to be termed, condition of the
resin, as they are all from the same source, seed lac and garnet lac,
in proportion with other resins, will be found to have considerable
colouring matter and requiring very little in addition.

For our present purposes, those of varnishing fresh parts of injured
violins, the above mentioned component materials will be found, when
in good proportion, according to the experience of the operator, to
be nearly all that would be desirable in imitating the surrounding
work.

There is nothing that can be suggested to enable a careless or
incompetent repairer to achieve good results without care or
calculation, and these two are an absolute necessity when the repair
and restoration of a violin at all worthy of the name is the subject
in hand. Innumerable effects may be obtained by changing the proportion
of groundwork or priming, and top or coloured varnish. As the
celebrated old Italian varnish was not one kind but very many different
kinds, it is more than probable that the different results obtained
by the celebrated liutaros consisted to a greater extent in the manner
of the application than any wonderful quality of material. Of this
subject much might be written which would fill many times over the
capacity of our present volume.

A few words more may be said in conclusion regarding the varnishing
of new work on old violins; it must not be supposed that for the
imitation of the surrounding work an exact repetition of the old
Italian process with the identical substances used by the liutaros
would be absolutely necessary for perfect or near success; it must be
borne in mind that old varnish near the spot with its partial decay,
probably from many causes, has to be imitated, and that what would be
a great success with regard to a small space, might in all probability
prove a signal failure when the whole instrument is so treated.

As a final stage, a freshly varnished portion (and over newly inserted
wood), will require a little rubbing down (as it is termed); this may
be done with some of the finest and worn glass-paper, finely ground
pumice and oil, with a last turn of tripoli powder or rotten stone with
oil. This should be done only when the varnish is quite dry and hard.


THE END.



ADVERTISEMENTS.



FOURTEENTH YEAR OF ISSUE.

_The Largest Circulation in the World of any paper amongst Violinists_.

THE STRAD

_A Monthly Journal for Professionals and Amateurs of all Stringed
Instruments played with the Bow_.

Published on the First of every Month. Price 2d., Annual Subscription,
Post Free, 2s. 6d. For the Colonies and Abroad. 3s.

THE STRAD is the only recognised organ of the string family and has
subscribers in every country of the civilised world. Our circulation
has increased to so great an extent that we are enabled to engage as
contributors

THE LEADING WRITERS in the VIOLIN WORLD.

THE STRAD contains technical articles by the leading artists.

THE STRAD, in the answers to Correspondents column, gives minute
information by Experts on every detail connected with the Violin.

THE STRAD gives all the important doings of Violinists at home and
abroad all the year round.

THE STRAD gives early critical notices of all important New Music for
Stringed Instruments, with numbers to show the grade of difficulty of
every piece.

The following serial articles now appearing:

Joseph Guarnerius. By HORACE PETHERICK.

This series of articles contains a minute critical analysis of this
great maker's work, and the author claims to have discovered in Andreas
Gisalberti (a maker almost unknown at the present day), the teacher
of Joseph Guarnerius, a conclusion arrived at after the most convincing
evidence, which he puts forward in a very able and readable manner.
Full page illustrations of violins by Joseph Guarnerius and Andreas
Gisalberti are given.

Selected Violin Solos and How to Play them. By BASIL ALTHAUS, F.C.V.
Illustrated with music examples.

Specimen Copy, 2-1/2d., Post Free.

All Subscriptions, Advertisements, etc., to be addressed to the
Manager, HARRY LAVENDER, 3, Green Terrace, Rosebery Avenue, London,
E.C.



"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. I.

_Crown 8vo., Cloth, 2/6, Post Free, 2/9._

_"THE STRAD" LIBRARY EDITION is the only Authorised Edition of_

Technics of Violin Playing
ON
JOACHIM'S METHOD
BY
CARL COURVOISIER,
With Folding Plates, containing Fifteen Illustrations.

LETTER FROM DR. JOACHIM [COPY]

MY DEAR MR. COURVOISIER: I have read the book on Violin Playing you
have sent me, and have to congratulate you sincerely on the manner in
which you have performed a most difficult task, _i.e._, to describe
the best way of arriving at a correct manner of playing the violin.

It cannot but be welcome to thoughtful teachers, who reflect on the
method of our art, and I hope that your work will prove useful to many
students.

Believe me, my dear Mr. Courvoisier, to be most faithfully yours,
JOSEPH JOACHIM.
Berlin, November 3rd, 1894.

The New and Revised Edition of "Technics of Violin Playing," issued
by THE STRAD, is the only authorised edition of my work. The several
English Editions which have all appeared without my knowledge are
_incomplete_ and _faulty_.

CARL COURVOISIER.



"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. II.

_Crown 8vo., Cloth, 2/6, Post Free, 2/9._

HOW TO STUDY THE VIOLIN
By J. T. CARRODUS.

CONTENTS.

Strings and Tuning. The Bow and Bowing. Faults and their Correction.
Scales and their Importance. Course of Study. Advice on Elementary
Matters. Concerning Harmonics, Octaves, etc. Orchestral Playing. Some
Experiences as a Soloist. With full page portraits of Carrodus, Molique,
Paganini, Spohr, Sivori, De Beriot, Blagrove and Sainton, and a
photo-reproduction of Dr. Spohr's testimonial to Carrodus.


"An interesting series of articles 'How to Study the Violin,' which
Carrodus contributed to THE STRAD, and completed only a week or two
before his death, have now been collected in cheap book form. The
technical hints to violin students, which are practical, plainly
worded, and from such a pen most valuable."--_Daily News_.

"But a few weeks before his sudden death the most distinguished of
native violinists completed in THE STRAD a series of chats to students
of the instrument associated with his name. These chats are now
re-issued, with a sympathetic preface and instructive annotations. All
who care to listen to what were virtually the last words of such a
conscientious teacher will recognise the pains taken by Carrodus to
render every detail as clear to the novice as to the advanced pupil.
Pleasant gossip concerning provincial festivals at which Carrodus was
for many years 'leader,' of the orchestra, ends a little volume worthy
a place in musical libraries both for its practical value and as a
memento of the life-work of an artist universally esteemed."--_Daily
Chronicle_.

"It is surely, hardly necessary to direct the attention of students
to the unique value of the hints and advice given by so experienced
and accomplished a virtuoso as the late Mr. Carrodus, so that it only
remains to state that the 'Recollections' make delightful reading, and
that the book, as a whole, is as entertaining as it is instructive.
The value of the brochure is enhanced by an excellent portrait of Mr.
Carrodus, as well as of a number of other violin worthies, and the
printing, paper, and get up generally are good as could possibly
be."--_Musical Answers_.



"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. III.

_Crown 8vo., Cloth 2/6, Post Free 2/9._

THE BOW
Its History, Manufacture and Use
BY
HENRY SAINT-GEORGE.
With Full Page Illustrations (exact size) by Photo Process.


MONS. EMILE SAURET writes--"I have read it with great interest, and
think that it supplies a real want in giving musicians such an excellent
description of all matters referring to this important instrument."

SIGNOR GUIDO PAPINI writes--"Thanks so much for your splendid and
interesting book. You are quite successful and all the artists and
amateurs are indebted to you for a so exact and correct '_Texte_' on
the subject."

ADOLF BRODSKY writes--"I am delighted with the book and find it very
instructive, even for those who think to know everything about the bow.
It is very original and at times very amusing. No violinist should miss
the opportunity to buy it."

THE TIMES.--"A useful treatise on the Bow, in which the history,
manufacture and use of the bow are discussed with considerable
technical knowledge."

DAILY TELEGRAPH.--"To the student there is much of interest in the work,
which has the advantage of being copiously illustrated."

DAILY NEWS.--"This book seems practically to exhaust its subject."



"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. IV.

_Crown 8vo., Cloth, 5/-, Post Free, 5/4._

CELEBRATED VIOLINISTS: PAST AND PRESENT,
_Translated from the German of_
A. EHRLICH,
_And Edited with Notes and Additions by_
ROBIN H. LEGGE.
_WITH EIGHTY-NINE PORTRAITS_.


PRESS NOTICES.

"Those who love their fiddles better than their fellows, and who
treasure up every detail that can be found and recorded about their
favourite and cherished players, will not fail to provide themselves
with a copy of this book."--_Musical Opinion_.

"This book of 280 pages is a most interesting and valuable addition
to the violinist's library. It contains 89 biographical sketches of
well-known artists, ancient and modern, of all nations. This is not
intended to be a perfect dictionary of violinists; the aim of the Editor
of the present volume being merely to give a few more up-to-date details
concerning some of the greatest of stringed instrument players, and
we must concede that no name of the first importance has been omitted.
Germany is represented by 21 names, Italy by 13, France by 10, England
by 4, Bohemia by 8, Belgium by 7, and the fair sex by seven well-known
ladies, such as Teresina Tua, Therése and Marie Milanollo, Lady Hallé,
Marie Soldat, Gabrielle Wietrowetz, and Arma Senkrah. Altogether this
is most agreeable reading to the numerous army of violinists, both
professionals and amateurs, and after careful examination we can find
nothing but praise for this translation into English of a book well
known on the Continent."--_The Piano, Organ and Music Trades Journal_.



"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. V.

_Crown 8vo., Cloth, 2/6, Post Free, 2/9._

TECHNICS OF VIOLONCELLO PLAYING
BY
E. VAN DER STRAETEN.
COPIOUSLY ILLUSTRATED.


_Copy of Letter received by the Author from the great 'cellist,
SIGNOR ALFRED PIATTI._

Cadenabbia, Lake of Como, March 9th, 1898.

DEAR SIR,--I received the book you kindly sent me on "The Technics of
Violoncello Playing," which I found excellent, particularly for
beginners, which naturally was your scope. With many thanks for kindly
remembering an old ex-violoncello player.

Believe me, yours sincerely,
ALFRED PIATTI.

_Copy of Letter received by the Author from the eminent 'cellist,
HERR DAVID POPPER._

Budapest, February 22nd, 1898.

DEAR SIR,--In sending me your book on "The Technics of Violoncello
Playing" you have given me a real and true pleasure. I know of no work,
tutors and studies not excepted, which presents so much valuable
material, so much that is absolutely to the point, avoiding--I might
say, on principle--all that is superfluous and dispensable. Every
earnest thinking violoncello student will in future make your book his
own and thereby receive hints which will further and complete the
instructions of his master.

I congratulate you and ourselves most heartily on the new violoncello
book. With kind regards, Yours most sincerely,
DAVID POPPER.



"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. VI.

_Crown 8vo., Cloth, 2/6, Post Free 2/9._

VIOLIN PLAYING
BY
JOHN DUNN

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTORY--Qualities indispensable to the ideal Violinist--Hints
on the Choice of a Teacher--Some Tricks of pretending professors
exposed.

ON THE CHOICE OF A VIOLIN AND BOW--Advice regarding general adjustment
and repairs.

ON THE CHOICE OF STRINGS--Stringing the Instrument and keeping the Pegs
in Order.

ON THE GENERAL POSTURE--The manner of holding the Violin and Bow as
accepted by the leading artists of the day.

ON FINGERING GENERALLY--The various positions--Scales
recommended--The Modern Orchestral "Principal" or (so-called) Leader.

ON GLIDING--Special Characteristics of some of the most Eminent
Players.

DOUBLE STOPPING--The main difficulty in Double Stopping--How to gain
independence of Finger.

BOWINGS--Smooth Bowings--Solid Staccato--Spiccato--Spring
Bow--Mixed Bowings.

TONE PRODUCTION--Character of Tone--Rules and Conditions necessary to
produce a good tone--Style and Expression.



"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. VII.

_Crown 8vo., Cloth, 2/6, Post Free, 2/9._

Chats to 'Cello Students
BY
ARTHUR BROADLEY


"Musicians, devotees of the 'cello in particular, will welcome the
latest volume of the 'Strad Library,' 'Chats to 'Cello Students,' by
Arthur Broadley.... Mr. Broadley not only knows what he is talking
about, but has practised what he says. From the choice of an instrument
to finished delivery and orchestral playing, 'Chats to 'Cello
Students' leaves nothing undiscussed. The treatment is simple and
practical. The exhaustive chapter on 'bowing' should be an invaluable
aid to students. In the last chapter of his book, 'On Delivery and
Style,' Mr. Broadley has given a lucid expression to a subject which
has sadly needed voicing."--_The Tribune, Nuneaton_.

"Is a brightly written little volume filled with practical information
for those who seek to bring out the wealth of expression of which the
violoncello is capable. The instruction is presented in homely,
common-sense fashion, and there are upwards of fifty examples in music
type to illustrate the author's meaning."--_Lloyd's Weekly_.

"Every kind of bowing and fingering, the portamento, harmonic effects,
arpeggios and their evolution from various chords, are all ably treated,
and the work concludes with a few remarks on orchestral playing which
are of especial interest."--_Musical News_.

"As a writer on the technique of his instrument Mr. Broadley is known
all over the world, perhaps his most successful work being a little
book published by THE STRAD, 'Chats to 'Cello Students.'"--_The
Violinist_.



"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. VIII.

_Crown 8vo., Cloth, 2/6, Post Free, 2/9._

ANTONIO STRADIVARI
BY
HORACE PETHERICK
_Of the Music Jury, International Inventions Exhibition, South
Kensington, 1885; International Exhibition, Edinburgh, 1890; Expert
in Law Courts, 1891; Vice-President of the Cremona Society_.
ILLUSTRATED BY THE AUTHOR.


"This is the history of the life-work of the great Italian stringed
musical instrument maker.... There is a most interesting analysis of
Stradivari's method of mechanical construction which again is
illustrated by original drawings from the many Strads which it has been
Mr. Petherick's privilege to examine. All lovers of the king of
instruments will read this delightful little volume."--_Reynolds_.

"Among makers of violins Stradivari perhaps occupies the premier
position, and this account of his work, designs, and variations in
finish of details will afford pleasure to many readers."--_Morning
Post_.

"This is a monograph which all students of the violin will be happy
to possess. The author is a connoisseur and expert, and his account
of the great Cremonese master and his life-work, is singularly well
and clearly told, whilst the technical descriptions and diagrams
cannot fail to interest everyone who has fallen under the spell of the
violin.... Mr. Petherick traces the career of Stradivari from his
earliest insight into the mysteries of the craft to his highest
achievements. Numerous illustrations lend attraction to the volume,
not the least being a view of Stradivari's atelier, from a painting
by Rinaldi, the sketch of which was made on the premises."--_Music_.

"Mr. Petherick is well known in the musical world as a violin expert
with a special knowledge of the instruments made by the Cremonese
master, whose biography he has here given us. He tells us how the master
worked, what his pupils did, and where their work differs from that
of their preceptor. In fact, the volume is as much a dissertation on
the violins of Stradivari as a biography of the master, and is full
of deeply interesting matter."--_Lloyds_.



"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. IX.

_Crown 8vo., Cloth, 5/-, Post Free, 5/4._

VIOLIN MAKING
BY
WALTER H. MAYSON,
With Thirty-one Full-page PHOTO ETCHINGS,
Illustrating the process of Violin-making in every stage--from the
rough slab of wood to the finished Instrument.

The text is written by an Actual Violin Maker, in a very clear and lucid
style.


"'Popular lecture' style, with photographic illustrations."--_The
Times_.

"A feature of the book is the clearness of the
illustrations."--_Morning Post_.

"Describes a very fascinating art from start to finish."--_Morning
Leader_.

"This new booklet, on how to make a violin, is an admirable exposition
of methods. Mr. Mayson avoids learned terminology. He uses the simplest
English, and goes straight to the point. He begins by showing the young
learner how to choose the best wood for the violin that is to be.
Throughout a whole chatty, perfectly simple chapter, he discourses on
the back. A separate chapter is devoted to the modelling of the back,
and a third to its 'working out.' The art of sound-holes, ribs, neck,
fingerboard, the scroll, the belly. Among the illustrations is one
showing the tools which the author himself uses in the making of his
instruments. To learners of the well-known Manchester maker's delicate
art we commend this little volume."--_Daily News_.



"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. X.

_Crown 8vo., Cloth, 2/6, Post Free, 2/9._

(DEDICATED, BY PERMISSION, TO DR. JOSEPH JOACHIM)
THE VIOLIN MUSIC OF BEETHOVEN,
Critically discussed, and Illustrated with over
FIFTY MUSICAL EXAMPLES,
BY
J. MATTHEWS.

The book contains analytical and historical notes upon the Chamber
Music of Beethoven, in which the violin takes part as a solo instrument,
with some account of the various editions of the principal works;
Beethoven's method of working, as shown by his Sketch Books, etc. It
is dedicated to Dr. JOACHIM, who has furnished some notes respecting
the stringed instruments possessed by Beethoven.


Extract from Author's Preface:--

"Young students often suppose that they ought to admire every work
which proceeds from a great genius; an attempt therefore has been made
to convey some idea of the relative art-value and importance of the
various compositions discussed in these pages. For between the best
work of any man and his least inspired, there is a wide difference.
Certainly nothing annoyed the great master more than to hear his least
mature works praised, especially at a time when many of his greatest
creations were too little studied to be understood save by a few."


"Mr. John Matthews--dealing with Beethoven's music in pleasant fashion,
and at not too great length--gives an historical account, and in many
instances short analyses, with illustrations in music type, of
Beethoven's works for this instrument, and particularly the sonatas
(to which considerable space is devoted), the trios, the quartets, and
other compositions in which the master employed the violin. The book
will be found by amateurs both interesting and instructive."--_Daily
News_.



"THE STRAD" LIBRARY, No. XI.

_Crown 8vo., cloth, 157 pages, 2s. 6d., Post Free, 2s. 9d._

Advice to Pupils & Teachers of the Violin,
BY
BASIL ALTHAUS.
CONTAINS OVER 200 MUSIC ILLUSTRATIONS

STRONGLY RECOMMENDED BY AUGUST WILHELMJ AND GUIDO PAPINI


_London, March 18th, 1903_.

DEAR MR. ALTHAUS,

I read your book "Advice to Pupils and Teachers of the Violin" with
great interest, and find it very useful. Hoping your book will meet
with the success it deserves.

I am, yours sincerely,
AUGUST WILHELMJ.

_London, Feb. 19th, 1903_.

DEAR MR. ALTHAUS,

I have read with interest your admirable book, "Advice to Pupils and
Teachers of the Violin." I have no hesitation in recommending it as
an indispensable work to all aspiring violinists and teachers. Your
remarks on the acquirement of the various bowings, with the many
musical examples, are excellent. I know of no work on this important
subject so explicit and exhaustive. Wishing your book the great success
it deserves.

Believe me, yours sincerely,
GUIDO PAPINI.

"I have read the 157 pages that go to form the book in question, and
can say, without any misgiving, that Mr. Althaus has successfully
achieved what he set out to do."--_Musical Standard_.

"The practical and lucid explanations given are assisted by numerous
illustrations."--_Reynold's Newspaper_.





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